Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests

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Title: Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests
Author: Tschudi, Johann Jakob von, 1818-1889
Language: English
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*** Start of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests" ***

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[Illustration: NATIVES OF VALPARAISO.]

[Illustration: CHILIAN HORSEMANSHIP.]

TRAVELS

IN PERU,

ON THE COAST, IN THE SIERRA, ACROSS THE CORDILLERAS
AND THE ANDES, INTO THE PRIMEVAL FORESTS.

BY DR. J. J. VON TSCHUDI.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN

BY THOMASINA ROSS.

NEW EDITION, COMPLETE IN ONE VOLUME.

NEW YORK:
A. S. BARNES & CO., 51 JOHN-STREET.
CINCINNATI: H. W. DERBY.
1854.

PREFACE.

The Work from which the present Volume is translated consists of
extracts from the Author's Journal, accompanied by his recollections
and observations. The absence of chronological arrangement will be
sufficiently accounted for, when it is explained that the zoological
investigations for which the journey was undertaken frequently
required the Author to make repeated visits to one particular place or
district, or to remain for a considerable time within the narrow
circuit of a few miles; and sometimes to travel rapidly over vast
tracts of country. Disclaiming any intention of making one of those
travelling romances, with which the tourist literature of the day is
overstocked, the Author has confined himself to a plain description of
facts and things as they came within the sphere of his own observation.
But though Dr. Tschudi lays claim to no merit beyond the truthfulness
of his narrative, yet the reader will no doubt readily concede to him
the merit of extensive information, and happy descriptive talent. His
pictures of Nature, especially those relating to the animal world, are
frequently imbued with much of the charm of thought and style which
characterizes the writings of Buffon.

Lima, the oldest and most interesting of the cities founded by the
Spaniards on the western coast of South America, has been frequently
described; but no previous writer has painted so animated a picture of
the city and its inhabitants, as that contained in the following volume.
After quitting the capital of Peru, Dr. Tschudi went over ground
previously untrodden by any European traveller. He visited the Western
Sierra, the mighty chain of the Cordilleras, the boundless level
heights, the deep mountain valleys on the eastern declivity of the
Andes, and the vast primeval forests. Whilst recounting his wanderings
in these distant regions, he describes not only the country and the
people, but every object of novelty and interest in the animal,
vegetable, and mineral creations.

Those lovers of Natural History who are familiar with the German
language, and who may wish to make themselves extensively acquainted
with the animal world, in those parts of Peru visited by Dr. Tschudi,
will find abundant information on the subject in his work, with plates,
entitled "Untersuchungen über die Fauna Peruana." The present
Publication, though containing a vast deal to interest the naturalist,
is addressed to the general reader, and will, it is presumed, gratify
curiosity respecting the highly interesting and little known regions to
which it relates. It may fairly be said that no previous writer has
given so comprehensive a picture of Peru; combining, with animated
sketches of life and manners, a fund of valuable information on Natural
History and Commerce.

T. R.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
PAGE

Embarkation at Havre--The Voyage--Arrival at the Island of
Chiloe--Landing--The Gyr-Falcon--Punta Arena--The Island of
Chiloe described--Climate and Cultivation--Cattle--The Bay--San
Carlos--The Governor's House--Poverty and Wretchedness of the
Inhabitants of the Town--Strange method of Ploughing--Coasting
Vessels--Smuggling--Zoology--Departure from Chiloe 1

CHAPTER II.

Valparaiso and the adjacent country--The Bay--Aspect of the
Town--Lighthouses--Forts--Custom House--Exchange--Hotels and
Taverns--War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation--First
Expedition--Preparations for the Second Expedition--Embarkation
of the Troops--Close of the Port--July Festival in honor of
the French Revolution--The _Muele_, or Mole--Police--_Serenos_,
or Watchmen--Movable Prisons--Clubs--Trade of
Valparaiso--Santiago--Zoology 15

CHAPTER III.

Juan Fernandez--Robinson Crusoe--Passage to Callao--San
Lorenzo--Rise and fall of the coast--Mr. Darwin's opinions
on this subject--Callao--The Fortress--Siege by the
Spaniards--General Rodil--Siege by the Chilians--The
Colocolo--Pirates--Zoology--Road to Lima 26

CHAPTER IV.

Lima--Situation and extent of the City--Streets,
Houses, Churches and Convents--San Pedro--The
Jesuits--Nunneries--Beatarios--Hospitals--San Andres--The
Foundling House--The Pantheon--The Palace--The Plaza
Mayor--Pizarro--The Cabildo--Fountains--Palace of the
Inquisition--The University--National Library--Museum of
Natural History and Antiquities--Academy of Design--The
Mint--The Theatre--Circus for Cock-fighting--The Bridge--The
City Wall--Santa Catalina--Barracks 42

CHAPTER V.

Population of Lima--Its diminution--Different races of the
Inhabitants--Their characteristics--Amusements--Education--The Women
of Lima--Their Costume--the _Saya y Manto_--Female domestic
life--Love of dress--Beatas--Indians--Slaves--Bosales--Free
Creoles--Negroes--Negresses--Black Creoles--Their
varieties--Mestizos--Mulattoes--Pelanganas--Zambos--Chinos--Foreigners
in Lima--Corruption of the Spanish language 63

CHAPTER VI.

Primary Schools--Colleges--The University--Monks--Saints--Santo
Toribio and Santa Rosa--Religious Processions--Raising the Host--The
Noche Buena--The Carnival--Paseos, or Public Promenades--Ice--Riding
and Driving--Horses--Their Equipments and Training--Mules--Lottery
in Lima--Cookery--Breakfasts, Dinners, &c.--Coffee-houses and
Restaurants--Markets--The _Plazo Firme del Acho_--Bull Fights 89

CHAPTER VII.

Geographical Situation of Lima--Height above Sea
level--Temperature--Diseases--Statistical Tables of Births and
Deaths--Earthquakes--The Valley of Lima--The River Rimac--Aqueducts,
Trenches, &c.--Irrigation--Plantations--Cotton--Sugar--Various
kinds of Grain--Maize--Potatoes, and other tuberous
roots--Pulse--Cabbage--Plants used for Seasoning--Clover--The Olive
and other Oil Trees--Fruits--Figs and Grapes--The Chirimoya--The
Palta--The Banana and other Fruits 111

CHAPTER VIII.

Robbers on the coast of Peru--The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo--The
Corps of Montoneros--Watering Places near Lima--Surco, Atte and
Lurin--Pacchacamac--Ruins of the Temple of the Sun--Difficulties of
Travelling on the Coast of Peru--Sea Passage to Huacho--Indian
Canoes--Ichthyological Collections--An old Spaniard's recollections
of Alexander Von Humboldt--The Padre Requena--Huacho--Plundering of
Burial Places--Huaura--Malaria--The Sugar Plantation at
Luhmayo--Quipico--Ancient Peruvian Ruins--The Salinas, or Salt
Pits--Gritalobos--Chancay--The Piques--Mode of extracting
them--Valley of the Pasamayo--Extraordinary Atmospheric
Mirrors--Piedras Gordas--Palo Seco 137

CHAPTER IX.

The Coast southward of Lima--Chilca--Curious Cigar cases made
there--Yauyos--Pisco--Journey to Yea--A night on the Sand
Plains--Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823--Vine Plantations at
Yea--Brandy and Wine--Don Domingo Elias--Vessels for transporting
Brandy (Botijas and Odres)--Cruel mode of skinning Goats--Negro
Carnival--Peculiar species of Guinea Pig--The Salamanqueja--Cotton
Plantations--Quebrada of Huaitara--Sangallan--Guano--Retrospect of
the Peruvian Coast--Rivers--Medanos--Winds--Change of Seasons--The
Garuas--The Lomas--Mammalia--Birds--Amphibia 160

CHAPTER X.

Roads leading to the Sierra--Chaclacayo and Santa Iñes--Barometrical
observations--San Pedro Mama--The Rio Seco--Extraordinary Geological
Phenomenon--Similar one described by Mr. Darwin--Surco--Diseases
peculiar to the Villages of Peru--The Verugas--Indian mode of
treating the disorder--The Bird-catching Spider--Horse-Shoeing--Indian
Tambos--San Juan de Matucanas--The Thorn-apple and the Tonga--The
Tambo de Viso--Bridges--San Mateo--Passports--Acchahuari--Malady
called the Veta--Its effects on horses--Singular tact and caution
of Mules--Antarangra and Mountain Passes--Curious partition of
Water--Piedra Parada--Yauli--Indian Smelting Furnaces--Mineral
Springs--Portuguese Mine owners--Saco--Oroya--Hanging
Bridges--Huaros--Roads leading from Oroya 179

CHAPTER XI.

The Cordillera and the Andes--Signification of the terms--Altitude
of the Mountains and Passes--Lakes--Metals--Aspect of the
Cordillera--Shattered Rocks--Maladies caused by the diminished
Atmospheric Pressure--The Veta and the Surumpe--Mountain Storms--The
Condor--Its habits--Indian mode of Catching the Bird--The Puna or
Despoblado--Climate--Currents of Warm Air--Vegetation--Tuberous
Plant called the Maca--Animals of the Puna--The Llama, the Alpaco,
the Huanacu and the Vicuña--The Chacu and the Bolas--Household
Utensils of the Ancient Peruvians--The Viscacha and the
Chinchilla--Puna Birds and Amphibia--Cattle and Pasture--Indian
Farms--Shepherds' Huts--Ancient Peruvian Roads and
Buildings--Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna 203

CHAPTER XII.

Cerro de Pasco--First discovery of the Mines--Careless mode of
working them--Mine Owners and Mine Laborers--Amalgamating and
Refining--Produce of the Mines--Life in Cerro de Pasco--Different
Classes of the Population--Gaming and Drunkenness--Extravagance
and Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers--The Cerro de San
Fernando--Other Important Mining Districts in Peru--The Salcedo Mine
Castrovireyna--Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of Peru--Rich
Mines secretly known to the Indians--Roads leading from Cerro de
Pasco--The Laguna of Chinchaycocha--Battle of Junin--Indian
Robbers--A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds 229

CHAPTER XIII.

The Sierra--Its Climate and Productions--Inhabitants--Trade--Eggs
circulated as money--Mestizos in the Sierra--Their Idleness
and Love of Gaming and Betting--Agriculture--The Quinua Plant,
a substitute for Potatoes--Growth of Vegetables and Fruits
in the Sierra--Rural Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing and
Reaping--Skill of the Indians in various Handicrafts--Excess of
Brandy-Drinking--Chicha--Disgusting mode of making it--Festivals of
Saints--Dances and Bull-Fights--Celebration of Christmas-Day,
New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and Good Friday--Contributions levied
on the Indians--Tardy and Irregular Transmission of Letters--Trade
in Mules--General Style of Building in the Towns and Villages of
the Sierra--Ceja de la Montaña 253

CHAPTER XIV.

Road to the Primeval Forests--Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension
Bridges--Vegetation--Hollow Passes--Zoology--the Montaña
Plantations--Inhabitants--Trade in Peruvian Bark--Wandering
Indians--Wild Indians or Indios Braves--Languages,
Manners, and Customs of the Indios Bravos--Dress--Warlike
Weapons and Hunting Arms--Dwellings--Religion--Physical
formation of the Wild Indian Tribes--Animals of the Aboriginal
Forests--Mammalia--Hunting the Ounce--Birds--Amphibia--Poisonous
Serpents--Huaco--Insects--Plants 271

CHAPTER XV

Montaña of San Carlos de Vitoc--Villages--Hacienda of
Maraynioc--the Coca Plant--Mode of Cultivating and Gathering
it--Mastication of Coca--Evil Consequences of its excessive
Use--Its Nutritious Qualities--Indian Superstitions connected
with the Coca Plant--Suggestions for its Introduction in
the European Navies--Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo--The
Chunchos--Missions to Cerro de la Sal--Juan Santos Atahuallpa--The
Franciscan Monks--Depopulation of Vitoc 309

CHAPTER XVI.

Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians--The
Repartimiento and the Mita--Indian Insurrections--Tupac Amaru--His
Capture and Execution--War of Independence--Character of the Peruvian
Indians--Music--Dress--Superstitions--Longevity--Diminished Population
of Peru--Languages spoken by the Aboriginal Inhabitants--Specimen of
Quichua Poetry--The Yaravies--The Quipu--Water Conduits--Ancient
Buildings--Fortresses--Idols--Domestic Utensils--Ancient Peruvian
Graves--Mode of Burying the Dead--Mummies 329

TRAVELS IN PERU.

CHAPTER I.

On the 27th of February, 1838, I sailed from Havre-de-Grace on board the
"Edmond." This vessel, though a French merchantman, was freighted with a
cargo of Swiss manufactured goods, suited to any commercial transactions
which might be entered into in the course of a circumnavigatory voyage.
It was a boisterous morning. A fall of snow and heavy clouds soon
intercepted our view of the coast of France, and not one cheering
sunbeam shone out to betoken for us a favorable voyage. We passed down
the British Channel, where the multitude of vessels, and the flags of
all nations, presented an enlivening picture, and we finally cleared it
on the 5th of March. Favored by a brisk north wind, we soon reached
Madeira and came in sight of Teneriffe, the peak being just perceptible
on the skirt of the horizon. Easterly breezes soon brought us to the
island of Fogo, which, having passed on the 35th day of our voyage, we
received the usual marine baptism, and participated in all the
ceremonies observed on crossing the equator. We soon reached the tropic
of Capricorn, and endeavored to gain the channel between the Falkland
Islands and Patagonia; but unfavorable winds obliged us to direct our
course eastwards, from the Island of Soledad to the Staten Islands. On
the 3d of March we made the longitude of Cape Horn, but were not able to
double it until we got into the 60th degree of south latitude. In those
dangerous waters, where it is admitted by the boldest English sailors
that the waves rage more furiously than in any other part of the world,
we encountered great risk and difficulty. For twenty-two days we were
driven about on the fearfully agitated sea, southward of Tierra del
Fuego, and were only saved from being buried in the deep, by the
excellent build and soundness of our ship.

We suffered much, and were long delayed by this storm; but when it
subsided, a smart breeze sprang up from the southward, and we held our
course along the Pacific to the coast of Chile. After a voyage of 99
days we cast anchor on Sunday the 5th of June, in the Bay of San Carlos.
Like the day of our departure from Europe, that of our arrival off
Chiloe was gloomy and overcast. Heavy clouds obscured the
long-looked-for island, and its picturesque shore could only be seen,
when, at intervals, the wind dispersed the dark atmospheric veil. We had
no sooner cast anchor than several boats came alongside rowed by
Indians, who offered us potatoes, cabbage, fish, and water, in exchange
for tobacco. Only those who have been long at sea can form an idea of
the gratification which fresh provisions, especially vegetables, afford
to the weary voyager. In a couple of hours, the harbor-master came on
board to examine the ship, the cargo, &c., and to give us permission to
go ashore. The long-boat being got out, and well manned, we stepped into
it, and were conveyed to the harbor. The Bay of San Carlos being
shallow, large ships, or vessels, heavily laden, are obliged to go three
English miles or more from the landing-place before they can anchor. Our
boat was gaily decorated and newly painted; but this was mere outside
show, for it was in a very unsound condition. During our passage through
the tropics, the sun had melted the pitch between the planks of the
boat, which lay on the deck keel uppermost. In this crazy boat, we had
scarcely got a quarter of a league from the ship, when the water rushed
in so forcibly through all the cracks and fissures, that it was soon
more than ankle deep. Unluckily the sailors had forgotten to put on
board a bucket or anything for baling out the water, so that we were
obliged to use our hats and boots for that purpose. Fourteen persons
were crowded together in this leaky boat, and the water continued
rising, until at length we began to be seriously apprehensive for our
safety, when, fortunately, our situation was observed by the people on
shore. They promptly prepared to send out a boat to our assistance, but
just as it was got afloat, we succeeded in reaching the pier, happy once
more to set our feet on _terra firma_.

Our first business was to seek shelter and refreshment. There is no
tavern in San Carlos, but there is a sort of substitute for one, kept
by an old Corsican, named Filippi, where captains of ships usually
take up their quarters. Filippi, who recognized an old acquaintance in
one of our party, received us very kindly, and showed us to apartments
which certainly had no claim to the merits of either cleanliness or
convenience. They were long, dark, quadrangular rooms, without
windows, and were destitute of any article of furniture, except a bed
in a kind of recess.

As soon as I got on shore, I saw a multitude of small birds of prey.
They keep in flocks, like our sparrows, hopping about everywhere, and
perching on the hedges and house-tops. I anxiously wished for an
opportunity to make myself better acquainted with one of them.
Presuming that shooting in the town might be displeasing to the
inhabitants, who would naturally claim to themselves a sort of
exclusive sporting right, I took my gun down to the sea-shore, and
there shot one of the birds. It belonged to the Gyr-Falcon family
(_Polyboriniæ_), and was one of the species peculiar to South America
(_Polyborus chimango_, Vieil). The whole of the upper part of the body
is brown, but single feathers here and there have a whitish-brown
edge. On the tail are several indistinct oblique stripes. The
under-part of the body is whitish-brown, and is also marked with
transverse stripes feebly defined. The bird I shot measured from the
point of the beak to the end of the tail 1 foot 6-1/2 inches. Though
these Gyr-Falcons live socially together, yet they are very greedy and
contentious about their prey. They snap up, as food, all the offal
thrown out of doors; and thus they render themselves serviceable to
the inhabitants, who consequently do not destroy them. In some of the
valleys of Peru, I met with these birds again, but very rarely and
always single and solitary. I continued my excursions on the
sea-shore, but with little satisfaction, for the pouring rain had
driven animals of every kind to their lurking-holes. After a few days,
I went on board the "Edmond," for the purpose of visiting PUNTA ARENA,
a town on the side of the bay, whither our boat used to be sent for
fresh water. The ground surrounding the spring whence the ships obtain
supplies of water, is sandy, and it becomes exceedingly marshy further
inland. After wandering about for a few hours, I found myself quite
lost in a morass, out of which I had to work my way with no little
difficulty. The whole produce of my hard day's sport consisted of an
awlbeak, a small dark-brown bird (_Opethiorhyncus patagonicus_), and
some land-snails. On our return, as we were nearing the ship, we
killed a seal (_Otaria chilensis_, Müll.), which was rising after a
dive, close to the boat.

On the 22d of June, all our ship's company were on board by order of
the captain. We weighed anchor, and cruized about for some time. At
length, about five in the afternoon, we returned, and the ship was
anchored again precisely on the spot she had left a few hours before.
It was set down in the log-book that the wind was not sufficiently
favorable to allow the ship to pass out safely through the narrow
entrance to the bay. But all on board were well aware that this was
merely a pretence on the part of the captain, who, for some reason or
other, wished to stop longer at San Carlos.

I was very much pleased at this opportunity of prolonging my stay at the
Island of Chiloe, hoping that better weather would enable me to make an
excursion into the interior. But the sky still continued overcast, and
the rain poured incessantly. One day, however, I undertook a journey to
Castro, in company with the French Chargé d'Affaires to Peru, one of my
fellow passengers on the voyage. A merchant accommodated us with two
horses, saddled in the Chilian manner; but he warned us to be on our
guard, as horses were often restive when just returned from their summer
pasturage. We set off very promisingly. The commencement of our ride was
pleasant enough, though the road was steep and very difficult. It
sometimes lay over smooth slippery stones, then through deep marshes, or
over scattered logs of wood, which bore evidence of attempts to render
the ground passable, by this rude kind of paving. After we had ridden
for several hours in the forest, the rain checked our further progress,
and we turned, to retrace our way back. Our horses seemed well pleased
with the project of returning home. For a time they proceeded with
wonderful steadiness; but on coming to a part of the road where the
ground was comparatively level and firm, they quickened their pace, and
at length dashed forward through the wood, uncontrolled by the bridle.
The long narrow saddle, with its woollen covering, the crescent-shaped
wooden stirrups, and the heavy spurs, with their clumsy rowels, baffled
all our skill in horsemanship, and it was with no little difficulty we
kept our seats. We thought it best to give the animals the rein, and
they galloped through the umbrageous thickets, until at last, panting
and breathless, they stuck in a morass. Here we recovered our control
over them, and pursued the remainder of our journey without further
accident, though we were drenched to the skin on our return to the town.

On subsequent days, I took my rambles on foot, and found myself richly
rewarded thereby. The long evenings we spent in the company of our host
and the harbor-master, from both of whom I obtained some useful
information respecting the island.

Chiloe is one of the largest islands of the Archipelago which extends
along the west coast of South America, from 42° south lat. to the
Straits of Magellan. It is about 23 German miles long, and 10 broad. A
magnificent, but almost inaccessible forest covers the unbroken line of
hills stretching along Chiloe, and gives to the island a charming aspect
of undulating luxuriance. Seldom, however, can the eye command a
distinct view of those verdant hills; for overhanging clouds surcharged
with rain, almost constantly veil the spreading tops of the trees. At
most parts of the shore the declivity is rapid. There are many inlets,
which, though small, afford secure anchorage; but there are no harbors
of any magnitude. While Castro was the capital of the island, Chacao was
the principal port; but San Carlos having become the residence of the
governor, this latter place is considered the chief harbor; and with
reason, for its secure, tranquil bay unites all the advantages the
navigator can desire on the stormy coast of South Chile. At Chacao, on
the contrary, reefs and strong currents render the entrance dangerous
and the anchorage insecure.

Chiloe is but little cultivated, and scantily populated. If the
statement of my informant, the harbor-master, be correct, Chiloe and the
adjacent small islands contain only from 48,000 to 50,000 inhabitants,
part of whom live in _ranchos_ (huts), and part in a few villages. Next
to San Carlos, and the half-deserted Castro, to which the title of
"City" is given, the chief places are Chacao, Vilipilli, Cucao, Velinoe.
It is only in the neighborhood of these towns or villages that the
forest trees have been felled, and their removal has uncovered a fertile
soil, which would reward by a hundred-fold the labor of the husbandman.

The climate of the island is moist and cool, and upon the whole very
unpleasant. During the winter months, the sun is seldom seen; and it is
a proverbial saying in Chiloe, that it rains six days of the week, and
is cloudy on the seventh. In summer there are occasionally fine days,
though seldom two in succession. The thick forests are therefore never
dry, and beneath the trees, the vegetation of the marshy soil is
peculiarly luxuriant. The constant moisture is one of the greatest
obstacles to agriculture. To clear the ground for cultivation, it would
be necessary to burn the forests, and as the trees are always damp, that
could not be done without great difficulty. To some kinds of culture the
soil is not favorable. The cereals, for example, seldom thrive in
Chiloe; the seed rots after the ear is formed. Maize grows best; though
it shoots too much into leaf, and bears only small grain. The damp soil,
on the other hand, is favorable to potatoes, of which vast quantities
are planted. There is a degenerate kind of potato, very abundant in
Chiloe. On bisection it exhibits a greater or lesser number of
concentric rings, alternately white and violet; sometimes all of the
latter color. It is well known that southern Chile is the native land of
the potato. In Chiloe and also in the neighboring islands, potatoes grow
wild; but, both in size and flavor, they are far inferior to the
cultivated kind. Like the maize, they shoot up in large leaves and
stalks. The climate is also very favorable to the different kinds of the
cabbage plant; but peas and beans do not thrive there.

In the forests there are often clear spots on which the grass grows to a
great height, and supplies excellent pasturage for numerous herds of
cattle. The inhabitants of Chiloe breed for their own use, horses, oxen,
sheep, and swine. The horses are small, and not handsomely formed, but
very spirited and strong. Some are scarcely twelve hands high. The cows
are small and lank, and the same may be said of the swine and sheep. It
is remarkable that all the rams have more than two horns; the greater
number have three, and many are furnished with four or five. I
afterwards observed the same in Peru. The domestic animals on this
island, notwithstanding the abundance of food, are small, and
sickly-looking. I believe the cause to be want of care, for they remain
all the year round exposed to every sort of weather and discomfort.

The population of Chiloe consists of Whites, Indians, and people of
mixed blood. The Indians are now few in number, and those few are
chiefly in the southern part of the island, and the adjacent islets.
They are of the Araucana race, and appear to be a sept between that
race and the people of Tierra del Fuego, on the one side, and the
Pampas Indians on the other. People of mixed races form by far the
greater portion of the population. They are met with in every variety
of amalgamation. Taken in general, they are the reverse of handsome.
They are short and thick-set, and have long, straight coarse hair.
Their faces are round and full, their eyes small, and the expression
of their countenances is unintelligent. The whites are either
Chilenos or Spaniards: the latter are almost the only Europeans
who have become settlers here.

The principal town, San Carlos, called by the natives "Ancud," lies on
the northern coast of a very fine bay. Without a good chart, the
entrance to this bay is difficult. Numerous small islands form a
labyrinth, out of which vessels, if not commanded by very experienced
pilots, cannot easily be extricated. Besides, near the land, the sky is
usually obscured by clouds which prevent any observation for the
latitude, as the sun's altitude cannot be taken even at noon; and when
the sun gets lower, the hills, which would serve as guiding points,
cease to be distinctly seen.

Several whalers, which for some days vainly endeavored to work through
this passage, were afterwards obliged to direct their course northward,
and to cast anchor in Valivia. One of the largest islands at the
entrance of the bay is San Sebastian, where there are numerous herds of
cattle. Cochino is a small island, distant only a few miles from San
Carlos. It is hilly, and thickly crowned with brush-wood. It has only
one landing-place, and that is rather insecure for boats. The water of
the bay is remarkably clear and good; only round the little island of
Cochino, and along the harbor, it is covered with an immense quantity of
sea-moss, which often renders the landing difficult. It frequently
happens that commanders of ships, wishing to go on board to make sail
during the night, get out of the right course, and instead of going to
the ship, steer to Cochino and get into the moss, where their boats
stick fast, till returning daylight enables them to work their way out.

The poor inhabitants boil this sea-moss and eat it. It is very salt
and slimy, and is difficult of digestion. Among the people of Chiloe,
this sea-moss occupies an important place in surgery. When a leg or an
arm is broken, after bringing the bone into its proper position, a
broad layer of the moss is bound round the fractured limb. In drying,
the slime causes it to adhere to the skin, and thus it forms a fast
bandage, which cannot be ruffled or shifted. After the lapse of a few
weeks, when the bones have become firmly united, the bandage is
loosened by being bathed with tepid water, and it is then easily
removed. The Indians of Chiloe were acquainted, long before the French
surgeons, with the use of the paste bandage.

The town of San Carlos is dirty; the streets unpaved, narrow, and
crooked. The houses, with few exceptions, are wretched wooden huts, for
the most part without windows; but there is a board divided in the
middle horizontally, the upper part of which being open, it serves for a
window, and when both parts are open, it forms a door. The flooring
usually consists merely of hard-trodden clay, covered with straw
matting. The furniture, like the apartments, is rude and inconvenient.
These remarks of course apply to the habitations of the very poor class
of people. The richer families live in more comfortable style. Of the
public buildings, the custom-house and the governor's residence are the
most considerable, but both make a very indifferent appearance. In front
of the governor's house, which occupies a tolerably large space of
ground, in the upper part of the town, a sentinel is constantly
stationed. This sentinel parades to and fro, without shoes or stockings,
and not unfrequently without a coat, his arms being covered only by his
shirt sleeves. As to a cap, that seems to be considered as unnecessary a
part of a well-conditioned uniform, as shoes and stockings. After sunset
every person who passes the governor's house is challenged. "Who goes
there?" is the first question; the second is _Que gente?_ (what
country?) The sailors amuse themselves by returning jocular answers to
these challenges; and the sentinel, irritated by their jeers, sometimes
runs after them through part of the town, and when weary of the chace
returns to his post.

Poverty and uncleanliness vie with each other in San Carlos. The lower
class of the inhabitants are exceedingly filthy, particularly the women,
whose usual dress is a dirty woollen gown, and a greasy looking
mantilla. In their damp gloomy habitations, they squat down on the
floor, close to the _brasero_ (chafing pan), which also serves them as a
stove for cooking. They bruise maize between two stones, and make it
into a thick kind of soup or porridge. When employed in paring potatoes
or apples, or in cutting cabbages, they throw the skins and waste leaves
on the ground, so that they are frequently surrounded by a mass of
half-decayed vegetable matter. Their favorite beverage is _mate_ (the
Paraguay tea), of which they partake at all hours of the day. The mode
of preparing and drinking the _mate_ is as follows: a portion of the
herb is put into a sort of cup made from a gourd, and boiling water is
poured over it. The mistress of the house then takes a reed or pipe, to
one end of which a strainer is affixed,[1] and putting it into the
decoction, she sucks up a mouthful of the liquid. She then hands the
apparatus to the person next to her, who partakes of it in the same
manner, and so it goes round. The mistress of the house and all her
guests suck the aromatic fluid through the same pipe or _bombilla_.

The poverty of the people is extreme. Specie is seldom current, and is
exclusively in the hands of a few traders, who supply the Indians with
European articles, in payment of their labor, or in exchange for the
produce of the island, which is sent to Chile and Peru. With much
surprise I learned that there is no saw-mill in Chiloe, where the vast
abundance of trees would furnish a supply of excellent deals, for which
ready and good payment would be obtained in Peru.

The inhabitants direct their industry chiefly to agriculture and
navigation. But rude and imperfect are their implements for field labor,
as well as their nautical vessels. To a stranger nothing can appear more
extraordinary than their mode of ploughing. As to a regular plough, I do
not believe such a thing is known in Chiloe. If a field is to be tilled,
it is done by two Indians, who are furnished with long poles, pointed at
one end. The one thrusts his pole, pretty deeply, and in an oblique
direction, into the earth, so that it forms an angle with the surface of
the ground. The other Indian sticks his pole in at a little distance,
and also obliquely, and he forces it beneath that of his fellow-laborer,
so that the first pole lies as it were above the second. The first
Indian then presses on his pole, and makes it work on the other, as a
lever on its fulcrum, and the earth is thrown up by the point of the
pole. Thus they gradually advance, until the whole field is furrowed by
this laborious process.

The Chiloe boats are merely hulks. They obey the helm reluctantly, but
they bear away before the wind. Several individuals usually join
together, and convey in these boats, the produce of their respective
localities, in the southern villages, to San Carlos. Women as well as
men take their turn at rowing the boats, and after being out all day,
they run into some creek, where they pass the night. When a favorable
breeze springs up, they hoist a sail, made of _ponchos_. The poncho is
an important article of male clothing in this country. It consists of a
piece of woollen cloth, measuring from 5 to 7 feet long, and from 3 to 4
feet broad. In the middle there is a slit from 12 to 14 inches long;
through this slit the wearer passes his head. The poncho thus rests on
the shoulders, and hangs down in front and behind as low as the knees.
At the sides, it reaches to the elbow, or middle of the forearm, and
thus covers the whole of the body. The carters and wagoners in Swabia
wear, in rainy weather, a covering somewhat resembling the poncho, which
they make out of their woollen horse-coverings. When a Chiloe boat is on
its passage on the coast, and a sail happens to be wanted, the men give
up their ponchos and the women their mantillas. The slits in the ponchos
are stitched up, and both ponchos and mantillas being sewn together are
fixed to a pole or bar of wood, which is hoisted to a proper position on
the mast. This patchwork sail can only be serviceable when the wind is
fresh. At nightfall, when the boat runs into one of the creeks for
shelter, the sail is lowered, and the sewing being unpicked, the ponchos
and mantillas are returned to their respective owners, who wrap
themselves in them, and go to sleep.

There is but little trade in San Carlos, for Chile itself possesses in
superfluity all the productions of Chiloe, and the inhabitants of the
island are so poor, and their wants so limited, that they require but
few foreign articles. The port is therefore seldom visited by any
trading vessel from Europe. Some of the Chiloe boats keep up a regular
traffic along the coast. They carry wood, brooms, hams, and potatoes, to
Valparaiso, Arica, Callao, &c., and they bring back in return, linen,
woollen and cotton cloths, ironware, tobacco, and spirits.

North American and French whalers have for several years past been
frequent visitors to San Carlos, as they can there provide themselves,
at a cheap rate, with provisions for the long fishing season. All the
captains bring goods, which they smuggle on shore, where they sell or
exchange them at a high profit. A custom-house officer is, indeed, sent
on board every vessel to examine what is to be unshipped; but a few
dollars will silence him, and make him favor the contraband operations,
which are carried on without much reserve. A French captain brought to
Chiloe a quantity of water-proof cloaks and hats, made of a sort of
black waxed cloth, and sold them to a dealer in San Carlos. To evade the
duty, he sent his men on shore each wearing one of these hats and
cloaks, which they deposited in the dealer's store, and then returned on
board the ship, dressed in their sailors' garb. This was repeated so
often, that at length it was intimated to the captain that, if his men
had a fancy to come on shore with such hats and cloaks they would be
permitted to do so, but it must be on condition of their returning on
board dressed in the same costume.

The people of Ancud (San Carlos), formerly so simple and artless, have
gradually become corrupt and degenerate, since their frequent
intercourse with the whale-fishers. Among the female portion of the
population, depravity of morals and unbecoming boldness of manners have
in a great degree superseded the natural simplicity which formerly
prevailed. All the vices of the lowest class of sailors, of which the
crews of the South Sea Whalers are composed, have quickly taken root in
San Carlos, and the inseparable consequences of those vices will soon be
fatal to the moral and physical welfare of the inhabitants.

In the interior of the island of Chiloe there are few quadrupeds. The
largest, the domestic animals excepted, is a fox (_Canis fulvipes_,
Wat.), which was first discovered by the naturalists who accompanied
Capt. King's expedition. This is the only beast of prey. The coast
abounds in seals of the sea-dog species (_Otaria chilensis_, Müll.,
_Otaria Ursina_, Per., _Otaria jubata_, Desm.)--in sea-otters (_Otaria
chilensis_, Ben.)--and in the water mouse (_Myopotamus Coypus_, J.
Geoff). Among the birds, there are some very fine species of ducks, well
worthy of notice, which are also found on the continent of South
America. There is the little Cheucau (_Pteroptochus rubecula_, Kettl.),
to which the Chilotes attach various superstitious ideas, and pretend to
foretell good or ill luck from its song. The modulations which this bird
is capable of uttering are numerous, and the natives assign a particular
meaning to each. One day, when I wished to have some shooting, I took
an Indian lad with me. Having levelled my gun at one of these birds,
which was sitting in a low bush, and uttering its shrill _huit-huit_, my
young companion firmly grasped my arm, earnestly entreating me not to
shoot the bird, as it had sung its unlucky note. But my desire to
possess a specimen was too great to be thus baffled, so I fired my gun
and brought it down. I was engaged in examining the elegant little bird,
when a mule, probably alarmed by the shot, came running at full speed
towards the spot where we were, and we deemed it prudent to get behind a
hedge as speedily as possible. The infuriated mule made an attack on my
gun, which was resting against the hedge. It was thrown down, bitten,
and trampled on by the mule. The Indian boy turned to me, with a serious
countenance, and said:--"It is well if we escape further danger! I told
you the bird had piped bad luck!"

The day fixed for our departure from Chiloe now approached. The wind,
which had heretofore been unfavorable for leaving the port, promised to
change, and we began to ship provisions. Whilst I was waiting for the
boat which was to take me on board, I had an opportunity of observing
the dexterity with which the Indians slaughter their cattle. This
business is performed on the Mole, where, in the space of a quarter of
an hour, and by two men only, an ox is killed, and the carcase cut up
into the proper pieces. When it is necessary to ship live oxen, the
animals are brought to the shore, where their feet are bound together,
and then they are rolled over planks into the _lancha_ (boat). On
nearing the ship, the Indians tie a rope round the animal's horns, and
then the sailors hoist him up with a strong tackle. It is a curious
sight to behold a strongly-bound struggling ox, hanging by the tackle,
and swinging between wind and water. My little Chilotean pony, which I
intended to take to Peru, was dealt with more gently: he was got on
board with a girth, purposely made for hoisting horses on board ship.

At length we sailed out of the bay with a fresh easterly wind. Three
coasting boats, one of which was heavily laden with brooms, left the
roads at the same time, and their crews said they hoped to reach
Valparaiso before us. But they had too great confidence in their
round-bottomed keels, for they did not anchor in their place of
destination till five or six days after our arrival. The wind soon got
up, blowing W.N.W., but rather flat. In the course of the night, during
the second watch, we were roused from our sleep by a heavy shock,
followed by a peculiarly tremulous motion of the whole ship. We
concluded we had struck in passing over some hidden rock. The lead was
thrown, but no ground was found; the pumps were set a-going, but we were
free of water. The captain attributed the shock to an earthquake, and on
our arrival at Chile, his conjecture was confirmed. In Valdivia, in the
latitude of which place we were at the time, a severe shock of an
earthquake had been experienced.

After a pretty favorable passage of seven days, we anchored on the 30th
of June in the harbor of Valparaiso.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: _Bombilla_ is the name given to this pipe, and the cup or
gourd in which the decoction of the _mate_ is prepared, is called the
_macerina_.]

CHAPTER II.

Valparaiso and the adjacent country--The Bay--Aspect of the
Town--Lighthouses--Forts--Custom House--Exchange--Hotels and
Taverns--War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation--First
Expedition--Preparations for the Second Expedition--Embarkation
of the Troops--Close of the Port--July Festival in honor of the
French Revolution--The _Muele_, or Mole--Police--_Serenos_,
or Watchmen--Moveable Prisons--Clubs--Trade of
Valparaiso--Santiago--Zoology.

The impression produced by the approach to Valparaiso on persons who see
land for the first time after a sea voyage of several months' duration,
must be very different from that felt by those who anchor in the port
after a passage of a few days from the luxuriantly verdant shores of the
islands lying to the south. Certainly, none of our ship's company would
have been disposed to give the name of "Vale of Paradise" to the
sterile, monotonous coast which lay outstretched before us; and yet, to
the early navigators, its first aspect, after a long and dreary voyage,
over the desert ocean, might naturally enough have suggested the idea of
an earthly paradise.

Along the sea coast there extends a range of round-topped hills, 15 or
16 hundred feet high, covered with a grey-brownish coating, relieved
only here and there by patches of dead green, and furrowed by clefts,
within which the bright red of tile-roofed houses is discernible.
Half-withered cactus trees, the only plants which take root in the
ungenial soil, impart no life to the dreary landscape. The hills
continue rising in undulating outlines, and extend into the interior of
the country, where they unite with the great chain of the Andes.

The bay of Valparaiso is open on the north and west; on the south it is
protected by a little promontory called the Punta de Coromilla. In this
direction the shore is steep and rocky, and the waves break against it
with great fury. From the Punta de Coromilla the bay extends from east
to north-west in the form of a gently curved crescent, having a sloping,
sandy beach, which rises very gradually towards the hills. On the north
side of the bay there are several small inlets, almost inaccessible and
edged with steep rocks. The bay is sometimes unsafe, for it is
completely unsheltered on the north, and the heavy gales which blow from
that point frequently end in storms. At those times the bay is furiously
agitated, the waves sometimes rising as high as in the open sea, and the
ships are obliged to cast their sheet-anchors. Many vessels have at
various times been driven from their anchorage, cast ashore, and dashed
to pieces on a rock called Little Cape Horn; for, when a violent gale
blows from the north, it is impossible to get out to sea. Sailors are
accustomed to say that in a violent storm they would rather be tossed
about on the wide ocean than be at anchor in the bay of Valparaiso. But
against the south wind, though sometimes no less boisterous than the
northern gales, the harbor affords secure refuge, being perfectly
sheltered by the Punta de Coromilla.

The town of Valparaiso looks as if built on terraces at the foot of the
range of hills above mentioned. Northward it stretches out on the level
sea shore, in a long double row of houses called the Almendral: towards
the south it rises in the direction of the hills. Two clefts or chasms
(quebradas) divide this part of the town into three separate parts
consisting of low, shabby houses. These three districts have been named
by the sailors after the English sea terms Fore-top, Main-top, and
Mizen-top. The numerous quebradas, which all intersect the ground in a
parallel direction, are surrounded by poor-looking houses. The wretched,
narrow streets running along these quebradas are, in winter, and
especially at night, exceedingly dangerous, Valparaiso being very badly
lighted. It sometimes happens that people fall over the edges of the
chasms and are killed, accidents which not unfrequently occur to the
drunken sailors who infest these quarters of the town.

Viewed from the sea, Valparaiso has rather a pleasing aspect, and some
neat detached houses built on little levels, artificially made on the
declivities of the hills, have a very picturesque appearance. The
scenery in the immediate background is gloomy; but, in the distance, the
summit of the volcano Aconcagua, which is 23,000 feet above the level of
the sea, and which, on fine evenings, is gilded by the rays of the
setting sun, imparts a peculiar charm to the landscape.

The bay is protected by three small forts. The southernmost, situated
between the lighthouse and the town, has five guns. The second, which is
somewhat larger, called el Castillo de San Antonio, is in the southern
inlet of the bay. Though the most strongly fortified of the three, it is
in reality a mere plaything. In the northern part of the town, on a
little hillock, stands the third fort, called el Castillo del Rosario,
which is furnished with six pieces of cannon. The churches of Valparaiso
are exceedingly plain and simple, undistinguished either for
architecture or internal decoration.

The custom-house is especially worthy of mention. It is a beautiful and
spacious building, and from its situation on the Muele (Mole) is an
object which attracts the attention of all who arrive at Valparaiso. In
the neighborhood of the custom-house is the exchange. It is a plain
building, and contains a large and elegant reading-room, in which may
always be found the principal European newspapers. In this reading-room
there is also an excellent telescope by Dollond, which is a source of
amusement, by affording a view of the comical scenes sometimes enacted
on board the ships in the port.

The taverns and hotels are very indifferent. The best are kept by
Frenchmen, though even those are incommodious and expensive. The
apartments, which scarcely contain necessary articles of furniture, are
dirty, and often infested with rats. In these houses, however, the table
is tolerably well provided; for there is no want of good meat and
vegetables in the market. The second-rate taverns are far beneath the
very worst in the towns of Europe.

On our arrival in Valparaiso, a vast deal of activity and bustle
prevailed in the harbor. Chile had declared war against the
Peru-Bolivian confederation, and was fitting out a new expedition for
the invasion of Peru. At its head were the banished Peruvian president
Don Augustin Gamarra, and the Chilian general Bulnes. The growing power
of Santa Cruz, who set himself up as protector of a confederation
between Bolivia and Peru, had given alarm to the Chilian government. It
was apprehended, and not without reason, that the independence of Chile
might be threatened by so dangerous a neighbor. Santa Cruz had given
umbrage to Chile by several decrees, especially one, by which merchant
vessels coming direct from Europe into a Bolivian or Peruvian port, and
there disposing of their cargoes, were subject to very low duties,
whilst heavy imposts were levied on ships landing any part of their
cargoes in a Chilian port. This law greatly increased the trade of Peru;
but it was prejudicial to Chile. This and other grounds of offence,
joined to the representations of the fugitive Ex-president Gamarra and
his adherents, determined the Chilian government to declare war. An
expedition under the command of General Blanco was sent to Peru; but
Santa Cruz was prepared to receive the invaders, and in the valley of
Arequipa he surrounded the Chilian forces so completely that they were
obliged to surrender without striking a blow. Santa Cruz magnanimously
allowed General Blanco to make a very favorable capitulation. The
soldiers were sent home to their country; but the horses were detained
and sold by the conquerors to the conquered.

The generosity of Don Andres Santa Cruz did not meet its due return on
the part of the Chilian government. The treaty of peace concluded by
Blanco was not ratified in Santiago, the minister declaring that the
general was not authorized to negotiate it. Hostilities were kept up
between the two states, and at length a second and more important
expedition was fitted out. It sailed whilst we were lying in the harbor.

No sooner had we cast anchor than several officers of the Chilian army
came on board to inquire whether we had any swords to dispose of,
assuring us that they, together with the majority of their comrades,
were yet unprovided with arms, and knew not where to procure them. The
captain informed them that there were no swords in our cargo; but that
he had a few sabres, &c., which he was very willing to sell. They were
immediately produced, and some were purchased; among the number was a
heavy broad-sword, about five feet in length, which had once belonged
to a cuirassier in Napoleon's guard. The Chilian officer who bargained
for it was a delicate-looking stripling, who, with both hands, could
scarcely raise the heavy weapon. He, nevertheless, flattered himself
that it would enable him to achieve great deeds in battle and deal death
among the Peruvians. Ten months afterwards I met this hero on a march
among the mountains of Peru. He had, girded on, a light little sword,
like a tooth pick or a bodkin compared with the formidable weapon he had
discarded, and which a sturdy negro was carrying behind him. I could not
refrain from asking the officer whether the trusty broad-sword had not
done good service in the battle of Yungay; but he candidly acknowledged
that he had not attempted to use it, as he found it much too unwieldy.

The Chilian squadron sent to Peru consisted of twenty-seven transport
ships, and eight ships of war. Almost all were in a wretched condition,
having but few guns, and manned by very insufficient crews. The largest
vessels were the three corvettes, Confederacion, Santa Cruz, and
Valparaiso. Only one ship, the schooner brig Colocolo, was distinguished
for solidity and swift sailing. The fleet was commanded by an admiral of
little judgment and experience.

Among the crew there were but few Chilenos: most of the men were
Chilotes and French, English and American deserters. The officers
commanding the ships were almost all Englishmen. The transport ships
were heavily laden, some carrying troops, and others provisions. These
provisions consisted of sesino (dried beef), chalonas (whole sheep
dried), maize, potatoes, dried fruits and barley, together with hay for
the horses. The embarkation of the horses was most clumsily managed:
many were strangled in being hoisted up the ships' sides, others slipped
through their girths and were severely hurt by falling, and a
considerable number of the poor animals died before the ships left the
port. Every morning we saw dozens of dead horses thrown over board. The
continued lurching of the vessels in which the cavalry was embarked,
bore evidence of the inconvenient situation of the horses between decks.

At the beginning of July the whole squadron sailed for the harbor of
Coquimbo, where the troops were decimated by the small-pox.

There prevailed in Chile a feeling very adverse to this campaign; so
much so that most of the troops were embarked by force. I was standing
on the _muele_ when the Santiago battalion was shipped. The soldiers,
who were in wretched uniforms, most of them wearing ponchos, and
unarmed, were bound together two-and-two by ropes, and absolutely driven
into the boats.

This war proved most unfortunate to Peru, a result which, however,
cannot certainly be ascribed either to the courage of the enemy's troops
or the judgment of their commanders. We shall presently see the
circumstances which combined to secure triumph to the Chilenos.

I and my fellow-voyagers were also sufferers by the war, our captain
having imprudently announced his intention of selling the Edmond to the
protector Santa Cruz, as she might easily have been transformed into an
excellent corvette. She was a quick sailer, tight-built, carrying ten
guns of moderate calibre, and she might easily have mounted ten more.

The captain's intention having reached the knowledge of the Chilian
government, the natural consequence was, that the port was closed, a
measure deemed the more necessary inasmuch as an American captain was
suspected of entertaining the design of selling his ship to the
Peruvians. It was not until the fleet had had time to reach Peru, and
the first blow was supposed to be struck, that the embargo was raised,
and we obtained leave to depart. We lay in the port of Valparaiso
five-and-forty days. To me the most annoying circumstance attending this
delay was, that I could not absent myself from the port longer than
twenty-four hours at a time, as the ship was constantly in readiness to
get under weigh, as soon as we should receive permission to sail, which
was hourly expected. My excursions were, therefore, confined to the
immediate neighborhood of the town; and even there my walks and rides
were much impeded by constant stormy and rainy weather.

On the 29th of July, preparations were made on board our ship for
celebrating the Paris revolution of 1830. At eight o'clock in the
morning we fired three guns, and the Edmond was soon decorated from her
deck to her mast-heads with flags and streamers. At the fore-mast gaily
floated the Swiss flag, probably the first time it had ever been seen in
the Pacific. When the guns on board the French ship-of-war had ceased
firing, we began our salute; but, as we had only ten guns, it was
necessary to load a second time. Our seamen, being unused to this kind
of duty, did not observe due precaution, and the consequence was that
one of them had his hand so dreadfully shattered that immediate
amputation was indispensable. The day's rejoicing was thus suddenly
brought to a melancholy close.

The mole in front of the custom-house is exceedingly dangerous; so much
so, that, during the prevalence of stormy north winds, it is impossible
to pass along it. From the shore a sort of wooden jetty stretches into
the sea, at the distance of about sixty paces. This jetty has been
sometimes partially, and at other times completely, destroyed by the
waves. The harbor-master's boats, and those belonging to the
ships-of-war, land on the right side; the left side is allotted to the
boats of the merchant ships. On the shore there are always a number of
boats ready to convey persons who wish to go on board the different
ships. Each boat is generally rowed by two Indians. Whenever any person
approaches the shore he is beset by the boatmen, who throng round him,
and alternately, in English and Spanish, importune him with the
questions,--"Want a boat?" "Vamos á bordo?"

Day and night, parties of custom-house officers go round the port for
the purpose of preventing smuggling. In this, however, they only
partially succeed; for they detect only petty smugglers, whilst those
who carry on contraband trade on a large scale elude their vigilance.
The captains of French vessels are notorious for this kind of traffic,
and they frequently succeed in landing vast quantities of goods
surreptitiously.

The police of Valparaiso is probably as good as it is in any part of
South America. _Serenos_ (watchmen) perambulate the streets on foot and
on horseback, and continually give signals one to another by blowing
small whistles. For personal safety there is little risk, probably not
more than in the most populous cities of Europe. It is true that
nocturnal murders sometimes take place; but the police speedily succeed
in capturing the criminals, who, after a summary trial, are shot.

In Valparaiso, as in most of the towns on the western coast of South
America, the _serenos_ go about all night, calling the hours and
announcing the state of the weather. At ten o'clock they commence with
their--"_Viva Chile!_"--"_Ave Maria purissima!_"--"_Las diez han dado y
sereno!_" (past ten o'clock and a fine night!) or _nublado_
(cloudy),--or _lloviendo_ (raining). Thus, they continue calling every
half-hour till four o'clock in the morning. Should an earthquake take
place it is announced by the _sereno_ when he goes his round in the
following half hour. However, the phenomenon usually announces itself in
so positive a way, that the inhabitants may easily dispense with the
information of the _serenos_.

Among the most remarkable objects in Valparaiso may be numbered the
moveable prison. It consists of a number of large covered wagons, not
unlike those used for the conveyance of wild beasts. In the inside of
each wagon, planks are fixed up like the board bedsteads in a
guard-house, affording resting-places for eight or ten prisoners. A
guard is stationed at the door, which is at the back of the wagon; and
in the front a sort of kitchen is constructed. These wagons are drawn by
the prisoners themselves, who are for the most part destined to work in
the streets and roads, and, accordingly, they take their prison with
them when they are ordered to any considerable distance from the town.
To a country in which there may be said to be no winter, this sort of
nomad prison is exceedingly well-suited, and the prisoners may be
conveyed from place to place at very little expense.

I went into some of these moveable prisons, and I must confess that I
never beheld such an assemblage of ill-looking faces as were collected
within them. In the countenances of some of the prisoners unbridled
passion and degrading sensuality were so plainly and so odiously
portrayed, that one shuddered to reflect that such features could be
an index of the human mind. Most of them were Creole Indians; but
there were a few Europeans among them. To me it was melancholy to
behold the European, who might be supposed to possess some little
share of education, mounting the prison steps chained to his
fellow-criminal, the uncivilized Chileno.

In Valparaiso, as in all seaports, there is a heterogeneous mixture of
different countries, nations, languages, and manners, amidst which the
national character of the country is entirely lost. The trade in
European goods is very extensive, but almost exclusively in the hands
of a few great North American and English houses, who supply the whole
country with the articles they import. At times, such is the overstock
of importations, that goods are sold at lower prices in Valparaiso
than in Europe. The warehouses are so filled with some sorts of
merchandise, that without any fresh supplies there would be sufficient
for some years to come.

Among the clerks in the mercantile houses I met with a great number of
Germans, who all maintain an intimate association with each other. They
have formed themselves into a union, and they have a very commodious
place in which they hold their meetings. Following their example, the
English have united together and established several clubs. The French
have not gained any considerable footing in this part of South America,
in which there are scarcely two French mercantile houses of any
consequence. On the other hand, there is abundance of French
hairdressers, tailors, shoemakers, jewellers, confectioners, and
_Chevaliers d'industrie_. Neither is there any want of _Modistes
Parisiennes et Bordelaises_.

Valparaiso is yearly increasing in extent and in the numbers of its
inhabitants; but the town makes little improvement in beauty. That
quarter which is built along the Quebradas is certainly susceptible of
no improvement, owing to the unfavorable locality, and it is only the
newly-built houses on the heights that impart to the town anything like
a pleasing aspect. In laying out buildings in a place like Valparaiso,
the aid of art should make amends for the defects of nature. My visits
to Valparaiso did not produce a very favorable impression on me. The
exclusively mercantile occupations of the inhabitants, together with the
poverty of the adjacent country, leave little to interest the attention
of a mere transient visitor. The case may be different with persons
who, having longer time than I had to stay in the town, may enjoy
opportunities of entering into society, and occasionally visiting the
pleasant valley of Quillota and the interesting capital Santiago.

The latter is thirty leagues distant from the port; but a very active
communication is kept up between the two places, and better roads would,
no doubt, increase the intercourse. A few years ago the roads were very
unsafe; but now the journey may be performed without danger if the
_Birlocheros_ (coach-drivers) are in the least degree careful.

The zoology of the neighborhood of Valparaiso is not very interesting,
though more so along the sea-shore than in parts further inland. Among
the Mammalia are sometimes seen the fox (_Canis Azaræ_, Wild.), and
the pole-cat. In the immediate vicinity of the town a very large mouse
is seen in the burrows of the ground; it is of the eight-toothed
species (_Octodon Cummingii_, Benn.), and has a brush-formed tail. As
the fields round Valparaiso are not cultivated these animals do no
harm, otherwise they would be the plague of agriculture, and probably
are so in the interior parts of the country. Now and then a sea-dog
may be observed in the bay; but the whale is seldom seen, and whenever
one appears he is immediately killed, as there is always a whaler at
anchor and not far off.

In the market, live condors are frequently sold. These birds are caught
in traps. A very fine one may be purchased for a dollar and a half. I
saw eight of these gigantic birds secured in a yard in a very singular
manner. A long narrow strap of leather was passed through the nostrils
of the bird and firmly knotted at one end, whilst the other end was
fastened to a wooden or iron peg fixed in the ground. By this means the
motion of the bird was not impeded: it could walk within the range of a
tolerably wide circle; but on attempting to fly it fell to the ground
head foremost. It is no trifling matter to provide food for eight
condors; for they are among the most ravenous of birds of prey. The
owner of those I saw assured me that, by way of experiment, he had
given a condor, in the course of one day, eighteen pounds of meat
(consisting of the entrails of oxen); that the bird devoured the
whole, and ate his allowance on the following day with as good an
appetite as usual. I measured a very large male condor, and the width
from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other was fourteen English
feet and two inches--an enormous expanse of wing, not equalled by any
other bird except the white albatross. (_Diomedea exulans_, Linn.).
The snipes (_Scolopax frenata_, Ill.) found on the little plain
between the bay and the light-house are in color precisely like those
of Europe, from which, however, they differ in having two more
feathers in their tails. Small green parrots, little bigger than
finches, are tamed and brought to Valparaiso from the interior of the
country. These parrots are very docile, and are easily taught to
speak; but they cannot endure cold, and require to be tended with very
great care. In the bay itself there are numerous cormorants, and
occasionally penguins and large flights of the cut-water or shear-bill
(_Rhynchops nigra_, Linn.). The latter is distinguished by a
sharp-pointed bill closing laterally, the under mandible being about
double the length of the upper one. But the most beautiful bird in the
bay of Valparaiso is the majestic swan (_Cygnus nigricollis_, Mol.),
whose body is of dazzling white, whilst the head and neck are black.

On the 13th of August we at length obtained leave to sail. Early on
the morning of the 14th we weighed anchor; and, as we sailed out of
the Bay of Valparaiso, the summit of Aconcagua soon disappeared in
the blue horizon.

CHAPTER III.

With a favorable east wind we reached, in thirty-six hours, the island
of Juan Fernandez, which lies in the latitude of Valparaiso. Ships from
Europe, bound to Peru, which do not go into Chile, usually touch at Juan
Fernandez to test their chronometers. It consists in fact of three
islands, forming a small compact group. Two of them, in accordance with
the Spanish names, may be called the Inward Island and the Outward
Island, for the most easterly is called _Mas a Tierra_ (more to the main
land), that to the west is called _Mas a Fuera_ (more towards the
offing). That to the south, which is almost a naked rock, is the _Isla
de Lobos_, which we may call Sea-dog Island. The two first are covered
with grass and trees. _Mas a Tierra_ is much longer, and better suited
for cultivation than _Mas a Fuera_. In form the two islands have a
striking resemblance to Flores and Cordua, islands of the group of the
Azores. Until within these twenty years, _Mas a Tierra_ was the place of
exportation for convicts from Chile; but as it was found that the
facility of escape is great, none are now sent there. In 1812 a number
of prisoners of war were confined there, but the rats, which had
increased in an extraordinary degree, consumed all the provisions sent
from Chile. Several fruitless attempts have been made to populate the
island, but that object is now given up, and it is only occasionally
visited by sea-dog hunters. Ulloa speaks of the great number of
sea-calves or dogs with which the island was frequented, and
distinguishes kinds which belong to the short-eared species. Their skins
are excellent, and they sell at a good price in England. Wild goats are
numerous, and their propagation would be excessive were it not for the
multitude of dogs, also wild, by which they are destroyed.

There is yet another kind of interest attached to Juan Fernandez. It was
on Mas a Tierra that, in 1704, the celebrated English navigator,
Dampier, landed his coxswain, Alexander Selkirk, with whom he had
quarrelled, and left him there with a small quantity of provisions, and
a few tools. Selkirk had lived four years and four months on this
uninhabited island, when he was found there by the bucaneers Woods and
Rogers, and brought back to Europe. From the notes which he made during
his solitary residence, the celebrated Daniel Defoe composed his
incomparable work, ROBINSON CRUSOE.

The weather continued favorable, and in about a week we doubled the west
point of San Lorenzo Island, where some Chilian cruizers were watching
the coast. We soon entered the fine bay of Callao, and cast anchor in
the harbor of the _Ciudad de los Reyes_. While rounding the island, an
American corvette spoke us. She had left Valparaiso on the same day with
us, and sailed also through the strait between San Lorenzo and the main
land; yet, during the whole passage, we never saw each other.

No signals were exchanged between us and the shore, and no port-captain
came on board. We were exceedingly anxious to know the issue of the
Chilian expedition. Hostile ships of war lay off the port, but the
Peruvian flag waved on the fort. At last a French naval cadet came on
board, and informed us that the Chilians had landed successfully, and
had taken Lima by storm two days previously. They were, at that moment,
besieging the fortress. We immediately went on shore.

The town presented a melancholy aspect. The houses and streets were
deserted. In all Callao we scarcely met a dozen persons, and the most
of those we saw were negroes. Some of the inhabitants came gradually
back, but in the course of a month scarcely a hundred had returned,
and for safety they slept during the night on board merchant ships in
the bay. At the village of Bella Vista, a quarter of a mile from
Callao, the Chilians had erected their batteries for bombarding the
fortress. As it was difficult to obtain provisions, the commanders of
the foreign ships of war sent every morning a small detachment of
sailors with a steward to Bella Vista, to purchase meat and
vegetables. The merchant-ships joined in the practice, so that early
every morning a long procession of boats with flags flying proceeded
to the Chilian camp. But a stop was soon put to this, as an English
butcher in Callao found means to go with the boats for the purpose of
purchasing large quantities of meat, which he afterwards sold at an
immense profit, to the fortress. Though the besieged did not suffer
from want, they were far from having superfluity.

Having sufficient time to make myself acquainted with the country in the
immediate vicinity of Callao, I took advantage of every opportunity for
excursions; going from place to place by water, which was more safe than
journeying by land.

The bay of Callao is one of the largest and calmest on the west coast of
South America. On the south-west, it is bounded by the sterile island of
San Lorenzo; on the north it flows into the creeks, which are terminated
by the Punta Gorda, the Punta Pernal, the Punta de dos Playas, and the
Punta de Doña Pancha. The beach is flat, for the most part shingly, and
about the mouth of the Rimac, somewhat marshy. Between the mouth of the
Rimac and that of the Rio de Chillon, which is a little southward of the
Punta Gorda, there is a tract of rich marshy soil. A small boot-shaped
tongue of land stretches from the fortress westward to San Lorenzo. On
this spot are the ruins of old Callao.

San Lorenzo is a small, long-shaped island, about 15 English miles in
circumference. It is intersected throughout its whole length by a ridge
of sharp crested hills, of which the highest point is about 1387 feet
above the level of the sea. On the north-eastern side, the declivity is
less steep than on the south-west, where it descends almost
perpendicularly into the sea. Seals and sea-otters inhabit the steep
rocks of the southern declivity, and swarms of sea-birds nestle on the
desolate shore. San Lorenzo is separated on the southern side by a
narrow strait, from a small rocky island called El Fronton, which is
also the abode of numerous seals.

The coasts of Callao and San Lorenzo have undergone very remarkable
changes within a few centuries. Mr. Darwin, the English geologist, is
of opinion that this part of Peru has risen eighty-five feet since it
has had human inhabitants. On the north-eastern declivity of San
Lorenzo, which is divided into three indistinctly marked terraces, there
are numbers of shells of those same species of conchyliæ which are at
the present time found living on the coast. On an accurate examination
of these shells, Mr. Darwin found many of them deeply corroded. "They
have," he says, "a much older and more decayed appearance than those at
the height of 500 or 600 feet on the coast of Chile. These shells are
associated with much common salt, a little sulphate of lime (both
probably left by the evaporation of the spray, as the land slowly rose),
together with sulphate of soda, and muriate of lime. The rest are
fragments of the underlying sand-stone, and are covered by a few inches
thick of detritus. The shells higher up on this terrace could be traced
scaling off in flakes, and falling into an impalpable powder; and on an
upper terrace, at the height of 170 feet, and likewise at some
considerably higher points, I found a layer of saline powder, of exactly
similar appearance, and lying in the same relative position. I have no
doubt that the upper layer originally existed on a bed of shells, like
that on the eighty-five feet ledge, but it does not now contain even a
trace of organic structure."[2] Mr. Darwin adds, that on the terrace,
which is eighty-five feet above the sea, he found embedded amidst the
shells and much sea-drifted rubbish, some bits of cotton thread, plaited
rush, and the head of a stalk of Indian corn.

San Lorenzo does not appear to have been inhabited in very early ages.
The fragments of human industry which have been found mixed in the
shells have probably been brought thither by fishermen who visit the
island, and often pass the night on it.

Darwin further remarks:--"It has been stated that the land subsided
during this memorable shock (in 1746): I could not discover any proof
of this; yet it seems far from improbable, for the form of the coast
must certainly have undergone some change since the foundation of the
old town," &c.--"On the island of San Lorenzo there are very
satisfactory proofs of elevation within a recent period; this, of
course, is not opposed to the belief of a small sinking of the ground
having subsequently taken place."

But satisfactory evidence of the sinking of the coast is not to be
obtained in a visit of a few weeks' duration; nor must that evidence
rest solely on geological facts, though doubtless they furnish much
important data. History must aid the inquiry. Tradition and the
recollections of old persons must be attended to. According to these
authorities, a change more or less considerable has taken place in the
level of the coast, after every great earthquake. If we refer to the
account given by Ulloa, and compare the plan of the harbor of Callao,
drawn by him in 1742, with the most correct modern charts, we do not
find much difference in the representations of the distance between
the main-land and San Lorenzo. Four years afterwards the great
earthquake occurred, which destroyed the city of Callao, and plunged
it into the sea. Subsequently there was a rising of the coast, which
could not be inconsiderable, for according to the statements of old
inhabitants of Callao, the distance from the coast to San Lorenzo was
so inconsiderable that boys used to throw stones over to the island.
At present the distance is nearly two English miles. I have no doubt
of the general correctness of those statements, for a careful
investigation of facts leads to the same conclusion; so that within
the last sixty or seventy years the sinking must have been
considerable. It must be observed, however, that the ruins on the
small tongue of land are not, as Darwin supposes, the remains of the
city of Callao, swallowed up by the sea in 1746, but of the Callao
which was destroyed by the great earthquake of 1630.

Another proof of the sinking exists in the extensive shallow between
the coast of the main-land and San Lorenzo, called the Camotal. In
early times this shallow was dry land, producing vegetables, in
particular _Camotes_ (sweet potatoes), whence the name of this portion
of the strait is derived. The inundation took place in the time of the
Spaniards, but before 1746, either in the great earthquake of 1687, or
in that of 1630.

Northward of the Bay of Callao, near the plantation of Boca Negra, there
is a shallow, where, according to records, there existed a sugar
plantation about fifty years ago. Turning to the south of Callao, in the
direction of Lurin, we find, at the distance of about two English miles
from the coast, two islands or rocks, of which one is called Pachacamac,
and the other Santa Domingo. At the time of the Spanish invasion these
rocks were connected with the main-land, and formed a promontory. On one
of them stood a temple or castle. At what period they were detached from
the coast I have not been able to ascertain authentically; but there
appears reason to suppose that the separation took place during the
violent earthquake of 1586. Attentive investigations to the north of
Callao--at Chancay, Huacho, Baranca, &c., would probably bring to light
further evidence on this subject.

Between the facts stated by Mr. Darwin and those here adduced, there
is considerable discrepancy. On the one hand they denote a rising, and
on the other a sinking. But it may be asked, might not both these
phenomena have occurred at different times?[3] Mr. Darwin's opinion
respecting the still-continued rising of the coast does not appear to
me to rest on satisfactory evidence. The relics of human industry
which he found embedded among shells, at the height of eighty-five
feet above the sea, only prove that the elevation has taken place
after the land was inhabited by the human race, but do not mark the
period at which that elevation occurred. Pieces of cotton thread and
plaited rush are no proofs of a very refined degree of civilisation,
such as the Spaniards brought with them to Peru, and cannot therefore
be taken as evidence that the elevation took place at any period
subsequent to the conquest. Garcilaso de la Vega traces the dynasty of
the Incas down to the year 1021, a period when the inhabitants of the
coast of Peru were tolerably well advanced in civilisation. Fernando
Montesinos furnishes facts connected with the history of Peru, of
several thousand years' earlier date; and, judging from the number of
dynasties, the nature of the laws, &c., it may be inferred that
civilisation existed at a period of even more remote antiquity. It
cannot therefore be determined with any accuracy at what time the
deposit at San Lorenzo, now eighty-five feet high, was level with the
sea, or whether the rise suddenly followed one of those frightful
catastrophes which have so often visited the western coast of South
America. Then, again, the different degrees of decay presented by the
beds of shells seem to indicate that the rising has been gradual; and
it may have been going on for thousands of years. Had the coast risen
eighty-five feet since the Spanish conquest--that is to say, within
the space of three hundred and sixty-two years--the Camotal would long
since have again risen above the surface of the sea; for it is very
improbable that it sank to a depth exceeding ninety or ninety-five
feet. It is evident that risings and sinkings have occurred at various
times, and that causes contingent on earthquakes have produced the
variations in the rising and falling of the coast.

It is probable that the accurate sounding of the depth of water in the
Camotal, at stated intervals, would furnish the best means of
ascertaining the rising and sinking of the coast. A variety of
circumstances combine to favor the practicability of calculation by this
method. For example, no river flows into that part of the bay in which
the Camotal is situated. The Rimac, whose mouth lies further to the
north, is not sufficiently large to carry any considerable deposit into
the bed of the bay: moreover, there is but little tide, and the bay is
always calm, being sheltered on the south by the island of San Lorenzo,
and north breezes are rare and never violent.

I may here mention a singular phenomenon which has in latter times often
occurred at Callao, and which, in 1841, I had myself the opportunity of
observing. About two in the morning the sea flowed from the shore with
greater force than in the strongest ebb; the ships farthest out were
left dry, which is never the case in an ebb tide. The alarm of the
inhabitants was great when the sea rushed instantly back with increased
force. Nothing could withstand its fury. Meanwhile there was no
commotion of the earth, nor any marked change of temperature.

In the earthquake of 1746 Callao was completely overwhelmed by the
sea. Several travellers have related that on calm days with a clear
sky the old town may be seen beneath the waves. I have also heard the
same story from inhabitants of Callao. It is doubtless a mere fable.
Under the most favorable circumstances I have often examined the
spot--the Mar brava, as it is called--without being able to discover a
trace of the ruins of old Callao.

The existing town of Callao is small, and by no means pleasant. In
winter it is damp and dirty, and in summer so dusty that in passing
through the streets one is almost choked. Most of the houses are very
slightly built, and they are usually only one story high. The walls are
constructed of reeds, plastered over with loam or red clay. All the
roofs are flat, being made of straw mats laid on a frame-work of reeds,
which is also plastered with loam on the under side. The windows are in
the roof, and consist of wooden trap-doors, which look very much like
bird-cages. They have no glass panes, but gratings made of wooden spars.
On the inside there is a window-shutter, and a string hangs down into
the apartment, by means of which the shutter can be opened or closed.

The most interesting object seen in Callao is the splendid fortress.
Though built on a flat surface close to the sea, it has a magnificent
appearance. It consists of two castles, the largest of which the
Spaniards named Real Filippe, but since the Revolution it is called
Castillo de la Independencia. It has two round towers, wide, but not
very high. The court-yards are spacious. The walls are thick, rather
low, and surrounded by a ditch, which can be filled with water from the
sea. To the south of this castle there is a smaller one, called El
Castillo del Sol. Before the War of Independence they mounted both
together four hundred pieces of cannon, many of which were of very large
calibre. At present they have only sixty pieces of cannon and
seventy-one carronades.

On the fortress of Callao the Spanish flag waved long after independence
was declared in all the countries of Spanish South America. The Spanish
general, Rodil, threw himself into the castle, and with wonderful
resolution held out against a siege of a year and a half. During the
last three months the Spaniards suffered all the privations and
miseries which a besieged army must endure within the tropics.

Lord Cochrane blockaded the fortress by sea, and General Bartolome Salom
drew up his army on the land side. More than 4,000 Spaniards fled to the
castle with all their valuable property, and took refuge under Rodil's
protection. The greater part of the fugitives belonged to the principal
families of the country. When provisions began to fail, the commandant
found it necessary to expel 400 women, and one morning they issued forth
in a long line of procession. The besiegers supposed that the enemy was
making a sortie, and directed the fire of their artillery against the
helpless beings, who, uttering loud shrieks, attempted to save
themselves by flight. As soon as the mistake was discovered the firing
stopped, and the women were conveyed to Lima. Insurrections were several
times attempted by the garrison of Callao; but the presence of mind and
cool resolution of Rodil in every instance enabled him to suppress these
mutinies. The guilty were punished with so much severity that the
soldiers soon gave up all further attempts. Horses, asses, dogs and
cats, became at length the food of the besieged. Rodil at this time
carried on a traffic which does no honor to his character. He had a
quantity of provisions stored, which he now sold at immense prices. For
a fowl he got from three to four gold ounces. He demanded proportional
prices for bread, &c. A contagious fever broke out, and, of more than
4000 persons who had taken refuge in the fortress, only about 200
survived the siege. Hunger and disease at last obliged Rodil to yield.
On the 19th of February, 1826, he obtained an honorable capitulation,
and embarked with his acquired wealth for Spain, where he was invested
with the rank of commander-in-chief of the infantry guards.

Since the independence of Peru this fortress has often been the seat of
partial revolutions. Its death-doom has been pronounced by different
governments, and it will be a fortunate event for the country when it
ceases to exist as a place of warlike defence. It has lately been found
useful for other purposes, and a great portion of its vast space has
been converted into custom-house warehouses.

The siege of Callao by the Chilians, of which we were eye-witnesses, was
by no means such a serious affair as that undertaken by the patriots.
The squadron was weak, and the land army inconsiderable. Callao was only
cannonaded during the night by some Chilian gun-boats commanded by
Englishmen. The artillery of the castle was inefficient, but the Chilian
bombs did considerable damage. One Sunday afternoon the little Chilian
brig, "Colocolo," sailed in close under the walls of the fortress, and
threw in some shot. The fire was immediately returned by all the guns
that could be directed to the sea-side; but in vain did the Peruvians
expend their shot. Every ball went over the "Colocolo," and fell among
the neutral ships. The commander of the French squadron then sent a boat
to the fortress, with a declaration that he would attack it in good
earnest if the fire was not discontinued. The message had due effect.

A few days after the affair with the "Colocolo," the Peruvians had an
opportunity of avenging the provocations they had received. The Chilian
admiral sent an officer, with seven sailors, to our ship to purchase
shoes. The garrison having observed the Chilian boat, sent out a shallop
with twenty-five men, which came close alongside of us. In spite of our
opposition the Chilian officer leaped into his boat and stood off. He
was, however, too late; for, just as he was leaving the ship's side, the
hostile shallop passed under our bowsprit, and fired a volley into the
Chilian boat. Five sailors fell into the sea, either killed or wounded.
Of three men picked up, one was the officer, who had received two wounds
from musket balls. We saved one of the wounded sailors by throwing him a
rope, by which we pulled him up, covering him with the French flag.

The Peruvians had no longer a fleet strong enough to keep at sea; but
soon after their government purchased the "Edmond," and some other
merchantmen, and fitted them up as privateers. The command was given to
M. Blanchet, who had been first pilot of the "Edmond" during our voyage
from Europe. After he had taken the "Arequipena," an old Chilian ship of
war, and burnt several transports, he attacked three Chilian corvettes
in the harbor of Casma. They had already struck their flags, when
Blanchet was shot while boarding one of them. His loss damped the
courage of the Corsairs, and the contest was soon given up. The shock of
Blanchet's death had such an effect on the crew of the "Edmond," that
they all went down between decks in great grief, except the cook, who
fired a gun he had charged to the brim, and killed some men who were on
a bowsprit of one of the hostile vessels. He then sprang to the helm,
and steered the ship safely into one of the inlets of the bay.

The lover of natural history finds in the bay of Callao numerous
opportunities for gratifying his curiosity. The mammalia are not very
numerous. Sea otters and sea dogs are found there, as on all parts of
the South American coast. Two species (the _Otaria aurita_, Humb., and
the _O. Ulloæ_, Tsch.) inhabit the southern declivity of the Fronton.
I went to hunt seals on the rock with the officers of a French ship of
war. When we landed, which was difficult on account of the breakers,
we fired at the animals and killed a number of them. A sailor waded
through the breakers and bound the dead seals with a rope, by which he
drew them on board. As we shot a great number of birds, the Chilian
admiral, on hearing the firing, thought that one of his ships must be
engaged with the Peruvian Corsairs; and, therefore, sent out the "San
Lorenzo" brig of war to see what was going on.

The bay abounds in fine water-fowl. Amongst the most remarkable is
Humboldt's penguin (_Spheniscus Humboldti_, Mey.). A few are smaller
than the common grey penguin, and one is somewhat different in color on
the back and breast. The Peruvians call it _Paxaro niño_ (the child
bird). It is easily tamed, becomes very social, and follows its master
like a dog. It is amusing to see it waddling along with its plump body
and short legs, and keeping itself in equilibrium by moving its floating
wings. I had one completely tame, which I bought from an Indian. It was
named _Pepe_, and it answered readily to the name. When I was at my
meals he regularly placed himself beside my chair, and at night he slept
under my bed. When he wished to bathe he went into the kitchen and beat
with his bill on an earthen pan until somebody threw water over him, or
brought him a vessel full of water for a bath.

I brought away a few of the marine birds which appeared the most
remarkable. Among them was the banded cormorant (_Carbo Gaimardi_,
Less.). On the back it is grey, marbled by white spots; the belly is
fine ash-grey, and on each side of the throat there runs a broad white
stripe or band. The bill is yellow and the feet are red. The iris is
peculiar; I never saw its like in any other bird. It changes throughout
the whole circle in regular square spots, white and sea-green. Thousands
of the spotted gannet (_Sula variegata_, Tsch.) inhabit the rocks of the
island of San Lorenzo. This bird is the greatest producer of guano. The
inca tern (_Sterna luca_, Less.) is without doubt the finest of the
whole tern family. The color of the head is brown-grey; getting darker
towards the tail, and brighter on the lower body. From the root of the
bill on either side there shoot out some white feathers slightly
curving, so that they give the appearance of white moustachios. Among
the land birds are some very fine colibri (_Trochilus Amazilia_, and
_Tr. Cora_, Less.). The horse-protector (_Crotophaga sulcata_, Swains.)
is a singular animal. It is about the size of a starling, with a short,
compressed and curved bill, having several deep furrows along its sides.
The tail is long and fan-shaped. The whole body is of a deep blue color,
with a slight metallic brightness. The bird is very social with cattle
of all kinds, and more particularly with horses. It is fond of perching
on the back of a horse or an ass, and searching for insects which it
finds there in abundance. These animals are very sensible of the service
thus rendered to them, and by the manner in which they move about when
the bird is perched on their heads or necks, show how much they are
gratified by its presence.

Foreigners, when they visit the coast of Peru for the first time, are
much surprised at the immense number of birds of the vulture species
which they meet with about the roads and on the roofs of the houses. In
Callao and in all other ports the Turkey vulture (_Cathartes aura_,
Illig.) is frequently seen. It is called by the Spaniards _Gallinazo á
cabéza colorada_ (red-headed vulture). Further in the interior of the
country it is frequently seen, though there it is less common than the
black gallinazo (_Cathartes foetens_, Illig.). The color of the former
is dark brownish-black; the unplumed head and throat are red; the
throat is full of wrinkles and warts. The latter is very like it in size
and color, only the head and neck are greyish black. These birds are the
size of a turkey-cock; but they are lanker and more angular in form. The
black-headed gallinazo is inactive, heavy, and seldom flies far. When
seeking food he hops about on the ground in short, regular springs. When
he wishes to move faster forwards he helps himself with his wings, but
without flying. Its cry is seldom heard and never long continued. At
noon, sometimes from sixty to eighty of these birds perch themselves on
the tops of the houses or on the adjoining walls, and with the heads
under the wing they all go to roost. They are extremely voracious, and
devour every sort of animal substance they can find, however filthy it
may be. They are not in the least degree shy, for they hop about among
men and cattle in the most populous places. The Turkey vulture is far
more lively, and its movements are more light. It flies faster, and
continues longer on the wing than the black-headed gallinazo. It is,
however, more timid. It nestles in sandy rocks and uninhabited islands.
The female lays three or four whitish eggs, which are hatched in
February and March. The common gallinazo usually builds its nest on the
tops of houses, churches, ruins, and high walls. The female lays three
or four eggs, which are whitish brown and speckled, and are hatched in
the same months as the eggs of the Turkey vulture.

Among the amphibia in Callao, the iguana and land agama are numerous.
Snakes abound in the low bushes at the mouth of the Rimac, and some
kinds, which are venomous, live on the arid sand-banks. All the sea
tortoises have been driven out of the bay, and now inhabit the detached
creeks of the uninhabited parts of the coast.

The kinds of fish are numerous.--Sharks, rays, ballancers, corvinas,
bonitos, &c., are caught in abundance. Most of the corvinas and bonitos
are carried to market. The flesh of the latter is firm, dry, and less
savory than the corvina. The _Pexe-rey_ (king-fish) is superior in
flavor to the _Pexe-sapo_ (toad-fish), which is a little larger, and has
a thick, fleshy head. These fish are taken on rocks and under water,
where they are struck by a kind of harpoon hooks and drawn out.

When, on board the "Edmond," I first saw the towers of Lima gilded by
the beams of the setting sun, and the chains of hills behind, rising by
gradations, until in the farthest background they blended with the
cloud-capped Cordilleras, I felt an inexpressible desire to advance
towards those regions, that I might breathe the air of the Andes, and
there behold nature under her wildest aspect. But these wishes were
vain, and I was compelled to turn again to the desolate ocean; for it
was understood that our further voyage must be towards the north, and
from there that we should proceed to the coast of Asia. I did not then
foresee that my longing might be fulfilled, and that so much of
enjoyment, together with so much toil and danger, awaited me in the
mountainous regions of Peru.

Notwithstanding the insecurity of the road to Lima I resolved to proceed
thither. Carriages and horses were not to be procured in Callao, for the
latter were all either seized for the service of the government or
concealed. I could therefore travel only on foot. Don Manuel de la
Guarda, the commander of the fortress, observed, whilst giving me a
passport, that he would advise me to use speed, and to get as soon as
possible out of the range of the guns, for he expected every moment to
be obliged to order the firing to commence. I did not neglect to follow
his advice. However I had not got more than a hundred paces from the
castle when the artillery began to play, and balls fell around on every
side. I quickened my pace, and soon got near some fences, where men were
firing with muskets. There I was seized by some Chilian cuirassiers, who
sent me forward from post to post, until at last in one of the posts I
met with an officer with whom I had been acquainted in Chile. When I was
dining one day on board the corvette Confederacion in the bay of
Valparaiso, the young officer whom I have just alluded to sat next me.
The conversation happening to turn on phrenology, he insisted on my
examining his head, and pronouncing a phrenological diagnosis on it.
Though I assured him that I attached no value on this alleged science,
he continued to urge me to make the examination. After feeling his head
I observed to him, with great gravity: "Here is the organ of
mathematics pretty well developed, and it is probable that you may
distinguish yourself in that branch of knowledge." The fact was, I had
observed from his uniform that he belonged to the artillery, and since I
was obliged to say something, I thought it would be best to make my
remarks refer to his profession. Don Antonio had not forgotten it, for
as soon as he saw me at the outpost, he ran up to me quite overjoyed,
and told me that I had judged rightly of his talent, for the guns which
he commanded always sent their balls direct into the fortress, and did
more execution than any other. By following my advice and cultivating
his mathematical organ, he assured me, he was enabled to direct a gun
better than any other officer, and his aim could always be relied on. He
immediately procured me a pass, by which I was conducted all the
remainder of my journey.

The distance from Callao to Lima is two Spanish leagues. The road is
covered with deep sand, and on either side are uncultivated fields and
low brushwood. After leaving Callao I came to Bella Vista, then to the
ruins of an old Indian village, and farther on inland reached some
plantations. Halfway between Callao and Lima is the convent of _la
Virgen del Carmen_, and also a chapel. The convent is now abandoned,
but in front of the chapel there constantly stands a monk, who begs
for alms. Close to the convent there is a Tambo,[4] in which brandy,
lemonade, and bananas are sold. This place, which is called La Legna,
is a Spanish league from both towns. The hired horses are so used
to put up at this place, that it is only with great trouble they
can be got to pass it.

Though much wearied by my journey on foot, I tried in vain to obtain
some refreshment here. Unluckily the Tambero, a Zambo, had decamped,
as his house had often been plundered.

In the most oppressive heat I wandered over the shadeless plain, and
at last reached the fine road called the _Alameda del Callao_, which
extends from the Callao Gate of Lima to nearly half a league beyond
the city. Don Ambrosio O'Higgins, an Irishman by birth, first a small
shopkeeper in Lima, then a soldier in Chile, and finally viceroy of
Peru, with the title of _Marques de Osorno_, built the fine Callao
Gate and laid out the Alameda. On the 6th of January, 1800, it was
solemnly opened. The whole undertaking cost 340,964 dollars.
Resting-places are made in the Alameda at regular distances; and there
are on each side charming gardens, with luxuriant fruit-trees. Happy
in having reached the end of my wearisome journey, I quickly passed
through the Callao Gate, and entered the City of the Kings.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 2: Natural History and Geology of the countries visited by the
Beagle.]

[Footnote 3: Mr. Darwin, in the work just quoted, says in reference to
this subject, "Since our voyage, Dr. Tschudi has come to the conclusion,
by the comparison of old and modern maps, that the earth both north and
south of Lima has certainly subsided."--T.]

[Footnote 4: _Tambo_ is an Indian word, signifying an _Inn_. _Tambero_
means _Inn-keeper_.]

CHAPTER IV.

Lima--Situation and extent of the City--Streets, Houses, Churches and
Convents--San Pedro--The Jesuits--Nunneries--Beatarios--Hospitals--San
Andres--The Foundling House--The Pantheon--The Palace--The Plaza
Mayor--Pizarro--The Cabildo--Fountains--Palace of the Inquisition--The
University--National Library--Museum of Natural History and
Antiquities--Academy of Design--The Mint--The Theatre--Circus for
Cock-fighting--The Bridge--The City Wall--Santa Catalina--Barracks.

Lima is built on both banks of the river Rimac, which divides the town
into two unequal parts.[5] The larger part (the town, properly so
called) is situated on the southern bank of the river; the smaller part,
consisting of the suburb San Lazaro, or the fifth section, is on the
northern bank. The greatest extent of Lima is from east to west; from
the Gate of Maravillas to the Monserrate. Between those two points the
distance is 4471 varas,[6] or two-thirds of a Legua, or Spanish league;
and the greatest breadth of the city, that is to say, from the Bridge
(the suburb of San Lazaro not included) to the Gate of Guadalupe, is
2515 varas, or two-fifths of a Legua. The utmost circumference of Lima
is about ten English miles. The plain on which the city is built, takes
rather a decided slope from east to west.

The streets of Lima intersect each other in right lines, and
consequently groups of houses form quadrangles: these are called
_manzanas_. Each side of one of these manzanas measures on the average
from 140 to 145 varas; and it may therefore be computed that,
collectively, they occupy a superficies of from 148,000 to 160,000.
There are in all 211 manzanas, of which those situated on the Periphery
are the smallest and most irregularly constructed. Lima is divided into
five sections, which are again subdivided into ten districts and
forty-six _Barrios_. It contains about 3380 houses, 56 churches and
convents (the latter occupying at least one-fourth of the superficies of
the city), 34 squares or open areas in front of the churches, and 419
streets. On the average the streets are about 34 feet wide and 386 feet
long. Most of them are very badly paved, but they have lateral
footpaths. According to the original plan for building Lima, it was
intended that all the streets should run in one direction, viz., from
southeast to northwest, so that the walls of the houses might afford
shade both morning and afternoon. Between the Plaza Mayor and Santa
Clara this plan has been pretty uniformly carried out; but in other
parts it has been less rigidly observed. At noon there can be no shade,
as the city is situated in 12° of south latitude.

The impression produced at first sight of Lima is by no means favorable,
for the Periphery, the quarter which a stranger first enters, contains
none but old, dilapidated, and dirty houses; but on approaching the
vicinity of the principal square, the place improves so greatly that the
miserable appearance it presents at first sight is easily forgotten.

Most of the houses in Lima are only one story high, and some have only
the ground-floor. The larger class of houses correspond one with another
in the style of building. In front they have two doors: one is called
the _Azaguan_, and is the principal entrance to the house; and next to
it is the door of the _Cochera_ (coach-house). Either above the cochera
door, or on one side of the house door, there is frequently a little
chamber, having a window closed by a wooden railing. At this little
railed window the ladies are accustomed to sit and watch the
passers-by--nor are they very much displeased when some of the latter
occasionally make free to _reguardar la reja_ (to look at the railing).
The azaguan opens into a spacious court-yard called the _Patio_, on
either side of which there are little rooms. Directly facing the
azaguan, is the dwelling-house, round which there usually runs a
balcony. Two large folding-doors lead into the Hall (_Sala_), in which
the furniture consists of a sofa, a hammock, and a row of chairs: the
floor is covered with straw matting. From the sala a glazed door opens
into a smaller apartment, called the _Cuadro_, which is elegantly, often
splendidly furnished, and the floor is carpeted. This is the room into
which visitors are shown. Adjoining the cuadro are the sleeping-rooms,
the dining-room, the nursery, &c. These apartments communicate with a
second court-yard, called the _Traspatio_, the walls of which are often
adorned with fresco paintings. This _Traspatio_, a portion of which is
usually laid out as a little garden, communicates with the kitchen and
the stable (_corral_). A small avenue, called the _callejon_, forms a
communication from the first to the second Patio, and is used as a
passage for the horses. When there is no _callejon_, as is often the
case in the poorer class of houses, the horses are led through the sala
and the cuadro. In the upper story the arrangement of the rooms differs
from that of the ground-floor. Above the azaguan is the cuadro, opening
into a balcony, which is attached to most of the houses in Lima. The
sala in the upper story forms an ante-room to the cuadro; and the rest
of the apartments are built above the ranges of ground-floor rooms on
either side of the patio. Above the sala and cuadro of the ground-floor,
there are no upper rooms. The roofs of those two apartments form a kind
of large terrace called the _Azotea_, which is paved with freestone, and
surrounded by a railing. This _azotea_ serves as a play-ground for the
children of the family; it is ornamented with flower-pots, and covered
with an awning to shade it from the sun. The upper story has a flat
roof, composed of bamboos and mats, overspread with mortar or light
tiles. In the houses of Lima, as in those of Callao, the windows of some
of the rooms are made in the roofs. The other windows, of which there
are but few, are on each side of the house door; they are tastefully
ornamented, and often have richly gilt lattices.

The style of house-building here described must of course be taken
merely as a general example; that there are numerous deviations from it
may naturally be supposed. In the large houses the walls are of brick,
faced with ornamental tiles (_adobes_). In the smaller houses, the walls
consist of double rows of bamboos, covered with plaster, and afterwards
painted white or yellow. The fronts of the houses are usually quite
plain, but here and there may be seen a house with a finely ornamented
façade. The house of Torre Tagle, near San Pedro, and some others, are
remarkable for the beauty of their ornaments, which attract the notice
of all strangers visiting Lima.

Owing to the heat of the climate, the doors and windows are almost
always kept open, so that the houses have not the privacy and comfort
of European dwellings.

Of the numerous churches and convents in Lima, some are deserving of
particular mention. The cathedral occupies the whole eastern side of
the Plaza Mayor. The foundation stone of this edifice was laid on the
18th of January, 1534, by Don Francisco Pizarro, who named it the
Church of _Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion_. Ninety years elapsed
before the building was completed, and on the 19th of October, 1625,
it was consecrated by the Archbishop, Don Gonzalo de Ocampo. Such was
the pomp observed at this ceremony, that, though mass commenced at
six in the morning, it was five o'clock in the afternoon before the
host was raised.

The interior of the cathedral is exceedingly beautiful. The grand altar
is ornamented with seven Ionic columns of silver, twelve feet high, and
one and a half thick, and is surmounted by a massive silver gilt crown.
The tabernacle is seven feet and a half high, and composed of
exquisitely wrought gold, set with a profusion of diamonds and emeralds.
On each side of the altar there are massive silver candelabra, each
weighing four and a half arobas (712-1/2 pounds). On high festival days,
the gorgeous splendor of the cathedral of Lima probably exceeds that of
the principal churches in Rome. The robes and ornaments worn by the
priests correspond with the magnificence of the altar; they are
embroidered in gold, and set with precious stones. The cathedral service
is performed by the canons (Canonigos).

Among the Churches of Lima, San Lazaro is distinguished for its tasteful
exterior, and the chaste simplicity of its internal decoration. The
bodies of persons unknown, found dead in the streets, are conveyed to
the door of the church of San Lazaro, and there exposed for the space of
twenty-four hours.

The convent of San Francisco, the largest of the monastic
establishments in Lima, is an immense building, situated in the
vicinity of the Plaza Mayor. In this convent mass is read daily every
half-hour, from five in the morning till noon. A small chapel within
the convent is called the _Capilla de los Milagros_, and a
superstitious tradition records that during the great earthquake of
1630, the image of the Madonna, which surmounts the chapel door,
turned towards the grand altar, and with folded hands invoked the
divine grace in favor of the city. By this intercession it is
believed that Lima was saved from total destruction. The monk who
conducted me over the convent, and who related to me this miracle,
observed with much simplicity that it was singular that the Madonna
did not repeat her gracious intercession in the year 1746.

The carved work which adorns the ceilings in the corridors is admirably
executed, though not very beautiful in design. The cells of the monks
are very simple, but perfectly comfortable for habitation. The spacious
and well-arranged gardens within the area of the convent form a pleasing
contrast to the gloomy appearance of the external walls.

To the Franciscan monks also belongs the convent of _Los Descalzos_,
situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. A broad avenue planted with six
rows of trees leads to Los Descalzos. It is a neat but not large
edifice, and stands at the foot of a sterile hill. The extensive
garden which surrounds it, and which is in a very neglected
condition, contains three palm-trees, the only ones to be seen in the
near vicinity of Lima. The situation of the convent is not healthy,
and in consequence the monks frequently suffer from intermittent
fever. These monks go barefooted, and live entirely on alms. Every
morning two lay brethren ride on asses to the city, where they visit
the market-place, and obtain from the different saleswomen charitable
donations of fish, vegetables, or meat.

Another convent is the _Recoleta de San Diego_. During Lent, and
especially in Passion Week, many men retire to this place to prepare
themselves by mortification and prayer for confession and
participation in the Holy Sacrament.

The convent of Santo Domingo is very rich. It enjoys a yearly revenue of
from seventy to seventy-five thousand dollars, for the most part
accruing from the ground-rents of houses in the city. The steeple of
Santo Domingo is the loftiest in all Lima. It is 188 feet high, and is
visible at the distance of three leagues. It is built of wood, and
inclines so considerably in its upper part, that there is little
probability of its surviving another earthquake like that of 1746. The
interior of the church is splendid. The grand altar almost vies with
that of the cathedral.

San Pedro must, doubtless, at a former period, have been the principal
convent in Lima. It belonged to the Jesuits, and was their _Colegio
maximo_. This establishment possessed enormous revenues, for all the
finest plantations and best houses in Lima were the property of the
order. In 1773, the king of Spain, instigated by the celebrated Bull of
the 21st of June of that year (Dominus ac redemptor noster), dispatched
an order to the viceroys of the provinces of South America, directing
them to arrest the Jesuits all in one night, to ship them off to Spain,
and to confiscate their wealth. Of course the utmost secresy was
observed, and it is a well-authenticated fact, that in Peru, with the
exception of the viceroy, and those of his agents whose assistance was
indispensable, no one knew anything of the affair. But the same ship
which conveyed the king's commands to the viceroy, had on board the
necessary instructions to the vicar-general in Lima, from the superior
of the Jesuits in Madrid, who was fully acquainted with the king's
design. The preparatory arrangements were made under the seal of perfect
secresy, and at ten o'clock at night the viceroy assembled his council,
and communicated to them the royal commands. It was determined that no
one should be permitted to leave the council-chamber until the blow was
struck. At midnight some confidential officers, with the requisite
assistance, were despatched to arrest the Jesuits, an accurate list of
whose names lay on the table before the viceroy. The patrols knocked at
the gate of San Pedro, which was immediately opened. The commanding
officer desired to see the vicar-general, and the porter ushered him
into the great hall of the convent, where all the members of the order
were assembled, evidently expecting his visit. The holy brethren were
prepared for immediate departure, each being provided with a bag or
trunk containing such articles as were requisite on a sea voyage.
Similar preparations had been made in all the other convents belonging
to the Jesuits. The surprise and disappointment of the viceroy on
receiving this information may be easier conceived than described.
Without delay he ordered the whole brotherhood to be conducted under a
strong escort to Callao, where they embarked. In the course of a few
days inventories were made of the effects in the convents. At San Pedro
it was expected that vast treasures in specie would be found; but how
great was the dismay, when, instead of the millions which it was well
known the order possessed, only a few thousand dollars could be
collected. All the keys, even that of the treasury, were politely laid
out in the chamber of the superior. This was a cruel mockery! The
Jesuits could not have taken a more ample revenge on the treachery that
had been practised on them.

It was suspected that the treasures were concealed partly in the convent
of San Pedro, and partly in the plantations. According to the evidence
of an old negro, at that time in the service of the convent, he,
together with some of his comrades, was employed during several nights
in carrying heavy bags of money into the vaults of the convent. Their
eyes were bandaged, and they were conducted by two of the brethren, who
helped them to raise and set down the bags. The negro, moreover,
declared his conviction that there was a subterraneous spring near the
spot where the treasure was deposited. The searches hitherto made have
been very superficial, and it seems not impossible that by dint of more
active exertions this concealed wealth may yet be brought to light.

At present San Pedro is occupied by about a dozen lay priests. They
perform the spiritual service of the _Oratorio de San Felipe Neri_. They
live on the revenues derived from the rents of the few plantations which
have not been confiscated or sold. The chapel is prettily fitted up in
the interior, and the midnight mass at Christmas is performed there with
great solemnity. The external walls of both the chapel and the convent
are painted a reddish-brown color, which has a very sombre and ugly
effect.

The convents of _Nuestra Señora de la Marced_ and _San Agustin_ are
situated at the back of San Pedro. The former is spacious, but not
largely endowed; the latter is a poor-looking edifice, but it possesses
rich revenues. To San Agustin is attached the once eminent but now very
inferior college of San Ildefonso.

Besides the monastic establishments above named, Lima contains
several smaller convents for friars, and sixteen nunneries. Of the
latter the largest is the Monasterio de la Concepcion. It is very
rich, and has an annual revenue of upwards of 100,000 dollars; in
other respects it is remarkable for nothing except the not very pious
habits of its inmates. _Santa Clara_ and the _Encarnacion_ are also
large establishments, and well endowed. The nuns who observe the most
rigorous conventual rules are the _Capuchinas de Jesus Maria_, the
_Nazarenas_ and the _Trinitarias descalzas_. For extremely pious
women, who wish to lead a cloistered life without taking the veil,
there are three establishments called _Beaterios_, which may be
entered and quitted at pleasure:[7] these are the _Beaterio de
Patrocinio_, the _Beaterio de Santa Rosa de Viterbo_, and the
_Beaterio de Copacabana_. This last was originally established
exclusively for Indian females. The _Refugio de San Jose_ is a place
for the reception of married women who wish to withdraw from the ill
treatment of bad husbands. On the other hand husbands who are of
opinion that their wives may be improved by a little temporary
seclusion and quiet meditation, can, with the permission of the
archbishop, send them for a while to the _Refugio_. The _Recojidas_
is another institution of the same kind, but destined for females of
the poorer class.

Lima possesses a great many hospitals, but all are lamentably
defective in internal arrangement, and above all in judicious medical
attendance. The largest of the hospitals, San Andres, was founded in
the year 1552 by the Licentiate Francisco de Molina. Three years
afterwards, the Viceroy Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, first Marquis
de Cañete, placed it under the direction of the Government. Down to
the year 1826 this hospital was exclusively destined for the
reception of sick Spaniards. San Andres contains five large and four
smaller wards, with 387 beds. One part of the establishment is set
apart for incurable patients. The annual outlay of the hospital
amounts to between 45,000 and 50,000 dollars. In the hospital of San
Andres insane patients are received, and their number is always
considerable. On the 30th of November (St. Andrew's Day) this
hospital is opened for the admittance of the public, and one of the
favorite amusements of the inhabitants of Lima is to go to San Andres
to see the lunatics. It is melancholy to observe these unfortunate
beings, thus made the objects of public exhibition, and irritated by
the idle throng who go to stare at them. The collection of alms from
the numerous visitors is, doubtless, the motive for keeping up this
custom, which, nevertheless, is exceedingly reprehensible.

The hospital _Santa Ana_ was founded in the year 1549, by Don Fray
Geronimo de Loyza, first Archbishop of Lima, and was destined for
Indians of both sexes. The benevolent founder, with the most earnest
self-devotion, attended the patients, and with true Christian charity
performed the humblest duties of a sick-nurse. He died in 1575 in the
hospital, to which he bequeathed a yearly revenue of 16,000 dollars.
The building contains five large wards, and 336 beds. Since the
declaration of independence no Indian has been received into it. This
hospital, alternately with those of San Andres and San Bartolome, was
used as a military lazaretto; but since 1841 it has been allotted
exclusively to female patients of all classes; for it was found
necessary to abandon the former female hospital of _La Caridad_, on
account of its damp situation.

_San Bartolome_ was an hospital founded in the year 1661, for negro
patients; but it has lately been closed. It contains eleven wards
and 217 beds.

Under the name of Santo Toribio an hospital for incurable patients was
established in the year 1669, by Don Domingo Cueto.

In 1702 it was consigned to the superintendence of an order of monks,
called the padres Belemitas, and in 1822 it was incorporated with the
hospital of San Lazaro. The latter establishment was founded by Anton
Sanchez, in the year 1563, and was exclusively destined for leprous
patients. Persons afflicted with cutaneous diseases, and especially
maladies of a contagious nature, are sent thither.

In the convent of San Pedro there is a small hospital for poor priests.
Attached to it is a dispensary, from whence the poor were supplied
gratuitously with medicines, at the time when the convent was in the
possession of the Jesuits.

Lima also possesses a Foundling Hospital. Luis Ojeda, who humbly took to
himself the title of _Luis el Pecador_ (Luis the Sinner), bequeathed all
his fortune to the foundation of this establishment, which received the
name of "Collegio de Santa Cruz de los niños expositos."[8]

The refuge for female penitents was founded in the year 1670 by the
viceroy, Count de Lemos. The funds were derived from a legacy
bequeathed for that object by Don Francisco Arcain in 1572. The
establishment has but few inmates.

In former times it was the custom in Lima to bury the dead in graves
dug within the churches; but the heat of the climate, and the
difficulty of making the graves sufficiently deep, rendering this
practice exceedingly objectionable, the viceroy, Don Jose Fernando
Abascal, determined on making a burial place beyond the boundaries of
the city. A piece of ground was allotted for the purpose, and it was
consecrated on the 1st of January, 1808. It is called the _Cementerio
gèneral_ or _Panteon_, and is situated eastward of the city on the
high road leading to the Sierra de Tarma. It consists of two gardens,
very prettily planted, and inclosed by high walls. Along the walls,
on the inner side, there are niches, about a thousand in number,
ranged in sixteen different classes, and they may be purchased by
those who wish to possess them. Many of them belong to families and
convents. The graves are watched and kept in order by criminals who
are condemned to this duty as a punishment. It is calculated that it
will be five years before this cemetery is filled. When room is
wanting, the niches which have been first occupied will be cleared,
and the bones deposited in a bone-house, of simple but appropriate
construction. At the entrance of the Panteon there is a neat little
chapel, where the funeral obsequies are performed. Burials are
permitted to take place only in the morning; and when a funeral
retinue arrives too late, the body remains uninterred until the
following morning. The rich are buried in coffins, the poor merely in
winding sheets, which are made after the pattern of the habits worn
by the barefooted friars of the order of San Francisco.

The grand square of Lima, the _Plaza Mayor_, though not in the centre
of the city, is nevertheless the central point of its life and
business. It is 426 feet distant from the Rimac, and presents a
regular quadrangle, each side of which is 510 feet long. From each of
the four corners two handsome straight streets run at right angles.
There is no pavement, but the ground is covered with fine sand. The
cathedral and the archbishop's palace occupy the eastern side of the
square. The latter adjoins the sanctuary, and has rather a fine
façade. The windows of the principal apartments open into a balcony,
commanding a view of the Plaza.

On the north side of the square stands the government palace,
formerly the residence of the all-powerful viceroys. Its exterior
aspect is mean. It is a square building, and the front next the Plaza
is disfigured by a long range of shabby little shops (called _La
rivera_), in which drugs are sold.[9] These shops are surmounted by a
balcony. A large double door opens from the Plaza into the great
court-yard of the palace. Along the western side of the building there
are also a number of little shops occupied by saddlers and dealers in
old iron. The street, running in this direction, is called the Old
Iron Street (Calle del Fierro Viego). The principal entrance to the
palace is on this side. On the south the building has no entrance, and
it presents the gloomy aspect of a jail. On the east a door opens into
a small yard or court, within which are the office and prison of the
police. A few long flag-staffs, fixed on the roof of the palace, do
not add to the beauty of the edifice. The interior of the building
corresponds with its outward appearance, being at once tasteless and
mean. The largest apartment formerly bore the name of the _Sala de los
Vireyes_. It is now used as a ball room when entertainments are given
by the government. Under the Spanish domination this room was hung
round with portraits of the viceroys, the size of life.[10] The series
of vice-regal portraits from Pizarro to Pezuela, forty-four in number,
completely filled the apartment at the time when the patriot army in
Lima revolted, and consequently the last viceroy, Don Jose de la
Serna, who owed his elevation to the military revolution, could not
have a place assigned for his portrait among those of his
predecessors.[11] The other apartments of the palace are small and
inelegant. Some of the rooms are used as government offices.

The present palace was, as far as I have been able to ascertain, built
about the beginning of the seventeenth century. In the great
earthquake of 1687 it was almost totally destroyed, but it was
subsequently restored. The palace which Don Francisco Pizarro built
for his own residence, stood, not on the site of the existing edifice,
but on the southern side of the Plaza, on the spot where now a narrow
dirty alley, called the _Callejon de petateros_, forms a communication
between the Plaza and the Silversmith's street (_Calle de Plateros_).
It was in that old palace that Juan de Herada, the friend and partisan
of Don Diego de Almagra, carried into effect his plot against
Pizarro. On the 26th of June, 1546, the viceroy was seated at table
with a party of his friends, when the insurgents surrounded the
palace, shouting "Death to the tyrants!" Pizarro, though warned of his
danger, had scarcely time to seize his sword. One of his principal
officers, Don Francisco de Chavez, was killed at the door of the
apartment, and several of the viceroy's friends and servants escaped
by the windows. Among others who attempted to save themselves in this
way was Pizarro's counsellor, Juan de Velasquez. Only on the previous
evening this man had been heard to declare that no one would be found
bold enough to join in an insurrection as long as he held in his hand
his staff of authority. This declaration was in a certain measure
verified, for Velasquez, whilst descending from the window, held his
staff between his teeth, that he might be the better able to support
himself with his hands. Martin Pizarro, together with two noblemen and
two pages, were the only persons who remained faithful to the viceroy.
The latter, with the bravery of a lion, made a long stand against his
assailants. "Courage, brother! Down with the traitors!" exclaimed
Martin Pizarro, who, the next moment, lay dead at the viceroy's feet.
At length Pizarro, exhausted by his efforts to defend himself, could
no longer wield his hitherto victorious sword: he was overpowered, and
one of his assailants having stabbed him in the throat, he fell,
mortally wounded. With his last faltering accents he implored the aid
of a confessor; and after losing the power of utterance he traced with
his finger, on the ground, the sign of the cross, kissed it
repeatedly, and breathed his last. Such was the sad end of one of the
greatest heroes of his age;[12] a man guilty of many crimes, but also
unjustly accused of many of which he was innocent. His acts were
consistent with the spirit of his age, and were influenced by the
frightful circumstances in which he was placed. In short, there can be
little doubt that Pizarro was "better than his fame."

The west side of the Plaza Mayor is occupied by the _Cabildo_, or
senate-house (formerly called the _Casa Consistorial_), together with
the city jail, and a row of houses of no very handsome appearance.
The south side is filled by a range of private dwelling-houses, with
balconies looking to the Plaza. The houses, both on the west and
south sides of the square, are built above a colonnade, in which
there are numerous shops.

In the middle of the Plaza is a magnificent bronze fountain with three
basins. From the middle basin rises a pillar, surmounted by a figure
of Fame spouting the water from her trumpet. In the other two basins
the water is ejected from the mouths of four lions. The pillar and
figures for this triple fountain were cast in the year 1650, by the
able artist Antonio Rivas, by order of the then reigning viceroy,
Count de Salvatierra. Besides this principal fountain, there are
several smaller ones, from which the public are permitted to supply
themselves with water.

The second large public square in Lima is the _Plaza de la
Inquisicion_, which, since the war of independence, has received the
name of the Square of Independence (_Plazuela de la Independencia_).
It is of trapezi-form, widening in the eastern part, and is certainly
no ornament to the town, for it is always in a very dirty condition.
Being the public market-place, it presents a very busy aspect during
the fore part of the day. Two buildings on this Plazuela attract
attention, viz.--the Palace of the Inquisition and the University.
There are now but few remaining traces of the internal arrangements of
the fearful tribunal; for, on the suppression of the Inquisition by
the Cortes, the enraged populace forced their way into the building,
where they gutted the rooms, and destroyed the furniture. Lima was the
seat of spiritual jurisdiction for the whole western coast of South
America; and the rigor of its despotism was not far short of that of
the Inquisition of Madrid. Every year vast numbers of persons
convicted or suspected of crimes were brought from all the intervening
points between Chiloe and Columbia to the Tribunal of the Inquisition,
and most of them were doomed to the most dreadful punishments. _Autos
da fe_ were frequently held in Lima, and cases of other kinds of
martyrdom were exceedingly numerous. The lists, which have been only
partially preserved, present melancholy results. One part of the
Palace of the Inquisition is now converted into a store-house for
provisions, and the other part is used as a prison.

The University of Lima was once the most important seat of education
in South America. It owes its origin to a decree of the emperor
Charles V., issued at the solicitation of the dominican monk Maestro
Fray Tomas de San Martin. The decree was dated the 12th of May, 1551,
but it did not reach Lima until two years after that time. A papal
bull of Pius V. confirmed the imperial decree, and conferred on the
institution the same privileges as those enjoyed by the Spanish
university of Salamanca. The Lima university was originally
established in the convent of Santo Domingo, but after the lapse of
three years it was removed to the building now occupied by San Marcel,
and in 1576 it was installed in the site it now occupies. It received
the name of _Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Marcos_. In the year
1572 the first lay rector was elected in the person of Gaspar
Menendez, a doctor of medicine.

The building is situated on the east side of the _Plaza de la
Independencia_, next to the hospital of _la Caridad_. The façade is not
handsome, but is remarkable for a style not belonging to the age in
which it was erected. The building is entered by a lofty door, opening
into a spacious quadrangular court, along the four sides of which there
are pillared corridors. On the walls of these corridors the different
branches of science are allegorically represented in fresco paintings,
and beneath these paintings are inscribed quotations from ancient
classic authors. The lecture rooms open into the corridors which run
round the court. Facing the entrance door, in the left angle of the
court, are great double doors opening into the Aula, which is spacious,
and has rather an imposing aspect. In the middle of the wall, on the
right-hand side, stands the rector's chair in a sort of niche,
surmounted by a canopy. On either side of this chair are ranged the
seats of the professors, and the members of faculties. Opposite to the
rector's seat, on the left-hand side of the Aula, is an elevated chair
occupied by the president, when academic prizes are distributed. Below
it is an arm-chair for the candidate. On each side of the president's
seat are several rows of benches, for the members of the university and
visitors. Over the entrance door there is a gallery to which the public
are admitted, and which, on the occasions when prizes are distributed,
is usually occupied by ladies. On the walls of the Aula are hung
portraits of celebrated learned men.

The National Library, situated near the convent of San Pedro, was
founded by a decree, dated the 28th of August, 1821. The books belonging
to the university of San Marcos formed the nucleus of the National
Library. To them were added the libraries of several of the monasteries,
some sequestrated works, and the collections of a few private
individuals. Of these latter, the most considerable was the collection
of General San Martin, and a library of 7772 volumes bequeathed,
together with a legacy of a thousand dollars, by Don Miguel de la Fuente
y Pacheco. In November, 1841, the National Library of Peru contained
26,344 printed volumes, 432 manuscripts, and a small collection of maps
and copperplate engravings. It is particularly rich in old works on
religious and historical subjects. The books relating to the Conquest,
and to the early period of the Spanish dominion, form in themselves a
complete historical series. Of modern works there are but few. The
pecuniary support of the establishment is very inconsiderable. The
government exacts from it the import duty, three per cent., on European
books, making an average annual sum of 400 dollars. In addition to this
the salaries of the librarians amount annually to 2794 dollars. The
library is open to the public every day (Friday and Sunday excepted)
from eight in the morning till one in the afternoon, and from four in
the afternoon till six in the evening.

In the left wing of the same building is the museum, containing a
collection of objects of natural history, antiquities, and other
curiosities. This collection was first formed in the year 1826, in some
of the spare rooms of the palace of the Inquisition, and was afterwards
removed from one place to another, until at length the government
allotted to the purpose the two fine apartments in the building above
mentioned. As yet the establishment is quite in its infancy. It contains
nothing of scientific value, and but for the series of historical
portraits already described, it would differ but little from the
collections of curiosities frequently formed by amateurs, in which all
sorts of heterogeneous objects are jumbled together. The museum of Lima
bids fair to remain for some time to come on the footing on which it was
when I saw it, for the establishment has no funds, save a monthly
allowance of thirty-two dollars, and out of that scanty pittance the
expense of fitting up the rooms, the glass cases, &c., has yet to be
defrayed. The museum is open to the public four days in the week.

Two other apartments in the same building are set aside for the Academy
of Design (_Academia de Debujo_). On three evenings every week pupils
are admitted to this academy to receive gratuitous instruction in
drawing. The number of the pupils amounts to between 80 and 100; but
there is convenient room for 200. The collection of models and drawing
copies for the use of the students is but indifferent.

The mint is situated in the vicinity of the Plazuela de la
Independencia. It was founded in Lima in the year 1565; in 1572
transferred to Potosi, and in 1683 removed back to Lima. For the space
of seventy years this establishment was in the hands of private
individuals; but in the year 1753 the Spanish government took the
management of it, and erected the building in which it is still
located. It is a large and handsome structure, but very defective in
its internal arrangement. Until the year 1817 the machinery for
casting was worked by mules, ninety-two of those animals being
employed daily. Subsequently, under the direction of an Englishman,
water-power was introduced, by which expense was diminished and time
saved. A few years ago a French merchant made an arrangement with the
government for the use of a complex machine, which he proposed to
bring from Europe. The machine arrived, but by an unlucky fatality it
proved perfectly useless. For the space of four years repeated
attempts were made to work it, but in vain; it fulfilled none of the
required conditions. Its faults are manifold, and it reflects but
little credit on the person by whom it was contrived. It has cost no
less than 250,000 dollars, and has never been of the least use.

In the mint of Lima there are annually cast from two to two and a half
millions of dollars, which yield a profit of from 140,000 to 180,000
dollars, out of which are paid the salaries of the persons employed.
Under the Spanish government these salaries amounted annually to
48,906 dollars; now they make, together with other customary outlays,
the sum of 85,105 dollars.

The value of a mark of silver in the mint is 8 dollars 4 reales; that of
a mark of gold is 144 dollars 4 reales. The standard worth of the gold
is 21 carats; that of the silver 20 grains.

Next to the arena for bull-fights, situated in the Plaza firme del Acho,
the theatre is the principal place of public amusement in Lima. The
first theatre, erected in the year 1602, was situated near the convent
of San Augustin, in the street which still bears the name of "Comedia
vieja." It was destroyed in the earthquake of 1630, and rebuilt on the
same site. In 1662 it was pulled down to make room for a new street, and
afterwards the present building was erected. Its external appearance is
very ugly and the interior is not much better. Before the orchestra
there are some commodious inclosed seats or stalls. The boxes, which are
completely separated one from another by partitions, are narrow but
deep: the smaller ones are capable of containing eight persons, and the
larger ones twelve. In the centre of the first tier of boxes, and
fronting the stage, is the government box, which occupies the space of
two of the others. It contains seats for the prefect, the sub-prefect,
and the members of the Cabildo. The president's box is likewise on the
first tier, and on the left of the stage. Adjoining it there is a small
cabinet, closed on the side next the pit by a wooden railing. Into this
cabinet the president retires between the acts of the performance. The
stage is small, and the scenery very indifferent.

The performances are for the most part wretched, both as regards the
merit of the pieces and the talent of the actors. Nothing can be in
worse taste than the little farces called saynetes, which, according to
Spanish custom, always close the performances, whether the principal
piece be a tragedy or a comedy. Common-place intrigues form the subjects
of these _saynetes_, and their dialogue consists of vulgar jokes. They
are altogether calculated to banish any gratifying impression which
might by possibility be produced by the principal piece.

For some years past a company of Italians, settled in Lima, have given
operatic performances on a small scale. One of them, Signora
Pantanelli, is an excellent singer, and would be heard with pleasure
even in Europe. Some other members of the company have middling talents,
but the rest are decidedly bad. The operas performed are Giulietta y
Romeo, Parisina, Lucia di Lammermuir, Marino Faliero, La Sonnambula, and
Il Barbiere di Seviglia: these, together with a mutilated Norma, and a
much curtailed Semiramide, form almost the whole repertory. Want of
stage room is an obstacle to the representation of operas demanding
grand scenery and machinery. The costumes are for the most part
exceedingly elegant, though seldom historically correct. The orchestra
is defective, and ought to be much improved, to give satisfaction to a
public passionately fond of music.

But if the inhabitants of Lima are great lovers of music, dancing has no
less powerful attractions for them. Though the time is gone, when the
dress of any opera-dancer may be expected to reach below the knee, yet
the drapery of a Limanese Terpsichore appears to have attained even an
ultra degree of curtailment. The representation of ballets, properly so
called, is not attempted; but the Bolero, the Fandango, the Cachucha,
and Don Mateo, are favorite and often repeated performances.

During the long intervals between the acts, smoking is permitted in the
pit and in the outer court of the theatre. There is also a plentiful
supply of very bad and very dear refreshments.

An intolerable annoyance experienced in visiting the theatre at Lima is
caused by the swarms of fleas which infest every part of the house, but
most especially the boxes. Unfortunately, this nuisance is irremediable,
and the visitor must be blessed with a large amount of endurance who can
patiently sit out a whole evening's entertainments.

Not far from the theatre is situated the circus for cock-fighting
(_Coliseo de gallos_), where fights (_peleas_) take place daily. The
Coliseo is a large amphitheatre, with an arena in the middle. The
game-cocks trained for this sport have the spur removed from the right
foot and in its stead is substituted a small sharp steel blade, curved
and shaped like a scythe. One or other of the animals is frequently
killed at the first spring; and when that is not the case they continue
fighting until they die of wounds and exhaustion. It is a cruel sport,
and a worthy pendant to bull-fighting. The first Coliseo was erected in
1762, by Don Juan Garrial. The present building, in the Plazuela de
Santa Catalina, is a very handsome structure, and Lima may fairly boast
of possessing the finest circus for cock-fighting in all the world.

In the same square with the _Coliseo de gallos_ is the tennis-court,
a spacious area, surrounded by high walls. It is not now so much
resorted to as formerly, for the Creoles are not so fond of tennis
as the Spaniards.

A beautiful stone bridge unites the town with the suburb of San
Lazaro. This bridge was built in the years 1638-1640, when the Marquis
de Montes Claros was viceroy of Peru. The plan was designed by Fray
Geronimo Villegas, an Augustine monk. It is 530 feet long, and has six
arches rising thirty-seven feet above the surface of the water. The
foundation of the piers is composed of square blocks of stone, the
piers themselves are of brick, and the parapet of cemented stone work.
The erection of this bridge cost 400,000 dollars. A sufficient proof
of its strength and solidity is the fact that it survived the
earthquakes of 1687 and 1746, which shattered all other parts of Lima.
In the earthquake of 1746 the first arch, on which stood an equestrian
statue of Philip V., was destroyed, but it is now restored. It has on
one side two towers, with a dial in the middle.

The city of Lima, with the exception of a portion of the north side,
and the suburb of San Lazaro, is surrounded by a wall built of brick.
This wall was constructed in the year 1585, when the Duque de la Plata
was viceroy. It is the work of a Fleming, named Pedro Ramon. This wall
is between eighteen and twenty feet high. Its breadth at the base is
from ten to twelve feet, and at the top nine feet. It does not
therefore afford sufficient space for mounting large guns. Along the
whole extent of the wall there are thirty-four bastions. In the year
1807, this wall, which had fallen into a very ruinous condition, was
repaired by order of the viceroy Abascal, and put into a condition to
be mounted with artillery. On each side commodious pathways were made,
and along the inner side powder magazines were constructed. At present
these fortifications are in a state of complete dilapidation. The
paths, which are obstructed by rubbish, are almost impassable, and
the powder magazines are destroyed. The city wall of Lima has nine
gates (_Portadas_). Of these, six only are now open, viz., the
Portadas of Maravillas, Barbones, Cocharcas, Guadelupe, Juan Simon,
and Callao; the three others, the Portadas of Martinete, Monserrat,
and Santa Catalina, are walled up. At every one of the open gates
there are stationed custom-house guards, whose chief duty consists in
preventing the smuggled introduction of unstamped silver (_plata de
piña_). In the direction of the suburb of San Lazaro, the city cannot
be closed, as the wall does not extend to that part. Between San
Lazaro, and the high road to Cero de Pasco, is the _Portada de Guias_;
this, however, is not properly a gate, but a small custom-house. In
this direction it is easy to gain entrance to the city from the river,
and consequently it is here that most of the contraband silver,
brought from the mountains, is smuggled.

Among the fortifications of Lima may be included the pretty little
castle of Santa Catalina, situated at the eastern end of the city,
between the Portada de Cocharcas and the Portada de Guadelupe, at the
distance of about two hundred yards from the city wall. It is
surrounded by rather high walls, and is flanked by two bastions. The
interior of this citadel is very well arranged, and is kept much
cleaner than such places usually are in Peru. It contains stores of
arms and barracks for the artillery. The largest barracks in Lima are
those of the infantry, _Quartel de Infanteria_, in the Colegio. They
are remarkable for want of cleanliness, and like most of the public
buildings in this interesting city, going fast to decay.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 5: The city of Lima was founded by Don Francisco Pizarro on
the 6th of January, 1534. As it was the day of the Epiphany, Lima
received the title of _Ciudad de los Reyes_ (City of the Kings).
Historical records vary respecting the day and the year of the
foundation of Lima; but I have reason to believe that the date I have
mentioned above is perfectly correct.]

[Footnote 6: The _Vara Castellana_ is equal to 33 inches English
measure.]

[Footnote 7: The females who retire to these establishments are called
_Beatas_ (Bigots). The term _Beaterio_ signifies a house for
Bigots.--T.]

[Footnote 8: According to some accounts this establishment was
instituted in 1654, by Mateo Pastor de Velasco, a native of
Portollano in Spain.]

[Footnote 9: In these shops any one may purchase for a trifle one of
the most deadly poisons (Strichnos Ignatia, L.). It is made up into
what are called _Pepitas de Cabalonga_. It is used in Lima for
poisoning dogs.]

[Footnote 10: This highly valuable and interesting collection of
portraits is now removed from the palace to the museum. It is curious
to mark the progressive changes of costume, and to observe the various
physiognomies, especially if we reflect on the history of the men whose
traits denote such striking differences of character. Almost all these
portraits are distinguished by an air of tranquil gravity which in some
is combined with true kingly dignity, and in others with an expression
of fierceness. The handsomest head of the whole series is decidedly
that of Francisco Pizarro. His features bear the stamp of manly energy,
and his whole countenance is characterized by courage and candor. The
nose has the prominent Arabic form, and the forehead is high and
expanded. The thick beard, covering the mouth and chin, gives a gloomy
and resolute character to the face. In this series of portraits there
is one representing a priest with the vice-regal insignia.]

[Footnote 11: By a singular coincidence, the title of Conde de los Andes
(Count of the Andes) was conferred on La Serna by King Ferdinand at
Madrid on the 9th of December, 1824, being the very day on which he
gained the battle of Ayacucho, the results of which gave the Spanish
dominion in South America its death-blow.]

[Footnote 12: The above particulars are collected from the _Historia
del descubrimiento y conquista de la Provincia del Peru_, by Augustin
de Zarate.]

[Illustration: CHILIAN INDIAN MOTHER.]

[Illustration: LADY OF LIMA.]

[Illustration: PERUVIAN MONK.]

[Illustration: PERUVIAN FARMER.]

CHAPTER V.

Population of Lima--Its diminution--Different races of the
Inhabitants--Their characteristics--Amusements--Education--The
women of Lima--Their Costume--The _Saya y Manto_--Female domestic
life--Love of dress--Beatas--Indians--Slaves--Bosales--Free
Creoles--Negroes--Negresses--Black Creoles--Their
varieties--Mestizos--Mulattoes--Palanganas--Zambos--Chinos--Foreigners
in Lima--Corruption of the Spanish language.

Proceeding from the shell to the kernel, we will now take a glance at
the inhabitants of the capital of Peru: first, surveying the native in
his fatherland, and next, the foreign settler in his adopted country.

The population of Lima has at various periods undergone remarkable
fluctuations. In the year 1764 the number of the inhabitants was stated
to be 54,000; in 1810, 87,000; in 1826, 70,000; in 1836, 54,600; and in
1842, 53,000. Of most of these estimates I entertain some degree of
distrust, as they are merely founded on general calculations, and are
not the results of careful numbering. Certain it is, however, that the
population of Lima has very considerably decreased since the declaration
of independence. This is sufficiently proved by the fact that several
parts of the city are now totally uninhabited: the houses falling to
decay, and the gardens lying waste.

The cause of this diminished population is easily explained by the
physical and political condition of the country. Earthquakes have, at
various times, buried thousands of people beneath the ruins of their own
dwellings; the war of independence was attended by vast sacrifices of
life; banishment and voluntary emigration have removed from Lima the
families of some of the principal citizens; and epidemic disease, the
natural consequence of defective police regulations, has swept away
countless multitudes of the inhabitants. The number of new settlers is
very inconsiderable; and for several past years the number of deaths
has nearly doubled that of the births. There appears no reason to doubt
that this decrease of population will continue; because, as will
presently be seen, the causes to which it is assignable cannot be
checked, inasmuch as they are intimately blended with the character of
the nation. Most of these causes operate not only in the capital, but
over the whole country; indeed, in the latter their influence is in some
instances much greater; for example, in the interior of Peru the loss of
life attendant on the war was relatively much greater than in Lima. This
favored country, which extends from the 3d to the 22d degree of south
latitude, and which contained at the time of its conquest by the
Spaniards an immense population, though its amount is not known with
numerical exactitude, now counts only 1,400,000 inhabitants.

In the tax registers, drawn up during the protectorate of Santa Cruz,
in 1836, the number of the inhabitants of Lima is represented as
follows:--

Male. Female. Total.

1. White Creoles (being the
descendants of foreigners,
but chiefly of Spaniards) 9,423 10,170 19,593

2. Indians 2,561 2,731 5,292

3. People of Color (mixed races) 11,771 12,355 24,126

4. Slaves 2,186 3,606 4,792

5. Ecclesiastics (Lay and Monastic) 475 350 825
------ ------ ------
In all 26,416 29,212 54,628

From the above it appears that in every class (No. 5 excepted) there is
a preponderance of females; and that on the whole population of 54,628
individuals there is a surplus of 2796 women. About one in every
sixty-six individuals belongs to the priesthood.

Possibly in no other place in the world is there so much variety of
complexion and physiognomy as in Lima. From the delicately fair creole
daughter of European parents, to the jet black Congo negro, people of
every gradation of color are seen living in intimate relation one with
another. The two extreme classes--the whites and blacks--are as
distinct in character as in color, and of either of those it is no
difficult task to give an accurate portraiture. But it is different
with the mixed races. To define their characteristics correctly would
be impossible, for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood.
As a general rule, it may fairly be said that they unite in themselves
all the faults, without any of the virtues, of their progenitors. As
men they are greatly inferior to the pure races, and as members of
society they are the worst class of citizens. Here, as well as in the
following delineations of the different races, I wish my observations
to be understood only in a general sense. I have met with some
honorable exceptions; though, unfortunately, they were mere solitary
luminaries, whose transient light has been speedily obscured by
the surrounding darkness.

The white Creoles, who, with very few exceptions, are the descendants of
Spaniards, constitute somewhat less than a third part of the population
of Lima. They are slender in figure and of middling height. Their
features are strongly marked, their complexions fair and pale, and their
hair is of the darkest black. The men are feeble and look prematurely
old. Their countenances, though not devoid of dignity, have a sort of
sensual expression. They are effeminate, and disinclined to any kind of
active exertion. If they ride the distance of ten miles, they think they
have performed a feat of heroism worthy to be recorded in the state
archives. If the white Creoles are inferior to the Spaniards in physical
organization, they are no less beneath them in qualities of mind. They
shrink from anything that demands intellectual exertion. In short, they
are sworn enemies to business of every kind, and those who are obliged
to work for their own support, make choice of some occupation which,
like that of a shopman, affords them ample time to smoke cigars and to
gossip with their neighbors. The richer classes give themselves up
wholly to idleness. They walk about and visit their acquaintances, or
they lounge in shops or at the corners of streets, and in that manner
they often amuse themselves for half a day. Those who are owners of
plantations occasionally ride through them to receive reports from their
mayordomos. Their afternoons are usually spent in the _Coliseo de
gallos_, in the coffee-houses, or at the gaming-table. The white Creoles
are as passionately fond of gaming as the Spaniards, and sums equal to
those staked at the gaming-tables of Mexico and the Havannah are daily
lost and won in Lima. Though games of hazard are prohibited, yet they
are very publicly played, and it is only now and then that the police
enforce the regulations of the law by the seizure of a bank.

Gaming in Lima is carried on very quietly, and the most determined
gamblers do not show themselves very much excited either by losses or
winnings. The discovery of false dice, however, creates bitter feelings
of animosity, which not unfrequently lead to assassination. Of this I
knew several instances when I was in the interior of the country.

The intellectual culture of the white Creole of Lima is exceedingly
defective. He is not wanting in talent; but an imperfect system of
education affords him no opportunity for the development of his
faculties, and innate indolence is a bar to his self-improvement by
study. He seldom rises above the level of every-day life, and is
ignorant of everything beyond the boundary of the city, or, at all
events, of the province in which he was born. I have often been amazed
at the monstrous ignorance of so-called educated Peruvians, respecting
the situation, the extent, the physical formation, and the productions
of their native country.

On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that Lima has been the
birthplace of several white Creoles, whose talents and learning have
honorably distinguished them from the rest of their countrymen. For
example, Don Tomas de Salazar, author of the "Interpretaciones de los
Leyes de Indias."[13] Don Miguel Nuñez de Rojas, the learned Judge of
Confiscations in the Spanish war of succession, and Don Alonzo Conde de
San Donas, who in the reign of Philip IV. was Spanish Ambassador at the
Court of France. Among those eminent in literature may be named Don
Pedro de la Reyna Maldonado, and the poet Don Diego Martinez de Rivera,
of whom Cervantes in his "Galatea" says--

Su divina ingenio ha producido
En Arequipa eterna Primavera.[14]

Several monks distinguished for learning have been white Creoles,
and an eminent individual of that race was Don Hipolito Unanue, the
author of the "Guide to Peru," and "Observations on the Climate of
Lima, and its Influence on organized Beings, especially Man;"[15] a
Treatise on the Cocoa-tree, &c. In more recent times, Don Mariano
Eduardo de Rivero has zealously devoted himself to the study of
natural history and antiquities.

But in spite of his faults, the Lima Creole has his good qualities.
He is an enemy to strong drinks. When he takes wine it is usually of
some sweet kind, and of that he partakes very sparingly. A white
Creole in a state of intoxication would, indeed, be a rare sight. Not
so in the interior of the country, where the whites are remarkable
for intemperate drinking.

Far superior to the men, both physically and intellectually, are the
women of Lima. Nature has lavishly endowed them with many of her
choicest gifts. In figure they are usually slender and rather tall, and
they are especially remarkable for small, elegantly formed feet. Their
fair faces, from which the glowing breath of the tropics banishes every
trace of bloom, are animated by large, bright, dark eyes. Their features
are pleasing--the nose being well formed, though in general not
small--the mouth invariably adorned with two rows of brilliant white
teeth,[16] and their long black hair, arranged in plaits, falls
gracefully over the bosom and shoulders. Add to all this a captivating
grace of manner and deportment, joined to an exceeding degree of
gentleness and amiability, and it will be readily admitted that the
Limena is a noble specimen of female loveliness.

At home, especially in the summer season, the ladies of Lima dress
lightly and even negligently. For visiting, or going to the theatres,
they adopt the French fashion. When walking in the streets, attending
church, joining religious processions, &c., they appear in a very
singular costume, peculiar to Lima, and consisting of two garments
called the _Saya_ and the _Manto_. Of the saya there are two kinds.
The one called the _Saya ajustada_, was formerly in general use, but
is now seldom seen. It consists of a petticoat, or skirt of thick
stiff silk, plaited at top and bottom, in small fluted folds, drawn
very close together at the waist and widening towards the ankles,
beneath which the saya does not descend. It is tight to the form, the
outline of which it perfectly displays, and its closeness to the
limbs naturally impedes rapid movement. When wearing the _Saya
ajustada_, the ladies find it no very easy task to kneel down at
church, and at the termination of every genuflexion, they are obliged
to twist and twirl about for a considerable time before they can
again stand on their feet.[17]

The other description of saya is called the Saya _culeça_, or the
_Saya desplegada_. It is plaited close at the waist, and from thence
downwards it stands out like a hooped petticoat. This sort of saya is
made by first being plaited both at top and bottom like the _Saya
ajustada_; but, afterwards, the lower plaits are undone to form the
_Saya desplegada_. The saya is always made of some dark-colored silk,
black, green, blue, or cinnamon color.

The _Manto_ is a veil of thick black silk fastened by a band at the back
of the waist, where it joins the _saya_. From thence it is brought over
the shoulders and head, and drawn over the face so closely that only a
small triangular space, sufficient for one eye to peep through, is left
uncovered. A rich shawl thrown over the shoulders conceals the whole of
the under garment, except the sleeves. One of the small, neatly-gloved
hands, confines the folds of the _manto_, whilst the other holds a
richly embroidered pocket-handkerchief.

At first sight this costume has a very singular effect, and it is
long before the eye of a foreigner becomes reconciled to it. The
narrow saya is by no means graceful; the wide saya, on the other hand,
is very becoming, and sets off to great advantage a good figure and
elegant deportment. When I first arrived in Lima and saw the ladies
closely muffled up in their _mantos_, and carrying embroidered cambric
handkerchiefs and nosegays in their hands, it struck me that the nuns
enjoyed greater freedom in that country than in any other part of the
world. After vespers, that is to say half-past seven in the evening,
the police regulations prohibit any woman from appearing in the
streets dressed in the saya.

As this garment may be worn over a dress of the ordinary kind, it is
found to be very convenient, inasmuch as it saves the trouble of a
careful toilette. During short visits the ladies do not take off the
saya; but when making long visits they usually lay it aside.

The Saya y Manto are found to be very useful auxiliaries in the numerous
intrigues in which the Limeñas frequently engage.

A _Tapada_[18] indulges in a vast deal of freedom when in the streets,
and scruples not to make satirical observations on anybody or anything
that strikes her as strange or ludicrous. The veil, or manto, is sacred,
and should a man attempt to remove it by force, he would run the risk of
being severely handled by the populace.

In intrigues of gallantry the Saya y Manto play a conspicuous part. A
lady has been known to arrange an assignation with a gentleman in the
street, whilst her husband, standing at the distance of a few yards
and conversing with a friend on some matter of business, has little
suspected that the _Tapada_ whose graceful figure he admired, was his
own faithful better-half. It frequently happens that Doña Mariquita
obliges Doña Merceditas, or Doña Panchita, with the loan of her saya,
for the purpose of hood-winking the Argus-eyes of a jealous
husband;--the lady being well convinced that her kind friends will
render her the like service in similar circumstances. Sometimes a
lady may be seen in an old tattered saya, such as scarcely the poorest
female might be expected to wear; but the costly shawl, the worked
pocket-handkerchief, the silk stockings, and satin shoes, betray the
rank of the _Tapada_, and plainly denote that she has sallied forth on
an adventure. It is difficult, nay almost impossible, to recognize a
lady thus muffled up. The one eye alone visible, is, as may be
supposed, a very uncertain token of identity, and the figure and walk
may be easily disguised.

It will readily be supposed that these concealments sometimes occasion
mortifying mistakes. On beholding a tall slender figure whose
symmetrical contour is discernible even through the unwieldy saya, and a
bright dark eye beaming beneath the folds of the manto, one may be
induced to imagine that the charms of a Hebe are concealed beneath the
disfiguring garb. But how great is the disappointment when an accidental
movement of the manto discloses the wide mouth of an ugly mulatta
grinning from ear to ear.

Most foreigners who marry Limeñas stipulate that from the time of
betrothal, their wives shall no longer wear the saya y manto. The
condition is agreed to; but how far it is faithfully observed the
husbands best know. Many, no doubt, lull themselves in the confidence
of their wishes being implicitly obeyed; but female ingenuity readily
devises opportunities for deception. The women of Lima never willingly
renounce the saya y manto, for it is inseparably associated with
customs to which they are, heart and soul, devoted.

If we follow the Limeña (the white Creole, be it understood) into the
retirement of domestic life, we find that she is an affectionate mother,
but not a very clever housekeeper. Every lady has at her command a great
many more domestics than are necessary: some are servants, but most of
them slaves. The establishment usually consists of a cook, a nurse-maid,
one or two house-maids, a needle-woman, several men-servants, and a
little negro or Indian, whose chief business is to carry a carpet behind
his mistress when she goes to church. These servants all do as they
please, and the lady of the house concerns herself very little about the
indolence which her want of vigilance encourages. She rises at a late
hour, and having dressed herself and decorated her hair with sprigs of
jasmine and orange blossom, she takes her breakfast. That meal being
ended, she goes out to make visits. During the sultry hours of mid-day
she reposes, either by swinging in a hammock or reclining on a sofa, and
meanwhile smokes a cigar. After dinner she again makes visits, and the
evening is spent in the theatre, on the plaza, or on the bridge. Some
few ladies employ themselves in needle-work, in which they are often
most accomplished adepts; they especially excel in embroidery and fancy
work; but they never pursue these employments before company.

The ladies of Lima are passionately fond of music. Most of them play the
piano-forte or the guitar, and also sing; but for want of good
instruction neither their playing nor their singing is above mediocrity.
Smoking is pretty general among females, at least those of mature age;
but they indulge in this practice only in their own apartments. Of late
years the custom of smoking has been on the decline in Lima, in
proportion as it has been increased on the continent of the old world.
Though snuff-taking is prohibited in the convents, yet the nuns practise
it to a great extent. They use an exceedingly fine kind of red snuff,
which has the effect of closing the breathing passage through the
nostrils, and of producing a peculiar nasal tone of voice.

With the ladies of Lima, vanity and the love of dress appear to have
reached their climax. To this passion for personal adornment they
sacrifice everything. Formerly, when none but _real_ pearls and diamonds
were worn, many a lady was known to have ruined her husband by the
purchase of those costly articles; now, however, thanks to French mock
jewelry, they are enabled to bedeck themselves in glittering ornaments
at trivial expense. Another of their passions is a fondness for
perfumes. They are continually besprinkling themselves with _eau de
Cologne_, _esprit de Lavande_, _agua rica_, or _mistura_. The latter is
a fragrant yellow-colored water, prepared from gillyflower, jasmine, and
flor de mistela (_Talinum umbellatum_). They perfume their apartments
daily with _Sahumerios_ (pastiles). When the lady of the house wishes to
show particular attention to her visitors, she offers them perfumed
water, dropping it into the bosoms of the ladies, and on the
pocket-handkerchiefs of the gentlemen. Considering their free use of
perfumes, it is not surprising that the fair Limeñas should be
constantly complaining of headache, vertigo, and other nervous ailments,
or, to use their own phrase (_los nervios_).

Above all things the Limeñas pride themselves in the excessive smallness
of their feet. Whether walking, standing, sitting, swinging in the
hammock, or reclining on the sofa, the grand object invariably is to
display to advantage the tiny foot. To praise her virtue, her
intelligence, her wit, or even her beauty, would be less complimentary
to a Limeña than to admire the elegance of her feet. All possible care
is taken to preserve the small form of the foot, and the Lima ladies
avoid everything that may tend to spread or enlarge it. Their shoes are
usually made of embroidered velvet or satin, or of very fine kid, and
are so exceedingly small, that they cannot be drawn on and off without
difficulty. It is usual to have two new pairs every week, and the
expense of a lady's shoes not unfrequently amounts to two hundred
dollars per annum. A large foot is a thing held in horror by the
Limeñas: they call it _una pataza inglesa_ (an English paw). I once
heard some Lima ladies extolling in high terms the beauty of a fair
European; but all their praises ended with the words:--"Pero que pie,
valgame Dios! parece una lancha." (But what a foot, good Heaven! It is
like a great boat.) Yet the feet of the lady alluded to would not, in
Europe, have been thought by any means large.

_Gourmanderie_ is one of the evil habits of the female inhabitants of
Lima. Between meals they are continually eating sweetmeats and a variety
of things. At one moment they order _tamal_,[19] next _omitas_,[20] then
_pan de chancay_ (a sweet sort of bread), and biscuits, then _masamorita
morada_,[21] or _frijoles coladas_,[22] &c.; and yet dinner is partaken
with as hearty an appetite as though none of these interludes had been
introduced. Can it be matter of surprise that the good ladies are
constantly complaining of indigestion and _mal de estomago_?

In the interior of the houses cleanliness does not extend beyond those
apartments which are open to visitors, namely, the _sala_ and the
_cuadro_. The other rooms of the house frequently bear more
resemblance to a stable than a human habitation, and their condition
reflects little credit on the domestic habits of the female inmates.
But even this is typical of the national character,--a great outward
show and little inward worth.

At first a stranger is struck with the singularity of the names of many
of the women of Lima. A child receives the name of the saint or of the
festival whose celebration falls on the day of its birth. Those who
happen to come into the world on the days on which the Romish Church
celebrates the several manifestations of the Virgin receive the most
extraordinary names. For example, a child born on the anniversary day of
the manifestation to St. Francis on the Snow Mountain, is named _Nièves_
(snow). _Pilar_ (fountain-basin) is another strange name, conferred in
honor of the manifestation of the Virgin at the Fountains in Saragossa.
Then there are _Conceptions_, _Natividads_, and _Asuncions_, without
number. A girl born on Candlemas-day is named _Candelaria_, and one born
on the first day of the year receives the name of Jesus. The singular
effect of these names is heightened by the Spanish custom of using
diminutives, formed by adding to the name the particle _ito_ or _ita_,
the former being the masculine, the latter the feminine. It may be
readily imagined that a foreigner is not a little startled on hearing a
young lady called Doña Jesusita. In some names the diminutive takes a
form totally different from the full name; as, for example, Panchita for
Francisca, Pepita for Josefa, Conchita for Concepcion. A married woman
does not take the family name of her husband, but retains her own,
adding to it her husband's name preceded by the particle _de_, as, for
example, Doña Maria Juana Rodriguez de Salazar.

On attaining a certain age, the Limeñas totally alter their habits of
life. When their beauty fades, and they cease to be the objects of
compliment and flattery; or when weary of an idle, luxurious, and, in
too many instances, a no very virtuous life, they betake themselves to
piety, and become _Beatas_.[23] The Limeña who thus renounces the
vanities of the world attends church two or three times every day,
confesses at least once every week, retires during Lent to a house of
penitence; fasts, prays, and receives the visits of her confessor, to
whom she sends presents of sweetmeats;--and should the holy man, as is
usually the case, prefer riding to walking, she shows her piety by
giving him the use of her _Calesa_ to convey him from place to place.

The women of Lima are gifted by nature with extraordinary natural
talent, though unfortunately it is rarely cultivated. They possess
shrewd and penetrating intelligence, clear judgment, and in general
very just views on the ordinary affairs of life. Like the women of the
southern provinces of Spain, they are remarkable for quickness and
smartness of repartee, and in a wordy contest a Limeña is sure to come
off triumphant. They have a great deal of decision of character, and a
degree of courage which does not usually fall to the lot of the female
sex. In these respects they are infinitely superior to the timid,
spiritless men. In the various political revolutions of the country,
the women have often taken an active, and, in some instances, a more
decided part than the men.

The Indians in Lima form but a small portion of the population, being
about 5000 in number. Among them are as many emigrants as natives. Most
of the former are from the mountainous districts, and but few are from
places on the coast. Their character is, of course, much modified by
continual intercourse with the whites; but I will endeavor to describe
them as they show themselves in their original purity, marking the
distinctions observable between the _Indio Costeño_ (the Coast
Indian), and the _Indio Serrano_ (the mountain Indian). The Indians in
Lima are active and industrious. Many of them are shopkeepers, and by
the integrity of their dealings they stand on a footing of good credit
with the great commercial houses. Those who are employed as servants
are less remarkable for industry and honesty. They are reserved and
suspicious; qualities especially observable when they have but
recently emigrated into Lima. They combine personal vanity with an
inconceivable degree of dirtiness. Their intellectual faculties are
far beneath those of the white Creoles, of whom they stand in a
degree of fear, which is not easily eradicated.

At a former period there existed in Lima a college exclusively for
noble-born Indians; and the eldest sons of the families descended
from the Incas, when they wished to study, were received at the
expense of the State into the College of San Carlos; but since the
declaration of independence, all the privileges enjoyed by the
Indians have been annulled.

The negroes in Lima form one-fifth part of the population. Their
number amounts to upwards of 10,000, of which 4800 are slaves. Though
an article in the Charter of Independence declares that "in Peru no
person is born a slave," yet the National Congress has on various
occasions thought fit to deviate from this principle. In Huaura it was
decreed that children born in slavery shall be free on attaining the
age of twenty-five, and the Congress of Huancayo prolonged the period
to fifty years. There are no new importations of negroes from Africa,
for an article in the Charter just mentioned sets forth that "every
person who may be brought, as a slave, from another country to Peru,
is free from the moment when he sets foot on the soil of that
republic." Accordingly, if a Peruvian take his slave with him on a
journey to Chile, and brings him back again, the slave may, on his
return, claim his freedom. The only exception to this rule refers to
runaway negroes, who, even after years of absence, may be reclaimed on
their return. The value of slaves is not so high in Peru as in the
southern states of North America. In Lima, the average price of a
young, strong, and healthy negro is 400 dollars; the price of a
negress, especially a _Negra de Chavra_ (capable of field work), is
100 dollars higher. The value of those destined for domestic service
depends on character and qualifications. A negress who is a good cook
or needlewoman, is of course worth more than a negro who is to be
employed as a water-carrier or a footman. In the plantations their
value depends wholly on health and strength.

The treatment of slaves in Lima, especially by the Creoles, is
exceedingly mild, and generally much on the same footing as the
treatment of servants in Europe. It is seldom that a master inflicts
severe corporal chastisement on a slave. If the latter requires
punishment, he is sent into the _Panaderia_ (the bakehouse) to knead the
dough and bake the bread, which work they perform under the supervision
of a Mayordomo, who is usually a hard task-master. Owing to the heat of
the climate, working in the _Panaderia_ is more feared by the slaves
than any other kind of punishment.

In Lima the special laws for the protection of slaves are more
favorable to them than the similar laws of any other slave country.
The slaves bring their complaints before a particular judge, whose
business it is to protect them against ill-treatment. A slave is free
whenever he can pay the sum which his master demands for him,--which
sum, in disputed cases, is fixed by legal decision. The slave also
possesses the right of selling himself to another master, and the
latter may pay the purchase-money to the former owner, who, however
unwillingly, is obliged to conclude the bargain. The negroes have
ample opportunities for saving money. They are permitted, during five
or six hours of the day, to work for themselves; so that in the course
of a few years they may with ease save the sum requisite for
purchasing their independence. But in general they spend their
earnings in mere idle enjoyments, and care but little about obtaining
their freedom. As slaves they are provided with lodging, food, and
clothing, and they are nursed in sickness; but as soon as they become
free, they must supply all these wants for themselves; an undertaking
which their natural indolence renders them little inclined to. On the
whole, domestic negroes may be said to be willing slaves; it is
possibly different with those employed in the plantations, who are
liable to harder work and harsher treatment. I knew an old negro, who
had hoarded up 6000 dollars, and yet did not purchase his own
freedom, though he had paid for the liberation of his children and
his two sisters. He often observed to me, that he should not be half
so well off if he were free.

The negroes brought from Africa, who are called _Bosales_, are far
better than the Creole negroes. In physical strength they are inferior
to the latter, and are less lively; yet they are patient, and much more
faithful and attached to their masters than the Creole negroes born in
Peru. The Bosales all have a certain degree of pride, but especially
those who are of princely blood. A gentleman of old Spain bought a
young negro princess, who not without the greatest difficulty could be
brought to perform the duties of servitude. When she was directed to go
to market, she set her basket down on the ground, and signified that she
had been accustomed to be served, and not to serve. Some chastisement
was resorted to, with the view of compelling her to do the duty allotted
to her; but in vain. Her pride and obstinacy remained unconquerable.
Sometimes she would sit for hours gloomily, with her eyes fixed on the
ground, and muttering between her teeth, in her broken Spanish, the
words, "_Yo clavita! yo clavita!_"[24] Then suddenly springing up, she
would strike her head against the wall until she became almost
senseless. As she showed a fondness for the children of the family, she
was relieved from household work, and became the nursery-maid. In that
way she discharged the duties which devolved on her with the most
touching affection and fidelity; but she never would do anything,
however trivial, which she considered to be menial service, and her
master and mistress were reasonable enough not to require it.

When the number of the African negroes in Lima was more considerable
than it now is, the various races kept together, and formed
themselves into unions, called _Cofradias_. They used to meet
together at regular periods. At these meetings the negroes of
princely descent were treated with marks of respect which they could
scarcely have received in their native home. Speeches were delivered,
and religious ceremonies performed; whilst music, singing, and
dancing, revived recollections of past happiness, and of the
far-distant native land. These Cofradias were also conducive to
philanthropic ends; for when a slave had a hard master, the sum
requisite for purchasing his freedom was raised by a general
subscription in the union to which he belonged. Since the
independence of Peru, and the consequent prohibition of the
importation of negroes, the Cofradias have declined, and have lost
much of their original character. Creoles and free negroes have now
become members of them. The places in which these meetings are held
are situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. The walls of the rooms
are painted with grotesque figures of negro kings, elephants,
camels, palm trees, &c.

In Lima, and indeed throughout the whole of Peru, the free negroes are a
plague to society. Too indolent to support themselves by laborious
industry, they readily fall into any dishonest means of getting money.
Almost all the robbers who infest the roads on the coast of Peru are
free negroes. Dishonesty seems to be a part of their very nature; and
moreover, all their tastes and inclinations are coarse and sensual. Many
warm defenders of the negroes excuse these qualities by ascribing them
to the want of education, the recollection of slavery, the spirit of
revenge, &c. But I here speak of free-born negroes, who are admitted
into the houses of wealthy families, who from their early childhood have
received as good an education as falls to the share of many of the white
Creoles--who are treated with kindness and liberally remunerated, and
yet they do not differ from their half-savage brethren who are shut out
from these advantages. If the negro has learned to read and write, and
thereby made some little advance in education, he is transformed into a
conceited coxcomb, who, instead of plundering travellers on the highway,
finds in city life a sphere for the indulgence of his evil propensities.
What is the cause of this incorrigible turpitude of the negroes? To
answer this important question is not easy, if we admit the principle
that the negro is as capable of cultivation as the Caucasian; and in
support of it the names of some highly-educated Ethiopians may be cited.
Those who are disposed to maintain this principle, and who are at the
same time intimately acquainted with the social relations of the
countries in which free negroes are numerous, may solve the problem. My
opinion is, that the negroes, in respect to capability for mental
improvement, are far behind the Europeans, and that, considered in the
aggregate, they will not, even with the advantages of careful education,
attain a very high degree of cultivation; because the structure of the
negro skull, on which depends the development of the brain, approximates
closely to the animal form. The imitative faculty of the monkey is
highly developed in the negro, who readily seizes anything merely
mechanical, whilst things demanding intelligence are beyond his reach.
Sensuality is the impulse which controls the thoughts, the acts, the
whole existence of the negroes. To them freedom can be only nominal; for
if they conduct themselves well it is because they are compelled, not
because they are inclined to do so. Herein lie at once the cause of, and
the apology for, their bad character.

The negro women differ but little from the men, in their general
characteristics. They are, however, more active and industrious, and
better tempered. As domestic servants they are superior to the mixed
races. They are much employed as nurses, and in those situations they
discharge their duties well. Their personal vanity is boundless, and
every real they can save is spent in dress and ornaments. It is amusing
to see them, on festival days, parading about the streets, dressed in
white muslin gowns trimmed with lace, and short sleeves displaying their
black arms. Very short petticoats, seldom extending below the ankle,
serve to exhibit the tawdry finery of red silk stockings and light blue
satin shoes. From their ears are suspended long gold drops, and their
uncovered necks are not unfrequently adorned with costly necklaces. A
negress, who was a slave belonging to a family of my acquaintance,
possessed a necklace composed of fine Panama pearls, worth several
thousand dollars. The pure white of the pearls was wonderfully
heightened by the contrast of the jet-black skin of the wearer; and for
this reason they were more ornamental to the negress than they would
have been to the fairest lady in Europe.

Having noticed the principal races, we will now consider the variegated
mass of people of mixed blood, who in Lima form a considerable portion
of the population. Stevenson[25] gives a long list of these mixed races,
and specifies the proportionate degree, that is to say, how many eighths
or sixteenths of black, brown, or white color belong to each. But these
data respecting tint are fallacious, for, being founded solely on
external appearance, they are liable to endless modifications. Stevenson
falls into the mistake of giving to the children of a negro father and
a white mother, the name of Zambos; whilst to the offspring of a white
father and a black mother, he gives the name of Mulattos. By a similar
error, he terms the children of a white man and a Cuarterona, Quinteros;
and to those of a Cuarteron and a white woman, he gives the designation
Cuarterones. It is, however, an established rule, that the children bear
the designation, denoting the same degree of mixed blood, whatever may
respectively be the colors of the parents. Accordingly, the child of a
negro and a white woman is, properly speaking, a Mulatto; just the same
as though the relations of race on the part of the parents were
transposed. When a man of mixed blood marries a woman darker than
himself, and his children thereby become further removed from the white
tint, it is said to be _un paso atras_ (a step backwards).

In Europe it is very common to attach to the term _Creole_, the idea of
a particular complexion. This is a mistake. The designation Creole
properly belongs to all the natives of America born of parents who have
emigrated from the Old World, be those parents Europeans or Africans.
There are, therefore, white as well as black Creoles.[26]

The subjoined list shows the parentage of the different varieties of
half-casts, and also the proper designations of the latter:--

PARENTS. CHILDREN.

White Father and Negro Mother Mulatto.
White Father and Indian Mother Mestizo.
Indian Father and Negro Mother Chino.
White Father and Mulatta Mother Cuarteron.
White Father and Mestiza Mother Creole (only distinguished from
the White, by a pale-brownish
complexion).
White Father and China Mother Chino-Blanco.
White Father and Cuarterona Mother Quintero.
White Father and Quintera Mother White.
Negro Father and Mulatta Mother Zambo-Negro.
Negro Father and Mestiza Mother Mulatto-Oscuro.
Negro Father and China Mother Zambo-Chino.
Negro Father and Zamba Mother Zambo-Negro (perfectly bl'k).
Negro Father and Cuarterona or
Quintera Mother Mulatto (rather dark).
Indian Father and Mulatta Mother Chino-Oscuro.
Indian Father and Mestiza Mother Mestizo-Claro (frequently very
beautiful).
Indian Father and China Mother Chino-Cholo.
Indian Father and Zamba Mother Zambo-Claro.
Indian Father and China-Chola
Mother Indian (with rather short
frizzy hair).
Indian Father and Cuarterona or
Quintera Mother Mestizo (rather brown).
Mulatto Father and Zamba Mother Zambo (a miserable race).
Mulatto Father and Mestiza Mother Chino (of rather clear
complexion).
Mulatto Father and China Mother Chino (rather dark).

Besides the half-casts here enumerated, there are many others, not
distinguished by particular names, as they do not in color materially
differ from those above specified. The best criterion for determining
the varieties is the hair of the women: this is far less deceiving
than the complexion, for the color of the skin is sometimes
decidedly at variance with that characteristic of the race. Some of
the Mulatta females have complexions brilliantly fair, and features
which, for regularity, may vie with those of the most beautiful
women of Europe; but they bear the unmistakeable stamp of descent in
the short woolly hair.

The white Creole women of Lima have a peculiar quickness in detecting
a person of half-cast at the very first glance; and to the less
practised observer they communicate their discoveries in this way,
with an air of triumph; for they have the very pardonable weakness of
priding themselves in the purity of their European descent. Despite the
republican constitution, there prevails throughout Peru a strong pride
of cast, which shows itself at every opportunity. In quarrels, for
example, the fairer antagonist always taunts the darker one about his
descent. By all the varieties, the white skin is envied, and no one
thinks of disputing its superiority of rank. The Indian looks with
abhorrence on the Negro; the latter with scorn on the Indio. The
Mulatto fancies himself next to the European, and thinks that the
little tinge of black in his skin does not justify his being ranked
lower than the Mestizo, who after all is only an _Indio bruto_.[27]
The Zambo laughs at them all, and says "if he himself is not worth
much, yet he is better than his parents." In short, each race finds a
reason for thinking itself better than another.

In the commencement of the present chapter I made the observation that
the people of mixed blood unite in themselves all the faults without
any of the virtues of their progenitors. To this general remark,
however, the Mestizos form an honorable exception. They inherit many
of the good qualities both of the Whites and the Indians. They are
mild and affectionate. Their feelings are very excitable, and they
readily perform an act of kindness or generosity on the impulse of
the moment--but they are irresolute and timid. They attach themselves
affectionately to the Whites; but they are not partial to the
Indians, whom they regard with some degree of contempt. In Lima their
number is less considerable than in the interior of the country,
where whole villages are inhabited solely by Mestizos. In those
places they style themselves Whites, and hold themselves very much
aloof from the Indians. One cannot pay them a better compliment than
to inquire whether they are Spaniards, a question which they always
answer in the affirmative, though their features are plainly
impressed with the Indian stamp. The complexion of the Mestizos is
usually a clear brown; but in some individuals it has a very dark
tinge. Their hair is sleek, long, and very strong. The women
frequently wear their hair in two long plaits descending nearly to
the knees. The men are strongly made, have marked features and but
very little beard. In Lima they are chiefly handicraftsmen and
traders. Most of the hawkers (Mercachifles) in Lima are Mestizos.

The Mulattos differ very widely from the Mestizos. In person they are
less strongly made; but in intellect they are superior to any of the
half-casts. They possess a very great aptitude for mechanical
employments, great dexterity and a remarkable degree of imitative
talent, which, if well directed, might be brilliantly developed. They
are exceedingly impressionable, and all their feelings are readily
exalted into passions. Indifferent to all out sensual enjoyments, they
indulge in the fleeting pleasure of the present moment, and are
regardless of the future. There is a certain class of Mulattos, who,
in a psychological point of view, are very remarkable. They are
distinguished by the nick-name of _Palanganas_.[28] They are gifted
with wonderful memory, and after the lapse of years they will repeat,
word for word, speeches or sermons which they have heard only once.
With this extraordinary power of memory, they combine a fertile fancy,
and a boundless share of self-confidence. Wherever there is anything
to be seen or heard, the Palanganas never fail to attend, and they
repeat with the most ludicrous attitudes and gestures all that they
hear, be it a sermon in church, a speech in Congress, or an address
delivered at any public solemnity.

The Mulattos now study theology; for, since the establishment of
independence, the Indian law, which prohibited any person of mixed
blood from entering the ecclesiastical state, is no longer observed.
Many have devoted themselves to medicine; and most of the physicians
in Lima are Mulattos; but they are remarkable only for their
ignorance, as they receive neither theoretical nor clinical
instruction. Nevertheless, they enjoy the full confidence of the
public, who rank the ignorant native far above the educated foreigner.
The business of a barber is one that is much followed by the Mulattos
of Lima. In that occupation they are quite in their element, for they
possess all the qualifications for which the members of that
fraternity are distinguished in all parts of the world.

Among the Mulatto females many are remarkably beautiful--though they
are always wanting in that oval form of the face which is the first
condition of classic beauty. Their countenances are generally round
and broad, their features strongly marked, and their expression
impassioned. Their beauty soon fades; and as they advance in life the
negro character of their features becomes distinctly defined. Their
hair, which does not grow beyond a finger's length, is jet black and
frizzy. They plait it very ingeniously in small tresses, frequently
making more than a hundred. Their complexions vary from white to
dark-brown; but most of them are dark brunettes, with large black
eyes and pearl-white teeth.

Their vanity is quite equal to that of the Negresses, but it is
combined with a certain degree of taste, in which the latter are
wanting. The Mulatto women are passionately fond of music, singing
and dancing. They play the guitar and have pleasing voices, but
their singing is quite uninstructed.

The Zambos are the most miserable class of half-casts. With them
every vice seems to have attained its utmost degree of development;
and it may confidently be said that not one in a thousand is a useful
member of society, or a good subject of the state. Four-fifths of the
criminals in the city jail of Lima are Zambos. They commit the most
hideous crimes with the utmost indifference, and their lawless
propensities are continually bringing them into collision with the
constituted authorities. In moral nature they are below the Negroes;
for they are totally wanting in any good qualities possessed by the
latter. Their figures are athletic, and their color black, sometimes
slightly tinged with olive-brown. Their noses are much less flat
than those of the Negroes, but their lips are quite as prominent.
Their eyes are sunk and penetrating, and their hair very little
longer than that of the Negroes, but curling in larger locks. The
men have very little beard.

The Chinos are but little superior to the Zambos. Indeed, in physical
formation they are inferior to them, for they are small and
attenuated. Their countenances are hideously ugly. They have the Negro
nose and mouth, and the Indian forehead, cheeks and eyes. Their hair
is black, rough, but less frizzy than that of the Mulattos. They are
deceitful, ill-tempered, and cruel. They never forget an offence, but
brood over it till an opportunity, however distant, presents itself
for wreaking their vengeance. They are very dangerous enemies.

Respecting the half-casts of fairer complexion, especially the
Cuarterones and the Quinteros, there is but little to be said. Both
physically and morally they approximate closely to the whites, among
whom they almost rank themselves.

The majority of the foreigners in Lima, and indeed throughout the whole
of Peru, are the families of the Spaniards from Europe, who emigrated to
South America before the war of independence. Since the close of that
struggle there has been but little emigration, as the circumstances of
the country are not now very favorable to new settlers. The old Spanish
families are for the most part landed proprietors or merchants. They are
people of very temperate habits, but they are passionately fond of
gaming, and in this respect they have bequeathed a dangerous inheritance
to the Creoles. The pride and mercenary spirit which distinguished the
Spaniards before the independence are now broken, if not entirely
subdued. The intercourse between them and the natives, though still
somewhat constrained, is every year becoming more and more friendly, as
the privileges enjoyed by the Spaniards, which were a continued cause of
hostile feeling, are now removed.

Next to the Spaniards, the most numerous class of foreigners are the
Italians. These are chiefly Genoese, and the majority are run-away
sailors and adventurers. They usually begin by setting up a Pulperia (a
brandy shop), or a spice shop, and gradually extend their traffic until,
in the course of a few years, they amass money enough to return to their
native country. Some of them make good fortunes and possess extensive
warehouses.

The French in Lima occupy the same positions as their countrymen in
Valparaiso, viz., they are tailors and hair-dressers, dealers in
jewellery and millinery.

The English and North Americans, who are much better liked by the
natives than the French, are chiefly merchants. They are the heads of
the principal commercial houses, as Gibbs, Grawley & Co., Alsop & Co.,
Templeman and Bergmann, Huth, Crüning & Co., &c. The enterprising
spirit of the English and North Americans has led many of them into
extensive mining speculations, which in some instances have proved
very unfortunate.

The Germans in Lima are proportionally few. They are distinguished by
their aptitude for business, and many of them fill high stations in the
great English commercial houses. They are held in high esteem by the
natives. The general gravity of their manners has given rise, among the
Limeños, to the saying, "_Serio como un Aleman_"--Serious as a German.

Settlers from the other American republics have of late years
considerably increased in Lima. After the Chilian expedition, many
Chilenos established themselves in Peru, and numbers of Argentinos,
escaping from the terrorism of Rosas in Buenos Ayres, have taken refuge
in Lima.

Foreigners being in general more industrious and more steady than the
Creoles, the Limeños readily form connexions with them. The ladies
generally prefer marrying a _Gringo_[29] to a _Paisanito_.[30]

I may close this chapter on the inhabitants of Lima, with some remarks
on the Spanish language as spoken in the capital of Peru. The old
Spaniards, who brought their various dialects into the New World, retain
them there unchanged. The Galician transposes the letters _g_ and _j_;
the Catalonian adds an _s_ to the final syllables of words, and gives a
peculiarly harsh sound to the letter _j_; the Andalusian rolls the _r_
over his tongue, and imparts a melodious expression even to
harsh-sounding words; the Biscayan mingles a variety of provincialisms
with his own peculiar dialect. The Madrileño (native of Madrid) prides
himself here, as well as in Europe, in being far superior to the rest of
his countrymen in elegance of pronunciation. The Creoles, however, have
gradually dropped the characteristic dialects of their progenitors, and
have adopted new ones, varying one from another in the different South
American provinces. The Spanish language, as spoken by the natives of
Peru, differs widely from the correct and pure model of pronunciation.
The inhabitants of the coast have too soft an accent, and they
frequently confound, one with another, letters which have a mutual
resemblance in sound. On the other hand, the people who dwell in the
mountainous districts speak with a harsh accent, and very
ungrammatically. As the Swiss force out their guttural tones from the
lowest depth of their throats, and with the strongest possible
aspiration, so do the Peruvians of the Cordillera. The inhabitants of
the sand flats of North Germany, on the contrary, impart a ludicrously
soft sound to the harsher consonants; and the same peculiarity is
observable in the people who inhabit the coast of Peru.

Of all the inhabitants of Lima, the white Creoles speak the best
Spanish; but still their language is far from pure. The ladies in
particular have the habit of substituting one letter for another in
certain words; for example, instead of _pulso_ (pulse) they say
_purso_, and instead of _salsa_ (sauce) they say _sarsa_. In other
words they substitute _d_ for _r_, saying _amod_ for _amor_,
_cavalledo_ for _cavallero_. The _ll_ is frequently sounded by the
Peruvians like _y_, a blunder which foreigners are also very apt to
commit; for example, in the word _pollo_ (chicken), which they
pronounce as if it were spelled _poyo_, and _gallina_ (hen) they
pronounce as if spelled _gayina_. Not only do they confound single
letters, but they frequently change whole syllables; as for instance,
in the word _pared_ (wall), which they transform into _pader_. The
name of the well-known ex-President Orbegoso was, by two-thirds of the
natives of Lima, pronounced as if written _Obregoso_. There is no word
in the Spanish language beginning with an _s_ followed by a consonant,
and the Limeños, when they attempt to pronounce foreign words or
proper names commencing in the manner just described, never fail to
prefix to them the letter _e_. I know not whether in the schools and
colleges of old Spain this method of prefixing the letter _e_ is
adopted in teaching Latin; but the practice is universal among the
students of all the colleges in Lima. For studium they say _estudium_;
for spurius, _espurius_; for sceleratus, _esceleratus_, &c.

To the Limeños the correct pronunciation of these words is extremely
difficult, and many have assured me that they find it impossible to
omit the _e_ before the _s_. Still more arbitrary is their conversion
of _h_ into _k_ in the words mihi, nihil, &c., which they pronounce
_miki_, _nikil_.

The colored Creoles, who are generally uneducated, speak the Spanish
language much more corruptly than the whites. The Negroes have a very
bad accent. Their tongues seem quite unfitted for the pronunciation of
the Spanish language, which many of them render unintelligible by
transposing letters and lopping off syllables.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 13: Interpretations of the Indian Laws.]

[Footnote 14: His divine genius has produced eternal spring in
Arequipa.]

[Footnote 15: "Guia del Peru." "Observaciones sobre el clima de Lima y
sus influencias en los seres organizados en especial el hombre."]

[Footnote 16: The women of Lima clean their teeth several times a day
with the root called _Raiz de dientes_ (literally _root for the teeth_),
of which they keep a piece constantly in their pocket.]

[Footnote 17: It is related that, during the war of independence, when
Lima was alternately in possession of the Patriots and the Spaniards, a
party of the latter, in order to ascertain the spirit of the Limeños,
disguised themselves as Patriots and marched to the vicinity of the
town. On their approach becoming known, a great number of persons
proceeded from Callao to the Alameda to meet them. Among those who went
forth to welcome the supposed patriots were a number of women dressed in
the narrow _sayas_ above described. When the disguised Spaniards had
advanced within a little distance of the deceived multitude they began
to attack them. The men saved themselves by flight; but the women, whose
sayas impeded their motion, were unable to escape, and were almost all
killed.]

[Footnote 18: A _Tapada_ is a lady closely concealed beneath the folds of
her veil or manto. The term is derived from the verb _tapar_, to cover
or conceal. _Taparse a media ojo_, is said of a lady when she draws her
manto over her face so as to leave only one eye or rather the half of an
eye uncovered.--T.]

[Footnote 19: A preparation of finely-bruised maize mixed with morsels of
pork. It is rolled in maize leaves, and in that manner served up.]

[Footnote 20: Sweet cakes made of maize and raisins.]

[Footnote 21: A syrup made from the pulp of fruit.]

[Footnote 22: Preserved peas with syrup.]

[Footnote 23: Literally Bigots.]

[Footnote 24: Meaning _Yo esclavita!_ (I, a slave!) _Esclavita_ being the
diminutive of _Esclava_.]

[Footnote 25: Narrative of twenty years' residence in South America, by
W. B. Stevenson.]

[Footnote 26: The term Creole is a corruption of the Spanish word
_criollo_, which is derived from _criar_ to create or to foster. The
Spaniards apply the term _criollo_ not merely to the human race, but
also to animals propagated in the colonies, but of pure European blood:
thus they have _creole_ horses, bullocks, poultry, &c.]

[Footnote 27: A brutish Indian; a favorite expression of the Limeños when
speaking of the Indians, who certainly do not merit the compliment.]

[Footnote 28: The word _Palangana_ signifies a wash-hand-basin; but more
especially the kind of basin used by barbers. Figuratively the term is
used to designate an empty babbler.]

[Footnote 29: _Gringo_ is a nickname applied to Europeans. It is probably
derived from _Griego_ (Greek). The Germans say of anything
incomprehensible, "That sounds like Spanish,"--and in like manner the
Spaniards say of anything they do not understand, "That is Greek."]

[Footnote 30: _Paisanito_ is the diminutive of _Paisano_
(Compatriot.)]

CHAPTER VI.

Primary Schools--Colleges--The University--Monks--Saints--Santo
Toribio and Santa Rosa--Religious Processions--Raising the
Host--The Noche Buena--The Carnival--Paseos, or Public
Promenades--Ice--Riding and Driving--Horses--Their Equipments and
Training--Mules--Lottery in Lima--Cookery--Breakfasts, Dinners,
&c.--Coffee-houses and Restaurants--Markets--The _Plazo Firme del
Acho_--Bull Fights.

Schools for primary instruction are numerous in Lima, and upon the
whole they are tolerably well conducted. There are thirty-six of these
primary schools, public and private; twenty for boys, and sixteen for
girls; and altogether about 2000 pupils[31] receive in these
establishments the first elements of juvenile instruction. The
principal public institutions of this class are the Normal School of
Santo Tomas (in which the Lancasterian system is adopted), and the
Central School of San Lazaro. Each contains from 320 to 350 pupils. Of
the private schools, some are very well conducted by Europeans. The
College of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe was founded a few years ago by
two Spanish merchants. In this establishment the sons of the wealthier
class of people may receive a better education than they can obtain in
the public schools. There are three Latin schools, and the number of
pupils attending them amounts to about two hundred.

The College of Santo Toribio is exclusively appropriated to students of
theology, who are likewise received into the College of San Carlos,
though the latter is chiefly destined for the study of jurisprudence.
San Carlos was founded in the year 1770 by the Viceroy Amat, who
incorporated with it the previously existing Colleges of San Martin and
San Felipe. In the year 1822 the Colegio de Esquilache was likewise
united to San Carlos, which now contains about a hundred students. The
building is large and commodious, containing spacious halls, a fine
refectory, and a well-stored library. There are five professors of law
and two of theology. French, English, geography, natural philosophy,
mathematics, drawing, and music are likewise taught in this college. The
annual revenue of the establishment, exclusively of the fees paid by the
students, amounts to 19,000 dollars. During the war of emancipation,
this establishment for a time bore the name of Colegio de San Martin, in
honor of General San Martin, the liberator of Chile; but its original
title was soon restored.

The Colegio de San Fernando was founded in 1810 by the Marques de la
Concordia, for students of medicine. In the year 1826 this Institution
received the name of _Colegio de la Medecina de la Independencia_, a
title which it justly merits, for certainly medicine is taught there
with a singular independence of all rules and systems. The Professors,
who themselves have never received any regular instruction, communicate
their scanty share of knowledge in a very imperfect manner to the
students. The number of the students is between twelve and fifteen, and
there are two Professors. The clinical lectures are delivered in the
Hospital of San Andres, to which an anatomical amphitheatre was
attached in 1792. The heat of the climate renders it necessary that
burials should take place within twenty-four hours after death, a
circumstance which naturally operates as an impediment to the
fundamental study of anatomy. It cannot therefore be matter of surprise
that the native surgeons should have but a superficial knowledge of
that important branch of science.

In the University of San Marcos no lectures are delivered, and the
twenty-five Professors' chairs are merely nominal. Honors and degrees
are however conferred in San Marcos, and the same rules and ceremonies
are observed as in the Spanish Universities. In the departments of
medicine and jurisprudence there are three degrees; those of Bachelor,
Licentiate, and Doctor. In former times the dignity of Doctor was
conferred with great pomp and solemnity, and the public were admitted in
large numbers to witness the ceremony. The acquisition of the degree of
Doctor was then attended by an expense of about two thousand dollars,
chiefly expended in presents. The new Doctor was required to send to
every member of the University, from the Bachelors to the Rector, a new
dollar, a goblet full of ice, and a dish of pastry.

Lima is overrun with monks, lay and conventual. The monastic regulations
are not very strict, for the monks are permitted to leave the convents
at all hours, according to their own pleasure. They avail themselves of
this liberty to the utmost extent. Friars of various orders are seen in
the streets in numbers. Most of them are fat Dominicans, who sit in the
Portales playing at draughts, or lounge in shops staring at the
_Tapadas_ as they pass by. Many of these ecclesiastics are remarkable
for their disregard of personal cleanliness; indeed it would be
difficult to meet with a more slovenly, ignorant, and common-place class
of men. They frequent all places of public entertainment, the
coffee-houses, the chichereas, the bull-fights, and the theatres: these
two last-mentioned places of amusement they visit in disguise. The
Franciscans and the Mercenarias are little better than the Dominicans;
but the Descalzados (barefooted friars) lead a somewhat more strict and
regular life. To the monks of the _Buena Muerte_ belongs the duty of
administering the last consolation to the dying. Whenever they hear of
any person who is dangerously ill, they hasten to the house without
waiting till they are sent for, and they never leave the invalid until
he either recovers or dies. Day and night they sit by the sick-bed, and
scarcely allow themselves time for necessary rest and refreshment. I
have known many of these monks who, from long experience and
observation, but without any medical knowledge, had acquired wonderful
shrewdness in determining the degree of danger in cases of illness, and
who could foretel with almost unfailing certainty the moment of
dissolution. As soon as the patient has breathed his last, the monk
utters a short prayer, then giving the corpse a knock on the nose, he
silently takes his departure. I have frequently witnessed this singular
custom, but I never could discover its origin or motive. The habit worn
by the monks of _Buena Muerte_ is black, with a large red cross on the
breast, and hats with high conical crowns.

Many pious natives, or inhabitants of Lima, have been admitted among the
number of the saints. Of these the most distinguished was the Spaniard
Toribio, who, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, filled the
archiepiscopal chair in Lima. His kindness and charity have become
proverbial, and his many acts of benevolence are still alive in the
recollection of the people. Of many anecdotes that are related of him, I
may here quote one. Late one night, the patrol who was on duty in the
vicinity of the archbishop's palace, met a man in the street carrying a
heavy load on his back. The challenge, "Who goes there?" was answered by
the name "Toribio." The watch, uttering an oath, impatiently called out
"Que Toribio?" (What Toribio?) "El de la esquina!" (He who dwells at the
corner!) was the simple reply. The soldier angrily stepped up to his
interlocutor, and, to his astonishment, recognized the archbishop, who
was carrying a sick person to the hospital.

The saint to whom the Limeños render the highest honor, is Santa Rosa,
the saint of the city. She was a native of Lima, and is the only
Peruvian female who has attained the honor of being ranked among the
saints. On the 30th of August, the festival of Santa Rosa is
celebrated with great pomp in the cathedral, and her image, richly
bedecked with gold and jewels, is carried in solemn procession from
Santo Domingo to the Sagrario.

Religious processions are among the most favorite amusements of the
inhabitants of Lima. They are always very numerously attended; and it
may fairly be said that no merry-making would afford the Limeños so much
diversion as they derive from these pious solemnities. Vast numbers of
ladies join the processions as Tapadas, indulging in all sorts of
coquettish airs, and with thoughts evidently bent on any subject but
religion. The gentlemen station themselves in groups at the corners of
the streets, to admire the graceful figures of the Tapadas, whose faces
are concealed; and when the procession has passed one corner they rush
to another, to see it defile a second time; and in this manner continue
moving from place to place, as if they could never see enough of the
interesting spectacle. The most brilliant processions are those which
take place on the festivals of Corpus Christi, San Francisco, and Santo
Domingo. A very solemn procession takes place on the 28th of October,
the anniversary of the great earthquake of 1746.

Every morning, at a quarter to nine, the great bell of the cathedral
announces the raising of the host, during the performance of high mass.
Immediately every sound is hushed in the streets and squares. Coachmen
stop the carriages, riders check their horses, and foot-passengers stand
motionless. Every one suspends his occupation or his conversation, and
kneeling down, with head uncovered, mutters a prayer. But scarcely has
the third solemn stroke of the bell ceased to vibrate, when the noise
and movement are resumed; the brief but solemn stillness of the few
preceding moments being thus rendered the more impressive by contrast.
The same incident is renewed in the evening, between six and seven
o'clock, when the bell sounds for the Angelus (Oraciones). The cathedral
bell gives the signal, by three slow, measured sounds, which are
immediately repeated from the belfries of all the churches in Lima. Life
and action are then, as if by an invisible hand, suddenly suspended;
nothing moves but the lips of the pious, whispering their prayers. The
_Oracion_ being ended, every one makes the sign of the cross, and says
to the person nearest him, _Bueñas noches_ (Good night). It is regarded
as an act of courtesy to allow another to take precedence in saying
"Good night," and if several persons are together, it is expected that
the eldest or the most distinguished of the group should be the first to
utter the greeting. It is considered polite to request the person next
one to say _Bueñas noches_; he with equal civility declines; and the
alternate repetition of "_diga Vm._" (you say it), "_No, Señor, diga
Vm._" (No, Sir, you say it), threatens sometimes to be endless.

The effect produced by the three strokes of the cathedral bell is truly
astonishing. The half-uttered oath dies on the lips of the uncouth
negro; the arm of the cruel Zambo, unmercifully beating his ass, drops
as if paralyzed; the chattering mulatto seems as if suddenly struck
dumb; the smart repartee of the lively Tapada is cut short in its
delivery; the shopkeeper lays down his measure; the artizan drops his
tool; and the monk suspends his move on the draught-board: all, with one
accord, join in the inaudible prayer. Here and there the sight of a
foreigner walking along indifferently, and without raising his hat,
makes a painful impression on the minds of the people.

Christmas-night (_Noche buena_) is a great festival in Lima. The streets
and squares, especially the _Plaza Mayor_, are crowded with people,
amusing themselves in all sorts of ways. Hundreds of persons take their
seats on the benches of the Plaza; there they regale themselves with
sherbet, ices, and pastry, and look at the dancing of the negroes, &c.
On this occasion the midnight mass is performed with extraordinary
solemnity. On Christmas-day some of the families of Lima get up what are
called _Nacimientos_, consisting of symbolical representations of the
birth of the Saviour. On some of these shows considerable expense and
ingenuity are bestowed.

In Carnival time Lima is so unpleasant a place of residence that many
families retire to the country during that season of misrule. One of the
favorite sports consists in sprinkling people with water; and from all
the balconies various kinds of liquids are thrown on the passers-by.
Groups of Negroes post themselves at the corners of the streets, where
they seize people, and detain them prisoners, until they ransom
themselves by the payment of a certain sum of money. Those who do not
pay the money are rolled in the street gutters, and treated in the most
merciless way; whilst those who purchase grace escape with having a few
handfulls of dirty water thrown in their faces. Even in private houses,
relations and intimate acquaintances are guilty of the most
unwarrantable annoyances. Parties of young men enter the houses of
families with whom they are acquainted, and begin sprinkling the ladies
with scented water. That being exhausted, spring water, or even dirty
water, is resorted to, so that what began in sport ends in reckless
rudeness. The ladies, with their clothes dripping wet, are chased from
room to room, and thereby become heated. The consequence is, in many
instances, severe and dangerous illness. Inflammation of the lungs,
ague, rheumatism, &c., are the usual results of these carnival sports,
to which many fall victims. A year never passes in which several murders
are not committed, in revenge for offences perpetrated during the
saturnalia of the carnival.

A very favorite trick adopted in carnival time, for frightening people
as they pass along the streets, is the following:--a sack, filled with
fragments of broken glass and porcelain, is fastened to the balcony by a
strong rope, of such a length that, when suspended from the window, the
sack is about seven feet above the street. The apparatus being all
ready, a mischievous negress and her _amita_ (young mistress) watch the
passers-by until they select one for their victim. The sack is then
thrown over the front of the balcony, and a deafening crash ensues,
though the rope prevents its contents from hurting any one. It is well
known that in almost every street in Lima there is at least one balcony
ready prepared for the performance of this trick; yet the suddenness of
the crash always proves a shock, even to the strongest nerves. People
start and run to one side of the street, and are sometimes so terrified
that they drop down; then loud laughter and jeering remarks are heard in
the balcony. Every year this trick is prohibited by the police, but the
prohibition is treated with contempt.

One of the most popular recreations of the Limeños, especially of the
people of color, is the _Paseo de Amancaes_, which takes place on St.
John's Day. The Amancaes is a gently sloping plain, about half a mile
north-west of Lima, and it is bounded by a semicircular range of hills,
which rise from twelve to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the
sea. During the hot months of the year this plain is a parched and
barren waste; but when the misty and rainy season sets in, the Amancaes
is covered with numerous flowers, among which a beautiful yellow lily is
conspicuous. About the end of June this lily is in full bloom. On St.
John's Day booths and stalls are fitted up for the sale of various kinds
of refreshments, and throngs of people of all classes and colors are
seen riding or walking in the direction of the Amancaes. There they
amuse themselves with dancing, playing, eating, drinking, and gathering
flowers; and in the evening they return to Lima. It is amusing to see
the Mulattas and Zambas with bouquets of yellow lilies stuck in their
heads and bosoms. These women crowd into heavily-laden vehicles, beside
which their black cavaliers ride on horseback--all laughing, jesting,
and giving vent to unrestrained mirth. From the 24th of June to the end
of October, pleasure parties repair on Sundays and festival days, either
to the Amancaes or to the Lomas. The latter is a range of hills a little
further from Lima.

There is no want of promenades in the vicinity of the city. Leading from
the Callao gate is the fine long avenue of trees I have already
mentioned. In the suburb of San Lazaro there is a fine broad promenade
planted with trees, called the _alameda vieja_, at the end of which is
situated the Convent of the Descalzos. Along the bank of the Rimac there
is a new promenade planted with four rows of trees, called the _alameda
nueva_. Behind it the _Paseo militar_, with two rows of trees, extending
as far as _Piedra lisa_, on the road to the pleasant village of
Lurigancho. On the right of these promenades is the river, on the left
the pyramidal hill, of the Cerro de San Cristoval. At the extremity of
the Alameda nueva are the Puquio.[32] These baths are within a long
low-roofed building, covered on the top with straw mats.

On summer evenings the bridge and the Plaza Mayor are visited by
throngs of promenaders who there enjoy the refreshing breeze, which,
after sunset, is wafted from the Cordilleras, along the surface of the
Rimac. After the hour of the _Oraciones_ (evening prayers), the bridge
is crowded with gentlemen, who walk up and down whilst the ladies sit
in the rotundas built above each of the piers. Long rows of
promenaders are seen moving to and fro, either going to the Alamedas,
or returning from thence to the Plaza, to obtain refreshments. Before
the Portal de los Escribanos, on the Plaza Mayor, tables are laid out
with lemonade, almond milk and ices. The promenaders sit down on
benches, which are placed round these tables, and partake of
refreshments, none of which, however, are so delicious as the cool
breeze after the sultry heat of the day.

To the inhabitants of Lima, ice is one of the necessaries of life: it is
considered so indispensable, that a scarcity of it, during several days,
would be sufficient to excite popular ferment. In all revolutions,
therefore, the leaders carefully avoid calling into requisition the
service of the mules employed in the transport of ice. It is obtained in
the Cordilleras, at the distance of about twenty-eight leagues from
Lima. The Indians who ascend the glaciers break the ice into blocks of
about six arobas in weight, which are lowered by ropes down the
declivity of the mountain. The women and children then cover the blocks
of ice with Ichu grass (_Joara ichu_, R. P.), after which they are drawn
by another party of Indians to a depôt, about two leagues distant, where
they are packed on the backs of mules. Each mule carries two blocks.
Thirty mules form what is called a _Recua_, which daily proceeds from
the ice depôt to Lima. At intervals of two or three miles there are
stations where relays of mules are in readiness. The operations of
unloading and reloading are performed with the utmost possible speed,
and the mules are driven at a brisk trot, wherever the roads will admit
of it. In the space of eighteen or twenty hours, the ice reaches Lima,
and as may be expected, considerably reduced in weight by melting. The
average loss on two blocks of ice is about one hundred pounds.[33] The
daily consumption of ice in Lima is between fifty and fifty-five cwt.
About two-thirds of that quantity is used for preparing ices, most of
which are made of milk or pine-apple juice. Ice is hawked about the
streets of Lima for sale, and all day long Indians, carrying pails on
their heads, perambulate the streets, crying _helado_.

The ladies of Lima, when they make visits, seldom go on foot. They
generally ride in the _caleza_, a very ugly kind of vehicle, being
nothing more than a square box raised on two high wheels, and drawn
by a mule, on whose back a negro in livery is mounted. Many of the
older calezas, instead of being painted on the outside, are covered
with variegated paper. The calezin is a prettier kind of carriage,
and is drawn by two horses or mules. Taste in the article of carriages
is, however, improving in Lima, and several very elegant ones have
been recently introduced.

Within the last few years a regular line of omnibuses has been
established between Callao and Lima. From each of those cities an
omnibus starts daily, at eight in the morning and at four in the
afternoon, and the journey occupies an hour and a half. To Miraflores,
Chorillos, Lurin, and other places on the coast, the conveyance is by
a _balanzin_, a sort of caleza, drawn by three horses harnessed
abreast. This balanzin is one of the most awkward vehicles ever
invented, and the slightest shock it sustains is felt with double
force by the persons riding in it. At greater distances from the
capital, the want of proper roads renders the employment of vehicles a
matter of difficulty. Even along the coast to the south of Lima, a
journey of about forty leagues cannot be accomplished without vast
difficulty and expense. On such a journey it is usual for a train of
sixty or eighty horses to accompany the carriage; and it is found
necessary to change the horses every half-hour, owing to the
difficulty of drawing the carriage through the fine quicksand, which
is often more than a foot deep. A Peruvian planter, who was accustomed
to take his wife every year on a visit to his plantation, situated
about thirty-two leagues from Lima, assured me that the journey to and
fro always cost him 1400 dollars.

During the brilliant period of the Spanish domination, incredible sums
were frequently expended on carriages and mules. Not unfrequently the
tires of the caleza wheels and the shoes of the mules were of silver
instead of iron.

In Peru, riding is a universal custom, and almost every person keeps
one or more horses. The ladies of Lima are distinguished as graceful
horsewomen. Their equestrian costume consists of a white riding-habit,
trowsers richly trimmed with lace, a fine white poncho, and a
broad-brimmed straw hat. Some of the females of the colored races make
use of men's saddles, and display great skill in the management of the
most unruly horses.

The horse-trappings used in Peru are often very costly. On the coast and
in the interior, I have sometimes seen head-gear, bridle, and crupper,
composed of finely-wrought silver rings, linked one into another. The
saddle is frequently ornamented with rich gold embroidery, and the
holster inlaid with gold. The stirrups are usually the richest portion
of the trappings. They are made of carved wood, and are of pyramidal
shape; about a foot high and a foot broad at the base. In front and at
the sides they are close, and are open only at the back in the part
where the foot rests. The edges are rimmed with silver, and the top of
the stirrup is surmounted by a bell of the same metal, with a ring
through which the straps are passed. A priest with whom I was acquainted
in the Sierra, got a saddle and a pair of stirrups made for me. The
silver ornaments on the stirrups alone weighed forty pounds. The
decorations of the saddle were of corresponding richness. The value of
the silver on both saddle and stirrups was about 1500 dollars. The spurs
used in Peru are of colossal magnitude. Old custom ordains that they
must contain three marks (a pound and a half) of silver. The stirrup-bow
is broad and richly wrought; the ornaments being either of the pattern
called _hueso de tollo_,[34] or of that styled _hoja de laurel con
semilla_.[35] The rowel is one and a half or two inches in diameter, and
the points are about twenty-five or thirty inches long.

In the bridle, the bit and the snaffle are in one piece, and the reins
are brought together by being passed through a ring, to which the long
riding-whip is also fastened. The head-band and reins are commonly
composed of narrow slips of untanned calf or sheep-skin, plaited
together, and ornamented with silver buckles. The saddle is short and
narrow, and exceedingly awkward to riders unaccustomed to it. The front
bolster is four or five inches high, and inclines backward; the hind one
is lower, and is curved forward in the form of a half-moon; the
intervening space just affording sufficient room for the thighs of the
rider, who, in a saddle of this construction, is so firmly fixed that he
cannot possibly fall. These saddles have, however, one great
disadvantage, viz., that if the horse starts off at a gallop, and the
rider has not time to throw himself back in his seat, he is forced
against the front saddle-bolster with such violence that some fatal
injury is usually the consequence. Under the saddle is laid a
horse-cloth, called the _pellon_, about a yard long, and a yard and a
half wide. The common sort of pellones are composed of two rough
sheep-skins, sewed together. In the finer kind, the raw wool is combed
out, and divided into numberless little twists, of about the length of
one's finger; so that the pellon resembles the skin of some
long-haired animal. The finest Peruvian pellones are made of a mixture
of sheep's wool and goat's hair. Between the saddle and the pellon are
fastened the saddle-bags (_alforjas_), which, on long journeys, are
filled with provisions and other necessaries. These bags are made
either of leather or strong woollen cloth; finally, the trappings of a
Peruvian horse are not complete without the halter (_haquima_), which
is ornamented in the same manner as the bridle. The halter-strap
(_cabresto_) is wound round the front bolster of the saddle, and by it
the horse may be fastened whenever the rider alights, without the use
of the reins for that purpose. At first a foreigner is apt to regard
the equipments of a Peruvian horse as superfluous and burthensome; but
he is soon convinced of their utility, and, when the eye becomes
familiar to them, they have a pleasing effect.

The pure-bred Peruvian horse is more elegantly formed than his
Andalusian progenitor. He is of middling size, seldom exceeding
fourteen hands high. He has a strong expanded chest, slender legs,
thin pasterns, a short muscular neck, a rather large head, small
pointed ears, and a fiery eye. He is spirited, docile, and enduring.
It is only in a few plantations that the purity of the race is
preserved, and the animals fostered with due care. The common horse is
higher, leaner, less broad on the chest, and with the crupper thinner
and more depressed. He is, however, not less fiery and capable of
endurance than the horse of pure breed. The most inferior horses are
ill-looking, small, and rough-skinned.

On the coast of Peru the horses are for the most part natural amblers,
and, if they do not amble naturally, they are taught to do so. There are
several varieties of amble peculiar to the Peruvian horse; the most
approved is that called the _paso llano_. It is very rapid, but not
attended by any jolting motion to the rider. A well-trained horse may
safely be ridden by a young child at the _paso llano_; the motion being
so gentle and regular, that the rider may carry a cup of water in his
hand without spilling a drop, at the same time going at the rate of two
leagues an hour. Another variety of ambling is called the _paso
portante_. It consists in the fore and hind foot of one side being
raised simultaneously, and thrust forward. In this movement, the greater
or less speed depends on the degree in which the hind foot is advanced
in comparison with the fore one. It is a rapid, rocking sort of motion,
and for long continuance is much more wearying to the rider than the
common trot, as the body cannot be held upright, but must be kept in a
constant stooping position. The speed of a good ambler in the _paso
portante_ is so great, that he will outstrip another horse at full
gallop. The giraffe, as well as the Peruvian horse, has this peculiar
movement naturally. The _paso compañero_ is merely a nominal
modification of the _paso portante_. Many horses have no _paso llano_,
but in its stead a short trot. These have naturally the _paso portante_,
but they are little esteemed for travelling, though they are good
working animals. They are called _cavallos aguelillos_. Trotting horses
cannot be taught the _paso llano_, though they easily acquire the _paso
portante_. These are called _cavallos trabados_.

In Peru a horse is valued less for beauty of form than for the
perfection of his amble. The finest trotters are sold at very low
prices, and are used exclusively as carriage horses. If a horse when
spurred has the habit of flapping his tail, it is considered a serious
fault, and greatly depreciates the value of the animal. This vice is
called _mosquear_ (literally brushing off the mosquitoes), and the
Peruvians cure it by an incision in the muscle of the tail, by which
means the horse is disabled from making the movement.

The Peruvians take very little care of their horses. The remark, that
the more the horse is tended, the worse he is, would seem to be a
generally admitted truth in Peru. The stable (_coral_) is either totally
roofless, or very indifferently sheltered. In the mountainous parts of
the country, and during the rainy season, horses are frequently, for the
space of six months, up to their knees in mud, and yet they never seem
to be the worse for it. The fodder consists of lucern (_alfalfa_), or
maisillo, which is usually thrown down on the ground, though sometimes
placed in a stone trough, and the drink of the animals consists of
impure water collected from the ditches at the road sides. Occasionally
the horses are fed with maize, which they are very fond of. As no oats
are grown in Peru, barley is given together with maize, especially in
the interior of the country. Mares and geldings have sometimes the hair
between the ears cut off quite closely, and the mane arranged in short
curls, which gives them a resemblance to the horses in ancient
sculpture. Mares are but little valued, so little indeed, that no
respectable person will ride one.

The horse-breakers (_chalanes_) are generally free men of color. They
possess great bodily vigor, and understand their business thoroughly;
but they use the horses very cruelly, and thereby render them shy. For
the first three years foals are suffered to roam about with perfect
freedom; after that time they are saddled, an operation not performed
without great difficulty, and sometimes found to be impracticable,
until the animal is thrown on the ground and his limbs tied. The young
horse under the management of the _chalan_ is trained in all sorts of
equestrian feats, especially the art of pirouetting (_voltear_). This
consists in turning either wholly or half round on the hind legs with
great rapidity and when at full gallop. Another important object of
the _chalan_ is to teach the horse to stop short suddenly, and to
stand perfectly motionless (_sentarse_) at the signal of his rider;
and to go backward (_cejar_) for a considerable space in a straight
line. When all this is accomplished, the horse is regarded as
completely broken (_quebrantado_).

As an instance of the certainty with which a Peruvian horse will make a
pirouette (_voltata_) at the signal of his rider, I may mention the
following fact, which occurred under my own observation. A friend of
mine, in Lima, rode at full gallop up to the city wall (which is
scarcely nine feet broad), leaped upon it, and then made his horse
perform a complete _voltata_, so that the fore-feet of the animal
described the segment of a circle beyond the edge of the wall. The feat
he performed several times in succession, and he assured me he could do
the same with all his horses.

Peruvian taste requires that the neck of the horse should present a
finely-curved outline, and that the mouth should be drawn inward, so as
to approach the breast. The horses called _Cavallos_ de Brazo are much
esteemed. At every step they describe a large circle with their
fore-feet, in such a manner that the horse-shoe strikes the lower part
of the stirrup. This motion is exceedingly beautiful when combined with
what is termed the "Spanish pace," in which the noble form of the animal
and his proud bearing are advantageously displayed.

The mule is a very important animal in Peru. The badness of the roads
would render commercial communication impracticable, were it not for
mules. The Peruvian mules are fine, strong animals. The best are reared
in Piura, and sent to Lima for sale. The amblers are selected for the
saddle, the trotters for harness, and the rest are used as beasts of
burthen. The price of a mule of middling quality is one hundred dollars;
a better one double or treble that price; and the very best may even
cost ten times as much. The endurance of these animals under fatigue and
indifferent nurture is extraordinary, and without them the vast sand
plains of Peru would present insuperable obstacles to intercourse
between one place and another. In the power of continuous ambling they
exceed the horses, and are often equal to them in speed.

In Lima there is a public lottery, which the Government farms to a
private individual, for a considerable sum. The tickets are drawn
weekly. The price of a ticket is one real. The largest prize is 1000
dollars; the smaller prizes 500, 250, or 100 dollars. A lottery on a
larger scale is drawn every three months. The highest prize in this
lottery is 4000 dollars, and the price of the ticket is four reals. To
every ticket is affixed a motto, usually consisting of an invocation to
a saint, and a prayer for good luck, and at the drawing of the lottery
this motto is read aloud when the number of the ticket is announced. Few
of the inhabitants of Lima fail to buy at least one ticket in the weekly
lottery. The negroes are particularly fond of trying their luck in this
way, and in many instances fortune has been singularly kind to them.

"Eating and drinking keep soul and body together." So says the German
proverb; and it may not be uninteresting to take a glance at the Limeños
during their performance of these two important operations. The hour of
breakfast is generally nine in the morning. The meal consists of boiled
mutton (_Sancochado_), soup (_Caldo_), with yuccas, a very
pleasant-tasted root, and _Chupe_. This last-mentioned dish consists, in
its simplest form, merely of potatoes boiled in very salt water, with
cheese and Spanish pepper. When the chupe is made in better style, eggs,
crabs, and fried fish are added to the ingredients already named; and it
is then a very savory dish. Chocolate and milk are afterwards served. A
negress brings the _Chocolatera_ into the breakfast-room, and pours out
a cup full for each person. The natives prefer the froth to the actual
beverage; and many of the negresses are such adepts in the art of
pouring out, that they will make the cup so overflow with foam, that it
contains scarcely a spoonful of liquid. Chocolate is the favorite
beverage of the Peruvians. In the southern parts of the country it is
customary to offer it to visitors at all hours of the day. The visitor
is no sooner seated than he is presented with a cup of coffee, which is
often so thick that the spoon will stand upright in it. It would be a
breach of politeness to decline this refreshment, and whether agreeable
or not it must be swallowed!

The best cocoa is obtained from the Montañas of Urubamba, and from the
Bolivian Yungas. The long land transport, however, renders it very
dear, and therefore the nuts brought from Guayaquil are those commonly
used in Lima.

Dinner, which takes place about two or three in the afternoon, commences
with a very insipid kind of soup. This is followed by the _Puchero_,
which is the principal dish. Puchero, made in its best style, contains
beef, pork, bacon, ham, sausage, poultry, cabbage, yuccas, camotes (a
sort of sweet potato), potatoes, rice, peas, _choclitas_ (grains of
maize), quince and banana. When served up, the different kinds of meat
are placed in one dish, and the vegetable ingredients in another. I was
at first astonished at the poorness of the soups in Lima, considering
the quantity of meat used in preparing them; but I soon discovered that
the soup served up to table was little more than water, and that the
strong gravy of the meat was either thrown away or given to the negroes.
There prevails an almost universal belief that the liquor in which the
meat is first stewed is injurious to health. Only a very few families
are sufficiently free from this prejudice to allow the strong gravy to
be used in the preparation of _caldo_, &c. The Puchero is an excellent
and nutritious dish, and would in itself suffice for a dinner, to which,
however, in Lima, it is merely the introduction. Roast meat, fish,
vegetables, preserves and salad are afterwards served. Another dish not
less indispensable to a Lima dinner than _puchero_, is _picante_. Under
this denomination are included a variety of preparations, in which a
vast quantity of cayenne pepper is introduced. The most favorite
_picantes_ are the _calapulcra_, the _lagua_, the _zango_, the
_charquican_, the _adobas_, the _picante de ullucos_, &c. The
_calapulcra_ is composed of meat and potatoes dried and finely pounded;
the _lagua_ is made of maize flour and pork; the _zango_, of the same
ingredients, but differently prepared; the _adobas_ consists of pork
alone; and the _picante de ullucos_ is made of a root resembling the
potato, cut into small square bits. These dishes, though much too highly
seasoned for European palates, are considered great dainties by the
Limeños. All the _picantes_ have a very red color, owing to the quantity
of cayenne used in preparing them; the _achote_ grains, which are also
used, produce a beautiful vermilion tint. Another dish, common on the
dinner-table in Lima, is called _ensalada de frutas_. It is a most
heterogeneous compound, consisting of all sorts of fruits stewed in
water. To none but a Limanian stomach could such a mixture be agreeable.
The dessert consists of fruits and sweets (_dulces_). The Limeño must
always drink a glass of water after dinner, otherwise he imagines the
repast can do him no good; but to warrant the drinking of the water, or,
as the phrase is, _para tomar agua_, it is necessary first to partake of
_dulces_. The one without the other would be quite contrary to rule. The
dulces consist of little cakes made of honey or of the pulp of the
sugar-cane; or they are preserved fruits, viz., pine-apple, quince,
citron, and sometimes preserved beans or cocoa-nut. There is also a
favorite kind of dulce made from maize, called _masamora_.

The Peruvians have some very singular prejudices on the subject of
eating and drinking. Every article of food is, according to their
notions, either heating (_caliente_), or cooling (_frio_); and they
believe that certain things are in opposition one to another, or, as the
Limeños phrase it, _se oponen_. The presence in the stomach of two of
these opposing articles of food, for example, chocolate and rice, is
believed to be highly dangerous, and sometimes fatal. It is amusing to
observe the Limeños when at dinner, seriously reflecting, before they
taste a particular dish, whether it is in opposition to something they
have already eaten. If they eat rice at dinner, they refrain from
drinking water, because the two things _se oponen_. To such an extreme
is this notion carried, that they will not taste rice on days when they
have to wash, and laundresses never eat it. Frequently have I been asked
by invalids whether it would be safe for them to take a foot-bath on
going to bed, as they had eaten rice at dinner!

The white Creoles, as well as all the superior class of people in Lima,
are exceedingly temperate in drinking. Water and a kind of sweet wine
are their favorite beverage; but the lower classes and the people of
color are by no means so abstemious. They make free use of fermented
drinks, especially brandy, chicha, and guarapo. The brandy of Peru is
very pure, and is prepared exclusively from the grape. On the warm sea
coast, the use of this liquor is not very injurious; there, its evil
effects are counteracted by profuse perspiration. But one half the
quantity that may be drunk with impunity on the coast, will be very
pernicious in the cool mountainous regions. An old and very just maxim
of the Jesuits is, "_En pais caliente, aguardiente; en pais frio, agua
fria_" (in the warm country, brandy; in the cold country, water).

Guarapo is a fermented liquor, made of sugar-cane pulp and water. It
is a very favorite beverage of the negroes. There are several kinds of
guarapo. The best sorts are tolerably agreeable. _Chicha_ is a sort of
beer prepared from maize. The seeds of the maize are watered and left
until they begin to sprout, after which they are dried in the sun.
When sufficiently dry they are crushed, boiled in water, and then
allowed to stand till fermentation takes place. The liquid is of a
dark yellow color, and has a slightly bitter and sharp taste. Chicha
is likewise made from rice, peas, barley, yuccas, pine-apples, and
even bread. The kind most generally used is that made from maize. Even
before the Spanish conquest of Peru, this maize beer was the common
beverage of the Indians. In Lima there are some very dirty and
ill-arranged _restaurations_, styled _picanterias_. These places are
divided by partitions into several small compartments, each of which
contains a table and two benches. The _restaurateur_, usually a zambo
or a mulatto, prides himself in the superiority of his _picantes_ and
his _clicha_. The most motley assemblages frequent these places in the
evening. The Congo negro, the grave Spaniard, the white Creole, the
Chino, together with monks and soldiers, may be seen, all grouped
together, and devouring with evident relish refreshments, served out
in a way not remarkable for cleanliness. Brandy and guarapo are
likewise sold in shops which are to be met with at the corner of
almost every street. The coffee-houses are very inferior; most of
them are very dirty, and the attendance is wretched.

Every street in Lima contains one or more cigar shops, in which
mestizos and mulattos are busily employed in making cigars. Smoking is
a universal custom, and is practised everywhere except in the
churches. The cigars used in Lima are short, and the tobacco is rolled
in paper, or in dried maize leaves. The tobacco is brought from the
northern province, Jaen de Bracamoras, in very hard rolls called
_masos_, about a yard long and two inches thick. Another kind of
cigars is made of Peruvian or Columbian tobacco. They are scarcely
inferior to the Havannah cigars, and would be quite equal to them, if
they were kept long enough and well dried: but in Lima they are smoked
within a few hours after being made. When any one wants to light his
cigar in the street, he accosts the first smoker he happens to meet,
whatever be his color, rank, or condition; and asks him for a light.
The slave smokes in the presence of his master, and when his cigar
dies out, he unceremoniously asks leave to relight it at his master's.
It has been calculated that the daily cost of the cigars smoked in
Lima and the immediate vicinity amounts to 2,300 dollars.

Formerly the market was held on the Plaza Mayor, and was always
abundantly supplied with vegetables, fruit, and flowers. Now it is
held in the Plazuela de la Inquisicion, and it is very inferior to
what it used to be. Along the sides of the Plaza are stalls kept by
women, who sell sausages and fish. The central part of the market is
appropriated to the sale of vegetables, of which there is always an
excellent supply. Facing the Palace of the Inquisition are the
butchers' shops. The meat is good, though not very plentifully
displayed. The most abundant kinds of meat are mutton and beef. The
slaughtering of young animals being strictly prohibited by law, veal,
lamb, and sucking pigs are never seen in the market. The daily
consumption of butcher's meat in Lima is about twenty-eight or thirty
heads of horned cattle, and between one hundred and sixty and two
hundred sheep. Pork, neither fresh nor cured, is seen in the market;
though great numbers of swine are slaughtered. The fleshy parts of the
animal are cut into small square pieces, and boiled; the fat or lard
is used in cookery, and the pieces of pork, which are spread over with
lard, are called _chicharones_, and are held in high esteem by
Limanian epicures. There is an abundant show of poultry in the market,
especially fowls and turkeys, which are brought from Huacho. Game is
never sold, and but very little is obtained in the neighborhood of
Lima. The flower market, which is held on the Plaza Mayor, is but
sparingly supplied with the gifts of Flora. The ladies of Lima recal
pleasing recollections of the former glory of their flower market, and
speak with regret of its present degenerate condition. The
much-vaunted _pucheros de flores_ are still occasionally displayed for
sale. They are composed of a union of fragrant fruits and flowers.
Several small fruits are laid on a banana leaf, and above them are
placed odoriferous flowers, tastefully arranged according to their
colors: the whole is surmounted with a strawberry, and is profusely
sprinkled with _agua rica_, or lavender water. These _pucheros_ are
very pleasing to the eye, on account of the tasteful arrangement of
the flowers; but their powerful fragrance affects the nerves. They
vary in price, according to the rarity of the fruits and flowers of
which they are composed. Some cost as much as six or eight dollars.
A _puchero de flores_ is one of the most acceptable presents that
can be offered to a Lima lady.

A mingled feeling of disgust and surprise takes possession of the
European who witnesses the joy which pervades all classes of the
inhabitants of Lima on the announcement of a bull-fight. For several
days the event is the exclusive topic of conversation, and, strange to
say, the female portion of the population takes greater interest in it
than the men. Bills notifying the approaching entertainment are stuck up
at the corners of the streets; and every one is anxious to obtain a
_lista de los toros_. When the season of the toros[36] commences, a
bull-fight takes place every Monday, and then the whole city of Lima is
thrown into a state of indescribable excitement. The ladies prepare
their finest dresses for the occasion, and they consider it the greatest
possible misfortune if anything occurs to prevent them going to the
bull-fight: indeed, a Monday passed at home in the season of the toros
would be regarded as a lost day in the life of a Limeña. Those who
cannot go to the _corrida_, resort to the bridge, or to the Alameda,
where they sit and amuse themselves by looking at the throngs of people
passing and repassing.

In the time of the Viceroys, bull-fights frequently took place on the
Plaza Mayor. Now there is a place expressly built for these
entertainments, called the _Plaza firme del Acho_. It is a spacious
amphitheatre without a roof, and is erected at the end of the new avenue
of the Alameda. The preparations for the sport commence at an early hour
in the morning. Along the Alameda are placed rows of tables covered with
refreshments, consisting of lemonade, brandy, chicha, picantes, fish,
dulces, &c. About twelve o'clock, those who have engaged places in the
amphitheatre begin to move towards the Plaza del Acho.

Most European ladies would turn with horror, even from a description
of these cruel sports, which the ladies of Lima gaze on with delight.
They are barbarous diversions, and though they form a part of national
customs, they are nevertheless a national disgrace. At the same time
it would be unjust to make this love of bull-fighting a ground for
unqualified censure on the Limeños, or a reason for accusing them of
an utter want of humanity. Being accustomed to these diversions from
early childhood, they regard them with perfect indifference; and
custom, no doubt, blinds them to the cruelties they witness in the
bull-ring. The same extenuation may be urged in behalf of the women:
and though to most of the Limeñas a bull-fight affords the highest
possible gratification, yet there are some who form honorable
exceptions to this remark, and who, with true feminine feeling, shrink
with horror from such scenes.

Peru is the only one of the South American states in which bull-fights
are included in the category of public amusements. As Peru was the last
to answer the cry of independence, and to shake off the yoke of Spanish
domination, so she adheres with most tenacity to the customs of the
mother country; for she has not the energy requisite for developing a
nationality of her own. Even here is apparent that want of independence
of character for which the Peruvians are remarkable. The faults of the
Spaniards in them become vices, because, in imitating without
reflecting, they push everything to an extreme. Thus, if bull-fights are
cruel in Spain, they are barbarous in Lima. The government, too, finds
it expedient to court popularity by favoring public entertainments,
among which bull-fights take the lead. By allowing the people to indulge
unrestrainedly in all their favorite amusements, the government gains a
two-fold object, viz., that of securing the support, if not the love of
the people, and of averting public attention from political affairs.
These, it must be confessed, are important objects in a country which,
like Peru, is continually disturbed by revolutions caused by the
outbreaks of a turbulent populace, or an undisciplined army.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 31: A very small number in a population of 55,000.]

[Footnote 32: _Puquio_ in the Quichua language signifies springs.]

[Footnote 33: These fine blocks of ice clearly refute the assertion
made by some travellers, that the first real glaciers are found in
19° S. lat. The extensive fields of ice from which the blocks in
question are brought are situated in 11° 14' S. lat.]

[Footnote 34: A sort of arabesque resembling the backbone of a fish
called the _Tollo_.]

[Footnote 35: Laurel leaves and seed.]

[Footnote 36: _Toros_ (Bulls) is used by way of contraction for
_Corrida de Toros_ (Bull Course).]

CHAPTER VII.

Lima, according to the careful observations made by Herr Scholtz, is
situated in 12° 3' 24'' south latitude, and 77° 8' 30'' west longitude
from Greenwich. It may, however, be mentioned that the longitude from
Greenwich is very differently stated. In sea charts and Manuals of
Geography it is often marked 76° 50'. Humboldt makes it 77° 5' 5''; and
Malaspina 77° 6' 45''. According to Ulloa it is 70° 37' west of Cadiz.
The latitude is very generally fixed at 12° 2' 3'' south. The height
above the level of the sea is also differently estimated. Rivero, in the
_Memorial de Ciencias Naturales_, I., 2, page 112, states it to be 154
metres, or 462 French feet. On another occasion he makes it 184-4/5
Castilian varas (each vara being equal to 33 inches English). He gives
the following account of heights, according to the barometer, between
Callao and Lima, in varas, viz., Callao, 00; Baquijano, 24-3/5; _La
Legua_, 50-2/5; Mirones, 94-3/20; Portada del Callao, 150; _Plaza de
Lima_, 184-4/5.

The first estimate given by Rivero is the most correct. Gay makes the
height of Lima, at the corner of the church of _Espiritu Santo_, 172·2
Castilian varas; but most of his heights are incorrectly stated.

The conical hill in the north-east of Lima, called Cerro de San
Cristoval, is, according to trigonometrical measurements, made in 1737,
by Don Jorge Juon, and De la Condamines, 312 varas higher than the Plaza
Mayor, or 134 toises above the sea; but one of the most exact
measurements is Pentland's, who found the height to be 1275 English
feet.

The average temperature during the hottest period of the year, from
December to March, is 25° C. The medium temperature during the cold
season, from April to November, 17·5° C. Highest rise of the hygrometer,
21·5°.

The low temperature of Lima at the distance of only twelve degrees from
the Equator is to be ascribed to the situation of the town, and the
prevailing atmospheric currents. The Cordilleras, rising at the distance
of only twenty-eight Spanish leagues east of the city, are crowned with
eternal snow; and on the west the sea is distant only two leagues. The
prevailing wind blows from the south-south-west. West winds are not very
common, though they sometimes blow with extraordinary violence for those
regions, and breaking on the surrounding mountains, they form
atmospheric whirlwinds, which diffuse alarm through the whole
population. In June, 1841, I had the opportunity of observing one of
these dreadful whirlwinds, which swept away huts, and tore up trees by
the roots. The atmospheric currents from the north, which pass over the
hot sand-flats, are not of constant occurrence, but they are
oppressively sultry. There must be other causes for the low temperature
of Lima, for in the villages, only a few miles from the city, and
exposed to the same atmospheric influences, it is much higher.

Miraflores is a small place, about one Spanish league and a half from
Lima, but it is much hotter. Among the records of the thermometer are
the following:--

December 20 to 27, maximum 31·8° C.; minimum, 25·9° C.

December 28, at 6 in the morning, 26·0° C.; at 2 P.M., 32·7° C.;
at 10 at night, 27·3° C.

January 1, at 2 P.M., 33·1° C., maximum of the day.

January 18, at 2 P.M., maximum 34·2° C.

A comparison with the temperature of Lima, on the same days, gives an
average of 5·7° C. of heat in favor of Miraflores.

The River Rimac, which rises among the glaciers of the Cordilleras, and
after a course of no great length, intersects the city, doubtless
contributes to cool the atmosphere.

The climate of Lima is agreeable, but not very healthy. During six
months, from April to October, a heavy, damp, but not cold mist,
overhangs the city. The summer is always hot, but not oppressive. The
transition from one season to another is gradual, and almost
imperceptible. In October and November the misty canopy begins to rise;
it becomes thinner, and yields to the penetrating rays of the sun. In
April the horizon begins to resume the misty veil. The mornings are cool
and overcast, but the middle of the day is clear. In a few weeks after,
the brightness of noon also disappears. The great humidity gives rise to
many diseases, particularly fevers, and the alternations from heat to
damp cause dysentery. On an average, the victims to this disease are
very numerous. It is endemic, and becomes, at apparently regular but
distant periods, epidemic. The intermittent fevers or agues, called
_tercianos_, are throughout the whole of Peru very dangerous, both
during their course and in their consequences. It may be regarded as
certain that two-thirds of the people of Lima are suffering at all times
from _tercianos_, or from the consequences of the disease. It usually
attacks foreigners, not immediately on their arrival in Lima, but some
years afterwards. In general the tribute of acclimation is not so soon
paid by emigrants in Lima as in other tropical regions.

In consequence of the ignorance of the medical attendants, and the
neglect of the police, the statistical tables of deaths are very
imperfectly drawn up, and therefore cannot be entirely depended upon.
I may, however, here subjoin one of them, which will afford the reader
some idea of the mortality of Lima.

The annual number of deaths in Lima varies from 2,500 to 2,800.

In the ten months, from the 1st of January to the 30th of October, 1841,
the number of marriages was 134, of which 46 were contracted by whites,
and 88 by people of color.

DEATHS IN LIMA FROM JANUARY 1, TO OCTOBER 30, 1841:-

Diseases. Men. Women. Children. Total.

Dysentery 171 105 59 335
Fevers, chiefly intermittent 57 88 71 216
Typhus 14 7 24 45
Pulmonary Consumption 87 110 11 208
Inflammation of the Lungs 78 75 26 179
Dropsy, for the most part a
consequence of intermittent fevers 33 32 7 72
Hooping-cough 36 36
Small Pox 3 1 4
Sudden death 23 13 1 37
Shot 3 3
Various Diseases 271 228 610 1,109
--- --- --- -----
740 658 846 2,244

The number of births were:--

Boys. Girls. Total.

In marriage 410 412 822
Not in marriage 432 428 860
--- --- -----
842 840 1,682

The number of births not in marriage (860) is remarkable, and no less so
is the number of dead children exposed, which, during the above
interval, was 495. These are most decided proofs of the immorality and
degraded state of manners prevailing in Lima, particularly among the
colored part of the population. Though there is no certain evidence of
the fact, yet there is reason to conjecture that a considerable number
of those infants are destroyed by the mothers. Of the children born out
of marriage, nearly two-thirds, and of those exposed dead, full
four-fifths are Mulattos.

The important annual surplus of deaths over births is a matter of
serious consideration for Lima. The above tables show, in the course of
ten months, a surplus of 562 deaths. By a comparison of the lists of
births and deaths from 1826 to 1842, I find that on an average there are
annually 550 more deaths than births. It would lead me too far to
endeavor to investigate all the grounds of this disparity, but I may
observe that one of the causes, unquestionably, is the common, though
punishable crime of producing abortion.

Along the whole coast of Peru the atmosphere is almost uniformly in a
state of repose. It is not illuminated by the lightning's flash, or
disturbed by the roar of the thunder: no deluges of rain, no fierce
hurricanes destroy the fruits of the fields, and with them the hopes of
the husbandman. Even fire appears here to have lost its annihilating
power, and the work of human hands seems to be sacred from its
attack.[37] But the mildness of the elements above ground is frightfully
counterbalanced by their subterranean fury.

Lima is frequently visited by earthquakes, and several times the city
has been reduced to a mass of ruins. At an average forty-five shocks may
be counted on in a year. Most of them occur in the latter part of
October, in November, December, January, May, and June. Experience gives
reason to expect the visitation of two desolating earthquakes in a
century. The period between the two is from forty to sixty years. The
most considerable catastrophes experienced in Lima since Europeans have
visited the west coast of South America, happened in the years 1586,
1630, 1687, 1713, 1746, 1806. There is reason to fear that in the course
of a few years this city may be the prey of another such visitation.

The slighter shocks are sometimes accompanied by a noise; at other
times, they are merely perceptible by the motion of the earth. The
subterraneous noises are manifold. For the most part they resemble the
rattling of a heavy loaded wagon, driven rapidly over arches. They
usually accompany the shock, seldom precede it, and only in a few
cases do they follow it; sounding like distant thunder. On one
occasion the noise appeared to me like a groan from the depth of the
earth, accompanied by sounds like the crepitation of wood in
partitions when an old house is consumed by fire.

Of the movements, the horizontal vibrations are the most frequent, and
they cause the least damage to the slightly-built habitations. Vertical
shocks are most severe; they rend the walls, and raise the houses out of
their foundations. The greatest vertical shock I ever felt was on the
4th of July, 1839, at half-past seven in the evening, when I was in the
old forests of the Chanchamoyo territory. Before my hut there was an
immense stem of a felled tree, which lay with its lower end on the stump
of the root. I was leaning against it and reading, when suddenly, by a
violent movement, the stem rose about a foot and a half, and I was
thrown backwards over it. By the same shock the neighboring river,
Aynamayo, was dislodged from its bed, and its course thereby changed for
a considerable length of way.

I have had no experience of the rotatory movements of earthquakes.
According to the statements of all who have observed them, they are very
destructive, though uncommon. In Lima I have often felt a kind of
concussion, which accords with that term in the strictest sense of the
word. This movement had nothing in common with what may be called an
oscillation, a shock, or a twirl: it was a passing sensation, similar to
that which is felt when a man seizes another unexpectedly by the
shoulder, and shakes him; or like the vibration felt on board a ship
when the anchor is cast, at the moment it strikes the ground. I believe
it is caused by short, rapid, irregular horizontal oscillations. The
irregularity of the vibrations is attended by much danger, for very
slight earthquakes of that kind tear away joists from their joinings,
and throw down roofs, leaving the walls standing, which, in all other
kinds of commotion, usually suffer first, and most severely.

Humboldt says that the regularity of the hourly variations of the
magnetic needle and the atmospheric pressure is undisturbed on
earthquake days within the tropics. In seventeen observations, which I
made during earthquakes in Lima with a good Lefevre barometer, I found,
in fifteen instances, the position of the mercury quite unaltered. On
one occasion, shortly before a commotion, I observed it 2·4 lines lower
than it had been two hours before. Another time, I observed, also on
the approach of the shock and during the twelve following hours, a
remarkable rising and sinking in the column. During these observations
the atmosphere was entirely tranquil.

Atmospheric phenomena are frequent, but not infallible prognostics of
an earthquake. I have known individuals in Lima, natives of the coast,
who were seldom wrong in predicting an earthquake, from their
observation of the atmosphere. In many places great meteors have been
seen before the commotion. Before the dreadful earthquake of 1746,
there were seen fiery vapors (_exhalaciones encendidas_) rising out of
the earth. On the island of San Lorenzo these phenomena were
particularly remarked.

Many persons have an obscure perception--a foreboding, which is to
them always indicative of an approaching earthquake. They experience a
feeling of anxiety and restlessness, a pressure of the breast, as if
an immense weight were laid on it. A momentary shudder pervades the
whole frame, or there is a sudden trembling of the limbs. I, myself,
have several times experienced this foreboding, and there can scarcely
be a more painful sensation. It is felt with particular severity by
those who have already had the misfortune to have been exposed to the
dangers of an earthquake.

I will here only briefly mention the celebrated earthquake of 1746, as
all its details are fully described in many publications. The reader
need scarcely be reminded that it happened on the 28th of October, the
day of St. Simon and St. Jude. During the night, between ten and eleven
o'clock, the earth having begun to tremble, a loud howling was heard,
and, in a few minutes, Lima became a heap of ruins. The first shock was
so great, that the town was almost completely destroyed by it. Of more
than 3000 houses, only twenty-one remained. Still more horrible was the
destruction in the harbor of Callao. The movement of the earth had
scarcely been felt there, when the sea, with frightful roaring, rushed
over the shore, and submerged the whole town with its inhabitants. Five
thousand persons were instantly buried beneath the waves. The Spanish
corvette San Fermin, which lay at anchor in the port, was thrown over
the walls of the fortress. A cross still marks the place where the stern
of the vessel fell. Three merchant vessels, heavily laden, suffered the
same fate. The other ships which were at anchor, nineteen in number,
were sunk. The number of lives sacrificed by this earthquake has not
been, with perfect accuracy, recorded.[38] Humboldt, in his Cosmos,
mentions that during this earthquake a noise like subterraneous thunder
was heard at Truxillo, eighty-five leagues north of Callao. It was first
observed a quarter of an hour after the commotion occurred at Lima, but
there was no trembling of the earth. According to the old chronicle
writers, the earthquake of 1630 was more disastrous.

The serious commotions which take place on the Peruvian coast appear to
acquire progressively greater extension, but only in the southern and
northern directions. A shock, of which Lima is the centre, though felt
fifty leagues towards the north, and as far towards the south, may,
nevertheless, be imperceptible in the easterly direction (towards the
mountains) at the distance of ten or twelve leagues. This peculiarity is
made manifest, not only by the terraqueous oscillations, but also by the
undulations of the sound, which usually proceeds still further in a
direction towards the south or the north.

Slight shocks are usually only local, and are not felt beyond the limits
of a few square miles.

The atmospheric phenomena during and after earthquakes are very
different. In general, the atmosphere is tranquil, but occasionally a
stormy agitation is the harbinger of a change. I was unexpectedly
overtaken by a violent commotion on the sand-flat between Chancay and
Lima. The whole surface of the plain presented a kind of curling
movement, and on every side small columns of sand rose, and whirled
round and round. The mules stopped of their own accord, and spread out
their legs as for support and to secure themselves against
apprehended danger. The _arieros_ (mule-drivers) leaped from their
saddles, threw themselves on their knees beside the animals, and
prayed to heaven for mercy.

The effect of earthquakes on the fertility of the soil is sometimes
remarkable. Numerous observations tend to show that after violent
commotions luxuriant lands often become barren wastes, and for several
years produce no thriving vegetation. Several Quebradas in the province
of Truxillo, formerly remarkable for their fertility in grain, were left
fallow for twenty years after the earthquake of 1630, as the soil would
produce nothing. Similar cases occurred at Supe, Huaura, Lima, and Yca.
All kinds of grain appear to be very susceptible to the changes produced
by earthquakes. Cases are recorded in which, after slight shocks, fields
of maize in full bloom have withered; and in the course of a day or two
the crops have perished.

The causes of the frequent earthquakes on the coast of Lima are
involved in an obscurity too deep to be unveiled. That they are
connected with volcanic phenomena seems probable. Lima is more than
ninety leagues distant from the nearest active volcano, that of
Arequipa. But the earthquakes of the Peruvian capital are uniformly
independent of any state of activity in that volcano, and it is
certain that the town of Arequipa, which lies at the foot of the
mountain, experiences fewer earthquakes than Lima. Of the six serious
earthquakes, the dates of which I have mentioned, only that of 1687
stands in connection with a decided shock in Arequipa, and an eruption
of the volcano. Earthquakes are of rarer occurrence in the mountainous
districts than on the coast, yet Huancavellica, Tarma, Pasco,
Caramarca, have been visited by heavy shocks; and within a recent
period the village Quiquijana, in the Province of Quipichanchi,
Department of Cusco, suffered from a serious commotion. In a letter
from an eye-witness I received the following account of it.

"In November, 1840, the earth began to move faintly back and forward,
and a dull, distant, subterraneous noise continued without interruption.
The first powerful shock occurred on the 23d of December. During the
whole month of January, 1841, heavy thunder prevailed, but without any
motion of the earth. On February 11th, we again had a smart shock, and
from that day the vibrations recommenced, which, strange enough, were
always most violent on Mondays and Thursdays. The subterraneous noise
resounded incessantly; but it was heard only in the village; for at the
distance of half a league from it all was tranquil. The heaviest shocks
were felt in a circuit within the radius of three leagues. From May 21st
to June 2d, all was tranquil; after the last-mentioned date the
vibrations recommenced, and frequently became heavy commotions. They
continued until the middle of July, 1841. From that time we have not
been disturbed, and we have now returned to the ruins of our village."

The volcano of Arequipa, which is forty-five leagues distant from
Quiquijana, manifested, during the whole of this time, no unusual
phenomena, a circumstance which speaks forcibly against the idea of any
local connection between the earthquake and the volcano.

On most men earthquakes make a powerful and extraordinary impression.
The sudden surprise, often in sleep, the imminent danger, the
impossibility of escape, the dull subterraneous noise, the yielding of
the earth under the feet,--altogether make a formidable demand on the
weakness of human nature.

Humboldt in the Cosmos truly observes--"What is most wonderful for us to
comprehend is the undeception which takes place with respect to the kind
of innate belief which men entertain of the repose and immovability of
the terrestrial strata." And further on he says--"The earthquake appears
to men as something omnipresent and unlimited. From the eruption of a
crater, from a stream of lava running towards our dwellings, it appears
possible to escape, but in an earthquake, whichever way flight is
directed the fugitive believes himself on the brink of destruction!" No
familiarity with the phenomenon can blunt this feeling. The inhabitant
of Lima who, from childhood, has frequently witnessed these convulsions
of nature, is roused from his sleep by the shock, and rushes from his
apartment with the cry of "_Misericordia!_" The foreigner from the north
of Europe, who knows nothing of earthquakes but by description, waits
with impatience to feel the movement of the earth, and longs to hear
with his own ears the subterraneous sounds which he has hitherto
considered fabulous. With levity he treats the apprehension of a coming
convulsion, and laughs at the fears of the natives. But as soon as his
wish is gratified he is terror-stricken, and is involuntarily prompted
to seek safety in flight.

In Lima, the painful impression produced by an earthquake is heightened
by the universality of the exercise of the devotions (_plegarias_) on
such a calamity. Immediately on the shock being felt, a signal is given
from the cathedral, and the long-measured ten-minute tollings of all the
church bells summon the inhabitants to prayers.

Taking a comprehensive view of the whole coast of Peru, we perceive
that Lima lies in one of those oases which break the continuity of the
extensive sand-flats. These valleys present themselves wherever a
river, after a short course from the Cordilleras, falls into the sea;
they are always fan-shaped widenings of the mountain ravines. The
valley of Lima lies in the widest extension of the Quebrada of
Mutucamas. This narrow gorge, which has its main direction from E.N.E.
to W.S.W., widens at Cocachacra, and extends into San Pedro Mama,
where the Quebrada of San Geronimo unites with it. It then runs down
to the coast, extending more and more in width, and is intersected by
the Rimac.[39] This river rises in two branches, the largest of which
has its source in some small lagunes, in the upper part of Antarangra,
on a height 15,600 feet above the level of the sea. The second and
shorter branch takes its source from a small lake in the heights of
Carampoma, flows through the valley of San Geronimo, and near San
Pedro unites with the Rimac. The most considerable streams of the
south-eastern confluence are those which rise in the heights of
Carhuapampa, and near Tambo de Viso, flow into the main stream. During
winter the Rimac is very inconsiderable, but when the rainy season
sets in it swells greatly, and in the upper regions, particularly
between Surco and Cocachacra, causes great devastations. In the lower
part where the bed becomes broad and the banks are not much built on,
no considerable damage occurs.

Several small conduits are brought from the Rimac, some for giving
moisture to fields, and others for filling the street trenches of Lima.
The water for supplying the fountains of the Capital does not, however,
come from the river, but from two springs situated 1-1/4 league from
Lima in a thicket near an old Indian settlement, called Santa Rosa, in
the valley of Surco. They are inclosed within a building called the
Puello, or Atarrea, whence the waters are conveyed by a subterraneous
trench to the Reservoir (Caja de Santa Tomas), from which it is
distributed by pipes to 112 public and private fountains. During the
insurrection of the Indians in 1781, which was instigated by the
unfortunate Cacique Don José Gabriel Tupac Amaru, one of the sworn
determinations of the participators in that very extensive conspiracy
was to drive the Spaniards out of Lima by artifice or force. Among the
numerous plans for accomplishing that object, I will mention two which
have reference to the water of Lima. One scheme was to poison the whole
of the inhabitants. For this purpose a rich Cacique of the vale of
Huarochirin went to an apothecary near the bridge, and asked for two
hundred weight of corrosive sublimate, saying that he would pay well for
it. The apothecary had not entire confidence in the Indian, but he did
not think it right to forego the opportunity of making a very profitable
sale; so, instead of the sublimate, he made up the same quantity of alum
for the Cacique and received the price he demanded. Next morning all the
water in Lima was unfit for use. On examination it was found that the
enclosure of the Atarrea was broken down, and the source saturated with
alum. The offender remained undiscovered.

The second plan was formed with more circumspection. The conspirators
resolved on a certain day to send into the city a number of Indians, who
were to conceal themselves on the roofs of the shops (_Pulperias_), in
which quantities of firewood were kept for sale. The moment the
cathedral struck the hour of midnight, the concealed Indians were to set
fire to the wood. Another division of Indians was immediately to dam up
the river at the convent of Santa Clara, and thereby lay the streets
under water. During the unavoidable confusion, which must have taken
place, the main body of the Indians was to enter the town and massacre
all the whites. This well-combined plan was by mere accident discovered,
when it was of course frustrated.

The fertility of the soil round Lima is very great when irrigation is
practicable. Where this cannot be accomplished, the earth withholds
even the most scanty vegetation. The _riego_, or irrigation, is thus
effected. On certain days the water conduits are closed, and the
fields are laid under water. When there is a deficient supply of
water, the trenches, or conduits, are not opened till the following
day. When, however, the supply of water is abundant, the _riego_ takes
place early every morning.

As the same identical plants are cultivated along almost the whole
coast, I will here notice them, to save the necessity of returning to
them hereafter.

COTTON is cultivated only in a few plantations in the immediate
vicinity of Lima; but it abounds more in the northern districts,
particularly in the department de la Libertad, in the coast province
Piura, in Lambayeque, and in Truxillo. In the southern province, Yca,
a considerable quantity is also reared for exportation. The brown
cotton was chiefly cultivated in the time of the Incas. Most of the
bodies found in the ancient graves on the coast are enveloped in
this kind of cotton.

The SUGAR CANE is cultivated with success in all plantations where
there is sufficient moisture of soil; and of all the agricultural
produce of the country, yields the greatest profit. The sugar estates
lie on the sea-coast, or along the banks of rivers. The vertical limit
of the sugar cane growth is on the western declivity of the
Cordilleras, about 4500 feet above the level of the sea, at which
height I saw fields covered with it. The largest plantations, however,
do not rise above 1200 feet above the level of the sea; while those of
the same extent on the eastern declivity are at the height of 6000
feet. Within the last forty years the introduction of the Otaheitan
cane has greatly improved the Peruvian plantations in quality, and has
more especially increased the quantity of their produce; for the
Otaheitan canes are found to yield proportionally one third more than
the West India canes, which were previously cultivated.

The preparation of the sugar is, as yet, conducted in a very rude and
laborious manner. In most of the plantations the cane is passed through
wooden presses with brass rollers. These machines are called _trapiches_
or _ingenios_. They are kept in motion by oxen or mules. In some large
estates water power is employed, and in San Pedro de Lurin a
steam-engine has been put up, which certainly does the work quickly; but
it often has to stand for a long time idle. A part of the sugar cane
juice is used for making the liquor called guarapo, or distilled for
making rum; for since the independence, the law which strictly
prohibited the distillation of spirituous liquors in plantations has
been repealed. The remainder is boiled down into a syrup, or further
simmered until it thickens into cakes, called chancacas, or brown sugar.
After a careful purification it is made into the white cakes called
alfajores, or prepared as white sugar. In fineness of grain and purity
of color it is inferior to the Havannah sugar, which, however, it
exceeds in sweetness. The regular weight of the sugarloaf is two arobas;
only for convenience of transport into the mountainous districts their
weight is sometimes diminished. The consumption of sugar in the country
is great and its export is considerable, but it goes only to Chile.

Of the different kinds of grain, maize is most generally and most
successfully cultivated in Peru. It grows on the sandy shore, in the
fertile mountain valleys, and on the margin of the forest, where the
warmth is great. There are several varieties of maize, which are
distinguished one from another by the size of the head and by the form
and appearance of the grain. The most common kinds on the coast
are--1st, the _Mais Morocho_, which has small bright yellow or reddish
brown grains; 2d, the _Mais Amarillo_, of which the grain is large,
heart-shaped, solid and opaque; 3d, _Mais Amarillo de Chancay_, similar
to the _Mais Amarillo_, but with a semi-transparent square-shaped grain,
and an elongated head. The Morocho and Amarillo maize are chiefly
planted in the eastern declivity of the Andes. They run up in stalks
eight or nine feet high, and have enormously large heads. In one of them
I counted seventy-five grains in a single row.

Maize forms the bread of the Peruvians. It is almost the only sustenance
of the Indians of the mountains, and is the principal food of the slaves
on the coast. Like the potatoe in Europe, it is cooked in a variety of
ways. Two of the most simple preparations of maize are those called
_choclas_ and _mote_. _Choclas_ are the unripe maize heads merely soaked
in warm water; they form a very agreeable and wholesome article of food.
_Mote_ consists of ripe maize first boiled and then laid in hot ashes,
after which the husks are easily stripped off.

As to whether maize is indigenous to Peru, or when it was introduced
there, much has already been written, and I shall refrain from entering
into the investigation of the question here. I may, however, mention
that I have found very well preserved ears of maize in tombs, which,
judging from their construction, belong to a period anterior to the
dynasty of the Incas; and these were fragments of two kinds of maize
which do not now grow in Peru. If I believed in the transmigration and
settlement of Asiatic races on the west coast of America, I should
consider it highly probable that maize, cotton, and the banana, had been
brought from Asia to the great west coast. But the supposed epoch of
this alleged immigration must carry us back to the earliest ages; for,
that the Incas were (as the greater number of inquirers into Peruvian
history pretend) of Asiatic origin, is a mere vague hypothesis,
unsupported by anything approximating to historical proof.

Since the earthquake of 1687 the crops of maize on the Peruvian coast
have been very inconsiderable. In the mountainous parts it is somewhat
more abundant, but still far from sufficient to supply the wants of the
country. Chile supplies, in return for sugar, the maize required in
Peru. Of the other kinds of grain barley only is raised; but it does not
thrive on the coast, and is cultivated successfully at the height of
from 7000 to 13,200 feet above the level of the sea. The assertion of
some travellers, that barley was known to the Peruvians before the
arrival of the Spaniards, is groundless. It is true that barley is
sometimes found in pots in Indian graves. Those graves, however, as I
have had repeated opportunities of being convinced, belong, without
exception, to modern times, chiefly to the seventeenth century.

Potatoes are not planted on the coast, where, it appears, the climate
and soil are unfavorable to them. In those parts they are small and
watery. On the higher ridges which intersect the coast at short
distances from the sea, the potatoe grows wild. I am inclined to believe
that the root is indigenous in these parts, as well as in Chiloe and
Chile, and that the ancient Peruvians did not obtain this root from the
south, but that they removed it from their own high lands in order to
cultivate it on a more favorable soil.[40] The best potatoe grows about
twenty-two leagues from Lima, in Huamantanga, which is about 7000 feet
above the level of the sea, to the north-west of the Quebrada of Canta.
This potatoe is small and round, with a thin white skin, and when
bisected the color is a clear bright yellow. It is called the _Papa
amarilla_, and there is much demand for it in the markets, where it
fetches a good price. The other potatoes come chiefly from the Quebrada
of Huarochirin, and they are very well flavored.

The Camotes (_Convolvulus batatas_, L.), not improperly called sweet
potatoes, grow to a considerable size. There are two kinds of camotes,
the yellow and the violet; the latter are called _Camotes moradas_.
These two kinds are much liked for their excellent flavor. Beyond the
height of 3500 feet above the level of the sea they cease to grow.

The Aracacha (_Conium moschatum_, H. B. Kth.) grows on the coast, but it
is more abundant on the projecting ridges of the Cordilleras, and on the
eastern declivity of the Andes. It is a very agreeable and nutritive
kind of tuberous vegetable, in flavor not unlike celery. It is cooked by
being either simply boiled in water, or made into a kind of soup. In
many districts the aracacha yields two crops in the year.

The Yucca (_Jatropha manihot_) is one of the finest vegetables of
Peru. The stalk of the plant is between five and six feet high, and
about the thickness of a finger. The roots are from one to two feet
long, somewhat of the turnip form. Internally they are pure white; but
the external skin is tough, somewhat elastic, and of a reddish-brown
color. The roots are the edible parts of the plant. They are very
agreeable in taste, and easy of digestion. When raw they are hard and
tough, and their taste somewhat resembles chestnuts. When boiled in
water the root separates into fibres, and is rather waxy, but when
laid in hot ashes it becomes mealy.

In some parts of Peru the Indians prepare a very fine flour from the
yucca, and it is used for making fine kinds of bread, and especially a
kind of biscuits called _biscochuelos_. The yucca roots are not good
after they have been more than three days out of the earth, and even
during that time they must be placed in water, otherwise green or black
stripes appear on them, which in the cooking assume a pale red color.
Their taste is then disagreeable, and they quickly become rotten.

To propagate the yucca the stalk is cut, particularly under the thick
part, into span-long pieces, which are stuck obliquely into the earth.
In five or six months the roots are fit for use, but they are usually
allowed to remain some time longer in the earth. The stalks are
sometimes cut off, and the roots left in the earth. They then put forth
new leaves and flowers, and after sixteen or eighteen months they become
slightly woody. The Indians in the Montaña de Vitoc sent as a present to
their officiating priest a yucca, which weighed thirty pounds, but yet
was very tender. On the western declivity of the Cordillera, the
boundary elevation for the growth of the yucca is about 3000 feet above
the level of the sea.

Among the pulse there are different kinds of peas (_garbanzos_) on the
coast; beans (_frijoles_), on the contrary, occupy the hilly grounds.
All vegetables of the cabbage and salad kinds cultivated in Europe will
grow in Peru. The climate, both of the coast and the hills, suits them
perfectly; but the hot, damp temperature of the eastern declivity of the
Andes is adverse to them. Numerous varieties of the genus _Cucurbita_
are cultivated in the _chacras_, or Indian villages, on the coast. They
are chiefly consumed by the colored population. I did not find them very
agreeable to the taste. They are all sweetish and fibrous.

Among the edible plants which serve for seasoning or spicery, I must
mention the love-apple (_Tomate_), which thrives well in all the warm
districts of Peru; and the Spanish pepper (_Aji_), which is found only
on the coast and in the mild woody regions. There are many species of
the pepper (_Capsicum annuum, baccatum, frutescens, &c._), which are
sometimes eaten green, and sometimes dried and pounded. In Peru the
consumption of aji is greater than that of salt; for with two-thirds of
the dishes brought to table, more of the former than of the latter is
used. It is worthy of remark that salt diminishes, in a very striking
degree, the pungency of the aji; and it is still more remarkable that
the use of the latter, which in a manner may be called a superfluity,
has no injurious effect on the digestive organs. If two pods of aji,
steeped in warm vinegar, are laid as a sinapism on the skin, in the
space of a quarter of an hour the part becomes red, and the pain
intolerable; within an hour the scarf-skin will be removed. Yet I have
frequently eaten twelve or fifteen of these pods without experiencing
the least injurious effect. However, before I accustomed myself to this
luxury, it used to affect me with slight symptoms of gastritis. On the
eastern declivity of the Cordilleras I found no capsicum at a greater
height than 4800 feet above the level of the sea.

Lucern (_Medicago sativa_), called by the natives _alfa_ or _alfalfa_,
is reared in great abundance throughout the whole of Peru, as fodder for
cattle. It does not bear great humidity, nor severe heat or cold; yet
its elevation boundary is about 11,100 feet above the level of the sea.
On the coast it flourishes very luxuriantly during the misty season; but
during the months of February and March it is almost entirely dried up.
The maisillo (_Paspalum purpureum_, R.) then supplies its place as
fodder for cattle. In the mountainous districts it is also most abundant
during the humid season; but, as soon as the first frost sets in, it
decays, takes a rusty-brown color, and remains in a bad state until the
beginning of the rainy season. On an average, the _alfalfa_ may be cut
four times in the year; but in highlying districts only three times;
and in humid soils on the coast, particularly in the neighborhood of
rivers, five times. Once in every four or five years the clover-fields
are broken up by the plough, and then sown with maize or barley. In the
sixth year clover is again raised.

The olive-tree is cultivated chiefly in the southern provinces of the
coast. In flavor, its fruit approximates to the Spanish olive. That
the oil is not so fine is probably owing to the bad presses which are
used, and the rude manner in which the operation is performed. The
olives (_Aceytunas_) are preserved in a peculiar manner. They are
allowed to ripen on the tree, when they are gathered, slightly
pressed, dried, and put up in small earthen vessels. By this process
they become shrivelled and quite black. When served up at table pieces
of tomato and aji are laid on them: the latter is an excellent
accompaniment to the oily fruit. Some preserve them in salt water, by
which means they remain plump and green.

The castor-oil plant (_Ricinus communis_) grows wild, but it is also
cultivated in many plantations. The considerable quantity of oil which
is pressed out of the seeds is used unpurified in Lima for the street
lamps, and also in the sugar plantations, for greasing the machines
employed in the works. The purified Ricinus oil required for medicine is
imported from England or Italy.

The Piñoncillo tree (_Castiglionia lobata_, R.) is cultivated only about
Surco, Huacho, and Lambayeque, in some of the Indian chacras; but it
grows wild in considerable abundance. Its bean-like fruit, when roasted,
has an agreeable flavor. When eaten raw, the etherial oil generated
between the kernel and the epidermis is a strong aperient, and its
effect can only be counteracted by drinking cold water. When an incision
is made in the stem, a clear bright liquid flows out; but after some
time it becomes black and horny like. It is a very powerful caustic, and
retains its extraordinary property for years.

The fruits of the temperate climates of Europe thrive but indifferently
in the warm regions of the coast of Peru. Apples and pears are for the
most part uneatable. Of stone fruits only the peach succeeds well. Vast
quantities of apricots (called duraznos) grow in the mountain valleys.
Of fifteen kinds which came under my observation, those called
_blanquillos_ and _abridores_ are distinguished for fine flavor.
Cherries, plums, and chestnuts I did not see in Peru, yet I believe the
climate of the Sierra is very favorable to their growth. Generally
speaking, the interior of the country is well suited to all the fruits
and grain of central Europe; and doubtless many of our forest trees
would flourish on those Peruvian hills which now present no traces of
vegetation. But as yet no system of transplantation has been seriously
set on foot. The praiseworthy attempts made by many Europeans, who have
sent seeds and young plants to Peru, have failed of success, owing to
the indifference of the natives to the advancement of those objects.

All the fruits of southern Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm regions
of Peru. Oranges, pomegranates, lemons, limes, &c., grow in incredible
abundance. Though the trees bloom and bear fruit the whole year round,
yet there are particular times in which their produce is in the greatest
perfection and abundance. On the coast, for example, at the commencement
of winter, and in the woody districts in the months of February and
March, melons and Sandyas (_water melons_) are particularly fine.

The figs are of two kinds: the one called _Higos_, and the other
_Brevas_. In the former the pulp is red, in the latter it is white.
They are usually large, very soft, and may be ranked among the most
delicious fruits of the country. Fig-trees grow frequently wild in the
neighborhood of the plantations and the Chacras: and the traveller may
pluck the fruit, and carry away a supply for his journey; for, beyond
a certain distance from Lima figs are not gathered, being a fruit not
easy of transport in its fresh state; and when dried, it is not liked.
Pomegranates and quinces seldom grow on the coast: they are chiefly
brought to the Lima market from the neighboring Quebradas. The
mulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly and without cultivation; but its
fruit is not thought worth gathering, and it is left as food for the
birds. In the southern province of Yca, the cultivation of the vine
has been attended by most successful results. In the neighborhood of
Lima grapes are seen only in a few Huertas (_orchards_); but for
size, sweetness, and aromatic flavor, there are no such grapes in any
other part of the world.

Of tropical fruits, the number is not so great in Peru as in the more
northerly district of Guayaquil. But there are some Peruvian fruits, the
delicious flavor of which cannot be excelled. One of these is the
Chirimoya (_Anona tripetala_). Hanke, in one of his letters, calls it "a
master-work of Nature." It would certainly be difficult to name any
fruit possessing a more exquisite flavor.

In Lima the Chirimoya is comparatively small, often only the size of an
orange. Those who have tasted it only in Lima, can form but a very
imperfect idea of its excellence. In Huanuco, its indigenous soil, it
grows in the greatest perfection, and often attains the weight of
sixteen pounds, or upwards. The fruit is of roundish form, sometimes
pyramidal, or heart-shaped, the broad base uniting with the stem.
Externally it is green, covered with small knobs and scales, and often
has black markings like net-work spread over it. When the fruit is very
ripe, it has black spots. The skin is rather thick and tough.
Internally, the fruit is snow-white and juicy, and provided with a
number of small seeds well covered with a delicate substance. The
Chirimoyas of Huanuco are also distinguished from those of the coast by
having only from four to six seeds; whereas on the coast they are found
with from twenty-five to thirty. The question as to what the taste of
this fruit may be compared with, I can only answer by saying, that it is
incomparable. Both the fruit and flowers of the Chirimoya emit a fine
fragrance, which, when the tree is covered with blossom, is so strong as
to be almost overpowering. The tree which bears this finest of all
fruits is from fifteen to twenty feet high. It has a broad flat top, and
is of a pale-green color.

The Palta (_Persea gatissima_, Gärt.) is a fruit of the pear form, and
dark-brown in color. The rind is tough and elastic, but not very thick.
The edible substance, which is soft and green, encloses a kernel
resembling a chestnut in form and color. This fruit is very astringent
and bitter, and on being cut, a juice flows from it which is at first
yellow, but soon turns black. The taste is peculiar, and at first not
agreeable to a foreigner; but it is generally much liked when the palate
becomes accustomed to it. The fruit of the Palta dissolves like butter
on the tongue, and hence it is called in some of the French colonies
_beurre végétale_. It is sometimes eaten without any accompaniment, and
sometimes with a little salt, or with oil and vinegar. The kernels make
very good brandy. The Palta-tree is slender and very high, with a small
dome-like top. On the eastern declivity of the Andes, I have seen some
of these trees more than sixty feet high.

The Platanos (_Bananas_) thrive well in most of the Peruvian
plantations. They require great heat and humidity. They grow in the
greatest perfection on the banks of small rivulets. On the coast the
tree does not yield such abundance of fruit as in the woody regions,
where it is not unusual to see a tree with three hundred heads of fruit
lying one over another, like tiles on a roof. In the country adjacent to
Lima, and also on other parts of the coast, three favorite species are
cultivated. The _Platano de la Isla_, or of Otaheite, was introduced
from that archipelago in 1769. The fruits are from three to four inches
long, generally prismatic, as they grow thickly on the stem, and lie one
over another. The skin is yellow, the fruit of a palish red, and rather
mealy. The Limeños prefer this to any other species of the platano, and
they consider it the most wholesome. The fruits of the _Platano Guineo_
are not longer, but much thicker than those of the _Platano de la Isla_,
but they are so full that they burst when quite ripe. They are straight
and cylindrical in form, as they grow on the stem at some distance one
from the other. They are of a bright yellow color, but near the stem
spotted with black. The edible part is whiter and softer than that of
the _Platano de la Isla_, to which it is greatly superior in flavor and
aroma. The natives believe this fruit to be very unwholesome, and they
maintain that drinking brandy after eating Platanos Guineos causes
immediate death. This is, as my own often-repeated experiments have
shown, one of the deep-rooted, groundless prejudices to which the
Peruvians obstinately cling. On one of my excursions I had a controversy
on this subject with some persons who accompanied me. To prove how
unfounded their notions were, I ate some platanos, and then washing down
one poison by the other, I immediately swallowed a mouthful of brandy.
My Peruvian friends were filled with dismay. Addressing me alternately
in terms of compassion and reproach, they assured me I should never
return to Lima alive. After spending a very agreeable day, we all
arrived quite well in the evening at Lima. At parting, one of my
companions seriously observed that we should never see each other again.
Early next morning they anxiously called to inquire how I was, and
finding me in excellent health and spirits, they said:--"Ah! you see, an
_herege de gringo_ (a heretic of a foreigner) is quite of a different
nature from us." A piece of the Platano Guineo soaked in brandy retains
its color unchanged; but the rib-like fibres which connect the rind with
the pulp then become black, and imbibe a bitter taste.

The fruit of the third kind of platano, the _Platano Largo_, is from six
to eight inches long, rather narrow, and curved crescent-wise. The rind
is of a light straw color, and when the fruit is very ripe it has large
black spots. The edible part is of a whitish hue, harder and drier than
that of the two species already described; and its flavor its quite as
agreeable. Its fruit is less abundant than that of the Platano Guineo,
and it requires longer time to become fully ripe. A fourth kind, which
grows in the forest regions, I have never seen on the coast. It is the
_Platano Altahuillaca_. It bears at most from twenty to twenty-five
heads of fruit. The stem is more than two inches thick, and above an ell
long. The color of the husk is light yellow, the enclosed substance is
white, tough, and hard. In the raw state it is flavorless, but when
roasted in hot ashes, or cooked with meat, it makes a fine dish.

When the platanos of the uppermost row, that is, those which form the
base of the conical-formed reflex cluster, begin to turn yellow, or, as
the natives say, _pintar_, the whole is cut off, and hung up in an airy,
shady situation, usually in an apartment of the Rancho, or hut, where it
may quickly ripen. The largest fruits are cut off as soon as they are
yellow and soft, and so the cutting goes on gradually up to the top, for
they ripen so unequally that those at the base show symptoms of decay
while those at the top are still hard and green. As soon as the
_cabeza_, or cluster of fruit, is cut, the whole branch is immediately
lopped off, in order to facilitate the shooting of the fresh sprouts.
Each branch bears only one _cabeza_, and eight or ten months are the
period usually required for its complete development.

The platanos belongs indisputably to the most useful class of fruit
trees, especially in regions where they can be cultivated extensively,
for then they may very adequately supply the place of bread. In
northern Peru and Guayaquil, the platano fruit is prepared for food in
a variety of ways.

Pine-apples (_Ananas_) are not much cultivated on the coast of Peru. The
market of Lima was formerly entirely supplied with this fruit from the
Montaña de Vitoc. When brought from thence they used to be cut before
they were ripe, and packed on the backs of asses. The journey is of
sixteen or twenty days' duration, and the road lies across two of the
Cordilleras. After being several days in the cold snowy region of the
Puna, the fruit came to Lima in a very indifferent state; but since the
communication by steam navigation with Guayaquil, pine-apples are
brought from the latter place in large quantities. They are large,
succulent, and very sweet.

The Granadilla (_Passiflora quadrangularis_) is about the size of an
apple, but rather oblong. The skin is reddish-yellow, hard, and rather
thick. The edible part is grey and gelatinous, and it contains numerous
dark-colored seeds. The fruit is very agreeable, and in taste resembles
the gooseberry, and is very cooling. The Granadilla is a shrub or bush,
and it twines round the trunks of trees, or climbs up the walls of the
Ranchos. It is less abundant on the coast than in the adjacent valleys.

The Tunas are fruits of different species of Cactus. The husk, which is
covered with sharp prickles, is green, yellow, or red in color, and is
easily separated from the pulp of the fruit. When being plucked, the
tunas are rubbed with straw to remove the prickles, which, however, is
not always completely accomplished. It is therefore necessary to be
cautious in handling the husks, for the small prickles cause
inflammation when they get into the fingers.

The Pacay is the fruit of a tree of rather large size (_Prosopis
dulcis_, Humb.), with a rather low and broad top. It consists of a pod
from twenty to twenty-four inches long, enclosing black seeds, which are
embedded in a white, soft, flaky substance. This flaky part is as white
as snow, and is the only eatable part of the fruit. It tastes sweet,
and, to my palate at least, it is very unpleasant; however, the Limeños
on the coast and the monkeys in the woods are very fond of the pacay.

The Lucuma is produced only in the southern provinces of the coast of
Peru, and is chiefly imported from the north of Chile. The fruit is
round. The grey-brown husk encloses a fibrous, dry, yellow-colored
fruit with its kernel.

The Guayava (_Psidium pomiferum_) grows on a low shrub, chiefly in the
valleys of the coast, and on the eastern declivity of the Andes. It is
of the form and size of a small apple. The rind is bright, yellow, and
thin. The pulp is either white or red, and is full of little egg-shaped
granulations. Its flavor is pleasant, but not remarkably fine. In Lima
it is not a favorite, for numerous insects lay their eggs in it, and,
when the fruit is ripe, larvæ are found in it.

The Pepino (a _cucurbitacea_) is grown in great abundance in the fields.
The plant is only a foot and a half high, and it creeps on the ground.
The fruit is from four to five inches long, cylindrical, and at both
ends somewhat pointed. The husk is of a yellowish green color, with long
rose-colored stripes. The pulp or edible part is solid, juicy, and
well-flavored. The kernel lies in the middle, in a long-shaped furrow.
By the natives the pepino is, and not altogether unreasonably, believed
to be injurious. They maintain that this fruit is too cold in the
stomach, and that a glass of brandy is necessary to counteract its
injurious properties. This much is certain, that the pepinos are very
indigestible, and that eating them frequently, or at improper times,
brings on fits of illness.

The Mani, or Earth Almond (_Arachis hypogæa_), is produced in the
northern provinces. The plant is from a foot and a half to two feet
long, and very leafy. The kernels have a grey, shrivelled husk: they
are white, and contain much oil. When roasted and crushed, they are
eaten with sugar.

The Capulies (_Prunus capulin_, Ser.) grows in the open fields. In towns
it is planted in gardens or in pots. The fruit is a little bigger than a
cherry. It is of a deep yellow color, and has an acid taste. The
capulies are not frequently eaten. On account of their very pleasant
odor, they are used in making _Pucheros de_ flores, or with other
odoriferous flowers, they are besprinkled with agua rica, and laid in
drawers to perfume linen. The ladies of Lima wear them in their bosoms.
The same uses are made of the Palillos (_Campomanesia lineatifolia_,
R.), which grow on trees from twenty to thirty feet high. The bright
yellow fruit is as large as a moderately-sized apple. The palillo emits
an exceedingly agreeable scent, and is one of the ingredients used in
making the perfumed water called _mistura_. When rubbed between the
fingers, the leaves smell like those of the myrtle; but they have an
acid and a stringent taste.

The coast of Peru is poorly supplied with Palm-trees, either wild or
cultivated. The Cocoa Palm is grown only in a few of the northern
provinces, and the Date Palm chiefly about Yca. With a very little
care, these trees would thrive excellently in all the oases of the
coast of Peru.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 37: A great fire is a thing almost unknown in Lima. The houses
are of brick, and seldom have any wooden beams, so there is little food
for a fire. The only fire which I heard of in Lima was that of the 13th
January, 1835, when the interior of the _Capilla del Milagro_ of San
Francisco was destroyed. The repairs cost 50,000 dollars. On the 27th
November, 1838, it was again solemnly consecrated.]

[Footnote 38: The date of this catastrophe recalls the following passage
in Schiller's William Tell:--

"'s ist heut Simons und Judä
Da ras't der See und will sein Opfer haben."

"'Tis the festival of Simon and Jude,
And the lake rages for its sacrifice."
]

[Footnote 39: RIMAC is the present participle of _rimay_, to speak, to
prattle. The river and the valley were known by this name among all the
ancient Indians. The oracle of a temple with an idol, which stood in the
neighborhood of the present city of Lima, conferred the name. It is said
that before the time of the Incas persons suspected of magic were
banished to the valley of the Rimac, on which account it obtained the
name of _Rimac-malca_, that is, the WITCHES-VALLEY. This account, which
is given by some early travellers, requires farther historical and
philological inquiry, before its correctness can be admitted.]

[Footnote 40: The Quichua language has no word for potatoe, but in the
Chinchayauyo language, which is spoken along the whole coast of Peru,
the potatoe is called _Acsu_.]

CHAPTER VIII.

All the inhabited parts of the coast of Peru, especially the districts
adjacent to Lima and Truxillo, are infested by robbers, and travelling
is thereby rendered extremely unsafe. These banditti are chiefly runaway
slaves (simarrones, as they are called), free negroes, zambos, or
mulattos. Occasionally they are joined by Indians, and these latter are
always conspicuous for the cruelties they perpetrate. Now and then a
white man enters upon this lawless course; and, in the year 1839, a
native of North America, who had been a purser in a ship of war, was
shot in Lima for highway robbery. These robbers are always well mounted,
and their fleet-footed steeds usually enable them to elude pursuit. It
is no unfrequent occurrence for slaves belonging to the plantations to
mount their masters' finest horses, and after sunset, when their work is
over, or on Sundays, when they have nothing to do, to sally forth on
marauding expeditions.

Most of the highway robbers who infest the coast of Peru belong to an
extensive and systematically-organized band, headed by formidable
leaders, who maintain spies in the towns and villages, from whom they
receive regular reports. They sometimes prowl about in parties of thirty
or forty, in the vicinity of the capital, and plunder every traveller
they encounter; but they are most frequently in smaller detachments. If
they meet with resistance they give no quarter; therefore, it is most
prudent to submit to be plundered quietly, even when the parties
attacked are stronger than the assailants, for the latter usually have
confederates at no great distance, and can summon reinforcements in case
of need. Any person who kills a robber in self-defence must ever
afterwards be in fear for his own life: even in Lima the dagger of the
assassin will reach him, and possibly at the moment when he thinks
himself most safe.

Foreigners are more frequently waylaid than natives. Indeed, the rich
and influential class of Peruvians are seldom subjected to these
attacks,--a circumstance which may serve to explain why more stringent
police regulations are not adopted.

The most unsafe roads are those leading to Callao, Chorillos, and
Cavalleros. This last place is on the way to Cerro de Pasco, whither
transports of money are frequently sent. A few weeks before my departure
from Lima a band of thirty robbers, after a short skirmish with a feeble
escort, made themselves masters of a remittance of 100,000 dollars,
destined for the mine-workers of Pasco. The silver bars from Pasco are
sent to Lima without any military guard, for they are suffered to pass
unmolested, as the robbers find them heavy and cumbrous, and they cannot
easily dispose of them. These depredations are committed close to the
gates of Lima, and after having plundered a number of travellers, the
robbers will very coolly ride into the city.

The country people from the Sierra, who travel with their asses to Lima,
and who carry with them money to make purchases in the capital, are the
constant prey of robbers, who, if they do not get money, maltreat or
murder their victims in the most merciless way.[41] In July, 1842, I was
proceeding from the mountains back to Lima, and, passing near the Puente
de Surco, a bridge about a league and a half from Lima, my horse
suddenly shied at something lying across the road. On alighting I
found that it was the dead body of an Indian, who had been murdered,
doubtless, by robbers. The skull was fractured in a shocking manner
by stones. The body was still warm.

The zambo robbers are notorious for committing the most heartless
cruelties. In June, 1842, one of them attacked the Indian who was
conveying the mail to Huacho. "Shall I," said the robber, "kill you or
put out your eyes?" "If I must choose," replied the Indian, "pray kill
me at once." The barbarian immediately drew forth his dagger and stuck
it into the eyes of the unfortunate victim, and then left him lying on
the sand. In this state the poor Indian was found by a traveller, who
conveyed him to a neighboring village. The following anecdote was
related to me by an Indian, in whose dwelling I passed a night, at
Chancay:--About half a league from the village he met a negro, who
advanced towards him, with musket cocked, and commanded him to halt. My
host drew out a large riding pistol, and said, "You may be thankful that
this is not loaded or you would be a dead man." The negro laughing
scornfully, rode up and seized the Indian, when the latter suddenly
fired the pistol, and shot him dead.

When these Peruvian banditti are attacked by the military or the police,
they defend themselves with desperate courage. If they can effect their
escape they fly for concealment into the woods and thickets, which, if
not too extensive, are surrounded and set on fire, so that the fugitives
have no alternative but to surrender, or to perish in the flames.

Within the last few years, two negroes, named Escobar and Leon, were
daring leaders of banditti. Leon, who was originally a slave, commenced
his career of crime by the murder of his master. He eluded the pursuit
of justice, became a highway robber, and for many years was the terror
of the whole province of Lima. The police vainly endeavored to secure
him. Leon knew the country so well, that he constantly evaded his
pursuers. When the price of 2000 dollars was set upon his head, he
boldly entered Lima every evening and slept in the city. At length
placards were posted about, calling on Leon's comrades to kill him, and
offering to any one who might deliver him up dead into the hands of the
police the reward of 1000 dollars and a pardon. This measure had the
desired result, and Leon was strangled, whilst asleep, by a zambo, who
was his godfather. The body was, during three days, exposed to public
view in front of the cathedral.

Another celebrated bandit was the zambo, Jose Rayo. He took an active
part in several of the political revolutions; and having, during those
commotions, been serviceable to the president, he was raised to the rank
of a lieutenant-colonel, and made chief of the country police, called
the _Partida montada del campo_. This post he still fills, and he is
admirably well adapted to it, as experience has rendered him thoroughly
acquainted with banditti life, and he knows every hiding-place in the
country round Lima. Nevertheless he could not catch the negro Leon, or
possibly he would not seize him, for Leon was his godfather, a
relationship which is held sacred throughout all classes in Peru. When
Rayo speaks of the president and ministers he always styles them _sus
mejores amigos_ (his best friends). I fell in with him once, when
travelling on the road to Chaclacayo, and rode in company with him as
far as the Hacienda de Santa Clara. I found him exceedingly complaisant
and courteous in his manners; but his true zambo nature was not wholly
concealed beneath the smooth surface.

Robbers, when captured and brought to Lima, undergo a very summary
trial, and are then sentenced to be shot. The culprits have the
privilege of choosing their place of execution, and they generally fix
on the market-place. They are allowed the assistance of a priest for
twelve hours prior to their death, and they are conducted from the
chapel to the place of execution, carrying a bench, on which they sit to
undergo the punishment. Four soldiers fire at the distance of three
paces from the culprit; two aiming at his head, and two at his breast.
On one of these occasions a singular instance of presence of mind and
dexterity occurred a few years ago in Lima. A very daring zambo,
convicted of highway robbery, was sentenced to death. He made choice of
the Plaza de la Inquisicion as the scene of his execution. It was market
time, and the square was crowded with people. The culprit darted around
him a rapid and penetrating glance, and then composedly seated himself
on the bench. The soldiers according to custom levelled their muskets
and fired; but how great was the surprise, when the cloud of smoke
dispersed, and it was discovered that the zambo had vanished. He had
closely watched the movements of the soldiers, and when they pulled the
triggers of their muskets, he stooped down, and the balls passed over
his head. Then suddenly knocking down one of the guards who stood beside
him, he rushed into the midst of the crowd, where some of his friends
helped him to effect his escape.

In time of war a corps is raised, consisting chiefly of highway robbers
and persons who, by various offences against the laws, have forfeited
their freedom or their lives. This corps is called the Montoneros, and
they are very important auxiliaries when the coast is the theatre of the
war. The Montoneros, not being trained in military manoeuvres, are not
employed as regular cavalry, but only as outposts, scouts,
despatch-bearers, &c. They are good skirmishers, and they harass the
enemy by their unexpected movements; sometimes attacking in front and
sometimes in the rear. They have no regular uniform, and their usual
clothing consists of dirty white trousers and jacket, a poncho, and a
broad-brimmed straw hat. Many of them are not even provided with shoes,
and their spurs are fastened on their bare heels. Their arms consist
of a short carbine and a sword. When the corps is strong, and is
required for active service, it is placed under the command of a
General of the Army. In 1838, General Miller, now British Consul at
the Sandwich Islands, commanded a corps of 1000 Montoneros, who were
in the service of Santa Cruz. They are held in the strictest
discipline by their commanders, who punish theft with death. There is,
however, one sort of robbery which they are suffered to commit with
impunity, viz, horse-stealing. The horses obtained in this way are
used for mounting the cavalry; and detachments of Montoneros are sent
to the plantations to collect horses. They are likewise taken from
travellers, and from the stables in the capital; but sometimes, after
the close of the campaign, the animals are returned to their owners.
When the war is ended the Montoneros are disbanded, and most of them
return to their occupation as highway robbers.

In all campaigns the Montoneros are sent forward, by one or two days'
march in advance of the main army, either in small or large
detachments. When they enter a village they experience no difficulty in
obtaining quarters and provisions, for the inhabitants are not disposed
to refuse anything that such visitors may demand. A troop of Montoneros
is a picturesque, but, at the same time, a very fearful sight. Their
black, yellow, and olive-colored faces, seared by scars, and expressive
of every evil passion and savage feeling; their motley and tattered
garments; their weary and ill-saddled horses; their short firelocks and
long swords;--present altogether a most wild and disorderly aspect. The
traveller, who suddenly encounters such a band, may consider himself
exceedingly lucky if he escapes with only the loss of his horse.

A universal panic pervades the city of Lima whenever a detachment of
Montoneros enters within the gates. On every side are heard cries of
"_Cierra puertas!_" (close the doors!) "_Los Montoneros!_" Every person
passing along the streets runs into the first house he comes to, and
closes the door after him. In a few moments the streets are cleared, and
no sound is heard but the galloping of the Montoneros' horses.

Within the distance of a few leagues from Lima there are several pretty
villages, to which the wealthier class of the inhabitants of the capital
resort in the summer seasons, for sea-bathing. The nearest, situated
about three-quarters of a league from Lima, is Magdalena, where the
Viceroy of Peru formerly had a beautiful summer residence. Miraflores,
about midway between Lima and Chorillos, is a small village containing a
plaza and some neatly-built houses. Though the heat is greater here than
in the capital, yet the air is purer, and Miraflores may be regarded as
the healthiest spot in the neighborhood of Lima. The sultry atmosphere
is refreshed by the sea breezes. Surrounded by verdant though not
luxuriant vegetation, and sufficiently distant from the marshes,
Miraflores appears to combine within itself all that can be wished for
in a summer residence. For asthmatic patients the air is particularly
favorable. An old Spaniard of my acquaintance, who was engaged during
the day in business in Lima, used to go every night to sleep at
Miraflores: he assured me that if he slept a night in the capital he
suffered a severe attack of asthma.

Chorillos is a poor, ill-looking village. The streets are dirty and
crooked, and the houses are mere ranchos. It is built close to the sea,
on a steep sandy beach; but, though anything but a pleasant place,
Chorillos is the favorite resort of the wealthy Limayan families. Not a
tree is visible in the neighborhood of the village, and the unshaded
rays of the sun are reflected with twofold power from the hot sand. A
broad, steep road leads down to the bathing-place on the sea-beach,
which is rough and shingly. A row of small huts, covered with matting,
serve as dressing-rooms. Both ladies and gentlemen use bathing dresses,
which are very neatly made of a kind of blue cloth. The ladies are
accompanied by guides (_bañaderos_). These are Indians, who dwell in the
village. In winter they employ themselves in fishing, and in summer they
live by what they get from the visitors who resort to Chorillos. They
are a good-looking, hardy race of people.

The time for bathing is early in the morning. The interval between
breakfast and dinner is devoted to swinging in the hammock, either in
the sala or in the corridor. The afternoon and evening are spent on the
promenade, and the later hours of the night at the gaming-table. The
routine of the day's occupations and amusements is much the same as in
most of the watering-places of Europe, excepting that, in the latter,
the hammock is suspended by the chair in the reading-room and
coffee-house, or the bench on the promenade. The sultry nights in
Chorillos are rendered doubly unpleasant by the swarms of vermin which
infest the houses. Fleas, bugs, mosquitoes and sancudos, combine to
banish rest from the couch of even the soundest sleeper.

Surco is situated about half a league from Chorillos, and further into
the interior of the country. It is a poor but pleasant village,
surrounded by tropical trees and luxuriant vegetation. The climate is
not so hot as that of Lima or Chorillos. Surco is a very pretty spot,
though seldom resorted to by the inhabitants of the capital; because it
boasts neither baths nor gaming-tables.

Two leagues eastward of Lima, in the direction of the mountains, is
the village El Ate. It lies in a fertile valley, and enjoys a pure
and equal temperature. It is much resorted to by invalids suffering
from pulmonary disorders, which, if not cured, are at least relieved
by the pure air.

Lurin is situated five leagues south from the capital, and a quarter of
a league from the Rio de Lurin, which intersects the Quebrada of
Huarochirin. Fine gardens, and well-cultivated lands, impart beauty to
the surrounding scenery. At Michaelmas Lurin is visited by many of the
inhabitants of the capital, St. Michael being the patron saint of the
place. The village stands about a thousand paces from the margin of the
sea-shore, which is two miles distant from the rocky islands of
Tarallones, Santo Domingo, and Pacchacamac. Prior to the Spanish
conquest, the valley of Lurin was one of the most populous parts of the
coast of Peru. The whole of the broad valley was then called
Pacchacamac, because near the sea-shore and northward of the river,
there was a temple sacred to the "Creator of the Earth."[42] Pacchacamac
was the greatest deity of the Yuncas, who did not worship the sun until
after their subjugation by the Incas. The temple of Pacchacamac was then
dedicated to the sun by the Incas, who destroyed the idols which the
Yuncas had worshipped, and appointed to the service of the temple a
certain number of virgins of royal descent. In the year 1534, Pizarro
invaded the village of Lurin: his troops destroyed the temple, and the
Virgins of the Sun were dishonored and murdered.

The ruins of the temple of Pacchacamac are among the most interesting
objects on the coast of Peru. They are situated on a hill about 558
feet high. The summit of the hill is overlaid with a solid mass of
brick-work about thirty feet in height. On this artificial ridge stood
the temple, enclosed by high walls, rising in the form of an
amphitheatre. It is now a mass of ruins; all that remains of it being
some niches, the walls of which present faint traces of red and yellow
painting. At the foot, and on the sides of the hill, are scattered
ruins which were formerly the walls of habitations. The whole was
encircled by a wall eight feet in breadth, and it was probably of
considerable height, for some of the parts now standing are twelve
feet high, though the average height does not exceed three or four
feet. The mania of digging for treasures every year makes
encroachments on these vestiges of a bygone age, whose monuments
are well deserving of more careful preservation.

Travelling on the coast of Peru is difficult and tedious. The roads
lead through plains of sand, where often not a trace of vegetation is
to be seen, nor a drop of water to be found for twenty or thirty
miles. It is found desirable to take all possible advantage of the
night, in order to escape the scorching rays of a tropical sun; but
when there is no moonlight, and above all, when clouds of mist obscure
the directing stars, the traveller runs the risk of getting out of his
course, and at daybreak, discovering his error, he may have to retrace
his weary way. This extra fatigue may possibly disable his horse, so
that the animal cannot proceed further. In such an emergency a
traveller finds his life in jeopardy; for should he attempt to go
forward on foot he may, in all probability, fall a sacrifice to
fatigue and thirst. Numbers of beasts of burden sink every year under
the difficulties of such a journey; and their bones serve to mark the
direction of the road. Long journeys over these sand plains should be
undertaken only with good and well-tried horses. For the most part the
horses cannot stand hunger and thirst forty-eight hours without
becoming so exhausted that the rider has the greatest difficulty in
making them drag on; and if he is inconsiderate enough to force the
animal to take a quicker pace, the horse lies down and dies. The mule,
which more easily supports the difficulties of a severe journey on the
sparest food, is, in Peru, the camel of the desert. Without mules, a
long journey on most parts of the coast would be impracticable. The
horse obeys the spur until he falls dead under the rider. Not so the
mule: when too weary to journey onward he stands stock still, and
neither whip nor spur will move him until he has rested. After that he
will willingly proceed on his way. By this means the traveller has a
criterion by which he can judge of the powers of his animal.

Excursions along the coast have been greatly facilitated by the
introduction of steam navigation, and travellers now eagerly avail
themselves of that rapid and secure mode of conveyance. Even in sailing
vessels voyages from south to north can be conveniently performed in
consequence of the regularity of the tradewind.

During my residence in Lima, in the commencement of the year 1841, I
visited the port of Huacho, situated to the north. A packet bound to
Panama had permission to touch at Huacho, without casting anchor, as she
had to convey political prisoners under sentence of transportation to
Panama. I was one of five passengers who landed at Huacho, and among the
number was the pastor of the town, that very original individual, "the
Cura Requena." The passage, which is usually made in fourteen hours,
lasted two days and a half. Off the port we fell in with a Peruvian
sloop of war, which, on our sailing from Callao, had been sent to watch
us, and to stop the prisoners in case they attempted to escape. Our
captain lay to, and we stepped into a boat. Our movements were
observed from the shore, where, for some days, a report had prevailed
that Santa Cruz was coming with Corsairs, to make a descent. The
inhabitants believed that our ship must belong to that expedition.
They were the more confirmed in their notion, inasmuch as the
appearance of a sloop of war, which had sailed about for some hours in
the bay, could not otherwise be explained. Accordingly the alarm bell
was rung. The custom-house officers and the coast guards, headed by
the port captain, and followed by a crowd of people, came down to the
shore, some armed with muskets and pistols, others with swords and
cudgels, to repel the intended attack.

At the entrance to the port of Huacho the breakers are so dangerous that
an ordinary-sized boat cannot put in. Landing is therefore effected in
the small canoes of the Indians. When we approached the shore we made
signals, and called loudly for canoes, but in vain. The dismayed
Huachanos showed no inclination to assist their supposed enemies. Our
captain, who was with us in the boat, said, that as a fresh wind from
the shore was springing up he could wait no longer, and that he must
take us with him to Panama. This very unpleasant piece of information
prompted us to put into execution a plan which was suggested by despair.
The tall, lank pastor, wrapped in the black ecclesiastical robe, called
the _talar_, was placed at the prow, where he stood up, making signs of
peace and friendship to the natives. This had the desired effect. The
port captain had a good glass, with which he quickly recognized the
marked features of the Cura, and several Indian boats were instantly
despatched to convey us on shore. These Indian canoes consist of long
narrow stumps of trees, hollowed longitudinally. On either side is
nailed a _palo de balzas_, viz., a beam of a very porous kind of wood.
One Indian sits forward, another more backward, each having a short
wooden shovel-shaped oar, with which they strike the water right and
left, and thus scull the boat onward. The passengers must crouch or
kneel down in the middle, and dare not stir, for the least irregularity
in the motion would upset the boat. We landed safely, and amused
ourselves by referring to the mistake of the brave guardians of the
coast. Horses were provided for us, and we rode to the town, which is
situated at about half a league up the gently-rising coast.

My principal occupation, during a six weeks' residence on this part of
the coast, which is very rich in fishes, was to augment my
ichthyological collection, and to make myself well acquainted with the
environs of Huacho. Every morning, at five o'clock, I rode down to the
shore, and waited on the strand to see the boats returning with what had
been caught, during the night, by the fishers, who readily descried me
at a distance, and held up, in their boat, such strange inhabitants of
the deep as had come into their possession. I succeeded in making out,
from several hundred individual specimens, one hundred and twenty
distinct species of sea and river fish. But an unlucky fate hovered over
this fine collection. The fishes were all put into a cask with brandy,
which, by neglect of the commissary of the port, was left on the Mole at
Callao, for several months, in the burning heat of the sun: in
consequence its contents were utterly destroyed. A second collection was
prepared, and immediately shipped for Europe, and in the packing the
greatest care was observed. Nevertheless it arrived, after a voyage of
fifteen months, in a state quite useless. Thus the fruits of much labor
and a considerable expense were entirely lost.

Huacho is a little village, which, since the war of Independence, has
received the title of "city." It has more than 5000 inhabitants, of
whom four-fifths are Indians and the rest mestizes. Very few whites
have settled here. Among them I met an old lame Spaniard, "Don Simon,"
who, at the beginning of the present century, accompanied the
celebrated Alexander von Humboldt to the beds of salt situated a few
miles to the south. In relating, with enthusiastic pleasure, his
recollections of the youthful and indefatigable traveller, he told me
that, some years ago, he had read through the book which Humboldt
wrote on America, and he added, with great simplicity, "_pero, Señor,
ahi he perdido los estribos_."[43]

The natives employ themselves in fishing, agriculture, and the
breeding of poultry. Most of the poultry brought to market in Lima
comes from Huacho. Every Friday large caravan-like processions of
Indian women repair to the capital with fowls, ducks, and turkeys.
Fifteen or twenty are tied together by the feet, and make a sort of
bunch; and two of such bunches are hung at the pommel of the saddle,
so that one hangs down on either side of the horse. The chola[44] sits
in the middle. Under this burthen the poor animal has to travel two
days and a half. Only when the caravan halts does he enjoy the relief
of being unsaddled and fed. Some of the Indians of Huacho work in the
salt-pits. The women plait coarse straw hats, and a kind of mats
called _petates_, which they carry to Lima for sale.

The Huachanos cannot be ranked among the best classes of the Indians.
They are malicious, revengeful, and knavish. Their character has
evidently deteriorated amidst the numerous revolutions which preceded
the establishment of the Republic, and the frequent passage of troops
through the town. The Padre Requena sketched to me a terrible picture
of his _Indios brutos_; but truly, under the guidance of such a
shepherd, it were unreasonable to expect the flock to be very good.
This venerable Cura was a fair type of the Peruvian priesthood. He was
passionately fond of hunting, and for the enjoyment of that recreation
he kept a number of excellent horses, and several packs of hounds,
particularly _galgos_ (greyhounds), for some of which he paid 150 or
200 dollars. In the most shameless way he violated the ecclesiastical
vow of celibacy, and he was usually surrounded by several of his own
children, who called him _uncle_, addressing him by the appellation of
_tio_, the term usually employed in Peru to express that sort of
relationship. The Padre used to boast of his alleged friendship with
Lord Cochrane, in which he affected to pride himself very greatly. He
died in a few weeks after his return to Huacho. He refused so long to
make his confession, that the Indians, uttering furious menaces,
assembled in crowds about his house. Some even compelled a priest to go
in to him, to represent the awful consequences of his obstinacy. On the
approach of death, he declared that the thought which most occupied him
was his separation from his hounds, and when his hands were becoming
cold he called to his negro to fetch a pair of buckskin hunting gloves,
and desired to have them drawn on.

In Peru the clergy have no fixed stipend. Their emoluments are derived
from the fees and perquisites which their ecclesiastical functions bring
in. For baptisms, marriages, and masses, fixed sums are established; but
it is not so with burials, for which the priest receives a present
proportional to the circumstances of the deceased. The interment of a
poor person (_entierro baxo_) costs at least from eight to ten dollars,
which sum is extorted from the survivors with the most unrelenting
rigor. For the burial of a rich person (_entierro alto_) the sum of two
hundred dollars is frequently paid. If a wealthy man should express in
his will his desire for an _entierro baxo_, the priest sets this clause
aside, and proceeds with the costly ceremonies, the payment for which is
insured by the pious feelings of the family. Hence some of the richer
_comunerias_, of which Huacho is one, yield to the priest annually from
12,000 to 14,000 dollars. When a priest dies, the clergy of the
neighboring villages meet and bury him with great pomp, free of any
payment except a good banquet.

A rich Indian of Huacho made a bargain with his countrymen that, on
their paying him weekly a medio (the sixteenth part of a dollar), he
would defray the expenses of their funerals. By this agreement he
realized a considerable sum of money. The Cholos made it a condition
that they should be buried in coffins, which is not common with the
lower classes in Peru. The Indian complied with this condition. When a
Cholo died, a coffin was sent to his residence. If too short, the corpse
was bent and forced into it. The interment then took place according to
the ritual of the Church. On the following night the Indian who had
contracted for the burials repaired with a confidential servant to the
churchyard, dug up the coffin, threw the body back into the grave, and
carried off the coffin, with the _mortaja_ (the funeral garment), which
served for the next customer. The contractor made each coffin last as
long as the boards would hold together. This system, at all events,
secured the Cholos against the danger of being buried alive.

The churchyard of Huacho presents a revolting spectacle. A low wall
surrounds a space of sandy ground, which is strewed with skulls, bones,
fragments of burial clothes, and mutilated human bodies. The coffin
plunderer, on replacing the corpse in the grave, merely throws some
loose sand over it, and the consequence is that the remains of the dead
frequently become the prey of dogs, foxes, and other carrion feeders.
When the family of a deceased person can contribute nothing to defray
the funeral expenses, the body is conveyed privately during the night to
the churchyard. In the morning it is found half consumed.

The environs of Huacho abound in fine fruit gardens, and productive
Indian farms. The climate is healthful, though very hot. The vicinity of
the sea and the convenience of good bathing would render it an agreeable
place of residence, were it not infested with vermin. Fleas propagate in
the sand in almost incredible multitudes, especially in the neighborhood
of the Indian huts, and any person entering them is in a moment covered
with hundreds of those tormentors. Bugs, too, swarm in the lime walls;
though that description of vermin is less numerous in Huacho than in
some of the more northern towns.

In a fine valley, about two short leagues from Huacho, the little town
of Huaura is situated on the bank of a river of the same name. This Rio
de Huaura is formed by the union of two rivers. The larger of the two
rises in the Cordillera de Paria, and flows through the wild ravine of
Chuichin: the smaller river, called the Rio Chico de Sayan, rises from a
lake of considerable size in the Altos de Huaquimarci. Both unite below
the village of Sayan. In the vicinity of Huaura the river forms several
marshes, in which malaria is generated. In very few places have I seen
the stratum of malaria so distinctly separated from the atmosphere as
here. It lies at an average about two, or two and a half feet above the
marsh, and is carried over it by strong atmospheric currents. It is
distinguished by a peculiar kind of opalization, and on certain
changes of light it exhibits a yellowish tint. This is particularly
perceptible in the morning, on coming down from the high grounds. The
marshy plain then appears overhung with a thick color-changing sheet
of malaria. Malignant intermittent fever and diseases of the skin are
frequent in Huaura. The town is thinly peopled; the number of
inhabitants being not more than 2000.

A great sugar plantation, called El Ingenio, is situated at about a
quarter of a league from Huaura. It formerly belonged to the Jesuits,
but is now the property of a rich Lima family. The _trapiche_, or
sugar-mill, is worked by a water-wheel, the first ever established in
Peru, a circumstance of which the owner proudly boasts.

The valley which opens here is magnificent, and to ride through it
easterly eleven leagues towards Sayan is one of the finest excursions
which can be made in Peru. Over this beautiful district are scattered
many rich plantations. The one next in importance to El Ingenio is
Acaray, which, though not very large, is most carefully cultivated:
another, called Huillcahuaura, has a splendid building erected on it. In
the middle of the valley is the extensive sugar plantation of Luhmayo.
Near this place I saw, in a negro's hut, an ounce of immense size, which
had been killed a few weeks previously. More than fifty Negroes and
Indians had been engaged in subduing this ferocious animal, which was
not killed until after a conflict of two days, in the course of which
several negroes were dangerously wounded. This gigantic specimen
measured, from the snout to the tip of the tail, eight feet three
inches; the tail itself measuring two feet eight inches.

At the sugar works of Luhmayo, notwithstanding the number of pipes, and
other methods of supplying water, the cylinders are always worked by
oxen, and are kept in motion day and night. I took a view of the works
during the night, and the extraordinary picture I beheld will never be
effaced from my memory. In the middle of the spacious building
appropriated to the operations blazed a large fire, fed by the refuse
of sugar canes. Around lay negroes, some asleep, and others muttering
to each other in an under-tone. Here and there sat one perfectly
silent, wrapped in his own reflections, and apparently brooding over
some gloomy plan. The oxen paced slowly round the pole, which directed
the movement of the cylinders; the animals alternately disappearing in
the obscure background, and returning to the point where the glare of
the fire, falling full upon them, lighted them up as if by the sudden
effect of magic. Behind them stalked a tall black figure, driving them
on with a rod made of brambles. Groups of children were busily
employed in thrusting the full sugar canes between the cylinders; and
after they were pressed, collecting together the sapless reeds, and
piling them up in regular heaps.

Next morning the person who officiated as medical superintendant of the
plantation, showed me all the arrangements of the establishment. He gave
me an account of his cures and operations, and told me that he often
found it necessary to amputate, because the slaves purposely injure
their fingers and arms in the _Phalangeles_ (machines) in order to
disable themselves. The worthy Æsculapius had never in his life read a
regular medical work. He had originally been an overseer of slaves,
and had afterwards turned doctor. He informed me that some time before
I saw him, ninety negroes, his patients, had died of small-pox in the
space of nine months, whereby the owner of the plantation had lost
45,000 dollars. The hospital was clean and well fitted up, but
over-crowded with sick. Most of them died from intermitting fever, and
from dropsy and rheumatism which followed it. Not a few of the male
negroes suffer from a peculiar kind of cutaneous disease, which shows
itself by large pustules on the arms and breast. After suppuration
they dry and fall off, but leave indelible spots, which, on a black
skin, are of a whitish color; on a brown skin, olive-green, and on a
white skin, black. I never saw the disease in any other part of the
country except in this valley. Negroes and persons of mixed blood are
more subject to it than the whites.

The two plantations on the east side of the valley are Chambara and
Quipico. The latter is celebrated for the fine sugar it produces, and is
also well known on account of the original character of its late
proprietor, Castilla. When I rode into the court, I was in a moment
surrounded by about fifty fine greyhounds, and from every side others
came springing forward. This was but a remnant of Castilla's collection.
He was passionately devoted to hunting, and generally kept from 200 to
300 greyhounds, with which he rode out daily. A bell was rung at certain
hours to collect the light-footed tribe to their meals. A gallows was
erected in the court, where the intractable underwent capital punishment
as a warning to the rest. One day when Castilla went out to hunt, he was
joined in the chase by an Indian, who brought with him a common mongrel.
This animal outstripped some of the greyhounds in speed, and quickly
overtook the deer. Castilla immediately bought the dog, for which he
gave the immense price of 350 dollars. A few days after he rode out to
hunt with his best greyhounds, together with the newly-purchased dog.
The pack being let loose, all the dogs set off in full chase, but the
mongrel remained quietly beside the horses. On returning to the
plantation, he was hung up on the gallows as a warning example.

To the north of Huacho, the _Pampa del medio mundo_, a sand plain, seven
leagues long, stretches out to the village of Supe. At short successive
distances farther to the north are the villages of _Baranca_,
_Pativilca_ (or rather Pati Huillca), and _la Fortaleza_. Then there
intervenes a vast waste, which extends nearly to Huarmay. Between that
village and the Port of Casma there is a similar long plain of sand.
Thus do wastes, and fruitful valleys, alternate along the whole coast
until near Tumbez, on the frontiers of the Republic of the Ecuador.

The whole district is rich in memorable monuments of the time of the
Incas. The most important are the remains of the palace of King Chimu
Cancha, not far from the harbor of Huanchaco, and the ruins of
Paramanca, near la Fortaleza. Doctor Unanue[45] is of opinion that the
latter edifice was built to commemorate the peace between King Chimu
Cancha and his conqueror, Capac Yupanqui; and that of two other
buildings, one (the larger), situated towards the east, marks the
dominions of the powerful Inca Pachacutec, and the other (the smaller),
towards the west, indicates the territory of the conquered Chimu. This
supposition is, in my opinion, quite erroneous. Independently of the
plainly-recognizable character of those ruins, the construction of which
shows them to have been fortifications, their situation bears evidence
against the inference of Unanue. Supposing the larger building to have
indicated the position of the Inca Empire, it ought to have been
situated to the south, and the smaller building would have been to the
north. The only passable road along the coast led between these two
fortified hills; and by them the road on that side to the Kingdom of
Chimu could be cut off. The Incas well knew, from experience, that the
subdued populations, usually after a longer or a shorter time, again
revolted, and endeavored to shake off their yoke, and therefore they
were on their guard against such an occurrence. Capac Yupanqui must
have greatly mistrusted an enemy so formidable as Chimu Cancha, who
had only yielded after the most obstinate resistance, and it is no
slight proof of this that Paramanca[46] was built as a fortress to
hold the subjugated nations in check. It was not, however, built as a
monument of victory, for such monuments were always erected in Cozco,
the capital, and never on the field of battle. Etymology affords no
solution of this question. Some write Paramonga, others Paramanca. I
regard the latter as the most correct. Garcilaso de la Vega calls the
valley Parmunca. In the Quichua dialect _Paramanca_[47] signifies a
pot for rain. It is therefore possible that the name may indicate an
allusion to heavy torrents of rain, which, though now unusual on this
particular part of the coast, may have occurred in this basin-like
valley after a great earthquake.

Five leagues to the south of Huacho are the extensive _Salinas_, or salt
pits, which supply Peru and Chile with excellent salt. They spread from
the sea coast to the distance of half a league eastward, and present a
most extraordinary aspect. On approaching them the traveller might fancy
he beholds a field of glaciers, on which the sun's rays produce
wonderful effects of variegated color.

This salt is the produce of a natural evaporation of the sea water,
which trickles through the porous stones of the coast, and fills every
intervening hollow. The whole space is parcelled into divisions, called
fields, from which, according to a definite regulation, square masses,
weighing each one hundred pounds, are cut. In a few days the holes are
again filled up with sea water, which, in the space of twelve to
sixteen, or sometimes twenty to twenty-four months, being evaporated by
the sun, leaves a precipitate completely filling up the square holes.
The government has farmed the salinas to a private individual in Huacho,
who keeps on the spot an overseer with the necessary number of
laborers. This establishment is an inexhaustible source of wealth, and
it can only be destroyed by a violent earthquake. In the bay on which
the salinas border there is very convenient and secure anchoring
ground, where coasters are constantly lying, ready to receive the
salt, and convey it to any Peruvian or Chilean port. Most of the
laborers employed in the salinas suffer from diseases of the skin and
rheumatism. Water and provisions have to be brought from Huacho. The
Indians, when they come from the mountains to convey salt, never take
their llamas to the salinas. They go straight to Huacho, where the
animals are loaded at the great depôts. Each llama carries the weight
of one hundred pounds, which, however, is not, like ordinary burthens,
laid on the bare back of the animal--beneath it is placed a layer of
thick woollen cloth, called a _jerga_.

The road southward from the Salinas runs, for the distance of nine
leagues, through deep sand, chiefly along the sea-coast, and is bounded
on the east by the _Lomas de Lachay_. Here flocks of strand snipes and
flamingoes fly constantly before the traveller, as if to direct his
course. In the _pescadores_ (fishermen's huts), five leagues from the
Salinas, brackish water and broiled fish may be obtained, and sometimes
even clover, which is brought hither, from the distance of several
miles, to feed the hungry horses. From the pescadores the road crosses
steep sand-hills, which rise from three to four hundred feet high, and
fall with a declivity of more than sixty degrees towards the sea. The
road leads along the side of these hills, and, where the ground is not
firm, it is exceedingly dangerous. On a false step of the horse the
ground yields beneath his hoof, and rolls down the declivity; but by due
care the rider can easily recover a solid footing. There is on one of
these hills a very large stone, which at a certain distance presents in
color and form a deceptious similarity to an enormous-sized seal. Almost
perpendicularly under it is a small bay, inhabited by a multitude of
seals. The dull crashing sound made by the breakers on the shore,
mingling with the howling of these animals, makes a gloomy impression on
the traveller who is passing along the height above them, and creates a
sort of shuddering sensation. The natives call this place and its sounds
the _Grita Lobos_ (the Sea-dog's Howl). From this hilly ground the road
descends into the fruitful valley of the _Pasamayo_, which contains two
villages and eighteen plantations.

Chancay, the principal town in this valley, is the residence of a
sub-prefect. It is a league and a half from the river, and a short
league from the sea, where there is an inconsiderable and not very safe
port, which can only be entered by small vessels. The number of
inhabitants is about 1200, chiefly Indians and Mulattos. Excellent
fruits and vegetables, good beef, mutton, and poultry, and well-flavored
fish, are found here in abundance. The houses are all of the poorest
structure, and are sparingly and rudely furnished. In the neighboring
farms, some of which are large, as Torreblanco, Pasamayo, &c., maize is
extensively cultivated for exportation and for food to the swine, which
are very numerous. In no other valley of Peru are there so many
earth-fleas, or _piques_, as they are called, particularly about the
plantations. The _pique_ is a small, white insect, which lives in sand,
but fastens as a parasite on man and beast, more particularly on swine.
It attacks man by penetrating the skin, for the most part under the
toe-nails, where an egg is laid, from which a painful tumor is
afterwards formed. Should this be neglected, the brood is developed, and
penetrates further into the flesh. Then follow violent inflammations and
imposthumes, which sometimes assume so serious a character that the
amputation of the foot becomes necessary. While the _pique_ is
penetrating there is no sensation of its presence; it is first felt on
the development of the egg, and then it is still easy to remove the
bag which contains it, and the mother with it. The Negresses
accomplish this with great dexterity. They make an aperture in the
skin by scratching it with a needle, and then they draw the bag out.
Should it burst, they take out the egg with the needle; but this is a
very delicate operation. I have always been able to do it more
speedily and more securely with the lancet. The hole is commonly of
the size of a bean, and hot cigar ashes are put into it to destroy any
eggs or larvæ which may remain. These insects do not always confine
themselves to the feet; they sometimes attack the body and the face,
and it is in general extremely difficult for the patient to discover
how or where he became acquainted with such troublesome companions. I
once had six tumors, caused by broods of _piques_, on my right foot,
and I could not trace the annoyance to any other cause than having
stopped for a few minutes, while my horse was being saddled, in the
_corral_, or yard, of a plantation.

The road from Chancay to the Haciendas of Bisquira, Andahuasi, and the
village of Sayan, extends in a northeasterly direction, through a dreary
valley of sand, between rows of sterile hillocks of the most singular
forms. I had once to travel along twelve leagues of this wearisome road,
under the most oppressive heat of the sun. The mules were quite
overcome, and when we reached the _Cuesta de los ahorcados_ (the hill of
the hanged) they would not move another step. We had to descend and give
them a long rest. We stretched ourselves under the bellies of the
animals, the only shade we could get in this treeless waste. At last,
after a very difficult journey, during which we lost ourselves in a
marsh in the neighborhood of Bisquira, we arrived about midnight at
Andahuasi. On this road, only two leagues from Chancay, near the
Hacienda of Chancayllo, are situated the Colcas, most remarkable
subterraneous structures, of the time of the Incas. According to
tradition, they were built by the Yuncas, during the campaign of Capac
Yupanqui against Chimu Cancha, as provision magazines for the numerous
army, more than 120,000 strong.

At the mouth of the Pasamayo, on the north bank, there are some salinas,
which, however, are far more inconsiderable than those of Huacho.

The first time I went from Huacho to Lima, I wished to pass over the
whole road, twenty-eight leagues, in one uninterrupted ride; accordingly
I left Huacho at two o'clock, P. M., in order that I might cross the
great sand-flats during the night. A negro who knew the road accompanied
me. We passed through Chancay at midnight. Some muleteers, lying before
a hut, called to us, and warned us to stop, as the river had swelled
very much. Nevertheless we proceeded onward, and by one o'clock we
reached the Pasamayo, which, in consequence of the heavy rains from the
mountains, had overflowed its banks. Several travellers had stretched
themselves on the ground to wait for the morning light, and in the hope
that the flood would by that time subside. No Chimbadores[48] were to be
had. My negro guide looked at the water with dismay, and declared that
he had never before witnessed so furious a swell. However, we had no
time to lose, and I resolved to attempt the passage of the river.
Trusting to my well tried horse, which had already carried me safely
through many difficult coasting journeys, I cautiously rode into the
river, which became deeper at every step. The overwhelming force of the
stream was felt by my horse; and he presently lost his footing, though
he still continued to struggle vigorously against the force of the
current. At this juncture, some passing clouds obscured the moon, and I
lost sight of a group of trees which, before leaving the opposite bank,
I fixed my eye upon as a guiding beacon. Quite powerless, my horse
and I were carried away by the stream, and driven against a rock in
the middle of the river. I now heard the anxious outcries of my negro
and the travellers on the bank, whilst the waves rose over my head.
With a convulsive effort I pulled the bridle, and the horse then
turning completely round, once more gained his solid footing. I then
gave him the spur, and the courageous animal dashing again into the
midst of the current, swam with me to the bank. I rode forward with my
negro in search of a better fording-place, and after several fruitless
attempts, we at length found one, and we crossed the river safely. The
other travellers did not venture to follow our example, but called out
begging us not to leave them behind. I sent the negro back on my horse
to bring them over; and the noble animal went backward and forward no
less than seven times without making one false step. After all this
exertion, he bore me with unflagging spirit into Lima, where we
arrived at noon on the following day.

From the Pasamayo, the road runs for the space of two leagues
tolerably level, and for the most part amidst plantations. Then
succeed steep sandy hills, for the distance of about four leagues.
The roads are very wearisome both to horse and rider, especially in
the declivities towards the plains, where the horse is frequently
over his knees in sand. In those parts there are also some
extraordinary atmospheric mirrors, in which we beheld ourselves in
reflection, riding over our own heads, and our figures magnified to
gigantic proportions. Six leagues from Chancay, there are two wretched
huts, forming the tambo, or inn, in which travellers obtain
refreshment. From thence the road runs through a stony tract,
partially strewn with large masses of rock, called the _Piedras
gordas_, and leading to the marshes which surround the Copacahuana
plantations. Two leagues further on is the river Chillon, which, like
the Pasamayo, may generally be easily forded, but which swells
furiously during heavy falls of rain. At a short distance behind the
river, the road, called the Camino de Valles, joins that leading to
Cerro de Pasco. About a league from Lima there is a place called _Palo
seco_, which, like _Piedras gordas_, is a celebrated haunt of robbers.
The traveller has reason to congratulate himself if he passes these
two places without an attack.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 41: The Indians resort to very artful methods of hiding their
money. They sometimes conceal it between the boards of the boxes in
which their eggs are packed, or stitch it into the stuffing of their
asses' saddles. They often submit to be killed rather than avow where
their money is concealed.]

[Footnote 42: The word Pacchacamac signifies _He who created the world
out of nothing_. It is compounded of _Paccha_, the earth, and _camac_,
the participle present of _caman_, to produce something from nothing.]

[Footnote 43: Literally--"But there, sir, I lost the stirrups." Meaning
that he did not understand it. The Spanish phrase, _Perder los
estribos_, signifies to get confused or embarrassed.]

[Footnote 44: _Chola_ is the common designation for an Indian female.
The masculine is _Cholo_.]

[Footnote 45: Nuevo dia del Peru. 1824.]

[Footnote 46: According to some ancient authors Paramanca was built by
King Chimu as a frontier fortress against the neighboring nations. There
is some foundation for this view of the subject, as Chimu Cancha had,
long before he was attacked by Capac Yupanqui, carried on war most
fiercely with Cuyz Mancu, King of Pacchacama, and Chuquiz Mancu, King of
Runahuanac (the present Lunahuana).]

[Footnote 47: _Para_ (rain) _Manca_ (pot).]

[Footnote 48: Guides, who conduct travellers across rivers, being well
acquainted with the fords. They are also called Vadeadores.]

CHAPTER IX.

The Coast southward of Lima--Chilca--Curious Cigar cases made
there--Yauyos--Pisco--Journey to Yca--A night on the Sand
Plains--Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823--Vine Plantations at
Yca--Brandy and Wine--Don Domingo Elias--Vessels for transporting
Brandy (Botijas and odres)--Cruel mode of skinning Goats--Negro
Carnival--Peculiar species of Guinea Pig--The Salamanqueja--Cotton
Plantations--Quebrada of Huaitara--Sangallan--Guano--Retrospect of the
Peruvian Coast--Rivers--Medanos--Winds--Change of Seasons--the
Garuas--The Lomas--Mammalia--Birds--Amphibia.

The coast, southward of Lima, is similar in aspect, climate, and
character, to those parts north of the city which have just been
described. Fruitful valleys, villages, and plantations, commodious
sea-ports, and vast sandy wastes, alternate one with the other. Heat,
sometimes almost insupportable, is succeeded by chilly and unhealthy
mists; whilst here and there the scattered monuments of the wealth and
greatness of bygone ages present a remarkable and painful contrast to
present poverty and misery.

Proceeding southward of Lima by way of Lurin, we arrive at Chilca, a
wretched village situated on a soil which affords nothing to supply the
wants of human existence. It appears an incomprehensible mystery that
man should have fixed his abode on a spot where Nature has granted
nothing for his nourishment, not even a drop of pure water; whilst at
the distance of a few miles, luxuriant valleys offer, spontaneously,
those products which the most laborious toil must fail to extort from
the ungrateful soil of Chilca. The hope of wealth from commercial
speculation or mining industry has peopled many inhospitable shores, and
has raised populous towns on barren deserts; but at Chilca there are no
such stimuli of interests. Nevertheless, they may possibly have existed
in former ages, for the numerous ruins scattered around the village
tend to confirm the opinion that the population was very extensive under
the government of the Incas. The force of custom and of local attachment
which frequently chains man to the spot where his progenitors have lived
happily, is all that can bind the natives of Chilca to their miserable
dwelling-place. In few villages, as in Chilca, have the Indians for more
than 300 years so carefully avoided mixing with people of other races.
They employ themselves in plaiting straw for hats and cigar-cases. The
latter they make in a singularly beautiful style with white and colored
straw, which they plait into various figures and patterns--sometimes
into names, and even lines of poetry. Some of these cigar-cases sell for
upwards of a hundred dollars. Fishing is a less profitable occupation to
the people of Chilca, or, as they are called in the country, the
Chilqueños; for, owing to the great distance, only certain kinds of fish
can be sent to the Lima market. Near the village there is a bed of very
strong red-colored salt, which is exported to the mountains, but which
sells at a lower price than the salt of Huacho.

Five leagues south of Chilca, on the river of the same name, lies the
village called Cañete, which is the residence of a Sub-prefect. The very
interesting province of Yauyos extends from this village in an easterly
direction towards the Cordilleras. The inhabitants of this province are
distinguishable by their faces and figures, and also by their manners
and language, from the Indians of the coast and the mountains. In
stature they are small. They have expanded foreheads, animated eyes,
prominent cheek-bones, and wide mouths. Their limbs are slender, and
their skin is of a swarthy brown. Their dialect, the Cauqui, contains
many radical words of the Quichua language. After this nation was
subjugated by the Incas their language was so intermixed with others,
that it is now very difficult to trace out its origin. It appears to be
totally different from the Chinchaysuyo language.

Some very considerable sugar plantations, and several villages, lie
between Cañete and Pisco. Among the villages, Lunahuana and Chincha
(upper and lower) are celebrated for their great fertility. Two rivers,
at the distance of five leagues from each other, flow in a parallel
direction between Chincha and Pisco, and to their waters the valleys are
indebted for their rich vegetation. On account of their width these
rivers can only be passed with the assistance of Chimbadores, and many
travellers annually perish in their incautious attempts to ford them.
The little town of Pisco is on the left bank of the south river, and
half a league from it there is a secure harbor with good anchoring
ground. This town has acquired some importance by the exportation of
brandy; and it has recently become more active and populous owing to the
near vicinity of the Guano islands. The custom-house and the port
captain's office are on the shore, where there is also a large building
erected by Don Domingo Elias, for a brandy depôt. The little town of
Pisco has suffered much from the plundering attacks of European pirates,
from earthquakes, and more recently from the War of Independence.
Several parts of it have been rebuilt. Within the few last years much
has been done in the way of improving and ornamenting it. A broad trench
has been dug round the town, serving the purpose of drainage, and
thereby greatly contributing to preserve the health of the place. Pisco
is merely the key to the large interior town of Yca, which is fourteen
leagues distant. I visited it in the year 1842. The steamer conveyed me
in eighteen hours from Callao to Pisco, where I hired horses and a
guide. He was a Catalonian, who had frequently travelled to Yca.

At three o'clock, P. M., we left Pisco. At first the road passed over
very hard ground, then through deep sand, which continued till we got
to Yca. Notwithstanding the heat, which in the month of February is
insupportable, I was wrapped up in my woollen poncho. Experience had
taught me that in the hotter districts the change of temperature which
takes place at night, and causes fever, is least injurious when the
traveller is protected in warm clothing. My Catalonian guide, who,
with his arms covered merely by his shirt sleeves, nevertheless
suffered greatly from the heat, could not comprehend why I had chosen
such a dress. When I informed him that eleven days before I had, in
the same clothing, passed a night on the Cordilleras, in the midst of
snow, he shook his head in token of incredulity. Whilst the bell rang
for evening prayers we rode into the Huilla Curin Plantation, which
is surrounded by a charming grove of palm trees. We stopped for a few
moments to gather some excellent figs. About midnight a heavy fog
spread over the plain, and veiled from our sight a cross on the south,
which had hitherto served to keep us in the right direction. We,
however, advanced about a league farther. The Catalonian then often
alighted to smell the sand, in order to ascertain whether we were
taking the proper course. This is a very good practical method; for in
deserts through which caravans frequently pass, the dung of the beasts
of burthen mixed with the sand affords a sure indication of the track.
When we had got about three quarters of a league farther on, we came
close against a rock, which my guide--in whose acquaintance with the
locality I had the most unbounded confidence--declared was quite
unknown to him. There was therefore no doubt that we had got out of
the right course. I lighted a cigar, and on examining, by its feeble
light, my pocket compass, I discovered that instead of keeping to the
south-east we had diverged to the west. As there was now no hope that
the fog would clear away before day-break, we rolled ourselves in the
warm sand, to await the coming morning.

I afterwards learned that in this very spot numerous travellers had lost
their way, and had perished of thirst. In the year 1823, a ship stranded
on this coast, with three hundred and twenty dragoons on board, under
the command of Colonel Lavalle. The soldiers succeeded in getting
ashore, but thirty-six hours afterwards they were lost in this sandy
desert. When intelligence of the shipwreck reached Pisco, a cavalry
regiment was despatched to search for the sufferers, and to supply them
with provisions and water; but when they were found it was discovered
that one hundred and sixteen men had died from fatigue and thirst, and a
few days after fifty more perished from exhaustion. It is generally
supposed that a healthy man can live four or five days unsupplied with
food and drink. In the temperate climate of Europe, and with bodily
rest, this, perhaps, may be the case; but in the burning wastes of Peru
to be deprived of nourishment for only forty-eight hours, and at the
same time to wander about in deep sand, would be followed by certain
death. Severe thirst is the most horrible of torments, especially when
the body is surrounded by a medium altogether of an arid nature. At sea
it can be much longer endured than on a surface of sand.

When the grey dawn of morning appeared we again mounted our horses, and
rode by my compass in the direction of E.S.E. After riding a few
leagues, we turned an acute angle, which brought us into the main road,
and we arrived that forenoon in Yca.

On my return I so arranged my journey as to pass the night in Huilla
Curin, where the horses were supplied with forage, consisting of the
shoots and leaves of the Mastick-tree (_schinus molle_).

Yca is a moderately large and very agreeably situated town. Like most of
the larger towns on the coast it is peopled with inhabitants of all
colors, particularly Mestizos. It is the residence of a sub-prefect and
many rich planters. Scarcely anything but the vine is cultivated in the
Haciendas of the environs; and this branch of husbandry contributes
greatly to enrich the province. It is astonishing to see with what
facility the vine thrives in a soil apparently so unfruitful. The young
shoots are stuck into the sand almost half a foot deep, then tied up and
left to themselves. They quickly take root and shoot forth leaves.
Whilst the surrounding country bears the appearance of a desert, the
vineyards of Yca are clothed in delightful verdure. The grapes are of
superior quality, very succulent and sweet. The greater part are used
for making brandy, which is extremely good and very well flavored. All
Peru and a great part of Chile are supplied with this liquor from the
Vale of Yca. The common brandy is called _Aguardiente de Pisco_, because
it is shipped at that port. A kind of brandy of superior quality, and
much dearer, made from Muscatel grapes, is called _Aguardiente de
Italia_. It is distinguished by a very exquisite flavor. Very little
wine is made at Yca. In some plantations they make a thick dark-brown
kind, which is very sweet, and much liked by the Peruvians, though not
very agreeable to a European palate. Only one planter, Don Domingo
Elias,[49] the richest and most speculative cultivator on the whole
coast, makes wine in the European manner. It is very like the wine of
Madeira and Teneriffe, only it is more fiery, and contains a more
considerable quantity of alcohol. Specimens which have been sent to
Europe have obtained the unqualified approbation of connoisseurs. The
flavor is considerably improved by a long sea voyage.

The brandy, which is exported by sea, is put into large vessels made of
clay, called _botijas_. In form they are like a pear, the broad ends
being downwards. At the top there is a small aperture, which is
hermetically closed with gypsum. The large _botija_ when filled weighs
six or seven arobas. Two are a load for a mule. To the pack-saddle, or
_aparejo_, two baskets are fastened, in which the _botijas_ are placed
with the small ends downwards. These _botijas_ were formerly also used
for conveying the brandy across the mountains; but, in consequence of
the dangerous, slippery roads, over which the mules often fell, many
were broken. Still greater damage was sustained at the springs and
wells on the coast, for the poor animals, after their long journeys
through the sandy wastes, rushed, on perceiving water, in full flight
to the springs. As it happens that there is often room for only five
or six mules, and from seventy to eighty were often pressing forward,
a great number of the _botijas_ were unavoidably dashed to pieces in
spite of all the caution the arrieros could exercise. The annual loss
of brandy was immense, and to counteract this evil, bags of goatskin
were introduced. These skins are now generally used for the
conveyance of brandy across the mountains. The method of skinning the
goats is the most horribly cruel that can be conceived. A negro hangs
the living animal up by the horns, and makes a circular incision
round his neck, which, however, goes no further than to the flesh. He
then draws the skin from the body of the writhing animal, which
utters the most frightful cries. When the skin is completely removed,
and not till then, is the suffering animal killed. The negroes assert
that the skin is most easily removed in this manner, and that the
_odres_[50] become thereby more durable. It is to be hoped that
humanely disposed planters will soon put an end to this barbarous
and unreasonable practice.

I happened to be in Yca at the time of the celebration of the negro
carnival, which I will here briefly describe. In some of the principal
streets of the town large arches are erected, and gaily decorated with
ribbons. Round these arches negresses and mestizas dance, and endeavor
to stop the negroes whilst riding at full gallop under the arches. The
negroes start from the distance of about one hundred paces, and gallop
straight to the boundary, where the women endeavor to seize the bridle,
and to throw the rider from his saddle. The task of the men is to ride
past the women without being stopped; and when they fail in so doing,
they have to pay a fine, and are hooted into the bargain. It is hard to
say which is most surprising;--the speed of the horses, the dexterity of
the riders, or the courage of the negresses, who fearlessly throw
themselves in the way of the galloping horses. During the race the
negroes are pelted with unripe oranges and lemons, which, when thrown by
the vigorous arm of a zamba, inflict a sufficiently heavy blow. I saw a
negro gallop to and fro for the space of an hour, at full speed, and
every time he passed under the arch he dexterously evaded the
outstretched hands of the women; thus giving proof of uncommon bodily
strength. While dashing at full speed through the arch of the bridge,
and leaning forward on the horse's neck, he seized two negresses, one
with each of his arms, and pulled them into the saddle beside him.

The climate of Yca is hot, and not altogether healthy, for the torrents
of rain which fall from the hills swell the river so as to make it
overflow its lower bank, where marshes are formed, in which malaria is
developed. Most of the plantations in the environs are more healthy.

All the bushes in the vicinity of the town are inhabited by a kind of
Guinea pig (_Cavia Cuttleri_, King). These animals are exceedingly
numerous. After sunrise and towards evening, they leave their lurking
places and play about in the grass. Upon the whole they are not shy,
and they allow people to approach them pretty closely. The natives
call this little animal the _Cui del Montes_, and they believe it to
be the progenitor of the tame Guinea pig. This notion is, however,
quite erroneous.

Along the whole of the Peruvian coast there is found a small animal of
the lizard kind, of which the natives are very much afraid. They call it
the _Salamanqueja_. It lives in the fissures of walls, and is sometimes
seen creeping along the lime plaster of houses. Its bite is believed to
be mortal. From the descriptions given of this animal, I was curious to
see it, and I commissioned some persons to procure me one. At last, an
Indian brought me a specimen very much crushed, and I found that I had
already got several of them in my collections. I now obtained more of
them, and the natives beheld me with astonishment carrying them alive in
my hand. Of the Salamanqueja there are two species, the _Diplodactylus
lepidopygus_, Tsch., and the _Discodactylus phacophorus_, Tsch. They are
nearly related to each other, being only distinguished by one species
having an orifice in the thighs, serving as a passage for an issue from
a gland which secretes a very acrid fluid. This little animal never
bites; but it is possible that the fluid by touching a fresh wound, or
scratch, may cause very serious consequences.

To the south of Yca there are some large cotton plantations; the most
considerable of which belong to Don Domingo Elias. The cotton for
exportation is shipped at the port of San Nicolas. Many experienced
captains of ships declare the bay of San Nicolas to be the safest and
best along the whole of the western coast of South America.

The Quebrada of Huaitara, which stretches to the east of Yca, is the
principal channel of communication between this part of the coast and
the rich mountain provinces of Jauja and Huancavelica, and from the
latter places to Ayacucho and Cosco.

Opposite to Pisco and Chinca there is a group of small islands, of which
the largest, Sangallan, is six English miles distant from Pisco. These
islands have of late years become celebrated on account of the great
quantity of guano that has been exported from them.

Guano (or according to the more correct orthography, Huanu)[51] is
found on these islands in enormous layers of from 35 to 40 feet thick.
The upper strata are of a greyish-brown color, which lower down becomes
darker. In the lower strata the color is a rusty red, as if tinged by
oxide of iron. The Guano becomes progressively more and more solid from
the surface downward, a circumstance naturally accounted for by the
gradual deposite of the strata, and the evaporation of the fluid
particles. Guano is found on all the islands, and on most of the
uninhabited promontories of the west coast of South America, especially
in those parts within the tropics. I have often been assured that beds
of Guano several feet high, covered with earth, are found inland at some
distance from the sea; but I never met with any, and I have some doubt
of the correctness of the statement. If, however, these inland strata
really exist, I am inclined to believe that they can only be found on
hilly ground; and in that case they afford strong evidence of a
considerable elevation of the coast.

Guano is formed of the excrements of different kinds of marine birds,
as mews, divers, sheerbeaks, &c.; but the species which I can name
with more precision are the following:--_Larus modestus_, Tsch.;
_Rhinchops nigra_, Lin.; _Plotus Anhinga_, Lin.; _Pelecanus thayus_,
Mol.; _Phalacrocorax Gaimardii_, and _albigula_, Tsch. (_Pelecanus
Gaimardii_, Less., _Carbo albigula_, Brandt), and chiefly the _Sula
variegata_, Tsch.

The immense flocks of these birds as they fly along the coast appear
like clouds. When their vast numbers, their extraordinary voracity, and
the facility with which they procure their food, are considered, one
cannot be surprised at the magnitude of the beds of Guano, which have
resulted from uninterrupted accumulations during many thousands of
years. I kept for some days a living _Sula variegata_, which I fed
abundantly with fish. The average weight of the excrement daily was
from 3-1/2 to five ounces. I have no doubt that when the bird is in a
state of freedom the weight must be much greater, for these birds are
constantly plunging into the sea, in order to devour the fishes which
they find in extraordinary masses around all the islands. When an
island is inhabited by millions of sea-birds, though two-thirds of
the guano should be lost while flying, still a very considerable
stratum would be accumulated in the course of a year.

The marine birds nestle on the uninhabited islands, or on rocks near the
shore; but they never settle on the flat beach, or any place distant
from it inland. On this fact, I ground my conjecture that those beds of
guano in the interior, which may have been removed from the shore by
important elevations of the coast, are to be found only on hills.

During the first year of the deposit the strata are white, and the guano
is then called _Guano Blanco_. In the opinion of the Peruvian
cultivators, this is the most efficacious kind. It is found in the Punta
de Hormillos, on the islands of Islay, Jesus, Margarita, &c.

As soon as the dealers in guano begin to work one of the beds, the
island on which it is formed, is abandoned by the birds. It has also
been remarked, that since the increase of trade and navigation, they
have withdrawn from the islands in the neighborhood of the ports.

Much has recently been written on the employment and utility of guano;
but the manner in which it is applied as manure in Peru, seems to be but
little known. The Peruvians use it chiefly in the cultivation of maize
and potatoes. A few weeks after the seeds begin to shoot, a little
hollow is dug round each root, and is filled up with guano, which is
afterwards covered with a layer of earth. After the lapse of twelve or
fifteen hours, the whole field is laid under water, and is left in that
state for some hours. Of the _Guano Blanco_ a less quantity suffices,
and the field must be more speedily and abundantly watered, otherwise
the roots would be destroyed. The effect of this manure is incredibly
rapid. In a few days the growth of a plant is doubled. If the manure be
repeated a second time, but in smaller quantity, a rich harvest is
certain. At least, the produce will be threefold that which would have
been obtained from the unmanured soil.

The haciendas of the valley of Chancay have, during the last fifty
years, consumed annually from 33,000 to 36,000 bushels of guano brought
from the islands of Chancha and Pisco. The price of the bushel of
colored guano is one dollar and a quarter, and the price of the white
from two to three dollars. The price has recently undergone many
fluctuations, in consequence of the great exports to Europe.

The employment of this kind of manure is very ancient in Peru; and there
is authentic evidence of its having been used in the time of the Incas.
The white guano was then chiefly found on the islands opposite to
Chincha; so that for upwards of 600 years the deposit has been
progressively removed from those islands without any apparent decrease
of the accumulation. The uniformity of climate on a coast where there is
not much rain, must contribute to render the Peruvian guano a more arid
manure than the African, as fewer of the saline particles of the former
being in solution, they are consequently less subject to evaporation.

From 3° 35' to 21° 48' south latitude, a plain of sand, 540 leagues
long, and varying from 3 to 20 leagues in breadth, stretches along the
coast of the Pacific Ocean. It is intersected by chains of small
hillocks, which, extending westward from the Cordilleras, gradually
diminish in height, and either become blended with the plain, or form
abrupt promontories, which project into the sea. Between the river Loa,
which marks the southern frontier of the Peruvian coast, and the Tumbez,
on the northern boundary, fifty-nine rivers, great and small, pass
through the line of coast. Proceeding from the avalanches of the Andes
or the small alpine lakes, they force their way through narrow
mountain-valleys, irrigate the waste grounds, and then, after brief
courses, flow into the great ocean.

A fine light yellow drift sand covers hill and dale. It is only where
rivers intersect the plain that oases of luxuriant vegetation are
formed. The peril of traversing these plains is greatly increased by
the movability of the sand and the _Medanos_. The strong winds raise
immense clouds of dust and sand. The sand rises in columns of from
eighty to a hundred feet high, which whirl about in all directions, as
if moved by magic. Sometimes they suddenly overshadow the traveller, who
only escapes from them by rapid riding.

The medanos are hillock-like elevations of sand, some having a firm,
others a loose base. The former, which are always crescent-shaped, are
from ten to twenty feet high, and have an acute crest. The inner side is
perpendicular, and the outer or bow side forms an angle with a steep
inclination downward. When driven by violent winds, the medanos pass
rapidly over the plains. The smaller and lighter ones move quickly
forwards before the larger ones; but the latter soon overtake and crush
them, whilst they are themselves shivered by the collision. These
medanos assume all sorts of extraordinary figures, and sometimes move
along the plain in rows forming most intricate labyrinths, whereby what
might otherwise be visible in the distance is withdrawn from the view of
the traveller. A plain often appears to be covered with a row of
medanos, and some days afterwards it is again restored to its level and
uniform aspect. Persons who have the greatest experience of the coast
are apt to mistake their way, when they encounter these sand-hills.

The medanos with immovable bases are formed on the blocks of rock which
are scattered about the plain. The sand is driven against them by the
wind, and as soon as it reaches the top point it descends on the other
side until that is likewise covered; thus gradually arises a
conical-formed hill. Entire hillock-chain with acute crests are formed
in a similar manner. The small hillock-chain, by which the coast is
intersected obliquely from east to west, is a boundary which arrests the
progress of the wandering medanos; otherwise fruitful oases would soon
be converted into barren sand-flats. A correct observation of these
hillock-chains affords a most certain scale for ascertaining the
direction of the prevailing wind. On their southern declivities are
found vast masses of sand drifted thither by the mid-day gales. The
northern declivity, though not steeper than the southern, is only
sparingly covered with sand. If a hillock-chain somewhat distant from
the sea extends in a line parallel with the Andes, namely from S.S.E. to
N.N.W., the western declivity is almost entirely free of sand, as it is
driven to the plain below by the southeast wind, which constantly
alternates with the wind from the south.

The movements and new formations in the deserts (like restorations
from death to life) are only in full activity during the hot season;
for then the parched sand yields to the slightest pressure of the
atmosphere. In the cold season its weight increases by the absorption
of humidity. The particles unite in masses, and more easily resist
the wind. In the meantime the hillocks also acquire more firmness or
compression by the increased weight which presses on them from above.

In November, summer commences. The rays of the sun are refracted on the
light grey sandy carpet, and are reflected back with scorching power.
Every living thing which does not quickly escape from their influence is
devoted to certain destruction. No plant takes root in the burning soil,
and no animal finds food on the arid lifeless surface. No bird, no
insect moves in the burning atmosphere. Only in the very loftiest
regions, the king of the air, the majestic condor, may be seen floating,
with daring wing, on his way to the sea coast. Only where the ocean and
the desert blend with each other is there life and movement. Flocks of
carrion crows swarm over the dead remains of marine animals scattered
along the shore. Otters and seals impart life to the inaccessible rocks;
hosts of coast birds eagerly pounce on the fish and mollusca cast on
shore; variegated lizards sport on the sand hillocks; and busy crabs and
sea spiders work their way by furrows through the humid coast.

The scene changes in May. A thin veil of mist then overspreads the sea
and the shore. In the following months the thickness of the mist
increases, and it is only in October that it begins to disperse. In the
beginning and at the end of the period called winter this mist commonly
rises between nine and ten o'clock in the morning, and disappears about
three, P.M. It is heaviest in August and September; and it then lies for
weeks immoveable on the earth. It does not resolve into what may be
properly called rain, but it becomes a fine minute precipitate which the
natives call GARUA (thick fog or drizzling rain). Many travellers have
alleged that there are places on the Peruvian coast which have been
without rain for centuries. The assertion is to a certain degree
correct, for there are many districts in which there never is rain
except after an earthquake, and not always even then.

Though the _garua_ sometimes falls in large drops, still there is
this distinction between it and rain, that it descends not from
clouds at a great height, but is formed in the lower atmospheric
regions, by the union of small bubbles of mist. The average
perpendicular height over which this fog passes does not exceed one
thousand two hundred feet; its medium boundary is from seven to eight
hundred feet. That it is known only within a few miles of the sea is
a highly curious phenomenon; beyond those few miles it is superseded
by heavy rains; and the boundary line between the rain and the mist
may be defined with mathematical precision. I know two plantations,
the one six leagues from Lima, the other in the neighborhood of
Huacho: one half of these lands is watered by the garuas, the other
half by rain, and the boundary line is marked by a wall.

When the mists set in, the chain of hillocks (_Lomas_) bordering the
sand-flats on the coasts undergoes a complete change. As if by a stroke
of magic, blooming vegetation overspreads the soil, which, a few days
previously, was a mere barren wilderness. Horses and cattle are driven
into these parts for grazing, and during several months the animals find
abundance of rich pasture. There is, however, no water; but they do not
appear to suffer from the want of it, for they are always in good
healthy condition on leaving the Lomas.

In some parts of northern Peru, where the garuas are scanty, the
fertility of the soil depends wholly on the mountain rains, for in
summer most of the rivers are dried up. When there is a deficiency of
rain, the cattle on the coast suffer greatly. A few years ago a
haciendado, or cultivator, in the vale of Piura, lost 42,000 sheep;
the usual flood, without which the necessary fodder could not be
raised, did not come on at the proper time. At Piura there is such a
total absence of dew, that a sheet of paper left for a whole night
in the open air does not, in the morning, exhibit the smallest trace
of humidity. In central and south Peru the moisture scarcely
penetrates half an inch into the earth.

In the oases the garuas are much heavier than in the adjacent wastes.
Along the whole of the coast there is no rain, and no vegetation
throughout a large circuit. The rain commences first in the north at
Tumbez, and there extensive woods are seen. Towards the east it begins
first in the valleys of the Cordilleras, which abound in vegetation.
These very extraordinary phenomena remain as yet unexplained; they,
however, merit the closest investigation of meteorologists.

I may conclude this chapter by a brief view of the Fauna of the higher
vertebral animals. In the region of the coast I have found twenty-six
species of mammalia, only eight of which belong exclusively to the
coast. Sixteen of the other species are to be found in the mountains or
in the forests. The relation of this number to the whole of the mammalia
of Peru is 1:4, 3. Distributed by single orders, they are in the
following proportions:--Bats, four species, of which only one
(_Vespertilio innoxius_, Gerv.) belongs to this region alone. Beasts of
prey, ten kinds; among them one of the mephitic class, known to the
natives by the name of _zorillo_, or _añash_; an otter (_Lutra
chilensis_, Ben.); a fox (_Canis azaræ_, Pr. Max.), which abounds in the
cotton plantations in the neighborhood of Lima and throughout all the
Lomas, where he preys on the lambs; several of the feline race, among
which are the two great American species--the puma and the ounce, which
are seldom seen on the coast, but are considerably larger than those in
the mountains. The American lion is timid, and shuns man. When caught
young he is easily tamed. The Indians of the northern provinces
sometimes bring these lions to Lima, and get money for showing them.
They lead them by a string, or put them in large sacks, and carry them
about on their backs, until a show-loving crowd assembles around them.
The ounces are very bold and fierce. They penetrate into plantations,
and attack children and horses. They very cunningly avoid the numerous
snares laid for them by the Indians. An encounter with this animal is
serious and dangerous. A hunt seldom ends without some of the pursuers
being killed or wounded by the animal.

I have already spoken of the seals. There are three kinds of didelphic
or marsupial animals on the coast. The natives call them _mucamuca_.
They live in bushes and shrubberies, and they often find their way into
the store-rooms of the plantations.

Of the great section of the _Rodentia_, I know of only seven species in
Peru; but I have no doubt that this number might be doubled by a careful
search in the valleys on the coast. The common house-mouse is very
numerous in Lima. The brown rat appears seldom. It came to Peru only a
few years ago; but there is reason to apprehend that it will soon be
very numerous. Probably it has been imported by Hamburgh ships. In
Callao I saw specimens of some that had been killed. I did not see the
common black rat in Peru.

The Armadillo (_Dasypus tatuay, Desm._, L.) is seldom seen. It is found
in some of the Yucca and Camote plantations. The negroes eat it, and its
flesh is said to be good.

Of wild ruminating animals there is only one on the coast: it is a kind
of Roe (_Cervus nemorivagus_, F. Cuv., the _venado_ of the natives). The
venados chiefly inhabit the brushwood along the coast; but after sunset
they visit the plantations, where they commit considerable damage. They
are smaller than our European roe, and somewhat more brown. Englishmen
at Lima go out to hunt them. The natives do not take much interest in
the chase. This animal is also met with in the coldest regions of the
Cordilleras; but it does not come down to the old forests, where the Red
Deer (_Cervus rufus_, F. Cuv.) supplies its absence.

In the woods which surround some of the plantations in the valleys of
Lima, wild boars (_Chanchos Simarones_) are occasionally found. They are
of immense size. At the plantation called the _Hacienda de Caraponga_,
one was killed, of which the head alone was an ordinary burthen for a
mule.

The number of birds in this very extensive quarter of Peru (the marine
and river fowl being excepted) is very inconsiderable. The scarcity of
woods and high trees may probably account for this. Besides the carrion
vulture, condors collect in great numbers on the shore to prey on the
stranded whales. Falcons seldom appear, except the small Sparrow Hawk
(_Falco sparverius_, L.), which is very numerous in Peru. One of the
most common birds is the little Earth Owl (_Noctua urucurea_, Less.),
which is met with in nearly all the old ruins scattered along the coast.
The Pearl Owl (_Strix perlata_, L.) is bred in several plantations, as
it is found useful in catching mice. Swallows are not very common; they
do not nestle on the housetops, but on walls at some distance from
towns. The Peruvians give them the euphonious name, _Palomitas de Santa
Rosa_ (Santa Rosa's little pigeons). Among the singing-birds the Crowned
Fly King (_Myoarchus coronatus_, Cab.) is the most distinguished. The
head, breast, and belly of this bird are deep red, the wings and back
very dark brown. He always plants himself on the highest point of a
tree, flies perpendicularly upward, whirls about in the air singing, and
drops down again straight to his former perch. The Limeños have given
this elegant bird a very unbecoming name, which I need not repeat here.
On some parts of the coast it is called _Saca-tu-real_ (draw out your
real), because his song sounds like these words. Some fine Tanagers
(_Tanagra frugilega_, Tsch.; _Tanagra analis_, Tsch.) visit the fruit
gardens round Lima. I saw two birds, of the starling species, the
red-bellied Picho (_Sturnella militaris_, Viell.), and the
glossy-black Chivillo (_Cassicus palliatus_, Tsch.), which are kept
in cages on account of their very melodious song. Three kinds of
parrots, which abound in the valleys on the coast, commit great
depredations in the maize fields. The largest (_Conurus tumultuosus_,
Tsch.) is green, with a red forehead, and some red feathers scattered
over the body. A second sort builds its nest chiefly on the sides of
rocks (_Conurus rupicola_, Tsch.), and only occasionally visits the
plantations. The third is the smallest, but at the same time the most
beautiful of the whole (_Conurus sitophaga_, Tsch.). A fine green
overspreads all the upper part of the body, a blue fringe borders the
feathers of the wings; and a bright citron-yellow is diffused over
the forehead, neck, breast, and belly. It is only seven inches long.
Pigeons, large and small, swarm in such multitudes over the
corn-fields, and in the environs, that they may almost be called the
great plague of the country. One of the finest is the little
_Turtuli_ (_Chaemepelia gracilis_, Tsch.), on the wing of which
there is a row of very beautiful shining violet spots. The _Cuculi_,
one of the largest pigeons, is a great favorite. It is kept much in
cages. Its song, which is monotonous, yet very melodious, is kept up
from the earliest hours of the morning until midday, and it begins
again nearly at sunset. The song consists merely of a threefold
repetition of _cu-cu-li_. After a pause, it resumes the song again.
There are, however, some of those birds which repeat the _cuculi_
oftener than thrice, and their price increases according to the
number of their uninterrupted repetitions, which seldom exceed five
or six. In Cocachacra, however, I heard one of these birds which
repeated its _cuculi_ fourteen times. The owner would not sell it
under fourteen gold ounces.

The amphibia on the Peruvian coast are proportionally much better
represented than the two foregoing classes. The gigantic tortoises
(_Chelonia imbricata_ and _Ch. midas_, Schweig.) visit in great
numbers the few little frequented inlets. The elephant tortoise
(_Testudo Schweigeri_) is often found on some islands, and in the
marshy mouths of several rivers.

Two kinds of Crocodiles (_Champsa sclerops_ and _Ch. fissipes_, Wagl.)
inhabit the Rio de la Chira. They grow to the length of fourteen
or fifteen feet.

Among the lizard class of reptiles, very large bright green Iguanas are
found on the south coast; for instance, in the Caletas near Merillones,
&c.; but there are great numbers of the land Agama, of which I found
several new species, viz., _Steirolepis tigris_, _thoracica_,
_quadrivittata_, _xanthostigma_, Tsch.; _Liolaemus elegans_, Tsch.;
_Ctenoblepharys adspersa_, Tsch., &c., &c. I have already mentioned the
Gecko, called the _Salamanqueja_.

Serpents upon the whole are rather seldom seen. They belong to
different kinds, some poisonous, some innoxious (for example,
_Zacholus_, _Psammophis_, _Oxyrrhopus_, _Siphlophis_, _Ophis_, _Elaps_,
&c., &c.). A very poisonous viper (_Echidna ocellata_, Tsch.) inhabits
the sugar-cane fields. Its bite is almost instantaneously mortal.

The genuine frog is not to be found on the coast, and of the bladder
frog only two kinds are known (_Cystignathus roseus_ and _nodosus_,
Dum. Bibr.). I have found three amphibia of the toad class. The Thorn
toad (_Bufo spinulosus_, Wiegam.), which has its body thickly covered
with a thorny kind of warts. The beautiful red spotted toad (_Bufo
thaul_), and a very curious and ugly kind with a round, swelled out
body, a loose skin, and a large bladder under the chin (_Anaxyrus
melancholicus_, Tsch.). At night the cry of this animal is a discordant
melancholy howl.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 49: Elias is eminent not only as an extensive landowner and
cultivator, but as a statesman. During the revolution of 1843 and 1844,
he was called upon to place himself at the head of the government. He
discharged the duties of that high office with singular judgment and
moderation. He and his lady are distinguished for their courteous and
liberal hospitality; and many foreign visitors, like myself, look back
with pleasure on the happiness they derived from the friendship of Don
Domingo Elias.]

[Footnote 50: An odre is a goat-skin prepared for carrying wine.]

[Footnote 51: The original word is Huanu, which is a term in the
Quichua dialect meaning "animal dung;" for example, _Huanacuhuanu_
(excrement of the Huanacu). As the word is now generally used it is an
abbreviation of _Pishu Huanu--Bird-dung_. The Spaniards have converted
the final syllable _nu_ into _no_, as they do in all the words adopted
from the Quichua which have the like termination. The European
orthography _Guano_, which is also followed in Spanish America, is
quite erroneous, for the Quichua language is deficient in the letter
_G_, as it is in several other consonants. The _H_, in the commencement
of the word, is strongly aspirated, whence the error in the orthography
of the Spaniards, who have sadly corrupted the language of the
Autochthones of Peru.]

CHAPTER X.

Roads leading to the Sierra--Chaclacayo and Santa Iñes--Barometrical
observations--San Pedro Mama--The Rio Seco--Extraordinary Geological
Phenomenon--Similar one described by Mr. Darwin--Surco--Diseases
peculiar to the Villages of Peru--The Verugas--Indian mode of treating
the disorder--The Bird-catching Spider--Horse-Shoeing--Indian
Tambos--San Juan de Matucanas--The Thorn-apple and the Tonga--The Tambo
de Viso--Bridges--San Mateo--Passports--Acchahuari--Malady called the
Veta--Its effects on horses--Singular tact and caution of
Mules--Antarangra and Mountain Passes--Curious partition of
Water--Piedra Parada--Yauli--Indian Smelting Furnaces--Mineral
Springs--Portuguese Mine owners--Saco--Oroya--Hanging
Bridges--Huaros--Roads leading from Oroya.

From Lima two main roads lead to the Sierra or the mountains. One runs
northward through the valley of Canta, in the direction of the rich
silver mines of Cerro de Pasco; the other, taking a more southerly
direction, passes through the Quebrada of Matucanas, to the villages of
Tarma, Jauja, and Huancayo; and still further south, leads to
Huancavelica, Ayacucho, and Cuzco. All the roads running from the coast
to the Sierra, present a similarity of character. Taking an oblique
direction from the margin of the coast, they run into one or other of
the fan-shaped Cordillera valleys, all of which are intersected by
rivers. Following the course of these rivers, the roads become steeper
and steeper, and the valleys soon contract into mere ravines,
terminating at the foot of the Cordillera. The traveller then threads
his way up the acclivity, amidst stupendous masses of rock, until he
reaches the lofty ridge. Then a gradual descent leads to the level
heights, and thence into the deep mountain valleys.

Former travellers having already described the route by way of Canta, I
will here trace the course through the Quebrada of Matucanas. In so
doing, I am enabled to present to the reader the results of some
barometrical observations which are the more interesting, inasmuch as
the Cordillera here advances more nearly to the coast than at any other
point.

The most easterly gate of the city of Lima (the Portada de Maravillas)
opens upon a broad road, which runs directly eastward. At the distance
of about a league and a half from the city, the road passes over a stone
bridge called the _Puente de Surco_, a place famed for robbers. At this
point the surrounding country presents a wild and dreary aspect. Ranges
of grey and barren hills encompass the valley; the ground is for the
most part covered with sand and gravel. Desolate remains of plantations
and the ruins of habitations bear evidence of the life and activity that
once animated this desert region, now abandoned by all save the fierce
bandit and his victim, the solitary traveller.

Along the margins of the river, patches of moor-ground here and there
serve as pasture. Clover and maize are produced only in those parts
where the soil is manured and artificially watered. Low brushwood and
reeds, growing on the banks of the Rimac, supply firewood to the city of
Lima, and are a source of profit to some of the plantation-owners in
the valley. At Periachi, four leagues from the capital, the road takes
a turn to north-east, and continues in that direction, with but little
deviation, as far as the base of the Cordillera. Two leagues beyond
Pariachi we reach Chaclacayo, a village containing about thirty
miserable reed huts. The plantation of Santa Iñes, a little further
on, is situated at 2386 feet above the level of the sea.[52] Mr.
Maclean, an English merchant in Lima, who has sent many interesting
Peruvian plants to the hothouses of England, and who has made some
very attentive barometrical observations during a journey in the
interior of the country, calculates the altitude of Chaclacayo at 2265
feet above the sea.[53] Rivero makes it 2010 feet above that level.[54]
The difference between these calculations is remarkable; and in more
considerable altitudes the discrepancy is still more considerable, being
sometimes as much as from eight to nine hundred feet. I am inclined to
believe that it is attributable less to inaccuracy of observation than
to the very imperfect instrument made use of by Rivero. Maclean's
observations, with some trifling exceptions, correspond with mine. He
used one of Fortin's barometers, and I one of Lefevre's, which, prior to
my departure from Europe, had, during several weeks, been regulated at
the observatory in Paris. Unluckily, this excellent instrument was
injured by a fall from my horse, and I found it impossible to get it
repaired. Some barometrical observations made by M. C. Gay, during a
journey in Peru, in the years 1839-40, with one of Bunten's barometers,
deviate very considerably from all those above mentioned. Between the
calculations of Gay and Rivero there is an average difference of from
six hundred to one thousand feet.

On the road to Pasco, the Hacienda of Cavallero corresponds, in its
distance from the capital, with the village of Chaclacayo, on the road I
am here describing. At Chaclacayo wheat and sugar are cultivated. The
sugar cane thrives well, and might be grown in greater quantity. In some
of the coast districts I have seen the sugar cane cultivated at the
height of 4500 feet above the sea; and I have seen it grow
spontaneously, and attain perfect maturity, as high as 6800 feet.

From Santa Iñes the road continues gradually ascending to the little
village of San Pedro Mama, where the two rivers, San Mateo and Santa
Olaya, unite and form the Rimac. The walls of mountain which enclose the
valley here rise almost perpendicularly, and afford nestling-places for
small, richly-plumed parrots (_Conurus rupicola_, Tsch.). I was much
surprised to see these birds inhabiting the barren rocks, as the parrot
always dwells in woody regions, and is found in other places only when
on its passage. I know no other species of this family, save the one I
have just mentioned, which permanently nestles on mountains.

Three leagues beyond San Pedro lies the village of Cocachacra. It is a
small and poor place, but is picturesquely situated, and enjoys a fine
climate. Its name, signifying _coca-field_, or _plantation_, denotes
that coca must formerly have been cultivated here. At present that
plant is not grown in any part near the coast, as it requires a damp and
very warm climate. Cocachacra is 5386 feet above the level of the sea.
Maclean fixes the altitude of San Pedro Mama, Santa Olaya, and
Cocachacra, at 5331 feet. Supposing this calculation to be correct with
respect to the latter village, it cannot also apply to San Pedro Mama
and Santa Olaya, which lie much lower. At the two last-mentioned places
I made no barometrical observations.

On the Pasco road the hamlet of Llanga is situated, at twelve leagues
from Lima. On the other road Cocachacra is the same distance from the
capital; but Cocachacra is about 2400 feet higher than Llanga. Between
Cavallero and Llanga there is an interesting geological phenomenon,
which I will here describe.

At the distance of two leagues from Lima the road takes a turn. At first
it runs direct north, or north-north-west; suddenly it turns to
north-north-east, and advances along the bank of the river Chillon as
far as Cavallero. From thence, with slight deviations, it continues in
the same course to Llanga, but at a considerable distance from the
river, as the latter takes a wide sweep northward. From Cavallero the
road runs for the space of three leagues, still ascending, through a
barren district, along the dry bed of a river, called the Rio Seco. The
last half-league of the way is very steep, and leads to the ridge of a
chain of hillocks running diagonally across the valley. The ground is
strewed with fragments of porphyry and other kinds of rock, like the bed
of the Rimac. On reaching the ridge of the line of hillocks, the
traveller beholds on the other side a hollow basin, like the dry bed of
a lake: a furrow, extending lengthwise through this hollow, is the
continuation of the bed of the river which is intersected by the chain
of hills. Descending into the valley, and again following the course of
the Rio Seco to the distance of about three leagues, we reach the
village of Alcocoto, and once more arrive on the bank of the Rio de
Chillon.

Here, therefore, we have evidence of the following remarkable facts,
viz.:--that at some former period the river of Chillon flowed
north-westward from Alcocoto to Cavallero, in the bed that is now
dry; and that a chain of hills has been upheaved diagonally across the
valley and the river. By this chain of hills the water, being dammed
up, formed a lake; then it was again driven back; until the stream
broke into a new course at Alcocoto, by which means the lake emptied
itself, and, having no new supply of water, it dried up. Now the Rio
de Chillon flows from Alcocoto to Cavallero, taking a wide turn, first
westward, next south-westward, and lastly, direct south, until, at a
sharp angle, it unites with the old bed of the river. The point of
junction is a quarter of a mile from the Hacienda Cavallero. This is,
however, not a solitary example of the course of a river being
interrupted by the uplifting of a ridge of hills. A similar instance
is mentioned by Mr. Darwin, who, however, did not see it himself, but
who describes it as follows, from the observation of his countryman,
Mr. Gill, the engineer:--

"Travelling from Casma to Huaraz, not far distant from Lima, he (Mr.
Gill) found a plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient cultivation,
but now quite barren. Near it was the dry course of a considerable
river, whence the water for irrigation had formerly been conducted.
There was nothing in the appearance of the water-course to indicate that
the river had not flowed there a few years previously; in some parts,
beds of sand and gravel were spread out; in others, the solid rock had
been worn into a broad channel, which in one spot was about forty yards
in breadth, and eight feet deep. It is self-evident that a person
following up the course of a stream will always ascend at a greater or
less inclination. Mr. Gill, therefore, was much astonished, when walking
up the bed of this ancient river, to find himself suddenly going down
hill. He imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about forty or
fifty feet perpendicular. We here have unequivocal evidence that a ridge
had been uplifted right across the old bed of the stream. From the
moment the river-course was thus arched the water must necessarily have
been thrown back, and a new channel formed. From that period, also, the
neighboring plain must have lost its fertilizing stream, and become a
desert."[55]

The inference here deduced is, that the rising took place at a period
when the district was inhabited and cultivated by men. Of the period
of the uplifting between Cavallero and Alcocoto I could discern no
proofs. But the impression produced by the dry river bed involuntarily
suggests the idea that, at no very distant period, it must have been
the lodgment of a stream; for it is in all respects similar to the
temporary dry river beds so frequently met with on the coast of Peru.

I made repeated visits to the Rio Seco, and I always contemplated with
wonder the curious deviation of the river's course. But I must candidly
confess that during my abode in Peru, I did not venture to attribute
that deviation to so partial an uplifting; for I was ignorant of the
existence of any similar phenomenon which would have supported such an
opinion. Now, however, the example referred to by the eminent English
geologist, and which has its existence on the same coast of Peru, sets
all my doubts at rest, and I am quite convinced of the correctness of
Mr. Darwin's view of the subject.

Having made this digression, I must now carry the reader back to
Cocachacra. Pursuing the road to the distance of three leagues further,
we arrive at San Geronimo de Surco. The valley in this part becomes more
contracted; but on the whole its character is unchanged, with the
exception that the mountains gradually become higher and steeper, and
the soil less fertile. The road frequently runs along lofty walls of
rock, or winds round sharp projections, which overhang deep chasms, in
passing which the greatest precaution is requisite.

In several of the valleys on the road from the coast to the Sierra, and
above all in the valley of Surco, there are certain springs, the water
of which the Indians never drink. When a stranger unguardedly approaches
one of these springs for the purpose of quenching his thirst, he is
saluted by warning cries of _Es agua de Veruga!_ (It is veruga water!)
Even horses and mules are not suffered to refresh themselves at these
springs, where the water is supposed to have the effect of producing a
disorder called the _Verugas_. As the existence of this disease is not
known in any other country, there appears ground for believing that it
has its origin in certain local circumstances. The verugas first
manifests itself by sore throat, pains in the bones, and other feverish
symptoms. In the course of a few days an eruption of red-colored
pimples, or boils, appears. These pimples sometimes increase in
magnitude, till, in some parts of the body, they become nearly as large
as an egg, and blood flows from them to such an excess, that the
strength of the patient is exhausted, and consumption frequently
follows. From the small verugas the flow of blood is greatest. I knew an
instance of a half-caste Indian who from a small veruga below the ankle
lost two pounds of blood.

I was not able to trace this disease to any other cause than that which
the Indians assign to it. At all events, it is certain that travellers
who abstain from drinking the water of the condemned springs, escape the
verugas; whilst those who only once taste such water, are attacked by
the disorder. It is the same with mules and horses. One of my mules
which drank veruga water was attacked by a large tumor on the leg. The
disease is notoriously prevalent in the village of Santa Olaya.

The medical treatment of the Verugas by the Indians is quite empirical.
They administer to the patient the infusion of a plant which they call
_Huajra-Huajra_; that is, Horn-Horn.[56] I never witnessed any
convincing proof of its efficacy. Its operation appears to be merely
sudorific. A preparation of white maize is also frequently given, and
it has the effect of assisting the action of the skin. When the
eruption of the verugas is tardy, a few spoonfuls of wine are found to
be of great service. Sudorific and purifying medicines, together with
cutting out the large verugas, and keeping the wounds for a time in a
state of suppuration, have heretofore been found the best mode of
treatment. An accurate chemical analysis of the water which the Indians
declare to be _agua de veruga_, would be very desirable.[57]

In the Quebrada of Canta, where the verugas are less common than in
that of Matucanas, another disease, called the Uta, is of very frequent
occurrence. The uta is a sort of cancer, and it is more fearful in its
consequences than the verugas. Probably in no country in the world do
so many local diseases prevail as in Peru. Every valley has its own
peculiar disease, which frequently does not extend beyond the boundary
of a few square miles, and is quite unknown in neighboring districts.
The origin of these disorders is, doubtless, to be traced to certain
mineral or vegetable influences as yet unknown. It is remarkable how
unequally these baneful visitations affect the different races of the
inhabitants. The Indians and the lighter classes of half-castes are
most frequently attacked by the verugas; the whites are less liable to
the disease, whilst the negroes and people of the darker shades of
mixed blood seldom suffer from it. The Indians and the Chinos are
particularly liable to the uta. The caracha, of which I have already
spoken,[58] visits the Negroes, the Zamboes, and the Mulattoes; the
lighter-complexioned races being much less liable to it.

At Quibe I saw a bird-catching spider (_mygale_), of extraordinary large
size. The back part of the body alone measured two inches. Being at some
distance I supposed it to be one of the rodent animals, and I fired at
it. To my mortification I discovered my mistake when too late, for the
specimen was completely destroyed by the shot, and was useless for my
collection. The Indians assured me that on the margin of the stream
which flowed near the plantation many larger individuals were to be
found; but I never saw another of such remarkable size as the one I
inadvertently destroyed.

San Geronimo de Surco is 6945 feet above the level of the sea. It is a
long village, and is situated in one of the most fertile parts of the
valley. The houses are detached one from another, and each is
surrounded by a little chacra. This place may be regarded as the
boundary-line between the coast and the Sierra. The climate is
agreeable--rather hot than cold. Most of the coast plants thrive here
with little culture. Bananas, chirimoyas, superb granadillas,
pomegranates, camotes, &c., grow here in luxuriant abundance. Yuccas I
did not see: their elevation boundary is lower. San Geronimo de Surco
is infested with swarms of annoying insects, especially sancudos
(_Culex molestus_, Kell.), and stinging flies (species of _Simoleum_),
which banish sleep from the resting-place of the weary traveller.

In this village there is an old Spaniard who keeps a tambo, and at the
same time exercises the calling of a farrier. One of my horse's shoes
being loose, I got him to fasten it on. For hammering in eight nails he
made me pay half a gold ounce, and at first he demanded twelve dollars.
He doubtless bore in mind the old Spanish proverb: "_Por un clavo se
pierde una herradura, por una herradura un cavallo, por un cavallo un
cavallero_,"[59] and he felt assured that I must have the damage repaired
at any price. Shortly after my arrival in the Sierra I got myself
initiated in the art of horse-shoeing, and constantly carried about with
me a supply of horse-shoes and nails, a plan which I found was generally
adopted by travellers in those parts. It is only in the larger Indian
villages that farriers are to be met with, that is to say in places
fifty or sixty leagues distant from each other.

From Surco the road runs to the distance of two leagues tolerably
level, and very close to the river, which, from Cocachacra, bears the
name of Rio de San Mateo. The next village is San Juan de Matucanas, at
a little distance from which there is a tambo, situated at the height
of 8105 feet above the sea.[60] These tambos of the Sierra are wretched
places, but the traveller may find in them shelter, and possibly some
miserable kind of food. Even in Lima the tambos are not much better. In
the capital a tambo affords the traveller the accommodation of a room,
containing a table, a chair, and a bedstead; for it is always
understood that he brings his mattress and bedding along with him. In
the interior of the country the accommodation is limited to an empty
space on the floor, just large enough to spread a mattress upon.
Whenever the state of the weather permitted I always preferred sleeping
in the open air. Even on a rainy night a lodging on the outside of the
door is preferable to the interior of the hut, where Indians, negroes,
dogs and pigs are all huddled together. In these tambos there is
seldom any scarcity of brandy or chicha; but the hungry traveller
sometimes cannot get even a potatoe or a bit of maize. Frequently, when
the Indians really have provisions they will not produce them, because
they are fearful of not being paid. This suspicion is pardonable
enough; for when troops march through the villages the inhabitants are
often cheated by the officers, and ill-treated into the bargain.
Generally, in this part of the country, the people are civil, and will
readily sell provisions if they are paid. Not so the Indians of the
higher mountains eastward of the Cordillera. To the traveller's demand
for something to eat, their uniform reply is "_Manam canchu_" (we have
nothing); and it is often found necessary to resort to force in order
to convert this monotonous answer into the more agreeable "_Ari
conchu_" (here is something).

Matucanas, which is rather a large village, lies on the left bank of the
Rimac. The houses are of brick, and roofed with straw. The soil round
this village is fertile, though not favorable to the growth of those
plants which demand a very warm temperature. The agricultural produce is
therefore limited to maize, wheat, lucerne (which is very abundant), and
potatoes; the latter are sent in great quantities to the capital. The
cactus grows on the hills, and its excellent fruit (_tunas_) forms also
an article of trade.

Beyond Matucanas the valley contracts into a narrow ravine no broader
than the bed of the river, and it gradually assumes a wilder character.
The way is difficult along the ridge of hills which borders the left
bank of the river. The vegetation is less monotonous and scanty than in
the valleys of the coast, and all the fissures of the hills are filled
with verdure. The stunted willow (_Salix Humboldtii_, Wild.) grows along
the banks of the river, and on the less steep declivities is seen the
red thorn-apple (_Datura sanguinea_, R. Pav.). To the latter the natives
give the names _Huacacachu_, _Yerba de Huaca_, or _Bovachevo_; and they
prepare from its fruit a very powerful narcotic drink, called _tonga_.
The Indians believe that by drinking the tonga they are brought into
communication with the spirits of their forefathers. I once had an
opportunity of observing an Indian under the influence of this drink.
Shortly after having swallowed the beverage he fell into a heavy stupor:
he sat with his eyes vacantly fixed on the ground, his mouth
convulsively closed, and his nostrils dilated. In the course of about a
quarter of an hour his eyes began to roll, foam issued from his
half-opened lips, and his whole body was agitated by frightful
convulsions. These violent symptoms having subsided, a profound sleep of
several hours succeeded. In the evening I again saw this Indian. He was
relating to a circle of attentive listeners the particulars of his
vision, during which he alleged he had held communication with the
spirits of his forefathers. He appeared very weak and exhausted.

In former times the Indian sorcerers, when they pretended to transport
themselves into the presence of their deities, drank the juice of the
thorn-apple, in order to work themselves into a state of ecstasy. Though
the establishment of Christianity has weaned the Indians from their
idolatry, yet it has not banished their old superstitions. They still
believe that they can hold communications with the spirits of their
ancestors, and that they can obtain from them a clue to the treasures
concealed in the _huacas_, or graves; hence the Indian name of the
thorn-apple--_huacacachu_, or grave plant.

A few miles beyond Matucanas there is a lateral valley, larger and more
pleasant than the principal valley. It is called the Quebrada de Viso,
and is watered by a little stream. At the point where this Quebrada
forms a junction with the principal valley is situated the Tambo de
Viso. It is 9100 feet above the level of the sea.[61] At this tambo the
traveller may find a tolerable night's lodging for himself, and fodder
for his horse. Here the river is crossed by a bridge, and the road then
proceeds along the left bank of the river, after having been on the
right bank all the way from Lima. The bridges across these mountain
streams are always constructed at points where the river is most
contracted by the narrow confines of the ravine. They consist merely of
a few poles made of the trunk of the Maguay-tree (_Agave Americana_),
and connected together by transverse ropes; the ropes being overlaid
with twisted branches and pieces of hoops. These bridges are not more
than three feet broad, and have no balustrades. When the space between
the banks of the river is too long for the Maguay stems, strong ropes
made of twisted ox-hides are substituted. In crossing these bridges
accidents frequently happen, owing to the hoofs of the horses and mules
getting entangled in the plaited branches along the pathway. A little
way beyond San Mateo I narrowly escaped being precipitated, with my
mule, into the rocky chasm forming the bed of the river.

The road between Viso and San Mateo, a distance of about three
leagues, is exceedingly difficult and dangerous. The ravine becomes
narrowed to a mere cleft, between walls of mountain rising on either
side to the height of more than a thousand feet; sometimes
perpendicularly, and at other times inclining inwards, so as to form
gigantic arches. The path runs along the base of these mountains,
washed by the foaming waves of the stream; or it winds up the side of
the precipice, over huge fragments of rock, which, being loosened by
the rain, afford no secure footing for the heavily laden mules.
Frequently these loosened blocks give way, and roll down into the
valley. The journey from Viso to San Mateo is associated in my mind
with the recollection of a most mortifying accident. A mass of rock,
such as I have just described, gave way, and rolling down the
precipice, hurled one of my mules into the foaming abyss. My most
valuable instruments, a portion of my collections, my papers, and--to
me an irreparable loss--a diary carefully and conscientiously kept for
the space of fourteen months, were in a moment buried in the river.
Two days afterward the current washed the dead mule ashore at
Matucanas, but its load was irrecoverably lost.

Every year many beasts of burthen, and even travellers, perish on this
road. In the Tambo de Viso I met an officer who, with two of his sons,
was coming from the Sierra. He had placed the youngest before him, and
the other, a boy of ten years of age, was seated on the mule's
crupper. When they were within about half a league from Viso, a huge
mass of rock, rolling down from the mountain, struck the elder boy,
and hurled him into the river. The afflicted father was anxiously
seeking to recover the body of his lost child.

San Mateo is on the right bank of the river, and is the largest
village in this valley. It corresponds in situation with Culluay in
the Quebrada of Canta; as Matucanas corresponds with the village of
Obrajillo. San Mateo is 10,947 feet above the level of the sea.[62]
The soil produces abundance of potatoes, Ocas (_Oxalis tuberosa_) and
Ullucas (_Tropæolum tuberosum_). Maize ripens here perfectly, but the
heads are small. The lucerne is also small, but very abundant; it is
very much exposed to injury from the frost, and is only good for use
during the five rainy months of the year. Five hundred feet higher,
that is to say, about 11,500 feet above the sea, is the boundary
elevation for the growth of lucerne.

The spirit of hospitality, so generally prevalent among the Sierra
Indians, does not seem to animate the Cholos of San Mateo. Their manners
are rude and reserved, and they are very distrustful of strangers. As
soon as a traveller enters the village, the Alcade and the Rejidores
make their appearance, and demand his passport. If he cannot produce it,
he may possibly be put upon a donkey, and conducted to the nearest
Prefect, or may moreover run the risk of being ill-treated. But,
fortunately, it is easy to escape such annoyances. Any scrap of printed
or written paper will answer for a passport, as it rarely happens that
either the Alcade or the Rejidores can read. On one occasion when my
passport was demanded, I discovered I had lost it. Fortunately, I had in
my pocket a bit of waste paper, which I had used instead of wadding in
loading my gun. I ventured at all hazards to hand it to the Indian
Rejidor, who having unfolded it stared very gravely at the words _Lucia
di Lammermoor_, which he saw printed in large characters. It was the
bill of the opera I had attended a few evenings before my departure from
Lima. After examining the bill very attentively, and then scanning me
very narrowly, the Rejidor returned the paper, with the observation that
the passport was quite correct.

From San Mateo the road runs for half a league through a gloomy
ravine; and then suddenly takes a steep ascent up the side of the
mountain, over fragments of stones, lying one above another like
flights of steps. The stream dashes from rock to rock, covering the
narrow path with foam, and washing away the blocks of stone which, in
some of the most dangerous parts, serve as barriers along the edge of
the precipice. On this road long trains of mules are frequently met
coming from the Sierra. The traveller, at their approach, seeks some
little recess into which he may creep, and there stand closely jammed
against the mountain until the train passes by. This is attended by
great loss of time, owing to the slow and cautious pace at which the
mules proceed. On such a rencounter in a narrow mountain path, I was
once obliged to wait for several hours, whilst two hundred mules
passed by; and at the spot where I and my horse stood, the laden
animals had scarcely space sufficient to set down their feet at the
very edge of the pathway. In some places it is perfectly impossible
either to go on one side or to turn back; and when horses or mules
meet at these difficult points, one of the animals is obliged to
plunge into the stream, before the other can have room to pass. The
numerous curvatures of the road, and the projecting masses of
mountain, render it impossible to see advancing objects in sufficient
time to avoid collision.

After having passed this difficult tract, which is called by the natives
Cacray, we reach the summit of the acclivity down which the mountain
stream descends. Here the valley presents quite the Sierra character. It
is no longer confined within steep and rugged mountain walls, but runs
in undulating contours along the bases of the hills, and gently ascends
eastward towards the principal chain of the Cordillera. The road is
sometimes on the right and sometimes on the left bank of the river. Two
leagues beyond San Mateo lies Chicla, a miserable Indian village, which,
according to Maclean's calculation, is 12,712 feet above sea level. In
some of the more sheltered parts barley is planted; but it does not
ripen, and is merely used as fodder (_Alcazer_). Chicla is the last
place in this valley where the soil is in any degree capable of
cultivation. Half a league further on, there are a few scattered Indian
huts, called the village of Acchahuari. One of these huts is a tambo,
which can never be forgotten by any unfortunate traveller who may have
taken up his abode in it. Necessity several times compelled me to seek a
night's lodging in this horrible tambo; but I never could remain in it
till morning; and even amidst snow or rain I have been glad to get out,
and take up my resting-place on the outside of the door. The hostess is
a dirty old Indian woman, assisted by her daughter; and the hut is
filthy beyond description. For supper, the old woman cooks a vile mess
called _Chupe_, consisting of potatoes and water, mixed with Spanish
pepper; but it is so dirtily prepared, that nothing but the most deadly
hunger would induce any one to taste it. The beds consist of sheep-skins
spread on the damp floor; and one bedchamber serves for the hostess, her
daughter, her grandchildren, and the travellers; an immense woollen
counterpane or blanket being spread over the whole party. But woe to the
unwary traveller who trusts himself in this dormitory! He soon finds
himself surrounded by enemies from whose attacks it is impossible to
escape; for the hut is infested with vermin. Even should he withdraw
into a corner, and make a pillow of his saddle, the annoyance pursues
him. Add to all this a stifling smoke, and all sorts of mephitic
exhalations, and troops of guinea-pigs who run about during the whole
night, and gambol over the faces and bodies of the sleepers,--and it may
readily be conceived how anxiously the traveller looks for the dawn of
morning, when he may escape from the horrors of this miserable tambo.
Acchahuari is 13,056 feet above the sea level. The climate is very
ungenial. During the winter months, rain and snow fall without
intermission; and even during the summer, heavy drifts of snow are not
unfrequent. From April to July, the medium temperature during the night
is 4° R.

After passing Cacray the diminished atmospheric pressure begins to
produce an effect on coast horses which have not been accustomed to
travel in the Sierra. They are attacked with a malady called the _veta_,
which shows itself by difficulty of breathing and trembling. The animals
are frequently so overpowered that they are unable either to move or
stand, and if they are not immediately unsaddled and allowed to rest
they perish. The arrieros consider bleeding a cure for this malady. They
sometimes slit the horse's nostrils, a remedy which is probably
efficacious, as it enables the animal to inhale the air freely. Chopped
garlic put into the nostrils is supposed to be a preventive of the veta.
Mules are less liable to the malady probably because they ascend the
acclivities more slowly than horses. The disease does not attack the
native horses of the Sierra, for which reason they are better than the
coast horses for mountain travelling. Mules, however, are preferable to
either. It is wonderful with what tact and penetration the mule chooses
his footing. When he doubts the firmness of the ground he passes his
muzzle over it, or turns up the loose parts with his hoof before he
ventures to step forward. When he finds himself getting into soft and
marshy ground he stands stock still, and refuses to obey either stirrup
or whip. If by accident he sinks into a morass, he makes a halt, and
waits very contentedly until he receives assistance. But in spite of all
this sagacity the traveller will not do well to resign himself wholly to
the guidance of his mule. In ordinary cases these animals allow
themselves to be guided, and sometimes they appear to think it more safe
to trust to the bridle than to themselves. One of my mules frequently
gave me curious proofs of this sort of calculation. When, in very
difficult parts of the road, I dismounted, in order to walk and lead him
by the bridle, I found it impossible to get the animal to move either by
force or persuasion. He spread out his legs, fixed his hoofs firmly into
the ground, and obstinately resisted all my endeavors to make him move.
But as soon as I remounted he willingly obeyed every movement of the
bridle. With this mule I could ride through marshes, which I could never
do with any other. He appeared to reflect that, as I only dismounted
when the road was unsafe, his life was in no less danger than mine.

About a league beyond Acchahuari the valley is bounded by the
principal chain of the Cordillera. The ascent may be gained by two
different roads. One, the steeper of the two, runs southward, across
the Piedra Parada; the other, on which the ascent is somewhat easier,
takes an easterly direction, over Antarangra. We will first trace the
latter course, which is the most frequented. At the extremity of the
valley, and twenty-eight leagues from the capital, is situated the
last village, Cashapalca, 13,236 feet above the sea. Its inhabitants
are chiefly employed in mining. Formerly, vast quantities of silver
were obtained here. But most of the mines are now either under water
or exhausted, and the village, with its mine works, has dwindled into
insignificance. Beyond Cashapalca there is a tract of marshy ground,
which being passed, a narrow winding road of about two leagues leads
up the acclivity. The soil is clayey, and thinly bestrewed with alpine
grass, intermingled with syngenesious and cruciferous plants. Two
plants which are called by the natives _mala yerba_ and _garban
zillos_, and are a deadly poison to mules and horses, grow in great
abundance here. The numerous skeletons of beasts of burthen seen along
the road bear evidence of the fatal effects of those plants. Higher up
the ascent the vegetation becomes more and more scanty, until at
length it entirely disappears, and nothing is visible but the barren
rock of the Sierra highlands.

The last division of acclivity is called by the natives the Antarangra
(copper rock). On it there is a small heap of stones, which I shall
describe by and by, and a cross made of the stems of the _Baccharis_.
From this point the traveller catches a distant glimpse of the
heaven-towering summit of the Cordillera.

I speedily mounted the ascent, and reached the goal of my journey.
Here I found myself disappointed in the expectation I had formed of
commanding an uninterrupted view over boundless space and distance.
The prospect is greatly circumscribed by numerous rocky elevations,
which spring up in every direction. The mountain passes running across
the ridge of the Cordillera are bounded on all sides by rocks,
sometimes not very high, but at other times rising to the elevation of
1000 feet. The pass of Antarangra (also called Portachuelo del Tingo,
or Pachachaca) is 15,600 above the sea.[63] Nevertheless it is, during
a great part of the year, free from snow. Scarcely a quarter of a
league further northward are the eternal glaciers, and they are
several hundred feet lower than the Pass. That the Pass itself is not
permanently covered with snow is a circumstance which may probably be
accounted for by the direction of the atmospheric currents. The east
winds penetrate into the deep recesses of the valleys, which are
sheltered against the cold south wind by the adjacent mountain ridge.
The passes have a gloomy character, and the rugged grandeur of the
surrounding country presents an aspect of chaotic wildness and
disorder. The ground is covered with huge masses of rock; and the
ungenial fruitless soil is shunned alike by plants and animals. The
thin tendrils of a lichen, here and there twining on a damp mass of
stone, are the only traces of life. Yet the remains of human industry
and activity are everywhere observable. On all sides are seen the deep
cavities which formed the entrances to the now exhausted mines. These
cavities are sometimes situated at elevated points of the almost
inaccessible walls of rock, and are occasionally found in the level
part of the valley, and close on the roadway. Instances have occurred
of travellers being killed by falling into these holes, when they have
been covered by thick falls of snow.

It is curious to observe, on the Pass of Antarangra, the partition of
the waters flowing into the two great oceans, the Atlantic and the
Pacific. Scarcely thirty paces distant from each other there are two
small lagunas. That situated most to the west is one of the sources of
the Rio de San Mateo, which, under the name of the Rimac, falls into the
Pacific. The other laguna, that to the eastward, sends its waters
through a succession of small mountain lakes into the Rio de Pachachaca,
a small tributary to the mighty Amazon river. It is amusing to take a
cup of water from the one laguna and pour it into the other. I could not
resist indulging this whim; and in so doing I thought I might possibly
have sent into the Pacific some drops of the water destined for the
Atlantic. But the whim, puerile as it may be, nevertheless suggests
serious reflections on the mighty power of nature, which has thrown up
these stupendous mountains from the bosom of the earth; and also on the
testaceous animals found on these heights, memorials of the time when
the ocean flowed over their lofty summits.

From the ridge the road runs eastward along a branch of the principal
mountain chain. This branch forms the southern boundary of a
gently-sloping valley. The declivity is terrace-formed, and on each
terrace there is a small clear lake. This series of lakes is called
_Huascacocha_ (the chain of lakes). In their waters, as in most of the
mountain rivers, there is found in great numbers a small species of
shad-fish (_Pygidium dispar_, Tsch.). They are caught during the night
in nets, or by lines, to which the bait is fastened by small
cactus-thorns.

The third in the series of the lagunas is called _Morococha_ (the
colored lake). On its banks some buildings have been constructed, for
the smelting of copper ore. The mines which yield this metal are on the
southern declivity, close to the road leading down from the Cordillera.
Formerly these mines were worked for silver, but were not found very
productive of that metal. Now they are again actively worked, and copper
is obtained from them. The working of the Peruvian copper mines has
hitherto been much neglected, though copper ore is exceedingly abundant.

The road from Morococha to Pachachaca is very uniform. The latter
village, which is situated 12,240 feet above the level of the sea, was
formerly a place of much greater importance than it now is. In its
neighborhood there are a number of spacious buildings constructed at
the time of the unfortunate English mining speculation. Most of them
are only half finished. At the entrance of the village there is a
large hacienda. In some of the apartments the flooring is of wood; a
thing seldom seen in these parts, where the wood for such purposes
must be brought from the eastern declivity of the Andes: the
difficulty and expense attending this transport are so considerable,
that a wooden floor is a great rarity in the habitations of the
Cordillera. A mine belonging to the hacienda is situated five leagues
north-west of Pachachaca, and yields rich silver ore; but a great
part of it is at present under water, and its drainage would be a very
difficult undertaking.

Returning to the point where the two roads across the Cordillera
separate at Cashapalca, we will now trace the route by way of Piedra
Parada. This way is shorter than that by Antarangra, but the ascents
are much steeper. The first objects met with by the traveller on this
road are some Indian huts, called _yauliyacu_, and the ruined hacienda
of San Rafael. These being passed, the ascent continues over broken
masses of rock. About 15,200 feet above the sea there is a huge block
of mountain, called the Piedra Parada, close against which a chapel
was formerly erected; the mountain forming the back wall of the
structure. Now there is merely an iron cross, fixed on the upper part
of the block of mountain. On this spot the Archbishop used formerly to
celebrate mass, when he was on his rounds through the diocese. The
chapel was destroyed by lightning, and has not been rebuilt. The pass
of the Piedra Parada is 16,008 feet above the sea, and is always
covered with snow. Travellers frequently lose their way in this pass,
an accident which befel me in March, 1842, when I was proceeding alone
by that route. Being overtaken by a violent fall of snow, I could
scarcely see a few paces before me. After wandering about for several
hours, my horse became weary, and I began to despair of extricating
myself from the dreary plains of snow. Late in the evening I reached a
little valley, where, sheltered by some rocks, I passed the night. On
the following morning I renewed my journey, and after considerable
exertion I arrived at an Indian hut, where I obtained such directions
as enabled me to recover the right course.

The eastern declivity of the Pass of Piedra Parada is steeper than that
of Huascacocha. After a difficult ride of about two leagues, we reach
first the valley, and then the village of Yauli. The village lies at the
height of 13,100 feet above the sea, and consists of about one hundred
and fifty miserable huts, affording habitations for between twelve and
fourteen thousand Indians, most of whom are employed in mining.

The Cordillera, in the neighborhood of Yauli, is exceedingly rich in
lead ore, containing silver. Within the circuit of a few miles, above
eight hundred shafts have been made, but they have not been found
sufficiently productive to encourage extensive mining works. The
difficulties which impede mine-working in these parts are caused
chiefly by the dearness of labor and the scarcity of fuel. There being
a total want of wood, the only fuel that can be obtained consists of
the dried dung of sheep, llamas, and huanacus. This fuel is called
_taquia_. It produces a very brisk and intense flame, and most of the
mine-owners prefer it to coal. The process of smelting, as practised
by the Indians, though extremely rude and imperfect, is nevertheless
adapted to local circumstances. All European attempts to improve the
system of smelting in these districts have either totally failed, or
in their results have proved less effective than the simple Indian
method. Complicated furnaces made after European models are
exceedingly expensive, whilst the natives can construct theirs at the
cost of fifty or sixty dollars each. These Indian furnaces can,
moreover, be easily erected in the vicinity of the mines, and when the
metal is not very abundant the furnaces may be abandoned without any
great sacrifice. For the price of one European furnace the Indians may
build more than a dozen, in each of which, notwithstanding the paucity
of fuel, a considerably greater quantity of metal may be smelted than
in one of European construction.

About half a league beyond Yauli there are upwards of twenty mineral
springs, all situated within a circuit of a quarter of a mile. Several
of them contain saline properties. One is called the _Hervidero_ (the
whirlpool). It is in the form of a funnel, and at its upper part is
between ten and twelve feet diameter. Its surface is covered with
foam. The temperature of the water is only 7° C. higher than the
atmosphere. Some of these springs are tepid and sulphuric; and the
temperature of one of them is as high as 89° C. Near some of the
springs quadrangular basins have been constructed for baths, which are
said to be very efficacious in cutaneous and rheumatic complaints. The
climate of Yauli is exceedingly rigorous. In summer the medium
temperature of the night is 8° C., but the days are mild. In winter,
on the other hand, the night is +1° C., and the day scarcely +3° C.,
as the sky is continually overhung with thick clouds, which disperse
themselves in continual falls of snow. I passed several weeks in Yauli
and in the wild country around it, and during that time I made many
valuable additions to my natural history collection.

The distance between Yauli and Pachachaca is two leagues. The road
descends gently along the right bank of the Rio de Yauli, which forms
the principal source of the Rio de Oroya. In this direction, as well as
in other parts adjacent to Yauli, there are numerous remains of mining
works, formerly the property of Portuguese. These works were destroyed
at the time of the persecution of the Portuguese in Peru, when the
consul, Juan Bautista, was hanged by the Inquisition, in Lima. Over
those events there hangs a veil of mystery, which will probably never be
removed. The Portuguese were the most powerful and intelligent
mine-owners in Peru, and their prosperity excited the envy of the
Spanish viceroy. A number of Portuguese emigrants, who came from
Brazil, to settle in the Peruvian province of Maynas, furnished the
viceroy with a ground of complaint, real or pretended. He set forth
that the Portuguese of the eastern parts of South America intended to
make themselves masters of Peru, and conjointly with the Inquisition
he commenced coercive measures against them. Their consul was accused
of heresy, condemned and hanged, and the emigrants were pursued and
put to death. Some of them escaped into the forests, where they were
massacred by the Indians, and only a very few succeeded in getting
back to Brazil. Many of the wealthy Portuguese mine-owners, seeing the
danger that threatened them, sank their vast treasures in lakes, or
buried them in retired places in the plains. These treasures consisted
chiefly of smelted ore and silver coin, and only a very small portion
was afterwards discovered. Thus were these active and intelligent
mine-owners sacrificed, either to a chimerical and unfounded
suspicion, or to a feeling of avarice, which, after all, failed in
attaining its object. The consequences were disastrous to the country.
Peruvian mining has never recovered the prosperity which it enjoyed
under the management of the Portuguese.

Between Yauli and Pachachaca the way is difficult, and without an
accurate knowledge of the route, the traveller is likely to lose his
way, and may even incur the danger of sinking in the marshes which
spread along the bank of the river. From Pachachaca a broad and gentle
sloping valley conducts to La Oroya, a distance of about three leagues.
In the range of mountains forming the southern boundary of this valley,
the river winds its way through deep ravines. About half a league from
Pachachaca there is a ford where the road divides; one division passing
over the steep mountains of Yanaclara to Jauja, and the other running
into the wild valleys of Huayhuay. Midway between Pachachaca and La
Oroya there is a small, miserable Indian village called Saco, which is
seldom visited by travellers, as it is difficult to procure in it the
commonest necessaries of food. In this place there is a natural bridge
across the river, which has worked out a bed for itself beneath the
rocks. At several points along the course of this river I observed
similar bridges of rock, but this one only is passable for horses.

La Oroya lies on the left bank of the river of that name, and
communicates with the right bank by means of a large hanging bridge
(Puente de Soga). These bridges are composed of four ropes (sogas) made
of twisted cow-hide, and about the thickness of a man's arm. The four
ropes are connected together by thinner ones of the same material,
fastened over them transversely. The whole is covered with branches,
straw, and roots of the Agave tree. On either side, a rope rather more
than two feet above the bridge serves as a balustrade. The sogas are
fastened on each bank of the river by piles, or riveted into the rock.
During the long continuous rains these bridges become loose and require
to be tightened; but they are always lower in the middle than at the
ends, and when passengers are crossing them they swing like hammocks. It
requires some practice, and a very steady head, to go over the soga
bridges unaccompanied by a Puentero.[64] However strongly made, they are
not durable; for the changeableness of the weather quickly rots the
ropes, which are made of untanned leather. They frequently require
repairing, and travellers have sometimes no alternative but to wait for
several days until a bridge is passable, or to make a circuit of 20 or
30 leagues. The Puente de Soga of Oroya is fifty yards long, and one and
a half broad. It is one of the largest in Peru; but the bridge across
the Apurimac, in the province of Ayacucho, is nearly twice as long, and
it is carried over a much deeper gulf.

Another curious kind of bridge is that called the Huaro. It consists
of a thick rope extending over a river or across a rocky chasm. To
this rope are affixed a roller, and a strong piece of wood formed
like a yoke, and by means of two smaller ropes, this yoke is drawn
along the thick rope which forms the bridge. The passenger who has to
cross the Huaro is tied to the yoke, and grasps it firmly with both
hands. His feet, which are crossed one over the other, rest on the
thick rope, and the head is held as erectly as possible. All these
preliminaries being completed, an Indian, stationed on the opposite
side of the river or chasm, draws the passenger across the Huaro. This
is altogether the most disagreeable and dangerous mode of conveyance
that can possibly be conceived. If the rope breaks, an accident of no
unfrequent occurrence, the hapless traveller has no chance of escaping
with life, for being fastened, he can make no effort to save himself.
Horses and mules are driven by the Indians into the river, and are
made to swim across it, in doing which they frequently perish,
especially when being exhausted by a long journey, they have not
strength to contend against the force of the current.

The village of Oroya, about a quarter of a mile from the bridge, is
built on a declivity, and according to Maclean's calculation is 12,010
feet above the level of the sea. It contains fifty-one miserable huts,
which are the habitations of about two hundred Indians. From Oroya
several roads branch off into the different mountain districts. The most
frequented is that over the level height of Cachi-Cachi to Jauja. Along
this road there are extensive tracts of ground covered with calcareous
petrifactions. Another road leading to Tarma passes by the ancient Inca
fortress Huichay. A third, and much frequented road is that by way of
Huaypacha, and from thence to Junin and Cerro de Pasco.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 52: All these calculations are by English feet.]

[Footnote 53: Jardine and Selby's Annals of Natural History.]

[Footnote 54: Nivelacion barometrica desde el Callao hasta Pasco, por el
camino de Obrajillo, y desde el mismo lugar hasta la capital por via de
Tarma, hecha y calculada por Mariano Eduardo Rivero y Usturitz in
Memorial de Ciencias naturales, &c.]

[Footnote 55: Darwin's Journal, p. 350]

[Footnote 56: The Spaniards term this plant _Uña de gato_ (Cat's-claw),
the stalk being furnished with hooked thorns resembling claws.]

[Footnote 57: For further information relative to this disease, see my
communication to Wunderlich and Roser's "_Archiv für Physiologische
Heilkunde_."]

[Footnote 58: See page 153.]

[Footnote 59: By a nail is lost a shoe, by a shoe a horse, and by a
horse a rider.]

[Footnote 60: According to Maclean, the elevation of Matucanas is 8026
feet above the level of the sea. I presume that this calculation
refers to the village itself, which is situated about the eighth of a
league from the tambo, and lies much lower.]

[Footnote 61: According to Maclean's calculation, the Tambo de Viso is
9072 feet above the sea.]

[Footnote 62: Maclean states the elevation to be 10,984 feet above
the sea. Rivero makes it 9570, and Gay 10,408 feet. Gay's is the only
measurement which in any manner corresponds with mine and Maclean's.
In general Gay's calculations are between 600 and 800 feet higher
than ours.]

[Footnote 63: Maclean makes it 15,543 feet; Gay, 15,924 feet; and Rivero,
only 14,608 feet above the level of the sea.]

[Footnote 64: The _Puenteros_ (Bridge Guides) are Indians who assist
travellers in crossing these dangerous bridges.]

CHAPTER XI

Two great mountain chains, running parallel with each other, intersect
Peru in the direction from S.S.W. to N.N.E. The chain nearest the coast
of the Pacific is at the average distance of from sixty to seventy
English miles from the sea. The other chain takes a parallel direction
but describes throughout its whole course a slight curve eastward. These
two ranges of mountain are called the Cordilleras, or the Andes: both
terms being used indiscriminately. Even the creoles of Peru confound
these two terms, sometimes calling the western chain by one name, and
sometimes by the other. Nevertheless, a strict distinction ought to be
observed:--the western chain should properly be called the Cordillera,
and the eastern chain the Andes. The latter name is derived from the
Quichua word Antasuyu; _Anta_ signifying metal generally, but especially
copper, and _Suyu_ a district; the meaning of Antasuyu, therefore, is
the metal district. In common parlance, the word Suyu was dropped, and
the termination _a_ in _Anta_ was converted into _is_. Hence the word
_Antis_, which is employed by all old writers and geographers; and even
now is in common use among the Indian population of Southern Peru. The
Spaniards, according to their practice of corrupting the words of the
Quichua language, have transformed Antis into _Andes_, and they apply
the name without distinction to the western and the eastern chain of
mountains.[65]

The old inhabitants of Peru dwelt chiefly along the base of the eastern
mountain chain, where they drew from the mines the metal which afforded
material for their tasteful and ingenious workmanship: those mountains
consequently retained the name of Antis or Andes. In the time of the
Incas, both chains were called Ritisuyu (Snow-Districts). The Spaniards,
on the invasion of the country, advancing from the sea-coast, first
arrived at the western mountains, and to them they gave the name of
_Cordillera_, the term commonly employed in the Spanish language, to
designate any mountain chain. Most of the earlier travellers and
topographists named the western chain the _Cordillera de los Andes_, and
regarded it as the principal chain, of which they considered the eastern
mountains to be merely a branch. To the eastern range of mountains they
gave the name of _Cordillera Oriental_. I will here strictly observe the
correct denominations, calling the western chain the Cordillera, or the
coast mountains; and the eastern chain the Andes, or the inner
Cordillera.

These two great mountain chains stand in respect to height in an inverse
relation one to the other; that is to say, the greater the elevation of
the Cordillera, the more considerable is the depression of the Andes. In
South Peru the ridge of the Cordillera is considerably lower than that
portion of the Andes which stretches through Bolivia. The medium height
of the Cordillera in South Peru is 15,000 feet above the sea; but here
and there particular points rise to a much more considerable elevation.
The medium height of the Andes is 17,000 feet above the sea. In central
Peru the Cordillera is higher than the Andes. There the altitude of the
latter along the body of the chain is 13,000 feet above the sea: on the
ridge there are a few points some hundred feet higher. Between Pasco
and Loxas the average height of the Cordillera is between 11,000 and
12,000 feet above the sea; and the average elevation of the Andes at the
corresponding point is about 2000 feet lower.

The passes do not run through valleys, but always over the ridges of the
mountains. The highest mountain passes are the Rinconada (16,452 feet
above the sea); the Piedra Parada (16,008 feet); the Tingo (15,600
feet); the Huatillas (14,850 feet); the Portachuelo de la Viuda (14,544
feet); the Altos de Toledo (15,530 feet); and the Altos de los Huesos
(14,300 feet). In both chains there are innumerable small lakes; these
are met with in all the mountain passes, and most of them are the
sources of small rivers.

Both the mountain chains, as well as their lateral branches, are rich in
metallic produce; but in the principal mountains gold is rare. Some rich
mines on the coast, and in the province of Arequipa, are now nearly
exhausted. Wash gold is plentiful in the rivers of North Peru, but it is
not carefully collected. Silver, which constitutes the principal wealth
of Peru, is found in greatest abundance in the principal chains, viz.,
in Northern and Central Peru, in the Cordillera; and in Southern Peru in
the Andes. It presents itself in all forms and combinations, from the
pure metal to the lead-ore mixed with silver. Even in the highest
elevations, in parts scarcely trodden by human footsteps, rich veins of
silver are discovered. It is scarcely possible to pass half a day in
these regions without encountering new streaks. Quicksilver is likewise
found, but in such small quantities, that the gain does not pay the
labor of the miners. The only quicksilver vein of any magnitude is at
Huancavelica. Both mountain chains are very rich in copper-ore; but it
is extracted only from the Cordillera, for the distance of the Andes
from the coast renders the transport too expensive. The lead and iron
mines, though amazingly prolific, are not worked; the price of the metal
being too low to pay the labor.

The Cordillera presents an aspect totally different from that of the
Andes. It is more wild and rugged, its ridge is broader, and its summits
less pyramidical. The summits of the Andes terminate in slender sharp
points like needles. The Cordillera descends in terraces to the level
heights, whilst the slope of the Andes is uniform and unbroken. The
summits of the calcareous hills which stretch eastward from the great
chain of the Cordillera are broken and rugged. Large cubical blocks of
stone become detached from them, and roll down into the valleys. In the
Quebrada of Huari near Yanaclara, which is 13,000 feet above the sea, I
collected among other fragments of rock some of a species which is found
at Neufchatel in Switzerland. This disintegration, which is the effect
of protracted rain and cold, imparts to the mountain ridges the most
singular and beautiful forms; their fantastic outlines appearing like
the work of human hands. Imagination may easily picture them to be
monuments of the time of the Incas; for viewed from a distance, they
look like groups of giants or colossal animals. In former times the
Indians viewed these masses of rock with devout reverence, for they
believed them to be the early inhabitants of the earth whom Pacchacamac
in his anger transformed to stone. I may here notice some very curious
forms of rock which have long been a subject of controversy among
Peruvian travellers. On the road leading from Ayacucho to Huancavelica,
on the level height of Paucara, about a league beyond the village of
Parcos, there is a considerable number of sand-stone pyramids from eight
to twenty-two feet high. They are of a reddish-white color; but in many
places the inclemency of the weather has overspread them with a blackish
crust. They are detached one from another. Ulloa, in his _Noticias
Americanas_, after fully describing these pyramids, declares himself
doubtful whether they are the work of man or of nature. He inclines to
regard them as human creations, and suggests that they may possibly have
been the tombs of distinguished curacas and caciques; but he admits that
he is not acquainted with any similar monuments in Peru. As each pyramid
consists of only one block of stone, and all are very regularly shaped,
Ulloa is not indisposed to believe that the Indians possessed the secret
art of melting stone. These blocks are, however, of sand-stone, and
their fractures are the result of the inclemency of the weather. They
are all pyramidal-shaped, and tolerably equal in size. In several of
them the points are as sharp and regular as though they had been wrought
by the chisel of the sculptor. These curious pyramids cover the plateau
along a distance of more than two miles: sometimes standing closely
together, and sometimes at considerable distances apart. The whole line
of chalk and slate mountains extending from Ayacucho to Huancavelica is
shattered, and presents similar, though less regular detritus.

I have, in my last chapter, observed that the Cordillera is the point
of partition between the waters of the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans.
All the waters of the eastern declivity of the Cordillera--all those
which have their source on the level heights and on the western
declivity of the Andes,--flow from thence in the direction of the east,
and work their way through the eastern mountain chain. Throughout the
whole extent of South America there is not a single instance of the
Cordillera being intersected by a river; a fact the more remarkable
because in Southern Peru and Bolivia, the coast chain is lower than the
Andes. This interesting phenomenon, though it has deeply engaged the
attention of geologists, has not yet been satisfactorily explained. I
concur in the view taken by Mr. Darwin, who observes that it would be
too rash to assign to the eastern chain of Bolivia and Central Chile, a
later origin than the western chain (the nearest the Pacific), but that
the circumstance of the rivers of a lower mountain chain having forced
their way through a higher chain seems, without this supposition, to be
enigmatical. Mr. Darwin is of opinion that the phenomenon is assignable
to a periodical and gradual elevation of the second mountain line (the
Andes); for a chain of islets would at first appear, and as these were
lifted up, the tides would be always wearing deeper and broader
channels between them.

In the heights of the Cordillera the effect of the diminished
atmospheric pressure on the human frame shows itself in intolerable
symptoms of weariness and an extreme difficulty of breathing. The
natives call this malady the _Puna_ or the _Soroche_; and the Spanish
Creoles give it the names of _Mareo_ or _Veta_. Ignorant of its real
causes they ascribe it to the exhalations of metals, especially
antimony, which is extensively used in the mining operations. The first
symptoms of the veta are usually felt at the elevation of 12,600 feet
above the sea. These symptoms are vertigo, dimness of sight and
hearing, pains in the head and nausea. Blood flows from the eyes, nose,
and lips. Fainting fits, spitting of blood, and other dangerous
symptoms, usually attend severe attacks of veta. The sensations which
accompany this malady somewhat resemble those of sea-sickness, and hence
its Spanish name _mareo_. But sea-sickness is unaccompanied by the
distressing difficulty of breathing experienced in the veta. This
disorder sometimes proves fatal, and I once witnessed a case in which
death was the result. Inhabitants of the coast and Europeans, who for
the first time visit the lofty regions of the Cordillera, are usually
attacked with this disorder. Persons in good health and of a spare habit
speedily recover from it, but on plethoric and stout individuals its
effects are frequently very severe. After an abode of some time in the
mountainous regions, the constitution becomes inured to the rarefied
atmosphere. I suffered only two attacks of the veta; but they were very
severe. The first was on one of the level heights; and the second on the
mountain of Antaichahua. The first time I ascended the Cordillera I did
not experience the slightest illness, and I congratulated myself on
having escaped the veta; but a year afterwards I had an attack of it,
though only of a few hours' duration. The veta is felt with great
severity in some districts of the Cordillera, whilst in others, where
the altitude is greater, the disorder is scarcely perceptible. Thus it
would seem that the malady is not caused by diminished atmospheric
pressure, but is dependent on some unknown climatic circumstances. The
districts in which the veta prevails with greatest intensity are, for
the most part, rich in the production of metals, a circumstance which
has given rise to the idea that it is caused by metallic exhalations.

I have already described the effect of the Puna climate on beasts of
burthen. Its influence on some of the domestic animals is no less severe
than on the human race. To cats, it is very fatal, and at the elevation
of 13,000 feet above the sea those animals cannot live. Numerous trials
have been made to rear them in the villages of the upper mountains, but
without effect; for after a few days' abode in those regions, the
animals die in frightful convulsions; but when in this state they do not
attempt to bite. I had two good opportunities of observing the disease
at Yauli. Cats attacked in this way are called, by the natives,
_azorochados_, and antimony is alleged to be the cause of the distemper.
Dogs are also liable to it, but it visits them less severely than cats,
and with care they may be recovered.

Another scourge of the traveller in the Cordillera, is the disease
called the _Surumpe_. It is a violent inflammation of the eyes, caused
by the sudden reflection of the bright rays of the sun on the snow. By
the rarefied air and the cutting wind, the eyes, being kept in a
constant state of irritation, are thereby rendered very susceptible to
the effects of the glaring light. In these regions the sky is often
for a time completely overshadowed by snow clouds, and the greenish
yellow of the plain is soon covered by a sheet of snow: then suddenly
the sun's rays burst through the breaking clouds, and the eyes,
unprepared for the dazzling glare, are almost blinded. A sharp burning
pain is immediately felt, and it speedily increases to an intolerable
degree. The eyes become violently inflamed, and the lids swell and
bleed. The pain of the surumpe is the most intense that can be
imagined, and frequently brings on delirium. The sensation resembles
that which it may be imagined would be felt if cayenne pepper or
gunpowder were rubbed into the eyes. Chronic inflammation, swelling of
the eyelids, dimness of sight, and even total blindness are the
frequent consequences of the surumpe. In the Cordillera, Indians are
often seen sitting by the road-side shrieking in agony, and unable to
proceed on their way. They are more liable to the disease than the
Creoles, who, when travelling in the mountains, protect their eyes by
green spectacles and veils.

Heavy falls of snow in the Cordillera are usually accompanied by
thunder and lightning. During five months of the year, from November to
March, storms are of daily occurrence. They begin, with singular
regularity, about three o'clock in the afternoon, and continue until
five or half-past five in the evening. After that time storms of
thunder and lightning never occur; but the falls of snow sometimes
continue till midnight. As evening approaches, cold mists are drifted
from the mountain-tops down upon the plains; but they are dispersed by
the rays of the morning sun, which in a few hours melt the snow. The
furious tempests in these regions exceed any idea that can be formed
of them, and can only be conceived by those who have witnessed them.
Some of these mountain districts have acquired an ominous character for
storms; Antaichahua is one of the places to which this sort of fearful
celebrity belongs. For hours together flash follows flash, painting
blood-red cataracts on the naked precipices. The forked lightning darts
its zig-zag flashes on the mountain-tops, or, running along the ground,
imprints deep furrows in its course; whilst the atmosphere quivers
amidst uninterrupted peals of thunder, repeated a thousandfold by the
mountain echoes. The traveller, overtaken by these terrific storms,
dismounts from his trembling horse, and takes refuge beneath the
shelter of some overhanging rock.

In these sterile heights, Nature withholds her fostering influence
alike from vegetable and animal life. The scantiest vegetation can
scarcely draw nutriment from the ungenial soil, and animals shun the
dreary and shelterless wilds. The condor alone finds itself in its
native element amidst these mountain deserts. On the inaccessible
summits of the Cordillera that bird builds its nest, and hatches its
young in the months of April and May. Few animals have attained so
universal a celebrity as the condor. That bird was known in Europe, at
a period when his native land was numbered among those fabulous
regions which are regarded as the scenes of imaginary wonders. The
most extravagant accounts of the condor were written and read, and
general credence was granted to every story which travellers brought
from the fairy land of gold and silver. It was only at the
commencement of the present century that Humboldt overthrew the
extravagant notions that previously prevailed respecting the size,
strength, and habits of that extraordinary bird.

The full-grown condor measures, from the point of the beak to the end
of the tail, from four feet ten inches to five feet; and from the tip
of one wing to the other, from twelve to thirteen feet. This bird feeds
chiefly on carrion: it is only when impelled by hunger that he seizes
living animals, and even then only the small and defenceless, such as
the young of sheep, vicuñas, and llamas. He cannot raise great weights
with his feet, which, however, he uses to aid the power of his beak.
The principal strength of the condor lies in his neck and in his feet;
yet he cannot, when flying, carry a weight exceeding eight or ten
pounds. All accounts of sheep and calves being carried off by condors
are mere exaggerations. This bird passes a great part of the day in
sleep, and hovers in quest of prey chiefly in the morning and evening.
Whilst soaring at a height beyond the reach of human eyes, the
sharp-sighted condor discerns his prey on the level heights beneath
him, and darts down upon it with the swiftness of lightning. When a
bait is laid, it is curious to observe the numbers of condors which
assemble in a quarter of an hour, in a spot near which not one had been
previously visible. These birds possess the senses of sight and smell
in a singularly powerful degree.

Some old travellers, Ulloa among others, have affirmed that the plumage
of the condor is invulnerable to a musket-ball. This absurdity is
scarcely worthy of contradiction; but it is nevertheless true that the
bird has a singular tenacity of life, and that it is seldom killed by
fire-arms, unless when shot in some vital part. Its plumage,
particularly on the wings, is very strong and thick. The natives,
therefore, seldom attempt to shoot the condor: they usually catch him by
traps or by the laso, or kill him by stones flung from slings, or by the
_Bolas_. A curious method of capturing the condor alive is practised in
the province of Abancay. A fresh cow-hide, with some fragments of flesh
adhering to it, is spread out on one of the level heights, and an Indian
provided with ropes creeps beneath it, whilst some others station
themselves in ambush near the spot, ready to assist him. Presently a
condor, attracted by the smell of flesh, darts down upon the cow-hide,
and then the Indian, who is concealed under it, seizes the bird by the
legs, and binds them fast in the skin, as if in a bag. The captured
condor flaps his wings, and makes ineffectual attempts to fly; but he is
speedily secured, and carried in triumph to the nearest village.

The Indians quote numerous instances of young children having been
attacked by condors. That those birds are sometimes extremely fierce is
very certain. The following occurrence came within my own knowledge,
whilst I was in Lima. I had a condor, which, when he first came into my
possession, was very young. To prevent his escape, as soon as he was
able to fly, he was fastened by the leg to a chain, to which was
attached a piece of iron of about six pounds weight. He had a large
court to range in, and he dragged the piece of iron about after him all
day. When he was a year and a half old he flew away, with the chain and
iron attached to his leg, and perched on the spire of the church of
Santo Tomas, whence he was scared away by the carrion hawks. On
alighting in the street, a Negro attempted to catch him for the purpose
of bringing him home; upon which he seized the poor creature by the ear,
and tore it completely off. He then attacked a child in the street (a
negro boy of three years old), threw him on the ground, and knocked him
on the head so severely with his beak, that the child died in
consequence of the injuries. I hoped to have brought this bird alive to
Europe; but, after being at sea two months on our homeward voyage, he
died on board the ship in the latitude of Monte Video.

Between the Cordillera and the Andes, at the height of 12,000 feet
above the sea, there are vast tracts of uninhabited table-lands. These
are called in the Quichua language the _Puna_; and the Spaniards give
them the name of the _Despoblado_ (the uninhabited). These table-lands
form the upper mountain regions of the South American Highlands. They
spread over the whole extent of Peru, from north-west to south-east, a
distance of 350 Spanish miles, continuing through Bolivia, and
gradually running eastward into the Argentine Republic. With reference
to geography and natural history, these table-lands present a curious
contrast to the _Llanos_ (plains) of South America, situated on the
other side of the Andes to the north-east. Those boundless deserts,
full of organic life, are, like the Puna, among the most interesting
characteristics of the New World.

The climate of these regions is not less rigorous than that of the high
mountain ridges. Cold winds from the west and south-west, blow nearly
all the year round from the ice-topped Cordillera; and for the space of
four months these winds are daily accompanied by thunder, lightning, and
snow-storms. The average state of the thermometer during the cold season
(which is called summer, because it then seldom snows) is, during the
night, -5° R.; and at midday, +9° 7´ R. In winter the mercury seldom
falls during the night below freezing point, and it continues between
+1° and 0° R.; but at noon it ascends only to 7° R. It is, however,
quite impossible to determine with precision the medium temperature of
these regions. For the space of a few hours the heat will frequently
vary between 18° and 20° R. The transition is the more sensibly felt on
the fall of the temperature, as it is usually accompanied by
sharp-biting winds, so keen, that they cut the skin on the face and
hands. A remarkable effect of the Puna wind is its power of speedily
drying animal bodies, and thereby preventing putridity. A dead mule is,
in the course of a few days, converted into a mummy; not even the
entrails presenting the least trace of decomposition.

It frequently happens that, after being long exposed to these cold
winds, the traveller enters warm atmospheric currents. These warm
streams are sometimes only two or three paces, and at other times,
several hundred feet broad. They run in a parallel direction with each
other, and one may pass through five or six of them in the course of a
few hours. On the level heights between Chacapalpa and Huancavelica, I
remarked that they were especially frequent during the months of August
and September. According to my repeated observations, I found that these
warm streams chiefly follow the direction of the Cordillera; namely,
from S.S.W. to N.N.E. I once travelled the distance of several leagues
through a succession of these currents of warm air, none of which
exceeded seven-and-twenty paces in breadth. Their temperature was 11° R.
higher than that of the adjacent atmosphere. It would appear they are
not merely temporary, for the mule-drivers can often foretel with
tolerable accuracy where they will be encountered. The causes of these
phenomena well merit the investigation of meteorologists.

The aspect of the Puna is singularly monotonous and dreary. The
expansive levels are scantily covered with grasses of a yellowish-brown
hue, and are never enlivened by fresh-looking verdure. Here and there,
at distant intervals, may be seen a few stunted Queñua trees
(_Polylepis racemosa_, R. P.), or large patches of ground covered with
the Ratanhia shrub[66] (_Krameria triandria_, R. P.). Both are used by
the Indians as fuel, and for roofing their huts.

The cold climate and sterile soil of the Puna are formidable impediments
to agriculture. Only one plant is cultivated in these regions with any
degree of success. It is the _maca_, a tuberous root grown like the
potatoe, and like it used as an article of food. In many of the Puna
districts the maca constitutes the principal sustenance of the
inhabitants. It has an agreeable, and somewhat sweetish flavor, and when
boiled in milk it tastes like the chestnut. As far as I am aware this
plant has not been mentioned by any traveller, nor has its botanical
character yet been precisely determined. Possibly it is a species of
Tropæolum, but of this I am uncertain. The root is about the size of a
large chestnut. Macas may be kept for more than a year, if, after being
taken from the earth, they are left a few days to dry in the sun, and
then exposed to the cold. By this means they become shrivelled and very
hard. From these dried macas, the Indians prepare a sort of soup or
rather syrup, which diffuses a sweet, sickly sort of odor, but which,
when eaten with roasted maize, is not altogether unpalatable. The maca
thrives best at the height of between 12,000 and 13,000 feet above the
sea. In the lower districts it is not planted, for the Indians declare
it to be flavorless when grown there. Besides the maca barley is reared
in the Puna. I saw there fields of barley 13,200 feet above the sea. It
does not, however, attain full maturity, seldom even shoots into ears,
and is cut whilst green as fodder for horses.

But poor and scanty as is the vegetation of the Puna, the animal
kingdom is there richly and beautifully represented. Those regions are
the native home of the great Mammalia, which Peru possessed before
horses and black cattle were introduced by the Spaniards. I allude to
the llama and his co-genera the alpaco, the huanacu, and the vicuña.
On these interesting animals I will subjoin a few observations.[67]
The two first are kept as domestic animals; the llama perfectly, and
the alpaco partially tame.

The llama measures from the sole of the hoof to the top of the head, 4
feet 6 to 8 inches; from the sole of the hoof to the shoulders, from 2
feet 11 inches to 3 feet. The female is usually smaller and less strong
than the male, but her wool is finer and better. The color is very
various; generally brown, with shades of yellow or black; frequently
speckled, but very rarely quite white or black. The speckled brown llama
is in some districts called the moromoro.

The young llamas are left with the dam for about the space of a year,
after which time they are removed and placed with flocks. When about
four years old, the males and females are separated; the former are
trained to carry burthens, and the latter are kept in the pastures of
the level heights. Most of the flocks of llamas are reared in the
southern Puna provinces, viz.:--Cuzco and Ayacucho, and from thence
they are sent to the silver mines of North Peru. The price of a strong
full-grown llama is from three to four dollars; but if purchased in
flocks in the provinces above named, they may be had for one and a
half or two dollars each. Shortly after the conquest the price of one
of these animals was between eighteen and twenty ducats; but the
increase of horses, mules, and sheep, lowered their value. The burthen
carried by the llama should not exceed one hundred and twenty-five
pounds, and the animal is seldom laden with more than a
hundred-weight. When the llama finds his burthen too heavy he lies
down, and cannot be made to rise until some portion of the weight is
removed from his back. In the silver mines the llamas are of the most
important utility, as they frequently carry the metal from the mines
in places where the declivities are so steep that neither asses nor
mules can keep their footing.

The Indians frequently proceed with large flocks of llamas to the coast,
to procure salt. Their daily journeys are short, never exceeding three
or four leagues; for the animals will not feed during the night, and
therefore they are allowed to graze as they go, or to halt for a few
hours at feeding-time. When resting they make a peculiar humming noise,
which, when proceeding from a numerous flock at a distance, is like a
number of Æolian harps sounding in concert.

A flock of laden llamas journeying over the table-lands is a beautiful
sight. They proceed at a slow and measured pace, gazing eagerly around
on every side. When any strange object scares them, the flock
separates, and disperses in various directions, and the arrieros have
no little difficulty in reassembling them. The Indians are very fond
of these animals. They adorn them by tying bows of ribbon to their
ears, and hanging bells round their necks; and before loading, they
always fondle and caress them affectionately. If, during a journey,
one of the llamas is fatigued and lies down, the arriero kneels beside
the animal, and addresses to it the most coaxing and endearing
expressions. But notwithstanding all the care and attention bestowed
on them, many llamas perish on every journey to the coast, as they are
not able to bear the warm climate.

Some old travellers have stated that the Indians employ the llama for
riding and for draught; but these accounts are quite erroneous. It
sometimes happens that when crossing a river an Indian lad, to avoid
getting wet, may mount on the back of one of the llamas; but in such a
case, he immediately dismounts on reaching the opposite bank. The flesh
of the llama is spongy, and not agreeable in flavor. Its wool is used
for making coarse cloths.

The alpaco, or paco, is smaller than the llama. It measures from the
lower part of the hoof to the top of the head only three feet three
inches, and to the shoulders two feet and a half. In form it resembles
the sheep, but it has a longer neck and a more elegant head. The fleece
of this animal is beautifully soft and very long; in some parts it is
four or five inches in length. Its color is usually either white or
black; but in some few instances it is speckled. The Indians make
blankets and ponchos of the alpaco wool. It is also frequently exported
to Europe, and it sells at a good price in England. The alpacos are kept
in large flocks, and throughout the whole of the year they graze on the
level heights. At shearing time only they are driven to the huts. They
are in consequence very shy, and they run away at the approach of a
stranger. The obstinacy of the alpaco is remarkable. When one of these
animals is separated from the flock, he throws himself on the ground,
and neither force nor persuasion will induce him to rise;--sometimes
suffering the severest punishment rather than go the way the driver
wishes. Few animals seem to require so imperatively the companionship of
its own species, and it is only when brought to the Indian huts very
young, that the alpacos can be separated from their flocks.

The largest animal of this family is the huanacu. It measures five feet
from the bottom of the hoof to the top of the head, and three feet three
inches to the shoulders. In form it so nearly resembles the llama, that
until a very recent period, zoologists were of opinion that the llama
was an improved species of the huanacu, and that the latter was the
llama in its wild state. In the "Fauna Peruana" I have explained the
erroneousness of this opinion, and described the specific differences
existing between the two animals. On the neck, back, and thighs the
huanacu is of a uniform reddish-brown color. The under part of the body,
the middle line of the breast, and the inner side of the limbs are of a
dingy white. The face is dark grey, and the lips of a clear white. Of
the huanacus there are not those varieties which are found among the
llamas and the alpacos. The wool is shorter and coarser than that of the
llama, and it is of nearly uniform length on all parts of the body.

The huanacus live in small herds of five or seven, seldom exceeding
the latter number. In some districts they are very shy, and retreat
when any one approaches. If taken very young they may be tamed; but
they are always ready to fall back into their wild state. It is with
great difficulty they can be trained as beasts of burthen. In the
menageries of Europe, huanacu brought from Chile are frequently
represented to be llamas.

The vicuña is a more beautiful animal than any of those just
described. Its size is between that of the llama and the alpaco. It
measures from the sole of the foot to the top of the head four feet
one inch, and two and a half feet to the shoulders. The neck is longer
and more slender than in either of the other relative species; and
from them the vicuña is also distinguished by the superior fineness of
its short, curly wool. The crown of the head, the upper part of the
neck, the back, and thighs, are of a peculiar reddish-yellow hue,
called by the people of the country _color de vicuña_. The lower part
of the neck, and the inner parts of the limbs, are of a bright ochre
color, and the breast and lower part of the body are white.

During the rainy season the vicuña inhabits the ridges of the
Cordillera, where some scanty vegetation is to be found. It never
ventures up to the naked rocky summits, for its hoofs being accustomed
only to turfy ground, are very soft and tender. It lives in herds,
consisting of from six to fifteen females, and one male, who is the
protector and leader of the herd. Whilst the females are quietly
grazing, the male stands at the distance of some paces apart, and
carefully keeps guard over them. At the approach of danger he gives a
signal, consisting of a sort of whistling sound, and a quick movement of
the foot. Immediately the herd draws closely together, each animal
anxiously stretching out its head in the direction of the threatening
danger. They then take to flight; first moving leisurely and cautiously,
and then quickening their pace to the utmost degree of speed; whilst the
male vicuña who covers the retreat frequently halts, to observe the
movements of the enemy. The females, with singular fidelity and
affection, reward the watchful care of their protector. If he is wounded
or killed, they gather round him in a circle, uttering their shrill
tones of lamentation, and they will suffer themselves to be captured or
killed, rather than desert him by pursuing their flight. The neigh of
the vicuña, like that of the other animals of its class, resembles a
short, sharp whistle. But when the shrill sound vibrates through the
pure Puna air, the practised ear can readily distinguish the cry of the
vicuña from that of the other animals of the same family.

The Indians seldom employ fire-arms in hunting the vicuñas. They catch
them by what they term the _chacu_. In this curious hunt, one man at
least belonging to each family in the Puna villages takes a part, and
women accompany the train, to officiate as cooks to the hunters. The
whole company, frequently amounting to seventy or eighty individuals,
proceeds to the Altos (the most secluded parts of the Puna), which are
the haunts of the vicuñas. They take with them stakes, and a great
quantity of rope and cord. A spacious open plain is selected, and the
stakes are driven into the ground in a circle, at intervals of from
twelve to fifteen feet apart, and are connected together by ropes
fastened to them at the height of two or two and a half feet from the
ground. The circular space within the stakes is about half a league in
circumference, and an opening of about two hundred paces in width is
left for entrance. On the ropes by which the stakes are fastened
together the women hang pieces of colored rags, which flutter about in
the wind. The chacu being fully prepared, the men, some of whom are
mounted on horseback, range about within a circuit of several miles,
driving before them all the herds of vicuñas they meet with, and forcing
them into the chacu. When a sufficient number of vicuñas is collected,
the entrance is closed. The timid animals do not attempt to leap over
the ropes, being frightened by the fluttering rags suspended from them,
and, when thus secured, the Indians easily kill them by the _bolas_.
These bolas consist of three balls, composed either of lead or stone;
two of them heavy, and the third rather lighter. They are fastened to
long, elastic strings, made of twisted sinews of the vicuña, and the
opposite ends of the strings are all tied together. The Indian holds the
lightest of the three balls in his hand, and swings the two others in a
wide circle above his head; then, taking his aim at the distance of
about fifteen or twenty paces, he lets go the hand-ball, upon which all
the three balls whirl in a circle, and twine round the object aimed at.
The aim is usually taken at the hind legs of the animals, and the cords
twisting round them, they become firmly bound. It requires great skill
and long practice to throw the bolas dexterously, especially when on
horseback: a novice in the art incurs the risk of dangerously hurting
either himself or his horse, by not giving the balls the proper swing,
or by letting go the hand-ball too soon.

The vicuñas, after being secured by the bolas, are killed, and the flesh
is distributed in equal portions among the hunters. The skins belong to
the Church. The price of a vicuña skin is four reals. When all the
animals are killed, the stakes, ropes, &c., are packed up carefully, and
conveyed to another spot, some miles distant, where the chacu is again
fixed up. The hunting is continued in this manner for the space of a
week. The number of animals killed during that interval varies according
to circumstances, being sometimes fifty or sixty, and at other times
several hundred. During five days I took part in a chacu hunt in the
Altos of Huayhuay, and in that space of time 122 vicuñas were caught.
With the money obtained by the sale of the skins a new altar was erected
in the church of the district. The flesh of the vicuña is more tender
and better flavored than that of the llama. Fine cloth and hats are made
of the wool. When taken young, the vicuñas are easily tamed, and become
very docile; but when old, they are intractable and malicious. At Tarma
I possessed a large and very fine vicuña. It used to follow me like a
dog whenever I went out, whether on foot or on horseback.

The frequent hunting seems not to have the effect of diminishing the
numbers of these animals. If in the vicinity of the villages where
chacus are frequently established, they are less numerous than in
other parts, it is because, to elude the pursuit of the hunters, they
seek refuge in the Altos, where they are found in vast numbers.
Several modern travellers have lamented the diminution of the vicuñas,
but without reason. In former times those animals were hunted more
actively than at present.

Under the dynasty of the Incas, when every useful plant and animal was
an object of veneration, the Peruvians rendered almost divine worship
to the llama and his relatives, which exclusively furnished them with
wool for clothing, and with flesh for food. The temples were adorned
with large figures of these animals made of gold and silver, and their
forms were represented in domestic utensils made of stone and clay.
In the valuable collection of Baron Clemens von Hügel at Vienna, there
are four of these vessels, composed of porphyry, basalt, and granite,
representing the four species, viz., the llama, the alpaco, the
huanacu, and the vicuña. These antiquities are exceedingly scarce, and
when I was in Peru I was unable to obtain any of them. How the ancient
Peruvians, without the aid of iron tools, were able to carve stone so
beautifully, is inconceivable.

Besides the animals above mentioned, several others peculiar to the Puna
are deserving of remark. Among these are the Tarush (_Cervus
antisiensis_, Orb.); the timid roe, which inhabits the high forests
skirting the Andes; the Viscacha (_Lagidium peruanum_, May, and _L.
pallipes_, Benn.), and the Chinchilla (_Eriomys Chinchilla_, Licht.),
whose skin supplies the beautiful fur so much prized by the ladies of
Europe. The viscachas and chinchillas resemble the rabbit in form and
color, but they have shorter ears and long rough tails. They live on the
steep rocky mountains, and in the morning and evening they creep out
from their holes and crevices to nibble the alpine grasses. At night the
Indians set before their holes traps made of horse-hair, in which the
animals are easily caught. The most remarkable of the beasts of prey in
these high regions is the Atoc (_Canis Azaræ_, Pr. Max.). It is a
species of fox, which is found throughout the whole of South America.
The warmer Puna valleys are inhabited by the Cuguar (_Felis concolor_,
L.), or, as the Indians call it, the Poma. When driven by hunger, this
animal ventures into the loftiest Puna regions, even to the boundary of
the eternal snow. The wild Hucumari (_Ursus ornatus_, Fr. Cuv.) but
seldom wanders into the cold Puna. The hucumari is a large black bear,
with a white muzzle and light-colored stripes on the breast.

Of the numerous Puna birds, the majority of which may be classed as
water-fowl, I will notice only a few of the most characteristic. Next
to the condor, the most remarkable bird of prey is the Huarahuau, or
the Aloi (_Polylorus megalopterus_, Cob.),[68] one of the gyr-falcon
species. This bird, which is a constant inhabitant of the level
heights, preys on the carcases of dead horses, mules, &c., but never
attempts to meddle with living animals. It is very harmless, and has
so little timidity, that it suffers itself to be approached near
enough to be knocked down with a stick. The Acacli, or Pito (_Colaptes
rupicola_, Orb.), flutters about the mountains; it is a woodpecker,
brown-speckled, with a yellow belly. This bird is seen in very great
numbers, and it is difficult to imagine how it procures food in the
Puna, where there are no insects. All the other woodpecker species
exclusively confine themselves to woody regions.

The thickets of rushy grass are inhabited by the Pishacas, or Yutu, a
species of partridge (_Tinamotis Pentlandii_, Vig.) which the Indians
catch by dogs. These dogs of the Puna Indians are a peculiar race
(_Canis Ingæ_, Tsch.). They are distinguished by a small head, a
pointed muzzle, small erect ears, a tail curling upwards, and a thick
shaggy skin. They are in a half-wild state, and very surly and
snappish. They furiously attack strangers, and even after having
received a deadly wound they will crawl along the ground, and make an
effort to bite. To white people they appear to have a particular
antipathy; and sometimes it becomes rather a venturous undertaking for
a European traveller to approach an Indian hut, for these mountain
dogs spring up to the sides of the horse, and try to bite the rider's
legs. They are snarlish and intractable even to their masters, who are
often obliged to enforce obedience by the help of a stick. Yet these
dogs are very useful animals for guarding flocks, and they have a keen
scent for the pishacas, which they catch and kill with a single bite.

There is a very curious little bird in the Puna, about the size of a
starling. Its plumage is exceedingly pretty, being on the back brown,
striped with black; on the throat grey, with two dark stripes, and on
the breast white. This bird has the remarkable peculiarity of making a
monotonous sound at the close of every hour, during the night. The
Indians call it the Ingahuallpa, or Cock of the Inga (_Thinocorus
Ingæ_, Tsch.), and they associate many superstitious notions with its
regular hourly cry. The Puna morasses and lagunas are animated by
numerous feathered inhabitants. Among them is the huachua (_Chloephaga
melanoptera_, Eyt.), a species of goose. The plumage of the body is
dazzlingly white, the wings green, shading into brilliant violet, and
the feet and beak of a bright red. The Licli (_Charadrius resplendens_,
Tsch.) is a plover, whose plumage in color is like that of the huachua,
but with a sort of metallic brightness. There are two species of ibis
which belong to the Puna, though they are occasionally seen in some of
the lower valleys. One is the Bandurria (_Theristocus melanopis_,
Wagl.), and the other is the Yanahuico (_Ibis Ordi_, Bonap.). On the
lagunas swim large flocks of Quiullas (_Larus serranus_, Tsch.), white
mews, with black heads and red beaks, and the gigantic water-hen
(_Fulica gigantea_, Soul.). The plumage of the latter is dark-grey, and
at the root of the red beak there is a large yellow botch, in the form
of a bean, whence the Indians give this bird the name of _Anash sinqui_,
or bean nose. Among the few amphibia found in these regions one is
particularly remarkable. It is a small kind of toad (_Leiuperus
viridis_, Tsch.), and inhabits the boundaries of the perpetual snow.

The grasses of the Puna are used as fodder, and in many of the sheltered
valleys there are farms (_Haciendas de Ganado_), where large herds of
cattle are reared. The owners of some of these farms possess several
thousand sheep, and from four to five hundred cows. During the rainy
season the cattle are driven into the Altos. They graze in those high
regions, often at the altitude of 15,000 feet above the sea. When the
frost sets in they are brought down to the marshy valleys, and they
suffer much from insufficiency of pasture. From the wool of the sheep a
coarse kind of cloth, called Bayeta, is made in the Sierra. Some of this
wool is exported, and is much prized in Europe. The old black cattle and
sheep are slaughtered, and their flesh, when dried, is the principal
food of the inhabitants of the Puna, particularly of the mining
population. The dried beef is called _Charqui_, and the mutton is called
_Chalona_. The bulls graze in the remote Altos, and most of them are
reserved for the bull fights in the Sierra villages. As they seldom see
a human being they become exceedingly wild; so much so that the herdsmen
are often afraid to approach them. In the daytime they roam about marshy
places, and at nightfall they retire for shelter beneath some
overhanging rock. These animals render travelling in many parts of the
Puna extremely dangerous, for they often attack people so suddenly as to
afford no time for defence. It is true they usually announce their
approach by a deep bellow; but the open plain seldom presents any
opportunity for escape. On several occasions a well-aimed shot alone
saved me from the attack of one of these ferocious bulls.

The walls of the haciendas are of rough unhewn stone. They are divided
into large square rooms, always damp, cold, and uninhabitable. Beneath
the straw roofs there usually hang long rows of the stuffed skins of
foxes; for every Indian who kills an old fox receives, by way of
reward, a sheep, and for a young one a lamb. The Cholos are therefore
zealous fox-hunters, and they may possibly succeed in altogether
extirpating that animal which in some districts is so numerous as to
be a perfect scourge.

As the sheep, even in the dry season, find pasture more easily than the
horned cattle, they are left during the whole year in the higher parts
of the Puna, under the care of Indian shepherds. At night they are
driven into _cerales_, large square roofless buildings, and are guarded
by dogs. The shepherds make a practice of every year burning the dry
grass of the Puna, in order to improve the growth of the fodder. A Puna
fire does not, however, present the imposing spectacle of the prairie
fires, as described by travellers in North America, possibly because the
Puna straw is shorter, and is always somewhat damp.

The dwellings of the shepherds are built in the same rude style which
characterizes all the huts in the Puna, and they impress the European
traveller with a very unfavorable notion of the intelligence of the
people. The architecture of these huts consists in laying down some
large stones, in a circle of about eight or ten feet in diameter, by
way of a foundation. These stones are covered with earth or turf, and
then with successive layers of stones and earth, until the wall
attains the height of about four feet: at the point most sheltered
from the wind, an opening of a foot and a half or two feet high serves
as a door. On this low circular wall rests the roof, which is formed
in the following manner. Six or eight magay[69] poles are fastened
together, so as to form a point at the top. Over these poles thin
laths are laid horizontally, and fastened with straw-bands, and the
whole conical-formed frame-work is overlaid with a covering of Puna
straw. As a security against the wind, two thick straw-bands are
crossed over the point of the roof, and at their ends, which hang down
to the ground, heavy stones are fastened. The whole fabric is then
completed. The hut at its central point is about eight feet high; but
at the sides, no more than three and a half or four feet. The entrance
is so low, that one is obliged to creep in almost bent double; and
before the aperture hangs a cow-hide, by way of a door.

Internally these huts present miserable pictures of poverty and
uncleanliness. Two stones serve as a stove, containing a scanty fire fed
by dry dung (_buñegas_), and turf (_champo_). An earthen pot for cooking
soup, another for roasting maize, two or three gourd-shells for plates,
and a porongo for containing water, make up the catalogue of the goods
and chattels in a Puna hut. On dirty sheep-skins spread on the ground,
sit the Indian and his wife, listlessly munching their coca; whilst the
naked children roll about paddling in pools of water formed by continual
drippings from the roof. The other inhabitants of the hut are usually
three or four hungry dogs, some lambs, and swarms of guinea-pigs.

From all this it will readily be imagined that a Puna hut is no very
agreeable or inviting retreat. Yet, when worn out by the dangers and
fatigues of a long day's journey, and exposed to the fury of a
mountain storm, the weary traveller, heedless of suffocating clouds of
smoke and mephitic odors, gladly creeps into the rude dwelling. Taking
up his resting-place on the damp floor, with his saddle-cloth for a
pillow, he is thankful to find himself once again in a human
habitation, even though its occupants be not many degrees elevated
above the brute creation.

In the Puna there are many remains of the great high road of the Incas,
which led from Cuzco to Quito, stretching through the whole extent of
Peru. It was the grandest work that America possessed before European
civilisation found its way to that quarter of the world. Even those who
are unacquainted with the wise dominion of the ancient Peruvian
sovereigns, their comprehensive laws, and the high civilisation they
diffused over the whole country, must by this gigantic work be impressed
with the highest idea of the cultivation of the age; for
well-constructed roads may always be regarded as proofs of a nation's
advancement. There is not in Peru at the present time any modern road
in the most remote degree comparable to the Incas' highway. The best
preserved fragments which came under my observation were in the
Altos, between Jauja and Tarma. Judging from these portions, it would
appear that the road must have been from twenty-five to thirty feet
broad, and that it was paved with large flat stones. At intervals of
about twelve paces distant one from another there is a row of smaller
stones, laid horizontally and a little elevated, so that the road
ascended, as it were, by a succession of terraces. It was edged on
each side by a low wall of small stones.

Other remains of ancient Peru, frequently met with in these parts, are
small buildings, formerly used as stations for the messengers who
promulgated the commands of the Incas through all parts of the country.
Some of these buildings are still in a tolerably good state of
preservation. They were always erected on little hillocks, and at such
distances apart, that from each station the nearest one on either side
was discernible. When a messenger was despatched from a station a signal
was hoisted, and a messenger from the next successive station met him
halfway, and received from him the despatch, which was in this manner
forwarded from one station to another till it reached its destination. A
constant communication was thus kept up between the capital and the most
distant parts of the country. A proof of the extraordinary rapidity with
which these communications were carried on is the fact, recorded on
unquestionable authority, that the royal table in Cuzco was served with
fresh fish, caught in the sea near the Temple of the Sun in Lurin, a
distance of more than 200 leagues from Cuzco.

The messenger stations have by some travellers been confounded with
the forts, of which remains are met with along the great Inca road. The
forts were buildings destined for totally different purposes. They were
magazines for grain, and were built by the Incas to secure to their
armies in these barren regions the requisite supplies of food. Vestiges
of these forts are frequently seen in the Altos of Southern and Central
Peru. They are broad round towers, usually built against a rocky
declivity, and with numerous long apertures for the admission of air.

Even the broad level heights in which no trace of human habitations is
discoverable, have been excavated by the mercenary Peruvian mestizos and
creoles in search of hidden treasures. Their faith in the existence of
concealed riches is founded on the following tradition. When the last
reigning Inca, Atabiliba or Atahuallpa, was made prisoner by Don
Francisco Pizarro, in Caxamarca, he proposed to ransom himself from the
Spanish commander. The price he offered for his liberty was to fill with
gold the cell in which he was confined, to the height of a certain line
on the wall, which Pizarro marked with his sword. The cell, it may be
mentioned, was twenty-two feet long and seventeen broad. A quantity of
gold which the Inca ordered to be collected in Caxamarca and its
vicinity, when piled up on the floor of the cell, did not reach above
halfway to the given mark. The Inca then despatched messengers to Cuzco
to obtain from the royal treasury the gold required to make up the
deficiency; and accordingly eleven thousand llamas were despatched from
Cuzco to Caxamarca, each laden with one hundred pounds of gold. But ere
the treasure reached its destination, Atahuallpa was hanged by the
advice of Don Diego de Almangra and the Dominican monk Vicente de
Valverde. The terror-stirring news flew like wild-fire through the land,
and speedily reached the convoy of Indians, who were driving their
richly-laden llamas over the level heights into Central Peru. On the
spot where the intelligence of Atahuallpa's death was communicated to
them, the dismayed Indians concealed the treasure, and then dispersed.

Whether the number of the llamas was really so considerable as it is
stated to have been, may fairly be doubted; but that a vast quantity
of gold was on its way to Caxamarca, and was concealed, is a
well-authenticated fact. That the Indians should never have made any
attempt to recover this treasure is quite consistent with their
character. It is not improbable that even now some particular
individuals among them may know the place of concealment; but a
certain feeling of awe transmitted through several centuries from
father to son, has, in their minds, associated the hidden treasure
with the blood of their last king, and this feeling doubtless prompts
them to keep the secret inviolate.

From traditionary accounts, which bear the appearance of probability,
it would appear that the gold was buried somewhere in the Altos of Mito,
near the valley of Jauja. Searches have frequently been made in that
vicinity, but no clue to the hiding-place has yet been discovered.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 65: Some derive the word Andes from the people called Antis,
who dwelt at the foot of these chains of mountains. A province in the
department of Cuzco, which was probably the chief settlement of that
nation, still bears the name of Antas.]

[Footnote 66: From the most remote times the Ratanhia has been employed
by the Indians as a medicine. It is one of their favorite remedies
against spitting of blood and dysentery. Most of the Ratanhia exported
to Europe is obtained in the southern provinces of Peru, particularly in
Arica and Islay. The extract which is prepared in Peru, and which was
formerly sent in large quantities to Europe, is now scarcely an object
of traffic. For several years past no Ratanhia has been shipped from
Callao, and but very little from Truxillo.]

[Footnote 67: More lengthened information respecting them may be found in
the "Fauna Peruana." I have there noted all their specific varieties,
and have corrected the erroneous accounts given of them by some previous
travellers.]

[Footnote 68: _Phalcoboenus montanus_, Orb.]

[Footnote 69: The Magay is the stem of the American Agave. It has a sort
of spungy sap; but it is covered externally with a strong tough bast.
The Magay supplies the inhabitants of Upper Peru with an excellent kind
of light and strong building wood.]

CHAPTER XII.

Cerro de Pasco--First discovery of the Mines--Careless mode of working
them--Mine Owners and Mine Laborers--Amalgamating and
Refining--Produce of the Mines--Life in Cerro de Pasco--Different
Classes of the Population--Gaming and Drunkenness--Extravagance and
Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers--The Cerro de San
Fernando--Other Important Mining Districts in Peru--The Salcedo
Mine--Castrovireyna--Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of
Peru--Rich Mines secretly known to the Indians--Roads leading from
Cerro de Pasco--The Laguna of Chinchaycocha--Battle of Junin--Indian
Robbers--A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds.

Having traversed the long and difficult route from the capital of Peru,
by way of the wild Cordillera to the level heights of Bombon, and from
thence having ascended the steep winding acclivities of the mountain
chain of Olachin, the traveller suddenly beholds in the distance a large
and populous city. This is the celebrated Cerro de Pasco, famed
throughout the world for its rich silver mines. It is situated in 10°
48' S. latitude and 76° 23' W. longitude, and at the height of 13,673
feet above the sea level. It is built in a basin-shaped hollow,
encircled by barren and precipitous rocks. Between these rocks difficult
winding roads or paths lead down to the city, which spreads out in
irregular divisions, surrounded on all sides by little lagunes, or
swamps. The pleasing impression created by the first view of Cerro de
Pasco from the heights is very greatly modified on entering the town.
Crooked, narrow, and dirty streets are bordered by rows of
irregularly-built houses; and miserable Indian huts abut close against
well-built dwellings, whose size and structure give a certain European
character to the city when viewed from a distance. Without bestowing a
glance on the busy throng which circulates through the streets and
squares, the varied styles of the buildings sufficiently indicate to the
observer how many different classes of people have united together to
found, in the tropics, and on the very confines of the perpetual snow, a
city of such magnitude, and of so motley an aspect. The wild barrenness
of the surrounding scenery, and the extreme cold of the rigorous
climate--the remote and solitary position of the city--all denote that
one common bond of union must have drawn together the diversified
elements which compose the population of Cerro de Pasco. And so it
really is. In this inhospitable region, where the surface of the soil
produces nothing, nature has buried boundless stores of wealth in the
bowels of the earth, and the silver mines of Cerro de Pasco have drawn
people from all parts of the world to one point, and for one object.

History relates that about two hundred and fifteen years ago an Indian
shepherd, named Huari Capcha, tended his flocks on a small pampa to the
south-east of the Lake of Llauricocha, the mother of the great river
Amazon. One day, when the shepherd had wandered farther than usual from
his hut, he sought a resting-place on a declivity of the Cerro de
Santiestevan, and when evening drew in he kindled a fire to protect
himself against the cold; he then lay down to sleep. When he awoke on
the following morning, he was amazed to find the stone beneath the ashes
of his fire melted and turned to silver. He joyfully communicated the
discovery to his master, Don Jose Ugarte, a Spaniard, who owned a
hacienda in the Quebrada de Huariaca. Ugarte forthwith repaired to the
spot, where he found indications of a very rich vein of silver ore,
which he immediately made active preparations for working. In this mine,
which is distinguished by the name of _La Descubridora_ (the
discoverer), silver is still obtained. From the village of Pasco, about
two leagues distant, where already productive mines were worked, several
rich mine owners removed to Llauricocha; here they sought and discovered
new veins, and established new mining works. The vast abundance of the
ore drew new speculators to the spot; some to work the mines, and others
to supply the necessary wants of the increasing population. In this
manner was rapidly founded a city, which, at times when the produce of
metal is very considerable, counts 18,000 inhabitants.

In Cerro de Pasco there are two very remarkable veins of silver. One of
them, the Veta de Colquirirca, runs nearly in a straight line from north
to south, and has already been traced to the length of 9,600 feet, and
the breadth of 412; the other vein is the Veta de Pariarirca, which
takes a direction from east-south-east to west-north-west, and which
intersects the Veta de Colquirirca precisely, it is supposed, under the
market-place of the city. Its known extent is 6,400 feet in length, and
380 feet in breadth. From these large veins numberless smaller ones
branch off in various directions, so that a net-work of silver may be
supposed to spread beneath the surface of the earth. Some thousand
openings or mouths (_bocaminas_) are the entrances to these mines. Most
of these entrances are within the city itself, in small houses; and some
are in the dwellings of the mine-owners. Many of them are exceedingly
shallow, and not more than five hundred deserve the name of shafts. All
are worked in a very disorderly and careless way; the grand object of
their owners being to avoid expense. The dangerous parts in the shafts
are never walled up, and the excavations proceed without the adoption
of any measures of security. The consequence is, that accidents caused
by the falling in of the galleries are of frequent occurrence; and
every year the lives of numbers of the Indian miners are sacrificed. A
melancholy example of the effects of this negligence is presented by
the now ruined mine of Matagente (literally _Kill People_), in which
three hundred laborers were killed by the falling in of a shaft. I
descended into several of the mines, among others into the
_Descubridora_, which is one of the deepest, and I always felt that I
had good reason to congratulate myself on returning to the surface of
the earth in safety. Rotten blocks of wood and loose stones serve for
steps, and, where these cannot be placed, the shaft, which in most
instances runs nearly perpendicular, is descended by the help of rusty
chains and ropes, whilst loose fragments of rubbish are continually
falling from the damp walls.

The mine laborers, all of whom are Indians, are of two classes. One
class consists of those who work in the mines all the year round without
intermission, and who receive regular wages from the mine owners;--the
other class consists of those who make only temporary visits to Cerro de
Pasco, when they are attracted thither by the _boyas_.[70] This latter
class of laborers are called _maquipuros_. Most of them come from the
distant provinces, and they return to their homes when the boya is at an
end. The mine laborers are also subdivided into two classes, the one
called _barreteros_, whose employment consists in breaking the ore; and
the other called _hapires_, or _chaquiris_, who bring up the ore from
the shaft. The work allotted to the hapires is exceedingly laborious.
Each load consists of from fifty to seventy-five pounds of metal, which
is carried in a very irksome and inconvenient manner in an untanned
hide, called a capacho. The hapire performs his toilsome duty in a state
of nudity, for, notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, he becomes
so heated by his laborious exertion, that he is glad to divest himself
of his clothing. As the work is carried on incessantly day and night,
the miners are divided into parties called _puntas_, each party working
for twelve successive hours. At six o'clock morning and evening the
_puntas_ are relieved. Each one is under the inspection of a mayor-domo.
When a mine yields a scanty supply of metal, the laborers are paid in
money; the barreteros receiving six reals per day, and the hapires only
four. During the _boyas_ the laborers receive instead of their wages in
money, a share of the ore. The Indians often try to appropriate to
themselves surreptitiously pieces of ore; but to do this requires great
cunning and dexterity, so narrowly are they watched by the mayor-domos.
Nevertheless, they sometimes succeed. One of the hapires related to me
how he had contrived to carry off a most valuable piece of silver. He
fastened it on his back, and then wrapping himself in his poncho, he
pretended to be so ill, that he obtained permission to quit the mine.
Two of his confederates who helped him out, assisted him in concealing
the treasure. The _polvorilla_, a dark powdery kind of ore, very full of
silver, used to be abstracted from the mines by the following stratagem.
The workmen would strip off their clothes, and having moistened the
whole of their bodies with water, would roll themselves in the
_polvorilla_ which stuck to them. On their return home they washed off
the silver-dust and sold it for several dollars. But this trick being
detected, a stop was soon put to it, for, before leaving the mines, the
laborers are now required to strip in order to be searched.

The operation of separating the silver from the dross is performed at
some distance from Cerro de Pasco, in haciendas, belonging to the great
mine owners. The process is executed in a very clumsy, imperfect, and at
the same time, a very expensive manner. The amalgamation of the
quicksilver with the metal is effected by the tramping of horses. The
animals employed in this way are a small ill-looking race, brought from
Ayacucho and Cuzco, where they are found in numerous herds. The
quicksilver speedily has a fatal effect on their hoofs, and after a few
years the animals become unfit for work. The separation of the metals is
managed with as little judgment as the amalgamation, and the waste of
quicksilver is enormous. It is computed that on each mark of silver,
half a pound of quicksilver is expended. The quicksilver, with the
exception of some little brought from Idria and Huancavelica, comes from
Spain in iron jars, each containing about seventy-five pounds weight of
the metal. In Lima the price of these jars is from sixty to 100 dollars
each, but they are occasionally sold as high as 135 or 140 dollars.
Considering the vast losses which the Peruvian mine owners sustain by
the waste of quicksilver and the defective mode of refining, it may
fairly be inferred, that their profits are about one-third less than
they would be under a better system of management.

In Cerro de Pasco there are places called _boliches_, in which the
silver is separated from the dross by the same process as that practised
in the _haciendas_, only on a smaller scale. In the _boliches_ the
amalgamation is performed, not by horses but by Indians, who mix the
quicksilver with the ore by stamping on it with their feet for several
hours in succession. This occupation they usually perform barefooted,
and the consequence is, that paralysis and other diseases caused by the
action of mercury, are very frequent among the persons thus employed.
The owners of the _boliches_, who are mostly Italians, are not mine
proprietors. They obtain the metal from the Indians, who give them their
_huachacas_[71] in exchange for brandy and other articles. On the other
hand, the owners of the _boliches_ obtain the money required for their
speculations from capitalists, who make them pay an enormous interest.
Nevertheless, many amass considerable fortunes in the course of a few
years; for they scruple not to take the most unjust advantage of the
Indians, whose laborious toil is rewarded by little gain.

The law requires that all the silver drawn from the mines of Cerro de
Pasco shall be conveyed to a government smelting-house, called the
_Callana_, there to be cast into bars of one hundred pounds weight, to
be stamped, and charged with certain imposts. The value of silver in
Cerro de Pasco varies from seven to eight dollars per mark. The standard
value in Lima is eight dollars and a half.

It is impossible to form anything like an accurate estimate of the
yearly produce of the mines of Cerro de Pasco; for a vast quantity of
silver is never taken to the Callana, but is smuggled to the coast,
and from thence shipped for Europe. In the year 1838, no less than
85,000 marks of contraband silver were conveyed to the sea port of
Huacho, and safely shipped on board a schooner. The quantity of silver
annually smelted and stamped in the Callana is from two to three
hundred thousand marks--seldom exceeding the latter amount. From 1784
to 1820, 1826, and 1827, the amount was 8,051,409 marks; in the year
1784 it was 68,208 marks; and in 1785, 73,455 marks. During seventeen
years it was under 200,000 marks; and only during three years above
300,000. The produce of the mines is exceedingly fluctuating. The
successive revolutions which have agitated the country have tended
very considerably to check mining operations. On the overthrow of
Santa Cruz, Don Miguel Otero, the most active and intelligent mine
owner of Cerro de Pasco, was banished; an event which had a very
depressing influence on all the mining transactions of that part of
South America. Within the last few years, however, mining has
received a new impetus, and attention has been directed to the
adoption of a more speedy and less expensive system of amalgamation.

As a place of residence Cerro de Pasco is exceedingly disagreeable;
nothing but the pursuit of wealth can reconcile any one to a long
abode in it. The climate, like that of the higher Puna, is cold and
stormy. The better sort of houses are well built, and are provided
with good English fire-places and chimneys. But however comfortably
lodged, the new comer cannot easily reconcile himself to the
reflection that the earth is hollow beneath his feet. Still less
agreeable is it to be awakened in the night by the incessant hammering
of the Indian miners. Luckily earthquakes are of rare occurrence in
those parts: it would require no very violent shock to bury the whole
city in the bosom of the earth.

Silver being the only produce of the soil, the necessaries of life are
all exceedingly dear in the Cerro, as they have to be brought from
distant places. The warehouses are, it is true, always plentifully
supplied even with the choicest luxuries; but the extortion of venders
and the abundance of money render prices most exorbitant. The market
is so well supplied with provisions that it may vie with that of Lima.
The products of the coast, of the table-lands and the forests, are all
to be procured in the market of Cerro de Pasco; but the price demanded
for every article is invariably more than double its worth. House
rents are also extravagantly high; and the keep of horses is
exceedingly expensive.

The population of Cerro de Pasco presents a motley assemblage of human
beings, such as one would scarcely expect to find in a city situated
at 14,000 feet above the sea, and encircled by wild mountains. The Old
and the New Worlds seem there to have joined hands, and there is
scarcely any nation of Europe or America that has not its
representative in Cerro de Pusco. The Swede and the Sicilian, the
Canadian and the Argentinian, are all united here at one point, and
for one object. The inhabitants of this city may be ranked in two
divisions, viz., traders and miners--taking both terms in their most
comprehensive sense. The mercantile population consists chiefly of
Europeans or white Creoles, particularly those who are owners of large
magazines. The keepers of coffee houses and brandy shops are here, as
in Lima, chiefly Italians from Genoa. Other shops are kept by the
Mestizos, and the provision-dealers are chiefly Indians, who bring
their supplies from remote places.

The mining population may be divided into mine owners (_mineros_) and
Indian laborers. The majority of the mineros are descendants of the old
Spanish families, who, at an early period, became possessors of the
mines, whence they derived enormous wealth, which most of them
dissipated in prodigal extravagance. At the present time, only a very
few of the mineros are rich enough to defray, from their own resources,
the vast expense attending the operations of mining. They consequently
raise the required money by loans from the capitalists of Lima, who
require interest of 100 or 120 per cent., and, moreover, insist on
having bars of silver at a price below standard value. To these hard
conditions, together with the custom that has been forced upon the
miners of paying their laborers in metal, at times when it is very
abundant, may be traced the cause of the miserable system of
mine-working practised in Cerro de Pasco. To liquidate his burthensome
debts the minero makes his laborers dig as much ore as possible from the
mine, without any precautions being taken to guard against accidents.
The money-lenders, on the other hand, have no other security for the
recovery of their re-payment than the promise of the minero, and a
failure of the usual produce of a mine exposes them to the risk of
losing the money they have advanced.

Under these circumstances it can scarcely be expected that the character
and habits of the minero should qualify him to take a high rank in the
social scale. His insatiable thirst for wealth continually prompts him
to embark in new enterprises, whereby he frequently loses in one what he
gains in another. After a mine has been worked without gain for a series
of years, an unexpected _boya_ probably occurs, and an immense quantity
of silver may be extracted. But a minero retiring on the proceeds of a
boya is an event of rare occurrence. A vain hope of increasing fortune
prompts him to risk the certain for the uncertain: and the result
frequently is, that the once prosperous minero has nothing to bequeath
to his children but a mine heavily burthened with debt. The
persevering ardor of persons engaged in mining is truly remarkable.
Unchecked by disappointment, they pursue the career in which they have
embarked. Even when ruin appears inevitable, the love of money subdues
the warnings of reason, and hope conjures up, from year to year,
visionary pictures of riches yet to come.

Joined to this infatuated pursuit of the career once entered on, an
inordinate passion for cards and dice contributes to ruin many of the
mineros of Cerro de Pasco. In few other places are such vast sums staked
at the gaming-table; for the superabundance of silver feeds that
national vice of the Spaniards and their descendants. From the earliest
hours of morning cards and dice are in requisition. The mine owner
leaves his silver stores, and the shop-keeper forsakes his counter, to
pass a few hours every day at the gaming-table; and card-playing is
the only amusement in the best houses of the town. The mayordomos,
after being engaged in the mines throughout the whole day, assemble
with their comrades in the evening, round the gaming-table, from which
they often do not rise until six in the morning, when the bell summons
them to resume their subterraneous occupations. They not unfrequently
gamble away their share of a boya before any indication of one is
discernible in the mine.

The working class of miners is composed of Indians, who throng to Cerro
de Pasco from all the provinces, far and near, especially when boyas are
expected. At times, when the mines are not very productive, the number
of Indian laborers amounts to between three and four thousand; but when
there is a great supply of metal, the ordinary number of mine-workers is
more than tripled. The Indians labor with a degree of patient industry,
which it would be vain to expect from European workmen similarly
circumstanced. This observation applies to the hapires in particular.
Content with wretched food, and still more wretched lodging, the hapire
goes through his hard day's work, partaking of no refreshment but coca,
and at the end of the week (deduction being made for the food, &c.,
obtained on credit from the minero), he, possibly, finds himself in
possession of a dollar. This sum he spends on his Sunday holiday in
chicha and brandy, of which he takes as much as his money will pay
for, or as he can get on credit. When excited by strong drinks, such
as maize beer, chicha, and brandy, to which they are very much
addicted, the Indian miners are exceedingly quarrelsome. The laborers
belonging to the different mines go about the streets rioting and
attacking each other, and they frequently get involved in dangerous
affrays. No Sunday or Friday passes over without the occurrence of
battles, in which knives, sticks, and stones are used as weapons; and
the actors in these scenes of violence inflict on each other severe
and often fatal wounds. Any effective police interference to quell
these street riots, is out of the question.

When an unusually abundant produce of the mines throws extra payment
into the hands of the mine laborers, they squander their money with the
most absurd extravagance, and they are excellent customers to the
European dealers in dress and other articles of luxury. Prompted by a
ludicrous spirit of imitation, the Indian, in his fits of drunkenness,
will purchase costly things which he can have no possible use for, and
which he becomes weary of, after an hour's possession. I once saw an
Indian purchase a cloak of fine cloth, for which he paid ninety-two
dollars. He then repaired to a neighboring pulperia,[72] where he drank
till he became intoxicated, and then, staggering into the street, he
fell down, and rolled in the kennel. On rising, and discovering that his
cloak was besmeared with mud, he threw it off, and left it in the
street, for any one who might choose to pick it up. Such acts of
reckless prodigality are of daily occurrence. A watchmaker in Cerro de
Pasco informed me that one day an Indian came to his shop to purchase
a gold watch. He showed him one, observing that the price was twelve
gold ounces (204 dollars), and that it would probably be too dear for
him. The Cholo paid the money, and took the watch; then, after having
examined it for a few minutes, he dashed it on the ground, observing
that the thing was of no use to him. When the Indian miner possesses
money, he never thinks of laying by a part of it, as neither he nor
any of his family feel the least ambition to improve their miserable
way of life. With them, drinking is the highest of all gratifications,
and in the enjoyment of the present moment, they lose sight of all
considerations for the future. Even those Cholos who come from distant
parts of the country to share in the rich harvest of the mines of
Cerro de Pasco, return to their homes as poor as when they left them,
and with manners and morals vastly deteriorated.

Besides the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which in point of importance are
nowise inferior to those of Potosi, there are numerous very rich mining
districts in Peru. Among the most prolific may be ranked the provinces
of Pataz, Huamanchuco, Caxamarca, and Hualgayoc. In this last-named
province is situated the Cerro de San Fernando, on which Alexander Von
Humboldt has conferred so much celebrity. The rich silver veins were
discovered there in the year 1771; and there are now upwards of 1400
bocaminas. On the insulated mountain the veins of metal intersect each
other in every direction, and they are alike remarkable for being easily
worked and exceedingly prolific. The mines of Huantaxaya, situated on
the coast in the neighborhood of Iquique, were also very rich, and the
silver obtained from them was either pure or containing a very slight
admixture of foreign substances. They yielded an incredible quantity of
metal, but they were speedily exhausted; and are now totally barren. The
chains of hills in the southern districts of Peru contain a multitude of
very rich mines, of which the most remarkable are those of San Antonio
de Esquilache, Tamayos, Picotani, Cancharani, and Chupicos; but owing to
bad working and defective drainage, many of the veins are in a very
ruinous state, and the metal drawn from them bears no proportion to the
quantity they contain. The Salcedo mine is very celebrated for the vast
abundance of its produce, and the tragical end of its original owner.

Don Jose Salcedo, a poor Spaniard, who dwelt in Puno, was in love with a
young Indian girl, whose mother promised, on condition of his marrying
her daughter, that she would show him a rich silver mine. Salcedo
fulfilled the condition, obtained possession of the mine, and worked it
with the greatest success. The report of his wealth soon roused the envy
of the Count de Lemos, then viceroy of Peru, who sought to possess
himself of the mine. By his generosity and benevolence Salcedo had
become a great favorite with the Indian population, and the viceroy took
advantage of this circumstance to accuse him of high treason, on the
ground that he was exciting the Indians against the Spanish government.
Salcedo was arrested, tried, and condemned to death. Whilst he was in
prison, he begged to be permitted to send to Madrid the documents
relating to his trial, and to appeal to the mercy of the king. He
proposed, if the viceroy would grant his request, that he would pay him
the daily tribute of a bar of silver, from the time when the ship left
the port of Callao with the documents, until the day of her return. When
it is recollected that at that period the voyage from Callao to Spain
occupied from twelve to sixteen months, some idea may be formed of the
enormous wealth of Salcedo and his mine. The viceroy rejected this
proposition, ordered Salcedo to be hanged, and set out for Puno to take
possession of the mine.[73]

But this cruel and unjust proceeding failed in the attainment of its
object. As soon as Salcedo's death-doom was pronounced, his
mother-in-law, accompanied by a number of relations and friends,
repaired to the mine, flooded it with water, destroyed the works, and
closed up the entrance so effectually that it was impossible to trace it
out. They then dispersed; but some of them, who were afterwards
captured, could not be induced, either by promises or tortures, to
reveal the position of the mouth of the mine, which to this day remains
undiscovered. All that is known about it is that it was situated in the
neighborhood of Cerro de Laycacota and Cananchari.

Another extraordinary example of the productiveness of the Peruvian
mines, is found at San Jose, in the department of Huancavelica. The
owner of the mines of San Jose requested the viceroy Castro, whose
friend he was, to become godfather to his first child. The viceroy
consented, but at the time fixed for the christening, some important
affair of state prevented him from quitting the capital, and he sent
the vice-queen to officiate as his proxy. To render honor to his
illustrious guest, the owner of the San Jose mines laid down a triple
row of silver bars along the whole way (and it was no very short
distance), from his house to church. Over this silver pavement the
vice-queen accompanied the infant to the church, where it was
baptized. On her return, her munificent host presented to her the
whole of the silver road, in token of his gratitude for the honor she
had conferred on him. Since that time, the mines and the province in
which they are situated have borne the name of Castrovireyna. In most
of these mines the works have been discontinued. Owing to defective
arrangements, one of the richest of these mines fell in, and 122
workmen were buried in the ruins. Since that catastrophe, the Indians
refuse to enter the mines. Many stories are related of spirits and
apparitions said to haunt the mines of Castrovireyna. I was surprised
to hear these tales, for the imagination of the Indian miners is not
very fertile in the creation of this sort of superstitious terrors.

Notwithstanding the enormous amount of wealth, which the mines of Peru
have already yielded, and still continue to yield, only a very small
portion of the silver veins has been worked. It is a well-known fact,
that the Indians are aware of the existence of many rich mines, the
situation of which they will never disclose to the whites, nor to the
detested mestizos. Heretofore mining has been to them all toil and
little profit, and it has bound them in chains from which they will not
easily emancipate themselves. For centuries past, the knowledge of some
of the richest silver mines has been with inviolable secresy transmitted
from father to son. All endeavors to prevail on them to divulge these
secrets have hitherto been fruitless. In the village of Huancayo, there
lived, a few years ago, two brothers, Don Jose and Don Pedro Yriarte,
two of the most eminent mineros of Peru. Having obtained certain
intelligence that in the neighboring mountains there existed some veins
of pure silver, they sent a young man, their agent, to endeavor to gain
further information on the subject. The agent took up his abode in the
cottage of a shepherd, to whom, however, he gave not the slightest
intimation of the object of his mission. After a little time, an
attachment arose between the young man and the shepherd's daughter, and
the girl promised to disclose to her lover the position of a very rich
mine. On a certain day, when she was going out to tend her sheep, she
told him to follow her at a distance, and to notice the spot where she
would let fall her _manta_; by turning up the earth on that spot, she
assured him he would find the mouth of a mine. The young man did as he
was directed, and after digging for a little time, he discovered a mine
of considerable depth, containing rich ore. Whilst busily engaged in
breaking out the metal, he was joined by the girl's father, who
expressed himself delighted at the discovery, and offered to assist
him. After they had been at work for some hours, the old Indian handed
to his companion a cup of chicha, which the young man thankfully
accepted. But he had no sooner tasted the liquor than he felt ill, and
he soon became convinced that poison had been mixed with the beverage.
He snatched up the bag containing the metal he had collected, mounted
his horse, and with the utmost speed galloped off to Huancayo. There,
he related to Yriarte all that had occurred, described as accurately
as he could the situation of the mine, and died on the following
night. Active measures were immediately set on foot, to trace out the
mine, but without effect. The Indian and all his family had
disappeared, and the mine was never discovered.

In Huancayo there also dwelt a Franciscan monk. He was an inveterate
gamester, and was involved in pecuniary embarrassments. The Indians in
the neighborhood of his dwelling-place were much attached to him, and
frequently sent him presents of poultry, cheese, butter, &c. One day,
after he had been a loser at the gaming-table, he complained bitterly of
his misfortunes to an Indian, who was his particular friend. After some
deliberation, the Indian observed, that possibly he could render him
some assistance; and, accordingly, on the following evening, he brought
him a large bag full of rich silver ore. This present was several times
repeated; but the monk, not satisfied, pressed the Indian to show him
the mine from whence the treasure was drawn. The Indian consented, and
on an appointed night he came, accompanied by two of his comrades, to
the dwelling of the Franciscan. They blindfolded him, and each in turn
carried him on his shoulders to a distance of several leagues, into the
mountain passes. At length they set him down, and the bandage being
removed from his eyes, he discovered that he was in a small and somewhat
shallow shaft, and was surrounded by bright masses of silver. He was
allowed to take as much as he could carry, and when laden with the rich
prize, he was again blindfolded, and conveyed home in the same manner as
he had been brought to the mine. Whilst the Indians were conducting him
home, he hit on the following stratagem. He unfastened his rosary, and
here and there dropped one of the beads, hoping by this means to be
enabled to trace his way back on the following day; but in the course of
a couple of hours his Indian friend again knocked at his door, and
presenting to him a handful of beads, said, "Father, you dropped your
rosary on the way, and I have picked it up."

When I was in Jauja, in the year 1841, an Indian whom I had previously
known, from his having accompanied me on one of my journeys in the
Sierra, came to me and asked me to lend him a crow-bar. I did so, and
after a few days, when he returned it, I observed that the end was
covered with silver. Some time afterwards I learned that this Indian had
been imprisoned by order of the sub-prefect, because he had offered for
sale some very rich silver ore, and on being questioned as to where he
had obtained it, his answer was that he found it on the road; a tale,
the truth of which was very naturally doubted. The following year, when
I was again in Jauja, the Indian paid me another visit. He then informed
me that he had been for several months confined in a dark dungeon and
half-starved, because the sub-prefect wanted to compel him to reveal the
situation of a mine which he knew of, but that he would not disclose the
secret, and adhered firmly to the statement he had made of having found
the ore. After a little further conversation, he became more
communicative than I had any reason to expect, though he was fully
convinced I would not betray him. He confessed to me that he actually
knew of a large vein containing valuable silver, of which he showed me a
specimen. He further told me that it was only when he was much in want
of money that he had recourse to the mine, of which the shaft was not
very deep; and, moreover, that after closing it up, he always carried
the loose rubbish away to a distance of some miles, and then covered
the opening so carefully with turf and cactus, that it was impossible
for any one to discern it. This Indian dwelt in a miserable hut, about
three leagues from Jauja, and his occupation was making wooden stirrups,
which employment scarcely enabled him to earn a scanty subsistence. He
assured me it was only when he was called upon to pay contributions,
which the government exacts with merciless rigor, that he had recourse
to the mine. He then extracted about half an aroba of ore, and sold it
in Jauja, in order to pay the tax levied on him.

I could quote many well-authenticated instances of the same kind; but
the above examples sufficiently prove the reluctance of the Indians to
disclose the secret of their hidden treasures, and their indifference
about obtaining wealth for themselves. It is true that the Indians are
not, in all parts of the country, so resolutely reserved as they are in
Huancayo and Jauja, for all the most important mines have been made
known to the Spaniards by the natives. But the Peruvian Indians are
composed of many different races, and though all were united by the
Incas into one nation, yet they still differ from each other in manners
and character. The sentiment of hatred towards the whites and their
descendants has not been kept up in an equal degree among them all. In
proportion as some are friendly and social with the Creoles, others
are reserved and distrustful. In general, the Indians regard with
unfriendly feelings those whites who seek to trace out new mines; for
they cherish a bitter recollection of the fate of Huari Capcha, the
discoverer of the mines of Cerro de Pasco, who, it is said, was thrown
into a dungeon by the Spaniard, Ugarte, and ended his days in
captivity. I have not met with any proofs of the authenticity of this
story, but I frequently heard it related by the Indians, who referred
to it as their justification for withholding from the whites any
directions for finding mines.

But to return to Cerro de Pasco. That city has, by its wealth, become
one of the most important in the Peruvian Republic; and under improved
legislation, and a judicious mining system, it might be rendered still
more prosperous and fully deserving of its title of "Treasury of
Peru." Though from its situation Cerro de Pasco is cut off from the
principal lines of communication with other parts of Peru, yet the
city is itself the central point of four roads, on which there is
considerable traffic. Westward runs the road to Lima, through the
Quebrada of Canta, by which all the silver that is not contraband is
transported to the capital. The silver, when melted into bars, is
consigned to the care of the mule-drivers, merely on their giving a
receipt for it; and in this manner they are sometimes entrusted with
loads of the value of several hundred thousand dollars, which they
convey to Lima unattended by any guards or escort. There is, however,
no danger of their being plundered; for the robbers do not take the
stamped bars of silver. The silver specie, on the other hand, which is
sent from Lima, is escorted by a military guard as far as Llanga or
Santa Rosa de Quibe. The escort is not, however, very adequate to
resist the highway robbers, consisting of numerous bands of armed
negroes. On the east is the road running through the Quebrada de
Huarriaca to the town of Huanuco and the Huallaga Forests. The road on
the north of Cerro de Pasco leads to the village of Huanuco el Viejo,
one of the most remarkable places of Peru, being full of interesting
ruins of the time of the Incas. From Huanuco the road leads to Huaraz,
and from thence to the north coast. The south road passes over the
level heights to Tarma, Jauja, and the other southern provinces.

From the village of Pasco two roads diverge, the one leading to Lima,
the other to Tarma. The former crosses the Pampa of Bombon and the
Diezmo, and continues onward to the Pass of La Viuda. The latter leads
by way of the Tambo Ninacaca, and the village of Carhuamayo[74] to
Junin, passing near a very large lake, situated at the height of 13,000
feet above the sea. This lake is the Laguna de Chinchaycocha,[75] which
is twelve leagues long, and at its utmost breadth measures two leagues
and a half. It is the largest of the South American lakes, next to the
Laguna de Titicaca, which is eighty-four English miles long and
forty-one broad. As the lake of Chinchaycocha loses by various outlets
much more water than it receives from its tributary sources, it is
evident that it must be fed by subterraneous springs. Its marshy banks
are overgrown by totora (_Malacochæte Totora_), and are inhabited by
numerous water fowl. The Indians entertain a superstitious belief that
this lake is haunted by huge, fish-like animals, who at certain hours of
the night leave their watery abode to prowl about the adjacent pasture
lands, where they commit great havoc among the cattle. The southwestern
end of the lake is intersected by a marshy piece of ground, interspersed
with stones, called the Calzada, which forms a communication between the
two banks of the lake. At the distance of about half a league from the
lake is a village, which, under the Spanish domination, was called
Reyes. Adjacent to it is the celebrated Pampa of Junin, which, on the
24th of August, 1824, was the scene of a battle between the Spanish
forces, commanded by General Canterac, and the insurgents, headed by Don
Simon Bolivar. The result of this battle had an important influence on
the destiny of Peru. It is generally believed that treachery in the
Spanish army threw the victory into the hands of the insurgents. A few
days prior to the battle Bolivar is said to have received, from the
Spanish camp, a letter in cypher, which he transmitted for explanation
to his minister, Monteagudo, in Cerro de Pasco. The answer received
from the minister was, that the letter recommended Bolivar to attack
the enemy without a moment's delay, for that on the part of the
Spaniards the victory was insured to him. The bearer of the letter is
still living, and he does not deny that he was in the secret of the
whole plot. The insurgents were victorious, and in commemoration of
their triumph they gave to the village of Reyes, and to the whole
province, the name of Junin, calling them after the plain on which the
battle was fought.

From Junin, the road runs to the distance of eight leagues across a
difficult level height, to Cacas, a hamlet containing only a few
huts. From thence, it is continued three leagues further, through
several narrow Quebradas, and finally terminates in the beautiful
valley of Tarma.

Many of the Indians in the neighborhood of Cerro de Pasco, especially
those who dwell in the Puna, in the direction of Cacas, infest the roads
for the purpose of plunder. They conceal themselves behind the rocks,
where they lie in wait for travellers, whom they severely wound, and
sometimes even kill, by stones hurled from their slings. When great
boyas occur in the mines of the Cerro, these roads are so unsafe that it
is not prudent to travel, except in well-armed parties. The solitary
traveller who seeks a night's lodging in one of the Puna huts, exposes
himself to great peril; for the host not unfrequently assassinates his
sleeping guest. Nor is there much greater security in villages, such as
Junin and Carhuamayo. Only a few years ago, the bodies of three
travellers were found in the house of the Alcalde of Junin, the
principal authority in the village. The travellers had sought shelter
for the night, and were inhumanly murdered. Every year persons known to
have been travelling in these parts, mysteriously disappear, and there
is every reason to believe they have been murdered by the Indians. Many
of these Indians are mine laborers, who, for their incorrigible
turpitude, have been banished from the Cerro, and who live by pillage.

I will close this chapter with a brief description of four-and-twenty
hours which I passed during a journey in the wildest part of the Puna
region.

On the 12th of January, 1840, having passed the night in the hut of a
Puna shepherd, I awoke next morning at day-break. The sun was just
beginning to cast a light tinge of red on the snow-capped tops of the
Cordillera. Through the aperture in the roof of the hut, which served
the purpose of a chimney, there penetrated a feeble light, just
sufficient to show the misery and poverty that prevailed in the interior
of the habitation. I rose from the resting-place on which, only a few
hours previously, I had stretched myself exhausted by cold and fatigue,
and raising the cow-hide, which closed the doorway of the hut, I crept
out to make preparations for the continuance of my journey.

I saddled my mule, and put into one of the saddle-bags a small supply
of food. Whilst I was thus engaged, one of those fierce little dogs
which are domiciled in every Indian hut, slily watched my movements;
and though he had rested at the foot of my bed during the night, yet he
was only prevented, by the repeated threats of his master, from making
an attack upon me. My Indian host handed me my gun; I paid for my
night's lodging by a few reals and some paper cigars; and having asked
him to direct me on my way, I rode off whilst he was expressing his
gratitude, and his kind wishes in the words, "_Dios lo pague!_"

The sky was overhung by a thick mist, and the snow which had fallen
during the night covered the ground as far as the eye could reach. On my
way I met an old Indian woman driving her sheep. The bleating flock
moved slowly on, leaving a deep furrow in the snow, and seeming
impatient till the genial sun should dispel the mist and dissolve the
white covering which overspread their scanty pasture. A little further
on I met the son of this same Indian shepherdess. He and his dog were
busily engaged in catching partridges, destined to be sold on the
following Sunday, in the nearest village.

My road lay along a gentle acclivity, interspersed with rocks and
swamps, which often obliged me to make wide detours. The swamps (or as
the natives call them, _Attoladeros_) are dangerous enemies to
travellers in the Puna, who, with their horses and mules, sometimes
sink into them and perish. Even in the most open parts of the country
it is not easy to discern the swamps, and the ground often sinks
beneath the rider where he least expects it. At length the sun began to
disperse the mist, and the snow gradually melted beneath his burning
rays. Inspired with new vigor, I took a survey of the wild solitude
around me. I was now on one of the level heights, about 14,000 feet
above the sea. On both sides arose the high Cordillera summits crowned
with eternal ice; detached peaks here and there towering to the skies.
Behind me lay, deep and deeper, the dark valleys of the lower mountain
regions, which, with the scarcely discernible Indian villages, receded
in the distance, till they blended with the line of the horizon. Before
me stretched the immeasurable extent of the level heights, at intervals
broken by ridges of hills. It seemed as though here, in the snow plains
of the Cordillera, Nature had breathed out her last breath. Here life
and death meet together as it were to maintain the eternal struggle
between being and annihilation.

How little life had the sun yet wakened around me! The dull yellow Puna
grass, scarcely the length of one's finger, blended its tint with the
greenish hue of the glaciers. Advancing further on my onward course, how
joyfully I greeted as old acquaintance the purple gentiana and the
brown calceolaria! With what pleasure I counted the yellow blossoms of
the echino-cactus! and presently the sight of the ananas-cactus pictured
in my mind all the luxuriance of the primeval forests. These cacti were
growing amidst rushes and mosses and syngeneses, which the frost had
changed to a rusty brown hue. Not a butterfly fluttered in the rarefied
atmosphere; no fly nor winged insect of any kind was discernible. A
beetle or a toad creeping from their holes, or a lizard warming himself
in the sun, are all that reward the search of the naturalist.

As I journeyed onward, animate life awakened in rich variety around me.
Birds, few in species, but numerous in individuals, everywhere met my
view. Herds of vicuñas approached me with curious gaze, and then on a
sudden fled with the swiftness of the wind. In the distance I observed
stately groups of huanacus turning cautiously to look at me, and then
passing on. The Puna stag (_tarush_) slowly advanced from his lair in
the mountain recesses, and fixed on me his large, black, wondering eyes;
whilst the nimble rock rabbits (_viscachas_) playfully disported and
nibbled the scanty herbage growing in the mountain crevices.

I had wandered for some hours admiring the varieties of life in this
peculiar alpine region, when I stumbled against a dead mule. The poor
animal had probably sunk beneath his burthen, and had been left by his
driver to perish of cold and hunger. My presence startled three
voracious condors, which were feeding on the dead carcass. These kings
of the air proudly shook their crowned heads, and darted at me furious
glances with their blood-red eyes. Two of them rose on their giant
wings, and in narrowing circles hovered threateningly above my head,
whilst the third, croaking fiercely, kept guard over the booty. I
cocked my gun in readiness for defence, and cautiously rode past the
menacing group, without the least desire of further disturbing their
banquet. These condors were the only hostile animals I encountered in
this part of the Puna.

It was now two o'clock in the afternoon, and I had ridden on a
continuous though gradual ascent since sunrise. My panting mule
slackened his pace, and seemed unwilling to mount a rather steep ascent
which we had now arrived at. To relieve him I dismounted, and began
walking at a rapid pace. But I soon felt the influence of the rarefied
atmosphere, and I experienced an oppressive sensation which I had never
known before. I stood still for a few moments to recover myself, and
then tried to advance; but an indescribable oppression overcame me. My
heart throbbed audibly; my breathing was short and interrupted. A
world's weight seemed to lie upon my chest; my lips swelled and burst;
the capillary vessels of my eyelids gave way, and blood flowed from
them. In a few moments my senses began to leave me. I could neither see,
hear, nor feel distinctly. A grey mist floated before my eyes, and I
felt myself involved in that struggle between life and death which, a
short time before, I fancied I could discern on the face of nature. Had
all the riches of earth, or the glories of heaven, awaited me a hundred
feet higher, I could not have stretched out my hand towards them.

In this half senseless state I lay stretched on the ground, until I felt
sufficiently recovered to remount my mule. One of the Puna storms was
now gathering, thunder and lightning accompanied a heavy fall of snow,
which very soon lay a foot deep on the ground. In a short time I
discovered that I had missed my way. Had I then known the Puna as well
as I afterwards did, I should have shaped my course by the flight of
birds. But unluckily I pursued the fresh track of a herd of vicuñas,
which led me directly into a swamp. My mule sank, and was unable to
extricate himself. I was almost in despair. Nevertheless, I cautiously
alighted, and with incredible difficulty I succeeded in digging out with
a dagger the mud in which the animal's legs were firmly fixed, and at
length I got him back to a solid footing. After wandering about in
various directions, I at length recovered the right path, which was
marked by numerous skeletons protruding above the snow. These were the
remains of beasts of burthen, which had perished on their journeys; a
welcome, though an ominous guide to the wandering traveller. The clouds
now suddenly separated, and the blazing light of the tropical sun glared
dazzlingly on the white plain of snow. In a moment I felt my eyes
stricken with _surumpe_.

Suffering the most violent pain, and tormented by the apprehension of
blindness, I with great difficulty pursued my way. My mule could
scarcely wade through the sward, which was becoming more and more
thick; and night was advancing. I had lost all feeling in my feet, my
benumbed fingers could scarcely hold the bridle, and I well knew that
the nearest point at which I could obtain the shelter of a human
habitation was eight German miles distant. I was beginning to give
myself up for lost, when I observed a cave beneath an overhanging rock.
Mother Nature, in whose service I had undertaken my long and perilous
wanderings, at that critical juncture, provided for me a retreat,
though in one of her rudest sheltering places. I entered the cave,
which protected me securely against the wind and the snow. Having
unsaddled my mule, I made a bed of my saddle clothes and poncho. I tied
the animal to a stone, and whilst he eagerly regaled himself with the
little grass that was not buried beneath the snow, I satisfied my
hunger with some roasted maize and cheese.

Exhausted by the fatigue of the day, I lay down to sleep; but no sooner
had I fallen into a slumber, than I was awaked by a violent smarting
in my eyes, occasioned by the _surumpe_. There was no longer any hope
of sleep. The night seemed endless. When the dawn of morning appeared,
I made an effort to open my eyes, which were closed with coagulated
blood. On looking around me I beheld all the horror of my situation. A
human corpse had served for my pillow. Shuddering I went in search of
my mule, for I was eager to hurry from this dismal spot; but my misery
was not yet at an end. The poor beast lay dead on the ground; in his
ravenous hunger he had eaten of the poisonous _garbancillo_. What
could I do! In despair I turned back to the cave.

The sun had now fully risen, and his genial rays diffused warmth over
this frozen region. Somewhat roused by the reviving light and life
around me, I began to examine the body of my lifeless companion. Haply,
thought I, he may be one of my own race; a traveller who has perished
of cold and hunger. No. He was a half-caste Indian, and many deadly
wounds on his head showed that he had died of the slings of Indian
robbers, who had stripped him even of his clothes, and concealed the
body in the cave.

I seized my gun and shot a rock rabbit, then collecting some fuel, I
kindled a fire, and roasted the little animal, which afforded me a no
very savory breakfast. I then waited patiently in the hope that some
timely help would deliver me from my dreary situation.

It was about noon. I heard a monotonous short cry. With joy I
recognized the well-known sound. I climbed up the nearest rock, and
looking down into a hollow, I perceived two Indians whom I had seen the
day before, driving their llamas to the nearest mine works. I prevailed
on them, by the gift of a little tobacco, to let me have one of their
llamas to carry my luggage, and having strewed a few handfuls of earth
on the corpse of the murdered man, I departed. The scene of the
incidents above described was the Cave of Leñas, in the Altos which
lead southward to the Quebrada of Huaitara.

FOOTNOTE:

[Footnote 70: A mine is said to be in _boya_ when it yields an
unusually abundant supply of metal. Owing to the great number of mines
in Cerro de Pasco, some of them are always in this prolific state.
There are times when the _boyas_ bring such an influx of miners to
Cerro de Pasco that the population is augmented to double or triple its
ordinary amount.]

[Footnote 71: Huachacas are the portions of ore which are distributed
among the Indians at the time of the _boyas_, instead of their wages
being paid in money.]

[Footnote 72: A shop in which chicha, brandy, &c., are vended.]

[Footnote 73: The date of Salcedo's death was May, 1669.]

[Footnote 74: Ninacaca is 12,853 feet, and Carhuamayo 13,087 feet above
the sea level.]

[Footnote 75: It is also called the Laguna de Reyes, and the Laguna de
Junin.]

CHAPTER XIII.

The Sierra--Its Climate and Productions--Inhabitants--Trade--Eggs
circulated as money--Mestizos in the Sierra--Their Idleness and Love of
Gaming and Betting--Agriculture--The Quinua Plant, a substitute for
Potatoes--Growth of Vegetables and Fruits in the Sierra--Rural
Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing and Reaping--Skill of the Indians in
various Handicrafts--Excess of Brandy-Drinking--Chicha--Disgusting mode
of making it--Festivals of Saints--Dances and Bull-Fights--Celebration
of Christmas-Day, New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and Good
Friday--Contributions levied on the Indians--Tardy and Irregular
Transmission of Letters--Trade in Mules--General Style of Building in
the Towns and Villages of the Sierra--Ceja de la Montaña.

The Peruvian highlands, or level heights, described in a previous
chapter under the designation of the Puna, are intersected by numerous
valleys situated several thousand feet lower than the level heights,
from which they totally differ in character and aspect. These valleys
are called the Sierra. The inhabitants of Lima usually comprehend under
the term Sierra, the whole interior of Peru, and every Indian who is not
an inhabitant of the coast, or of the forest regions, is called by them
a _Serrano_. But strictly speaking, the Sierra includes only the valleys
between the Cordillera and the Andes, and I shall here use the term in
its more limited and proper sense.

In the Sierra there are only two seasons throughout the year. The winter
or rainy season commences in October; but the rains are neither so heavy
nor so continuous as in the forest districts. The falls of rain seldom
last longer than two or three days in succession. Storms of thunder and
lightning are very frequent in the Sierra; they are not accompanied by
snow as in the Puna, but often by hail. The thermometer never falls
below +4° R., and during the daytime it is on the average at +11° R. In
April the summer season sets in, bringing with it an uninterrupted
succession of warm bright days. The nights in summer are colder than in
winter. In a summer night the thermometer will sometimes fall below
freezing point, and the cold is often very severe. About noon the heat
is oppressive, though the average heat of the day does not exceed 13, 9°
R. During the summer season the horizon is frequently obscured by heavy
dark clouds, which seldom break over the valleys, but continue frowning
over the hills. The natives call these portentous clouds _Misti
Manchari_ (terror of the whites),[76] because the inhabitants of the
coast always regard them as indicative of stormy weather.

The climate of the Sierra favors the natural fruitfulness of the soil,
which richly repays the labor of the husbandman; but plants, peculiar to
the warm tropical regions, do not thrive well here. Prior to the
European emigration to Peru, only maize, quinua (_Chenopodium Quinoa_,
L.), and a few tuberous roots were grown in the Sierra; but since the
Spanish conquest, the European cereals, lucerne, and various kinds of
vegetables are cultivated with perfect success. But the eye of the
traveller seeks in vain for those stately forests which clothe the
mountainous districts of Europe; the barren acclivities afford nurture
only for the agave-tree, and some very large species of cactus. Groups
of willow trees (_Salix Humboldtii_), which attain the height of about
twenty or twenty-five feet, together with the quinua-tree, form here and
there little thickets on the banks of rivers.

These regions, so favored by nature, have from the earliest period
been the chosen dwelling-places of the Peruvians; and therefore in the
Sierra, which, measured by its superficies, is not of very great
extent, the population has increased more than in any other part of
Peru. The valleys already contain numerous towns, villages, and
hamlets, which would rise in importance, if they had greater facility
of communication one with another. But they are surrounded on all
sides by mountains, which can be crossed only by circuitous and
dangerous routes. The few accessible pathways are alternately up
rugged ascents, and down steep declivities; or winding through narrow
ravines, nearly choked up by broken fragments of rock, they lead to
the dreary and barren level heights.

The Serranos, or inhabitants of the Sierra, especially those who dwell
in the smaller villages, are chiefly Indians. In the towns and larger
villages, the mestizos are numerous. The whites are very thinly
scattered over the Sierra; but many of the mestizos are very anxious to
be thought white Creoles. A rich serrano, who bears in his features the
stamp of his Indian descent, will frequently try to pass himself off to
a foreigner for an old Spaniard. Here, even more than on the coast, the
mestizo is ambitious to rank himself on a level with the white, whilst
he affects to regard the Indian as an inferior being.

The few Spaniards who reside in the Sierra are men who have served in
the Spanish army, and who, at the close of the war of independence,
settled in that part of Peru. Many of them keep shops in the towns and
villages, and others, by advantageous marriages, have become the
possessors of haciendas. Those who have enriched themselves in this way
are remarkable alike for ignorance and pride, and give themselves the
most ludicrous airs of assumed dignity. The Creoles are the principal
dealers in articles of European commerce. They journey to Lima twice or
thrice a year to make their purchases, which consist in white and
printed calicoes, woollen cloths, hard-wares, leather, soap, wax, and
indigo. In the Sierra, indigo is a very considerable article of traffic:
the Indians use a great quantity of it for dyeing their clothes; blue
being their favorite color. Wax is also in great demand; for in the
religious ceremonies, which are almost of daily occurrence, a vast
quantity of tapers is consumed. The principal articles of traffic
produced by the natives are woollen ponchos and blankets, unspun colored
wool, saddle-cloths, stirrups and horseshoes. The last-named articles
are purchased chiefly by the arrieros of the coast. It may seem strange
that stores of horseshoes should be kept ready made; but so it is; for
though in Europe we make the shoe to fit the hoof, yet in Peru it is the
practice to cut the hoof to fit the shoe. On Yca brandy more money is
expended than on every other article of trade combined. The quantity of
that spirit annually transported to the Sierra exceeds belief. To see
the Indians on Sundays and festival days thronging to the shops of the
spirit dealers, with their jugs and bottles, one might fairly presume
that more brandy is drunk in the Sierra in one day, than in many of the
towns of Europe in a year. In some parts--for example, in the province
of Jauja--hens' eggs are circulated as small coin, forty-eight or fifty
being counted for a dollar. In the market-place and in the shops the
Indians make most of their purchases with this brittle sort of money:
one will give two or three eggs for brandy, another for indigo, and a
third for cigars. These eggs are packed in boxes by the shop-keepers,
and sent to Lima. From Jauja alone, several thousand loads of eggs are
annually forwarded to the capital.

Most of the mestizos possess little estates (_chacras_), the produce of
which, consisting of grain, vegetables and clover, is disposed of in the
towns of the Sierra, or in the mining districts of the Puna. As the
profits arising from the chacras usually suffice to provide their owners
with a comfortable subsistence, the mestizos pass their lives in
idleness and pleasure. They spend the chief portion of the day in the
true Spanish style, gossiping in groups in the streets, and wrapped in
their mantles. When the state of the weather does not admit of this sort
of out-door lounging the time is passed in gaming or cock-fighting. This
latter diversion is no less in favor in the Sierra than in Lima. Such
enormous bets are laid at these cock-fights, that the losses frequently
entail ruin on persons of tolerably good fortune.

The agriculture of the Sierra is wholly consigned to the Indians, who
either cultivate their own lands, or for very poor wages labor for the
mestizos. In September, the ground is ploughed and prepared for sowing,
which operation is performed in October, and the reaping takes place in
April or May. By this means the seed is left in the ground throughout
all the rainy season. In February violent frost frequently comes on
during the night, by which the seed is so much injured that the harvest
fails, and the scarcity occasions severe suffering and even famine. When
the cold clear nights create apprehensions of damage to the seed, the
people form themselves into processions, and go through the villages
and towns imploring the mercy of Heaven. In the dead of the night it is
no unusual thing to be aroused by the ringing of bells. The inhabitants
then get up and hurry to church, where the solemn processions are
formed. Penitents clothed in sackcloth go through the streets, scourging
themselves; and the Indians, in their native language, utter prayers and
offer up vows to Heaven. For the space of some hours an incessant
movement and agitation pervade the streets, and when day begins to dawn
the people return to their homes, trembling between hope and fear. The
fate of the Indians, when their harvest fails them, is indeed truly
miserable, for, abstemious as they are, they can scarcely procure
wherewith to satisfy their hunger. In the year 1840, which was a period
of scarcity, I saw the starving Indian children roaming about the
fields, and eating the grass like cattle.

Maize is the species of grain most extensively cultivated in the Sierra:
it is of excellent quality, though smaller than that grown on the coast.
Wheat, though it thrives well, is cultivated only in a very limited
quantity, and the bread made from it is exceedingly bad. The other
species of European grain, barley excepted, are unknown to the Serranos.
To compensate for the want of them, they have the quinua (_Chenopodium
Quinoa_, L.), which is at once a nutritious, wholesome, and pleasant
article of food. The leaves of this plant, before it attains full
maturity, are eaten like spinach; but it is the seeds which are most
generally used as food. They are prepared in a variety of ways, but most
frequently boiled in milk or in broth, and sometimes cooked with cheese
and Spanish pepper. The dried stems of the quinua are used as fuel.
Experiments in the cultivation of this plant have been tried in some
parts of Germany, and with considerable success. It would appear,
however, that its flavor is not much liked; a circumstance rather
surprising to the traveller who has tasted it in Peru, where it is
regarded in the light of a delicacy. It were to be wished that the
general cultivation of the quinua could be introduced throughout Europe;
for during the prevalence of the potatoe disease this plant would be
found of the greatest utility. It is a well-known fact that potatoes and
tea, two articles now in such universal use, were not liked on their
first introduction into Europe. The quinua plant, which yields a
wholesome article of food, would thrive perfectly in our hemisphere,
and, though in its hitherto limited trial it has not found favor, there
is no reason to conclude that it may not at a future time become an
object of general consumption.

Four kinds of tuberous plants are successfully cultivated in the Sierra;
viz., the potatoe, the ulluco, the oca, and the mashua. Of potatoes
there are several varieties, and all grow in perfection. The ulluco
(_Tropæolum tuberosum_) is smaller than the potatoe, and is very various
in its form, being either round, oblong, straight, or curved. The skin
is thin, and of a reddish-yellow color, and the inside is green. When
simply boiled in water it is insipid, but is very savory when cooked as
a _picante_. The oca (_Oxalis tuberosa_) is an oval-shaped root; the
skin pale red, and the inside white. It is watery, and has a sweetish
taste; for which reason it is much liked by the Peruvians. The mashua is
the root of a plant as yet unknown to botanists. It is cultivated and
cooked in the same manner as those already described. In form, however,
it differs from them all. It is of a flat pyramidal shape, and the lower
end terminates in a fibrous point. It is watery, and insipid to the
taste; but is nevertheless much eaten by the Serranos. As the mashua
roots will not keep, they are not transported from the places in which
they are grown, and, therefore, are not known in Lima. The Indians use
the mashua as a medicine: they consider it an efficacious remedy in
cases of dropsy, indigestion, and dysentery.

The vegetables and fruits of Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm
Sierra valleys; yet but few of them have been transplanted thither, and
those few are but little esteemed. Some of the cabbage and salad
species, together with onions, garlic, and several kinds of pulse, are
all that are cultivated. It is remarkable that in these regions no
indigenous fruit-trees are to be seen. The only fruit really belonging
to the Sierra is the Tuna. In some of the sheltered ravines, or, as they
are called, Quebradas, oranges, lemons, and granadillas flourish at the
height of 10,000 feet above sea level. The fruits which have been
transplanted from Europe are for the most part indifferent, as not the
least care is bestowed on their cultivation. The effect of this neglect
is particularly obvious in apples, pears, and damson-plums. Cherries and
chestnuts are unknown in these parts; but on the other hand, peaches and
apricots (_duraznos_) grow in amazing abundance, and many very fine
species are found, especially in the southern provinces. Excursions to
the _duraznales_ (apricot gardens), in the months of April and May, to
eat the ripe fruit fresh plucked from the trees, are among the most
favorite recreations of the Serranos. Some of the Sierra districts are
celebrated throughout Peru for their abundance of fruit. This luxuriance
is particularly remarkable in several of the deep valleys, for instance,
in Huanta; but, strictly speaking, these deep valleys partake less of
the character of the Sierra than of the higher forest regions.

The periods of sowing and reaping are celebrated by the Indians with
merry-making, a custom which has descended from the time of the Incas,
when those periods corresponded with the two great divisions of the
year. Even a scanty harvest, an event of frequent occurrence, occasions
no interruption to these rustic festivals. Bands of music, consisting of
trumpets, fiddles, and flutes, play whilst the corn is cut down, and
during their work, the laborers freely regale themselves with chicha,
huge barrels of which are placed for their unrestrained use. The
consequence is, that they are almost continually intoxicated; and yet
whilst in this state it is no unusual thing to see them dancing with
heavy loads of sheaves on their heads. Their dinner is cooked in the
fields, in large pots and kettles, and to partake of it they all sit
down on the ground in rows, one behind another. The wheat and barley
when cut are spread out in little heaps on the ground, and, instead of
thrashing, the grain is pressed out of the ears by the tramping of
horses, the animals being driven round and round in a circle. As soon as
this process is ended, the agents of the Government and the priests make
their appearance to claim the tithes.

In the larger villages and towns of the Sierra, the Indians frequently
employ themselves in handicrafts, in some of which they attain a high
degree of perfection, for they are not wanting either in talent or in
mechanical dexterity. As goldsmiths they are remarkably skilful, and in
this branch of industry they produce work which, for taste and
exquisite finish, cannot be excelled in the capitals of Europe. The
various kinds of vessels and figures of silver wire (_filigranas_), made
by the cholos in Ayacucho, have always been favorite articles of
ornament in Spain. The Indians of Jauja are very skilful in working
iron, and the objects of their workmanship are much esteemed throughout
Peru. Of leather also they make various things in very beautiful style;
and saddle-cloths, bridles, &c., of their manufacture are much more
elegant and infinitely cheaper than those made in Lima. In Cuzco and the
adjacent provinces many of the Indians evince considerable talent in
oil-painting. Their productions in this way are, of course, far from
being master-pieces; but when we look on the paintings which decorate
their churches, and reflect that the artists have been shut out from the
advantages of education and study; and moreover, when we consider the
coarse materials with which the pictures have been painted, it must be
acknowledged that they indicate a degree of talent, which, if duly
cultivated, would soar far above mediocrity. In Tarma and its
neighborhood the natives weave an exquisitely fine description of
woollen cloth. They make ponchos of vicuña wool, which sell for 100 or
120 dollars each, and which are equal to the finest European cloth.
The beauty of these Indian textures is truly wonderful, considering
the rude process of weaving practised by the natives. They work
various colors, figures, and inscriptions in the cloth, and do all
this with a rapidity which equals the operations of ordinary looms.
The most valuable textures they weave are those produced from the wool
of the vicuña and the alpaco. They likewise make very fine textures of
cotton and silk. It is curious that the Indians of each province have
some particular branch of industry to which they exclusively apply
themselves, to the neglect of all others.

The Serranos are a very sociable people. In the towns they keep up a
continual round of evening parties, in which singing and dancing are
favorite amusements; but on these occasions they indulge in
brandy-drinking to a terrible excess. As soon as a party is assembled,
bottles and glasses are introduced, and each individual, ladies as well
as gentlemen, drinks to the health of the company. For a party of thirty
or more persons, not more than three or four glasses are brought in, so
that one glass is passed repeatedly from hand to hand, and from mouth to
mouth. The quantity of brandy drunk at one of the evening parties called
in the Sierra _Jaranas_, is almost incredible. According to my
observation, I should say that a bottle to each individual, ladies
included, is a fair average estimate, the bottles being of the size of
those used in Europe for claret. In the year 1839, whilst I was residing
for a time in one of the largest towns of the Sierra, a ball was given
in honor of the Chilian General Bulnes; on that occasion the brandy
flowed in such quantities, that, when morning came, some members of the
company were found lying on the floor of the ball-room in a state of
intoxication. These facts naturally create an impression very
unfavorable to the inhabitants of the Sierra; but a due allowance must
be made for the want of education and the force of habit on the part of
those who fall into these excesses. These people possess so many
excellent moral qualities, that it would be unjust to condemn them
solely on account of these orgies. The Serrano is far from being
addicted to habitual drunkenness, notwithstanding his intemperate use of
strong drinks amidst the excitement of company.

But if the vice of excessive drinking be occasionally indulged in among
the better class of people of the Sierra, it is much more frequent among
the Indian inhabitants. Every one of their often-recurring festivals is
celebrated by a drinking bout, at which enormous quantities of brandy
and chicha are consumed. In some districts of the Sierra the chicha is
prepared in a peculiar and very disgusting manner by the Indians.
Instead of crushing the _jora_ (dried maize-grain) between two stones,
which is the usual method, the Indians bruise it with their teeth. For
this purpose a group of men and women range themselves in a circle round
a heap of _jora_; each gathers up a handful, chews it, and then ejects
it from the mouth into a vessel allotted for its reception. This mass,
after being boiled in water, and left to ferment, is the much admired
_chicha mascada_ (that is to say, _chewed chicha_), the flavor of which
is said to surpass that of the same beverage made in any other way. But
they who have been eye-witnesses of the disgusting process, and who bear
in mind various other preparations of Indian cookery in which the teeth
perform a part, require some fortitude ere they yield to the pressing
invitation of the hospitable Serrano, and taste the proffered nectar.

When it is wished to make the chicha particularly strong and well
flavored, it is poured into an earthen jar along with several pounds of
beef. This jar is made perfectly air-tight, and buried several feet deep
in the ground, where it is left for the space of several years. On the
birth of a child it is customary to bury a _botija_ full of chicha,
which, on the marriage of the same child, is opened and drunk. This
chicha has a very agreeable flavor, but is so exceedingly potent, that a
single glass of it is sufficient to intoxicate a practised
chicha-drinker, or, as they say in the country, a _chichero_.

Every village in the Sierra has its own tutelary saint, whose festival
is celebrated with great solemnity. Bull-fights and dances constitute
the principal diversions on these occasions. These dances are relics of
the _Raymí_ or monthly dances, by which the Incas used to mark the
divisions of time; and they are among the most interesting customs
peculiar to these parts of Peru. The dancers wear dresses similar to
those worn by the ancient Peruvians when they took part in the _Raymí_.
Their faces and arms are painted in various colors, and they wear
feather caps and feather ponchos. They have bracelets and anklets, and
they are armed with clubs, wooden swords, and bows and arrows. Their
music, too, is also similar to that of their forefathers. Their
instruments consist of a sort of pipe or flute made of reed, and a drum
composed simply of a hoop with a skin stretched upon it. To the
inharmonious sound of these instruments, accompanying monotonous Quichua
songs, the dances commence with those solemn movements with which the
Incas used to worship the sun: they then suddenly assume a more joyous
character, and at last change to the wild war-dance, in which the mimic
contest, stimulated by copious libations of chicha, frequently ends in a
real fight. In the larger towns, where the Mestizo portion of the
population predominates, these dances are discouraged, and in course of
time they will probably be entirely discontinued, though they are
scrupulously adhered to by the Indians.

On festival days, bull-fights constitute the most favorite popular
diversion. In the Sierra this barbarous sport is conducted with even
more recklessness and cruelty than in the _Corridas_ of Lima. Every
occasion on which an entertainment of this sort takes place is attended
with loss of life, and sometimes the sacrifice both of men and horses is
very considerable. During my residence in Jauja, fourteen Indians and
nineteen horses were killed or seriously wounded in a bull-fight; yet
catastrophes of this kind appear to make no impression on the people.

Some of the church festivals are celebrated by the Indians of the
Sierra, in a manner which imparts a peculiar coloring to the religious
solemnities. In the midnight mass on Christmas Eve, they imitate in the
churches the sounds made by various animals. The singing of birds, the
crowing of cocks, the braying of asses, the bleating of sheep, &c., are
simulated so perfectly, that a stranger is inclined to believe that the
animals have assembled in the temple to participate in the solemnity. At
the termination of the mass, troops of women perambulate the streets,
during the remainder of the night. Their long black hair flows loosely
over their bare shoulders; and in their hands they carry poles with
long fluttering strips of paper fixed to the ends of them. They
occasionally dance and sing peculiarly beautiful melodies, accompanied
by a harp, a fiddle, and a flute; and they mark the measure of the
music by the movement of their poles.

The celebration of Christmas-day is marked by the appearance of what are
termed the _Negritos_. These are Indians, with their faces concealed by
hideous negro masks. Their dress consists of a loose red robe, richly
wrought with gold and silver thread, white pantaloons, and their hats
are adorned with waving black feathers. In their hands they carry gourd
bottles, painted in various gay colors, and containing dried seeds.
Whilst they sing, the _Negritos_ shake these gourds, and mark the time
by the rattling of the dried seeds. They perform the dances of the
Guinea negroes, and imitate the attitudes and language of a race which
they hold in abhorrence and contempt. For the space of three days and
nights these negritos parade the streets, entering the houses and
demanding chicha and brandy, with which the inhabitants are glad to
supply them, to avoid violence and insult.

On New Year's Day other groups of mummers, called _Corcobados_,
perambulate the streets. They are enveloped in cloaks of coarse grey
woollen cloth, their head-gear consists of an old vicuña hat, with a
horse's tail dangling behind. Their features are disguised by ludicrous
masks with long beards; and, bestriding long sticks or poles, they move
about accompanied by burlesque music. Every remarkable incident that has
occurred in the families of the town during the course of the year, is
made the subject of a song in the Quichua language; and these songs are
sung in the streets by the _Corcobados_. Matrimonial quarrels are
favorite subjects, and are always painted with high comic effect in
these satirical songs. The Corcobados go about for two days; and they
usually wind up their performances by drinking and fighting. When two
groups of these Corcobados meet together, and the one party assails with
ridicule anything which the other is disposed to defend, a terrible
affray usually ensues, and the sticks which have served as hobby-horses,
are converted into weapons of attack.

In order to facilitate the conversion of the idolatrous Indians, the
Spanish monks who accompanied Pizarro's army, sought to render the
Christian religion as attractive as possible in the eyes of the heathen
aborigines of Peru. With this view they conceived the idea of
dramatizing certain scenes in the life of Christ, and having them
represented in the churches. In the larger towns these performances have
long since been discontinued, but they are still kept up in most of the
villages of the Sierra; indeed the efforts made by enlightened
ecclesiastics for their suppression, have been met with violent
opposition on the part of the Indians.

On Palm Sunday, an image of the Saviour seated on an ass is paraded
about the principal streets of the town or village. The Indians strew
twigs of palm over the animal, and contend one with another for the
honor of throwing their ponchos down on the ground, in order that the
ass may walk over them. The animal employed in this ceremony is, when
very young, singled out for the purpose, and is never suffered to carry
any burthen save the holy image. He is fed by the people, and at every
door at which he stops, the inmates of the house pamper him up with the
best fodder they can procure. The ass is looked upon as something almost
sacred, and is never named by any other appellation than the _Burro de
Nuestro Señor_ (our Lord's ass). In some villages I have seen these
animals so fat that they were scarcely able to walk.

Good Friday is solemnized in a manner the effect of which, to the
unprejudiced foreigner, is partly burlesque and partly seriously
impressive. From the early dawn of morning the church is thronged with
Indians, who spend the day in fasting and prayer. At two in the
afternoon a large image of the Saviour is brought from the sacristy and
laid down in front of the altar. Immediately all the persons in the
church rush forward with pieces of cotton to touch the wounds. This
gives rise to a struggle, in which angry words and blows are
interchanged; in short, there ensues a disgraceful scene of uproar,
which is only checked by the interposition of one of the priests. Order
being restored, the sacred image is fixed on the cross by three very
large silver nails, and the head is encircled by a rich silver crown. On
each side are the crosses of the two thieves. Having gaped at this
spectacle to their hearts' content, the cholos retire from the church.
At eight in the evening they reassemble to witness the solemn ceremony
of taking down the Saviour from the cross. The church is then
brilliantly lighted up. At the foot of the cross stand four white-robed
priests, called _los Santos Varones_ (the holy men), whose office it is
to take down the image. At a little distance from them, on a sort of
stage or platform, stands a figure representing the Virgin Mary. This
figure is dressed in black, with a white cap on its head. A priest, in a
long discourse, explains the scene to the assembled people, and at the
close of the address, turning to the Santos Varones, he says, "Ye holy
men, ascend the ladders of the cross, and bring down the body of the
Redeemer!" Two of the Santos Varones mount with hammers in their hands,
and the priest then says, "Ye holy man, on the right of the Saviour,
strike the first blow on the nail of the hand, and take it out!" The
command is obeyed, and no sooner is the stroke of the hammer heard, than
deep groans and sounds of anguish resound through the church; whilst the
cry of "_Misericordia! misericordia!_" repeated by a thousand imploring
voices, produces an indescribable sensation of awe and melancholy. The
nail is handed to one of the priests standing at the foot of the altar,
who transfers it to another, and this one in his turn presents it to the
figure of the Virgin. To that figure the priest then turns and addresses
himself, saying: "Thou afflicted mother, approach and receive the nail
which pierced the right hand of thy holy Son!" The priest steps forward
a few paces, and the figure, by some concealed mechanism, advances to
meet him, receives the nail with both hands, lays it on a silver plate,
dries its eyes, and then returns to its place in the middle of the
platform. The same ceremony is repeated when the two other nails are
taken out. Throughout the whole performance of these solemnities, an
uninterrupted groaning and howling is kept up by the Indians, who at
every stroke of the hammer raise their cries of _Misericordia!_ These
sounds of anguish reach their climax when the priest consigns the body
of the Saviour to the charge of the Virgin. The image is laid in a
coffin tastefully adorned with flowers, which, together with the figure
of the Virgin Mary, is paraded through the streets. Whilst this
nocturnal procession, lighted by thousands of wax tapers, is making the
circuit of the town, a party of Indians busy themselves in erecting
before the church door twelve arches decorated with flowers. Between
every two of the arches they lay flowers on the ground, arranging them
in various figures and designs. These flower-carpets are singularly
ingenious and pretty. Each one is the work of two cholos, neither of
whom seems to bestow any attention to what his comrade is doing; and
yet, with a wonderful harmony of operation, they create the most
tasteful designs--arabesques, animals, and landscapes, which grow, as it
were by magic, under their hands. Whilst I was in Tarma, I was at once
interested and astonished to observe on one of these flower-carpets the
figure of the Austrian double eagle. On inquiry I learned from an Indian
that it had been copied from the quicksilver jars, exported from Idria
to Peru. On the return of the procession to the church, a hymn, with
harp accompaniment, is sung to the Virgin, as the figure is carried
under the arches of flowers. The bier of the Saviour is then deposited
in the church, where it is watched throughout the night.

On the following morning, at four o'clock, the ceremony of hanging Judas
takes place in front of the church. A figure of Judas, the size of
life, is filled with squibs and crackers, and is frequently made to bear
a resemblance to some obnoxious inhabitant of the place. After the match
is applied to the combustible figure, the cholos dance around it, and
exult in the blowing up of their enemy.

In the Sierra, as well as on the coast, the priests are usually the
tyrants rather than the guardians of their flocks; and they would
frequently be the objects of hatred and vengeance but for the
deep-rooted and almost idolatrous reverence which the Indians cherish
for priestcraft. It is disgusting to see the Peruvian priests, who
usually treat the Indians like brutes, behaving with the most degrading
servility when they want to get money from them. The love of the Indians
for strong drinks is a vice which the priests turn to their own
advantage. For the sake of the fees they frequently order religious
festivals, which are joyfully hailed by the Indians, because they never
fail to end in drinking bouts.

Added to the ill treatment of the priests, the Indians are most unjustly
oppressed by the civil authorities. In the frequent movements of troops
from one place to another, they are exposed to great losses and
vexations. They are compelled to perform the hardest duties without
payment, and often the produce of their fields is laid under
contribution, or their horses and mules are pressed into the service of
the military. When intelligence is received of the march of a battalion,
the natives convey their cattle to some remote place of concealment in
the mountains, for they seldom recover possession of them if once they
fall into the hands of the soldiery.

Every fortnight a mail is despatched with letters from Lima to Tarma,
Jauja, Huancavelica, Ayacucha, Cuzco, and into Bolivia; another
proceeds to the northern provinces; a third to Arequipa and the
southern provinces; and every week one is despatched to Cerro de
Pasco. In Lima, the letter-bag is consigned to the charge of an
Indian, who conveys it on the back of a mule to the next station,[77]
where it is received by another Indian; and in this manner, handed
from cholo to cholo, the letter-bag traverses the whole of its
destined route, unaccompanied by an official courier. As soon as the
mail arrives at a station, a flag is displayed at the house of the
post-master, to intimate to those who expect letters that they may
receive them; for they are not sent round to the persons to whom they
are addressed, and it is sometimes even a favor to get them three or
four days after their arrival. The Peruvian post is as tardy as it is
ill-regulated. On one of my journeys, I started from Lima two days
after the departure of the mail. On the road I overtook and passed the
Indian who had charge of the letters, and, without hurrying myself, I
arrived in Tarma a day and a half before him. Ascending the
Cordillera, I once met an Indian very leisurely driving his ass before
him with the mail-bag fastened to its back. Between the towns which do
not lie in the regular line of route, there is no post-office
communication; for example, between Pasco and Caxamarca, or between
Pasco and Tarma, or Jauja; and when it is wished to despatch letters
from one to another of these towns, private messengers must be
employed. The consequence is, that business, which in Europe would be
conducted through the medium of correspondence, can be arranged only
by personal communication in Peru. Travelling is difficult, but not
very expensive, as every one possesses horses or mules.

The best mules employed in the Sierra are obtained from the province
of Tucuman in Buenos Ayres. Formerly the arrieros used annually to
bring droves of several thousand mules through Bolivia and the
Peruvian Sierra, selling as many as they could on the way, and taking
to Cerro de Pasco those that remained unsold. During the Spanish
domination, the mule trade was in the hands of the Government, to
whose agents it afforded ample opportunity for the exercise of
injustice and extortion. It was one of the most oppressive of the
_repartimientos_.[78] Every Indian was compelled to purchase a mule,
and was not allowed even the privilege of choosing the animal. The
mules were distributed by the authorities, and were tied to the doors
of the houses for whose occupants they were destined. After the
distribution of the mules, a collector went round to receive the
payment. During the war in Buenos Ayres the traffic in mules suffered
very considerably. For the space of twelve years not a mule had been
brought from that part of South America to Peru, when in 1840 the
Tucumanians revisited the Sierra with their droves of mules. They were
joyfully welcomed by the Serranos, who gave good prices for the
animals, and since then the traffic has begun to revive.

In tracing the characteristic features of the Sierra, I have as far as
possible confined myself to generalities, and I will not now weary the
reader by entering upon a minute description of particular towns and
villages. All are built pretty nearly after one model. The large
quadrangular Plaza is closed on three of its sides with buildings, among
which there is always the Government house (_cabildo_), and the public
jail; the fourth side is occupied by a church. From this Plaza run in
straight lines eight streets, more or less broad, and these streets are
crossed at right angles by others; all presenting the same uniformity as
in Lima. The houses are roomy, surrounded by court-yards, and consist of
a ground-floor and a story above, but very frequently of the
ground-floor only. The walls are of brick, and the roofs are tiled.
The churches are in very bad taste, with the exception of a few in the
larger towns, which have a good appearance externally, and are richly
decorated within. The smaller Indian villages are poor and dirty, and
are built with little attention to regularity. But even in them the
quadrangular Plaza is never wanting, and at least four straight
streets issue from it.

The Sierra is by far the most populous part of Peru. The banks of the
rivers flowing through the fertile valleys are thickly clustered with
villages, which give a peculiar charm to the landscape, doubly pleasing
to the eye of the traveller who comes from the barren parts of the
country. The cultivated lands afford evidence of progressive
improvement, and it is easy to imagine the flourishing condition to
which this country might arrive with increased population.

From the Sierra two separate roads lead to the eastern declivity of the
Andes. One lies along the banks of the mountain rivers, and the other
passes over the ridges of the mountains. The first way is very
difficult, and scarcely practicable, for in some parts the streams flow
through narrow ravines, bordered on each side by perpendicular rocks,
and occasionally their course is hidden amidst impenetrable forests. The
other way, across the mountains, leads again into the Puna region, and
from thence over the steep ridges of the Andes to their barren summits.
Descending from these summits, we arrive on the sharp ridges of one of
the many side branches of the Puna Cordillera, which run eastward. The
Peruvians call these sharp mountain ridges _Cuchillas_ (knives). After
crossing the Andes, and descending a few hundred feet lower, in the
direction of the east, the traveller beholds a country totally different
from that which he left on the western declivity of the mountains. On
the eastern side the soil is richly covered with vegetation. From the
cuchillas the road ascends to some higher ridges, crowned with stunted
trees and brushwood, which, gradually spreading upward, blend with the
high forests. These wooded ridges are called by the natives _Ceja de la
Montaña_ (the mist of the mountains). In these regions the climate is
generally more mild than in the Sierra, for the mercury never falls to
freezing point, and in the middle part of the day it never rises so
high as in the warm Sierra valleys. Throughout the whole year the
_Ceja de la Montaña_ is overshadowed by thick mists, rising from the
rivers in the valleys. In the dry season these mists are absorbed by
the sun's rays, but in winter they float in thick clouds over the
hills, and discharge themselves in endless torrents of rain. The damp
vapors have an injurious effect on the health of the inhabitants of
these districts, which are, however, very thinly populated, as the
constant moisture unfits the soil for the cultivation of anything
except potatoes. The pure alpine air of the Puna is preferred by the
Indians to the vapory atmosphere of the Ceja.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 76: The Indians apply the designation _Misti_, meaning
_Mestizo_, to all persons except Indians or Negroes, whether they be
Europeans or White Creoles.]

[Footnote 77: The distance from one station to another varies from six
to twelve miles.]

[Footnote 78: _Repartimientos_ (literally, distributions) were the
compulsory sale of articles by the provincial authorities.]

CHAPTER XIV.

Road to the Primeval Forests--Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension
Bridges--Vegetation--Hollow Passes--Zoology--the
Montaña--Plantations--Inhabitants--Trade in Peruvian Bark--Wandering
Indians--Wild Indians or Indios Bravos--Languages, Manners, and
Customs of the Indios Bravos--Dress--Warlike Weapons and Hunting
Arms--Dwellings--Religion--Physical formation of the Wild Indian
Tribes--Animals of the Aboriginal Forests--Mammalia--Hunting the
Ounce--Birds--Amphibia--Poisonous Serpents--Huaco--Insects--Plants.

Leaving Ceja de la Montaña, we will trace the route to the Aboriginal
forests, which extend eastwardly from the bases of the Andes. The whole
plain is overspread by a thick veil of mist, which does not disperse
until about noon, and then an undulating dark green canopy clouds the
vapory atmosphere. A European, whose heart throbs at the bare idea of
one of those vast virgin forests, gazes anxiously forward on the
boundless distance, and finds the pace of his cautious mule too tardy
for his impatient hopes and wishes. He beholds in perspective the goal
of his long journey. Nature, in all her virginal freshness and grandeur,
opens to his astonished eyes, and he feels a sensation of delight he
never before experienced. Regardless of present toil and danger, he sees
only the pleasure to come. But he is soon drawn back to cool reality,
and is forcibly reminded of the truth, that every enjoyment must be
earned by labor. The road is broken, narrow, and steep; over the woody
sides of the hill it is easily passable; but as soon as it begins to
descend, it presents all those difficulties which have been
interestingly described by the early travellers in Peru. The scanty
population of the surrounding districts, the native listlessness of the
Indians, and their indifference to the conveniences of life, are
obstacles to the making of roads which might be passable without
difficulty and danger. However, where nature from the state of the
country has compelled man to establish a communication, it is executed
in the most rude and unsatisfactory manner. A most decided proof of this
is apparent in the bridges called _barbacoas_, which are constructed
where the way is through a _derumbo_, or a small narrow mountain-pass,
or where there is an obstruction caused by a rock which cannot be passed
circuitously. The barbacoas are constructed in the following manner.
Stakes from three to three and a half feet long are driven into the
ground, or into the crevices of rocks. Over the ends of these stakes are
fastened strong branches of trees, the interstices are filled up with
mud, and the whole is covered by a sort of matting composed of plaited
branches and reeds. If the ground admits of it, which is seldom the
case, a pile of stones is built up beneath the barbacoa, extending to at
least one half its breadth. When it is considered that there is,
probably, on the one side of this bridge, a rock inclining at a very
acute angle, or an almost perpendicular declivity of a hill of loose
earth, and that on the other side there yawns a deep abyss against which
there is not the least protection, the traveller may well be pardoned if
he shudders as he passes over the creaking and shaking barbacoa. These
fragile bridges are often so much worn, that the feet of the mules slip
through the layers of mud and reeds, and whilst making efforts to
disengage themselves, the animals fall over the edge of the barbacoa,
and are hurled into the chasm below, dragging down the crazy structure
along with them. In consequence of these accidents, the way is often for
weeks, or even months, impassable.

In the construction of these rude bridges, I observed that the Indians,
in their simplicity, always faithfully copy their great instructress,
nature. The majority of the plants growing in these regions belong, if I
may use the expression, to an aërial vegetation. The small, gnarled,
low-branched trees, have often scarcely one half of their roots in the
earth: the other half spreads over the surface of the soil; then winding
round the roots or branches of some neighboring plant, fastens on it,
and intimately uniting with it, forms a kind of suspension bridge, over
which the intertwining of numerous luxuriant climbing plants makes a
strong, impenetrable network. All the trees and shrubs are covered with
innumerable parasites, which, in the higher regions, are met with in
their smaller forms, as lichens, mosses, &c.; but lower down, in the
course of the various transformations they undergo, they appear in
larger development.

The whole vegetable kingdom here is stamped by a peculiar character. It
presents immense fulness and luxuriance: it spreads widely, with but
little upward development, rising on the average only a few feet above
the earth. Trees, shrubs, and tendrils, in endless complication of
color, entwine together, sometimes fostering, sometimes crushing each
other. Out of the remains of the dead arises a new generation, with an
increase of vital impulse. It seems as though the ice-crowned Andes
looked down with envy on the luxuriant vegetation of the forests, and
sought to blight it by sending down cold, nightly winds. The low
temperature of the night counteracts that extreme development which
the humidity of the soil and the great heat of the day promote. But
what the vegetation loses in upward growth it gains in superficial
extension, and thereby it secures more protection against the
ever-alternating temperature.

The further we descend the eastern declivity, the more difficult becomes
the way. During the rainy season deep fissures are worked out by the
flow of waters; the ground is slippery and full of holes. The sides of
these hollow passes are often so close together that the rider cannot
keep his legs down on each side of his mule, and is obliged to raise up
his feet and thrust them forward. When beasts of burthen, coming in
opposite directions, meet in these places, the direst confusion ensues,
and frequently sanguinary conflicts arise among the Indians. The weaker
party are then obliged to unload their mules, and the poor beasts are
dragged backward by their hind legs, until they reach a point at which
there is sufficient space for the others to pass. When I was proceeding
through one of these cavities on Christmas-eve, 1840, I encountered a
heavily laden ass coming down a steep declivity. Ere I had time to leap
from my saddle, the ass came direct upon me with such force that my
horse was driven backwards by the concussion, and I was thrown. Ten
months afterwards, another encounter of the same kind threatened me with
a similar disaster, and to save myself I had no alternative but to shoot
the ass. The Indian who was driving the animal neglected the usual
warning cry, given by the arrieros when they enter those dangerous
passes, and he was regardless of my repeated calls desiring him to stop.

In some steep places, with the view of improving the roads, the Indians
lay down large stones in the form of steps; but to ride over these rude
flights of steps is no easy task, for the stones are small, and are
placed at the distance of a foot and a half or two feet apart. The mule
begins by placing his hind feet on the first stone, then springing
forward he reaches the third stone with his fore feet, at the same time
placing his hind feet to the second. By this manoeuvre the mule's body
is kept at full stretch, and the rider is obliged to lean forward over
the animal's neck to avoid being thrown head-foremost by the violent
jerks when the mule springs from step to step. It is absolute torture
to ride down a descent of five or six leagues, along a road such as I
have just described: willingly would the harassed rider dismount and
pursue his course on foot; but were he to attempt to do so, the mule
would stand stock still. I have already remarked the singular
obstinacy with which the mules refuse to proceed when their riders
dismount, and it sometimes gives rise to very comical scenes. On my
way to Vitoc, I was passing through a ravine in which the uprooted
trunk of a tree was resting slantwise against a rock. Though there was
not room for me to ride under it, yet there was sufficient space to
allow my mule to pass, and I accordingly dismounted; but all my
efforts to drive the animal forward were fruitless. I had no
alternative but to ride close up to the tree, then spurring the mule,
I quickly slipped out of the saddle, and seizing the trunk of the
tree, I hung to it until the mule had passed on.

No less difficult and dangerous are the steep declivities over loamy
soils, which are frequently met with in these districts. On them the
mule has no firm footing, and is in danger of slipping down at every
step. But the wonderful instinct of these animals enables them to
overcome the difficulty. They approximate the hind and fore feet in
the manner of the Chamois goat, when he is about to make a spring, and
lowering the hinder part of the body in a position, half sitting half
standing, they slide down the smooth declivity. At first this sliding
movement creates a very unpleasant feeling of apprehension, which is
not altogether removed by frequent repetitions. Accidents frequently
occur, in which both mule and rider are mortally injured.

There is more variety of animals in these regions than in the
mountainous parts; but they have few peculiarities of character. The
swift-footed roe of the Cordillera roams here and dwells in the
thickets, avoiding the warm forest. The dark brown coati (_Nasua
montana_, Tsch.) howls, and digs at the roots of trees in search of
food; the shy opossum crawls fearfully under the foliage; the lazy
armadillo creeps into his hole; but the ounce and the lion seldom
stray hither to contest with the black bear (_Ursus frugilegus_,
Tsch.) the possession of his territory. The little hairy tapir
(_Tapirus villosus_, Wagn.) ventures only at twilight out of his close
ambush to forage in the long grass.

Of the birds there is not much variety of species; but all are
remarkable for gay-colored plumage. Among the most characteristic of
these districts are the red-bellied tanagra (_Tanagra igniventris_,
Orb.), the fire-colored pyranga (_Phoenisoma bivittata_, Tsch.), two
species of the crow, one of which is of a fine blue color (_Cyanocorax
viridicyanus_, G. R. Gray), the other green on the back and bright
yellow on the belly (_Cyanoc. peruanus_, Cab.). The Indians call the
latter _Quienquien_, as it utters a sort of screaming sound resembling
these syllables. Individual birds belonging to the Penelope family (_P.
rufiventris_ and _adspersa_, Tsch.) and the green pepper-eater
(_Pteroglossus cæruleo-cinctus_, Tsch., _Pt. atrogularis_, Sturm.) are
found in the lower forests.

Proceeding still further downward we at length reach the _Montaña_. The
Peruvians apply this name to the vast aboriginal forests which extend
across the whole country from north to south along the eastern foot of
the Andes. Those which lie higher, and in which the spaces between the
lofty trees are overgrown with thick masses of bushes and twining
plants, are called by the natives simply _Montañas_. Those which are
free from these intermediate masses of vegetation they call _Montañas
reales_ (royal mountains). At first sight they produce the impression of
a virgin forest of oaks.

The distance from the Ceja to the district properly called the Montaña
is very various at different points. In some parts it takes six or
eight days' hard riding; in other directions the traveller may, in the
morning, leave the snow-covered Puna huts, and at sunset, on the
uninhabited margin of the primeval forest, he may taste pine-apples
and bananas of his own gathering. Such a day certainly deserves to
form an epoch in his life; for in the course of a few hours he passes
through the most opposite climates of the earth, and the gradual
progression of the development of the vegetable world is spread out in
visible reality before him.

The Montañas of Peru are, in general, but thinly peopled with Christian
Indians. They are employed either in cultivating their own fields, or in
working as day-laborers in the great plantations. The productions of the
haciendas consist chiefly of sugar, coffee, maize, coca, tobacco,
oranges, bananas, and pine-apples, which are sent to the Sierra. The
cultivation of bark, balsams, gums, honey and wax, also occupies a
great number of Indians.

The plantation buildings stand on rising grounds. The walls are
constructed of reeds, the interstices being filled up with loam, and the
roofs are of straw or palm leaves. Around the buildings are the fields
allotted to cultivation, in which the soils favorable to the production
of certain plants are selected. The coffee usually grows round the
house, and an adjacent building contains the store-rooms. The
fruit-trees grow along the margins of the maize fields; marshy ground
is selected for the sugar fields; in the vicinity of brooks and
streams the useful banana flourishes; the pine-trees are ranged in
rows on the hot, dry declivities, and the coca is found to thrive best
in warm, hollow dells.

As the humidity of the atmosphere, added to the multitudes of insects,
mice and rats, prevents any lengthened preservation of provisions, the
cultivators sell or exchange them as speedily as possible; hence arises
a very active intercourse in business between the Montañas and the
Sierra. The mountain Indians bring llamas, dried meat, potatoes, bark,
and salt, to exchange for fruit; it is very seldom that any money
circulates in this traffic. Only the owners of plantations sell their
productions for ready money, with which they purchase, in the upland
towns, European goods, particularly printed and plain cottons, coarse
woollen stuffs, knives, hatchets, fishing-tackle, &c.; with these goods
they pay their laborers, charging them for every article five or even
six times its value. As there is throughout these forest regions a great
want of men, the plantation owners endeavor to get the few Indians who
settle voluntarily on their property, fixed to it for ever. They sell
them indispensable necessaries at an extravagant price, on condition of
their paying for them by field labor.

I have seen an Indian give five days' labor, from six o'clock in the
morning to sunset, for a red pocket-handkerchief, which in Germany would
not be worth four groschen. The desire to possess showy articles, the
necessity of obtaining materials for his wretched clothing, or
implements to enable him, in his few free hours, to cultivate his own
field, and, above all, his passion for coca and intoxicating drinks, all
prompt the Indian to incur debt upon debt to the plantation owner. The
sugar-cane is seldom used in the forest plantations for making sugar.
The juice is usually converted into the cakes called _chancacas_, which
have been already mentioned, or it is made into _guarapo_, a strong
liquor, which the Indians spare no effort to procure. When they begin to
be intoxicated, they desire more and more of the liquor, which is
readily given, as it is the interest of the owners to supply it. After
some days of extreme abstinence they return to their work, and then the
Mayordomo shows them how much their debt has increased, and the
astonished Indian finds that he must labor for several months to pay it;
thus these unfortunate beings are fastened in the fetters of slavery.
Their treatment is, in general, most tyrannical. The Negro slave is
far more happy than the free Indians in the haciendas of this part of
Peru. At sunrise all the laborers must assemble in the courtyard of
the plantation, where the Mayordomo prescribes to them their day's
work, and gives them the necessary implements. They are compelled to
work in the most oppressive heat, and are only allowed to rest thrice
for a few minutes, at times fixed, for chewing their coca and for
dinner. For indolence or obstinacy they suffer corporal punishment,
usually by being put into a kind of stocks, called the CEPO, in which
the culprit stands from twelve to forty-eight hours, with his neck or
legs fixed between two blocks of wood.

The labor of bringing the forest lands into a productive state is one of
the severest tasks in the Montañas, and it can only be performed in the
hottest season of the year. As the soil is always moist, and the
vegetation full of sap, the trees must be cut down about the end of the
rainy season, and after drying for some months they are burned; but they
are seldom brought into a state of such aridity as to be destroyed by
the action of the fire. This is a considerable obstruction to the
progress of raising plants; for the seed must be sown between the felled
trees, which are perhaps only half-charred, and are still damp. In
consequence of this, the practice is, in the first year, to plant maize
at the places where the burnt trees are laid; the maize grows in almost
incredible abundance, and the result is a singularly rich harvest, after
which, part of the burned wood is removed. The same process is renewed
after every harvest, until all the burnt trees are cleared off and a
free field gained for the cultivation of the perennial plants.

Far more fortunate than the Indians who are neighbors of the
plantations, are those who live far back in the interior of the
forests, and who, in consequence of their great distance from any
settlement, seldom have intercourse with the civilized world. Content
with what bounteous nature offers them, and ignorant of the wants of
more refined life, they seek nothing beyond such things as they can,
without any great efforts, obtain in the districts in which they
dwell. There they plant their little patches of ground, the care of
which is consigned to the women. The men takes their bows and arrows
and set out on hunting expeditions, during which they are for weeks,
often months, absent from their homes. The rainy season drives them
back to their huts, where they indulge in indolent repose, which is
only occasionally suspended when they are engaged in fishing. The
return of the sunny sky draws them out again on their expeditions, in
which they collect a sufficient supply of food for the year.

But wherever these Indians have settled on the banks of great rivers,
the trading intercourse produces an alteration in their mode of life.
Europeans and Creoles then try to create among them, as among the
plantation Indians, a desire to satisfy unnecessary wants, and thereby
they are induced to collect the valuable productions of the forests.
In the loftier districts of the Montañas the Peruvian bark is found:
the lower and more marshy places produce the sarsaparilla, and a sort
of wood for dyeing called _Llangua_. This last-named article has not
yet found its way to Europe.

In the month of May the Indians assemble to collect the Peruvian bark,
for which purpose they repair to the extensive Cinchona woods. One of
the party climbs a high tree to obtain, if possible, an uninterrupted
view over the forest, and to spy out the _Manchas_, or spots where there
are groups of Peruvian bark trees. The men who thus spy out the trees
are called _Cateadores_, or searchers. It requires great experience to
single out, in the dark leaf-covered expanse, the Cinchona groups merely
by the particular tint of the foliage, which often differs but very
little from that of the surrounding trees. As soon as the cateador has
marked out and correctly fixed upon the mancha, he descends to his
companions, and leads them with wonderful precision through the almost
impenetrable forest to the group. A hut is immediately built, which
serves as a resting-place during night, and is also used for drying
and preserving the bark. The tree is felled as near the root as
possible, divided into pieces, each from three to four feet long, and
with a short curved knife a longitudinal incision is made in the bark.
After a few days, if the pieces are found to be getting dry, the bark
already incised is stripped off in long slips, which are placed in the
hut, or in hot weather laid before it to dry. In many parts,
particularly in the central and southern districts of Peru, where the
moisture is not very great, the bark is dried in the forest, and the
slips are packed in large bundles. In other districts, on the
contrary, the bark is rolled up green, and sent to the neighboring
villages, where it is dried. Towards the end of September the
_Cascarilleros_[79] return to their homes.

In the more early periods of South American history, the bark was a
principal article of Peruvian commerce. Since the commencement of the
present century its value has, however, considerably diminished, chiefly
in consequence of adulterated and inferior kinds, which are supplied
from other quarters, perhaps also on account of the more frequent use of
quinine; for in the production of the alkaloids less bark is employed
than was formerly used in substance. During the war of independence the
bark trade received its death-blow, and for the space of several years
scarcely more than a few hundred-weights of bark were exported from
Peru. The Montañas of Huanuco, which once furnished all the apothecaries
of Europe with the "divine medicine," are beginning again to yield
supplies. From the roots of the felled trees a vigorous after-growth has
commenced. In the Montañas of Huamalies a kind of bark is found, the
nature of which is not yet defined by botanists; and from the Montañas
of Urubamba comes the highly esteemed _Cascarilla de Cuzco_, which
contains an alkaloid, named _Cusconin_.[80] Possibly the medicinal
bark may again become a flourishing branch of trade for Peru, though
it can never again recover the importance which was attached to it a
century ago. During my residence in Peru, a plan was in agitation for
establishing a quinine manufactory at Huanuco. The plan, if well
carried out, would certainly be attended with success. There is in
Bolivia an establishment of this kind conducted by a Frenchman; but
the quinine produced is very impure. The inhabitants of the Peruvian
forests drink an infusion of the green bark as a remedy against
intermitting fever. I have found it in many cases much more
efficacious than the dried kind, for less than half the usual dose
produces, in a short time, convalescence, and the patient is secure
against returning febrile attacks.

A class of Indians who live far back in the heart of the woods of
Southern Peru and Bolivia employ themselves almost exclusively in
gathering balsams and odorous gums from resinous plants, many of which
are burned in the churches as incense. They also collect various
objects, supposed to be sympathetic remedies, such as the claws of the
tapir, against falling sickness; and the teeth of poisonous snakes
which, carefully fixed in leaves, and stuck into the tubes of rushes,
are regarded as powerful specifics against headache and blindness.
Various salves, plasters, powders, seeds, roots, barks, &c., to each of
which is attributed some infallible curative power, are prepared and
brought to market by the Indians. When the rainy season sets in they
leave the forest and proceed in parties to the mountainous country. On
these occasions, contrary to the general custom of the Indians, the men,
not the women, carry the burthens. They are accompanied by the women as
far as the Sierra; for the loads, which are often very heavy, graze the
backs of the men who carry them, and the women then act as surgeons. The
injured part is first carefully washed with copaiba balsam, moistened,
then covered with leaves fixed on with small strips of leather, overlaid
with the hide of some forest animal. These operations being performed,
the loads are again fastened on the backs of the Indians. In their
native forests these people wear but little clothing. Their dress is
limited to a sort of loose tunic without sleeves for the women, and for
the men merely a piece of cloth fastened round the waist. They go
barefooted; but they paint their feet and legs with the juice of the
Huito (_Genipa oblongifolia_, R. Pav.) in such a manner that they seem
to be wearing half-boots. The juice of the Huito has the effect of
protecting them against the stings of insects. The coloring adheres so
strongly to the skin that it cannot be washed off by water; but oil
speedily removes it. In the Sierra these Indians put on warmer clothing,
and on their feet they wear a kind of boots called _aspargetas_, made of
the plaited tendrils of plants.

The stock of balsams and drugs being disposed of, the Indians, after a
few months' absence, return to their homes. Some of them, however,
wander to the distance of two or three hundred leagues from their native
forests, traversing the greater part of Peru, and even visiting Lima,
carrying large flask gourds filled with balsams. These wandering tribes
seek frequent contact with other nations. They are not distrustful and
reserved, but, on the contrary, annoyingly communicative. It is not easy
to discover the cause of this exception, or to ascertain the time when
the Indians began to travel the country as physicians and apothecaries.
The earliest writers on the oldest epochs of Peruvian history make no
mention of this race of medical pedlars.

The Indians here alluded to all profess Christianity, and must, as
_Indios Christianos_, in strict correctness, be distinguished from the
wild Indians, _Indios Bravos_, who exclusively inhabit the eastern
Montañas of Peru, towards the frontiers of Brazil. These Indios Bravos
comprehend numerous tribes, each of which has its own customs, religion,
and also, in general, its own language. Only very few of them are known,
for since the overthrow of the missions there is little communication
with them. Respecting the Indios Bravos who inhabit the Montañas of
Southern Peru, I have been unable to collect any accurate information.
They remain quite unknown, for impenetrable wilds intervene between them
and the civilized world, and seldom has a European foot ventured into
their territory. The wild Indians in Central Peru are most set against
the Christians, particularly those called Iscuchanos, in the Montaña de
Huanta, and those known by the name of Chunchos, in the Montaña de
Vitoc. The Iscuchanos sometimes maintain with the inhabitants of Huanta
a trade of barter; but this intercourse is occasionally interrupted by
long intervals of hostility, during which the Iscuchanos, though rather
an inoffensive race, commit various depredations on the Huantanos;
driving the cattle from the pastures, carrying off the produce of the
soil, and spreading terror throughout the whole district. Some years
ago, when the inhabitants of Huanta had assembled for the procession of
the Festival of Corpus Christi, a troop of Iscuchanos came upon them
with wild bulls, turning the infuriated animals against the procession,
which was dispersed, and many of the Huantanos were killed or severely
wounded. These Iscuchanos are so favored by the locality of the district
they inhabit, that even were a military expedition sent to drive them
farther back into the woods, it would probably be unsuccessful.

The Chunchos are far more dangerous, and are one of the most formidable
races of the Indios Bravos. They inhabit the most southern part of the
Pampa del Sacramento (the terra incognita of Peru), and chiefly the
district through which flow the rivers Chanchamayo and Perene. Those
regions are inhabited by a great number of tribes, most of which are
only known by name. The frontier neighbors of the Chunchos are the
sanguinary Campas or Antes who destroyed the missions of Jesus Maria in
Pangoa, and who still occasionally pay hostile visits to San
Buenaventura de Chavini, the extreme Christian outpost in the Montaña de
Andamarca. The savage race of the Casibos, the enemies of all the
surrounding populations, inhabit the banks of the river Pachitea. This
race maintains incessant war with all the surrounding tribes, and
constantly seeks to destroy them. According to the accounts of the
missionaries, they, as well as the Antes and Chunchos, are still
cannibals, and undertake warlike expeditions for the purpose of
capturing prisoners, whom they devour. After the rainy season, when
the Simirinches, the Amapuahas, or Consbos, hunt in the western
forests, they often fall into the hands of the Casibos, who imitate in
perfection the cries of the forest animals, so that the hunters are
treacherously misled, and being captured, are carried off as victims.
Many horrible accounts of this barbarous tribe were related by the
missionaries centuries ago, when romantic stories and exaggerations of
every kind were the order of the day; but the most recent
communications of the missionaries from Ocopa confirm the fact, that
in the year 1842, the Casibos continued to be savage Anthropophagi. It
is worthy of remark that they never eat women, a fact which some may
be inclined to attribute to respect for the female sex. It is,
however, assignable to a different feeling. All the South American
Indians, who still remain under the influence of sorcery and
empiricism, consider women in the light of impure and evil beings, and
calculated to injure them. Among a few of the less rude nations this
aversion is apparent in domestic life, in a certain unconquerable
contempt of females. With the Anthropophagi the feeling extends,
fortunately, to their flesh, which is held to be poisonous.

The languages spoken by the wild Indian tribes are very various. From
the Marañon to Omaguas, Quichua, the language of the Incas, is spoken.
On the left bank of the Ucayali the dialect of the Panos prevails. On
the right bank the Cascas, the Sinabus, and the Diabus, preserve their
own idioms, which are so different that those races are reciprocally
unable to communicate with each other. On Upper Ucayali evidences of
common origin are said to be apparent between the Simirinches, Campas,
Runaguas, and Mochobos. But on this subject no accurate conclusions
can be formed; for the accounts given by the missions in early periods
were very imperfect, and most of the races are so intractable that it
has since been impossible to collect correct information. According
to the accounts of travelled missionaries which I had the opportunity
of examining in the convent of Ocopa, it appears that, besides the
Quichua, the idioms spoken by the Panos, Cascas, Simirinches, and the
Chunchos, may be set down as dialects of decidedly different origins.

The mode of living among all these Indians is very much the same. War
and hunting in summer, and repairing their warlike weapons in winter,
are the occupations of the men. The women cultivate the fields, lay up
the stores of provisions, fish, spin and cook. Their clothes are of the
most simple kind. Many of the races wear no clothing, and have their
bodies wholly or partially bedaubed with paint. The men of some races
wear a kind of shirt without sleeves, and the women a petticoat reaching
from the waist to the knees. These garments are made of cotton obtained
from the uncultivated tree _Bombax_, and their color is white, blue, or
red. The custom of boring the ears, the nose, and the under lip, for the
insertion of some ornament, is much practised, particularly by the
Panos, Shipeos, and Pirras. They paint their bodies, but not exactly in
the tattoo manner; they confine themselves to single stripes. The Sensis
women draw two stripes from the shoulder, over each breast, down to the
pit of the stomach; the Pirras women paint a band in the form of a
girdle round the waist, and they have three of a darker color round each
thigh. These stripes, when once laid on, can never be removed by
washing. They are made with the unripe fruit of one of the Rubiacaceæ.
Some tribes paint the face only; others, on the contrary, do not touch
that part; but bedaub with colors their arms, feet, and breasts.

In hunting, bows and arrows are the principal weapons used by the
Indians. In war they use, besides bows and arrows, clubs and a kind of
sword made of wood. The arrows are reeds, five or six feet long, and
of the thickness of a finger. The point is of very hard wood, and is
strongly barbed by notches and with sharp fish teeth about three
inches long. To the other extremity of the arrow colored feathers are
always affixed.

Among many Indians, particularly in the western and northern districts
of the Pampa del Sacramento, the _Pocuna_ is a weapon much used in
hunting. It is made of a long reed, and measures eight or ten, or even
more, feet. At one end are fixed two teeth of a javali, or white-lipped
peccary (_Dicotyles labiatus_), on which the reed is rested when taking
aim. The arrows, which are only one and a half or two inches long, are
made of the thick part of a strong cactus stem. In general their small
arrows are poisoned, for otherwise the wound would be too inconsiderable
to kill even a little bird. The poison for arrows differs almost with
every tribe, and very mysterious ceremonies are observed at its
preparation. On this account the art of preparing it, and the
ingredients employed, are only very partially known to Europeans. Their
elements are obtained from several plants not yet defined botanically,
among which the _Apihuasca_ and poison capsicum are much resorted to.
Infusions of the leaves of a very strong kind of tobacco, and of the
Sanaño (_Tabernæmontana Sanaño_, R. P.), and of Euphorbiaceæ, are also
taken. Some modern travellers, contrary to the testimony of the oldest
writers on Peru, have asserted that no animal substance is employed in
the poison for arrows. I am, however, enabled to state, on the authority
of an Indian who had himself often made the poison, that not only the
black and very poisonous emmet (_Cryptacereo atrato affin_), but also
the teeth of the formidable serpent, known to the Indians by the name of
Miuamaru or Jergon (_Lachesis picta_, Tsch.), are used for that purpose.

The wound of the poisoned arrow is fatal and rapid. Men and large
mammalia die in about four or five minutes after receiving the wound;
the smaller mammiferous animals and birds, in two minutes. The blow-reed
sends these deadly arrows with great certainty to the distance of
thirty-two or thirty-six paces. Hunting with the blow-reed must be long
practised in order to acquire dexterity in its use, and great caution is
requisite to avoid being self-wounded by the small sharp arrows. An
example came to my knowledge in the case of an Indian who let an arrow
fall unobserved from his quiver; he trod upon it, and it penetrated the
sole of his foot; in a very short time he was a corpse.

The club called _Matusino_ is four or five feet long, and is encircled
in a spiral form at the thick end, by a row of deer's horns. A single
long horn is fastened in the centre, the chief use of which is to
stick it in the earth when the club is rested. Only a few races of
upper and lower Ucayali and the Sensis use this formidable weapon,
which is very inconvenient and obstructive in passing through thick
forests. The _macana_, or wooden sword, is made of strong _chunta_.
The color of this wood is a deep blackish brown; it is very hard and
heavy, and is always used for implements which require great
durability and strength. The macana is about four feet long, one inch
thick, and from five to six inches broad; towards the hilt end the
breadth is about three inches, and it is rounded. It is so well cut
and polished, that a sabre scarcely excels it in sharpness. The weapon
is so heavy that it requires both hands to wield it.

There are not only offensive, but also defensive, weapons. One of the
latter is the _viche_, a very simple shield, one and a half or two feet
in diameter. It consists of a strong frame of twisted creeping plants,
over which the skin of a deer or tapir is stretched and fastened with
twine. On the inside there are two holds for the arm; the edge is
adorned with colored feathers.

The Indians of the races above noticed seldom live in villages, but
chiefly in huts scattered through the forests. Sometimes they construct
a few of their dwellings near together, and so form a hamlet. Their huts
are either quadrangular, oblong, or circular. The walls consist of
strong stems of trees, bound together by twining plants; and the roof is
of palm leaves laid over a skeleton of reeds. The entrance, which is on
the side opposite to the prevailing wind, is left open, and but seldom
protected by a door. At Chanchamayo I saw a very simple kind of hut
among the Chunchos. It resembled an open umbrella with the handle stuck
in the earth. The single wall, which also formed its roof, consisted of
eight long reeds: they spread out below in the form of a fan, standing
obliquely on the earth, and fastened to three stems of trees. On this
simple skeleton were laid lengthways the leaves of the omero, a kind of
palm. A strong stem fixed firmly in the earth, extended obliquely to the
middle of the inner side of the wall, and two thinner stems on each
side, served as supports for this frail building. According to the
direction of the wind the hut is turned round.

The Indian huts all stand detached from each other, and they are seldom
divided internally into apartments. They occupy very little ground,
never more than sixty square feet of superficies. In the principal
settlement of an Indian race, the huts are scattered over a circuit of
some miles in the forests.

Any form of government is a thing quite unknown to most of the Indios
Bravos of Peru. Uniformity of speech, manners, and arms, unite together
a number of Indians, who thus form a race, but there is among them no
bond of subjection, or of duty to any government, either voluntarily
chosen, or self-constituted. Among the inhabitants of Lower Ucayali,
however, the oldest, or the bravest individuals of each race are either
publicly, or silently recognised as chiefs. Respect to age prevails only
among a few of the races, as the Setebos, Mayorhunas, and Panos. Among
others, as the Campos, Casibos, and Cunchos, the old are put to death.
It is a general custom of the wild Indians to kill their aged prisoners
immediately on their being captured.

Social meetings among these races are of rare occurrence. Gloomy,
reserved, and distrustful, the Indian is only at ease in the circle he
has himself formed. When, however, the general interest of the race is
in question, then he comes boldly forward in support of the whole. The
usual assemblages are for the arrangement of long hunting excursions,
and warlike expeditions. The departures and the returns are celebrated
by tumultuous feasts, in which intoxicating drinks flow freely. Most of
the liquors are prepared from Yucca, or the fruits of the Chunta, called
the _Mazato_, or other species of palms. In the most remote forests, and
among the most insulated tribes, the preparation of intoxicating liquors
is known; and there certainly is not in all South America an Indian race
which is not familiar with it. Wild dances form part of the
entertainments, and the banquet usually ends with a sanguinary battle.

Marriage in most races is celebrated socially, but not among those in
which polygamy prevails. The formula observed on the occasion differs in
different tribes; in some the union is effected under painful ceremonies
to the bride, in others with fasting and penitential torments to the
bridegroom. In general the Indian selects a wife for himself. In the
greater number of tribes a maiden is set up as a prize, and the young
men commence a life or death contest for her. The oldest warriors are
arbitrators, and from their hands the conqueror receives the prize. This
is the practice among the inhabitants of the Rio de Santa Catalina. With
them, as well as with most of the tribes of Western Ucayali, the birth
of a child is festively celebrated. The oldest individuals of the race
assemble to receive the child, which is repeatedly blown on to drive
demons and sickness away from it; the name of an animal is then given
to it, and, according to Don Pedro Beltran, the witnesses of the
ceremony mark with a wooden pencil some hieroglyphic characters on two
leaves, which are carefully preserved, and on the death of the Indian,
deposited in the grave with him.

The dead are buried in the huts. The survivors having testified their
sorrow by a melancholy howl three times repeated, leave the place and
build a new residence for themselves in a distant district. They break
in pieces all the household furniture of the deceased, but they bury
with him his warlike weapons and his agricultural implements, under the
conviction that he will use them in the place to which he is going. A
peculiar custom among several races is this: the oldest son cuts a
piece from the heel of his deceased father, which he hangs round his
neck, and wears as a sacred relic. Some of the tribes on the Perene
and Capanegua do not, like most wild nations, respect the remains of
the dead, but throw the bodies into the forest unburied, to be
devoured by beasts of prey.

Very little is correctly known of the religion of the Peruvian Indios
Bravos. All believe in the existence of superior beings, and distinguish
them as good and evil; and they are accordingly venerated from
gratitude, or from fear. The former they regard as beneficent; but the
latter as having the power of bringing into exercise all the destroying
forces of nature. These people, therefore, find in the sky, in the air,
and on the earth, objects for their adoration. Certain constellations
are regarded as favorable phenomena, while others are looked at with a
secret horror. The sun is by all gladly worshipped, more particularly by
the descendants of those who in early times stood in connexion with the
Incas. On the other hand, they pay but a reluctant tribute to the moon,
perhaps because by its pale light fearful images are reflected around
them in the forests, and because its phases are to them involved in
impenetrable mystery. They ascribe thunder and lightning to demoniacal
influences, and to the same origin they attribute certain winds which
have an injurious influence on their health. But their religious notions
are not connected exclusively with the phenomena of nature, which are to
them inexplicable. With all their ideas on surrounding nature, two
conflicting principles are invariably connected, one of which is
believed to be beneficial, the other injurious to them. In the animals
of the forest, the plants, the stones, in everything, they trace these
beneficent or demoniacal powers. Every idea, every action is with them a
consequence of the influence of one of these two powers, and free will
is impossible. Though a rude materialism cripples the intelligence of
these Indians, yet they seem to be sensible of the connexion between
that which is perceptible to their senses, and something
higher--something beyond the sphere of corporeal perception. But of the
nature of this higher something they have no comprehension, nor do they
endeavor to render to themselves any account of it. They are satisfied
with an obscure idea of the difference between the visible and the
invisible; but still this idea is so contracted that they always give to
the spiritual a corporeal form: and they attribute to natural objects
with which they come most in contact, the possession of good or evil
qualities, thus assigning to them the nature of spiritual beings.

None of these tribes appear, as yet, to have advanced so far as to be
impressed with the persuasion that the whole of nature is guided by
unchangeable laws over which one will presides. In general, they have
no idea of a spiritual unity, and are utter strangers to the knowledge
of one God. They all, however, believe in the immortality of the soul.
They see the lifeless body, they have certain proof that the earthly
integument is no longer the abode of the soul; but, as they can form
no notion of anything spiritual entirely self-existent, they imagine
that their dead will, in new life, appear under a new bodily form. The
several tribes differ greatly in their belief of the nature of the
metamorphoses which they expect to take place. Those who look forward
to the re-appearance of the deceased in human life, bury with the men
hunting and agricultural instruments; but their notions even on this
head are not very clear, and when questioned on the subject their
answers are very confused. They say that they are going to a very
beautiful place, far from their present dwelling; but, according to
their conception, it appears that the place, though distant, is still
on earth. Those races who believe in metamorphoses into the forms of
the lower animals, are persuaded that the dead in their new forms will
inhabit the woods around their homes, and avenge the wrongs they have
suffered during life. This is the belief of the inhabitants of Upper
Ucayali and Pachitea.

In considering the physical formation of the wild Indians, we may class
them according to their natural divisions, viz., the inhabitants of the
more highly situated lands, or mountains, and those of the low hot flat
country. The former dwell on the eastern side of the hill-chain,
dividing the river territory of the Huallaga and Ucayali, and spreading
to the banks of the Chauchamayo, Perene, and Apurimac. These are the
Iscuchanos. They are rather tall and generally slim; their limbs are
vigorous; their hands and feet small, and in walking their toes are much
turned in. The head is proportionally large, with very strong bones; the
forehead is low, the eyes small and animated, the nose large and rather
sharp, the cheek-bones a little prominent. The mouth is not large, and
the lips are delicately formed, but often disfigured by ornaments. The
ears are small, quite the reverse of those of the Indians of the flat
lands. The pointed chin is only sparingly covered with beard, which does
not appear until advanced age, and on the cheeks there is none. The hair
of the head is long, stiff, and of a brilliant black. Many of the tribes
dye their hair; the Chunchos dye it red, and the Antis are said to dye
it blue; as to the latter color it appears to me improbable, but I
mention it on the authority of Friar Leceta. The skin is fine and soft,
the color a deep rusty brown. In speaking of the South American Indians,
it is usual to describe their skin as copper color, but this term is
incorrect, for there certainly is no single tribe to which it might be
perfectly applicable. It appears to me that the color of all is much
fainter, and tending more to brown or yellow. "Rusty brown," if the
expression may be used, appears to me far more descriptive.

The second natural section of the wild Indians inhabits the northern
part of the Pampa del Sacramento, the banks of the Ucayali, and of the
Marañon. They are smaller than those just described. There is a
certain peculiarity in the make of these people; for though they are
broad over the shoulders yet their chests are flat, and their shoulder
blades lie low. Their limbs are lank, and their hands rather small;
the soles of the feet are broad and flat. The face is broad, the eyes
long shaped, the pupil deeply set, the nose is flat, with large
oblique nostrils, and the cheek-bones are prominent. The mouth is
wide, the lips thick, and among some tribes the mouth and nose are
very close together. The chin is small and round, the ears large and
standing out from the head. The hair and beard of these Indians are
the same as in those of the hilly country. The color of the skin
varies much; in some it is a light reddish brown; in others, a kind of
yellow, very like that of the Mongols. The women of all these tribes
are exceedingly ugly, and far from corresponding with the picture a
European imagination might form of the daughters of the aboriginal
forests. These women soon become old, for they not only fulfil female
duties, but execute the greater part of those severer labors which
ought to fall to the share of the stronger sex.

To the above outline sketch of the human inhabitants of the aboriginal
forests, I will now add some description of the animal world, as it came
under my observation in those luxuriant regions.

Unlike the peaceful repose which presides over animal life on the level
heights, are the constant aggressions and combats which prevail in the
forest regions. There the strong attack the weak, and the cunning
inveigle the unwary: strength and intelligence, caution and instinct,
are unceasingly in active operation. The variegated forms and colors
which meet the eye, and the multifarious cries and tones which resound
through the woods, form, altogether, the most singular contrast. The
gold-feathered colibri hums lightly through the air, soaring over the
heavy, sombre-colored tapir. The sprightly singing-bird pours forth his
melodious chants amidst the thick foliage of the aged trees, whilst the
fierce ounce, prowling for his prey, growls as he passes over their
enormous, spreading roots. Slowly do the eye and the ear learn to
distinguish individuals in the vast mass of apparent chaotic confusion,
and to recognise quickly fleeting forms, or distant resounding sounds.

The whole of the animal world is here developed to the view, and it
would be difficult to assign the predominance to any one class. Yet,
perhaps, the variegated feathered tribe is relatively most extensively
represented. The number of the mammalia is also important. They are
seldom seen by the hunter during the day, but twilight draws them from
their hiding-places.

Troops of monkeys skip from tree to tree, looking timidly around, and
uttering mournful howls. Among them are swarms of the black marimonda
(_Ateles_), with slender long arms and red-brown or black faces; in some
the faces are encircled with white hair (_Ateles marginatus_, Geoff.),
which gives them a striking resemblance to an old negro. Next is seen a
group of silver-grey monkeys (_Lagothrix Humboldtii_, Geoff.), stalking
over heaps of broken branches and twigs in search of a resting-place.
These monkeys, which are the largest in South America, are about three
feet high, and are bold and vicious. When wounded they take a position
of defence against the hunter, struggling, and uttering loud cries, upon
which their companions hasten down from the trees to assist them. But
soon a short stifled cry is heard: it is the cry of mortal convulsion.
That sound drives them instantly back, and they disperse in wild flight.
The sly sayu ventures to approach the dwellings of men, where he
plunders maize fields with incredible dexterity. The delicate
silky-haired monkey, shivering at every cool breeze or shower of rain,
and starting at the slightest noise, creeps for shelter into the
thicket, where he lies peeping with his penetrating eyes in the
direction of the apprehended danger.

At sunset swarms of bats flutter through field and forest in all
directions, and greedily devour the insects which in the twilight awaken
to full activity. Some of these bats (_Phyllostoma hastatum_, Geoff.)
are remarkable for their expanse of wing, which measures nearly two
feet. Others are distinguished for ugliness and for their offensive
smell. These latter fly into the Indian huts at night and greatly annoy
the inhabitants, who cannot get rid of them by fire or smoke, or any
other means, until at the midnight hour they retire of their own accord.
Not less troublesome are the leaf-nosed bats (_Phyllostoma_), which
attack both man and beast. This bat rubs up the skin of his victim, from
which he sucks the blood. The domestic animals suffer greatly from the
nocturnal attacks of these bats, and many are destroyed by the
exhaustion consequent on the repeated blood-sucking. The blood drawn by
the bat itself does not exceed a few ounces; but if, when satisfied, it
drops down to the ground, or flies away, the wound continues to bleed
for a long time, and in the morning the animal is often found in a very
weak condition, and covered with blood. One of my mules, on which a
leaf-nosed bat made a nightly attack, was only saved by having his back
rubbed with an ointment made of spirits of camphor, soap and petroleum.
The blood-suckers have such an aversion to the smell of this ointment
that on its application they ceased to approach the mule. These bats are
very mischievous in the plantations of the forests, where beasts of
burden and horned cattle are exposed to their attacks. Whether they
venture to assail man has been a much disputed question. Several
travellers declare that they do not. I may, however, mention a case
which occurred within my own knowledge. A bat (_Ph. erythromos_, Tsch.)
fastened on the nose of an Indian lying intoxicated in a plantation, and
sucked so much blood that it was unable to fly away. The slight wound
was followed by such severe inflammation and swelling that the features
of the Cholo were not recognisable.

Many beasts of prey, and among them some of formidable strength and
fierceness, make havoc among the other animals of the forests. In the
lofty Montañas the black bear (_U. frugilegus_, Tsch.) roams as wild as
his fellow-depredator of the Cordillera. He often enters the maize
fields of the Indians, breaks the stalks of the plants and drags the
green tops away to his hole. When this bear cannot obtain his customary
vegetable food, consisting chiefly of the fruits of a pandanea
(_Phytelephas_), he watches for the deer and wild boars, or attacks the
oxen employed to turn the machinery in the sugar-mills: he has even
been known to assail solitary travellers. The lively coatis traverse the
forests in flocks. They collect round the roots of trees and search for
the larvæ of insects; light-footed, they climb up bush and tree to find
birds' nests, and feast on the eggs and the young. With a monotonous
howl, not unlike that made by some dogs on a clear moonlight night, the
yellow-breasted glutton (_Galictis barbara_, Wieg.), the omeyro of the
Indians, announces his presence. But the most fierce of all these wild
forest animals are those of the feline class. The spotless dark-grey
yaguarundi, not much larger than the wild cat of Europe, pursues all
kinds of birds, particularly the pigeon, the partridge, and the
penelope. The oscollo (_F. celidogaster_, Tem.), the uturunca (_F.
pardalis_, L.), and the long-tailed, yellowish-grey tiger-cat (_F.
macrourura_, Pr. M.), all lie in wait, not only for the weaker mammalia,
but sometimes they even venture into the plantations and kill dogs and
poultry. The maneless Mexican Lion (the puma) roams through the upper
regions of the forest, where he has almost undisputed hunting-ground. He
fearlessly assails victims who cannot effectually defend themselves,
such as the horse, the mule, and the ass, and he tears large pieces of
flesh from their ribs; but he does not venture to meddle with oxen. He
shuns men, and in the forest he even flies from the unarmed Indian. I
fired at a very large puma, which immediately fled, roaring loudly.
When severely wounded and driven into a corner, this animal frequently
commences a combat of despair, and sometimes kills the hunter. The
puma measures in length about four feet, and in height more than two
feet. More direful than any of the felines mentioned above is the
sanguinary ounce,[81] which possesses vast strength, and is of a most
savage disposition. Though the favorite haunts of this animal are the
expansive Pajonales, yet he frequently takes up his abode in the
vicinity of villages and plantations, spreading terror among the
inhabitants. Far from being intimidated at the sight of men, he often
attacks individuals, and when pressed by hunger is not afraid, even
in broad daylight, to slip into the forest villages in order to carry
off food, and the booty, when once seized, is not easily recovered.

An amusing example of this occurred in the Montaña of Vitoc. An Indian
one night heard his only pig squeaking loudly, as if in pain. He
hastened to the door of his hut to see what was the matter, and he
discovered that an ounce had seized the pig by the head, and was
carrying it off. The Cholo, who determined to make an effort to recover
his property, seized the pig by the hind legs, and endeavored to drag it
from the grasp of the robber. This contest was kept up for some time,
the ounce, with his eyes glaring in the darkness, holding fast the head
of the pig, and the Indian pulling it hard by the legs. At length the
Indian's wife came to the door of the hut with a lighted fagot, and the
scared ounce, with terrible howlings, slowly retired to the forest. In
general the Indians have a great dread of these animals, and seldom
venture singly into the parts they frequent. The ounce hunter is the
only one who ventures to approach them. He is armed with a long spear,
with which he gives the ferocious animal a death-blow. He lets the ounce
come within a few paces of him without making the least show either of
flight or attack. If, however, the stroke he aims does not immediately
reach the seat of life, the hunter, in general, becomes the victim of
his bold attempt. Before he can stand on his defence, the wounded ounce
drags him to the ground, and tears the flesh from his bones.

Sometimes the villagers collect their dogs together for a general hunt.
They drive the ounce into a place from whence there is no escape, or
often up a tree, where they shoot him with long arrows sent from their
bows or blow-tubes. In a few places snares are laid, or large holes are
dug, and a sharp-pointed stake is stuck in the middle, covered with
stalks and branches of trees, on which the bait is laid. The ounce is,
however, too cunning to be easily caught in traps, and it is only when
pressed by hunger that he can be tempted by a bait. In some districts
the ounces have increased so greatly, and done so much damage, that the
natives have been compelled to remove and settle in other places. I need
only refer to the Quebrada of Mayunmarca, in the Montaña of Huanta,
near the road to Anco. There once stood the little village of Mayumarca,
which has been abandoned for more than a hundred years, as it was found
that the jaguars annually decimated the inhabitants; this Quebrada is
still in such bad repute that not a single Indian will venture into it.

There is a black variety of the ounce, by many erroneously regarded as a
distinct species. It has the identical marks of the common jaguar, or
ounce, only its color is a dark, blackish-brown, whereby the whole of
the black spots are rendered indistinct. On the lower banks of the
Ucayali and the Marañon this dark variety is more frequently met with
than in the higher forests; in the Montañas of Huanta and Urubamba it is
also not uncommon. It is upon the whole larger, stronger, and more
daring than the lighter kind, and I have actually seen many black
skins which exceeded the usual length; but of specific distinctions
there is no indication. The superstitious Indians assign extraordinary
powers to everything that departs from the common course; the black
ounce is, accordingly, supposed to possess singular properties. The
yana chinca holds a prominent place in the religious ceremonies of
some of the Indian races.

Turning from these fierce natives of the forest, we will now take a
glimpse at the peaceful inhabitants of those umbrageous regions. In
the hollow stems of trees, or among their canopied branches, are found
the timid marsupial animals (_Did. impavida_, and _noctivaga_, Tsch.).
These animals remain in obscure holes until the sun sinks beneath the
horizon, when they slip out in search of insects and fruit. Not
unfrequently they penetrate into the slightly guarded Indian huts,
creeping into every corner, until at last they are caught in traps
baited with pieces of banana and pine-apple. The lofty
_Terebinthaceæ_, with their walnut-like fruit, are inhabited by
swarms of squirrels, which strongly remind the European of his own
woods. Numbers of the mouse family, from the small tree-mouse
(_Drymomys parvulus_, Tsch.) to the large, loathsome, spinous rat
(_Echinomys leptosoma_, Wagn.) swarm over all the Montañas, and love
to approximate to the dwellings of man. These animals destroy the
gathered harvest, and even in these remote regions they become a
plague. It is a striking fact, that certain animals are almost
inseparable from man. They keep with him, or follow him wherever he
settles. The mouse genus is one of these. On the coast, mice are not
the same as on the mountains, and in the forests they are again
different. Everywhere they leave their original dwelling-places, which
they exchange for an abode with man. As the mouse and the rat attack
the gathered fruits of the earth, the agouti preys on those yet
standing in the field. These animals are seldom found in the depths of
the forest, but more frequently on its edge near the chacras of the
Indians. Shortly before sunset they leave the thickets, and stealthily
repair to the maize, yucca, and anana fields, where they scratch up the
root and eat the grain and fruit; but the slightest noise drives them
back to their holes. In the deeper recesses of the forest resounds the
monotonous, drawling cry of the sloth. Here we have a symbol of life
under the utmost degree of listlessness, and of the greatest
insensibility in a state of languid repose. This emblem of misery fixes
itself on an almost leafless bough, and there remains defenceless; a
ready prey to any assailant. Better defended is the scale-covered
armadillo, with his coat of mail. Towards evening he burrows deep holes
in the earth, and searches for the larvæ of insects, or he ventures out
of the forest, and visits the yucca fields, where he digs up the
well-flavored roots. The ant-eater rakes up with his long curved claws
the crowded resorts of ants, stretches out his long, spiral, and
adhesive tongue, into the midst of the moving swarm, and draws it back
covered with a multitude of crawling insects.

In the soft marshy grounds, or in the damp shady recesses of the
forests, the heavy tapir reposes during the heat of the day; but when
the fresh coolness of evening sets in, he roves through the forest,
tears the tender twigs from the bushes, or seeks food in the
grass-covered Pajonales. Sometimes a multitude of tapirs sally from the
forests into the cultivated fields, to the great alarm of the Indians. A
broad furrow marks the tract along which they have passed, and the
plants they encounter in their progress are trampled down or devoured.
Such a visit is particularly fatal to the coca fields; for the tapirs
are extremely fond of the leaves of the low-growing coca plant, and they
often, in one night, destroy a coca field which has cost a poor Indian
the hard labor of a year.

Flocks of the umbilical hog, or peccary, traverse the level Montañas. If
one of them is attacked by the hunter, a whole troop falls furiously on
him, and it is only by promptly climbing up a tree that he can escape;
then, whizzing and grunting, they surround the stem, and with their
snouts turn up the earth round the root, as if intending to pull down
the tree and so get at their enemy. The stag lurks in the thicket to
withdraw from the eyes of the greedy ounce; but towards evening he
leaves his hiding place, and sometimes strays beyond the boundary of the
forest; he ventures into the maize fields of the plantations, where he
tarries until night is far advanced.

The same diversity of nature and habits is seen in the numerous hosts of
birds that inhabit the leafy canopies of the forest. On the loftiest
trees, or on detached rocks, eagles, kites, and falcons, build their
eyries. The most formidable of these birds of prey, both for boldness
and strength, the _Morphnus harpyia_, Cab., darts down on the largest
animals, and fears not to encounter the fiercest inhabitants of the
forest. The owl (_Noctua_, _Scops_, _Strix_), and the goat-milker
(_Caprimulgus_, _Hydropsalis_, _Chordiles_), fly with softly flapping
wings to their hunting quarters to surprise their victims while asleep.
In the hilly parts of the Montañas the black ox-bird (_Cephalopterus
ornatus_, Geoff.), the _Toropishu_ of the Indians, fills the forest with
his distant bellow, similar to the roaring of a bull. The _Tunqui_[82]
inhabits the same district. This bird is of the size of a cock; the body
is bright red, but the wings are black. The head is surmounted by a tuft
of red feathers, beneath which the orange bill projects with a slight
curve. It lives sociably with other birds in thickets, or among Cinchona
trees, the fruit of which is part of its food. Its harsh cry resembles
the grunt of the hog, and forms a striking contrast to its beautiful
plumage. Numberless fly-catchers and shrikes (_Muscicapidæ_ and
_Laniadæ_) hover on tree and bush, watching for the passing insects,
which they snatch up with extraordinary dexterity. Finches twitter on
the summits of the loftiest trees beyond the reach of the hunter's shot:
they are distinguished, like the _Ampelidæ_, who, however, live amongst
the lower bushes, by the lively and almost dazzling colors of their
feathers. In modest plumage of cinnamon-brown, with head and neck of
dark olive, the _Organista_[83] raises, in the most woody parts of the
forest, her enchanting song, which is usually the prognostic of an
approaching storm. The tender, melancholy strains and the singular
clearness of the innumerable modulations charm the ear of the astonished
traveller, who, as if arrested by an invisible power, stops to listen to
the syren, unmindful of the danger of the threatening storm. On old
decayed stumps of trees the busy creeper[84] and the variegated
woodpecker are seen pecking the insects from under the loose bark, or by
their tapping bring them out of their concealed crevices; while the
red-tailed potter-bird (_Opetiorynchus ruficandus_, Pr. Max.) builds his
dwelling of potter's clay, or loam, as firmly as if it were destined to
last for ever. The pouched starlings[85] hang their nests, often four or
five feet long, on the slender branches of trees, where they swing to
and fro with the slightest breath of wind. Like a dazzling flash of
colored light the colibri (humming-bird) appears and disappears. No
combination of gorgeous coloring can exceed that which is presented in
the plumage of the golden-tailed humming or fly-bird (_Trochilus
chrysurus_, Cuv.) which haunts the warm primeval forests, but it is
still more frequently found in the pure atmosphere of the ceja-girded
Montañas. The silky cuckoo (_Trogon heliothrix_, Tsch.) retires into the
thickest masses of foliage, from which its soft rose-colored plumage
peeps out like a flower. The cry of the voracious chuquimbis[86]
accompanies the traveller from his first steps in the Montañas to his
entrance into the primeval forests, where he finds their relative, _Dios
te de_.[87] This bird accompanies its significant cry by throwing back
its head and making a kind of rocking movement of its body. The Indians,
who are always disposed to connect superstitious ideas with the natural
objects they see around them, believe that some great misfortune will
befall any one who may shoot this bird, because it utters the sacred
word, _Dios_. Long trains of green parrots fill the air with their noisy
chattering. One kind of these birds (_Ps. mercenarius_, Tsch.) is
remarkable for regular migrations. Every morning they sally forth in
flocks from the upper to the lower forests, where they pass the day, and
they regularly return before sunset to their roosting-places. From year
to year these parrots leave their night quarters daily at the same hour,
and return with equal punctuality before sunset. This regularity of
departing and returning has caused the natives to give them the name of
_Jornaleros_ (day-laborers). From the depth of the forests sounds often
arise which resemble human voices, and the astonished hunter then
believes that he is in the vicinity of his companions, or, perhaps, of
hostile Indians. He eagerly listens, and it is only when well acquainted
with the sounds of the winged inhabitants of the woods that he can
recognise the melancholy tones of the wood-pigeons (_C. infuscata_,
Licht.; _C. melancholica_, Tsch.). When day begins to depart, groups of
the pheasant-like Hachahuallpa[88] assemble, and with the cry of _Ven
acá_, _Ven acá_,[89] summon their distant companions.

Not only are the trees of the forests peopled with myriads of birds,
but the earth has also its feathered inhabitants, who seldom soar
above the level of the soil. They build their nests among the roots
and fallen branches, and depend for movement more on their feet than
on their wings. Among those members of the winged tribe, who show no
disposition to soar into the regions of air, we find here the
turcassa, a pigeon with richly-shaded plumage; the beautifully
speckled toothed fowl (_Odontophorus speciosus_, Tsch.), and
short-tailed grass fowl, or crake,[90] whose flesh when cooked is
delicately white and finely flavored. In marshy places and on the
slimy banks of rivers, the jabiru (_Mycteria americana_, L.) loves to
wade, together with the rose-colored spoon-bill (_Platalea ajaja_,
L.); the fish-devouring ibis (_Tantalus loculator_, L.), the
curved-billed snipe (_Rhynchoea Hilærea_, Val.), the party-colored
cranes, plovers, land-rails, shrites, and even sea-swallows.[91] In
the rivers there are ducks: these birds are, perhaps, carried down by
the currents from the Andes, or, possibly, they fly in great trains
from the inner waters of Brazil.

Of the amphibia in the principal forests of Peru, only the great
fresh-water tortoise (_Hydraspis expansa_, Fitz.) is useful to the
natives. On the sandy banks of rivers this animal buries its eggs, from
which the Indians extract oil: its flesh, also, supplies well-flavored
food. All other animals of this class are objects of terror, or at least
of aversion, to the Indians. In the warm sand of the river banks, lies
the lazy caiman.[92] He keeps his jaws wide open, only closing them to
swallow the innumerable flies which he catches on his tongue. To the
helplessness of these animals when on land, the natives have to be
thankful that they are not the most dangerous scourges of the forest: in
water, their boldness and swiftness of motion are fearful. The number of
lizards here is not great, nor do they attain so considerable a size as
in other equatorial regions. The serpents are to be feared, and on
approaching them, it is not easy to decide at the first view whether
they belong to a poisonous or innoxious species. In the forests, where
the fallen leaves lie in thick, moist layers, the foot of the hunter
sinks deep at every step. Multitudes of venomous amphibia are hatched
in the half-putrescent vegetable matter, and he who inadvertently steps
on one of these animals may consider himself uncommonly fortunate if he
can effect his retreat without being wounded. But it is not merely in
these places, which seem assigned by nature for their abode, that
loathsome reptiles are found: they creep between the roots of large
trees, under the thickly interwoven brushwood, on the open grass plots,
and in the maize and sugar-cane fields of the Indians: nay, they crawl
even into their huts, and most fortunate is it for the inhabitants of
those districts that the number of the venomous, compared with the
innoxious reptiles, is comparatively small. Of the poisonous serpents,
only a few kinds are known whose bite is attended with very dangerous
consequences. The _Miuamaru_, or _Jergon_ (_Lachesis picta_, Tsch.), is,
at most, three feet long, with a broad, heart-shaped head, and a thick
upper lip. It haunts the higher forests, while in those lower down his
place is filled by his no less fearful relative _Flammon_ (_Lachesis
rhombeata_, Prince Max.), which is six or seven feet in length. These
serpents are usually seen coiled almost in a circle, the head thrust
forward, and the fierce, treacherous-looking eyes glaring around,
watching for prey, upon which they pounce with the swiftness of an
arrow; then, coiling themselves up again, they look tranquilly on the
death-struggle of the victim. It would appear that these amphibia have
a perfect consciousness of the dreadful effect of their poisonous
weapon, for they use it when they are neither attacked nor threatened,
and they wound not merely animals fit for their food, but all that
come within their reach. More formidable than the two snakes just
described, but happily much less common, is the brown, ten-inch long
viper.[93] It is brown, with two rows of black circular spots. The
effect of its bite is so rapid, that it kills a strong man in two or
three minutes. So convinced are the natives of its inevitably fatal
result, that they never seek any remedy; but immediately on receiving
the wound, lay themselves down to die. In the Montañas of Pangoa this
viper abounds more than in any other district, and never without
apprehension do the Cholos undertake their annual journey for the coca
harvest, as they fear to fall victims to the bite of this viper. The
warning sound of the rattlesnake is seldom heard in the hot Montañas,
and never in the higher regions.

Nature, who in almost all things has established an equilibrium,
supplies the natives with remedies against the bite of the serpent. One
of the cures most generally resorted to is the root of the amarucachu
(_Polianthes tuberosa_, L.), cut into slips and laid upon the wound.
Another is the juice of the creeping plant called vejuco de huaco
(_Mikania Huaco_, Kth.), which is already very widely celebrated. This
latter remedy was discovered by the negroes of the equatorial province,
Choco. They remarked that a sparrow-hawk, called the _huaco_, picked up
snakes for its principal food, and when bitten by one it flew to the
vejuco and ate some of the leaves. At length the Indians thought of
making the experiment on themselves, and when bitten by serpents they
drank the expressed juice of the leaves of the vejuco, and constantly
found that the wound was thereby rendered harmless. The use of this
excellent plant soon became general; and in some places the belief of
the preservative power of the vejuco juice was carried so far that men
in good health were inoculated with it. In this process some spoonfuls
of the expressed fluid are drunk, and afterwards some drops are put into
incisions made in the hands, feet, and breast. The fluid is rubbed into
the wounds by fresh vejuco leaves. After this operation, according to
the testimony of persons worthy of credit, the bite of the poisonous
snake fails for a long time to have any evil effect. Besides the two
plants mentioned above, many others are used with more or less favorable
results. The inhabitants of the Montaña also resort to other means,
which are too absurd to be detailed here; yet their medicines are often
of benefit, for their operation is violently reactive. They usually
produce the effect of repeated emetics, and cause great perspiration.
There is much difference in the modes of external treatment of the
wound, and burning is often employed. I saw an Indian apply to his
wife's foot, which had been bitten, a plaster, consisting of moist
gunpowder, pulverised sulphur, and finely-chopped tobacco, mixed up
together. He laid this over the wounded part and set fire to it. This
application, in connexion with one of the nausea-exciting remedies taken
inwardly, had a successful result.

Innoxious snakes[94] wind on tendrilled climbing plants, or lie like
necklaces of coral on the brown decayed leaves (_Elap. affinis_, Fitz.).
Where the branches of rivers enter the gloomy forests and form little
narrow lagunes, over which the high trees spread in vaulted cupolas
almost impervious to the light of day, there dwells the powerful giant
snake (_Eunectes murinus_, Wagl.), called by the Indians, in their
figurative language, _yacumaman_, "mother of the waters." Stretched in
listless repose, or winding round the stem of an old tree, bathing her
tail in the cool lagune, she watches wistfully for the animals of the
forest who come to the waters to quench their thirst. Whilst she gazes
at her distant prey, the fascinating power of her eyes seems to subdue
the trembling victim, and, unable even to attempt escape, he falls an
easy sacrifice.

The amphibia of the frog species, which lie concealed in silent repose
during the day, raise, after sunset, their far-sounding voices. The
violet colored throat-bladder (_Cystignathus silvestris_, Tsch.)
maintains his loud, uniform croak beneath the bushes, or penetrates into
the huts of the inhabitants. The _trapichero_, or sugar-mill frog, is a
large species, almost half a foot in length. Its croak resembles very
much the grating sound caused by the working of a sugar mill, for which
reason the natives have given it the name of trapichero, or the
_sugar-miller_. The croaking of these frogs, whose manifold tones blend
together in confused union, augments not a little the distressing
dreariness of a forest night.

Of the numerous species of insects which swarm in these regions, few are
remarkable for beauty; but many fix attention by their peculiar habits.
The bites and stings of numbers of them are very dangerous, and it
requires much caution to guard against their attacks.

Variegated butterflies flutter noiselessly among the spreading branches
of the trees, or sun themselves on the warm masses of fallen leaves. The
most remarkable of these butterflies is the large atlas, whose
brilliant blue tints shine out with lustrous radiance in the dim light
of the forest. Along the banks of rivers, and especially in hot marshy
spots, small musquitoes swarm. The bite of this animal produces an
intolerable burning sensation, and often causes considerable
inflammation. But more troublesome, and also much more numerous, are the
stinging-flies (_sancudos_). On my first arrival in the Montaña, I lay
several days exceedingly ill in consequence of severe swelling of the
head and limbs, caused by the bites of these insects. To the inhabitant
of the forest the sancudos are an incessant torment. In no season of the
year, in no hour of the day or night, is there any respite from their
attacks. Rubbing the body with unctuous substances, together with the
caustic juices of certain plants, and at night enclosing one's self in a
tent made of _tucuyo_ (cotton cloth), or palm-tree bast, are the only
means of protection against their painful stings. The clothes commonly
worn are not sufficient, for they are perforated by the long sting of
the larger species, particularly of the much-dreaded
_huir-pasimi-sancudo_ (Lip-gnat). Regularly every evening at twilight
fresh swarms of these mischievous insects make their appearance.

The ticks (_ixodes_) are a class of insects destined by nature for the
suction of plants; but they often forsake trees, shrubs, and grasses, to
fasten on man and other animals. With their long sharp stings they make
punctures, in which they insert their heads, and thereby occasion very
painful sores. These insects appear to have no preference for any
particular class of animals. They are often found on the hair of dead
mammalia, and among the feathers of birds which have been shot; even the
toad, the frog, and the scaly lizard are not spared by them. Much more
troublesome than these insects are the antanas, which are not visible to
the naked eye. They penetrate the surface of the skin, and introduce
themselves beneath it, where they propagate with incredible rapidity;
and when some thousands of them are collected together, a blackish spot
appears, which quickly spreads. If these insects are not destroyed when
they first introduce themselves into the punctures, they multiply with
incalculable rapidity, destroying the skin, and all the tender parts in
contact with it. Washing with brandy, which is often found to be a
remedy against the less mischievous isancos, is not sufficient for the
removal of the antanas. For their extirpation the only effectual remedy
is frequently bathing the part affected with a mixture of spirits of
wine and corrosive sublimate.

Who can describe the countless myriads of ants which swarm through the
forests? Every shrub is full of creeping life, and the decayed
vegetation affords harbor for some peculiar kinds of these insects.
The large yellow _puca-çiçi_ is seen in multitudes in the open air,
and it even penetrates into the dwellings. This insect does not bite,
but its crawling creates great irritation to the skin. The small black
_yana-çiçi_, on the contrary, inflicts most painful punctures. A very
mischievous species of stinging ant is the black _sunchiron_. This
insect inflicts a puncture with a long sting, which he carries in the
rear of his body. The wound is exceedingly painful, and is sometimes
attended by dangerous consequences. My travelling companion, C. Klee,
being stung by one of these ants, suffered such severe pain and
fever, that he was for a short while delirious. A few nights
afterwards, a similar attack was made on myself during sleep. It
suddenly awoke me, and caused me to start up with a convulsive
spring. I must confess that I never, in my whole life, experienced
such severe pain as I did at that moment.

A most remarkable phenomenon is exhibited by the swarms of the species
called the _ñaui-huacan-çiçi_,[95] the great _wandering ant_. They
appear suddenly in trains of countless myriads, and proceed forward in
a straight direction, without stopping. The small, the weak, and the
neuters are placed in the centre, while the large and the strong flank
the army, and look out for prey. These swarms, called by the natives
_Chacus_, sometimes enter a hut and clear it of all insects, amphibia,
and other disagreeable guests. This work being accomplished, they again
form themselves into a long train, and move onwards. The united force
of these small creatures is vast, and there is no approach to the
fabulous, when it is related that not only snakes, but also large
mammalia, such as agoutis, armadillas, &c., on being surprised by
them, are soon killed. On the light dry parts of the higher Montañas we
find the large conical dwellings of the termes so firmly built, that
they are impenetrable even to rifle shot. They sometimes stand singly,
sometimes together, in long lines. In form they strongly resemble the
simple, conical Puna huts.

Before leaving the animal kingdom of these forest regions, which I have
here sketched only briefly and fragmentally, I must notice two insects,
the _Cucaracha_ and the _Chilicabra_, species of the Cockroach
(_Blatta_). They are exceedingly numerous and troublesome. The
Cucaracha, which more particularly infests the deep regions of the
forest, is an inch and a half long, and above half an inch broad; it is
reddish brown, with a yellow neck. The Chilicabra, though smaller, is
more mischievous, by reason of its greater numbers. They settle in the
huts, where they destroy provisions, gnaw clothes, get into beds, and
into the dishes at meal time. These insects defy every precaution that
can be taken against their tormenting attacks. Luckily, nature has
provided enemies for their destruction. Among these is a small reddish
yellow ant, called by the Indians, the _Pucchu-çiçi_, a useful member
of the ant family, for it pursues and destroys the mischievous
cockroaches. There is also a very elegant little bird, called the
_Cucarachero_ (_Troglodytes audax_, Tsch.) which wages war against
these insects. On seizing one of them it first bites off the head, then
devours the body, and throws away the tough wings. These operations
being completed, it hops to the nearest bush, and tunes its melodious
song, the sounds of which closely resemble the words "_Acabe la
tarea!_" a name which the Indians give to this bird.[96] I could yet
fill many pages with descriptions of insects which are dangerous or
troublesome, and among them are included the julus, measuring six
inches in length, the large black and red scorpion, not forgetting the
numerous poisonous wasps and the cicadas. However, those which have
been noticed will suffice to afford an idea of the ever-active
movements of animal life in the forests.

Willingly would I take a view of the vegetation of the virgin forests,
and attempt to sketch its progressive developments and alternations
from the hilly Montañas of the eastern declivities of the Andes to the
humid level banks of the larger rivers; but I do not feel myself
competent to undertake a labor to which former travellers intimately
acquainted with the world of plants have already rendered full
justice.[97] Being devoted to the study of zoology, and,
unfortunately, too little familiar with botany, I have confined myself
to a description of the general impression produced by the luxuriant
growth of the soil, without entering into the individualities of the
vegetation. In the more highly situated Montañas, where the cinchona
is found in the place of its nativity, the gigantic orchidæ, the
numerous fern plants, the tree-like nettles, the wonderful bignonias,
and the numerous, impenetrable complications of climbing plants,
powerfully rivet the attention of the observer. Lower down, in the
lighter forest soil, amidst numerous shrubs and climbers, the eye
delights to dwell on the manifold forms of the stately palm, on the
terebinthaceæ, on the thickly-leaved balsam-yielding leguminosæ, on
the luxuriant laurels, on the pandaneæ or the large-leaved heliconias,
and on the solaneæ, with their gigantic blossoms and thousands of
flowers. Descending still further, the flat lands of the forest assume
a dark and gloomy aspect. The massive foliage of trees overarches
stems which are the growth of centuries, and form a canopy almost
impervious to the light of day. On the slimy soil no small shrub
uprears its head, no flowering plant unfolds its blossom. The mighty
trees stand alone, and erect in rows, like gravestones in a
churchyard; and the child of darkness--the rapidly-shooting
mushroom--finds genial nurture on the warm humid earth.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 79: Bark-gatherers. The Peruvians call the bark
_cascarilla_, and they point out the distinctions of a great number of
species and varieties.]

[Footnote 80: From Cuzco, the ancient residence of the Incas. It was
discovered by the French chemists Corriol and Pelletier, in the
Cascarilla which is shipped in Arica; hence this alkaloid is also
called _Aricin_.]

[Footnote 81: The Indian name for this animal is _Chaque chinca_. The
black variety _Yana chinca_ is called by the Spaniards _Tigre_ or
_Yaguar_.]

[Footnote 82: _Rupicola peruviana_, Ch. Dum. The color of the female
is reddish brown, and she is named by the natives _Tunqui mulato_; the
male is called _Tunqui Colorado_. In some parts of the Montaña the
_Cephalopterus ornatus_ is called _Yana Tunqui_. Thus, even the
Indians have observed the relationship of these birds, which, classed
according to our system of natural history, actually belong to one
family, the _Ampelidæ_. Their affinity is indicated very correctly by
the Indian name.]

[Footnote 83: The Organistas of Peru, Brazil, and Guiana, &c.,
mentioned by so many travellers, all belong to the family of the
Troglodytinæ, to the two genera, _Troglodytes_, Vieill, and
_Cyphorhinus_, Cab. The Peruvian Organista above alluded to, is the
_Troglodytes leucophrys_, Tsch. In Guiana it appears to be the
_Cyphorhinus carinatus_, Cab.]

[Footnote 84: _Xenops_, _Anabates_, _Dendrocolaptes_, and many other
kinds of _Capito_ and _Picus_.]

[Footnote 85: These are different kinds of _Cassicus_ and _Icterus_.]

[Footnote 86: Kinds of Pteroglossus. Those most frequently met with in
the Montañas are the _Pt. atrogularis_, Sturm; _Pt. coeruleocinctus_,
Tsch. (_Aulacorhynchus_, Orb.); and _Pt. Derbianus_, Gould.]

[Footnote 87: _Dios te de_ signifies _May God give it thee_. The sound
which is interpreted, _Dios te de_ resembles very much the cry of most
of the Toucans, or pepper-eaters.]

[Footnote 88: Several kinds of Penelope.]

[Footnote 89: The cry of this bird closely resembles the Spanish words
_Ven acá_ (Come hither).]

[Footnote 90: Seven species of Crypturus.]

[Footnote 91: _Sterna erythrorhynchos_, Prince Max., _St.
magnirostris_, Licht.]

[Footnote 92: _Champsa fissipes, sclerops et nigra_, Wagl.]

[Footnote 93: _Echidna ocellata_, Tsch. This is the only species of the
viper family belonging to South America, as yet known.]

[Footnote 94: _Sphenocephalus melanogenys_, Tsch.; _Lygophis Reginae_,
Wagl.; _L. taeniurus_, Tsch.; _L. elegans_, Tsch.]

[Footnote 95: From _ñaui_, the eye, _huacay_, to cry, and _çiçi_, the
ant;--so called by the Indians, because the pain of its numerous stings
brings tears into the eyes.]

[Footnote 96: "_Acabe la tarea_" may be translated "_My task is
finished_." But the Indians are not very consistent in their
interpretations of the song of the _Cucarachero_; for in some districts,
they contend that it repeats the words--_Casa te Soltera_, "_Go and get
married, Maiden_."]

[Footnote 97: A. von Humboldt, von Martius, and, in particular, Pöppig,
who has published a narrative of his journey through Peru, distinguished
by its precision, and written in a style so elegant and simple that its
perusal affords the utmost interest and pleasure.]

CHAPTER XV.

Montaña of San Carlos de Vitoc--Villages--Hacienda of Maraynioc--the
Coca Plant--Mode of Cultivating and Gathering it--Mastication of
Coca--Evil Consequences of its excessive Use--Its Nutritious
Qualities--Indian Superstitions connected with the Coca
Plant--Suggestions for its Introduction in the European
Navies--Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo--The Chunchos--Missions
to Cerro de la Sal--Juan Santos Atahuallpa--The Franciscan
Monks--Depopulation of Vitoc.

The Montaña of San Carlos de Vitoc is, without exception, one of the
most interesting districts of Peru. It has on the one side, and at a
short distance, the populous villages of the Sierra, and on the other it
borders on the forests, through which the wild Indians range in their
hunting excursions. It was formerly the principal key to the missionary
stations of the Pampa del Sacramento, the Chanchamayo, Perenc, and Upper
Ucayali. It is only twenty leagues distant from Tarma, from whence the
road leads through the fertile valley Acobamba, to Palca. Eastward of
the latter place are the ruins of a fort, which in former times must
have been a place of considerable importance. The wild Indians have
repeatedly made hostile sallies from their forests, and it is only by
this bulwark, which, with four small field-pieces, completely defends
the narrow valley, that they have been checked in their advance on
Tarma. An exceedingly steep path runs about a league and a half up the
acclivity; then, becoming somewhat more level, it extends to the base of
the crest, which at that part is about 14,000 feet above the level of
the sea. Here the aspect of the Andes is by no means so imposing as that
of the Cordillera, for the glaciers and steep rocky summits are wanting.
The highest peaks rise only about 200 feet above the crest. As in the
Cordillera, the eastern declivity inclines much more gently than the
western, but the road is marshy, and is interspersed with large
hollows, into which the mules often fall and are killed. After passing
over the Andes, two leagues further, we come to the hacienda
Maraynioc, where numerous herds of cattle are kept. Round the hacienda
there are potato plantations, and the potatoes reared here are so
excellent, that they are celebrated throughout the whole Sierra. Every
morning the sky is obscured by heavy clouds; it rains regularly two days
in the week, and there are frequent falls of snow; yet notwithstanding
this excessive humidity, a bad harvest is an event never to be
apprehended. The cultivation of maize is, however, found to be
impracticable here, for soon after germination the ears rot. A small
stream flows past the hacienda, and after a course of about three
leagues, it reaches the Montaña de Vitoc. Formerly, the road ran close
along the bank of this stream, but in consequence of the repeated
depopulation of Vitoc, it became neglected, and at length impassable.
The way is now over the Cuchillo, or sharp edge of a mountain ridge, and
it must be at least four times longer than the course formerly taken.
From Maraynioc the road proceeds, for the length of a league, through a
valley overgrown with brushwood, and then rises to a lateral branch of
the Andes, which is almost as high as the main chain. The Indians call
this ridge, _Manam rimacunan_ ("Thou shall not speak!"), for a heavy
wind, accompanied by drifting snow, blows constantly, and renders it
scarcely possible to open the mouth to utter a word. From Manarimacunan,
downwards, to the lower Montaña, the road passes over stones laid in
_echelon_ form, and through a very slippery hollow way, which descends
rapidly downward, and is surrounded by almost impenetrable woods; the
only open and level place is the field of Chilpes, which is a few
hundred paces long.

Here it is highly interesting to contemplate the rapid increase of
vegetation, and the varied changes in the animal world. From the brink
of a ridge where only feeble vegetation can be seen, we descend a few
leagues and speedily find ourselves in the region of the Cinchona tree,
and in the evening we are among lofty palms. The first human dwellings
seen on entering the Montaña are half a dozen small huts, forming the
hamlet Amaruyo, formerly called Sibis, and immediately after we come to
the village of Vitoc. It consists of about fifty wretched huts, and has
a small church, in which worship is performed twice a year for the
inhabitants of the whole valley.

Vitoc is surrounded by two rivers, which unite in a sharp angle, called
the Tingo, and which separate the valley from the territory of the wild
Indians. The valley is deep, and the surrounding heights are broken by
many quebradas. The soil is very fruitful, and the locality is less than
some others infested with troublesome insects; yet it is but scantily
peopled, for, besides the two villages and the Hacienda of Maraynioc,
already mentioned, it contains only a few scattered chacras. The
inhabitants of this, the most favored district of the Montañas, scarcely
amount to 200. The villagers employ themselves chiefly in the
cultivation of pines, which are sent to Lima. The Indians of Palca and
Tapo bring them potatoes, salt, and butcher's meat, for which the
villagers exchange their pine-apples. The fruit is conveyed by asses
to the coast, where, however, it seldom arrives in good condition. The
other productions of the Montaña are maize, oranges, bananas, paltas,
Spanish pepper, &c.; but these articles are sold only in the Sierra.
Each inhabitant of the village cultivates his own piece of ground,
which he can enlarge when he pleases; but these people are too
indolent to devote themselves seriously to agriculture. It is only
when the governor in Tarma compels them to pay the annual
contribution, that they make an effort to augment their earnings; they
then seek a market for the products of their cultivation, and sell
them for ready money. Vitoc and some of the villages in its
neighborhood form altogether only one ecclesiastical community, whose
pastor lives in Tarma the whole year round. He goes to Pucara only
once in six or eight months, to read a couple of masses, and to
solemnize marriages and christenings, but chiefly to collect fees for
burials which may have taken place during his absence.

The plantation of Pacchapata is of considerable extent, but produces
very little. The system of repartimientos, already described, by which
the poor Indian is kept in a state of slavery by advances of clothing,
meat, brandy, &c., is practised in this hacienda to a great extent. The
laborer who is set down in the plantation-book as a debtor for ten or
twelve dollars, has a good chance of remaining during the rest of his
life a tributary slave; for if he tries by prolonged labor to relieve
himself from the debt the owner of the plantation causes brandy to be
made, and this is too great a temptation to be resisted by an Indian.
The butcher's meat given to the laboring Indians in general consists of
_Chalonas_, that is, the dried flesh of sheep which have died in the
haciendas of the hilly districts. For a meagre, tough, unwholesome
chalona the Indian has to add a dollar and a half or two dollars to his
debt, while a living sheep in the Sierra would not cost half the price.
It is the same with other articles furnished by the haciendas. European
importations, such as can be purchased at very low prices in the Sierra,
are sold at high profits by the owners of plantations to the poor
Indians, who have to repay them by long and severe labor.

At Pacchapata, besides maize, yuccas, and fruits, sugar, coffee, and
coca are also cultivated. The sugar-cane grows in abundance, and is of
good quality. An excellent kind of coffee is grown here; the bean is
slightly globular, and its color is a greenish blue. In former times the
viceroy used to send the coffee of Vitoc as a highly-esteemed present to
the court of Madrid. The coca is also very fine, and yields three
harvests in the year; which, however, is only the case in a few of the
Montañas, as, for example, at Pangoa and Huanta. I may here subjoin
some notice of this highly interesting plant.

The coca (_Erythroxylon coca_, Lam.) is a shrub about six feet in
height, with bright green leaves and white blossoms. The latter are
succeeded by small scarlet berries. It is raised from the seed, in
garden-beds called _almazigas_. When the young shoots are one and a half
or two feet high, they are removed to regularly laid out coca fields
(_cocales_), where they are planted at the distance of about three spans
from each other. The coca requires humidity; therefore, during the first
year or two after it is planted in the fields, maize is sown between the
_matas_, or young shoots, to screen them from the too great influence of
the sun. When the leaves are ripe, that is to say, when on being bent
they crack or break off, the gathering commences. The leaves are
stripped from the branches, a task usually performed by women, and it
requires great care lest the tender leaves and young twigs should be
injured. In some districts, the Indians are so very careful in
gathering the coca, that, instead of stripping off the leaves, they cut
them from the stem by making an incision with their nails. The plant
thus rendered leafless is soon again overgrown with verdant foliage.
After being gathered, the leaves are spread out on coarse woollen cloths
and dried in the sun. The color of the leaves when dried is a pale
green. The drying is an operation which likewise demands great care
and attention, for if the leaves imbibe damp, they become dark
colored, and then they sell for a much lower price than when they are
green. The dry coca is finely packed in woollen sacks, and covered
with sand. These sacks are of various sizes and colors, in different
parts of the Montañas. In Huanuco they are grey or black, and when
filled weigh from 75 to 80 pounds. In Vitoc they are grey and white,
and contain 150 pounds. In Huanta and Anco they are small in size, and
black or brown in color, and contain merely one aroba. In the Montañas
of Urubamba, Calca, and Paucartambo, the coca leaves are put into
small baskets called _cestos_, and covered with sand. Great care is
also requisite in the carriage of the coca, for if damp be allowed to
penetrate the sack, the leaves become hot, or as the natives express
it, _Se calientan_, and are thereby rendered useless.

The Indians masticate the coca. Each individual carries a leathern
pouch, called the _huallqui_, or the _chuspa_, and a small flask gourd,
called the _ishcupuru_. The pouch contains a supply of coca leaves, and
the gourd is filled with pulverised unslaked lime. Usually four times,
but never less than three times a day, the Indian suspends his labor,
for the purpose of masticating coca. This operation (which is termed
_chacchar_ or _acullicar_) is performed in the following manner: some of
the coca leaves, the stalks having been carefully picked off, are
masticated until they form a small ball, or as it is called an
_acullico_. A thin slip of damp wood is then thrust into the
_ishcupuru_, or gourd, and when drawn out some portion of the powdered
lime adheres to it. The _acullico_, or ball of masticated coca leaves,
is, whilst still lying in the mouth, punctured with this slip of wood,
until the lime mixing with it, gives it a proper relish, and the
abundant flow of saliva thus excited is partly expectorated and partly
swallowed. When the ball ceases to emit juice, it is thrown away, and
a new one is formed by the mastication of a fresh mouthfull of coca
leaves. In Cerro de Pasco, and in places still further south, the
Indians use, instead of unslaked lime, a preparation of the pungent
ashes of the quinua (_Chenopodium Quinua_, L.). This preparation is
called _Llucta_ or _Llipta_. In using it a piece is broken off and
masticated along with the _acullico_. In some of the Montaña regions
the Llucta is made from the ashes of the musa root. The application of
the unslaked lime demands some precaution, for if it comes in direct
contact with the lips and gums, it causes a very painful burning.
During a fatiguing ride across the level heights, where, owing to the
cold wind, I experienced a difficulty of respiration, my Arriero
recommended me to chew coca, assuring me that I would experience great
relief from so doing. He lent me his _huallqui_, but owing to my
awkward manner of using it, I cauterized my lips so severely that I
did not venture on a second experiment.

The flavor of coca is not unpleasant. It is slightly bitter, aromatic,
and similar to the worst kind of green tea. When mixed with the ashes of
the musa root it is somewhat piquant, and more pleasant to European
palates than it is without that addition. The smell of the fresh dried
leaves in a mass is almost overpowering; but this smell entirely goes
when they are packed in the sacks. All who masticate coca have a very
bad breath, pale lips and gums, greenish and stumpy teeth, and an ugly
black mark at the angles of the mouth. An inveterate _coquero_, or coca
chewer, is known at the first glance. His unsteady gait, his
yellow-colored skin, his dim and sunken eyes encircled by a purple ring,
his quivering lips and his general apathy, all bear evidence of the
baneful effects of the coca juice when taken in excess. All the mountain
Indians are addicted more or less to the practice of masticating coca.
Each man consumes, on the average, between an ounce and an ounce and a
half per day, and on festival days about double that quantity. The
owners of mines and plantations allow their laborers to suspend their
work three times a day for the _chacchar_, which usually occupies
upwards of a quarter of an hour; and after that they smoke a paper
cigar, which they allege crowns the zest of the coca mastication. He
who indulges for a time in the use of coca finds it difficult, indeed
almost impossible, to relinquish it. This fact I saw exemplified in
the cases of several persons of high respectability in Lima, who are
in the habit of retiring daily to a private apartment for the purpose
of masticating coca. They could not do this openly, because among the
refined class of Peruvians the chacchar is looked upon as a low and
vulgar practice, befitting only to the laboring Indians. Yet,
Europeans occasionally allow themselves to fall into this habit; and I
knew two in Lima, the one an Italian and the other a Biscayan, who
were confirmed coqueros in the strictest sense of the word. In Cerro
de Pasco there are societies having even Englishmen for their members,
which meet on certain evenings for the chacchar. In these places,
instead of lime or ashes, sugar is served along with the coca leaves.
A member of one of these clubs informed me that on the few first
trials the sugar was found very agreeable, but that afterwards the
palate required some more pungent ingredient.

The operation of the coca is similar to that of narcotics administered
in small doses. Its effects may be compared to those produced by the
thorn-apple rather than to those arising from opium. I have already
noticed the consequences resulting from drinking the decoction of the
datura.[98] In the inveterate coquero similar symptoms are observable,
but in a mitigated degree. I may mention one circumstance attending the
use of coca, which appears hitherto to have escaped notice: it is,
that after the mastication of a great quantity of coca the eye seems
unable to bear light, and there is a marked distension of the pupil. I
have also observed this peculiarity of the eye in one who had drunk a
strong extract of the infusion of coca leaves. In the effects
consequent on the use of opium and coca there is this distinction,
that coca, when taken even in the utmost excess, never causes a total
alienation of the mental powers or induces sleep; but, like opium, it
excites the sensibility of the brain, and the repeated excitement,
occasioned by its intemperate use after a series of years, wears out
mental vigor and activity.

It is a well known fact, confirmed by long observation and experience,
that the Indians who regularly masticate coca require but little food,
and, nevertheless, go through excessive labor with apparent ease. They,
therefore, ascribe the most extraordinary qualities to the coca, and
even believe that it might be made entirely a substitute for food.
Setting aside all extravagant and visionary notions on the subject, I am
clearly of opinion that the moderate use of coca is not merely
innoxious, but that it may even be very conducive to health. In support
of this conclusion, I may refer to the numerous examples of longevity
among Indians who, almost from the age of boyhood, have been
in the habit of masticating coca three times a day, and who in the
course of their lives have consumed no less than two thousand seven
hundred pounds, yet, nevertheless, enjoy perfect health.[99] The food of
the Indians consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances,
especially roasted maize and barley converted into flour by crushing,
which they eat without the admixture of any other substance. The
continued use of this farinaceous food occasions severe obstructions,
which the well known aperient qualities of the coca counteract, and many
serious diseases are thereby prevented. That the coca is in the highest
degree nutritious, is a fact beyond dispute. The incredible fatigues
endured by the Peruvian infantry, with very spare diet, but with the
regular use of coca; the laborious toil of the Indian miner, kept up,
under similar circumstances, throughout a long series of years;
certainly afford sufficient ground for attributing to the coca leaves,
not a quality of mere temporary stimulus, but a powerful nutritive
principle. Of the great power of the Indians in enduring fatigue with no
other sustenance than coca, I may here mention an example. A Cholo of
Huari, named Hatun Huamang, was employed by me in very laborious
digging. During the whole time he was in my service, viz., five days and
nights, he never tasted any food, and took only two hours' sleep
nightly. But at intervals of two and a half or three hours, he regularly
masticated about half an ounce of coca leaves, and he kept an acullico
continually in his mouth. I was constantly beside him, and therefore I
had the opportunity of closely observing him. The work for which I
engaged him being finished, he accompanied me on a two days' journey of
twenty-three leagues across the level heights. Though on foot, he kept
up with the pace of my mule, and halted only for the _chacchar_. On
leaving me, he declared that he would willingly engage himself again for
the same amount of work, and that he would go through it without food if
I would but allow him a sufficient supply of coca. The village priest
assured me that this man was sixty-two years of age, and that he had
never known him to be ill in his life.

The Indians maintain that coca is the best preventive of that difficulty
of respiration felt in the rapid ascents of the Cordillera and the Puna.
Of this fact I was fully convinced by my own personal experience. I
speak here, not of the mastication of the leaves, but of their decoction
taken as a beverage. When I was in the Puna, at the height of 14,000
feet above the level of the sea, I drank, always before going out to
hunt, a strong infusion of coca leaves. I could then during the whole
day climb the heights and follow the swift-footed wild animals without
experiencing any greater difficulty of breathing than I should have felt
in similar rapid movement on the coast. Moreover, I did not suffer from
the symptoms of cerebral excitement or uneasiness which other travellers
have observed. The reason perhaps is, that I only drank this decoction
in the cold Puna, where the nervous system is far less susceptible than
in the climate of the forests. However, I always felt a sense of great
satiety after taking the coca infusion, and I did not feel a desire for
my next meal until after the time at which I usually took it.

By the Peruvian Indians the coca plant is regarded as something sacred
and mysterious, and it sustained an important part in the religion of
the Incas. In all ceremonies, whether religious or warlike, it was
introduced, for producing smoke at the great offerings, or as the
sacrifice itself. During divine worship the priests chewed coca leaves,
and unless they were supplied with them, it was believed that the favor
of the gods could not be propitiated. It was also deemed necessary that
the supplicator for divine grace should approach the priests with an
_Acullico_ in his mouth. It was believed that any business undertaken
without the benediction of coca leaves could not prosper; and to the
shrub itself worship was rendered. During an interval of more than 300
years Christianity has not been able to subdue the deep-rooted idolatry;
for everywhere we find traces of belief in the mysterious power of this
plant. The excavators in the mines of Cerro de Pasco throw masticated
coca on hard veins of metal, in the belief that it softens the ore, and
renders it more easy to work. The origin of this custom is easily
explained, when it is recollected, that in the time of the Incas it was
believed that the _Coyas_, or the deities of metals, rendered the
mountains impenetrable, if they were not propitiated by the odor of
coca. The Indians, even at the present time, put coca leaves into the
mouths of dead persons, to secure to them a favorable reception on their
entrance into another world, and when a Peruvian Indian on a journey
falls in with a mummy, he, with timid reverence, presents to it some
coca leaves as his pious offering.

Soon after the conquest of Peru, when the Spaniards treated the Indians
and all their customs with contempt, coca became an object of aversion
to the whites. The reverence rendered by the natives to the coca plant
induced the Spaniards to believe that it possessed some demoniacal
influence. The officers of the government and the clergy, therefore,
endeavored, by all possible means, to extirpate its use, and this is one
cause, hitherto overlooked, of the hatred with which the Indians
regarded the Spaniards. In the second council held at Lima, in 1567,
coca was described "as a worthless object, fitted for the misuse and
superstition of the Indians;" and a royal decree of October 18, 1569,
expressly declares that the notions entertained by the natives that coca
gives them strength, is an "illusion of the devil" (_una elusion del
Demonio_). The Peruvian mine owners were the first to discover the
importance of the _chacchar_ in assisting the Indians to go through
their excessive labor, and they, together with the plantation owners,
became the most earnest defenders of coca. The consequence was, that, in
defiance of royal and ecclesiastical ordinances, its use increased
rather than diminished. One of the warmest advocates of the plant was
the Jesuit Don Antonio Julian, who, in a work entitled, "Perla de
America," laments that coca is not introduced into Europe instead of
tea and coffee. "It is," he observes, "melancholy to reflect that the
poor of Europe cannot obtain this preservative against hunger and
thirst; that our working people are not supported by this strengthening
plant in their long-continued labors."[100] In the year 1793, Dr. Don
Pedro Nolasco Crespo pointed out in a treatise the important advantages
that would be derived from the use of the coca plant, if introduced into
the European navies, and he expresses a wish that experiments of its
utility in that way could be tried. Though it is not probable that Dr.
Crespo's wish will ever be realized, yet there is little doubt that the
use of coca as a beverage on board ship would be attended with very
beneficial results. It would afford a nutritious refreshment to seamen
in the exercise of their laborious duties, and would greatly assist in
counteracting the unwholesome effects of salt provisions. As a stimulant
it would be far less injurious than ardent spirits, for which it might
be substituted without fear of any of the evil consequences experienced
by the _coqueros_. After a long and attentive observation of the effects
of coca, I am fully convinced that its use, in moderation, is no way
detrimental to health; and that without it the Peruvian Indian, with his
spare diet, would be incapable of going through the labor which he now
performs. The coca plant must be considered as a great blessing to Peru.
It is an essential means of preserving the nationality of the Indians,
and in some measure mitigating the melancholy fate of that once great
race which disease and excessive labor now threaten to destroy.

In former times the cultivation of coca in the Montaña de Vitoc was very
considerable. Upwards of 4,000 arobas used to be annually forwarded to
the market of Tarma. Now only fifty arobas are sent. Vitoc produces no
fodder for horses or mules; those animals, therefore, are very lean and
feeble in this district, and are usually unfit for work after two years.
Indeed, they suffer so much from the attacks of the blood-sucking bat
and the gad-fly (_tabano_), that after being only a few weeks in the
Montaña de Vitoc, their strength is exhausted, and they are scarcely
able to reach the Puna. Black cattle, on the contrary, thrive
excellently; but it is not possible to keep up herds, for the young
calves are all devoured by the numerous animals of prey. The llamas,
which the Cholos bring from Tapo to Vitoc, are so enfeebled and overcome
by the journey, that on the second day after their arrival it is often
found necessary to send them to a colder district.

In this Montaña the large animals of prey seldom approach human
habitations, though sometimes the ounce pays them a visit, and the
Cuguar descends from the Ceja. Other animals of the feline genus are
very numerous, and their depredations render it impossible to breed
poultry. Even the fabulous animal, called the _carbunculo_, is said to
have been seen oftener than once in Vitoc. In almost every place I
visited on the coast, in the Sierra, and in the Montañas, extraordinary
stories concerning this animal were related; and many persons even
assured me they had seen him. The carbunculo is represented to be of the
size of a fox, with long black hair, and is only visible at night, when
it slinks slowly through the thickets. If followed, he opens a flap or
valve in the forehead, from under which an extraordinary, brilliant, and
dazzling light issues. The natives believe that this light proceeds from
a brilliant precious stone, and that any fool hardy person who may
venture to grasp at it rashly is blinded; then the flap is let down, and
the animal disappears in the darkness. Such are the stories related by
the Indians; and it appears that the belief of the existence of the
carbunculo has prevailed in Peru from the earliest times, and certainly
before the conquest, so that its introduction cannot be attributed to
the Spaniards. It is even prevalent among many of the wild Indian
tribes, by whom the early missionaries were told the stories which they
in their turn repeated about the animal. As yet nobody has been
fortunate enough to capture such an animal, though the Spaniards always
showed themselves very desirous to obtain possession of the precious
jewel; and the viceroys, in their official instructions to the
missionaries, placed the carbunculo in the first order of desiderata.
What animal may have served as a foundation for those fabulous stories,
it is certainly difficult to decide; probably a different one in each
particular district. On the coast it may have been the _añash_ (one of
the mephitic animals), which seeks for his food only at night. I have
often observed for a moment a singularly brilliant flashing in the eyes
of that animal when irritated.

The worst enemies of the delightful Montaña de Vitoc are the wild
Indians, who are only separated from the Christian Indians by the two
rivers Aynamayo and Tullumayo. They belong to the ferocious race of the
_Chunchos_, and in their savage manners they somewhat resemble the
Casibos and Campas. They have their chief residence in Chibatizo, nine
leagues from Pucara. Only three leagues from Pacchapata, at the
confluence of the Chanchamayo and Tullumayo, they have a pretty large
village; and Palmapata, which they temporarily took possession of, is
situated still nearer. They frequently extend their hunting excursions
to the banks of the great rivers, and make inroads upon the territory of
Vitoc, cruelly murdering all the Cholos they meet with. Any kind of
friendly intercourse with them is impracticable. I took some pains to
accomplish that object, but without success. While they were on their
hunting expeditions I have left in their huts knives, fish-hooks,
ear-rings, and other things. In return for these presents they left for
me some of their edible roots, among which were yuccas, but all were
poisoned, so that, had we not observed caution, I and my venturous
companion, Klee, might have fallen victims to the treachery of these
Indians. The Chunchos, when on their expeditions, are almost in a state
of nudity. Sometimes they wear a short whitish-brown shirt without
sleeves. This garment, when worn by the chiefs, is red. Most of them dye
their hair with achote (_Bixa Orellana_, L.), a deep vermilion, and
paint the face and breast of the same color. Their weapons consist of a
bow of chonta (_Guilielma speciosa_), with which they use two kinds of
arrows. One kind are very long, with round points and barbs of chonta;
the others are shorter, and have points made of reed, which inflict deep
wounds, very difficult to be healed. They also use the great wooden
sword, the _macana_. A cross having been put up in the forest, they
fastened to it a few days afterwards a macana and two arrows, as
symbols of irreconcilable enmity to Christians. Their warlike instrument
is a reed, two feet long and four inches broad, through which their
howlings resound in horrible discord.

It is a custom with the inhabitants of Vitoc to undertake two
expeditions every year against the Chunchos. They are the most laughable
enterprises imaginable. All the Cholos of the valley, with the Alcalde
at their head, or rather in the midst of them, proceed, armed with
sticks, axes, forest knives, and _two_ muskets,[101] to explore the banks
of both rivers. The front ranks advance with drums beating, and a number
of Indians carry large calabashes filled with guarapo, to which they pay
their earnest devotions every half hour. When by accident some of the
Chunchos are seen, the Cholos fly with all the rapidity that terror can
inspire, and cannot be got together again till they reach their village;
then they raise a tremendous shout, and when safe in their dwellings
boast proudly of their heroic deeds.

The Chunchos are in possession of a very rich bed of salt, some twelve
or fourteen leagues from Vitoc, from whence they permit the neighboring
tribes with whom they are at peace, to supply themselves with salt.
Hostile tribes, such as the Campas and the Callisecas, sometimes attempt
to carry away salt, and then a sanguinary contest ensues. This stratum
of salt comes from the top of a hill, called the Cerro de la Sal, and it
runs in the direction from south-west to north-east, to the length of
nearly three leagues, covering a breadth of about thirty ells. The salt
is mixed with red earth. It is probably a continuation of the great salt
bed of Maynas, stretching eastward along the left bank of the Perene. It
may be presumed that it does not extend as far as the immense Pajonal,
as the Campas go for their salt to the Cerro de la Sal.

In former times various attempts were made to convert the Chunchos to
Christianity; and these attempts were partially successful. The first
missionary who ventured among them was the intrepid Fray Geronimo
Ximenes. In 1635 he penetrated from Huancabamba to the Cerro de la Sal,
and there preached the gospel in the language of the people. He built a
chapel, and then directed his course south-west to Vitoc, where he
founded the village San Buenaventura. Two years after he embarked on the
Chanchamayo, with the intention of extending his mission to the Campas
tribe, by whom he was killed, together with his companion, Fray
Christoval Larios, and twenty-eight other Spaniards. Several
missionaries subsequently proceeded to the Cerro de la Sal, and found
favor with the natives, so that in 1640 they had no less than seven
villages of converted Chunchos, Amagas, and Campas; but only a few years
afterwards all the missionaries and soldiers were killed and the chapels
were destroyed. The Franciscan monks, inspired by their indefatigable
zeal, ventured in 1671, on a new mission to the fatal Cerro de la Sal;
and they had the good fortune to found a village in which eight hundred
Neophytes were collected. A second and smaller village was founded in
the vicinity of the destroyed San Buenaventura, and named Santa Rosa de
Quimiri; but the avarice of some Spaniards who fancied there were gold
mines in the Cerro de la Sal, induced them to get the missions withdrawn
from the superintendence of the priests, and to turn the whole into a
political system. Then commenced the oppression of the Indians in those
parts. The consequence was a great insurrection in 1674, when all the
whites were massacred. Thus were the labors of the missionaries a second
time annihilated. Every attempt for the conversion of Indians was for a
long time fruitless, and the missionaries who ventured to approach them
were shot. After the lapse of about thirty years, during which interval
the Chunchos had fallen back to their original savage state, the founder
of the Convent of Ocopa, Fray Francisco de San Jose, with four priests
and two lay brothers, penetrated into the valley of Vitoc, and entered
upon the territory of the Chunchos. At this time (1709) Vitoc was first
peopled, and in the course of twenty years six large villages were
built. In the year 1739 these missions, again flourishing, counted ten
Christian villages and three thousand baptized Indians. Three years
afterwards the Indian insurrection, headed by the apostate Juan Santos,
destroyed all the missions of Central Peru.

Juan Santos was an Indian born at Huamanga, and he claimed descent from
the last of the Incas. This claim was probably well founded, for before
the revolt he was called Atahuallpa, which was the name of the Inca put
to death by Pizarro. Juan Santos was haughty, high spirited, and clever.
In the year 1741 he killed, in a quarrel, a Spaniard of high rank, and
to elude the pursuit of justice, he fled to the forests. There he
brooded over plans for taking vengeance on the oppressors of his
country. He first addressed himself to the tribes of the Campas, and
having gained them over, he proceeded to Quisopongo in the Pajonal. From
thence, in the year 1742, he made his first attack on the mission of the
Cerro de la Sal. The Spaniards had already been warned of the intended
rising, but they considered it too unimportant to call for serious
measures of repression; and whilst lulling themselves in their imagined
security, they were surprised and massacred by the Indians. The
insurrection spread with incredible rapidity. Juan Santos himself led
all the principal attacks. In one night he took the fortress of Quimiri
with sixty-five men, all of whom were massacred in the most cruel
manner. The well-defended fort of Paucartambo was next taken by a small
number of Chunchos, commanded by Juan Santos. All the Christian churches
were destroyed by the insurgents. The sacred images and the priests were
tied together, and cast into the rivers; the villages were burned, and
the cultivated fields laid waste. The number of Spanish soldiers killed
in this insurrection was 245; the number of priests, 26. In the course
of a few weeks all the missions of central Peru were completely
destroyed, and terror spread even to the mountains. The Spanish
government found it necessary to adopt the most vigorous measures, for
there was reason to fear that the mountain Indians would revolt. Castles
and forts were built on the frontiers of all the Montañas and strongly
garrisoned; but the insurrection did not extend further. The ultimate
fate of Juan Santos Atahuallpa has never been satisfactorily
ascertained. Some assert that he became a powerful ruler, and that as
long as he lived the races of the Chunchos, Pacañes, Chichirrenes,
Campas, and Simirinches, were united. On an old manuscript in the
monastery of Ocopa I found a marginal note, in which it was said, "As to
the monster, the apostate Juan Santos Atahuallpa, after his diabolical
destruction of our missions, the wrath of God was directed against him
in the most fearful manner. He died the death of Herod, for his living
body was devoured by worms."

Shortly after the tragical downfall of these missions, two priests, Fra
Francisco Otasua and Fray Salvador Pando, visited the ruins of Quimiri,
and endeavored to conciliate the rebels; but in vain. After three
months, during which they suffered dreadful ill treatment from the
Chunchos, they returned to the monastery of Ocopa.

These missionaries were all monks of the order of San Francisco. Their
active zeal and heroic submission to any sacrifice in furtherance of the
cause in which they were embarked must excite at once astonishment and
admiration. Undaunted by incredible privations and laborious exertions
in the pathless forests, without food or shelter; undismayed by the
continual apprehension of a violent and cruel death, they courageously
obeyed the inward impulse which inspired them to preach the gospel to
the wild Indians. When intelligence was received of the violent death of
one of the brotherhood, others immediately offered to supply the place
of the victim, and the superiors of the order had much difficulty in
restraining the zealous monks. In the central and northern missions of
Peru, 129 Franciscan monks were murdered by the wild Indians. Those
who compose that number are recorded by name, but many others
disappeared without leaving a trace of what had become of them, and of
course they are not included in the list. The number of lay brethren
who perished is much greater. It is indeed melancholy to reflect how
little advantage has been obtained by the sacrifice of so many
valuable lives. The missions have nearly all disappeared, and the
Indians have now retrograded into the savage state in which they were
before the conquest of Peru.

The Franciscan monks were mild and patient teachers. They proceeded on
the principle of leaving the Christian religion to act for itself, and
they scorned to promote it by any kind of compulsion. The Dominicans, on
the other hand, who came to Peru with the conquerors, preached
Christianity with fire and sword. The Jesuits, who headed the missions
of Southern Peru, adopted the one way or the other, as they found most
advantageous to the object they had in view. By this means they secured
the attachment of the neophytes, and retained most of their conversions.
Many of the Jesuit missionaries were highly intelligent and
well-informed men. We are indebted to them for important geographical
and statistical information, and in particular for some philological
works of great value, viz., a grammar and dictionary of the language of
every tribe they converted. The Dominican monks, who were mere ignorant
fanatics, sacrificed to their blind zeal for conversion all the
monuments of the early civilization of the Peruvians, and restrained,
rather than promoted, the intellectual development of the people. The
Franciscans, animated by pious inspiration, earnestly preached the
doctrines of Christ to the wild inhabitants of the distant forests; but
they communicated little information to the rest of world. A few
imperfect maps, and some scanty notices on the manners and customs of
the Indians, are the whole amount of their laical labors.

In the year 1779 an attempt was again made to penetrate to the Cerro de
la Sal, and a road was opened leading from Palca to Chanchamayo, where a
fort was built; but at the expiration of five years the government
destroyed it, as continued irruptions of the Chunchos could not be
checked. In 1784, the governor of Tarma, Don Juan Maria de Galvas,
supported by the Superior of Ocopa, Fray Manuel Sobreviela, visited the
valley of Vitoc, which had been abandoned since the Indian insurrection.
The new village of San Teodoro de Pucara was founded, and the destroyed
fort, Santa Ana de Colla, was rebuilt. The Montaña was soon peopled, and
in a short time it contained upwards of forty haciendas and large
chacras. The village of Sorriano, scarcely two leagues from Colla, was
then inhabited by Chunchos, who showed a willingness to maintain
friendly intercourse with the occupants of Vitoc, from whom they took
meat, tools, and other things, which they repaid by agricultural labor.
Unfortunately, the plantation owners soon began to take an undue
advantage of this friendly intercourse, and to charge exorbitant prices
for the articles required by the Indians. For a pin or a needle they
demanded two days' work, for a fishing-hook four, and for a wretched
knife, eight, ten, or more. A rupture was the consequence. The Chunchos
burned their own village, and returned again to Chanchamayo. Still,
however, they continued on a sort of amicable footing with the Cholos,
until one of the latter wantonly shot a Chuncho at a festival. The tribe
then mustered in thousands to avenge the murder. They destroyed the
Christian villages, and massacred all the inhabitants who were not able
to fly. Thus was Vitoc once more depopulated: Cardenas, the military
governor of Tarma, made a fresh endeavor to restore the cultivation of
this fine valley. He made the road again passable, laid out the large
plantation Chuntabamba, built and garrisoned the Colla fort. The site of
the former Chuncho village, Sorriano, was converted into a _cocal_ (or
coca field), and the Montaña began once more to assume a flourishing
aspect. Still, however, the Chunchos continued to harass their
neighbors, particularly during the time of the coca harvest, which could
not be gathered without military protection. During one of the harvests
a laborer was shot by the wild Indians, which so terrified the Cholos,
that they all fled to Sorriano. Soon after, Cardenas died, and the coca
plantation being neglected, became a waste. A few years afterwards the
hacienda of Pacchapata was laid out. During the war of independence the
Spaniards destroyed Fort Colla, and the inhabitants of Vitoc were left
without any means of defence against their savage enemies. The last
attempt to reduce the Chunchos to subjection and order was made by a
military expedition under the command of General Don Francisco de Paula
de Otero, but owing to ill-arranged plans it totally failed. No more
than twenty-five years have elapsed since the valley of Vitoc, with its
rich plantations, was in the most flourishing prosperity. Now only faint
traces of its past cultivation are discernible.

The history of the Montaña of Vitoc is the history of all the Montañas
of Peru. In all, we perceive the alternate rise and decline of
cultivation and civilization, caused by the efforts of the missionaries,
and the incursions of the wild Indians. Throughout all these districts
the present condition exhibits a marked inferiority to the past, a
circumstance which may be accounted for by the long-continued civil war,
during the contest for independence. Nevertheless, the internal
tranquillity of the country, and the increasing population, suggest
favorable prognostics for the future.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 98: See page 189.]

[Footnote 99: I allude here to individuals (and such cases are by no
means singular) who have attained the great age of 130. Supposing these
Indians to have begun to masticate coca at ten years old, and calculate
their daily consumption as a minimum at one ounce, the result is the
consumption of twenty-seven hundred weight, in 120 years.]

[Footnote 100: The worthy Padre forgets the high price that would be
charged for coca in Europe. In Tarma and Huenuco the aroba (twenty-five
pounds) costs at an average six Spanish dollars; add to this the
carriage to Lima, the freight to Europe, custom-house duties, &c., and
this price would be nearly doubled.]

[Footnote 101: The whole valley of Vitoc can furnish only two muskets,
and these are in as useless a state as possible. As for powder, there
is a constant want of it. During my residence in Vitoc I usually gave
the Alcalde some of my powder when he went out with his Cholos, or
when there was a firing on festival days. The want of a suitable
number of muskets, and sufficient powder in the dangerous vicinity of
the Chunchos, is characteristic of the improvidence of the
inhabitants of Vitoc.]

CHAPTER XVI.

Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians--The
Repartimiento and the Mita--Indian Insurrections--Tupac Amaru--His
Capture and Execution--War of Independence--Character of the Peruvian
Indians--Music--Dress--Superstitions--Longevity--Diminished
Population of Peru--Languages spoken by the Aboriginal
Inhabitants--Specimen of Quichua Poetry--The Yaravies--The
Quipu--Water Conduits--Ancient Buildings--Fortresses--Idols--Domestic
Utensils--Ancient Peruvian Graves--Mode of Burying the Dead--Mummies.

A glance at the history of Peru serves to show that prior to the Spanish
conquest the Indians were the subjects of a dynasty, to which they
rendered willing obedience. We find, indeed, an uninterrupted series of
revolutions and wars, arising out of the continued extension of the
empire, to which nations differing one from another in language,
religion, and manners, were gradually annexed. For some time after their
subjugation these nations struggled to recover their independence, but
the wise and mild government of the Incas gradually restored peace, and
established unity. In course of time, the magnitude of the empire led to
its downfall. Huayna Inca-Capac divided his dominions between his two
sons. To the elder, Huascar, he gave the southern portion of the empire,
and to the younger, Atahuallpa, he gave the northern division. Between
the two brothers there arose disputes, which led to a sanguinary war;
and in that fatal interval, Pizarro, with his invading forces, landed in
Peru. With a degree of speed, which internal union among the people
would have rendered impossible, the Spaniards made themselves masters of
the country, massacred alike sovereigns and subjects, destroyed the
sanctuaries, and established a new religion and new laws. The barbarous
cruelties by which that religion and those laws were upheld are too well
known to require repetition here. Of the many oppressive measures to
which the Spaniards enforced submission from the conquered people, I
will briefly notice two: the _Repartimiento_ and the _Mita_. The
Repartimiento was the distribution, among the natives, of articles of
European production. These distributions were under the superintendence
of the provincial authorities, the corregidores, and the sub-delegados.
The law was doubtless intended, in its origin, for the advantage and
convenience of the native Indians, by supplying them with necessaries at
a reasonable price. But, subsequently, the Repartimiento became a source
of oppression and fraud, in the hands of the provincial authorities. All
the corregidores and sub-delegados became traders. They purchased
consignments of manufactured goods from Europe, at a cheap rate, and
sold them to the Indians at exorbitant prices. To add to the grievance,
the articles thus forced upon the natives were, in many instances, not
necessaries, but objects of luxury utterly useless to them. Even more
oppressive and cruel than the Repartimiento, was the Mita, which
consisted of the forced labor of the Indians in the mines and
plantations. Every Spaniard who wished to work a mine, obtained from the
corregidor a certain number of Indians, to each of whom he gave daily
four reals as wages, with the agreement of paying to the government a
yearly tax of eight dollars. The condition of the Indians who were
distributed to the plantation owners was even worse than that of the
mine laborers; they received only two reals per day, and were required
to work in the fields from three in the morning until after sunset. The
Indians employed in this compulsory labor, whether in the mines or the
plantations, were called _Mitas_. But there was another sort of forced
labor, for which no wages were paid. It was indeed less toilsome than
working in the mines and plantations, yet the Indians employed in it
were frequently subject to much ill-treatment. I allude to domestic
service in the houses of the corregidores, sub-delegados, and priests.
The Indians thus employed were called _Pongos_, and they were required
to continue in their places for the space of a year, after which they
were discharged. A corregidor frequently had half a dozen of these
pongos, whom he provided with miserable food and wretched clothing.[102]

In the mines and plantations countless numbers of Indians were annually
swept away by the excessive labor consequent on the mita. Some writers
estimate at nine millions the number of Indians sacrificed in the mines
in the course of three centuries. This estimate is certainly too high;
but three millions more may be added for the number of victims of the
mita in the plantations.

That the government in Spain should have tolerated this barbarous
system, so obviously calculated to bring ruin on the nation, may
naturally be matter of surprise. But a glance at the Indian laws (_Leyes
de Indias_) suffices to show the distinction between the intentions of
the Spanish government and the corrupt legislation of the country. The
laws are, with some few exceptions, conceived in a mild spirit, and show
that their framers had in view the well-being of the colonies. The
execution of these laws was consigned to the superintendence of what was
termed the Indian council (_Consejo de Indias_). This council consisted
of a certain number of men who resided in Spain, and who either were
only in part acquainted with the real state of things in South America,
or were bribed by Indian gold to wink at the abuses committed there.
From this council were chosen the viceroys and high authorities of the
colonies, who, whilst in the exercise of their official functions,
amassed enormous wealth by unjust exactions from the Indians. One of the
latest viceroys of Peru was a man who arrived in Lima in a state of
utter poverty, and who, in the short space of three years, amassed the
immense sum of five millions of dollars.

Could it be matter of surprise if at length the Indians rose against
their oppressors, and made an effort to shake off the heavy yoke of
their tyrants? For two hundred years they had borne it silently, without
a single attempt to emancipate themselves. Juan Santos Atahuallpa was
the first who stirred up revolt against the Spaniards. The insurrection
which he had headed, though deemed too insignificant to fix the
attention of the short-sighted government of Lima, nevertheless,
convinced the Indians that they were strong enough to make a stand
against their oppressors. Several partial risings in Southern Peru were
speedily put down; a leader was wanted to organize the disconnected
plans and movements of the insurgents. This want was at length supplied
in the person of the ill-fated Tupac Amaru, cacique of Tungasuca, a
descendant of the last Inca.

The event which caused Tupac Amaru to attempt a movement against the
Spaniards occurred in 1780. In that year, the corregidor of Tinta, Don
Antonio Ariaga, made repartimientos to the amount of 340,000 dollars,
and with the most cruel rigor enforced payment of the useless articles
distributed. The cacique of Tungasuca assembled the irritated Indians,
who seized the corregidor and hanged him. This was the signal for a
general rising in all the neighboring districts. The forces of Tupac
Amaru augmented daily. He was invested with the title of Inca, and
treated with the honors due to sovereignty. For several months an active
war was maintained in the Puna, where several towns and villages were
taken by the insurgents. Tupac Amaru had made himself master of the
village of Chucuito, and was preparing to advance upon Cuzco, when,
about the end of April, 1781, he, and all his family, were made
prisoners by the Spaniards. He was tried and condemned to death,
together with his wife, two sons, his brother-in-law, and several other
individuals of note among the Indians.

But the execution of Tupac Amaru, which was marked by circumstances of
monstrous barbarity, far from stemming the tide of revolution, served
only to stimulate the vengeance of the insurgents. They once more
mustered their warlike bands, under the command of Casimiro Tupac Amaru,
the brother of the late cacique, his son Andres, and an intrepid Indian
chief, named Nicacatari. The latter, assisted by Andres, burned several
villages of Upper Peru, and murdered all the whites. They next advanced
upon the strongly fortified town of Sorrata, whither the Spaniards of
the surrounding districts had fled for protection. The town was taken by
the insurgents, and the inhabitants, 22,000 in number, inhumanly put to
death, with the exception of eighty-seven priests and monks. The Indians
then advanced westwards, defeating several Spanish corps, and spreading
terror and dismay through the country. But, that which neither the arms
nor the executions of the Spaniards could accomplish, was effected by
their gold. A treacherous Indian, bribed by the promise of a large
reward, conducted a division of Spanish soldiers to the spot where the
chiefs were accustomed to meet, unattended by any guard, to hold their
council. They were surprised, captured, and condemned to death. Once
more deprived of leaders, the Indians disbanded and withdrew, some to
their homes, and others into the forests. Numberless victims paid the
debt of retribution to the Spanish government, which now adopted every
measure that could tend to annihilate the nationality of the native
Indians. Their dances, their music, their dress--all that could revive
the remembrance of their progenitors, was condemned to rigorous
prohibition; they were even forbidden the use of their mother tongue,
the Quichua language. The only beneficial result of these wars, in which
upwards of a hundred thousand lives were sacrificed, was the abolition
of the Repartimientos, which had been the cause of the insurrections.

Peace was now, at least to appearance, restored; and if, occasionally,
symptoms of disturbance arose, they were immediately repressed. This
state of things continued until the Creoles themselves gave the signal
of revolt, and the War of Independence broke out in all the Spanish
colonies of South America. In this enterprise the Indians readily took
part. But it is a great mistake to suppose that the Indian natives made
common cause with the Creoles against the Spaniards for the purpose of
bringing about the present form of government. They wished to emancipate
themselves in order to establish their own dynasty and a government
modelled after that of their forefathers. They wanted not a republic,
but a monarchy, and a sovereign chosen from the sacred race of the
Incas. Having no clear comprehension of the real object of the War of
Independence, the Indians, when they saw whites fighting against whites,
directed their hostility against all _Pucacuncas_ (pale faces) without
distinction, killing loyalists or patriots, just as they happened to
fall in their way. This hatred was so bitterly manifested, that in some
provinces all the whites and mestizos were obliged to fly, even though
they were the most decided enemies of the Spanish loyalists. In Jauja
the Indians vowed not to leave even a white dog or a white fowl alive,
and they even scraped the whitewash from the walls of the houses.

The provisional government ordered levies of troops to be made in the
provinces which had fallen into the hands of the patriots; and then, for
the first time, Indians were enrolled in the army as regular troops. But
it was only in a very few districts that they voluntarily took part in
the conflict for independence: they performed the forced service of
conscripts, and whenever an opportunity enabled them to retire from it,
they did so. The Spanish dominion being overthrown, the war terminated,
and a republican constitution was established. The Indians then clearly
perceived that they had been made the tools of the leaders of the
revolution. Upon the whole, their condition was but little improved; for
if they were relieved from some oppressive laws, other hardships weighed
heavily on them, and they found that they still were slaves in the land
of their fathers. The creoles, like the Spaniards, will draw the string
of despotism till it snaps. Then will arise another Indian insurrection
like that headed by Tupac Amaru, but with a more successful result.
After a fearful struggle, they may reconquer their fatherland, and
re-establish their ancient constitution; and can it be matter of
surprise if they wreak cruel vengeance on the enemies of their race?

Since the War of Independence, the Indians have made immense progress.
During the civil war, which was kept up uninterruptedly for the space of
twenty years, they were taught military manoeuvres and the use of
fire-arms. After every lost battle the retreating Indians carried with
them in their flight their muskets, which they still keep carefully
concealed. They are also acquainted with the manufacture of gunpowder,
of which in all their festivals they use great quantities for squibs and
rockets. The materials for the preparation of gunpowder are found in
abundance in the valleys of the Sierra.

In the year 1841, when I was passing through a miserable village on the
confines of one of the Montañas of Central Peru, I took up my abode for
some days in the hut of an Indian, and whilst there I accidentally saw
eighteen muskets which were deposited in a place of concealment. I,
quite unsuspectingly, inquired of the Indian, why he thought it
requisite to keep so many weapons of defence? He replied, with a
sinister frown, that the time would come when he should find them
useful. I could easily perceive that my accidental discovery was by no
means agreeable to him; and from the very marked change which I observed
in his manner. I deemed it prudent to withdraw from the village and its
vicinity. Whilst my horse was being saddled, I noticed my host and some
of his confidential friends engaged in very earnest conversation, and I
could easily perceive that I was the subject of it. On my departure the
Indian asked me, with apparent friendliness of manner, which way I was
going? When I was beyond the sphere of his observation, I deemed it
prudent to proceed quite in an opposite direction from the route which I
told him I intended to take.

The character of the Peruvian Indian is essentially gloomy. It was not
always so, if we may give credit to the animated pictures drawn by early
travellers in Peru; but three hundred years of oppression and suffering
have impressed their melancholy stamp on the feelings and manners of the
people. This gloominess is strikingly manifested in their songs, their
dances, their dress, and their whole domestic economy. The favorite
musical instruments of the Indians are those called the _Pututo_ and the
_Jaina_. The former is a large conch, on which they perform mournful
music, as the accompaniment of their funeral dances. In early times this
conch was employed in the solemnities of royal interments; now its use
is exclusively reserved for the anniversaries held in commemoration of
certain events connected with the fallen Inca dynasty. The _Jaina_
appears to be of more modern origin; it is a rude kind of clarionet,
made from a reed. Its tone is indescribably melancholy, and it produces
an extraordinary impression on the natives. If a group of Indians are
rioting and drinking, or engaged in furious conflict with each other,
and the sound of the _Jaina_ is suddenly heard, the tumult ceases, as if
by a stroke of magic. A dead stillness prevails, and all listen devoutly
to the magic tones of the simple reed; tones which frequently draw tears
from the eyes of the apathetic Indian.

Their garments are all of dark and sombre hues. Dark blue is a favorite
color, and appears to be generally adopted for mourning; for whenever
the Indians follow a corpse to the grave, they always wear dark blue
ponchos. The dress of the men usually consists of short trowsers, of
coarse brown cloth, fastened round the waist by a girdle, and a woollen
or cotton shirt. They seldom wear a jacket, the ponchos of Alpaca wool
being always the outer garment. On their feet they wear sandals of
untanned leather, which merely cover the toes, and are fastened round
the ancle.

The dress of the women consists of a loose under garment, without
sleeves, and made of coarse blue woollen cloth. It is confined round the
waist by a broad girdle, called the _huccau_. Over the arms are drawn
black sleeves, reaching from the wrist to about the middle of the upper
arm. A sort of robe or tunic, called the _anacu_, descends from the
shoulders to the knees. It is fastened, not in front, but on one side.
This garment is made of a thin sort of woollen stuff. It is always
black, being worn in token of mourning for the Incas. On the occasion of
certain festivals, the Indian women wear a particolored dress, called a
_faldillin_. This garment frequently exhibits the most glaring contrasts
of color, one half being bright red, and the other yellow, in addition
to which it is sometimes adorned with flowers of brilliant hues, and
tasteless, gold embroidery. A _mantilla_, consisting of a narrow piece
of woollen cloth, passed over the shoulders, and fastened under the
chin, either with a long silver pin, or a cactus-thorn, completes the
costume. In this mantilla, or in a poncho, mothers are accustomed to
wrap their infants, and fastening them to their backs, they carry them
about in this manner for a whole day, whilst engaged in their work.

In their domestic relations, the Indians are unsocial and gloomy.
Husband, wife, and children live together with but little appearance of
affection. The children seem to approach their parents timidly, and
whole days sometimes elapse without the interchange of a word of
kindness between them. When the Indian is not engaged in out-door work,
he sits gloomily in his hut, chewing coca, and brooding silently over
his own thoughts. To his friend he is more communicative than to his
wife. With the former, he will often discourse, apparently on some
secret topic, for the space of half a night; nevertheless, he cannot be
accused of treating his wife with any degree of cruelty, or of
regarding her merely in the light of his slave, as is customary among
many uncivilized races of people.

Besides the official authorities, to which the Government exacts
obedience, the Peruvian Indian acknowledges other authorities, whose
functions and power are similar to those which existed under the Inca
dynasty. In like manner, though they have embraced the Christian faith,
yet they obstinately adhere to certain religious ceremonies, which have
been transmitted to them by their idolatrous progenitors. Thus their
religion is a singular combination of Christian principles and
heathenish forms. Hitherto the most patient and intelligent of their
religious instructors have failed to outroot this attachment to old
forms. The Christian religion has been spread among the Indians by
force; and for centuries past, they have regarded the priests only in
the light of tyrants, who make religion a cloak for the most scandalous
pecuniary extortions, and whose conduct is in direct opposition to the
doctrines they profess. If they render to them unconditional obedience,
accompanied by a sort of timid reverence, it is to be attributed less to
the operation of the Christian principle, than to a lingering attachment
to the theocratic government of the Incas, which has impressed the
Peruvians with a sacred awe of religion.

The superstition with which the Indians are so deeply imbued is adverse
to the inculcation of pure religious faith; it is the more difficult to
be eradicated, inasmuch as it has its origin in early tradition, and has
in later times been singularly blended with the Catholic form of
worship. Of this superstition I may here adduce some examples. As soon
as a dying person draws his last breath, the relatives, or persons in
attendance, put coca leaves into the mouth of the corpse, and light a
wax candle. They then collect together the household goods and clothes
of the deceased and wash them in the nearest river. They put on the dead
clothes, which are made after the pattern of a monk's habit, and they
hang round the neck of the corpse a little bag, containing seeds of
coca, maize, barley, quinua, &c., for his plantations in the next world.
In the evening ashes are strewed on the floor of the room, and the door
is securely fastened. Next morning the ashes are carefully examined to
ascertain whether they show any impression of footsteps; and imagination
readily traces marks, which are alleged to have been produced by the
feet of birds, dogs, cats, oxen, or llamas. The destiny of the dead
person is construed by the foot-marks which are supposed to be
discernible. The worst marks are those of hens' claws, which are
believed to denote that the soul of the deceased is doomed to
irrevocable perdition. The marks of the hoofs of llamas are considered
favorable, and are believed to indicate that the soul, after a short
purgatory, will be transferred to the joys of paradise. The funeral is
conducted according to Christian forms, and under the superintendence of
a priest. But as soon as the priest takes his departure food is put into
the grave along with the dead body, which is interred without a coffin.
I have sometimes seen one of the nearest relatives leap into the grave
and strike the body with his foot, but the meaning of this strange
proceeding I never could clearly understand. Some curious ceremonies are
observed on All Souls' Day. In every house in which a member of the
family has died in the course of the year, a table is laid out with
brandy, coca, tobacco, together with some of the favorite dishes of the
deceased person, and the chamber is kept closed the whole day. The
family firmly believe that the spirit of their departed relative on that
day revisits his earthly abode, and partakes of the repast that is
spread out on the table. A widow usually wears mourning for the space of
twelve months. In some provinces, on the anniversary of her husband's
death, the widow puts on a bridal dress, and over it her ordinary
garments. All her relatives visit her in her dwelling, where, to the
accompaniment of doleful music, she takes the lead in a funeral dance.
As the hour approaches at which the husband died in the previous year,
the dancing and the music become more and more mournful; but whenever
the hour is past one of the female friends approaches the widow and
removes her black mantilla. The other females then strip off the rest of
her mourning garments, and adorn her head with flowers. At length she
appears in a complete bridal dress. The musicians strike up a lively
strain, to which the whole party dance, and the evening is passed in
drinking and merry-making.

Among the Peruvian Indians there are marked varieties of form and
complexion. These differences are most distinctly observable between
the inhabitants of the coast and those of the mountain and forest
regions. In general, the Peruvian Indian is of middle height, rather
slender, and not very robust. The coast Indians are more plump than the
inhabitants of other districts, because they lead a less laborious life,
and are less exposed to privations. It is scarcely possible to trace any
particular national physiognomy among the Indians. In each province a
distinct character is observable in the features of the inhabitants. The
varieties of feature are less distinctly marked than the differences of
complexion. The peculiar tints of the skin are decidedly defined, and
indicate respectively the inhabitants of the three principal regions.
The colder the climate, the fairer is the skin. For example, the color
of the Puna Indian is a dark red-brown; that of the native of the Sierra
is considerably lighter; it is a rusty red, but still darker than that
of the coast Indians; and the natives of the forests are yellow, nearly
approaching to maize color. These differences are singularly striking,
when one has an opportunity of seeing the inhabitants of the different
regions in juxtaposition. It is curious that the Cholos of the Puna,
when they settle in the forests, become only a very little clearer; and
that, on the other hand, the yellow Indians of the Montaña, after being
several years in the Puna, still retain their characteristic tint. The
women are, on the whole, extremely ugly, with round, inexpressive faces.
Their hands and feet are very small.

The Indians are, on the average, remarkable for longevity, though they
frequently shorten their lives by the intemperate use of strong drinks.
Instances are not rare of Indians living to be 120 or 130 years of age,
and retaining full possession of their bodily and mental powers.
Stevenson mentions that on examining the church registers of Barranca,
he found that within an interval of seven years, eleven Indians had been
interred, whose united ages amounted to 1207, being an average of 109
years to each. In the year 1839 there was living in the valley of Jauja
an Indian who, according to the baptismal register shown to me by the
priest, was born in the year 1697. He himself declared that he had not
for the space of ninety years tasted a drop of water, having drunk
nothing but chicha. Since he was eleven years of age, he alleged that
he had masticated coca, at least three times every day, and that he had
eaten animal food only on Sundays; on all the other days of the week he
had lived on maize, quinua, and barley. The Indians retain their teeth
and hair in extreme old age; and it is remarkable that their hair never
becomes white, and very seldom even grey. Those individuals whose
advanced ages have been mentioned above, had all fine black hair.

Since the Spanish conquest, the population of Peru has diminished in an
almost incredible degree. When we read the accounts given by the old
historiographers of the vast armies which the Incas had at their
command; when we behold the ruins of the gigantic buildings, and of the
numerous towns and villages scattered over Peru, it is difficult to
conceive how the land could have been so depopulated in the lapse of
three centuries. At the time of the conquest it was easy, in a short
space of time, to raise an army of 300,000 men, and, moreover, to form
an important reserved force; whilst now, the Government, even with the
utmost efforts, can scarcely assemble 10,000 or 12,000 men. According to
the census drawn up in 1836, Peru did not contain more than 1,400,000
men, being not quite so many as were contained at an earlier period in
the department of Cuzco alone. Unfortunately there is no possibility of
obtaining anything approaching to accurate estimates of the population
of early periods; and even if such documents existed, it would be
difficult to deduce from them a comparison between Peru as it now is,
and Peru at the period when Bolivia, a part of Buenos Ayres, and
Columbia, belonged to the mighty empire. I will here quote only one
example of the immense diminution of the population. Father Melendez
mentions that shortly after the conquest, the parish of Ancallama, in
the province of Chancay, contained 30,000 Indians fit for service (that
is to say, between the ages of eighteen and fifty); now, the same parish
contains at most 140 individuals, of whom one-third are Mestizos. The
whole coast of Peru, now almost totally depopulated, was once so thickly
inhabited, that to subdue King Chimu, in North Peru alone, an army of
80,000 men was requisite. The causes of the diminished Indian population
of Peru have been so frequently and fully detailed by previous writers,
that I need not here do more than briefly advert to them. They are found
in the extensive and reckless massacres committed by the Spaniards
during the struggle of the conquest; in the suicides and voluntary
deaths resorted to by the natives to escape from the power of their
oppressors; in the mita, the small-pox, the scarlet fever, and the
introduction of brandy. The mita alone, especially the labor in the
mines, has swept away four times as many Indians as all the other causes
combined. Since the abolition of the mita, the Indian population has
been on the increase, though there has not yet been time for any marked
result to become manifest; the more especially, considering the numbers
of lives sacrificed during the frequent civil wars. Nevertheless, it is
easy to foresee that a decided augmentation of the Indian inhabitants of
the western parts of South America will, ere long, be apparent.

Among the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru a variety of languages are in
use. In the southern parts of the country, particularly about Cuzco, the
_Quichua_ is spoken. It was the dialect of the court, and that which was
most generally diffused, and the Spaniards therefore called it _la
lengua general_. In the highlands of Central Peru, the Chinchaysuyo
language prevailed. The Indians of the coast, who belonged to the race
of the Chunchos, spoke the _Yunga_. The _Kauqui_ was the language of
that part of Central Peru which corresponds with the present province of
Yauyos. The inhabitants of the north-eastern parts of Peru, as far as
the Huallaga, spoke the _Lama_ language,[103] and the natives of the
highland regions of Quito spoke the _Quiteña_.[104] These different
languages, which, with the exception of the Lama, proceed all from one
source, differ so considerably, that the inhabitants of the several
districts were reciprocally incapable of understanding each other, and
the Incas found it necessary to introduce the Quichua among all the
nations they subdued. The other dialects were thereby much corrupted,
and at the time of the Spanish invasion, they were seldom correctly
spoken. This corruption was naturally increased more and more after the
arrival of the Spaniards, by the introduction of a new language. Only
for a few of the new articles brought by the Spaniards to Peru did the
Indians form new names, taking the roots of the words from their own
language: for most things they adopted the Spanish names. By this means,
but still more by the future intercourse of the people with the
invaders, the purity of the natural language rapidly disappeared in
proportion to the influence which the Spaniards obtained by their
increase in numbers and moral superiority. At present the Quichua is a
compound of all the dialects and the Spanish; it is spoken in the
greatest purity in the southern provinces, though even there it is much
intermixed with Aymara words. In Central Peru the Chinchaysuyo prevails,
and on the coast the Spanish and the Yunga. The present Indians and
people of mixed blood, who of necessity must speak the ever-changing
Quichua, and also the Spanish, speak both in so corrupt a manner, that
it is frequently almost impossible to understand them.

The family of the Incas had a secret language of their own, which was
not learned by subjects. This language is now almost totally lost, not
more than two dozen words of it being preserved. In early times, the
Quichua language was much cultivated. It was used officially in public
speaking, and professors were sent by the Inca family into the provinces
to teach it correctly. For poetry, the Quichua language was not very
well adapted, owing to the difficult conjugation of the verbs, and the
awkward blending of pronouns with substantives. Nevertheless, the poetic
art was zealously cultivated under the Incas. They paid certain poets
(called the _Haravicus_), for writing festival dramas in verse, and also
for composing love-songs and heroic poems. Few of these heroic poems
have been preserved, a circumstance the more to be regretted, as many of
them would doubtless have been important historical documents; but for
that very reason, the Spaniards spared no pains to obliterate every
trace of them. Some of the love-songs have, however, been preserved. In
Quichua poetry, the lines are short, and seldom thoroughly rhythmical.
Rhymes were only exceptional, and were never sought for. The poetry was,
therefore, merely a sort of broken prose.

A specimen of one of the best of the Quichua love-songs is given by
_Garcilaso de la Vega_, in his "Commentaries and Poems." It is copied
from papers left by a monk named Blas Valera; and some lines of it are
here subjoined. The subject is an old Peruvian tradition:--A maiden of
royal blood (_ñusta_) is appointed by the Creator of the world
(_Pacchacamac_) in heaven, to pour water and snow on the earth out of
a pitcher; her brother breaks the pitcher, whereupon thunder and
lightning arise.

Cumac ñusta Beautiful Princess,
Turallayquim Thy Pitcher
Puynuyquita Thy brother hath broken
Paquicayan Here in Pieces;
Hina mantara For that blow
Cunuñunun It thunders; and lightning
Yllapantac Flashes all around.

There were, however, instances of versification which may properly be
called poetry. Of this the _Yaravies_, or elegies, afford some fair
examples. These poems have for their subjects unfortunate love, or
sorrow for the dead. They were recited or sung by one or more voices,
with an accompaniment of melancholy music, and made a great impression
on the hearers. A foreigner, who for the first time hears one of these
_Yaravies_ sung, even though he may not understand the Quichua words, is
nevertheless deeply moved by the melody. The strain is sad and sweet. No
other music is at once so dismal and so tender. What the _donina_ is as
an instrument, the _yaravie_ is in singing; both convey the expression
of a deeply troubled heart. The _yaravie_ has been imitated by the
Spaniards in their own language, and some of the imitations are very
beautiful; but they have not been able to reach the deep melancholy of
the Quichua elegy. The modern poetry of the Indians is inferior to the
old; the words are a mixture of Quichua and Spanish, and are scarcely
intelligible. The Spanish words have often Quichua terminations affixed
to them; on the other hand, sometimes the Quichua words are inflected
after the Spanish manner, making altogether a barbarous compound.

The ancient Peruvians had no manuscript characters for single sounds;
but they had a method by which they composed words and incorporated
ideas. This method consisted in the dexterous intertwining of knots on
strings, so as to render them auxiliaries to the memory. The instrument
consisting of these strings and knots was called the QUIPU. It was
composed of one thick head or top string, to which, at certain
distances, thinner ones were fastened. The top string was much thicker
than these pendent strings, and consisted of two doubly twisted threads,
over which two single threads were wound. The branches, if I may apply
the term to these pendent strings, were fastened to the top ones by a
simple loop; the knots were made in the pendent strings, and were either
single or manifold. The lengths of the strings used in making the quipu
were various. The transverse or top string often measures several yards,
and sometimes only a foot long; the branches are seldom more than two
feet long, and in general they are much shorter.

The strings were often of different colors; each having its own
particular signification. The color for soldiers was red; for gold,
yellow; for silver, white; for corn, green, &c. This writing by knots
was especially employed for numerical and statistical tables; each
single knot representing ten; each double knot stood for one hundred;
each triple knot for one thousand, &c.; two single knots standing
together made twenty; and two double knots, two hundred.

This method of calculation is still practised by the shepherds of the
Puna. They explained it to me, and I could, with very little trouble,
construe their quipus. On the first branch or string they usually placed
the numbers of the bulls; on the second, that of the cows; the latter
being classed into those which were milked, and those which were not
milked; on the next string were numbered the calves, according to their
ages and sizes. Then came the sheep, in several subdivisions. Next
followed the number of foxes killed, the quantity of salt consumed,
and, finally, the cattle that had been slaughtered. Other quipus showed
the produce of the herds in milk, cheese, wool, &c. Each list was
distinguished by a particular color, or by some peculiarity in the
twisting of the string.

In this manner the ancient Peruvians kept the accounts of their army. On
one string were numbered the soldiers armed with slings; on another, the
spearmen; on a third, those who carried clubs, &c. In the same manner
the military reports were prepared. In every town some expert men were
appointed to tie the knots of the quipu, and to explain them. These men
were called _quipucamayocuna_ (literally, officers of the knots).
Imperfect as was this method, yet in the flourishing period of the Inca
government the appointed officers had acquired great dexterity in
unriddling the meaning of the knots. It, however, seldom happened that
they had to read a quipu without some verbal commentary. Something was
always required to be added if the quipu came from a distant province,
to explain whether it related to the numbering of the population, to
tributes, or to war, &c. Through long-continued practice, the officers
who had charge of the quipus became so perfect in their duties, that
they could with facility communicate the laws and ordinances, and all
the most important events of the kingdom, by their knots.

All attempts made in modern times to decipher Peruvian quipus have
been unsatisfactory in their results. The principal obstacle to
deciphering those found in graves, consists in the want of the oral
communication requisite for pointing out the subjects to which they
refer. Such communication was necessary, even in former times, to the
most learned quipucamayocuna. Most of the quipus here alluded to seem
to be accounts of the population of particular towns or provinces,
tax-lists, and information relating to the property of the deceased.
Some Indians in the southern provinces of Peru are understood to
possess a perfect knowledge of some of the ancient quipus, from
information transmitted to them from their ancestors. But they keep
that knowledge profoundly secret, particularly from the whites. The
ancient Peruvians also used a certain kind of hieroglyphics, which
they engraved in stone, and preserved in their temples. Notices of
these hieroglyphics are given by some of the early writers. There
appears to be a great similarity between these Peruvian hieroglyphics
and those found in Mexico and Brazil.

I have already mentioned one of the largest and most wonderful works of
Peruvian antiquity, namely, the great military road which passes through
the whole empire leading from Cuzco to Quitu, and which has many highly
important lateral branches. The magnificent water-conduits, by which
barren sand wastes and sterile hills were converted into fruitful
plantations, are monuments of equivalent greatness. Traces of these
water-conduits are to be seen throughout the whole of Peru, and even
where the canals themselves no longer exist, the divisional boundaries
of the fields they watered are still discernible. In many districts
where the valleys of the Sierra run into the Puna--(I allude here only
to the declivities above Tarmatambo, on the road towards Jauja)--there
may be seen many square fields of uniform size, each of which is
surrounded by a low stone wall; these fields are at present overgrown
with Puna grass, and are not fit for cultivation. They are what were
called _Tapu_ lands, which were distributed to every subject of the Inca
empire, so that each family enjoyed the produce arising from the
cultivation of a certain portion of ground. These Tapu lands were
watered by skilfully constructed aqueducts, whereby they were rendered
suitable for agriculture. The Spaniards having destroyed the conduits,
the reservoirs dried up, and the soil became barren. Many of these
conduits were subterraneous, and it is now no longer possible to find
them; in some parts they were constructed with pipes of gold, which the
Spaniards eagerly seized as valuable booty.

There still exist vast remains of well-constructed colossal buildings,
as palaces, fortresses, and temples. The walls of these edifices were
built of square stones, so finely cut, and joined so closely together,
that between any two there is not space sufficient to insert the edge of
the thinnest paper. In the royal palace of Cuzco, and in the Temple of
the Sun, a fusion of gold or silver was used for cement between the
stones. This was, however, only employed as a luxury; for in other great
edifices, for example, in the baths of Huamalies in the province of
Jauja, stones are kept together by their own weight and the precision of
the workmanship. These stones are of very considerable magnitude; some
being from twelve to sixteen feet long, from eight to ten feet high, and
equally broad. They are not all square; some are polygonal, and some
spherical, but they were all joined one to another with the same
exactness: of this a remarkable example is presented in the highly
interesting ruins of the palace of Limatambo. A question which naturally
suggests itself is,--how did the ancient Peruvians, without iron tools,
hew these vast stones, and afterwards work the different fragments so
skilfully? The first point is to me quite inexplicable; the second may
possibly be accounted for by friction; the softest of two stones which
was to be brought into a particular shape being rubbed by a harder, and
afterwards polished by pyritous plants. The removal of the block from
the quarry where it was excavated to the place of its destination, and
the raising of fragments of stone to considerable heights, could only
have been effected by the co-operation of thousands of men, for no kind
of elevating machinery or lever was then known.

The fortresses give a high idea of the progress made by the ancient
Peruvians in architectural art. These structures were surrounded by
ramparts and trenches. The larger ones were protected by the solidity of
the walls, and the smaller ones by difficulty of access. The approaches
to them were chiefly subterraneous; and thereby, they were enabled to
maintain secret communication with the palaces and temples in their
neighborhood. The subterraneous communications were carefully
constructed; they were of the height of a man, and in general from three
to four feet broad. In some parts they contract suddenly in width, and
the walls on each side are built with sharp pointed stones, so that
there is no getting between them, except by a lateral movement. In other
parts they occasionally become so low, that it is impossible to advance,
except by creeping on all fours. Every circumstance had been made a
subject of strict calculation; it had been well considered how treasures
might be removed from the palaces and temples to the fortresses, and
placed securely beyond the reach of an enemy, for in the rear of every
narrow pass there were ample spaces for soldiers, who might dispute the
advance of a whole army. Besides the remains of the fortress of Cuzco,
which are gradually disappearing every year, the most important are
those of Calcahilares and Huillcahuaman. Less interesting, though still
very curious, are the ruins of Chimu-canchu in Manische, near Truxillo,
which are not of stone but of brick. The architecture of the small
fortress of _Huichay_, two leagues from Tarma, which defended the
entrance to that valley, is very remarkable. The front is built of small
but firmly united stones, and covers a large cavity, in which there are
numerous divisions, intended for the preservation of warlike stores, and
for quartering soldiers. On the steep declivity of the hill there had
been a deep trench, between which there was a wall fourteen feet higher,
flanked by three bastions. Around this fortress nitre is found in great
abundance. It is now collected by the Huancas (the inhabitants of the
valley of Jauja), for making gunpowder. The diggings for nitre have
almost obliterated the entrance to the cavity, and the fortress is
already so much injured that possibly in another century scarcely a
trace of the edifice will remain. Notwithstanding a search of several
days, I did not succeed in discovering the mouth of the cavity, though
an old Indian, who, years ago, had often visited it, pointed out to me
what he supposed to be its precise situation. The walls of
perpendicular rock in the neighborhood of Huichay are often 60 to 80
feet high, and the clefts or fissures in them are filled up with small
stones. It would be incomprehensible how the Indians ascended to
perform this labor, were it not perceived that they have hollowed
passages in the mountain. It would appear they must have had
dwellings, or stores for provisions, on the higher part of the hill,
for small windows are often perceptible in walls of masonry.

The old Indian villages of the Sierra are for the most part situated on
heights, or sharp ridges, which are now completely barren, as they no
longer receive the artificial watering with which they were formerly
supplied. All lie open to the east, so that the inhabitants could behold
their Deity the moment he appeared on the horizon. All large towns had a
square in their centre, where the religious dances were performed. From
the square a certain number of regular roads or streets always ran in
the direction of the four quarters of the firmament. There are great
varieties in the construction of the houses. Small insignificant huts
often stand close to a palace having twenty or twenty-five windows in
one front. Private dwellings in the mountainous parts are built of
unhewn stone, cemented with a very strong calcareous mortar. On the
coast the walls are of brick. In the departments of Junin and Ayacucho,
I met with the ruins of great villages, consisting of dwellings of a
peculiar construction, in the form of a tower. Each house is
quadrangular, with a diameter of about six feet, and seventeen or
eighteen feet high. The walls are from one to one and a half feet thick.
The doors, which open to the east or south, are only a foot and a half
high, and two feet wide. After creeping in (which is a work of some
difficulty) the explorer finds himself in an apartment about five and a
half feet in height, and of equal breadth, without any windows. In the
walls there are closets or cupboards, which served to contain domestic
utensils, food, &c. Earthen pots with maize, coca, and other things, are
still often found in these closets. The ceiling of the room is
overlaid with flat plates of stone, and in the centre an aperture, two
feet wide, is left, forming a communication with the second floor,
which is precisely like the first, but has two small windows. The roof
of this apartment has also an aperture, affording access to the third
floor, the ceiling of which forms the roof of the house, and consists
of rather thick plates of stone. The upper room is usually less lofty
than the two rooms below it, and seems to have been used as a
provision store-room. I found in one of these upper rooms the mummy of
a child very well embalmed. The family appear to have lived chiefly on
the ground-floors. The place for cooking is often plainly perceptible.
The second floor was probably the sleeping apartment. In the course of
my travels, when overtaken by storms, I often retreated for shelter
into one of these ruined dwellings.

The ancient Peruvians frequently buried their dead in their own houses,
and then removed from them. This custom appears to have been very
general about the time of the Spanish conquest, when a great number of
Indians committed suicide in despair. Household utensils were placed in
the graves, when the dead were buried in the houses, as well as when
they were interred in other places. In many houses in which I made
diggings I regularly found the following arrangement. Under a stratum of
earth two feet deep lay the body, in a state of good preservation, and
generally, but not always, in a sitting posture. On clearing away
another stratum of earth equally deep there is found a variety of
household vessels for cooking, together with water-pots of clay, gourds,
hunting and fishing implements, &c. There is frequently a third layer of
earth, beneath which the gold and silver vessels and the household
deities are deposited. The idols are of clay, stone, and copper, or of
the precious metals. Those of clay are hollow, flat, compressed, and in
most instances the faces are painted. Those of stone are of granite,
porphyry, or sand-stone. These stone images are solid, and often several
feet high. The golden idols are always hollow; but they exhibit no
distinct trace of the soldering. They are of various sizes; some of them
weigh three quarters of a pound. Those of silver are always solid. All
these images of deities have the same physiognomy, and
disproportionately large head. In most instances the head is covered by
a peculiar kind of cap.

The vessels used for holding water or other liquids are very various in
color and form. Most of them exhibit ludicrous caricatures of human
figures; others are unrecognisable representations of animals or fancy
figures. These vessels have in general two apertures, one by which they
were filled, and the other by which the liquid was poured out. On
filling them a feeble flute-like sound is heard. It is occasioned by the
air escaping through the other aperture. Most of these vessels are made
of red or black clay, well glazed. Those for holding chicha were very
capacious. Some of them, which have been found hermetically closed, have
contained chicha upwards of three hundred years old, and remarkable for
a very smoky flavor. On the vessels made of gourds fanciful figures are
generally carved. Gold drinking cups have been found, adorned with well
executed embossed ornaments, and like the images, showing no trace of
soldering. Among the warlike weapons, the stone battle-axes are very
remarkable; they have at both ends a tube, in which the handle was fixed
by ligatures. Articles for personal adornment, such as nose and lip
rings, neck chains, pins, bracelets, and ancle bands, are usually of
gold, and set with small colored shells. The sceptres of the Incas are
of gold, and exquisitely wrought; those of the Curacas of silver; and
those of the Caciques of copper, sometimes gilt.

Idols and utensils made of wood are very rarely found. It would appear
that the ancient Peruvians found more difficulty in the working of wood
than that of metal and stone. The Peruvians give to all objects dug up
from the old graves, the name of _Huaqueros_, from Huaca, the word for
grave in the Quichua language.

The huacas or graves vary in form or magnitude. When destined for single
individuals they were made small; but when for families, they were of
considerable extent. On the sandy soil of the coast, no elevation marks
the spot where the bodies are interred; but further inland (though still
in the coast region), the graves are for the most part elevated and
arched, and are built of bricks. In the Sierra the tombs are of stone,
quadrangular, oval, or of an obelisk form.

In the huacas, the bodies are found in a sitting position, and supported
by stones or reeds: the face turned towards the east. In front of the
body it was customary to place two rows of pots containing quinua,
maize, potatoes, dried llama flesh, and other kinds of provisions, and
these pots were all covered with small lids. On each side of the body
were ranged cooking utensils, and vessels containing water and chicha.
The body and all the objects deposited in the grave were covered with a
layer of sand, above which were spread various articles of clothing.
Over these was placed another layer of sand, and then the tomb was built
above the whole.

The bodies are found wrapped in several coverings; and when first taken
out of the graves, they have the appearance of unfinished statues; the
position of the head, knees, and feet being alone recognisable. A strong
net-work, composed of twisted straw or bast incloses a thick rush mat,
in which the body is wrapped. These coverings being removed, there is
found a broad, woollen bandage, passing round the body, and fastening
the rushes or sticks which support it in a sitting position. Under this
bandage is a red or party-colored covering which goes over the whole
body; and beneath this are one or two yellowish-white coverings,
strongly sewed up. On removing these coverings, there are found some
pots or drinking cups, a few ornaments, the _Huallqui_ with coca, and in
most instances a silver or gold idol suspended from the neck of the
body. The undermost wrapper consists of a cloth of rather fine texture.
Probably it was originally white, but time has changed it to a
reddish-yellow. This covering being unsewed, the naked corpse appears;
the head alone being encircled with two or three bandages, called
_Huinchas_. The body is always in a sitting posture; the knees being
drawn up towards the face, and the arms crossed over the breast, in
such a manner that the chin rests between the two clenched hands. The
wrists are tied together, and the ligature with which they are
fastened is passed round the neck. This, which was evidently done only
to keep the hands fixed in the required position, has led some
commentators on Peruvian antiquities to suppose that the bodies found
with strings round the necks were those of hanged persons. In the
mouth there is a thin piece of gold, silver or copper; most of the
bodies are in a good state of preservation, though the features are
not discernible. The hair is always found perfectly free from decay;
and that of the females is beautifully plaited.

The question has arisen, whether these bodies were embalmed, or whether
their preservation is merely the result of the mummifying nature of the
climate. Both conjectures have found zealous supporters. Don Francisco
Barrero, keeper of the Museum of Natural History in Lima, mentions, in
the _Memorial de Ciencias Naturales_,[105] that among the ancient
Peruvians certain men were appointed as embalmers, and he describes the
process they adopted as follows:--They first extracted the brain through
the nose, then took out the eyes, and stopped up the sockets with
cotton. The bowels, lungs, and even the tongue, were removed, after
which the body and skull were filled with a kind of powder, which
immediately after it is taken out of the mummies, diffuses a slight
odor of turpentine; this odor, however, it soon loses on being
exposed to the action of the air. The face, hands, and feet, were
rubbed over with an oily substance, after which the body was incased
in the envelopes above described. I am disposed to believe that this
process never had any existence, save in the imagination of Barrera:
it indeed resembles the manner in which the Egyptians prepared their
mummies; but no such method was practised among the Indians. The
mummies collected in the museum of Lima present not the slightest
trace of this powder, or indeed of any kind of preservative
material--a fact which is mentioned by the director of that
establishment, Don E. Mariano de Rivero, in his _Antiguedades
Peruanas_.[106]

On those parts of the coast where it never rains, the combined heat of
the sun and the sand has dried up the bodies; in the mountain districts,
the pure atmosphere and the peculiarly drying nature of the wind have
produced the same effect. Similar appearances may be traced to different
circumstances. Of this fact the burial ground of Huacho, and the
mummified animals seen on the level heights, furnish the most convincing
proofs. In districts exposed to frequent rain, mummies are found in very
bad preservation, most of them being mere skeletons. All are in sitting
postures. In those parts of the Sierra where the soil is impregnated
with nitre, bodies, which must have lain in the ground for several
centuries, are found in a very fresh condition, notwithstanding the
humidity.

Garcilaso de la Vega and the Padre Acosta state that the ancient
Peruvians were acquainted with the art of embalming, but that they
employed it only for the bodies of their kings. In the Temple of the Sun
at Cuzco, there were found excellently preserved mummies of the Incas,
each seated on a throne. Several years after the Spanish conquest, these
mummies were conveyed to Lima, and were buried in the court of the
hospital of San Andres. It is deeply to be deplored that the fanaticism
of the Spanish conquerors should have destroyed these interesting
remains of the ancient sovereigns of Peru.

The facts adduced in the course of this volume, relative to the
barbarous colonization system of the Spaniards, must sufficiently prove
how adverse was Spanish dominion to the improvement of the natives, and
to the prosperity of the country. For Peru, Nature's bounteously favored
land, let us hope that there is reserved a future, happier than either
the past or the present!

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 102: Even to this day the custom of forced domestic service is
kept up in some parts of the Sierra, where the priest is allowed the
services of a female cook, who is called a _Mita_, and a man servant,
for whom the name of _Pongo_ is reserved. These servants are kept for
the space of a week.]

[Footnote 103: Adelung, in his "Review of all Languages," considers the
Calchaqui (still spoken in Tucuman) to be a dialect of the Quichua. It
is, however, a dialect of the Aymara. Adelung makes another mistake
when he observes, that the Lama language is spoken in the neighborhood
of Truxillo.]

[Footnote 104: Of the _Quichua_, _Quiteña_, and _Lama_ languages
several grammars and dictionaries exist. Of the _Kauqui_ only single
words have been preserved. There is a very imperfect dictionary of the
_Chinchaysuyo_ by Figueredo. Of the _Yunga_ there is a grammar with a
_Confesionario_ and Prayers by Fernando de Carrera--a very scarce work.]

[Footnote 105: Vol. II., p. 106.]

[Footnote 106: Published in 1846.]

THE END.

Transcriber's Notes:

Inconsistencies in hyphenation retained. (brush-wood, brushwood;
court-yard, courtyard; day-break, daybreak; goat-skin, goat-skin;
hair-dressers, hairdressers; horse-shoes, horseshoes;
house-tops, housetops; light-house, lighthouse;
mayor-domos, mayordomos; mid-day, midday; needle-woman, needlewoman;
net-work; network; nick-name, nickname; north-west, northwest;
run-away, runaway; sea-ports, seaports; shop-keeper/s, shopkeeper/s;
south-east, southeast; south-west, southwest; two-fold, twofold)

Inconsistency in abbreviation "P. M." Sometimes it is "P.M." without a
space. Original text retained in all cases.

Page 22, inserted opening quote mark. ("_Las diez han)

Page 25, species of fox "_Canis Azaræ_" is attributed to "Wild." Not
consistent with Page 174 "_Canis azaræ_" attributed to "Pr. Max." and
to Page 221 "_Canis Azaræ_" also attributed to "Pr. Max." Mismatch in
captialization and also in name of discoverer. Original text retained
in all cases.

Page 25, "III." changed to "Ill." (_Scolopax frenata_, Ill.)

Page 59, "heterogegeous" changed to "heterogeneous". (heterogeneous
objects are jumbled)

Page 67, "Limena" retained. Elsewhere in the text it is "Limeña".
(Limena is a noble specimen)

Page 75, "grostesque" changed to "grotesque". (painted with grotesque
figures)

Page 85, inserted missing comma. (Alsop & Co., Templeman)

Page 108, unusual word "recal" retained. Possibly "recall". (The
ladies of Lima recal)

Page 112, missing degree sign added. (December 28, at 6 in the morning,
26·0° C.;)

Page 117, "vavors" changed to "vapors". (there were seen fiery vapors)

Page 135, "litttle" changed to "little". (full of little egg-shaped)

Footnote 42, unusual phrase "no thing" retained. (He who created the
world out of no thing)

Page 154, unusual spelling of placename "Cozco" retained. Elsewhere in
text it is "Cuzco". (erected in Cozco, the capital)

Page 168, inserted missing period. (_Pelecanus thayus_, Mol.;)

Page 172, compass directions "SS.E" changed to "S.S.E"; "NN.W."
changed to "N.N.W." (Andes, namely from S.S.E.) (N.N.W., the western
declivity)

Page 177, "Eschidna" changed to "Echidna". See other occurrence at
Footnote 93. (_Echidna ocellata_, Tsch.)

Page 178, "melancholv" changed to "melancholy". (melancholy howl)

Page 180, inconsistent spelling of placename "Periachi", later on
"Pariachi". Original text retained for both. (At Periachi, four
leagues from) (Two leagues beyond Pariachi)

Page 182, inserted hyphen. (river of Chillon flowed north-westward)

Page 198, unusual spelling "befel" retained. Possibly "befell". (an
accident which befel me)

Page 209, "swenllig" changed to "swelling". (inflammation, swelling
of)

Page 218, "jus" changed to "just". (than any of those just)

Page 222, "sent" changed to "scent". (scent for the pishacas)

Page 278, ungrammatical construction "The men takes" retained. (The
men takes their bows)

Page 284, period changed to comma. (Quichua, the idioms spoken)

Page 288, period added. (festively celebrated.)

Page 299, inserted missing opening round bracket. (... fly-catchers and
shrikes (_Muscicapidæ_ and....)

Page 301, unusual bird name "shrites" retained. Possibly "shrikes".
(shrites, and even sea-swallows)

Page 301, "tsch." changed to "Tsch." (_Odontophorus speciosus_, Tsch.)

Page 325, "Fra" retained. Fra is acceptable as a title for friars but
elsewhere in this text "Fray" is used. (two priests, Fra Francisco
Otasua and Fray Salvador)

Page 327, "coco" changed to "coca", coco is possible but coca more
likely from context. (the coca plantation being neglected)

Footnotes frequently have missing end of paragraph/sentence
punctuation. Periods added.

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests" ***

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