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Title: The Inhabitants of the Philippines
Author: Sawyer, Frederic H.
Language: English
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THE INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES
By
FREDERIC H. SAWYER
Memb. Inst. C.E., Memb. Inst. N.A.
London
Sampson Low, Marston and Company Limited
St. Dunstan's House
Fetter Lane, Fleet Street, E.C.
1900
London:
Printed by William Clowes and Sons, Limited,
Stamford Street and Charing Cross.
PREFACE.
The writer feels that no English book does justice to the natives
of the Philippines, and this conviction has impelled him to publish
his own more favourable estimate of them. He arrived in Manila with a
thorough command of the Spanish language, and soon acquired a knowledge
of the Tagal dialect. His avocations brought him into contact with all
classes of the community--officials, priests, land-owners, mechanics,
and peasantry: giving him an unrivalled opportunity to learn their
ideas and observe their manners and customs. He resided in Luzon
for fourteen years, making trips either on business or for sport all
over the Central and Southern Provinces, also visiting Cebú, Iloilo,
and other ports in Visayas, as well as Calamianes, Cuyos, and Palawan.
Old Spanish chroniclers praise the good breeding of the natives,
and remark the quick intelligence of the young.
Recent writers are less favourable; Cañamaque holds them up to
ridicule, Monteverde denies them the possession of any good quality
either of body or mind.
Foreman declares that a voluntary concession of justice is regarded by
them as a sign of weakness; other writers judge them from a few days'
experience of some of the cross-bred corrupted denizens of Manila.
Mr. Whitelaw Reid denounces them as rebels, savages, and treacherous
barbarians.
Mr. McKinley is struck by their ingratitude for American kindness
and mercy.
Senator Beveridge declares that the inhabitants of Mindanao are
incapable of civilisation.
It seems to have been left to French and German contemporary
writers, such as Dr. Montano and Professor Blumentritt to show a more
appreciative, and the author thinks, a fairer spirit, than those who
have requited the hospitality of the Filipinos by painting them in
the darkest colours. It will be only fair to exempt from this censure
two American naval officers, Paymaster Wilcox and Mr. L. S. Sargent,
who travelled in North Luzon and drew up a report of what they saw.
As regards the accusation of being savages, the Tagals can claim to
have treated their prisoners of war, both Spaniards and Americans
with humanity, and to be fairer fighters than the Boers.
The writer has endeavoured to describe the people as he found them. If
his estimate of them is more favourable than that of others, it may
be that he exercised more care in declining to do business with, or
to admit to his service natives of doubtful reputation; for he found
his clients punctual in their payments, and his employés, workmen
and servants, skilful, industrious, and grateful for benefits bestowed.
If the natives fared badly at the hands of recent authors, the Spanish
Administration fared worse, for it has been painted in the darkest
tints, and unsparingly condemned.
It was indeed corrupt and defective, and what government is not? More
than anything, it was behind the age, yet it was not without its
good points.
Until an inept bureaucracy was substituted for the old paternal rule,
and the revenue quadrupled by increased taxation, the Filipinos were
as happy a community as could be found in any colony. The population
greatly multiplied; they lived in competence, if not in affluence;
cultivation was extended, and the exports steadily increased.
The natives were secured the perpetual usufruct of the land they
tilled, they were protected against the usurer, that curse of East
and West.
In guaranteeing the land to the husbandman, the "Laws of the Indies"
compare favourably with the law of the United States regarding
Indian land tenure. The Supreme Court in 1823 decided that "discovery
gives the dominion of the land discovered to the States of which the
discoverers were the subjects."
It has been almost an axiom with some writers that no advance was
made or could be made under Spanish rule.
There were difficulties indeed. The Colonial Minister, importuned on
the one hand by doctrinaire liberals, whose crude schemes of reform
would have set the Archipelago on fire, and confronted on the other
by the serried phalanx of the Friars with their hired literary bravos,
was very much in the position of being between the devil and the deep
sea, or, as the Spaniards phrase it "entre la espada y la pared."
Even thus the Administration could boast of some reforms and
improvements.
The hateful slavery of the Cagayanes had been abolished; the forced
cultivation of tobacco was a thing of the past, and in all the
Archipelago the corvée had been reduced.
A telegraph cable connecting Manila with Hong Kong and the world's
telegraph system had been laid and subsidized. Telegraph wires were
extended to all the principal towns of Luzon; lines of mail steamers
to all the principal ports of the Archipelago were established and
subsidized. A railway 120 miles long had been built from Manila to
Dagupan under guarantee. A steam tramway had been laid to Malabon,
and horse tramways through the suburbs of Manila. The Quay walls of
the Pasig had been improved, and the river illuminated from its mouth
to the bridge by powerful electric arc lights.
Several lighthouses had been built, others were in progress. A
capacious harbour was in construction, although unfortunately defective
in design and execution. The Manila waterworks had been completed
and greatly reduced the mortality of the city. The schools were well
attended, and a large proportion of the population could read and
write. Technical schools had been established in Manila and Iloilo, and
were eagerly attended. Credit appears to be due to the Administration
for these measures, but it is rare to see any mention of them.
As regards the Religious Orders that have played so important a part
scarcely a word has been said in their favour. Worcester declares
his conviction that their influence is wholly bad. However they take
a lot of killing and seem to have got round the Peace Commission and
General Otis.
They are not wholly bad, and they have had a glorious history. They
held the islands from 1570 to 1828, without any permanent garrison
of Spanish regular troops, and from 1828 to 1883 with about 1500
artillerymen. They did not entirely rely upon brute force. They are
certainly no longer suited to the circumstances of the Philippines
having survived their utility. They are an anachronism. But they have
brought the Philippines a long way on the path of civilisation. Let us
be just; what British, French, or Dutch colony, populated by natives,
can compare with the Philippines as they were till 1895?
And what about American rule? It has begun unfortunately, and has
raised a feeling of hatred in the natives that will take a generation
to efface. It will not be enough for the United States to beat down
armed resistance. A huge army must be maintained to keep the natives
down. As soon as the Americans are at war with one of the Great Powers,
the natives will rise; whenever a land-tax is imposed there will be
an insurrection.
The great difference between this war and former insurrections is
that now for the first time the natives have rifles and ammunition,
and have learned to use them. Not all the United States Navy can
stop them from bringing in fresh supplies. Unless some arrangement
is come to with the natives, there can be no lasting peace. Such an
arrangement I believe quite possible, and that it could be brought
about in a manner satisfactory to both parties.
This would not be, however, on the lines suggested in the National
Review of September under the heading, "Will the United States withdraw
from the Philippines?"
Three centuries of Spanish rule is not a fit preparation for
undertaking the government of the Archipelago. But Central and Southern
Luzon, with the adjacent islands, might be formed into a State whose
inhabitants would be all Tagals and Vicols, and the northern part into
another State whose most important peoples would be the Pampangos,
the Pangasinanes, the Ilocanos, and the Cagayanes; the Igorrotes and
other heathen having a special Protector to look after their interests.
Visayas might form a third State, all the inhabitants being of that
race, whilst Mindanao and Southern Palawan should be entirely governed
by Americans like a British Crown Colony.
The Sulu Sultanate could be a Protectorate similar to North Borneo
or the Malay States. Manila could be a sort of Federal District, and
the Consuls would be accredited to the President's representative,
the foreign relations being solely under his direction. There should
be one tariff for all the islands, for revenue only, treating all
nations alike, the custom houses, telegraphs, post offices, and
lighthouse service being administered by United States officials,
either native or American. With power thus limited, the Tagals,
Pampangos, and Visayas might be entrusted with their own affairs, and
no garrisons need be kept, except in certain selected healthy spots,
always having transports at hand to convey them wherever they were
wanted. If, as seems probable, Mr. McKinley should be re-elected,
I hope he will attempt some such arrangement, and I heartily wish him
success in pacifying this sorely troubled country, the scene of four
years continuous massacre.
The Archipelago is at present in absolute anarchy, the exports have
diminished by half, and whereas we used to travel and camp out in
absolute security, now no white man dare show his face more than a
mile from a garrison.
Notwithstanding this, some supporters of the Administration in the
States are advising young men with capital that there is a great
opening for them as planters in the Islands.
There may be when the Islands are pacified, but not before.
To all who contemplate proceeding to or doing any business, or taking
stock in any company in the Philippines, I recommend a careful study
of my book. They cannot fail to benefit by it.
Red Hill, Oct. 15th, 1900.
SALÁMAT.
The author desires to express his hearty thanks to all those who have
assisted him.
To Father Joaquin Sancho, S.J., Procurator of Colonial Missions,
Madrid, for the books, maps and photographs relating to Mindanao,
with permission to use them.
To Mr. H. W. B. Harrison of the British Embassy, Madrid, for his
kindness in taking photographs and obtaining books.
To Don Francisco de P. Vigil, Director of the Colonial Museum, Madrid,
for affording special facilities for photographing the Anitos and
other curiosities of the Igorrotes.
To Messrs. J. Laurent and Co., Madrid, for permission to reproduce
interesting photographs of savage and civilised natives.
To Mr. George Gilchrist of Manila, for photographs, and for the use
of his diary with particulars of the Tagal insurrection, and for
descriptions of some incidents of which he was an eye-witness.
To Mr. C. E. de Bertodano, C.E., of Victoria Street, Westminster,
for the use of books of reference and for information afforded.
To Mr. William Harrison of Billiter Square, E.C., for the use of
photographs of Vicols cleaning hemp.
To the late Mr. F. W. Campion of Trumpets Hill, Reigate, for the
photograph of Salacot and Bolo taken from very fine specimens in his
possession, and for the use of other photographs.
To Messrs. Smith, Bell and Co. of Manila, for the very complete table
of exports which they most kindly supplied.
To Don Sixto Lopez of Balayan, for the loan of the Congressional
Record, the Blue Book of the 55th Congress, 3rd Session, and other
books.
To the Superintendent of the Reading Room and his Assistants for
their courtesy and help when consulting the old Spanish histories in
the noble library of the British Museum.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF WORKS CITED, REFERRED TO, OR STUDIED WHILST
PREPARING THIS WORK.
Abella, Enrique--'Informes' (Reports).
Anonymous--'Catálogo Oficial de la Exposicion de Filipinas';
'Filipinas: Problema Fundamental,' 1887; 'Relacion de las Yslas
Filipinas,' 1595; 'Las Filipinas se pierden,' a scurrilous Spanish
pamphlet, Manila, 1841; 'Aviso al publico,' account of an attempt
by the French to cause Joseph Bonaparte to be acknowledged King of
the Philippines.
Barrantes Vicente--'Guerras piraticas de Filipinas contra Mindanaos
y Joloanos,' Madrid, 1878, and other writings.
Becke, Louis--'Wild Life in Southern Seas.'
Bent, Mrs. Theodore--'Southern Arabia.'
Blanco, Padre--'Flora Filipina.'
Blumentritt, Professor Ferdinand--'Versuch einer Ethnographie der
Philippinen' (Petermann's).
Brantôme, Abbé de--(In Motley's 'Rise of the Dutch Republic.')
Cavada, Agustin de la--'Historia, Geografica, Geologica, y estadistica
de Filipinas,' Manila, 1876, 1877.
Centeno, José--'Informes' (Reports).
Clifford, Hugh--'Studies in Brown Humanity,' 'In Court and Kampong.'
Comyn, Tomas de.
Crawford, John--'History of the Indian Archipelago,' Edinburgh, 1820;
'Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands,' London, 1856.
Cuming, E. D.--'With the Jungle Folk.'
Dampier, William--(from Pinkerton).
De Guignes--'Voyage to Pekin, Manila, and Isle of France.'
D'Urville, Dumont.
Foreman, John--'The Philippine Islands,' first and second editions.
Garcilasso, Inca de la Vega--'Comentarios Réales.'
Gironière, Paul de la--'Vingt ans aux Philippines.'
Jagor, F.--'Travels in the Philippines.'
Jesuits, Society of--'Cartas de los P.P. de la Cia de Jesus de la
mision de Filipinas,' Cuads ix y x (1891-95); 'Estados Generales,'
Manila, 1896, 1897; 'Mapa Politica Hidrografica'; 'Plano de los
Distritos 2o y 5o de Mindanao'; 'Mapa de Basilan.'
Mas, Sinibaldo de--'Informe sobre el estado de las Yslas Filipinas
en 1842.'
Montano, Dr. J.--'Voyage aux Philippines,' Paris, 1886.
Monteverde, Colonel Federico de--'La Division Lachambre.'
Morga, Antonio de--'Sucesos de las Yslas Filipinas,' Mejico, 1609.
Motley, John Lothrop--'Rise of the Dutch Republic.'
Navarro, Fr. Eduardo--'Filipinas. Estudio de Asuntos de momento,' 1897.
Nieto José--'Mindanao, su Historia y Geographia,' 1894.
Palgrave, W. G.--'Ulysses, or Scenes in Many Lands'; 'Malay Life in
the Philippines.'
Petermann--'Petermanns Mitth.', Ergänzungsheft Nr 67, Gotha, 1882.
Pigafetta--'Voyage Round the World,' Pinkerton, vol. ii.
Prescott--'Conquest of Peru.'
Posewitz, Dr. Theodor--'Borneo, its Geology and Mineral Resources.'
Rathbone--'Camping and Tramping in Malaya.'
Reyes, Ysabelo de los--Pamphlet.
Rizal--'Noli me Tangere.'
St. John, Spenser--'Life in the Forests of the Far East.'
Torquemada, Fray Juan--'Monarquia Indiana.'
Traill, H. D.--'Lord Cromer.'
Vila, Francisco--'Filipinas,' 1880.
Wallace, Alfred R.--'The Malay Archipelago.'
Wingfield, Hon. Lewis--'Wanderings of a Globe-trotter.'
Worcester, Dean C.--'The Philippine Islands and their People.'
Younghusband, Major--'The Philippines and Round About.'
Magazine Articles.
Scribner (George F. Becker)--'Are the Philippines Worth Having?'
Blackwood (Anonymous)--'The Case of the Philippines.'
Tennie, G. Claflin (Lady Cook)--'Virtue Defined' (New York Herald).
Speeches.
President McKinley: To the 10th Pennsylvania Regiment, Pittsburgh.
Mr. Whitelaw Reid: To the Miami University, Ohio.
Senator Hoar, in the Senate.
Blue Book--55th Congress, 3rd Session, Doc. No. 62, Part I.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTORY AND DESCRIPTIVE.
Chapter I.
Extent, Beauty and Fertility.
Pages
Extent, beauty and fertility of the Archipelago--Variety of
landscape--Vegetation--Mango trees--Bamboos 1-6
Chapter II.
Spanish Government.
Slight sketch of organization--Distribution of
population--Collection of taxes--The stick 7-13
Chapter III.
Six Governors-General.
Moriones--Primo de Rivera--Jovellar--Terreros--Weyler
--Despujols 14-23
Chapter IV.
Courts of Justice.
Alcaldes--The Audiencia--The Guardia Civil--Do not hesitate
to shoot--Talas 24-30
Chapter V.
Tagal Crime and Spanish Justice.
The murder of a Spaniard--Promptitude of the Courts--The
case of Juan de la Cruz--Twelve years in prison waiting
trial--Piratical outrage in Luzon--Culprits never tried;
several die in prison 31-47
HISTORICAL.
Chapter VI.
Causes of Tagal Revolt.
Corrupt officials--"Laws of the Indies"--Philippines a
dependency of Mexico, up to 1800--The opening of the Suez
Canal--Hordes of useless officials--The Asimilistas--
Discontent, but no disturbance--Absence of crime--Natives
petition for the expulsion of the Friars--Many signatories
of the petition punished 48-56
Chapter VII.
The Religious Orders.
The Augustinians--Their glorious founder--Austin Friars
in England--Scotland--Mexico--They sail with Villalobos
for the Islands of the Setting Sun--Their disastrous voyage
--Fray Andres Urdaneta and his companions--Foundation of
Cebú and Manila with two hundred and forty other towns--
Missions to Japan and China--The Flora Filipina--The
Franciscans--The Jesuits--The Dominicans--The Recollets--
Statistics of the religious orders in the islands--Turbulence
of the friars--Always ready to fight for their country--
Furnish a war ship and command it--Refuse to exhibit the
titles of their estates in 1689--The Augustinians take up
arms against the British--Ten of them fall on the field of
battle--Their rectories sacked and burnt--Bravery of the
archbishop and friars in 1820--Father Ibañez raises a
battalion--Leads it to the assault of a Moro Cotta--Execution
of native priests in 1872--Small garrison in the islands--
Influence of the friars--Their behaviour--Herr Jagor--Foreman
--Worcester--Younghusband--Opinion of Pope Clement X.--Tennie
C. Claflin--Equality of opportunity--Statesque figures of the
girls--The author's experience of the Friars--The Philippine
clergy--Who shall cast the first stone!--Constitution of the
orders--Life of a friar--May become an Archbishop--The Chapter 57-70
Chapter VIII.
Their Estates.
Malinta and Piedad--Mandaloyan--San Francisco de
Malabon--Irrigation works--Imus--Calamba--Cabuyao--Santa
Rosa Biñan--San Pedro Tunasan--Naic--Santa Cruz--Estates a
bone of contention for centuries--Principal cause of revolt
of Tagals--But the Peace Commission guarantee the Orders in
possession--Pacification retarded--Summary--The Orders must
go!--And be replaced by natives 71-78
Chapter IX.
Secret Societies.
Masonic Lodges--Execution or exile of Masons in 1872--The
"Asociacion Hispano Filipina"--The "Liga Filipina"--The
Katipunan--Its programme 79-83
Chapter X.
The Insurrection of 1896-97.
Combat at San Juan del Monte--Insurrection spreading--Arrival
of reinforcements from Spain--Rebel entrenchments--Rebel arms
and artillery--Spaniards repulsed from Binacáyan--and from
Noveleta--Mutiny of Carabineros--Prisoners at Cavite attempt
to escape--Iniquities of the Spanish War Office--Lachambre's
division--Rebel organization--Rank and badges--Lachambre
advances--He captures Silang--Perez Dasmariñas--Salitran
--Anabo II. 84-96
Chapter XI.
The Insurrection of 1896-97--continued.
The Division encamps at San Nicolas--Work of the native
Engineer soldiers--The division marches to Salitran--Second
action at Anabo II.--Crispulo Aguinaldo killed--Storming the
entrenchments of Anabo I.--Burning of Imus by the rebels--
Proclamation by General Polavieja--Occupation of Bacoor--
Difficult march of the division--San Antonio taken by assault
--Division in action with all its artillery--Capture of
Noveleta--San Francisco taken by assault--Heavy loss of the
Tagals--Losses of the division--The division broken up--
Monteverde's book--Polaveija returns to Spain--Primo de Rivera
arrives to take his place--General Monet's butcheries--The pact
of Biak-na-Bato--The 74th Regiment joins the insurgents--The
massacre of the Calle Camba--Amnesty for torturers--Torture
in other countries 97-108
Chapter XII.
The Americans in the Philippines.
Manila Bay--The naval battle of Cavite--General Aguinaldo--
Progress of the Tagals--The Tagal Republic--Who were the
aggressors?--Requisites for a settlement--Scenes of
drunkenness--The estates of the religious orders to be
restored--Slow progress of the campaign--Colonel Funston's
gallant exploits--Colonel Stotsenburg's heroic death--
General Antonio Luna's gallant rally of his troops at
Macabebe--Reports manipulated--Imaginary hills and jungles
--Want of co-operation between Army and Navy--Advice of Sir
Andrew Clarke--Naval officers as administrators--Mr.
Whitelaw Reid's denunciations--Senator Hoar's opinion--Mr.
McKinley's speech at Pittsburgh--The false prophets of the
Philippines--Tagal opinion of American Rule--Señor Mabini's
manifesto--Don Macario Adriatico's letter--Foreman's
prophecy--The administration misled--Racial antipathy--The
curse of the Redskins--The recall of General Otis--McArthur
calls for reinforcements--Sixty-five thousand men and forty
ships of war--State of the islands--Aguinaldo on the Taft
Commission 109-123
Chapter XIII.
Native Admiration for America.
Their fears of a corrupt government--The islands might be
an earthly paradise--Wanted, the man--Rajah Brooke--Sir
Andrew Clarke--Hugh Clifford--John Nicholson--Charles
Gordon--Evelyn Baring--Mistakes of the Peace Commission--
Government should be a Protectorate--Fighting men should
be made governors--What might have been--The Malay race--
Senator Hoar's speech--Four years' slaughter of the Tagals 124-128
RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES.
Chapter XIV.
Resources of the Philippines.
At the Spanish conquest--Rice--the lowest use the land
can be put to--How the Americans are misled--Substitutes
for rice--Wheat formerly grown--Tobacco--Compañia General
de Tabacos--Abacá--Practically a monopoly of the
Philippines--Sugar--Coffee--Cacao--Indigo--Cocoa-nut oil
--Rafts of nuts--Copra--True localities for cocoa palm
groves Summary--More sanguine forecasts--Common-sense view 129-138
Chapter XV.
Forestal.
Value exaggerated--Difficulties of labour and transport--
Special sawing machinery required--Market for timber in the
islands--Teak not found--Jungle produce--Warning to investors
in companies--Gutta percha 139-142
Chapter XVI.
The Minerals.
Gold: Dampier--Pigafetta--De Comyn--Placers in Luzon--
Gapan--River Agno--The Igorrotes--Auriferous quartz from
Antaniac--Capunga--Pangutantan--Goldpits at Suyuc--Atimonan
--Paracale--Mambulao--Mount Labo--Surigao River Siga--
Gigaquil, Caninon-Binutong, and Cansostral Mountains--
Misamis--Pighoulugan--Iponan--Pigtao--Dendritic gold from
Misamis--Placer gold traded away surreptitiously--Cannot
be taxed--Spanish mining laws--Pettifogging lawyers--
Prospects for gold seekers. Copper: Native copper at Surigao
and Torrijos (Mindoro)--Copper deposits at Mancayan worked
by the Igorrotes--Spanish company--Insufficient data--
Caution required. Iron: Rich ores found in the Cordillera of
Luzon--Worked by natives--Some Europeans have attempted but
failed--Red hematite in Cebú--Brown hematite in Paracale--
Both red and brown in Capiz--Oxydised iron in Misamis--
Magnetic iron in San Miguel de Mayumo--Possibilities. Coal
(so called): Beds of lignite upheaved--Vertical seams at
Sugud--Reason of failure--Analysis of Masbate lignite.
Various minerals: Galena--Red lead--Graphite--Quicksilver--
Sulphur Asbestos--Yellow ochre--Kaolin, Marble--Plastic
clays--Mineral waters 143-157
Chapter XVII.
Manufactures and Industries.
Cigars and cigarettes--Textiles--Cotton--Abacá--Júsi--Rengue
--Nipis--Saguran--Sinamáy--Guingon--Silk handkerchiefs--Piña
--Cordage--Bayones--Esteras--Baskets--Lager beer--Alcohol--
Wood oils and resins--Essence of Ylang-ilang--Salt--Bricks--
Tiles--Cooking-pots--Pilones--Ollas--Embroidery--Goldsmiths'
and silversmiths' work--Salacots--Cocoa-nut oil--Saddles and
harness--Carromatas--Carriages--Schooners--Launches--Lorchas
--Cascos--Pontines--Bangcas--Engines and boilers--Furniture
--Fireworks--Lanterns--Brass Castings--Fish breeding--Drying
sugar--Baling hemp--Repacking wet sugar--Oppressive tax on
industries--Great future for manufactures--Abundant labour--
Exceptional intelligence 158-163
Chapter XVIII.
Commercial and Industrial Prospects.
Philippines not a poor man's country--Oscar F. Williams'
letter--No occupation for white mechanics--American
merchants unsuccessful in the East--Difficulties of living
amongst Malays--Inevitable quarrels--Unsuitable climate--The
Mali-mali or Sakit-latah--The Traspaso de hambre--Chiflados
--Wreck of the nervous system--Effects of abuse of alcohol--
Capital the necessity--Banks--Advances to cultivators--To
timber cutters--To gold miners--Central sugar factories--
Paper-mills--Rice-mills--Cotton-mills--Saw-mills--Coasting
steamers--Railway from Manila to Batangas--From Siniloan to
the Pacific--Survey for ship canal--Bishop Gainzas' project
--Tramways for Luzon and Panay--Small steamers for Mindanao
--Chief prospect is agriculture 164-172
SOCIAL.
Chapter XIX.
Life in Manila. (A Chapter for the Ladies.)
Climate--Seasons--Terrible Month of May--Hot winds--Longing
for rain--Burst of the monsoon--The Alimóom--Never sleep on
the ground floor--Dress--Manila houses--Furniture--
Mosquitoes--Baths--Gogo--Servants--Wages in 1892--The
Maestro cook--The guild of cooks--The Mayordomo--Household
budget, 1892--Diet--Drinks--Ponies--Carriage a necessity for
a lady--The garden--Flowers--Shops--Pedlars--Amusements--
Necessity of access to the hills--Good Friday in Manila 173-187
Chapter XX.
Sport. (A Chapter for Men.)
The Jockey Club--Training--The races--An Archbishop
presiding--The Totalisator or Pari Mutuel--The Manila
Club--Boating club--Rifle clubs--Shooting--Snipe--Wild
duck--Plover--Quail--Pigeons--Tabon--Labuyao, or jungle
cock--Pheasants--Deer--Wild pig--No sport in fishing 188-191
GEOGRAPHICAL.
Chapter XXI.
Brief Geographical Description of Luzon.
Irregular shape--Harbours--Bays--Mountain ranges--Blank
spaces on maps--North-east coast unexplored--River and
valley of Cagayan--Central valley from Bay of Lingayen
to Bay of Manila--Rivers Agno, Chico, Grande--The Pinag of
Candaba--Project for draining--River Pasig--Laguna de Bay--Lake
of Taal--Scene of a cataclysm--Collapse of a volcanic cone 8000
feet high--Black and frowning island of Mindoro--Worcester's
pluck and endurance--Placers of Camarines--River Vicol--The
wondrous purple cone of Mayon--Luxuriant vegetation
192-200
THE INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES.
Description of their appearance, dress, arms, religion, manners
and customs, and the localities they inhabit, their agriculture,
industries and pursuits, with suggestions as to how they can be
utilised, commercially and politically. With many unpublished
photographs of natives, their arms, ornaments, sepulchres and
idols.
Aboriginal Inhabitants.
Scattered over the Islands.
Chapter XXII.
Aetas or Negritos.
Including Balúgas, Dumágas, Mamanúas, and Manguiánes 201-207
PART I.
Inhabitants of Luzon and Adjacent Islands.
Chapter XXIII.
Tagals (1) 208-221
Chapter XXIV.
Tagals as Soldiers and Sailors 222-237
Chapter XXV.
Pampangos (2) 238-245
Chapter XXVI.
Zambales (3)--Pangasinanes (4)--Ilocanos (5)--Ibanags or
Cagayanes (6) 246-253
Chapter XXVII.
Igorrotes (7) 254-267
Chapter XXVIII.
Isinays (11)--Abacas (12)--Italones (13)--Ibilaos
(14)--Ilongotes (15)--Mayoyaos and Silipanes (16)
--Ifugaos (17)--Gaddanes (18)--Itetapanes (19)
--Guinanes (20) 268-273
Chapter XXIX.
Caláuas or Itaves (21)--Camuangas and Bayabonanes (22)
--Dadayags (23)--Nabayuganes (24)--Aripas (25)--Calingas
(26)--Tinguianes (27)--Adangs (28)--Apayaos (29)--
Catalanganes and Irayas (30-31) 274-282
Chapter XXX.
Catubanganes (32)--Vicols (33) 283-287
Chapter XXXI.
The Chinese in Luzon.
Mestizos or half-breeds 288-294
PART II.
The Visayas and Palawan.
Chapter XXXII.
The Visayas Islands.
Area and population--Panay--Negros--Cebú--Bohol--Leyte
--Samar 295-299
Chapter XXXIII.
The Visayas Race.
Appearance--Dress--Look upon Tagals as foreigners--
Favourable opinion of Tomas de Comyn--Old Christians--
Constant wars with the Moro pirates and Sea Dayaks--Secret
heathen rites--Accusation of indolence unfounded--Exports
of hemp and sugar--Ilo-ilo sugar--Cebú sugar--Textiles--A
promising race 300-306
Chapter XXXIV.
The Island of Palawan, or Paragua.
The Tagbanúas--Tandulanos--Manguianes--Negritos--Moros of
southern Palawan--Tagbanúa alphabet 307-320
PART III.
Mindanao, Including Basilan.
Chapter XXXV.
Brief Geographical Description.
Configuration--Mountains--Rivers--Lakes--Division
into districts--Administration--Productions--Basilan 321-330
Chapter XXXVI.
The Tribes of Mindanao.
Visayas (1) [Old Christians]--Mamanúas (2)--Manobos (3)
--Mandayas (4)--Manguángas (5)--Montéses or Buquidnónes(6)
--Atás or Ata-as (7)--Guiangas (8)--Bagobos (9) 331-351
Chapter XXXVII.
The Tribes of Mindanao--continued.
Calaganes (10)--Tagacaolos (11)--Dulanganes (12)--Tirurayes
(13)--Tagabelies (14)--Samales (15)--Vilanes (16)--
Subanos (17) 352-360
Chapter XXXVIII.
The Moros, or Mahometan Malays (18 to 23).
Illanos (18)--Sanguiles (19)--Lutangas (20)--Calibuganes
(21) Yacanes (22)--Samales (23) 361-373
Chapter XXXIX.
Tagabáuas (24) 374-375
The Chinese in Mindanao.
N.B.--The territory occupied by each tribe is shown on the general
map of Mindanao by the number on this list.
Chapter XL.
The Political Condition of Mindanao, 1899.
Relapse into savagery--Moros the great danger--Visayas
the mainstay--Confederation of Lake Lanao--Recall of
the Missionaries--Murder and pillage in Davao--Eastern
Mindanao--Western Mindanao--The three courses--Orphanage
of Tamontaca--Fugitive slaves--Polygamy an impediment to
conversion--Labours of the Jesuits--American Roman Catholics
should send them help 376-388
APPENDIX.
Chronological Table 389
Table of Exports for twelve Years 411
Estimate of Population 415
Philippine Budget of 1897 compared with Revenue of 1887 416, 417
Value of Land in several Provinces of Luzon 418
List of Spanish and Filipino Words used in the Work 419
Cardinal Numbers in Seven Malay Dialects 422
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Portrait of the Author Frontispiece
View on the Pasig with Bamboos and Canoe To face p. 6
Facsimile of Cédula Personal 53
Some of the rising generation in the Philippines 75
Map of the Philippine Islands 150
Group of women making Cigars 158
Salacots and Women's Hats 160
Author's office, Muelle Del Rey, ss. Salvadora, and Lighters
called "Cascos" 161
River Pasio showing Russell and Sturgis's former office 166
Tower of Manila Cathedral after the Earthquakes, 1880 168-9
Suburb of Malate after a typhoon, October 1882, when thirteen
ships were driven ashore
Author's house at Ermita 177
Fernery at Ermita 185
A Negrito from Negros Island 207
A Manila Man 208-9
A Manila Girl
Tagal Girl wearing Scapulary 216
Carabao harnessed to native Plough; Ploughman, Village, and
Church Between 226-7
Paddy Field recently planted
Paulino Marillo, a Tagal of Laguna, Butler to the author 229
A Farderia, or Sugar Drying and Packing Place 240
Igorrote Spearmen and Negriot Archer 254
Anitos of Northern Tribes 258
Aitos of the Igorrotes 258
Coffin of an Igorrote Noble, with his Coronets and other Ornaments 259
Weapons of the Highlands of Luzon 261
Igorrote Dresses and Ornaments, Water-Jar, Dripstones, Pipes,
and Baskets 264
Anitos, Highlands 266
Anito of the Igorrotes 266
Igorrote Drums 266
Tinguianes, Aeta, and Igorrotes 276
Vicols Preparing Hemp:-- 287
Cutting the Plant
Separating the Petioles
Adjusting under the Knife
Drawing out the Fibre
Visayas Women at a Loom 305
Lieut. P. Garcia and Local Militia of Baganga, Caraga (East Coast) 333
Atás from the Back Slopes of the Apo 347
Heathen Guiangas, from the Slopes of the Apo 349
Father Gisbert, S.J. exhorting a Bagobo Datto and his Followers
to Abandon their custom of making Human Sacrifices 350-1
The Datto Manib, Principal Bagani of the Bagabos, with some Wives
and Followers and Two Missionaries 350-1
The Moro Sword and Spear 363
Moros of the Bay of Mayo 367
Moro Lantacas and Coat of Mail 373
Seat of the Moro Power, Lake Lanao 377
Double-barrelled Lantaca of Artistic Design and Moro Arms 387
THE INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES.
CHAPTER I.
EXTENT, BEAUTY AND FERTILITY.
Extent, beauty, and fertility of the Archipelago--Variety of
landscape--Vegetation--Mango trees--Bamboos.
Extent.
The Philippine Archipelago, in which I include the Sulu group, lies
entirely within the northern tropic; the southernmost island of the
Tawi-tawi group called Sibutu reaches down to 4° 38' N., whilst Yami,
the northernmost islet of the Batanes group, lies in 21° 7' N. This
gives an extreme length of 1100 miles, whilst the extreme breadth is
about 680 miles, measured a little below the 8th parallel from the
Island of Balábac to the east coast of Mindanao.
Various authorities give the number of islands and islets at 1200 and
upwards; many have probably never been visited by a white man. We need
only concern ourselves with the principal islands and those adjacent
to them.
From the hydrographic survey carried out by officers of the Spanish
Navy, the following areas have been calculated and are considered
official, except those marked with an asterisk, which are only
estimated.
Sq. Miles. Sq. Miles.
Luzon 42,458
Babuyanes Islands 272
Batanes Islands 104
Mindoro 4,153
Catanduanes 721
Marinduque 332
Polillo 300
Buriás 116
Ticao. 144
Masbate 1,642
----- 7,784
------
Total Luzon and adjacent islands 50,242
Visayas, etc.
Panay 4,898
Negros 3,592
Cebú 2,285
Bohol 1,226
Leyte 3,706
Samar 5,182
----- 20,889
Mindanao 34,456
Palawan and Balabac 5,963
Calamianes Islands 640
-------
Area of principal islands 112,190
The Spanish official estimate of the area of the whole Archipelago
is 114,214 square miles [1] equivalent to 73,000,000 acres, so that
the remaining islands ought to measure between them something over
2000 square miles.
Beauty and Fertility.
Lest I should be taxed with exaggeration when I record my impressions
of the beauty and potential wealth of the Archipelago, so far as I
have seen it; I shall commence by citing the opinions of some who,
at different times, have visited the islands.
I think I cannot do better than give precedence to the impressions
of two French gentlemen who seem to me to have done justice to the
subject, then cite the calm judgment of a learned and sagacious Teuton,
and lastly quote from the laboured paragraphs of a much-travelled
cosmopolite, at one time Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Manila.
Monsieur Dumont D'Urville says: "The Philippines, and above all
Luzon, have nothing in this world to equal them in climate, beauty
of landscape, and fertility of soil. Luzon is the finest diamond that
the Spanish adventurers have ever found.
"It has remained uncut in their hands; but deliver over Luzon to
British activity and tolerance, or else to the laborious tenacity
of the Dutch Creoles, and you will see what will come out of this
marvellous gem."
Monsieur de Guignes says: "Of the numerous colonies belonging to
the Spaniards, as one of the most important must indisputably be
reckoned the Philippines. Their position, their great fertility, and
the nature of their productions, render them admirably adapted for
active commerce, and if the Spaniards have not derived much benefit
from them, to themselves and to their manner of training is the fault
to be ascribed."
Herr Jagor, speaking of the Province of Bulacan, says the roads were
good and were continuously shaded by fruit trees, cocoa and areca
palms, and the aspect of this fruitful province reminded him of the
richest districts in Java, but he found the pueblos here exhibited
more comfort than the desas there.
Mr. Gifford Palgrave says: "Not the Ægean, not the West Indian,
not the Samoan, not any other of the fair island clusters by which
our terraqueous planet half atones for her dreary expanses of
grey ocean and monotonous desert elsewhere, can rival in manifold
beauties of earth, sea, sky, the Philippine Archipelago; nor in all
that Archipelago, lovely as it is through its entire extent, can any
island vie with the glories of Luzon."
Variety of Landscape.
If I may without presumption add my testimony to that of these
illustrious travellers, I would say that, having been over a great
part of South America, from Olinda Point to the Straits of Magellan,
from Tierra del Fuego to Panama, not only on the coasts but in the
interior, from the Pampas of the Argentine and the swamps of the Gran
Chaco to where
"The roots of the Andes strike deep in the earth
As their summits to heaven shoot soaringly forth;"
having traversed the fairest gems of the Antilles and seen some of the
loveliest landscapes in Japan, I know of no land more beautiful than
Luzon, certainly of none possessing more varied features or offering
more striking contrasts.
Limestone cliffs and pinnacles, cracked and hollowed into labyrinthine
caves, sharp basalt peaks, great ranges of mountains, isolated
volcanic cones, cool crystalline springs, jets of boiling water,
cascades, rivers, lakes, swamps, narrow valleys and broad plains,
rocky promontories and coral reefs, every feature is present, except
the snow-clad peak and the glacier.
Vegetation.
Vegetation here runs riot, hardly checked by the devastating typhoon,
or the fall of volcanic ashes. From the cocoa-nut palm growing on
the coral strand, from the mangrove, building its pyramid of roots
upon the ooze, to the giant bamboo on the banks of the streams, and
the noble mango tree adorning the plains, every tropical species
flourishes in endless variety, and forests of conifers [2] clothe
the summits of the Zambales and Ilocan mountains.
As for the forest wealth, the trees yielding indestructible timber
for ships, houses or furniture, those giving valuable drugs and
healing oils, gums and pigments, varnishes, pitch and resin, dyes,
sap for fermenting or distilling, oil for burning, water, vinegar,
milk, fibre, charcoal, pitch, fecula, edible fungi, tubers, bark and
fruits, it would take a larger book than this to enumerate them in
their incredible variety.
Mango Trees.
A notable feature of the Philippine landscape is the mango tree. This
truly magnificent tree is often of perfect symmetry, and rears aloft on
its massive trunk and wide-spreading branches a perfect dome of green
and glistening leaves, adorned in season with countless strings of
sweet-scented blossom and pendent clusters of green and golden fruit,
incomparably luscious, unsurpassed, unequalled.
Beneath that shapely vault of verdure the feathered tribes find
shelter. The restless mango bird [3] displays his contrasted plumage of
black and yellow as he flits from bough to bough, the crimson-breasted
pigeon and the ring-dove rest secure.
These glorious trees are pleasing objects for the eye to rest on. All
through the fertile valleys of Luzon they stand singly or in groups,
and give a character to the landscape which would otherwise be
lacking. Only the largest and finest English oaks can compare with
the mango trees in appearance; but whilst the former yield nothing
of value, one or two mango trees will keep a native family in comfort
and even affluence with their generous crop.
Bamboos.
On the banks of the Philippine streams and rivers that giant grass,
the thorny bamboo, grows and thrives. It grows in clumps of twenty,
forty, fifty stems. Starting from the ground, some four to six inches
in diameter, it shoots aloft for perhaps seventy feet, tapering to
the thickness of a match at its extremity, putting forth from each
joint slender and thorny branches, carrying small, thin, and pointed
leaves, so delicately poised as to rustle with the least breath of air.
The canes naturally take a gradual curve which becomes more and more
accentuated as their diameter diminishes, until they bend over at
their tops and sway freely in the breeze.
I can only compare a fine clump of bamboos to a giant plume of green
ostrich feathers. Nothing in the vegetable kingdom is more graceful,
nothing can be more useful. Under the blast of a typhoon the bamboo
bends so low that it defies all but the most sudden and violent
gusts. If, however, it succumbs, it is generally the earth under it
that gives way, and the whole clump falls, raising its interlaced
roots and a thick wall of earth adhering to and embraced by them.
Piercing the hard earth, shoving aside the stones with irresistible
force, comes the new bamboo, its head emerging like a giant artichoke.
Each flinty-headed shoot soars aloft with a rapidity astonishing to
those who have only witnessed the tardy growth of vegetation in the
temperate zone. I carefully measured a shoot of bamboo in my garden
in Santa Ana and found that it grew two feet in three days, that is,
eight inches a day, 1/3 inch per hour. I could see it grow. When
I commenced to measure the shoot it was eighteen inches high and
was four inches in diameter. This rapid growth, which, considering
the extraordinary usefulness of the bamboo ought to excite man's
gratitude to Almighty Providence, has, to the shame of human nature,
led the Malay and the Chinaman to utilise the bamboo to inflict death
by hideous torture on his fellow men. (See Tûkang Bûrok's story in
Hugh Clifford's 'Studies of Brown Humanity.')
Each joint is carefully enveloped by nature in a wrapper as tough as
parchment, covered, especially round the edges, with millions of small
spines. The wrapper, when dry, is brown, edged with black, but when
fresh the colours are remarkable, pale yellow, dark yellow, orange,
brown, black, pale green, dark green, black; all shaded or contrasted
in a way to make a Parisian dress designer feel sick with envy.
This wrapper does not fall off till the joint has hardened and acquired
its flinty armour so as to be safe from damage by any animal.
It would take a whole chapter to enumerate the many and varied uses
of the bamboo.
Suffice it to say that I cannot conceive how the Philippine native
could do without it.
Everlastingly renewing its youth, perpetually soaring to the sky,
proudly overtopping all that grows, splendidly flourishing when meaner
plants must fade from drought, this giant grass, which delights the
eyes, takes rank as one of God's noblest gifts to tropical man.
CHAPTER II.
SPANISH GOVERNMENT.
Slight sketch of organization--Distribution of
population--Collection of taxes--The stick.
The supreme head of the administration was a Governor-General or
Captain-General of the Philippines. The British Colonial Office has
preserved this Spanish title in Jamaica where the supreme authority
is still styled Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief.
In recent years no civilian has been Governor-General of
the Philippines, the appointment being given or sold to a
Lieutenant-General, though in 1883 a Field-Marshal was sent out. But
in 1874 Rear-Admiral Malcampo obtained the post, and a very weak and
foolish Governor-General he turned out to be.
In former times military men did not have a monopoly of such posts,
and civilians, judges, priests, and bishops have held this appointment.
The Governor-General had great powers. Practically, if not legally,
he had the power of life and death, for he could proclaim martial
law and try offenders by court-martial. He was ex officio president
of every corporation or commission, and he could expel from the
Islands any person, whether Spaniard, native, or foreigner, by a
decree declaring that his presence was inconvenient.
Slight Sketch of Organization.
He could suspend or remove any official, and in fact was almost
despotic. On the other hand he had to remember two important
limitations. Unless he supported the religious orders against all
comers he would have the Procurators of these wealthy corporations, who
reside in Madrid, denouncing him to the Ministry as an anti-clerical,
and a freemason, and perhaps offering a heavy bribe for his removal. If
he made an attempt to put down corruption and embezzlement in the
Administration, his endeavours would be thwarted in every possible way
by the officials, and a formidable campaign of calumny and detraction
would be inaugurated against him. The appointment was for a term
of three years at a salary of $40,000 per annum, and certain very
liberal travelling allowances.
Since the earthquake of 1863 the official residence of the
Governors-General was at Malacañan, on the River Pasig in the ward of
San Miguel. This is now the residence of the American Governor. He had
a troop of native Lancers to escort him when he drove out, and a small
corps of Halberdiers for duty within the palace and grounds. These
latter wore a white uniform with red facings, and were armed with a
long rapier and a halberd. They were also furnished with rifles and
bayonets for use in case of an emergency.
When the Governor-General drove out, every man saluted him by raising
his hat--and when he went to the Cathedral he was received by the
clergy at the door, and, on account of being the Vice-Regal Patron,
was conducted under a canopy along the nave to a seat of honour.
His position was in fact one of great power and dignity, and it was
felt necessary to surround the representative of the king with much
pomp and state in order to impress the natives with his importance
and authority.
There was a Governor-General of Visayas who resided at Cebu, and was
naturally subordinate to the Governor-General of the Philippines. He
was usually a Brigadier-General.
In case of the death or absence of the Governor-General, the
temporary command devolved upon the Segundo Cabo, a general officer
in immediate command of the military forces. Failing him, the Acting
Governor-Generalship passed to the Admiral commanding the station.
The two principal departments of the administration were the
Intendencia or Treasury, and the Direction of Civil Administration.
The Archipelago is divided into fifty-one provinces or districts,
according to the accompanying table and map.
Distribution of Population.
Provinces. Males. Females. Total.
Abra 21,631 21,016 42,647
Albay 127,413 130,120 257,533
Antique 60,193 63,910 124,103
Balábac 1,912 27 1,939
Bataán 25,603 24,396 49,999
Batangas 137,143 137,932 275,075
Benguet (district) 8,206 12,104 20,310
Bohol 109,472 117,074 226,546
Bontoc 40,515 41,914 82,429
Bulacán 127,455 124,694 252,149
Burías 84 44 128
Cagayán 37,157 35,540 72,697
Calamianes 8,227 8,814 17,041
Camarines Norte 15,931 14,730 30,661
Camarines Sur 78,545 77,852 156,400
Cápiz 114,827 128,417 243,244
Cavite 66,523 65,541 132,064
Cebú 201,066 202,230 403,296
Corregidor (island of) 216 203 419
Cottabato 788 494 1,282
Dávao 983 712 1,695
Ilocos Norte 76,913 79,802 156,715
Ilocos Sur 97,916 103,133 201,049
Ilo-Ilo 203,879 206,551 410,430
Infanta (district) 4,947 4,947 9,894
Isabela de Basilan 454 338 792
Isabela de Luzon 20,251 18,365 38,616
Islas Batanes 4,004 4,741 8,745
Isla de Negros 106,851 97,818 204,669
Laguna 66,332 66,172 132,504
Lepanto 8,255 16,219 24,474
Leyte 113,275 107,240 220,515
Manila 137,280 120,994 258,274
Masbate and Ticao 8,835 8,336 17,171
Mindoro 29,220 28,908 58,128
Misamis 46,020 42,356 88,376
Mórong 21,506 21,556 43,062
Nueva Ecija 63,456 60,315 123,771
Nueva Vizcaya 8,495 7,612 16,107
Pampanga 114,425 111,884 226,309
Pangasinán 149,141 144,150 293,291
Principe (district) 2,085 2,073 4,158
Puerto Princesa 350 228 578
Romblón 14,528 13,626 28,154
Samar 92,330 86,560 178,890
Surigao 28,371 27,875 56,246
Tarlac 42,432 40,325 82,757
Tayabas 27,886 25,782 53,668
Unión 55,802 57,568 113,370
Zambales 49,617 44,934 94,551
Zamboanga 7,683 6,461 14,144
--------- --------- ---------
2,794,876 2,762,743 5,557,619
The above figures are taken from the official census of 1877.
This is the latest I have been able to find.
In the Appendix is given an estimate of the population in 1890, the
author puts the number at 8,000,000, and at this date there may well
be 9,000,000 inhabitants in the Philippines and Sulus.
It will be seen that these provinces are of very different extent,
and vary still more in population, for some have only a few hundred
inhabitants, whilst others, for instance, Cebú and Ilo-Ilo have
half-a-million.
Each province was under a Governor, either civil or military. Those
provinces which were entirely pacified had Civil Governors, whilst
those more liable to disturbance or attack from independent tribes
or from the Moors had Military Governors. Up to 1886 the pacified
provinces were governed by Alcaldes-Mayores, who were both governors
and judges. An appeal from their decisions could be made to the
Audiencia or High Court at Manila.
From the earliest times of their appointment, the Alcaldes were allowed
to trade. Some appointments carried the right to trade, but most of
the Alcaldes had to covenant to forego a large proportion of their very
modest stipends in order to obtain this privilege. By trade and by the
fees and squeezes of their law courts they usually managed to amass
fortunes. In 1844 the Alcaldes were finally prohibited from trading.
This was a rude system of government, but it was cheap, and a populous
province might only have to maintain half-a-dozen Spaniards.
Each town has its municipality consisting of twelve principales,
all natives, six are chosen from those who have already been
Gobernadorcillos. They are called past-captains, and correspond to
aldermen who have passed the chair. The other six are chosen from
amongst the Barangay headmen. From these twelve are elected all
the officials, the Gobernadorcillo or Capitan, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd
lieutenants, the alguaciles (constables), the judges of the fields, of
cattle, and of police. The Capitan appoints and pays the directorcillo
or town clerk, who attends to the routine business.
For the maintenance of order, and for protecting the town against
attack, there is a body of local police called Cuadrilleros. These
are armed with bolos and lances in the smaller and poorer towns,
but in more important places they have fire-arms usually of obsolete
pattern. But in towns exposed to Moro attack the cuadrilleros are
more numerous, and carry Remington rifles.
The Gobernadorcillos of towns were directly responsible to the
governor of the province, the governor in case of emergency reported
direct to the Governor-General, but for routine business through
the Director-General of Civil Administration, which embraced the
departments of Public Works, Inspection of Mines and Forests, Public
Instruction, Model Farms, etc.
The collection of taxes was under the governors of provinces assisted
by delegates of the Intendant-General. It was directly effected by
the Barangay headman each of whom was supposed to answer for fifty
families, the individuals of which were spoken of as his sácopes. His
eldest son was recognised as his chief assistant, and he, like his
father, was exempt from the tribute or capitation tax.
The office was hereditary, and was not usually desired, but like the
post of sheriff in an English county it had to be accepted nolens
volens.
No doubt a great deal of latitude was allowed to the Barangay Chiefs
in order that they might collect the tax, and the stick was often in
requisition. In fact the chiefs had to pay the tax somehow, and it
is not surprising that they took steps to oblige their sácopes to pay.
I, however, in my fourteen years' experience, never came across such a
case as that mentioned by Worcester, p. 295, where he states that in
consequence of a deficiency of $7000, forty-four headmen of Siquijor
were seized and exiled, their lands, houses and cattle confiscated,
and those dependent on them left to shift for themselves. The amount
owing by each headman was under $160 Mexican, equal to $80 gold, and
it would not take much in the way of lands, houses, and cattle to pay
off this sum. However, it is true that Siquijor is a poor island. But
on page 284 he maintains that the inhabitants of Siquijor had plenty
of money to back their fighting-cocks, and paid but little attention
to the rule limiting each man's bet on one fight to $50. From this
we may infer that they could find money to bet with, but not to pay
their taxes.
Collection of Taxes.
Natives of the gorgeous East very commonly require a little persuasion
to make them pay their taxes, and I have read of American millionaires
who, in the absence of this system, could not be got to pay at all. Not
many years ago, there was an enquiry as to certain practices resorted
to by native tax-collectors in British India to induce the poor Indian
to pay up; anybody who is curious to know the particulars can hunt
them up in the Blue Books--they are unsuitable for publication.
In Egypt, up to 1887, or thereabouts, the "courbash" [4] was in use
for this purpose. I quote from a speech by Lord Cromer delivered about
that time ('Lord Cromer,' by H. D. Traill): "The courbash used to be
very frequently employed for two main objects, viz.: the collection of
taxes, and the extortion of evidence. I think I may say with confidence
that the use of the courbash as a general practice in connection either
with collection of taxes or the extortion of evidence has ceased."
But we need not go so far East for examples of collecting taxes by
means of the stick. The headmen of the village communities in Russia
freely apply the lash to recalcitrant defaulters.
It would seem, therefore, that the Spaniards erred in company with
many other nations. It was by no means an invention of theirs, and
it will be remembered that some of our early kings used to persuade
the Jews to pay up by drawing their teeth.
Its Good Points.
The Government and the laws partook of a patriarchal character,
and notwithstanding certain exactions, the Spanish officials and
the natives got on very well together. The Alcaldes remained for
many years in one province, and knew all the principal people
intimately. I doubt if there was any colony in the world where as
much intercourse took place between the governors and the natives,
certainly not in any British colony, nor in British India, where the
gulf ever widens. In this case, governors and governed professed
the same religion, and no caste distinctions prevailed to raise a
barrier between them. They could worship together, they could eat
together, and marriages between Spaniards and the daughters of the
native landowners were not unfrequent. These must be considered
good points, and although the general corruption and ineptitude of
the administration was undeniable, yet, bad as it was, it must be
admitted that it was immeasurably superior to any government that
any Malay community had ever established.
CHAPTER III.
SIX GOVERNORS-GENERAL.
Moriones--Primo de Rivera--Jovellar--Terreros--Weyler--Despujols.
Moriones.
During my residence in the Islands--from 1877 to 1892--there were
six Governors-General, and they differed very widely in character
and ideas.
The first was Don Domingo Moriones y Murillo, Marquis of Oroquieto,
an austere soldier, and a stern disciplinarian. He showed himself to
be a man of undaunted courage, and of absolutely incorruptible honesty.
When he landed in Manila he found that, owing to the weakness of
Admiral Malcampo, his predecessor, the Peninsular Regiment of Artillery
had been in open mutiny, and that the matter had been hushed up. After
taking the oath of office, and attending a Te Deum at the Cathedral,
he mounted his horse, and, attended by his aides-de-camp, rode to the
barracks, and ordered the regiment to parade under arms. He rode down
the ranks, and recognised many soldiers who had served under him in
the Carlist wars.
He then stationed himself in front of the regiment, and delivered a
remarkable and most stirring oration. He said that it grieved him to
the heart to think that Spanish soldiers, sent to the Philippines to
maintain the authority of their king and country, many of whom had
with him faced the awful fusillade of Somorrostro, and had bravely
done their duty, could fall so low as to become callous mutineers,
deaf to the calls of duty, and by their bad conduct tarnish the
glory of the Spanish Army in the eyes of all the world. Such as
they deserved no mercy; their lives were all forfeited. Still he
was willing to believe that they were not entirely vicious, that
repentance and reform were still possible to the great majority. He
would, therefore, spare the lives of most of them in the hope that
they might once more become worthy soldiers of Spain. But he would
decimate them; every tenth man must die.
He then directed the lieutenant-colonel in command to number off the
regiment by tens from the right.
Let the reader ponder upon the situation. Here was a mutinous
veteran regiment that for months had been the terror of the city,
and had frightened the Governor-General and all the authorities into
condoning its crimes.
In front of it sat upon his horse one withered old man. But that
man's record was such that he seemed to those reckless mutineers to
be transfigured into some awful avenging angel. His modest stature
grew to a gigantic size in their eyes; the whole regiment seemed
hypnotized. They commenced numbering. It was an impressive scene--the
word ten meant death. The men on the extreme right felt happy; they
were sure to escape. Confidently rang out their voices: one, two,
three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine--then a stop. The doomed
wretch standing next would not say the fatal word. Moriones turned
his glance upon the captain of the right company, and that officer
perceived that the crisis of his life had arrived, and that the next
few seconds would make or mar him; one instant's hesitation would cost
him his commission. Drawing and cocking his revolver, he held it in
front of the forehead of the tenth man, and ordered him to call out
ten. Placed thus between the alternative of instant death or obedience,
the unhappy gunner complied, and the numbering of the whole line was
accomplished. The number tens were ordered to step out of the ranks,
were disarmed, placed under arrest, and notified that they would
be shot next morning. As regards the others, all leave was stopped,
and extra drills ordered. Great interest was exerted with Moriones to
pardon the condemned men, and he did commute the death sentence on
most of them, but the ring-leaders were shot the following morning,
others imprisoned, and fifty were sent back to Spain in the same
vessel as Admiral Malcampo, whose pampering of them had ruined their
discipline. So much for the courage of Moriones. It was a wonderful
example of the prestige of lawful authority, but of course the risk
was great.
To him was due the construction of the Manila Waterworks. A sum of
money had been left a century before by Don Francisco Carriedo, who
had been general of a galleon, to accumulate until it was sufficient
to pay for the waterworks, which ought to have been begun years
before. However, the parties who held these funds, like certain
Commissioners we know of at home, had little desire to part with the
capital, and it was only the determination of General Moriones that
triumphed over their reluctance.
Manila ought to be ever grateful to Moriones for this. He also
tried to get some work out of the Obras Publicas Department, and,
in fact, he did frighten them into exerting themselves for a time,
by threatening to ship the Inspector-General of Public Works back to
Spain, unless the Ayala bridges were completed on a certain day.
But the greatest thing that Moriones did for the Philippines was when
he prevented the sale of the Government tobacco-culture monopoly to
some Paris Jews. Whilst he was staying at the Convent of Guadalupe
he received a letter from Cánovas, at the time Prime Minister of
Spain. It informed him that a project was entertained of selling the
Crown monopoly of the cultivation and manufacture of tobacco in the
Philippines to a Franco-Spanish syndicate, and added, "The palace is
very interested," meaning that the King and the Infantas were in the
affair. It announced that a Commission was about to be sent by the
capitalists to enquire into the business, and wound up by requesting
Moriones to report favourably on the affair, for which service he
might ask any reward he liked. The carrying out of this project meant
selling the inhabitants of Cagayan into slavery.
I had this information from a gentleman of unblemished truth and
honour, who was present at the receipt of the letter, and it was
confirmed by two friars of the Augustinian Order under circumstances
that left no doubt upon my mind as to their accuracy.
Although Cánovas was at the time in the height of his power, and
although the King was interested in the matter going through, Moriones
indignantly refused to back up the proposal. He wrote or cabled to
Cánovas not to send out the Commission, for if it came he would send
it back by the same vessel. He reported dead against the concession,
and told the Prime Minister that he was quite prepared to resign,
and return to Spain, to explain his reasons from his seat in the
Senate. What a contrast this brave soldier made to the general run
of men; how few in any country would have behaved as he did!
This was not the only benefit Moriones conferred upon the tobacco
cultivators of Cagayán, for he did what he could to pay off the debt
owing to them by the Treasury.
Primo de Rivera.
The next Governor-General was Don Fernando Primo de Rivera, Marquis
of Estella, and he was the only one with whom I was not personally
acquainted. During the cholera epidemic of 1882, when 30,000 persons
died in the city and province of Manila, he showed ability and firmness
in the arrangements he made, and he deserves great credit for this. But
corruption and embezzlement was rampant during his time. Gambling was
tolerated in Manila and it was currently reported that twenty-five
gambling houses were licensed and that each paid $50 per day, which
was supposed to go to the Governor-General. Emissaries from these
houses were stationed near the banks and mercantile offices, and
whenever a collector was seen entering or leaving carrying a bag of
dollars, an endeavour was made to entice him to the gambling table,
and owing to the curious inability of the native to resist temptation,
these overtures were too frequently successful.
The whole city became demoralised, servants and dependants stole from
their employers and sold the articles to receivers for a tenth of
their value in order to try their luck at the gaming table. A sum of
$1250 per day was derived from the gambling-houses and was collected
every evening.
Notwithstanding all these abuses, Primo de Rivera maintained good
relations with the natives; he was not unpopular, and no disturbances
occurred during his first government. He owed his appointment to King
Alfonso XII., being granted three years' pillage of the Philippine
Islands as a reward for having made the pronunciamento in favour
of that monarch, which greatly contributed to putting him upon the
throne. He and his friends must have amassed an enormous sum of
money, for scarcely a cent was expended on roads or bridges during
his government, the provincial governors simply pocketed every dollar.
Jovellar.
He was succeeded by Field-Marshal Don Joaquim Jovellar, during
whose time the tribute was abolished and the Cédulas Personales tax
instituted. Jovellar appeared to me to be a strictly honourable man,
he refused the customary presents from the Chinese, and bore himself
with much dignity. His entourage was, however, deplorable, and he
placed too much confidence in Ruiz Martinez, the Director of Civil
Administration. The result was that things soon became as bad as in
the previous governor's time. Jovellar was well advanced in years,
being nearly seventy. He had many family troubles, and the climate
did not agree with him.
I remember one stifling night, when I was present at Malacañan at
a ball and water fête, given to Prince Oscar, a son of the King of
Sweden. The Governor-General had hardly recovered from an illness,
and had that day received most distressing news about two of his sons,
and his daughter Doña Rosita, who was married to Colonel Arsenio
Linares, was laid up and in danger of losing her sight.
Yet in that oppressive heat, and buttoned up in the full dress uniform
of a field-marshal, Jovellar went round the rooms and found a kind
word or compliment for every lady present. I ventured to remark how
fatigued he must be, to which he replied, "Yes, but make no mistake,
a public man is like a public woman, and must smile on everybody."
During his time, owing to symptoms of unrest amongst the natives,
the garrison of Manila and Cavite was reinforced by two battalions
of marines.
Terrero.
He was succeeded by Don Emilio Terrero y Perinat, a thorough soldier
and a great martinet. I found him a kind and courteous gentleman,
and deeply regretted the unfortunate and tragic end that befell him
after his return to Spain. I saw a good deal of Field-Marshal Jovellar
and of General Terrero, having been Acting British Consul at the end
of Jovellar's and the beginning of Terrero's Government. I kept up my
acquaintance with General Terrero all the time he was in the islands,
and was favoured with frequent invitations to his table, where I met
all the principal officials.
Things went on quietly in his time and there was little to record
except successful expeditions to Joló and Mindanao, causing an
extension of Spanish influence in both places.
Weyler.
Terrero was succeeded by Don Valeriano Weyler, Marquis of Ténérife,
the son of a German doctor, born in Majorca, who brought with him
a reputation for cruelties practised on the Cuban insurgents during
the first war.
Weyler was said to have purchased the appointment from the wife of a
great minister too honest to accept bribes himself, and the price was
commonly reported to have been $30,000 paid down and an undertaking
to pay the lady an equal sum every year of his term of office.
Weyler is a small man who does not look like a soldier. He is clever,
but it is more the cleverness of a sharp attorney than of a general
or statesman.
Curiously enough the Segundo Cabo at this time was an absolute
contrast. Don Manuel Giron y Aragon, Marquis of Ahumada, is descended
from the Kings of Aragon, and to that illustrious lineage he unites
a noble presence and a charm of manner that render him instantly
popular with all who have the good fortune to meet him. No more
dignified representative of his country could be found, and I send
him my cordial salutation wherever he is serving.
During Weyler's term another expedition to Mindanao was made and
some advantages secured. Some disturbances occurred which will be
mentioned in another chapter, and secret societies were instituted
amongst the natives. Otherwise the usual bribery and corruption
continued unchecked.
There was a great increase in the smuggling of Mexican dollars from
Hong Kong into Manila, where they were worth 10 per cent. more. The
freight and charges amounted to 2 per cent., leaving 8 per
cent. profit, and according to rumour 4 per cent. was paid to
the authorities to insure against seizure, as the importation was
prohibited under heavy penalties.
At this time I was Government Surveyor of Shipping, and one day
received an order from the captain of the port to proceed on board
the steamer España with the colonel of carbineers and point out to him
all hollow places in the ship's construction where anything could be
concealed. This I did, but remembering Talleyrand's injunction, and
not liking the duty, showed no zeal, but contented myself with obeying
orders. The carbineers having searched every part of the ship below,
we came on deck where the captain's cabin was. A corporal entered
the cabin and pulled open one of the large drawers. I only took one
glimpse at it and looked away. It was chock full of small canvas bags,
and no doubt the other drawers and lockers were also full. Yet it did
not seem to occur to any of the searchers that there might be dollars
in the bags, and it was no business of mine. Nothing contraband had
been found in the ship, and a report to that effect was sent in. I
sent the colonel an account for my fee, which was duly paid from the
funds of the corps.
Weyler returned to Spain with a large sum of money, a far larger sum
than the whole of his emoluments. He had remitted large sums in bills,
and having fallen out with one of his confederates who had handled some
of the money, this man exhibited the seconds of exchange to certain
parties inimical to Weyler, with the result that the latter was openly
denounced as a thief in capital letters in a leading article of the
Correspondencia Militar of Madrid. Weyler's attorneys threatened to
prosecute for libel, but the editor defied them and declared that he
held the documents and was prepared to prove his statement. The matter
was allowed to drop. Weyler was thought to have received large sums
of money from the Augustinians and Dominicans for his armed support
against their tenants. It was said that the Chinese furnished him with
a first-rate cook, and provided food for his whole household gratis,
besides making presents of diamonds to his wife. And for holding back
certain laws which would have pressed very hardly upon them, it was
asserted that the Celestials paid him no less than $80,000. This is
the man who afterwards carried out the reconcentrado policy in Cuba
at the cost of thousands of lives, and subsequently returning with
a colossal fortune to Spain, posed as a patriot and as chief of the
military party.
Despujols.
To Weyler succeeded a man very different in appearance and character,
Don Emilio Despujols, Conde de Caspe.
Belonging to an ancient and noble family of Catalonia, holding his
honour dear, endowed with a noble presence and possessed of an ample
fortune, he came out to uplift and uphold the great charge committed
to him, and rather to give lustre to his office by expending his own
means than to economise from his pay, as so many colonial governors
are accustomed to do. He established his household upon a splendid
scale, and seconded by his distinguished countess, whose goodness
and munificent charities will ever be remembered, he entertained on a
scale worthy of a viceroy and in a manner never before seen in Manila.
Despujols rendered justice to all. Several Spaniards whose lives
were an open scandal, were by his order put on board ship and sent
back to Spain. Amongst these was one who bore the title of count,
but who lived by gambling.
Another was a doctor who openly plundered the natives. Like a Mahometan
Sultan of the old times, Despujols was accessible to the poorest who
had a tale of injustice and oppression to relate.
The news that a native could obtain justice from a governor-general
flew with incredible rapidity. At last a new era seemed to
be opening. A trifling event aroused the enthusiasm of the
people. Despujols and his countess drove to the Manila races with
their postillions dressed in shirts of Júsi and wearing silver-mounted
salacots instead of their usual livery. I was present on this occasion
and was struck with the unwonted warmth of the governor-general's
reception from the usually phlegmatic natives. Despujols became
popular to an extent never before reached. He could do anything with
the natives. Whenever his splendid equipages appeared in public he
received an ovation. Quite a different spirit now seemed to possess
the natives. But not all the Spaniards viewed this with satisfaction;
many whose career of corruption had been checked, who found their
illicit gains decreased, and the victims of their extortion beginning
to resist them, bitterly criticised the new governor-general.
The religious orders finding Despujols incorruptible and indisposed
to place military forces at the disposal of the Augustinians
and Dominicans to coerce or evict refractory tenants, then took
action. Their procurators in Madrid made a combined attack on
Despujols, both in the reptile press and by representations to the
ministry. They succeeded, and Despujols was dismissed from office by
cable. Rumour has it that the Orders paid $100,000 for Despujols's
recall. For my own part I think this very likely, and few who know
Madrid will suppose that this decree could be obtained by any other
means.
He laboured under a disadvantage, for he did not pay for his
appointment as some others did. If he had been paying $30,000 a year
to the wife of a powerful minister, he would not have been easily
recalled. Or if, like another governor-general, he had been in debt
up to the eyes to influential creditors, these would have kept him
in power till he had amassed enough to pay them off.
I am of opinion that had Despujols been retained in Manila, and had
he been given time to reform and purify the administration, the chain
of events which has now torn the Philippines for ever from the grasp
of Spain would never have been welded. Whoever received the priests'
money, whoever they were who divided that Judas-bribe, they deserve
to be held in perpetual execration by their fellow-countrymen, and
to have their names handed down to everlasting infamy.
Despujols left Manila under a manifestation of respect and devotion
from the foreign residents, from the best Spaniards and from every
class of the natives of the Philippines, that might well go far to
console him for his unmerited dismissal. He must have bitterly felt
the injustice with which he was treated, but still he left carrying
with him a clear conscience and a harvest of love and admiration that
no previous governor-general had ever inspired.
For if Moriones manifested courage, energy and incorruptible honesty
under what would have been an irresistible temptation to many another
man, that rude soldier was far from possessing those personal gifts,
the fine presence and the sympathetic address of Despujols, and
inspired fear rather than affection.
Yet both were worthy representatives of their country; both were
men any land might be proud to send forth. Those two noble names are
sufficient to redeem the Spanish Government of the Philippines from
the accusation of being entirely corrupt, too frequently made against
it. They deserve an abler pen than mine to extol their merits and
to exalt them as they deserve above the swarm of pilferers, and sham
patriots, who preceded and succeeded them. To use an Eastern image,
they may be compared to two noble trees towering above the rank
vegetation of some poisonous swamp. For the honour of Spain and of
human nature in general, I have always felt grateful that I could say
that amongst the governors-general of the Philippines whom I had known
there were at least two entitled to the respect of every honest man.
CHAPTER IV.
COURTS OF JUSTICE.
Alcaldes--The Audiencia--The Guardia Civil--Do not hesitate
to shoot--Talas.
The foulest blot upon the Spanish Administration in all her former
colonies was undoubtedly the thorough venality of her infamous Courts
of Justice. Unfortunately, amongst the heterogeneous population of
the Philippines, a low standard of morality prevails and has prevailed
from the earliest times. The natives at the time of the conquest were
partly civilised, so far as building houses and cultivating their lands
by slave labour is concerned. But notwithstanding the assertions of
the Filipinos, the late Dr. Rizal and others, a study of the ancient
authors demonstrates that they were sunk in ignorance and superstition,
and that their customs were those of semi-savages. When they came under
the rule of the Spaniards, they might have made great advances if the
administration of the laws had been confided to persons of honour
capable of interpreting that wise code, the "Laws of the Indies,"
in the noble and Christian spirit which had inspired their makers.
But what class of man was it that the Spaniards appointed to this
office?
Thomas de Comyn, p. 134, says: "It is quite common to see a barber
or footman of a governor, a sailor or a deserter, transformed into an
Alcalde-Mayor, Sub-delegate, and War Captain of a populous province,
without other counsel than his own rude intelligence (understanding)
nor other guide than his passions."
What could be expected from such men as these, living in such an
atmosphere? And if some solitary alcalde might cherish in his heart
some spark of honour, some lingering love of justice, there were
two elements in the country to extinguish that spark, to smother
that feeling.
Woe betide the alcalde who would decide a case, whatever its merits,
adversely to any one of the religious orders. I personally knew
an alcalde who (at a great price) had obtained the government of
the province of Batangas, from whence his immediate predecessor,
also well-known to me, had retired with a large fortune, but leaving
everybody contented so far as could be seen. He had kept on good terms
with the priests. His successor unfortunately forgot this cardinal rule
and allowed himself to be identified with some anti-clerical Spaniards.
Every kind of trouble fell upon that man, and finally he was recalled
to Manila and received a severe reprimand from General Primo de Rivera,
who was said to have received $12,000 for turning him out.
He was removed from wealthy Batangas and sent to the fever-stricken
capital of Tayabas, a wretchedly poor Government, affording few
opportunities for peculation. He escaped with his life, but his wife, a
very charming Spanish lady, succumbed to the malaria. Similar instances
of the results of being, or being thought to be, an anti-clerical,
will occur to old residents in the Philippines. The arm of the Church
was long and its hand was a heavy one.
The second influence I referred to is the presence of the heathen
Chinee in the islands. To a Chinaman the idea that a judge should
take bribes seems as natural a thing as that a duck should take to
the water. And yet the Chinaman will not, unless he knows he is on the
right track, brutally push his bribe under the judge's nose. Either he
or one of his countrymen will from the judge's arrival have rendered
him good service. Does the judge want a gardener or cook? Ah-sin soon
provides an excellent one who never asks for his wages. Have some
visitors arrived at the Alcaldia Ah-sin sends in a dozen chickens,
a turkey, and the best fruits. Is it the judge's name-day? The wily
Celestial presents a few cases of wine and boxes of fine cigars. Is
the roof of the Alcaldia leaking--a couple of Chinese carpenters will
set it right without sending a bill for it. Then, having prepared the
way, should Ah-sin be summoned before the alcalde, he may confidently
hope that his patron will not hurriedly give judgment against him, and
that he will probably get a full opportunity to present substantial
reasons why the suit should be decided in his favour. In fact, the
practice of the alcalde's courts was only a shade better than that of
the Chinese Yamens, where the different cases are put up to auction
amongst the magistrates and knocked down to the highest bidders, who
then proceed on a course of extortion, by arrest and by the torture
of witnesses, to make all they can out of them.
In an alcalde's court, there would be several mestizo or native writers
or auxiliaries. Some of them were what is called meritórios, that is,
unpaid volunteers. Of course, they expect to receive gratuities from
the suitors and would take care to mislay their documents if they were
neglected. Sometimes the alcalde was so lazy that he left the whole
matter in the hands of his subordinates and signed whatever they laid
before him. I have been a witness of this, and have even remonstrated
with a judge for so doing. He, however, said he had the greatest
confidence in his subordinates and that they dare not deceive him.
Bad as the alcalde's courts were, I think that the culminating point
of corruption was the Audiencia of Manila. Escribano, abogado, júez,
auditor, fiscál, vied with each other in showing that to them, honour
and dignity were mere empty words. They set the vilest examples to
the mestizos and natives, and, unfortunately, these have been only
too apt pupils, and having little to lose, were often ready to go one
better than the Spaniards, who after all had to keep up appearances. I
cannot adequately express the loathing I feel for all this tribe. I
look upon a highwayman as a gentleman compared to them, for he does
risk his life, and you may get a shot at him, but these wretches ruin
you in perfect safety.
They dress their wives, they nourish their children, upon the reward
of roguery, the price of perjury, the fruits of forgery, the wages
of some wicked judgment.
What can be expected of the spawn of these reptiles, what but by the
process of evolution to be more envenomed than their progenitors? Is
there not amongst all the multitudinous Philippines some desert
island where the people trained in the Spanish courts and all their
breed could be deported, where they might set up a court, and bring
actions against each other and cheat and lie and forge till they die?
What a Godsend for the Philippines were this possible, if besides
getting rid of the Spanish judges, they could now get rid of their
aiders and abettors, their apt pupils and would-be successors.
Bribery is a fine art, and there were those in Manila who were well
versed in its intricacies. We heard one day of a decree by a judge
against the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. Club gossip
asserted that the judge who issued the decree had lost some hundreds of
dollars at the gambling table of the Casino the night before, and that
the artistic corrupter had called on him in the morning with the means
to pay the debt of honour and to try his luck again. The judge was
known not to have the means of paying, yet he paid and simultaneously
issued his decree. Old Manila hands drew their inference.
The record of these courts from the earliest times is one
long-continued infamy. Thank God that is over and a new chapter has
begun. I rejoice exceedingly that their sins have at last overtaken
them, and I recognise that, though
"The mills of God grind slowly,
Yet they grind exceeding small."
Owing to the demoralisation of the mestizo and native lawyers by these
vile examples, it will be very difficult to break the traditions of
venality and to find men worthy to occupy the bench.
These courts were not only corrupt, but they were inept. At a time
when brigandage prevailed and many notorious criminals were apprehended
almost red-handed, convictions could not be got, and the bandits were
liberated on various pretexts.
So great was the scandal that Moriones issued a decree that all persons
accused of gang-robbery should be tried by a military tribunal. And
he appointed a permanent court-martial for this purpose, to the
great disgust of all the lawyer element. These courts were abolished
some years later after his return to Spain; then the Guardia Civil
made their own arrangements, and the mortality amongst bandits was
excessive. When some well-known robber was by any chance taken alive,
he always, so they said, tried to escape by running away from his
captors, and this obliged them to fire upon him. They never missed
on these occasions, and it was thought that the range never exceeded
ten paces and was often less.
However necessary this military action may be, it is, undoubtedly
liable to abuse, and the power of life and death is a great one to
put in the hands of a junior officer or non-commissioned officer of
police. The Guardia Civil, an armed force with Spanish officers and
native soldiers, was organised in 1867, and I must say that I looked
upon it as an excellent institution, the terror of evil-doers and a
protection to all law-abiding people. My native friends, however, are
of a different opinion. They accuse the Guardia Civil, both Spaniards
and natives, of behaving in an arbitrary and cruel manner, and with
practising extortion upon defenceless natives. They are accused of
torturing witnesses to extort evidence, and this charge was no doubt
true in many cases.
On the other hand, the bandits or tulisanes were exterminated by this
corps of picked men, and security to life and property was assured. At
the formation of this corps the officers and men were very carefully
selected. The Governor-General himself examined the records of every
officer, and only Spanish gentlemen of the highest character were
appointed. Similarly the soldiers were natives who had served their
time in the army without having a crime noted against them. But in
later years this precaution was relaxed, and colonels of regiments
were allowed to dump their rubbish into this corps.
I knew of a case where a Filipino with Irish blood in him was posted
as a lieutenant to this corps and behaved most abominably. I am
glad to say, however, that he was sent out of the islands. This was
only another instance of the fact that whatever the natives have to
complain of the Spaniards, the mestizos, and their own rich people,
treat them and have always treated them far worse.
Both officers and men were well paid and were dressed in a very
smart and neat uniform, well suited to the climate, which they kept
spick and span whatever service they were on. They were armed with
Remington rifles and bayonets, and in addition carried a heavy chopping
knife. They were posted at all the chief towns of Luzon and in some
of the Visayas Islands. The greatest crime a native could commit
was to kill a Guardia Civil, and such a matter never came before a
Civil Court. If the slayer by any chance was not killed on the spot,
he would probably be shot at sight. If apprehended, he would be tried
by a court-martial composed of officers of the Guardia Civil, and,
needless to say, there would be no monkeying with the verdict nor
with the sentence, which would be promptly carried out.
Even to resist the Guardia Civil was so great a crime that the
sentence of a court-martial in such a case was penal servitude for life
(Cadéna Perpétua).
How surprised a London rough would be at this severity after being
accustomed to expiate the most brutal assaults upon the police by a
fine of a few shillings.
To sum up the Guardia Civil, I may say that their practice was
comprised in five memorable words, addressed to a similar corps
by Mr. A. J. Balfour in his energetic days, a most sensible order,
that he may well be proud of: "Do not hesitate to shoot."
Amongst other duties of the Guardia Civil in bygone years was the
making of periodical expeditions against the remontados and the hill
tribes, officially designated Talas, or cuttings down.
At certain favourable seasons of the year, especially before harvest
time, the Guardias, accompanied by some Cuadrilleros, and on important
occasions by a company of native infantry, marched up into the more
accessible hills.
The hill-men obstructed the tracks in the most difficult places by
cutting down trees and making abattis.
They also placed sharp bamboo spikes carefully concealed in the earth
or mud of the footpaths, and these, if trodden on, inflicted most
dangerous wounds that were apt to gangrene. Sometimes if they had
much at stake, the hill-men or outlaws would venture an ambuscade, and
hurl their javelins or send a flight of arrows amongst their enemies.
But even the boldest races rarely came to close quarters, for their
weapons were no match against rifles and bayonets. So, led by their
spies, the Spanish forces laboured upwards, and on arriving at the
hamlets of the mountaineers or outlaws they burnt down the rude
huts, reaped the crops, taking away what they could and burning
the remainder.
They cut down every fruit tree and took special care to destroy every
tobacco plant. They then retired, leaving a scene of devastation
behind them.
If any of the hill-men fell into their hands their fate depended upon
whether there were any murders to avenge or upon the humanity of the
officer in command. This wanton destruction was committed chiefly in
the interests of the tobacco monopoly, but also in order to force
the hillmen to come down and reside in the towns. It had, however,
an entirely contrary effect, for the savages either retired into more
inaccessible regions, or perhaps abandoned cultivation and lived a
roving, marauding life like the Itetapanes and Catubanganes.
Since the abolition of the tobacco monopoly the Talas have been less
frequent, and there was a feeling amongst the authorities that these
cruel and demoralising expeditions should be discontinued, unless in
cases where the hill-men had given great provocation.
The Spaniards are, of course, not the only nation to make these
forays. In the last campaign against the Afridis the British
troops were employed, under orders, to blow up the houses, break the
mill-stones, and cut down the trees of the enemy, not even sparing the
shade trees round a mosque. It was probably the only way to inflict
punishment on the Afridis.
The worst feature is that in all such cases a crop of bitter hatred
is sown in the hearts of the sufferers, which matures later on,
and which is handed down from one generation to another.
CHAPTER V.
TAGAL CRIME AND SPANISH JUSTICE.
The murder of a Spaniard--Promptitude of the Courts--The case of
Juan de la Cruz--Twelve years in prison waiting trial--Piratical
outrage in Luzon--Culprits never tried; several die in prison.
The penal code of the Philippines, which came into force in 1884,
declares it impossible to consider as an aggravation of an offence the
circumstance of colour or race in the offender, for the criminal is
to be punished for his crime and not for the condition of inferiority
to which nature has condemned him.
It goes on to say that on the other hand his condition should not
be allowed to attenuate the sentence, for that would constitute an
odious privilege, an unbearable inequality.
It therefore proudly proclaims the equality of all races before the
law. These are noble words; we shall see how they work out in practice.
The case of Juan de la Cruz shows us that a criminal investigation
can drag on for twelve years without coming on for trial when the
victims are natives and of lowly station. I could cite cases where the
victims were British subjects, and the murderers were never punished,
and another case where a Frenchman was the victim. The murderer
in this case was to have been pardoned by the Governor-General,
but the French consul threatened to haul down his flag and leave
the islands unless the assassin was executed; and he was executed,
the consul attending to see the sentence carried out
The British Foreign Office does not encourage its agents to such
energetic acts. To obtain the good graces of the Foreign Office a
consul should be devoid of talent or originality. Mediocrity is the
condition sought for. It is never advisable for one of Her Britannic
Majesty's consuls to be active in protecting Her Britannic Majesty's
subjects. What he must aim at if he wishes for consideration and
promotion is to give the Foreign Office no trouble. The ideal consul
would be he who is only heard of once a quarter, when he certifies
that he is alive, and asks that his salary may be paid.
I will relate a murder that made an impression on me at the time,
where the victim was a Spaniard. In June of 1881, I was at Santa
Cruz in the Laguna Province for several days, making experiments
with some patent centrifugals, steaming and drying the fine Laguna
sugar. Quite close to the camarin, where the machines were at work,
lived an elderly Spaniard who was a government employé in some
subordinate position. I think he was the Subdelegado de Hacienda,
or sub-provincial treasurer. I had once or twice called upon the old
gentleman, whose appearance and manners were above his official rank,
and had been politely received by him. On completing my experiments,
I called to take leave of him, and was sorry to find him suffering
from fever, and very weak.
I returned to Manila, and next day was horrified to read in a newspaper
that he had been murdered in the night by his two servants. This
atrocious crime, committed on a helpless and infirm old man, with every
circumstance of premeditation and barbarity, and with the object of
robbery, roused the indignation of every European. The culprits were
soon apprehended, and such expedition was used by the Promotor Fiscal
and the court, that within a week from the perpetration of the murder
the two servants were garrotted on a scaffold erected near the scene
of their barbarous crime.
Such is the rapidity with which the Philippine courts could act when
a Spaniard was the victim and when public opinion was deeply stirred
by some shocking tragedy.
The case of Juan de la Cruz.
The following narrative of events, which occurred in 1886, will give
the reader a good idea of the furious passions that may lurk under
the inscrutable features of the Philippine Malay, and will also serve
to illustrate the procedure of the Spanish criminal courts when the
victims are natives and when nothing can be made out of the case. Four
of the five actors or victims in the tragedy were well known to me,
and I learned all the particulars at first hand and at the time,
from those who took steps to deliver over the culprit to justice.
The decked steam launch Laguimanoc belonged to Gustav Brown, a ship
carpenter, and was hired by the Varadero, or Slipway Company of
Cañacao, near Cavite, to keep up communication with Manila, whilst
the slip was being constructed.
I was consulting engineer to the company, and Mr. J. L. Houston was
the resident engineer in charge of the work. Both of us made frequent
voyages in this launch between Cañacao and Manila. The crew consisted
of a patron (coxswain) named Juan de la Cruz, an engine-driver,
a stoker, and a boy, all Tagals.
Juan de la Cruz was an elderly man with grey hair, and in figure thin
and wiry. He was a good man at his duty, one of the silent Indians
whom I have always found to be the best. A thorough sailor, he had
served under many a flag, and sailed o'er many a sea, both in tropic
and in northern climes.
The engine-driver and the stoker were brothers, strong and well-built
young fellows, and smart at their work. The boy was an active lad,
quite pleased to be employed on a steam-boat.
One day, the stoker, going through the blacksmith's shop, saw a piece
of square steel, which had been cut off a long bar, lying on the
floor, and it struck him that it would be better than a hammer for
breaking coal. So he annexed it without leave, and got one end drawn
out and rounded so that he could easily hold it. This made a very
efficient coal-breaker, the sharp edges divided the lumps with great
ease. It was about eighteen inches long, and one and three-quarter
inches square. The patron was married, and his wife lived in Manila,
but, sailor-like, he had provided himself with a sweetheart, at the
other end of his run, where he spent more time than in the Pasig,
and had become intimate with a damsel of San Roque, a village between
the Varadero and Cavite. Things went on apparently all right for some
time; the launch making almost daily trips between Cañacao and Manila,
and the elderly patron alternating between the conjugal domicile and
the dwelling of his mistress. She was young, and, as native girls go,
a pretty woman. Come of a strange and unknown mixture of races, and
bred up amongst a community noted for its profligacy, she knew how
to make the best use of her charms and was well fitted to captivate
the weather-beaten seaman.
He, if not desirable in himself, held a well paid post, and was able
to place her above want.
Already fifty years old, he was as susceptible as a youth and far more
in earnest. Day by day, as he basked in her smiles, his infatuation
increased till he became violently enamoured of his charmer.
What could be more natural than that the crew of the launch should
become acquainted with the patron's mistress? Soon the engine-driver
and the stoker were her constant visitors. The damsel had a kind word
and a smile for both, and doubtless contrasted their vigorous youth
and shapely forms with the shrunken figure of her elderly protector,
and their lively conversation with his glum silence.
In the end, no doubt, the damsel refused them nothing.
Trouble was now brewing. The grim sailor was not the man to let
himself be wronged with impunity. All the elements of a tragedy were
present. Things no longer went smoothly on board the Laguimanoc, and
her voyages lost their regularity. Something was perpetually going
wrong with the engines, pieces or fittings disappeared unaccountably,
usually pieces of copper or brass. The engine-driver was blamed,
but he succeeded in averting his impending discharge. Could he
have foreseen the consequences of remaining, he would have promptly
discharged himself.
On board the launch mutual distrust prevailed. The engine-driver must
have known that it was the patron who had thrown overboard the fittings
in his absence, hoping to get him discharged, but he held his peace.
The silent figure at the tiller made no sign; no trace of emotion
could be seen on the Sphinx-like face, no reproaches passed his lips,
not the slightest manifestation of resentment. But underneath that
imperturbable calm there existed the steadfast determination to have
a full and bloody revenge on all who had offended him. The Laguimanoc
made a voyage to Manila one Saturday to take up the resident engineer
who often spent his Sundays there, the launch remaining in the
river. On Monday morning when he came down to the launch he found
that the safety valve was missing from its seat, and was delayed till
another could be procured.
No explanations of the loss of this piece could be got, and the
Laguimanoc proceeded with the resident engineer to Cañacao and made
fast to the jetty.
A crisis was now reached. The abstraction of the safety-valve could
not be overlooked, and some one would have to go. An inquiry was
to be made, but on Tuesday morning the patron walked up the jetty,
and reported to Mr. Gustav Brown, who was the foreman of the works,
that the engine-driver and stoker were absent. He stated that they
had gone ashore in the night, and had not returned. Nothing could
be learned about them; nobody had seen them; their kits were still
on board. As the day wore on they did not come nor send any message;
so a report of their disappearance was sent to the judge at Cavite.
An engine-fitter from the works was sent on board to take charge
of the engine, and another stoker was engaged; the launch resuming
her running. The work of the Varadero proceeded as usual; divers
were preparing the foundations to receive the immense gridiron
which was shortly to be launched and sunk in place. It was a busy
scene of organised labour under a skilful resident engineer; every
difficulty foreseen and provided for, materials delivered in good time,
notwithstanding obstructions; not an unnecessary auger-hole bored,
not a stroke of an adze thrown away.
From the Sleepy Hollow of the naval arsenal opposite jealous eyes
watched the work proceed. Every art of vexation and obstruction that
bitter envy could devise had for years been employed to prevent
the building of this slip, and onerous and unfair conditions had
been inserted in the concession. But Anglo-American persistence and
industry had succeeded so far, and in the hands of Messrs. Peel,
Hubbell & Co. and their advisers, the work was now well advanced.
The obsolete corvette Doña Maria Molina was moored off the
coaling-wharf adjoining the Varadero, and when one of her boats was
going on shore the sailors noticed two dead bodies floating in the
water, and reported this to the officer of the watch, who ordered
them to tow the bodies to the shore towards Punta Sangley, and drag
them up on the sand above high-water mark. The bodies were lashed
together with a piece of new rope having a blue strand in the centre,
and had a good-sized piece of white granite attached as a sinker. On
looking at the lashings no one could doubt that the work had been
done by an able seaman. The bodies presented ghastly wounds, both had
fractures of the skull, and gaping cuts on the throat and abdomen;
they had also been gnawed by fishes. The swelling of the bodies had
sufficed to bring them to the surface, stone and all.
The news of the finding of the corpses did not immediately reach
the Varadero, and they were conveyed to Cavite, and buried just as
they were found, tied together with the ropes and stone, without
being identified. It seemed nobody's business to trouble about them,
notwithstanding the evident fact that they had been murdered. The
Manila newspapers did not mention the circumstance.
But at this time other events happened. The patron of the launch
disappeared without taking his kit with him. Then the boy disappeared,
and I may as well at once say that, from that time to this, that
boy has never been heard of by the Varadero Company, who were his
employers. Next, that gay and lascivious damsel of San Roque, whose
unbridled sensuality had wrought the trouble, also disappeared as
mysteriously as the others.
Dr. Juan Perez, of Cavite, was the medical attendant to the staff
of the Varadero, and used to call there every afternoon. On hearing
from him about the discovery of the bodies, the resident engineer
at once thought of his missing men, and the flight of the patron
confirmed his suspicions. A minute examination of the launch was
made, and revealed some stains of blood which had not been entirely
removed by the usual washing down. Several small cuts such as might
be made with the point of a bolo were found in the flat skylight
of the cabin, and a deeper cut on the bulwark rail, starboard side
forward, opposite the skylight. A working rope was missing from the
launch. It had only recently been supplied to it, and had been cut
off a whole coil purchased a few weeks before from a sailing-vessel,
for the use of the Varadero. That rope had a blue strand in the
centre. Gustav Brown put on a diving-dress, and went down at the head
of the northern jetty, where the launch used to lie, and carefully
examined the bottom. Presently his eye rested on an object that he
recognised. It was the square steel coal-breaker used by the stoker,
and he brought it up.
Meanwhile, a new coxswain had been found for the launch, and as the
old patron had left his vessel illegally, there was ground for his
arrest on that score, so orders were given to the new patron and
to the engine-driver to give him into custody if he came to claim
his kit. Next time the launch arrived in Manila, sure enough the
old patron appeared to fetch his belongings, and was taken to the
calaboose of the captain of the port. The resident engineer called on
that official, and, as a result of their conversation, the prisoner
was put on board the launch to be conveyed to Cavite.
With all the stoicism of the Malay, he sat quite still and silent;
his impassive features betrayed no sign of anxiety or remorse.
But if the principal actor in this bloody tragedy could thus compose
his mind, it was not so with others who knew more or less what had
happened, but whose dread and hatred of the law and its myrmidons
had kept their tongues quiet.
When the launch approached the Varadero near enough for the prisoner
to be recognised, an unusual commotion occurred amongst the swarm of
native workmen. A mysterious magnetism, an inexplicable vibration,
pervaded the crowd. Unfelt by the senses, it acted on the mind, and
seemed simultaneously to convey to each individual an identical idea.
The patron was a prisoner, therefore his crime was known; no good
could be done by keeping silent. Before this nobody knew anything
about the disappearance of the two men. Now it leaked out, but only in
confidence to Gustav Brown, whom they trusted. The native divers had
seen the bodies when at their work on the foundations, and had moved
them farther off out of their way. Men working at the jetties had seen
them when they floated, but had looked in another direction. In fact,
the corpses had been recognised, and the crime was known to scores
of native and Chinese workmen, but no word or hint ever reached the
foreman or the engineer till the culprit was arrested.
Now there were sufficient details to reconstitute the tragic scene.
The amour of the brothers with the San Roque girl was known, and also
the well-founded jealousy of the patron, who at first endeavoured
to obtain the engine-driver's discharge by the means already
mentioned. This not succeeding, he determined to kill both of them,
and without showing a sign of the deadly hatred that possessed him,
calmly awaited his opportunity.
On the Monday night, 7th June, after the incident of the safety-valve,
the launch was moored alongside the Varadero jetty, and the two
brothers lay fast asleep on the flat top of the cabin skylight,
each wrapped in his blanket.
A native sleeps hard, and is not easily awakened, nor when aroused
does he quickly regain his faculties. It is an important point in
the Malay code of manners never to awaken any person suddenly, for
it is believed that, during sleep, the soul is absent from the body,
wandering around, and must be given time to return, otherwise serious,
even fatal consequences, may ensue. The awakened person may become
an idiot, or some great harm may happen to the unmannerly one who
awakened him. Many natives have as great a fear of the wandering
soul of a sleeping person as of an evil spirit or ghost. The soul
is said to return to the body in the form of a small black ball,
which enters the mouth.
Moreover, one of the greatest, in fact, the most terrible, curse that
can be uttered by many tribes, is, "May you die sleeping," for it
means death to body and soul. That, however, was the fate reserved for
the brothers. Towards midnight, when the cooking-fires in the coolie
quarters had burnt down, and the chatter of the Chinese had subsided,
when the last lights in the Europeans' houses had been extinguished,
and not a sound broke the stillness of the night, the patron addressed
himself to the performance of his bloody task. Slipping his sharpened
bolo through his belt, he descended into the engine-room, and, seizing
the coal-breaker, crept forward to where the doomed men slumbered,
perhaps dreaming of the charms of that dark damsel, the enjoyment
of whose embraces was to cost them so dear. Meanwhile, their fate
approached; their time was come.
The patron was past his prime; privations at sea and dissipation on
shore had sapped his strength. But bitter hatred nerving his arm,
with lightning rapidity and terrific force he discharged a blow on
each sleeper's unprotected head. The sharp edge of the steel bar
crashed deep into their skulls, driving in the splintered bone upon
the brain. One agonised shudder from each, then all was still. A
European murderer might have been satisfied with this. Not so a
Tagal. A ceremony still remained to be accomplished. Their blood must
flow; they must suffer mutilation. Seizing his bolo, the assassin now
vented his rage in cutting and thrusting at the bodies. The heavy
and keen-edged blade fell repeatedly, cutting great gashes on the
throats and bellies of the victims, whilst streams of gore ran down
the waterways, and trickled out at the scuppers, staining the white
sides of the launch with crimson streaks.
His blood-thirst assuaged, his vengeance partly accomplished, and
his spirit comforted by his desperate deed, the murderer probably
paused for a time, and began to consider how he could conceal his
crime. No sign of movement anywhere. Apparently the dull sounds of the
blows had fallen on no mortal ear. Presently, taking up one of his
working ropes, he mounted the jetty, and walked to the shore, where
there lay a pile of stone ballast. It was white granite, discharged
from a sailing-ship that had come from Hong Kong in ballast, and it
had been purchased for the Varadero. Selecting a suitable piece,
he carried it to the end of the jetty, and lowered it by the rope
into the launch. Then, descending, he firmly lashed the two bodies
together, and fastened the stone to them. Then he drew the bodies to
the side, preparatory to launching them overboard. Now an incident
occurred. It is thought that one of the two men was not quite dead,
notwithstanding his dreadful wounds, and that recovering consciousness,
and perceiving what awaited him, seized the rail in his death-grasp,
and resisted the attempt to throw him over.
The patron must once again have had recourse to his murderous bolo,
bringing it down on the clenched hand, for a deep cut was found on
the rail with blood driven into the pores of the wood by that savage
blow. The tendons severed, the hand unclasped, and next moment the
bodies slid over the rail and down underneath the keel of the launch in
some four fathoms of water. Throwing the steel coal-breaker after them,
the patron's next task was to wash away the traces of his crime, and
this he did fairly well so that nothing was noticed, till, suspicion
being aroused, a careful scrutiny was made, with the result already
mentioned. It is not known whether the boy knew anything of the tragedy
performed so near him, for he was never questioned, having apparently
disappeared off the face of the earth as soon as the bodies were
found. What the patron did afterwards can only be conjectured. Guilty
of two atrocious murders, and of savage mutilation of the slain,
could he have composed himself to a quiet and dreamless slumber? Or
was his imagination fired to further revenge by dream-pictures of his
once-loved mistress in the arms of her youthful lovers? All that is
known is that he presented himself to the foreman early on the Tuesday
morning, and reported the absence of the two men without showing on
his dark visage the slightest sign of trouble or emotion.
We left the patron a prisoner on the launch. Now it became
necessary to give him in charge to the judicial authorities, for
it was getting late in the afternoon. They did not show any undue
eagerness to receive him. The judge first applied to explained that
he was only acting temporarily, that the judge had departed, having
been transferred to another place, and that the new judge had not
yet arrived, therefore he much regretted he could not take up the
case. An appeal was then made to the Gobernador-Politico-Militar, who
most courteously explained that a civil court was established in the
province with full jurisdiction, both criminal and civil, so that he
could not interfere. It was now nearly sunset, and the prisoner had
been on the launch all day. The resident engineer then called on the
Commandante of Cañacao--a naval officer who had a few marines at his
disposal--and obtained as a personal favour that the prisoner should
be temporarily secured in the guard-room. The next day the resident
engineer proceeded to Cavite, and, accompanied by Dr. Juan Perez,
visited the principal authorities, and eventually succeeded in getting
the prisoner lodged in jail, and a charge of murder entered against
him. The bodies of the victims were never exhumed for examination. The
resident engineer made a declaration, which was taken down in writing,
and on one of his busiest days he was peremptorily summoned to appear
before the judge, and solemnly ratify his testimony.
About three days after Juan de la Cruz was lodged in Cavite jail,
the dead body of the San Roque damsel, gashed by savage blows of the
fatal bolo, was left by the ebb on the sands of Parañaque, a village
just across the little Bay of Bacoor opposite to San Roque. She had
paid with her life for her frailty as many another woman has done in
every clime. From the appearance of the body it was thought it had
been several days in the water.
No legal evidence was forthcoming to fix the crime on any one,
although few of those who knew the story harboured a doubt that the
assassin of the two brothers was the murderer of the girl also.
Juan de la Cruz remained in prison, and from time to time, but with
increasing intervals, the resident engineer, the foreman and others
were cited by the judge, interrogated, then cited again to ratify
their declarations.
The espediente, a pile of stamped paper, grew thicker and thicker,
but the trial seemed no nearer. Month after month rolled on, the
Varadero was finished, ships were drawn up, repaired and launched,
Juan continued in prison.
The resident engineer departed to other climes, and was soon expending
his energy in building the great harbour at La Guayra. I was the means
of obtaining an order for six gun-boats for the Varadero Company. They
were built, launched, tried and delivered, and steamed away to overawe
the piratical Moros. Still Juan continued in prison. Judges came and
judges went, but the trial came no nearer. Year after year a judge
of the Audiencia came in state to inspect the prisoners, and year
after year Juan was set down as awaiting his trial.
In December, 1892, I left the Philippines for Cuba and Juan de la
Cruz was still in Cavite jail.
Dr. Juan Perez, the surgeon who had examined the corpses, died, having
wrongly diagnosed his own case, and Dr. Hugo Perez, a half caste,
was appointed in his stead. Gustav Brown, the foreman, wearied of the
monotony of ship repairing, became possessed by a longing to resume his
nomadic life amongst the palm-clad islands of the Pacific. He purchased
a schooner and embarked with his wife and family. First running down
to Singapore to take in trade-goods for bartering with the natives,
he sailed away for the Carolines where his wife's home lay. He never
reached them; for, soon after leaving Singapore, he came to a bloody
end at the hands of his Chinese crew, who killed and decapitated him.
The insurrection broke out in Cavite Province, Colonel Mattone's column
was defeated by the insurgents with great slaughter. Dr. Hugo Perez,
the successor of Dr. Juan Perez, was suspected of sympathising with
the rebels, and, needless to say, he soon came to a bloody end. He
did not have to wait long for his trial.
In 1896, Mr. George Gilchrist, the engineer at the Varadero, who was
not in the Philippines when the murders were committed, was cited by
the judge, and asked if he could identify the prisoner ten years after
his arrest! Two years more passed, and in April, 1898, Mr. Gilchrist
returned to Scotland for a well-earned holiday. When he left Cañacao,
Juan de la Cruz was still in prison awaiting his trial.
He may have escaped when the rebels occupied Cavite after Admiral
Dewey's victory over the Spanish Squadron in the Bay of Bacoor.
For the murderer no pity need be felt, he certainly had nothing to
gain and all to lose by a trial. A double murder, premeditated,
accompanied by acts of great barbarity, and committed at night,
constitutes by the Penal Code a capital offence with three aggravating
circumstances which would forbid all hope of clemency.
But what can be thought of courts so remiss in their duty? How many
innocent prisoners have waited years for their trial? How many have
died in prison?
Piratical Outrage in Luzon.
At Laguimanóc, a port and village in the Province of Tayabas, there
resided an Englishman, Mr. H. G. Brown, who had been many years in
the Philippines. By the exercise of untiring industry, by braving
the malaria of the primeval forests, and by his never-failing tact in
dealing with the officials of the Woods and Forests on the one hand,
and with the semi-barbarous and entirely lawless wood-cutters on
the other, he had built up an extensive business in cutting timber
in the state forests of Southern Luzon and the adjacent islands. He
was owner of several sailing vessels, had a well-appointed saw-mill,
and a comfortable residence at Languimanóc. He employed large numbers
of wood-cutters; all under advances of pay, who were scattered about
the Provinces of Tayabas, and Camarines Norte over a considerable area.
His business was so considerable that he paid the Government fully
$30,000 per year as royalty on timber which was mostly shipped to
Hong Kong and Shanghai.
In order to facilitate a business so profitable to them the Government
placed a Custom House official at Atimónan, in the Bay of Lamon on
the Pacific coast, to clear and despatch his timber vessels loaded
at Atimónan, Gumacas, Lopez, Alabat Island, or other places. To show
how little Mr. Brown spared himself, I may mention that not even
the dreaded jungle-fever of Mindoro prevented him from personally
superintending the loading of several vessels at different ports of
that pestilential island. In persistence and pluck he was a worthy
predecessor of Professor D. C. Worcester, who years afterwards showed
his Anglo-Saxon determination in the same fearsome spot.
One day in December of 1884, Mr. Brown being absent in Hong Kong,
and his manager, Mr. Anderson, busy on the Pacific coast, looking
after the loading of a vessel, the out-door superintendent, a Swede
named Alfred Olsen, was in charge of the house, office, and saw-mill
at Laguimanóc, and was attending to the loading of the Tartar, one
of Mr. Brown's ships which was anchored in the bay taking in timber
for China. She had a native crew who occasionally of an evening, when
ashore to enjoy themselves, got up a disturbance with the villagers. On
board this vessel there were, as is usual, two Carabineros or Custom
House guards to prevent smuggling.
Although no one in the village suspected it, two large canoes full of
armed men were lying concealed behind a point in Capuluan Cove on the
opposite side of the Bay. At eight o'clock in the evening, it being
quite dark, they came across, and in perfect order, according to a
pre-arranged plan advanced in silence on the village. The assailants
numbered twenty-eight men, and were variously armed with lances, bolos
and daggers. Only the leader bore a revolver. A guard was left on the
canoes, four of the gang were stationed at the door of Mr. Brown's
house, and others at strategic points, whilst the main body attacked
the Tribunal close by which was also the estanco where there was some
Government money, postage stamps and stamped paper. At all Tribunales
there are a couple of cuadrilleros, or village constables on guard,
armed usually with lance and bolo. These men did their duty and
manfully resisted the pirates. In the combat which ensued, the sergeant
of the Cuadrilleros was killed and some on both sides were wounded,
but the pirates got the best of the fight, and plundered the estanco.
In the meantime, Olsen, having heard the uproar, may have thought that
the crew of the Tartar were again making a disturbance. At all events
he left the house unarmed and unsuspicious, thus walking into the trap
laid for him. The Tagals have a great respect for fire-arms, more
especially for the revolvers and repeating rifles of the foreigner,
thus they did not venture to enter the house, but the moment Olsen
stepped out into the darkness and before he could see round about
him, he was attacked by two men on each side, who plunged their
daggers into his body, piercing his lungs. Bleeding profusely and
vomiting blood he rushed back into the house towards his bedroom to
get his revolver which was under the bed. His assailants, however,
followed him into the room and butchered him before he could grasp
it. At least the revolver was afterwards found in its case with the
perfect impress of his blood-stained hand upon the oaken lid. A native
boy named Pablo, about eight years old, was in the house at the time,
and in his terror squeezed himself into a narrow space behind the door
and escaped discovery, although he was an eye-witness of the crime.
By this time the alarm had spread all over the little village, and
the noise was heard on board the Tartar. The two Carabineros, taking
their Remingtons and cartridge boxes, had themselves paddled on shore,
and marching up the stairs which led to the rocky eminence on which
the village stands, bravely advanced against the pirates although
out-numbered by more than ten to one. They fired their rifles,
but the gang rushed upon them and in a moment they were cut down,
and according to Tagal custom, their bellies were ripped open. The
pirates having now overcome all opposition and having plundered
the estanco, and the inevitable Chinaman's shop, transferred their
attention to Mr. Brown's house, which they ransacked, taking the
contents of the safe, a collection of gold and silver coins, seven
Martini-Henry rifles with ammunition, and two revolvers, as well as
any other things they deemed of value. They burst open the desks,
drawers, and wardrobes, cutting and hacking the furniture with their
bolos in wanton mischief. Then embarking their spoil, they sailed
away with the land breeze.
Information had been sent off to the nearest post of the Guardia Civil,
and on its receipt, an officer with a force of that corps instantly
set off and captured one party of the pirates red-handed as they
beached their canoe. Within a week twenty-six had been captured and
one shot dead whilst escaping. There only remained the leader. He,
as it was afterwards discovered, was concealed in a secluded wood a
few miles from Sariaya, and one night he was speared by the Captain
of Cuadrilleros of that town, who is said to have had valid reasons
for getting him out of the way.
This band of pirates were a mixed lot; some of them were principales or
members of the town council of Sariaya, a picturesque little place on
the southern slope of Mount Banajao, and some from San Juan de Boc-boc;
others were ordinary inhabitants, a few were outlaws from the San Juan
mountains, and four or five were fishermen whom the gang had met on
their passage by sea and had invited to accompany them. This custom
of Convites is explained in Chapter XXV. Of course the fishermen,
when interrogated, declared they had been pressed into the service,
but in fact very few natives have the moral courage to decline so
pleasing an entertainment, as it appeals to a feeling deeply seated
in their hearts, the love of rapine, only to be restrained by the
heavy hand of a military police "who do not hesitate to shoot." The
provincial doctor arrived next morning with the judge who was to take
the depositions of the villagers and draw up the sumario. Olsen was
dead, the sergeant of Cuadrilleros also and one of the Carabineros,
but strange to say, in spite of a dozen ghastly wounds, the other
one was still alive, though his bowels were protruding, having fallen
out through the gash which it is the Tagal custom to finish off with.
When the provincial doctor saw him, he said, "Nothing can possibly
be done for him," and departed. So, abandoned to his own resources,
he replaced the bowels himself, and getting one of the villagers to
bind him up, he eventually recovered. He was seen by Mr. Brown a year
or two later, and is probably alive now. This seems extraordinary, but
a similar case occurred to a man who had worked under me. An English
bricklayer named John Heath had been employed building furnaces and
kilns in Manila, and having completed his work, took to farming and
rented some grass meadows (sacate lands) at Mandaloyan. One night he
and another Englishman staying with him were attacked in his house by a
party of Tagals with drawn bolos. The visitor, although wounded, leaped
from the window and escaped, but Heath was cut down, then lifted on to
the window sill, hacked about, and finally, according to Tagal custom,
ripped open and left for dead. Yet this man also entirely recovered,
and after a year seemed as strong as ever, although he was advised
not to exert his strength. This outrage was clearly agrarian, and was,
I feel sure, committed by those who had previously rented these lands
and had been turned out. No one was ever punished for it.
To return to the gang of pirates; two had been killed, the rest were
in prison. Year after year passed, still they remained in prison;
judges came, stayed their term, were promoted and went, but still
these men were never sentenced.
In 1889, I visited Laguimanóc to make a plan and valuation of the
property, as the business was about to be taken over by a Limited
Liability Company, established in Hong Kong. This was five years after
the date of the murders, some of the prisoners had died in prison, the
others were awaiting their sentence. But I found that the Government
had established a sergeant's post of the Guardia Civil in the village,
which effectually prevented a repetition of the outrage.
A year later I again visited Laguimanóc, but the trial of the prisoners
was no further advanced. No less than nine of them died in prison,
still no sentence was pronounced. Even for a Philippine Court this
was extraordinary, for the gang had committed the unpardonable crime
"Resistencia a fuerza armada" (Resistance to an armed force), and could
have been tried by Court-martial and summarily shot. They had also
dared to lay their profane hands on the sacred money-box containing
a portion of the "Real Haber" (Government money), so that it was not
only a question of murder and robbery of private people. But the Civil
Court, negligent, slothful, and corrupt, could not be got to convict,
and a few years ago, Mr. Brown having left the islands, the surviving
prisoners were pardoned by the Queen Regent on the occasion of the
young King's birthday.
The contrast between the military and civil elements in this case is
very strong.
The military element performed its duties thoroughly well, under great
difficulties, and promptly arrested the malefactors. In my experience
this has been always the case, and I draw from it the conclusion
that military Government is essential to the pacification of the
Philippines and that authority must be backed up by a native force
of constabulary under American officers who must be young and active.
Such offences as piracy or gang-robbery should never come before a
Civil Court, but should be promptly settled by court-martial before
which no technicalities or legal subtleties need be taken into account.
A firm, nay, a heavy hand over the Philippines is the most merciful
in the long run.
I am sorry to have to relate that the Company which took over
Mr. Brown's business did not long prosper. Whilst he remained at the
head of it, all went well, but as soon as he left to take a much-needed
rest, it began to fail. The personality of the individual is everything
in most Spanish countries and especially in the Philippines. No
manager could be found who could keep on terms with the officials,
control the wild wood-cutters or risk jungle-fever by entering the
forests to personally inspect the work.
The organization decayed and the business went to pieces. Let intending
investors take note.
CHAPTER VI.
CAUSES OF TAGAL REVOLT.
Corrupt officials--"Laws of the Indies"--Philippines a dependency
of Mexico up to 1800--The opening of the Suez Canal--Hordes
of useless officials--The Asimilistas--Discontent, but no
disturbance--Absence of crime--Natives petition for the expulsion
of the Friars--Many signatories of the petition punished.
The Spanish Colonial system was based upon the simple and
well-recognised principle of rewarding political services to the
Government in power, by the pillage of a colony.
Sometimes special circumstances rendered it necessary for the
Government to send out the man best fitted to cope with a critical
situation, but in normal times the good old corrupt plan was followed.
The appointment of a Governor-General would be arranged by the Prime
Minister and submitted for the approval of the monarch. The Colonial
Minister, like the other subordinate ministers, counted for little in
a Cabinet presided over by such commanding personalities as Cánovas,
or Sagásta. They were, in fact, mere heads of departments.
In another chapter I have remarked that it was generally believed
that General Weyler purchased his appointment as Governor-General of
the Philippines, by a cash payment and an annual subsidy.
There were, however, certain officials whom it would be unjust to
class with those who practically had to rob for their living, because
they were subject to dismissal at any moment. These unfortunates knew
perfectly well that integrity and ability would not ensure them a
single day's grace. Whenever the man in power wanted that place for
his cousin or his uncle, out they would go. Similarly, if they had any
interest, misbehaviour would not lose the appointment. Considering
the system, the wonder was that some of them were honest, not that
most of them were thieves.
Amongst those who had fixed appointments were the Inspector-General
of Forests and his assistants. Every British and American resident
in, or visitor to Manila, will remember a Catalan gentleman, Don
Sebastian Vidal y Soler and his charming wife Dona Ella Paoli de
Vidal, a lady from Philadelphia. Vidal was a man of great learning
and equal modesty, a man of the strictest honour, kind-hearted and
charitable in the extreme. He was well-known in America, in London,
Paris, and Amsterdam, and wherever botanists congregate. His death
in 1890 was universally regretted.
In the same branch of the service there was another gentleman whom
I must name. Don José Sainz de Baranda, at one time acting Colonial
Secretary, is a most courteous gentleman, whose high character and
marked ability were well worthy of the confidence reposed in him by
General Terrero. Any country might be proud to own Señor Sainz de
Baranda. For my part I preserve the most agreeable remembrances of
these two friends.
In the Department of Public Works there were men of considerable
attainments as engineers--Don Eduardo Lopez Navarro, author of the
project for the new harbour; Don Genaro Palacios, who designed and
carried out the waterworks and designed the Church of Saint Sebastian,
in both of which works I took part; and Señor Brockman, who constructed
several lighthouses in different parts of the Archipelago. I feel bound
to say that so far as my knowledge went, there was no corruption or
underhand work in either the Inspection of Forests or the Public Works.
As to the patronage of other civil offices I have had the procedure
explained to me by a Spaniard well up in the subject, and I give an
imaginary instance to illustrate the system.
When a political party came into power and the question of forming
the Cabinet was being debated, Señor M----, a leader of a group of
deputies, might say, "I renounce the honour of entering the Cabinet,
and instead will take the Presidency of the Chamber and the right to
appoint the Collector of Customs at Havana, the Intendant General of
Hacienda at Manila, and the Governor of Batangas, with a dozen second
and third class governorships or judgeships."
If this was agreed to, perhaps, after some haggling, Señor M----
distributed the nominations to the lower appointments amongst his
supporters, who disposed of them for their own advantage.
The nominations to the higher offices remained the absolute private
property of Señor M----, and he proceeded to pick out men up to the
job, to undertake the appointments. Some of them paid him large sums
in cash, and others entered into contracts binding themselves to remit
him monthly a large proportion of their emoluments and pickings. In
some cases it was stipulated that if a single payment was in default,
the unfortunate employé would be instantly dismissed. I have personally
known of this condition. Those he nominated referred to him as their
padrino or godfather.
The actual holders of the offices referred to would then be summarily
dismissed, however well they might have behaved whilst serving, and
the new horde would be installed in their places and would use every
means to fill their pockets and to pay their padrino.
Complaints against them were not likely to lead to their removal, for
they were protected in Madrid by the powerful political interest of
their padrino. If they kept within the criminal law, they had little
to fear, however greedy they might be.
Some of the governors and other officials had the talent of filling
their pockets without making enemies. I have already referred to
a Governor of Batangas, as eminent in this line. It must not be
supposed that the illicit gains of the officials were extorted from
the individual native. They were principally drawn from the fallos,
or local tax in redemption of polos or personal service. This money
ought to have been employed in repairing roads, bridges, and public
buildings. But as nearly the whole was diverted into the pockets
of the officials and their padrinos, the roads became impassable in
the wet season, the bridges, if of wood, rotted, if of stone, were
thrown down by the earthquakes or carried away by floods, whilst the
tribunales (town halls), fell into decay. I have known cases where
a planter has been unable for months to send his sugar down to the
port for shipment, as it was absolutely impossible for carts to pass
along the road in the wet season. In a wealthy and populous province
like Batangas, the fallos were sufficient to have paved all the main
roads in the province with granite and to have bridged every stream.
I may mention here a characteristic trait of Spanish
administration. When a river-bridge fell down, they not only did
not repair or renew it, but they put up to auction the monopoly of
ferrying vehicles and passengers across the stream. The purchaser of
the right fastened a rattan across the river and provided a couple
of canoes with a platform of cane laid over them, which served to
ferry vehicles across by means of the rope; one or two at a time at a
rather heavy charge. This truly Spanish method provided a revenue for
the Administration, or pickings for an official, instead of requiring
an outlay for a new bridge.
Still, the natives, never having known anything better, supported
these drawbacks with remarkable equanimity. They were left very much
to themselves, and were not interfered with nor worried. The army
was small and the conscription did not press heavily upon them.
They lived under the "Leyes de Indias" (may their makers have found
favour with God), a code of laws deserving of the greatest praise
for wisdom and humanity. They protected the native against extortion,
constituting him a perpetual minor as against the usurer. He could not
be sued for more than five dollars. Compare this wise disposition with
what has been going on in India ever since the British Government has
administered it, where the principal occupation of the lower courts
is to decree the foreclosure of mortgages on the ryot's patches of
land at the suit of the village usurer. The result has been that
in some provinces the small landowner class who furnished fighting
men for the Indian Army has almost disappeared. It is only now in
1900 that something is proposed to be done to remedy this evil, and
knowing my countrymen, I quite expect some weak-kneed compromise will
be arrived at.
The "Leyes de Indias" conferred upon the native the perpetual usufruct
of any land that he kept under cultivation; and this right descended
from father to son.
As a result of these laws, most of the arable land in Luzon, Cebú,
and some other islands belongs to the natives to this day, although
many of them have no other title than possession. The natives also had
the privilege of cutting timber in the forests for house-building or
repairing, or for making a canoe free of dues. They could also cut
bamboos for their fences or roofs and collect firewood.
These privileges were restricted to natives, and were not extended
to Spaniards or Chinese. The taxes paid by the natives were light
and they could live and thrive.
Had these wise and admirable laws been carried out in the spirit in
which they were made, the Philippines might have been Spanish to this
day and the natives would have had little to complain of.
The Philippines were for nearly three centuries after their discovery
by the Spaniards a mere dependency of Mexico, communication being kept
up by an annual galleon or sometimes two sailing between Acapulco and
Manila through the Strait of San Bernardino. The long and tedious
voyage deterred all but priests and officials from proceeding to
the Philippines.
When this route was given up, which happened some ten years before the
Independence of Mexico, which was proclaimed in 1820, communication
with the Peninsula was by sailing vessels via the Cape of Good
Hope. That was a voyage that would not be lightly undertaken either
going or returning. Spaniards who then came to the Archipelago often
stayed there for the rest of their lives.
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the establishment of a
line of steamers bringing Manila within thirty days of Barcelona was
the most important event in the history of the Philippines since the
conquest, and it had the gravest consequences. It greatly stimulated
the trade of the Philippines, but it enormously increased the number of
Spaniards in the Islands. Hordes of hungry-looking Iberians arrived
by every steamer with nominations to posts for which most of them
possessed no qualification. It seemed as if all the loafers of the
Puerta del Sol and the Calle de Alcalá were to be dumped in the
Philippines and fed by the Treasury.
Places had to be found for them, and a bureaucratic administration
partly copied from French practice, was rapidly substituted for
the old paternal régime. New departments were organised or the old
ones greatly extended. Far more money was spent on the salaries
of engineers and assistant-engineers than on public works. The
salaries of the officials of the Woods and Forests exceeded the
revenue derived from dues on timber cut in the Crown forests,
and their regulations seriously interfered with the privileges of
the natives previously mentioned, and caused great discontent. The
salaries of the Inspectors of Mines were almost a useless expense,
for there was no revenue derived from mines, in fact there were no
mines, only placers and washings. A medical service was organised at
great cost and to little advantage. Doctors were appointed to reside
at the hot springs, and one could not take a bath there without paying
a fee. Model farms and Schools of Agriculture were started, to find
places for more Spaniards, for the officials received their salaries,
but no funds were forthcoming for material or establishment.
In 1886 there took place the separation of the executive and the
judicial functions, and eighteen civil governors were appointed to
the principal provinces. Later on, eighteen judges of first instance
were nominated to these same provinces. After centuries of rule,
the Alcaldes Mayores were abolished.
Then came a period when certain bureaucrats in Madrid conceived what
they thought a vast and patriotic idea. They founded a school of
politicians who called themselves Asimilistas. Their grand idea was
to assimilate the administration of the Philippines to that of the
Mother Country. They thought it wise to assimilate the institutions
of a tropical dependency with eight millions of native inhabitants,
of whom one-sixth part were independent heathen or Mahometans, to
the gradually evolved institutions of Old Spain.
By way of a commencement they began to speak and write of the
Philippines as "that beautiful province of Spain." The Philippine army
had always been distinct from the Peninsular army, but now by a paper
reform it was embodied in it, and the regiments were re-numbered,
the 1st Visayas Regiment becoming the 74th, etc. This was considered
to be a strong link to bind together the Mother Country and the Colony.
The extra expense of these crowds of employés and of some expeditions
to Mindanao and Joló was very heavy, accordingly every year saw
some new and oppressive tax. In 1883 the "Tributo," or tribute that
had been paid by the natives since the conquest, was replaced by a
tax on the Cédula Personal, or document of identity, and this was
paid by all adults of both sexes, whether Spaniards, foreigners,
or half-castes. In the Appendix will be found a facsimile of my cédula.
The Customs duties were several times raised, sometimes without much
notice. A tax on all trades and professions, on horses and carriages,
a heavy port tax, a vexatious tax on all animals slaughtered, even down
to a sucking pig, taxes on the hand-looms used by the women in their
spare time, taxes on sugar-mills, rice-mills, on boats and lighters,
and on houses; all these and many more were collected.
There were also serious agrarian disputes between the Dominicans,
the Augustinians, and the tenants on their estates, owing to
excessive rents demanded by the friars. All these circumstances
brought about a great change in the relations between the Spaniards
and the natives. Whereas formerly the wealthy native kept open house
on feast days, and received with pleasure the visits of Spaniards,
generally elderly men used to the country and speaking the language
of the people, he now found his house invaded by a crowd of young
officials new to the country and its ways, who fell on the eatables
like a swarm of famishing locusts, and soon devoured the turkeys
and hams and other good things he had provided to entertain his
friends. Besides, his women-folk would probably not be treated by the
new-comers with the courtesy and consideration they had been used to.
An estrangement gradually made itself felt, and increased year by
year, in direct proportion to the influx of Spaniards. Not one in a
hundred of these did any useful work or added in any way to the wealth
of the community. They were the drones of the hive, and were in fact
directly harmful, for they had to be supported from the Treasury, and
they irritated the natives by their illegal exactions and overbearing
conduct whenever they came in contact with them.
Still year after year passed without disturbances. From 1877 to 1892,
whilst I was in the country, I can testify that almost perfect order
reigned. The fighting in Mindanao and Joló went on as a matter of
course like the Acheen war in Sumatra, and an expedition was sent
against the Igorrotes. But in the civilised districts of Luzon and
Visayas good order was kept. The only outbreak I remember was the
religious excitement in Samar, which closed when the false gods were
shot down.
Crime was infrequent, and in those fourteen years I do not think
half-a-dozen executions took place. There was less risk of burglary in
Manila than in a London suburb. Whatever their faults I must give the
Spanish Administration credit for the perfect order they kept. Manila,
in this respect, compared favourably with Hong Kong, and still better
with Singapore, where the authorities, perhaps remembering the fate of
Governor Eyre of Jamaica, and in terror of Exeter Hall, tolerated the
incredible insolence of the Chinese secret societies. These villainous
organisations, which in Singapore successfully defied the law, never
raised their heads in Manila, and Rajah Brooke showed how to treat
them in Sarawak.
In pursuance of the Asimilista policy, in July 1887, the Penal Code
was put in force in the Philippines by peremptory order from the
Government at Madrid, and much against the opinion of experienced
officials. In December of the same year the Civil Code was promulgated.
It cannot be said that these reforms, however well-intended,
produced any beneficial effect on the natives. Combined with the great
increase in taxation, they intensified the discontent that was always
smouldering, more especially in the hearts of the native priests. Their
grievances against the religious orders, and more particularly against
the Recollets, who had been compensated for the handing over of their
benefices in Mindanao to the Jesuits, at the expense of the secular
clergy, were the cause of their bitter hatred of the Spanish friars.
In 1883 Field-Marshal Jovellar had thought it necessary to strengthen
the small garrison by bringing out two battalions of Marine
Infantry. However it was not till March 1st, 1888, that some natives
and mestizos, emboldened by the fact that an anti-clerical, D. Jose
Centeno, a mining engineer, was Acting Civil Governor of Manila,
walked in procession to his official residence and presented a petition
addressed to the Governor-General, demanding the immediate expulsion of
the friars of the religious orders, and of the Archbishop, whom they
declared unworthy to occupy the Primacy of the Islands. They further
demanded the secularisation of the benefices and the confiscation of
the estates of the Augustinians and the Dominicans.
To this petition there were 810 signatures, but when the signatories
were summoned and examined, most of them (as is their custom) declared
they did not know what they had signed, and denied that they wished
the friars to be expelled.
The petition was said to have been written by Doroteo Cortes, a
mestizo lawyer, but I am told he did not sign it.
This manifestation, sixteen years after the mutiny at Cavite, seems
to have had some relation to that event, for the petition accused
the friars of compassing the death of Father Burgos, by subornation
of justice.
The result of this appeal of the natives was that the principal persons
who took part in it were banished, or sent to reside at undesirable
spots within the Archipelago.
There were some agrarian disturbances at Calamba and Santa Rosa,
one of the estates of the Dominicans, in 1890.
I may say that only the Augustinians, the Dominicans, and the
Recollets possess landed estates, and that I have had the opportunity
of examining several of them. They are all situated in Tagal territory,
and as they are the pick of the lands, their possession by the friars
has caused great heart-burnings amongst the Tagals--there has been
a smouldering agrarian discontent for years.
CHAPTER VII.
THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS.
The Augustinians--Their glorious founder--Austin Friars in
England--Scotland--Mexico--They sail with Villalobos for the
Islands of the Setting Sun--Their disastrous voyage--Fray Andres
Urdaneta and his companions--Foundation of Cebú and Manila
with two hundred and forty other towns--Missions to Japan and
China--The Flora Filipina--The Franciscans--The Jesuits--The
Dominicans--The Recollets--Statistics of the religious orders in
the islands--Turbulence of the friars--Always ready to fight for
their country--Furnish a war ship and command it--Refuse to exhibit
the titles of their estates in 1689--The Augustinians take up arms
against the British--Ten of them fall on the field of battle--Their
rectories sacked and burnt--Bravery of the archbishop and friars in
1820--Father Ibañez raises a battalion--Leads it to the assault of
a Moro Cotta--Execution of native priests in 1872--Small garrison
in the islands--Influence of the friars--Their behaviour--Herr
Jagor--Foreman--Worcester--Younghusband--Opinion of Pope Clement
X.--Tennie C. Claflin--Equality of opportunity--Statuesque figures
of the girls--The author's experience of the Friars--The Philippine
clergy--Who shall cast the first stone?--Constitution of the
orders--Life of a friar--May become an archbishop--The chapter--The
estates--The Peace Commission--Pacification retarded--Who will
collect the rents?
Before referring further to these estates it may be as well to give a
brief sketch of the religious orders, whose existence is bound up with
the history of the Philippines, to the conversion and civilisation of
which they have so largely contributed. They won the islands for Spain,
they held them for centuries, and now, having served their purpose,
they have lost them, doubtless for ever.
The Augustinians were the pioneers in converting the inhabitants of the
Philippines, and they have maintained their predominance ever since.
I therefore begin my description with this venerable order, and it
will be proper to say something about its glorious founder.
The following data are taken from the 'Encyclopædia Britannica'
and other sources.
Augustine (Aurelius Augustinus) one of the four great fathers of
the Latin Church, and admittedly the greatest of the four, was born
at Tagaste (Tajelt), a town of Numidia, North Africa, A.D. 354. His
father, Patricius, was a burgess of this town, and was still a pagan
at the time of his son's birth.
His mother, Mónica, was not only a Christian, but a woman of the most
elevated, tender, and devoted piety, whose affectionate and beautiful
enthusiasm have passed into a touching type of womanly saintliness
for all ages.
Augustine studied rhetoric at Madaura and Carthage, and visited Rome
and Milan.
He passed many years in unrest of mind and doubt, but ultimately a
passage from Romans xii. 13, 14 seemed to pour the light of peace into
his heart. He became a Christian and was baptised in his thirty-third
year. Patricius was also converted and baptised, and Monica found the
desire of her life fulfilled and her dear ones united to her in faith.
After some years of retirement, Augustine made a journey to Hippo
Regius, a Roman colony on the River Rubricatus in North Africa,
and became a presbyter.
His principal writings are 'The City of God,' 'Confessions,' and
'The Trinity.'
He died during the siege of Hippo by the Vandals at the age of 75.
The theological position and influence of Augustine may be said to
be unrivalled. No single name has ever exercised such power over the
Christian Church, and no one mind has ever made such an impression
upon Christian thought.
The Augustinians look upon this great Christian moralist as their
founder, and reverence his memory and that of his saintly mother.
Whether he personally drew up the rules they observe or not, they
were his disciples, following in his foot-steps, and finding their
inspiration in his writings and example.
Great indeed must have been the magnetic force of that vehement nature
that it could give an impetus to his followers that carried them all
over Europe, that made them the companions of the discoverers and
conquerors of the New World, and that filled their hearts with zeal
and courage to face the dangers of the great lone ocean in company
with Villalobos and Legáspi.
The Order traces its inception to the town of Hippo, and fixes
the date at A.D. 395. Many, doubtless, were its vicissitudes, but
in the year 1061, and again in 1214, we find the Order remodelled
and extended. The Augustinians were very numerous in England and
Scotland. In 1105 they had settled at Colchester and at Nostell, near
Pontefract. Later they had abbeys at Bristol, Llantony, Christchurch,
Twynham, Bolton and London, where part of their church (Austin Friars)
is still standing. Altogether they had 170 houses in England. Their
first house in Scotland was at Scone in 1114, and they soon had 25
houses, including churches or abbeys at Inchcolm in the Firth of Forth,
St Andrew's, Holyrood, Cambuskenneth and Inchaffray.
The Austin Friars or Black Canons were then described as an order of
regular clergy holding a middle position between monks and secular
canons, almost resembling a community of parish priests living under
rule, and they have retained these characteristics to the present day.
They were numerous in Spain, and some of the other Orders, such as the
Dominicans or Preaching Friars, the Franciscans, and the Recollets,
may almost be looked upon as offshoots of this venerable order, for
they conformed to its general rule, with certain additions. Thus the
Dominicans, founded by Saint Dominic de Guzman, were incorporated in
1216 by a Bull of Pope Honorius III. and adopted a rule of absolute
poverty or mendicancy in addition to the usual vows of chastity
and obedience.
This Order held its first chapter in 1220 at Bologna, under the
presidency of its founder.
The vows of poverty of this powerful Order have not prevented it
from holding large estates in the Philippines, from owning blocks
of buildings in Manila and Hong Kong, and from having a huge sum
invested in British and American securities. These however belong to
the Corporation and not to the individual members.
From Spain the Augustinians spread to Mexico and assisted the
Franciscans, who were the pioneers there under Father Bartolomé
de Olmédo and Father Martin de Valencia, to gather in the abundant
harvest. Father Toribio de Benavénte was one of twelve Franciscans
sent out in 1523, and he has left records of the success of these
missionaries. They opened schools and founded colleges, and in
twenty years nine millions of converts had been admitted into the
Christian fold.
By this time Magellan had passed the narrow straits, and sailing
across the vast solitudes of the Pacific had reached the Visayas
Islands to meet his fate, and Sebastian de Elcano had completed the
circumnavigation of the globe and had arrived in Spain with accounts
of the new lands which the expedition had discovered.
When, in 1542, Captain Ruy Lopez de Villalobos sailed from Natividad
(Mexico) for the Islands of the Setting Sun, only to die of grief at
Amboyna, there accompanied him a group of Augustinian Friars. After
the loss of his vessels the survivors took ship for Goa and from
thence returned to Europe, arriving at Lisbon in August 1549, seven
years after leaving the port of Natividad.
The Order has carefully preserved the names of these early
missionaries; they are, Frs. Jeronimo de San Esteban, Sebastian de
Trasierra, Nicolas de Perea, Alonso Alvarado.
In the expedition under General Don Miguel Lopez de Legáspi, which
sailed in 1564, Fray Andres Urdanéta, an Augustinian, went as chief
navigator and cartographer, and the following friars accompanied him:
Frs. Andres de Aiguirre, Martin de Rada, Diego Herrero, Pedro Gamboa.
Since founding the city of Cebú in 1570, and the city of Manila
the following year, the Augustinians have continued to found town
after town, and down to 1892 had founded no less than two hundred
and forty-two, administered by two hundred and forty-seven priests
of the Order as by the following table:--
Year 1892.
Summary of Towns founded by the Augustinians.
Handed over to other Orders 28
Amalgamated with other towns 11
Administered by Augustinians 203
---
Total 242
Population of the above 203 towns, 2,082,181.
The Augustinians in the Philippine Islands.
In Parish Ministry.
Parish Priests 188
Stewards 37
Coadjutors 7
Vicars (learning dialects) 3
Missionaries 12
---
247
Residing in the convents of Manila, Cebú, and Guadalupe.
Superiors or Office bearers 19
Conventual Priests 7
Students 14
Invalids 6
Lay Brethren 17
--
63
===
Total 310
In former years this Order had established missions in Japan, and they
were very successful in making converts, but during the persecution
many members of the Order lost their lives, or, as they phrase it,
"attained the palm of martyrdom."
At the present time they maintain seven missionaries in the province
of Hun-nan in China. In Spain they support three colleges, Valladolid,
La Vid, and La Escorial. They are also in charge of the magnificent
church of that extraordinary palace, and of the priceless library of
which they are editing a catalogue.
The Augustinians have published a great many works, such as grammars
and vocabularies of the native dialects, and many books of devotion.
One of their leading men, Father Manuel Blanco, was a most learned
and laborious botanist. He collected and classified so many of the
Philippine plants that the Order decided to complete his work and
publish it. Fray Andres Naves and Fray Celestino Fernandez Villar,
both well-known to me, worked for years at this, and were assisted
by my illustrious friend H. E. Don Sebastian Vidal Soler and others.
The result is a most sumptuous and magnificent work--published in
Manila--there being four folio volumes enriched by many hundreds
of coloured plates of the different trees, shrubs, orchids and
lianas, most beautifully executed from water-colour paintings by
D. Regino Garcia and others. This monumental book is called the
'Flora Filipina.' It received a diploma of honour at the International
Colonial Exhibition of Amsterdam in 1883. The British Museum possesses
a copy, but unfortunately most of the work was destroyed by fire in
the bombardment of the Convent of Guadalupe during the war.
However, the widow of Señor Vidal, now Mrs. Amilon of Philadelphia,
still has some copies to dispose of.
I hope that what I have said about the Augustinians will show that
they are not the lazy and unprofitable persons they are sometimes
represented. The same may be said of the Dominicans.
The Augustinians were followed, after an interval of seven years,
by the Franciscans, four years after that by the Jesuits, six years
after the Jesuits came the Dominicans.
Last of all came the Recollets, or bare-footed Augustinians.
The following Table gives the numbers of friars of the five religious
orders in the Philippines, at the dates mentioned, taken from their own
returns. The first column gives the dates of the first foundation of
the Order, the second the date of its arrival in the Archipelago. The
other columns give the statistics of baptisms, marriages and deaths,
taken from the parish registers.
Statement of the Population Administered by the Religious Corporations
and Secular Clergy in the Philippines, 1896.
Year of Foundation or Revival.
| Year of Arrival.
| | Corporation. Towns.
| | | | Provinces.
| | | | | Friars.
| | | | | | Baptisms. Marriages.
| | | | | | | | Burials.
| | | | | | | | | Souls.
395 1570 Augustinians 203 16 310 98,731 20,355 83,051 2,082,131
1061
1532 1606 Recollets 194 20 192 56,259 11,439 40,008 1,175,156
1208 1577 Franciscans 153 15 455 38,858 11,927 35,737 1,010,753
1216 1587 Dominicans 69 10 206 27,576 7,307 32,336 699,851
1534 1581 Jesuits [5] 33 6 167 15,302 [6] 2,017 4,937 191,493
Secular Clergy .. .. .. .. .. .. 967,294
----- ---------
Total 1,330 6,126,678
N.B.--
The population of the Islands according to the census of 1877 5,995,160
Probable Christian population, 1899 8,000,000
These holy men have, since very early times, shown themselves rather
turbulent, and then and always endeavoured to carry matters with a
high hand. Thus in 1582 we find them refusing to admit the diocesan
visit of the Bishop of Manila, and that old dispute has cropped
up on and off many times since then. At the same time we find them
taking the part of the natives against the Encomenderos. They have
always been ready to fight for their country and to subscribe money
for its defence. When Acting Governor Guido de Lavezares headed the
column which attacked the pirate Li-ma-Hon, he was accompanied by
the Provincial of the Augustinians. In 1603 all the friars in Manila
took up arms against the revolted Chinese, and three years later the
Augustinians not only furnished a war ship to fight the Portuguese,
but provided a captain for it in the person of one of their Order,
Fray Antonio Flores. It appears that the estates of the Augustinians
and the Dominicans were very early a bone of contention, for in 1689
a judge arrived in Manila, and, in virtue of a special commission he
had brought from Madrid, he required them to present their titles. This
they refused to do, and the judge was sent back to Mexico, and a friend
of the friars was appointed as Commissioner in his place. Then the
friars condescended to unofficially exhibit their titles. Now more
than two centuries after the first abortive attempt, the question of
the ownership of these lands is still under discussion.
During the British occupation of Manila in 1763 the friars took up
arms in defence of their flag, and gave their church bells to be
cast into cannon. No less than ten Augustinians fell on the field
of battle. The British treated them with great severity, sacking and
destroying their rectories and estate houses, and selling everything
of theirs they could lay hands on. I have visited the ruins of the
old estate house of Malinta which was burnt by the British.
In 1820, when the massacre of foreigners by the Manila mob took
place, owing the cowardice of General Folgueras, the archbishop and
friars marched out in procession to the scene of the disturbance and
succeeded in saving many lives. In 1851 a Recollet, Father Ibañez,
raised a battalion from his congregation, trained and commanded it. He
took the field at Mindanao and with the most undaunted bravery led his
men to the assault of a Moro Cotta, or fort, dying like our General
Wolfe at the moment of victory. Not one man of this battalion ever
deserted or hung back from the combats, for the worthy priest had
all their wives under a solemn vow never to receive them again unless
they returned victorious from the campaign.
The religious orders have frequently interfered to protect the
natives against the civil authorities, and were often on very good
terms with the mass of their parishioners. The greatest jealousy of
them was felt by the native clergy.
The military revolt which broke out in Cavite in 1872, was doubtless
inspired by this class, who saw that a policy had been adopted of
filling vacancies in all benefices except the poorest, with Spanish
friars instead of natives. The condemnation of Burgos, Gomez,
and Zamora, three native priests who were executed at Manila soon
after the suppression of the revolt, is ascribed by the natives and
mestizos to the subornation of justice to the friars, who are said
to have paid a large sum for their condemnation.
However this may be, there is no doubt that since that date the
feeling against the friars has become intensified.
The friars were the chief outposts and even bulwarks of the government
against rebellions. Almost every rising has been detected by them,
many plots being revealed by women under the seal of confession. It
was only by the assistance of the friars that the islands were held
by Spain for so many centuries almost without any military force.
The islands were not conquered by force of arms--the people were
converted almost without firing a shot.
The greater part of the fighting was to protect the natives against
Chinese pirates, Japanese corsairs, Dutch rovers, or the predatory
heathen.
The defensive forces consisted of local troops and companies of
Mexican and Peruvian Infantry. It is only since 1828 that Manila has
been garrisoned by regular troops from the Peninsula.
During my residence in the islands I do not think there were more than
1500 Spanish troops in garrison in the whole islands, except when
some marines were sent out. These troops belonged to the Peninsular
Regiment of Artillery, and were a very fine looking set of men.
That this small force could be sufficient is evidently due to the
influence of the friars in keeping the people quiet.
Yet the feeling of a great majority of Spanish civilians was against
the friars, and I think many of those who supported them, only did
so from interested motives.
The consequence was that as the number of Spaniards increased, the
influence of the friars diminished, for the Spanish anti-clericals
had no scruples in criticising the priests and in speaking plainly
to the natives to their prejudice.
The friars have fared badly at the hands of several writers on the
Philippines; but it will be noticed that those who know the least
about them speak the worst of them.
Herr Jagor, who was much amongst them, bears witness to the strict
decorum of their households, whilst he very justly says that the
behaviour of the native clergy leaves something to be desired.
Foreman hints at horrors, and with questionable taste relates how he
found amongst a priest's baggage some very obscene pictures.
Worcester thinks the priests' influence wholly bad. From what he
states in his book, he must have come across some very bad specimens
amongst the smaller islands where he wandered.
Younghusband, who perhaps got his information at the bar of the Manila
Club, describes them as "monsters of lechery."
There is a tradition that when the conclusions of a tribunal
favourable to the canonisation of Santa Rosa de Lima, Patroness of
the Indies, were laid before Pope Clement X., that Pontiff manifested
his incredulity that a tropical climate could produce a saint. He
is even credited with the saying that bananas and saints are not
grown together.
The tradition may be erroneous, but there is something in the opinion
that deserves to be remembered.
Temperature does have something to do with sexual morality, and in
comparing one country with another an allowance must be made for the
height of the thermometer.
The friars in the Philippines are but men, and men exposed to great
temptations. We should remember the tedium of life in a provincial
town, where, perhaps, the parish priest is the only European, and
is surfeited with the conversation of his native curates, of the
half-caste apothecary and the Chinese store-keeper. He has neither
society nor amusement.
I have previously remarked upon the position of women in the
Philippines. I may repeat that their position, both by law and custom,
is at least as good as in the most advanced countries.
I remember reading with great interest, and, perhaps, some sympathy,
a remarkable article in the New York Herald, of January 10th, 1894,
headed "Virtue Defined," signed by Tennie C. Claflin (Lady Cook),
and it seemed to me a plea for "equality of opportunity" between the
sexes, if I may borrow the phrase from diplomacy. Well, that equality
exists in the Philippines. Whilst unmarried, the girls enjoy great
freedom. In that tolerant land a little ante-nuptial incontinence
is not an unpardonable crime in a girl any more than in a youth,
nor does it bar the way to marriage.
The girls whilst young possess exceedingly statuesque figures, and what
charms they have are nature's own, for they owe nothing to art. Their
dress is modest, yet as they do not wear a superfluity of garments,
at times, as when bathing, their figures are revealed to view.
Bearing in mind the above condition of things and that the priest
is the principal man in the town and able to do many favours to his
friends, it is not surprising if some of the young women, impelled
by the desire of obtaining his good graces, make a dead set at
him, such as we sometimes see made at a bachelor curate in our own
so-very-much-more frigid and, therefore, moral country. The priest,
should he forget his vows of celibacy, is a sinner, and deserving
of blame for failing to keep the high standard of virtue which his
Church demands. But I do not see in that a justification for calling
him a monster. Have we never heard of a backslider in Brooklyn, or of
a clerical co-respondent at home, that we should expect perfection in
the Philippines? As for the statements that the priests take married
women by force, that is an absurdity. The Tagals are not men to suffer
such an outrage.
The toleration enjoyed by the girls, above referred to, is a heritage
from heathen times, which three centuries of Christianity have failed
to extirpate. In fact, this is a characteristic of the Malay race.
During the many years I was in the islands I had frequent occasion to
avail myself of the hospitality of the priests on my journeys. This was
usually amongst the Augustinians, the Dominicans and the Recollets. I
declare that on none of those many occasions did I ever witness
anything scandalous, or indecorous in their convents, and I arrived
at all hours and without notice.
As to Younghusband's denouncement of them as "monsters of lechery,"
I would say that they were notoriously the most healthy and the
longest-lived people in the islands, and if that most unjust accusation
was true, this could hardly be the case. It should be remembered
that the priest of any large town would be a man advanced in years
and therefore less likely to misconduct himself.
There was also the certainty that any open scandal would be followed
by punishment from the provincial and council of the order. I have
known a priest to be practically banished to a wretched hamlet amongst
savages for two years for causing scandal.
Some late writers speak of the native clergy as if they were of
superior morality and better behaved than the Spanish priests. That
appreciation does not commend itself to those who have had some
experience of the Philippine clergy.
Some of those I have known were of very relaxed morals, not to say
scandalous in their behaviour. The Philippine Islands, in short, are
not the chosen abode of chastity: but I do not know why the Spanish
friars should be singled out for special censure in this respect.
I can truly say that I was not acquainted with any class out there
entitled to cast the first stone.
Each of the orders (except the Jesuits) is a little republic governed
or administered by officers and functionaries elected by the suffrages
of the members. The head of the order is a Superior or General,
who resides in Rome, but the head in the Philippines is called the
Provincial.
The brethren render him the greatest respect and obedience, kneeling
down to kiss his hand.
There is a council to assist the provincial, they are called
definidores or padres graves, the exact nomenclature varies in the
different orders.
There is a Procurator or Commissary in Madrid, a Procurator-General
in Manila, a Prior or Guardian to each convent not being a rectory,
an Orator or preacher, lay-brethren in charge of estates or of works,
parish priests, missionaries, and coadjutors, learning the native
dialects.
The members of the order were appointed to benefices according to
their standing and popularity amongst their brethren. The neophytes are
trained in one of the seminaries of the order in Spain; for instance,
the Augustinians have colleges at Valladolid, La Vid, and La Escorial,
with more than 300 students.
When a young priest first arrived in the Philippines, he was sent as
a coadjutor to some parish priest to learn the dialect of the people
he is to work amongst. Then he would be appointed a missionary to the
heathen, where he lived on scanty pay, amongst savages, either in the
highlands of Luzon or in some remote island, remaining there for two or
three years. His first promotion would be to a parish consisting of a
village of thatched houses (nipa) and, perhaps, the church and convent
would be of the same material. This meant a constant and imminent
dread of the almost instantaneous destruction of his dwelling by
fire. Perhaps there is communication with Manila once a month, when,
by sending to the nearest port, he may get letters and newspapers and
receive some provisions, an occasional cask of Spanish red wine, some
tins of chorizos (Estremeño smoked sausages), a sack of garbanzos,
or frijóles, a box of turron de Alicante, and some cigars from the
procuration of the convent in Manila. These would be charged to his
account, and frugally as he might live, many a year might pass over
his head before he would be out of debt to his Order. And poor as he
might be, he would never refuse his house or his table to any European
who might call upon him. Later on, if his conduct had satisfied his
superiors, the time would come when he would get nominated to a more
accessible and more profitable parish, that would quickly enable him
to pay off the debt due to the procuration. He would have a church
and convent of stone, keep a carriage and pair of ponies, and begin to
have a surplus, and to contribute a little to the funds of his Order.
Soon he would become Padre Grave, and begin to have influence with
his colleagues. He would be removed to a richer town and nominated
Vicario Foráneo, equivalent to an archdeacon in England. Later on,
he might be elected a Definidor, or councillor. Then, perhaps,
one of the great prizes of the order fell to his lot. He might be
appointed parish priest of Taal or Biñan, worth at least ten thousand
dollars a year, or of rich Lipa, high amongst its coffee groves (now,
alas! withered), which used to be worth twenty thousand dollars in a
good year. He would treat himself well, and liberally entertain all
who visited him, and governors of provinces, judges, officers of the
Guardia Civil, would often be seen at his table.
He would make large contributions to the funds of the Order, with
the surplus revenue of his parish.
If, however, the priest whose career we have been following, had
shown sufficient character for a champion, and had become popular
in the Order, he might, perhaps, be elected Provincial, and then,
disposing of the influence of his Order, some day get himself made a
Bishop or even Archbishop of Manila, should a vacancy occur, and so
become a prince of the Church.
Whatever talents a friar had, a sphere could always be found for
their exercise. If he had a gift for preaching, he could be appointed
Orator of the Order. If he was good at Latin and Greek, he could be
made a professor at the university. If he was a good business man,
he could be chosen procurator. If he had diplomatic talents, he could
be made commissary of the order at Madrid. In any case he was sure
to be taken care of to the end of his days.
As for the Orders in themselves, I have already said that,
excepting the Society of Jesus, they are little republics, and that
office-holders are elected by the votes of the members. When a general
Chapter of the Order is held for this purpose, the members come from
all parts and assemble in their convent in Manila.
I am sorry to say that there has sometimes been so much feeling aroused
over the question of the distribution of the loaves and fishes, that
the opposing parties have broken up the chairs and benches to serve
as clubs, and furiously attacked each other in the battle royal,
and with deplorable results.
In consequence of this, when the chapter or general assembly was to
be held, the governor-general nominated a royal commissary, often
a colonel in the army, to be present at these meetings, but only to
interfere to keep the peace. It was something of an anomaly to see a
son of Mars deputed to keep the peace in an assembly of the clergy. The
meeting commenced with prayer, then one by one all the dignitaries
laid down their offices and became private members of the Order,
so that at the end of this ceremony every one was absolutely equal.
Then the eldest rose and solemnly adjured any one present who held a
Bull of the Holy Father, to produce it then and there under pain of
major excommunication. Three times was this solemn warning delivered.
It owes its origin, perhaps, to some surprise sprung on a brotherhood
in former days, yet it is to be noted that one of the privileges of
their Catholic majesties the kings of Spain was, that no Bull should
run in their dominions without their approval.
Then free from outside interference, and all present being on an
equal footing the election takes place. Amidst great excitement
the Provincial, the Procurator, the Orator, the Definidores, or
Councillors, are chosen according to their popularity, or as they are
deemed best fitted to advance the interests of the voter or the Order.
The selection of office-holders is a matter of the greatest importance
to the members, as those in power distribute the benefices and are
apt to be more alive to the merits of their supporters, than to the
pretensions of those who have voted for others.
But, however divided they may be on these occasions, they unite against
any outsider, and unless the question is evidently personal, he who
offends a member finds the Order ranged against him, and, perhaps,
the other Orders also, for in matters affecting their interests
the Orders act in unison, and as has been said, have succeeded in
removing not only governors of provinces, but governors-general also
when these have failed to do their bidding.
CHAPTER VIII.
THEIR ESTATES.
Malinta and Piedad--Mandaloyan--San Francisco de
Malabon--Irrigation works--Imus--Calamba--Cabuyao--Santa
Rosa--Biñan--San Pedro Tunasan--Naic--Santa Cruz--Estates a
bone of contention for centuries--Principal cause of revolt
of Tagals--But the Peace Commission guarantee the Orders in
possession--Pacification retarded--Summary--The Orders must
go!--And be replaced by natives.
The Augustinians own some fine estates near Manila. In 1877 I visited
Malinta and Piedad, which, according to an old plan exhibited to
me, drawn by some ancient navigator, measured over 14,000 acres in
extent, a good part of which was cultivated and under paddy; still a
large expanse was rocky, and grew only cogon (elephant grass). The
lay-brother in charge, Aureliano Garcia, confided to me that he
went about in fear, and expected to end his life under the bolos
of the tenants. I was then new to the country, and saw no signs of
discontent. I afterwards visited Mandaloyan, another estate nearer
Manila. This was nearly all arable land. The house was large and
commodious, and was used as a convalescent home for the friars. I have
not a note of the extent of this estate, but it occupies a great part
of the space between the rivers Maibonga and San Juan, to the north
of the Pasig. The lay-brother in charge, Julian Ibeas, did not seem at
all anxious about his safety. The land here was more fertile than that
of Malinta, and there was water carriage to a market for the crops.
In view of my report, which was not, however, unduly optimistic, my
clients deputed me to ask the Augustinians for a lease of the above
three estates for twenty-five years, the rent to be $40,000 [7]
per year for three years, and each year after that an addition of
a thousand dollars, so that the ultimate rent would be $62,000 per
annum. However, after taking some time to consider, the procurator
declined the offer.
On the above estates there was little or nothing done by the owners
to improve the land. They had limited themselves to building large
and convenient houses and granaries for their own accommodation,
and to entertain their friends.
In 1884 I constructed a pumping station on the River Tuliajan in this
estate, and laid a pipe line right through the property to supply fresh
water to the sugar refinery at Malabon, five miles distant. I had no
difficulty in obtaining permission, indeed, Fray Arsenio Campo (now
Bishop of Nueva Cáceres) facilitated the work in every way. The only
protest was by Doroteo Cortes, a half-caste lawyer, who interposed
as the pipe had to pass between two fish-ponds belonging to him,
and he extorted a blackmail $800 to withdraw his opposition. Let the
reader contrast the behaviour of the Spaniard and the half-caste,
now posing as an "Americanista."
San Francisco de Malabon, another possession of theirs, is a
magnificent property, situated on the fertile, well-watered land
that slopes from the summits of the Tagaytay range, north of the vast
crater-lake of Bombon, to the shores of the ever-famous Bay of Bacoor,
the scene of Spain's naval collapse.
Through the volcanic soil three rivers, the Ilang-ilang, the
Camanchíle, and the Jálan, have cut deep gashes down to the bed-rock,
on the surface of which the rapid waters rush downwards to the sea.
A nobly-proportioned house of stone, almost a fortress, was planted
where it commanded a grand, a stately view. From its windows the
spectator looked over fields of waving grain, over fruit trees, and
town and hamlets, down to the sea shore, and across the vast expanse
of placid bay to where in the far north solitary Arayat rears his
head. The thick walls and lofty roof excluded the solar heat, and the
green-painted Venetians saved the inmate from the glare. Very welcome
was that hostel, furnished in severe ecclesiastical almost mediæval
style, to me, after the dusty up-hill drive of eight miles from Cavite.
I visited this estate in 1879, and found that extensive irrigation
works had been carried out. A new dam on one of the rivers, about
fifty feet high, was approaching completion. Unfortunately, the
work had been executed by a lay-brother, a stone mason, without
professional supervision. He was ignorant of the necessity of taking
special precautions when preparing the seat for the dam. Although
he had a bed of volcanic tuff to build upon he would not go to the
trouble to cut into and stop all faults and crevices in the rock
before laying his first course of masonry, and he hurried on the job
to save expense as he supposed. For the same reason he did not attempt
to follow the correct profile of the dam. When the pressure came on,
the water spouted up in little fountains, and gradually increased as
it cut away the soft stone. I advised them what to do, and after a
good deal of work, Portland cement and puddled clay got them out of
their difficulty.
About four miles to the eastward of San Francisco de Malabon, and
on the same volcanic soil, is the great estate of Imus belonging to
the Recollets, or unshod Augustinians. It is about five miles from
the landing-place at Bacoor. Here again three rivers run through the
property, and the view from the house is the same.
The house itself was a grim fortress and served the rebels well in
1896, for they found arms and ammunition in it, and successfully
defended it against General Aiguirre who had to retire, being unable
to take it without artillery.
In 1897 the army of General Lachambre advanced against Imus, and on
the 24th March took the outer defences of the town, notwithstanding
the determined resistance of the Tagals, of whom three hundred were
killed in a hand-to-hand combat. Next day the estate house, which
adjoins the town and had been for six months the stronghold of the
Katipunan, was bombarded and burnt, only the ruins remain.
There are extensive works of irrigation at this place also, and
formerly a large sugar works was built here by the owners, but it
failed, as there was no one fit to take charge of it.
I have not visited this Hacienda, and cannot give its extent or value.
Of all the Orders the greatest land-owners are the Dominicans. They
have vast estates in Calamba, Cabuyáo, Santa Rosa, Biñan, and San Pedro
Tunasán, all on the Lake of Bay, also at Naic and Santa Cruz on the
Bay of Manila. I have several times visited their estates at the first
two places, and can affirm that they have expended considerable sums
in building dams for irrigating the lands, and I supplied them with
some very large cast-iron pipes for the purpose of making a syphon
across a ravine or narrow valley to convey water for irrigating the
opposite plain. They have consequently very largely increased the
value of these lands.
The house at Calamba, solidly built of stone, with a strong and high
encircling wall, served as a fortified camp and headquarters for the
Spanish army in operation against the rebels in 1897.
This estate of Calamba has earned a sad notoriety in the Philippines,
for the disputes which constantly arose between the administration
and their tenants.
It is hardly too much to say that the possession of estates has been
fatal to the Orders. They claim to have always been good and indulgent
landlords, but the fact remains that all these estates are in Tagal
territory, that only the Tagals revolted, and that the revolt was
directed against the Orders because of their tyranny and extortions,
and because they were landlords and rack renters.
It was, is now, and ever will be an Agrarian question that will
continue to give trouble and be the cause of crime and outrage until
settled in a broad-minded and statesman-like manner.
These estates have been a bone of contention for centuries, and
were a principal cause of the last revolt of the Tagals. Yet the
Peace Commission at Paris appears to have given the three Orders
a new title to their disputed possessions by guaranteeing to the
Church the enjoyment of its property, which, if the Spaniards had
continued to rule the islands, must ultimately have been taken from
it in the natural course of events, as has happened in every other
Catholic country.
I have no doubt that the pacification of the Philippines by the
American forces has been greatly retarded, and is now rendered
more difficult, by this clause, which must have been accepted by the
American commissioners under a misapprehension of its import, and from
imperfect information as to the status quo. This difficult matter can
still be arranged, but it will require the outlay of a considerable
sum of money, which, however, would eventually be recouped.
In present circumstances I venture to say that a garrison would be
needed at each estate to protect an administrator or collector, for the
Tagal tenants are as averse to paying rent for land as any bog-trotter
in Tipperary. I do not envy anybody who purchases these estates, nor
would I consider the life of such a one a good risk for an insurance
company, if he intended to press the tenants for rents or arrears.
To sum up the Religious Orders, they were hardy and adventurous
pioneers of Christianity, and in the evangelisation of the Philippines,
by persuasion and teaching, they did more for Christianity and
civilisation than any other missionaries of modern times.
Of undaunted courage they have ever been to the front when calamities
threatened their flocks; they have witnessed and recorded some of the
most dreadful convulsions of nature, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
and destructive typhoons. In epidemics of plague and cholera they
have not been dismayed, nor have they ever in such cases abandoned
their flocks.
When an enemy has attacked the islands they have been the first to
face the shot. Only fervent faith could enable these men to endure
the hardships, and overcome the dangers that encompassed them.
They have done much for education, having founded schools for both
sexes, training colleges for teachers, the university of St. Thomas
in Manila, and other institutions.
Hospitals and asylums attest their charity. They were formerly,
and even lately, the protectors of the poor against the rich, and of
the native against the Spaniard. They have consistently resisted the
enslavement of the natives.
They restrained the constant inclination of the natives to wander
away into the woods and return to primitive savagery by keeping them
in the towns, or, as they said, "Under the bells."
On the other hand, peace and plenty (those blessings for which we
pray), have corrupted and demoralised the Orders. No longer liable at
any moment to be called upon to fight for their lives, the sterner
virtues have decayed. Increased production and export enriched the
people, a gold coinage was introduced, and the friars allowed avarice
to possess their souls.
In those lands of perpetual summer no death duties have to be paid
to a Chancellor of the Exchequer, as in this island of fog and mist.
But the friars have a system of charges for performing the funeral
ceremonies, which comes to much the same in the end. I call it a
system; it is a very simple system, and consists in extorting as
much as they can get, taking into consideration the wealth of the
family. To give an instance, I have been assured by a son of Capitan
Natalio Lopez, of Balayan, a native gentleman well known to me,
that the parish priest charged the family six hundred dollars for
performing their father's funeral ceremony. The same rule applies to
baptisms and marriages, and this abuse calls for redress, and for the
establishment of fixed fees according to the position of the parties.
Each friar, as a parish priest, was an outpost of the central
government, watching for symptoms of revolt. Only thus could the
Spaniards hold the archipelago with fifteen hundred Peninsular troops,
and a small squadron of warships.
The greatest, and the best-founded, complaint of the natives against
the priests, was that whoever displeased them, either in personal
or money matters, was liable to be denounced to the authorities as
a filibuster, and to be torn from home and family and deported to
some distant and probably unhealthy spot, there to reside, at his own
cost, for an indefinite time, by arbitrary authority, without process
of law. Such a punishment, euphoniously termed "forced residence,"
sometimes involved the death of the exile, and always caused heavy
expense, as a pardon could not be obtained without bribing some one.
Ysabelo de los Reyes, and other natives, accuse the friars of extorting
evidence from suspected persons by torture. I fear there can be no
doubt that many victims, including a number of the native clerics,
suffered flagellation and other tortures at the hands of the friars
for the above purpose. The convents of Nueva-Cáceres and of Vigan,
amongst other places, were the scenes of these abominable practices,
and Augustinians, Dominicans and Franciscans, have taken part in
them. This is referred to at greater length in another part of this
work under the heading, "The Insurrection of 1896."
Individual friars were sometimes, nay, often, very worthy parish
priests. I have known many such. But a community is often worse
than the individuals of which it is composed. One might say with
the Italian musician who had served for many years in a cathedral,
and had obtained the promise of every individual canon to support
his application for a pension, when he was told that the chapter had
unanimously refused his request:
"The canons are good, but the chapter is bad."
A board will jointly do a meaner action than the shadiest director
amongst them, and should it comprise one or two members of obtrusive
piety, that circumstance enables it to disregard the ordinary standard
of right and wrong with more assurance.
There is a law in metallurgy which has a curious analogy to this law
of human nature. It is this: An alloy composed of several metals of
different melting-points, will fuse at a lower temperature than that
of its lowest fusing constituent.
The Orders, then, have been of the greatest service in the past; they
have brought the Philippines and their inhabitants to a certain pitch
of civilisation, and credit is due to them for this much, even if
they could go no farther. For years their influence over the natives
has been decreasing, and year by year the natives have become more
and more antagonistic to priestly rule.
A considerable intellectual development has taken place of late years
in the Philippines. The natives are no longer content to continue
upon the old lines; they aspire to a freer life. Many even harbour
a sentiment of nationality such as was never thought of before.
But if the Orders had lost ground with the natives and with many
Spaniards, their influence still preponderated. Owners of vast estates,
possessors of fabulous riches, armed with spiritual authority, knowing
the secrets of every family, holding the venal courts of justice as in
the hollow of their hand, dominating the local government, standing
above the law, and purchasing the downfall of their enemies from the
corrupt ministries in Madrid, these giant trusts, jealous of each
other, yet standing firmly shoulder to shoulder in the common cause,
constitute a barrier to progress that can have no place nor use under
an American Protectorate. They are an anachronism in the twentieth
century, and they must disappear as corporations from the Philippines.
They should not, however, be buried under an avalanche of contumely
and slander; their long and glorious past should be remembered, and in
winding up their estates due regard should be paid to the interests
of every member. I cannot here intimate how this is to be done, for
it is an intricate subject, rendered more complex by the reluctance
of the American Government to interfere in religious matters, even
though they are so bound up with the politics of the Philippines that
no pacification can be effected without following popular sentiment
upon this point.
So far as the landed estates are concerned, the settlement could
be arrived at by a commission with ample powers. In the meantime,
no sale of these estates should be recognised.
The benefices held by the friars should be gradually bestowed upon
the secular clergy, as suitable men can be found. The native clergy
have always been badly used by the friars; they have had to suffer
abuse and ignominious treatment. They have not been in a position to
develop their dignity and self-respect.
I have spoken of them in general as leaving something to be desired
as to decorous conduct, but they will doubtless improve when placed
in positions of consideration and responsibility.
Amongst them are men of considerable learning; some have passed
brilliant examinations in theology and canon law.
As regards piety, Malays, whether heathen, Mahometan or Christian,
take their religion lightly, and we must not expect too much. I
daresay they are pious enough for the country and the climate.
CHAPTER IX.
SECRET SOCIETIES.
Masonic Lodges--Execution or exile of Masons in 1872--The
"Associacion Hispano Filipina"--The "Liga Filipina"--The
Katipunan--Its programme.
Fray Eduardo Navarro, Procurator of the Augustinians, and Ysabelo de
los Reyes, an Ilocano, and author of some notable works, agree that
the first masonic lodge of the Philippines was founded in Cavite
about 1860. The latter states that Malcampo and Mendez-Nuñez,
two distinguished naval officers, were the founders. Soon after
this, another lodge was founded in Zamboanga, also under naval
auspices. After 1868, a lodge was founded in Manila by foreigners,
a wealthy Filipino being secretary. Another lodge was founded in
Pandakan, another in Cebú, and still another in Cavite, to which
Crisanto Reyes and Maximo Inocencio belonged.
These lodges at first had only Peninsular Spaniards or other Europeans
as members, but gradually Creoles, Mestizos, and natives, joined the
brotherhood, and subscribed liberally to its funds.
The Catholic clergy have always looked upon Masons as most dangerous
enemies, and many pontiffs have launched their anathemas against the
brotherhood. But, so far as one can see, to quote from 'The Jackdaw
of Rheims,' "No one seemed a penny the worse."
Masonry grows and flourishes in spite of them all. To give an
example. Many years ago, in the very Catholic city of Lima, I attended
the civil funeral of a priest, the learned Doctor Don Francisco de
Paula Gonzales Vigil, who died excommunicate. Twelve thousand men,
including the Masons with their insignia, deputations from the Senate
and Chamber, from the Municipality, Army, Navy, and other bodies,
formed the funeral cortège. The Municipality presented a tomb in the
public cemetery, which is one of the finest in the world, and an orator
pronounced an impassioned eulogy upon the virtues and patriotism of the
deceased. It was a wonderful manifestation, and remains graven upon my
memory. On that day every priest and friar found something to occupy
himself with at home. Whatever may be the case in Great Britain or in
the United States, there can be no doubt that in Catholic countries
the lodges are antagonistic to the clergy and the Church.
The lodges in the Philippines were founded by anti-clerical Spaniards
of liberal views, and the Creoles, Mestizos and natives who joined
them found brethren disposed to sympathise with them and to work with
them against the friars. There was no idea of revolting against the
mother country, but rather to introduce a more liberal government,
with representation for the civilised provinces in the Spanish
Córtes. It must be remembered that this representation had already
existed, and only required to be revived. There had been deputies
to the Córtes-Generales from 1810 to 1814, and from 1820 to 1823,
and Procuradores from 1834 to 1837.
The Córtes of Cadiz, on 14th October, 1810, declared:--
"The kingdoms and provinces of America and Asia are, and ought to
have been always, reputed an integral part of the Spanish monarchy,
and for that same, their natives and free inhabitants are equal
in rights and privileges to those of the peninsula."
These are very noble words, and, delivered in the majestic language
of Castile by some enthusiastic orator, must have gone straight to
the hearts of those that heard them.
Spain is as celebrated for orators as Great Britain for the lack of
them. Our generation has never produced a speaker like Castelar. But,
unfortunately for the Philippines, these grand and sonorous phrases
dissolved in air, and led to nothing practical. The friars stoutly
opposed what to them seemed dangerous innovations; they were
successful, and darkness again prevailed.
The insurrection of Cavite, in 1872, resulted in the execution or
exile of many members of the masonic body, and the brotherhood was
for some years under a cloud.
The Peninsular Spaniards dissociated themselves from the revolutionary
party. To use a simile which has been employed in England to describe
the difference between Liberals and Radicals, they were "going by
the same train, but not going so far."
The Creoles and Mestizos gradually founded new societies, which were
alleged to aim at obtaining reforms by legal and constitutional means.
"The Asociacion Hispano-Filipina" had for its first president Doroteo
Cortés, and amongst its officers Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, Pedro
Serrano, and Deodato Arellano.
The "Liga Filipina" was founded by Dr. Rizal and Domingo Franco;
its first president was shot. Nearly all the members were Masons;
they were well off, and of fair education, not inclined to put their
persons or property in danger. They did not want to fight. Their
programme may be summed up as follows:--
1. Expulsion of the friars, and confiscation of their estates.
2. The same political, administrative and economical concessions
as had been granted to Cuba. Freedom of the press, and freedom
of association.
3. Equalisation of the Philippine and Peninsular armies, and a
just division of Civil Service posts between natives and
Spaniards.
4. Return to owners of lands usurped by the friars, and sale of
such lands as really belonged to the Orders.
5. Prevention of insults to the Philippine natives, either in
sermons or in the press.
6. Economy in expenditure. Reduction of imposts. Construction of
railways and public works.
It was certainly not without risk to be a member of one of these
societies, for the Orders are vindictive in the extreme, and are not
troubled with scruples when it is a question of punishing an opponent.
Still, the Creole and Mestizo element were made cautious by
the possession of property, and its members cannot be called
fighting-men. They did not intend to run the risk of having holes
bored through them.
They founded newspapers in Spain; they wrote violent articles,
they made speeches, they obtained the support of some Liberals and
anti-clericals in the Peninsula, and numbered many adherents in the
islands. Still, they were comparatively harmless. Not so, however,
was a society which was formed of very different elements. Taking a
hint, perhaps, from the murderous brotherhood of the Ku-Klux-Klan,
some resolute and courageous Tagals imagined and formed that terrible
secret society, the Katipunan. There is no K in the Spanish alphabet,
but this letter is found in the Malay dialects, and consequently
in Tagal. Therefore, the symbol of the society, K.K.K., was as
distinctly anti-Spanish as was the full title, which was represented
by the initials--
N M A N B
The words corresponding to these initials were:--
Kataas-taasan Kagalang-gálang Katipunan
or Sovereign Worshipful Association
Nang Manga Anac Nang Bayan
of the (plural) sons of the Country.
They used signs and passwords. There were three grades of members:--
1st grade Katipun word Anak nang bayan.
2nd grade Kanal word Gom-bur-za. [8]
3rd grade Bayani.
Andrés Bonifacio, a warehouse-keeper in the service of Messrs. Fressel
& Co., of Manila, was the guiding spirit of this society, and at
the meeting of 1st January, 1896, the Supreme Council was elected
as follows:--
President Andrés Bonifacio.
Fiscal and Doctor Emilio Jacinto ó Dison, alias Ping Kian.
Treasurer Vicente Molina.
Councillors Pantaleon Torres.
Hermengildo Reyes.
Francisco Carreon.
José Trinidad.
Balbino Florentine
Aguedo del Rosario.
K
K K
Z LL B
The members of the Katipunan were poor people--writers, common
soldiers, washermen, mechanics, and tenants on the friars'
estates. They subscribed small sums monthly for the purchase of arms,
and for other expenses. Bearing in mind how many conspiracies had been
denounced to the priests by the women, the leaders of this movement
gave their meetings the outward appearance of benevolent associations,
and directed the members to represent the society to their wives in
that light.
Later on a woman's lodge, with twenty-five members was organised,
under the presidency of Marina Dison, but the women were not informed
of the true object of the society.
Fray Eduardo Navarro, Procurator of the Augustinians, in a
cleverly-written work, entitled 'The Philippines; a Study of Certain
Matters of Moment,' published in 1897, prints under No. 3 of the
Appendix the title granted by the Walana Lodge, No. 158, certifying
that "our dear sister, Purificacion Leyva, has been initiated in the
degree of Companion-Mason at the session of 8th April, 1894."
On reading this work, I infer that the friars considered the Katipunan
a Masonic body, but this is a mistake. The Katipunan adopted some
of the Masonic paraphernalia, and some of the initiatory ceremonies,
but were in no sense Masonic lodges.
The programme of the Katipunan was, in its own words, "to redeem the
Philippines from its tyrants, the friars, and to found a communistic
republic." This was simple and direct, and they meant it.
How many men were affiliated to this society cannot be known. Estimates
range from 10,000 to 50,000 members. I think there can be no doubt
that it was the most potent factor in the insurrection of 1896, and
that its members, unlike the Creoles and Mestizos, were ready to give
their lives for their cause.
CHAPTER X.
THE INSURRECTION OF 1896-97.
Combat at San Juan del Monte--Insurrection spreading--Arrival
of reinforcements from Spain--Rebel entrenchments--Rebel arms
and artillery--Spaniards repulsed from Binacáyan--and from
Noveleta--Mutiny of Carabineros--Prisoners at Cavite attempt
to escape--Iniquities of the Spanish War Office--Lachambre's
division--Rebel organization--Rank and badges--Lachambre
advances--He captures Silang--Perez Dasmariñas--Salitran--Anabo II.
The Augustinians take credit to themselves that one of their order,
Father Mariano Gil, parish priest of Tondo, discovered the existence
of the revolutionary conspiracy, on the 19th August. But already on
the 5th of July a lieutenant of the Guardia Civil had declared in
a written report that there were over 14,000 men belonging to the
valley of the Pasig, affiliated to the conspiracy.
A council of the authorities was convened on the 6th of August, but
nothing was done. On that same date, however, the Governor of Batangas
telegraphed that a discovery of arms, ammunition and Republican flags
had been made at Taal. In consequence of this, General Blanco ordered
some arrests to be made.
On the 19th, Father Gil gave information to General Blanco that
he had discovered the existence of a secret revolutionary society,
and two days later Blanco reported to the Government in Madrid that
there existed a vast organization of secret societies.
At this time the garrison of Manila consisted of some 1500 men, most of
them being natives. As arrests were being continually made, the members
of the Katipunan, or those suspected of being such, left their homes
and took to the woods although very poorly equipped with fire-arms.
On 30th August a party of the rebels under Sancho Valenzuela,
Modesto Sarmiento, and others had a fight with some native cavalry
and Guardias Civiles at San Juan del Monte near Manila. The rebels
lost heavily in killed, their chiefs were taken prisoners and shot
on the 4th September, at the Paseo de la Luneta.
A Spanish artilleryman was murdered by some rebels at Pandacan about
this time, and martial law was proclaimed.
The Guardia Civil, all native soldiers, was now concentrated in
Manila abandoning their outlying posts. After many vacillations and
contradictory cablegrams to the Government in Madrid, General Blanco
now definitely asked for large reinforcements.
On September 1st, the people of Noveleta revolted and killed a captain
and a lieutenant of the Guardia Civil and three days later the rebels
penetrated to the town of Caridad, close to Cavite.
Early in September rebels were in arms, and dominating great part
of the Provinces of Manila, Cavite, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga and
Nueva Écija.
By the middle of the month rebel bands appeared in Tarlac, Pangasinán,
Laguna, Morong and Tayabas.
On the 9th September, the Cavite rebels attacked San Roque, which is
close to the town of Cavite, and burned part of it. On the 12th,
thirteen persons who had been convicted by a court-martial of
complicity in the revolt were shot in Cavite.
The cables from General Blanco to the Madrid Government were all this
time misleading and contradictory, and showed that he had no grasp
of the state of affairs. These dispatches were subjected to severe
criticism in the Heraldo, a Madrid newspaper.
By the middle of September troops arrived from Zamboanga and other
southern stations, and the garrison of Manila was brought up to
6000 men, two-thirds of whom were natives. Reinforcements were sent
to Cavite, for the rebels were in great force about Silang, Imus,
and Noveleta.
On the 17th September another attack was made by the rebels on San
Roque, but was repulsed.
On the 1st October the mail steamer Cataluña arrived with a battalion
of marines from Spain, greatly to the delight of the Spaniards,
who gave the force an enthusiastic reception.
Next day the ss. Monserrat arrived with more troops, and from this
time forward troops kept pouring in.
Still General Blanco remained on the defensive in and around the city
of Manila and the town of Cavite, and repulsed attacks made by the
rebels on the magazines at Binancáyan and Las Piñas.
The rebels were now firmly established over the rest of the Province
of Cavite. The natural features of this part of Luzon made the
movements of regular troops extremely difficult. The country
abounds in rivers which run from south to north parallel to each
other at short distances. They run at the bottom of deep ravines,
which present excellent positions for defence. Many of these rivers
have dams across them and the sluices in these might be opened by
the defenders, or the dams could be blown up in case a column of the
assailants should be entangled in the ravine below, when they would
inevitably be overwhelmed in the descending torrent.
In places the country could be flooded and thus be rendered impassable
for troops.
But the industry of the rebels, skilfully directed, had added
enormously to these natural advantages. From the reports of
eye-witnesses I can affirm that the entrenchments of the Tagals were
colossal. Tagals and Boers have demonstrated that a competitive
examination is not necessary to enable fighting-men to entrench
themselves. The Tagal lines ran from the delta of the Zapote River to
Naic in an almost unbroken line, approximately parallel to the coast.
They were doubled and trebled in front of villages or towns and across
the roads.
The trace was en crémaillère, the section being 6 feet thick at the
top and 8 feet high, the exterior face vertical, with a revetment
of bamboos fastened together with rattans. It was in fact a bank of
earth built up against a strong bamboo fence.
The defenders fired through loop-holes left in the parapet, and were
very well covered, but they could only fire straight before them
and horizontally.
The defences of the towns had thicker and loftier parapets; in some
cases there were three tiers of loop-holes properly splayed.
The insurgents were very insufficiently armed, and at first there were
ten men to a rifle. The man who was reputed the best shot carried
the rifle and cartridge belt, and if he was killed or wounded in
an engagement, the next best shot took the weapon and continued the
fight. In the early actions there was scarcely ever a rifle left on
the ground by the insurgents.
The only cannon the rebels had at first were some ancient brass
swivel guns called falconetes or lantácas, which they took from the
estate-houses at Imus and Malabon.
They also had some brass mortars like quart pots, which are used
for firing salutes on feast days. These they fastened at an angle
to blocks of wood, thus making small howitzers, quite effective at
short range. They loaded these with the punchings from boiler-plates
and broken cooking-pots.
They showed a considerable ingenuity in making cannon out of any
materials at hand. They would take a steel boiler-tube, a stay tube
for choice, say about three inches bore and a quarter of an inch
thick. Plugging up one end and drilling a touch-hole, they would
drive this tube into a hole bored in a log of hard wood turned on the
outside to a taper, then they drove eight or nine wrought-iron rings
over the wood. They drilled through the wood to suit the touch-hole
and the gun was ready.
They fitted no trunnions, but mounted this rude cannon upon a solid
block of wood.
In other cases they made some wire guns by lapping steel boiler-tubes
with telegraph-wire.
Towards the end of the campaign of Lachambre's division against the
rebels, some modern field-pieces of eight centimètres were captured
from them, but it is not clear where these came from.
To supplement their scanty stock of rifles, they made some hand-guns
of gas-tube. These were fired by applying a match or lighted cigar
to the touch-hole, and would seem to be very clumsy weapons. But I
may say that when on a visit to the estate of Palpa, in Peru, I saw a
Chinaman who was in charge of the poultry corral, kill a hawk hovering,
with a similar gun.
The Spanish Military and Naval Authorities now took the revolt very
seriously, and on the 8th November the squadron comprising the
Castilla, Reina Cristina, and other vessels, and the guns of the
forts at Cavite and Puerto Vaga, opened upon the rebel position at
Cavite, Viejo, Noveleta, Binancáyan, and other places within range,
and kept it up for hours. The next morning the firing was resumed
at daylight, supplemented by the guns from launches and boats well
inshore. Troops were landed under the protection of the squadron,
and advanced against the entrenchments of Binancáyan. They delivered
three frontal attacks with great gallantry, reaching the parapet each
time, but were beaten back, leaving many dead upon the ground. No
flanking attack was possible here for the parapet extended for many
miles each way.
A simultaneous attack was made upon Noveleta by a column of 3000
Spanish and native infantry under Colonel Fermin Diaz Mattoni.
This force started from Cavite and marched through Dalahican and
along the road to Noveleta. This road is a raised causeway running
through a mangrove swamp, having deep mud on each side impassable
for troops. This is at least a mile of swamp, and the troops advanced
along the causeway and crossed a bridge which spanned a muddy creek.
No enemy was in sight, and the town was not far off. Suddenly the
head of the column fell into a most cunningly devised pitfall. The
road had been dug out, the pit covered with wattle, and the surface
restored to its original appearance. The bottom of the pit was set
with pointed bamboo stakes which inflicted serious wounds upon those
that fell upon them.
At the moment of confusion the rebels opened a withering fire from
concealed positions amongst the mangroves upon the column standing
in the open.
The Spaniards and native troops made great efforts to get forward,
but could not stand the fire and had to retire. When they got back
to the bridge it was down, and they had to wade across the creek
under a close fire from the rebels hidden amongst the mangroves. In
this action the Spaniards are said to have lost 600 killed and many
hundreds wounded. The loss fell principally on the 73rd and 74th
Regiments of Native Infantry.
The rebels were greatly encouraged, and got possession of a large
number of rifles, with ammunition and accoutrements.
Both these attacks were made under the direction of General Blanco,
who witnessed them from a lofty staging erected within the lines of
Dalahican. After these disasters he resumed the defensive, except that
the squadron and the batteries at Cavite and Puerto Vaga frequently
bombarded the rebel positions.
At this time thousands of natives were in prison in Manila awaiting
their trial. A permanent court-martial had been organised to try the
suspects. Great numbers were shot, and many hundreds were transported
to the Caroline Islands, to Ceuta, and Fernando Pó. Wealthy natives
were mercilessly blackmailed, and it is reported that those who were
discharged had to pay large sums for their release.
The Spanish Volunteers in Manila committed many arbitrary and even
outrageous actions, and aroused the hatred of the natives far more
than the regular troops did. They allowed their patriotism to carry
them into most lamentable excesses.
On the 25th February a rising and mutiny of the Carbineers or
Custom-House Guards took place in Manila at the captain of the port's
office. The scheme miscarried and was only partially successful. The
officer on duty was shot, and also the sergeant, and the rebels made
off with some rifles and ammunition.
The volunteers and some troops hastily called together pursued the
rebels through Tondo as far as the Leper Hospital, till nightfall,
the last volley being fired at 6.15 P.M. In this affair the mutineers
lost a great many men, but some of them got away and joined the rebels.
Blanco had not been severe enough with the rebels or suspected
rebels to please the friars. His management of the attacks upon
Noveleta and Binancáyan had been faulty, and his health was bad. It
was not surprising, having the priests against him, and the military
dissatisfied, that he was recalled. He left at the end of 1896. General
Polavieja, an officer who had risen from the ranks by his military
talents, and who, when serving in Cuba, had very accurately gauged the
situation, and had made a remarkably clever report to the government,
was sent out to replace Blanco. Polavieja was inexorable with the
rebels and their sympathisers. Military executions took place about
once a week for two months. Francisco Roxas, a mestizo ship-owner,
Numeriano Adriano, and many other mestizos and natives were shot at
the Paseo de la Luneta.
On December 6th the prisoners in Cavite jail rose, murdered their
jailer, and attempted to escape. One hundred and fifty prisoners were
concerned in this affair. Of these, forty-seven were shot in the
streets of the town, and twenty-one were captured, whilst thirteen
were shot in the bushes behind Cañacao. Those recaptured were tried
for prison-breaking, and were all shot the next morning.
By the beginning of 1897, a large number of troops had arrived from
Spain. They were, however, largely conscripts, raw youths who had never
handled a rifle, mere raw material in fact, sent out without uniform
or equipment, many having only what they stood up in, or at most,
having a spare shirt and a singlet tied up in a handkerchief. We talk
about the shortcomings of our War Office officials, and certainly
they sometimes give examples of wooden-headed stupidity, and are
behind the age in many particulars. But for deliberate inhumanity,
for utter callousness to human suffering, to loss of health and
life, I think the Spanish War Office could hardly be outdone. And I
speak of their misdeeds from personal knowledge in the Philippines
and in Cuba. What an enormous amount of suffering was caused to the
working-people of Spain by the sending to Cuba and to the Philippines
of over 200,000 men in 1895-96. Never in this generation were men
shipped away so destitute of clothing, provisions, surgeons and
medical comforts. Never have I seen troops in the field with such
wretched equipment, or so devoid of transport, tents, and supplies.
Whatever successes they achieved were secured by the inborn valour of
the troops, and by extraordinary exertions on the part of the generals
and staff to improvise on the spot what the national treasury should
have supplied them with at the commencement of hostilities.
The raw recruits having been drilled and exercised with the rifle were
organised in fifteen battalions and called Cazadores (chasseurs). These
battalions, with four regiments of native infantry and some native
volunteers, were formed into brigades under Generals Cornell, Marina,
Jaramillo and Galbis. The first three brigades constituted a division,
which was placed under the command of General Lachambre, an officer
of great energy, and of long experience in the Cuban wars.
By the beginning of 1897 the Tagal rebellion had concentrated its
forces in the province of Cavite. Embers of rebellion still smouldered
in other provinces of Luzon, but many rebels from outlying places
had thrown in their lot with those of Cavite, and in great numbers,
very indifferently supplied with arms and ammunition, but amply with
provisions, they confidently awaited the long-prepared attack of
the Spanish forces behind the formidable entrenchments that their
persevering labour had raised. In the interval they had organised
themselves after a fashion, and had instituted a reign of terror
wherever they held sway.
The organisation of the rebels in the province of Cavite was of a
somewhat confused nature, and seemed to respond to the ambition and
influence of particular individuals rather than to any systematic
principle.
Thus Silang was declared a vice-royalty under Victor Belarmino,
styled Victor I.
The rest of the province was divided into two districts, each ruled
by a council; the first was Imus and its vicinity, under Bernardino
Aguinaldo with ministers of war, of the treasury, of agriculture and
of justice.
The second was San Francisco de Malabon, presided over by Mariano
Alvarez, with ministers of state as above.
But above the kingdom of Silang and the two republics, the President
of the Katipunan, Andres Bonifacio, held sway as lieutenant of the
Generalissimo Emilio Aguinaldo. He resided in his palace at San
Francisco, and from there dictated his orders. The supreme power was
in the hands of Aguinaldo.
All these authorities exercised despotic power, and certainly
ill-treated and robbed their own countrymen who did not desire to
join them, far more than the Spaniards have ever done in the worst
of times. They frequently inflicted the death-penalty, and their
so-called courts-martial no more thought of acquitting an accused
person than a regimental court-martial in England would. The terrible
President of the Katipunan ultimately became a victim of one of these
blood-thirsty tribunals.
Their military organization was curious. The province was sub-divided
into military zones. First Silang, second Imus, third Bacoor, fourth
San Francisco de Malabon, fifth Alfonso. Each zone had an army which
consisted of all the population able to work, and was divided into two
parts, the active or fighting force and the auxiliary but non-combatant
part. The active force was divided into regiments and companies, and
these last into riflemen and spearmen, there being commonly five of
the latter to one of the former. Besides the usual military ranks,
they instituted the following functionaries:
Minister of Marine Marcelo de los Santos.
Principal Chaplain to the Forces Eladio Almeyda.
Intendant-General of Taxes Silvestre Aguinaldo.
General of Artillery Crispulo Aguinaldo.
Inspector of Ordnance Factories Edilberto Evangelista.
General of Engineers
Judge Advocate General Santos Nocón.
All the above held the rank of lieutenant-general. The badges of rank
were as follows:
Rebel Badges of Rank.
Generalissimo, K on the hat or cap.
Z. L. I. B. on the arm.
Vertically stacked Maltese cross, K, and Maltese
cross on the left breast.
Lieutenant Generals, K in concentric circles with eight segments.
Marshals, K in lower half of concentric circles.
Brigadiers, K in triangle with circle at each corner.
Colonels, Three K's surrounding Maltese cross.
K
Majors, K
K
The Ministers, K
The Secretary to the
Generalissimo, K K K
The rebels occupied the whole of the province of Cavite, except the
fortified town of that name containing the naval arsenal, and a small
strip on the shores of the Laguna where the Spanish troops were posted.
Cornell's brigade was at Calamba and Marina's brigade at Biñan. They
had outlying detachments amounting to 1500 men at Santa Cruz, Santo
Domingo, Tayabas, and along the line from Tanáuan to Bañadero, leaving
each brigade 4000 men for the advance into the rebel territory. The
divisional troops numbered about 1300, making a total of 9300
combatants.
The brigade under Jaramillo had its headquarters in Taal, Batangas
Province, with outlying detachments at Batangas, Calacá, Lián Balayan
and Punta Santiago, and a force holding the line of the Pansipit River,
altogether amounting to 1000 men, leaving 1600 free to operate.
Besides this a fourth brigade, not belonging to the division,
having General Galbis as brigadier, was extended along the northern
bank of the Zapote River, under the immediate orders of the
governor-general. The Lakes of Bay and Bombon (Taal) were guarded
by armed steam-launches and other small craft, whilst the gunboats
of the squadron patrolled the sea coast. The rebel province was thus
held in a grip of iron.
On the 12th February, 1897, General Lachambre reported himself ready
to advance. General Polavieja ordered Jaramillo to attack the rebel
trenches at Bayuyungan on the 14th, and to keep up the attack until
Lachambre had seized Silang, when he was to attack Talisay on the Lake
of Taal. The marines at Dalahican were ordered to attack Noveleta,
whilst Lachambre was to advance on the 15th, the two brigades taking
different routes, but converging on Silang.
The march was extremely difficult, and the nine-centimètre guns were
only taken through, at the cost of most strenuous efforts. The enemy
tenaciously defended every favourable position, and were only driven
off at the cost of many lives.
On the 19th, Silang, one of the principal rebel towns, was taken
by assault and at the point of the bayonet, after a preparatory
bombardment in which the artillery fired 105 rounds of shell, whilst
25,000 rifle cartridges were used by the infantry.
The rebels lost 2000 men killed and wounded, whilst the Spanish losses
were 12 killed and 70 wounded. The town was strongly entrenched and
stoutly defended, and its capture with so small a loss may justly
be called a creditable operation. Marina's brigade attacked from the
south and Cornell's brigade from the east.
The action lasted from 7 to 11.30 A.M. The rebels were discouraged,
but still, on the 22nd, they delivered an attack as if they would
retake the town, and pressed on with great fury. They killed four of
the Spaniards and wounded twenty-one, but in the end were driven off,
leaving 400 dead on the ground. The houses in Silang were found fully
furnished and provisioned. In the house of the so-called Viceroy of
Silang, Victor Belarmino, the principal ornament of the sala was a
chromo-lithograph portrait of the Queen Regent.
The church-doors were wide open and the altars profusely
illuminated. On the sacristy table lay the priestly robes and
ornaments, ready, doubtless, for the celebration of a Te Deum for the
expected victory. But he who was to wear them, the celebrated Tagal
Bishop, lay with a bullet through his heart across the parapet he
had fiercely defended.
Lachambre preserved the best houses around the church and convent and
utilised them as storehouses, hospital, and barracks, burning the
rest of the town as a punishment to the rebels. He then garrisoned
and fortified the post and connected it with the telegraph line.
On the 24th Lachambre marched from Silang, his main body advancing by
the direct route to Perez Dasmariñas parallel to the River Casundit,
a flanking force of three companies guarding the left of the column,
whilst Lieutenant Colonel Villalon, with a battalion and a half
having started an hour earlier than the main body, took the road to
Palimparan, having the Rio Grande on his right, and by his advance
protecting the right flank of the column. Villalon advanced rapidly,
and, brushing aside all opposition, rushed Palimparan with a loss
of one killed and one wounded, killing seven of the rebels in the
attack. Here he bivouacked, and at sunset was joined by another
force consisting of half a brigade under Colonel Arizon, detached
from General Galbis' force on the Zapote River.
In the meantime the main body had advanced to within three miles of
Perez Dasmariñas and bivouacked at the hamlet called Sampalcoc. On
the following day Perez Dasmariñas was taken by assault, after a
short bombardment by the mountain batteries. The rebels were strongly
entrenched, and made a stout resistance. They had flooded the rice
fields to the east of the town and rendered them impassable.
The town was attacked from the south and west, but it took hours of
hard fighting for the Spaniards to break in, and even then the rebels
fought hand to hand, and many preferred death to surrender. Those
who fled were taken in flank by Arizon's force, which approached the
northern end of the town from the eastward. The loss of the Spaniards
was 21 killed and 121 wounded, whilst the natives left 400 dead at
the foot of their defences, and a great number were killed outside
the town.
The early part of the defence was directed by Aguinaldo, but he fled
when the Spanish forces closed up, leaving Estrella, an ex-sergeant
of the Guardia Civil, in his place. Estrella fled later on when the
Spaniards had entered the town. Unintimidated by this rude lesson,
the rebels that same night fired into the town, and on the 27th they
attacked a column which went out to make a reconnaissance towards
Palimparan, and gave a mountain battery a chance, which they promptly
took, of getting at a dense body of them with case. The artillery fired
22 rounds in this action, and the infantry used 63,000 cartridges. The
Spanish loss was two killed and ten wounded, whilst the rebels lost
at least 300.
The church, convent, and stone homes round the Plaza of Perez
Dasmariñas were loopholed and prepared for defence, and occupied
by a garrison of two companies of infantry. Owing, however, to the
difficulty of bringing up supplies, the division could not resume its
advance till the 7th March. Then the division took the eastern road to
Imus, whilst the half brigade under Arizon marched by a parallel road
on the right flank, which converged upon the Imus road at Salitran,
a village with a large stone estate-house belonging to the Recollets,
strongly entrenched and held by the rebels.
On arriving within range two guns of Cornell's brigade opened fire
on the estate-house from an eminence, but after the fifth round the
Spanish flag was shown from the house, it having been occupied by
Arizon's force arriving from the east after a very slight resistance,
for the rebels seemed to have no one in command. They had prepared
for an attack from the east, but when they found the Spaniards
arriving in great force upon their right flank, enfilading their
strong entrenchments, they became demoralised and took to flight.
The scouts now reported that a formidable entrenchment a mile and a
quarter long, was occupied by the rebels about a mile north of the
village. This entrenchment, called Anabo II., covered both the roads
to Imus, and each flank rested on a deep ravine--the eastern end had
a redoubt, and the western end a flanking epaulement.
The ground in front was perfectly open, and there was difficulty in
making a flanking attack, so General Zabala, with a half brigade,
made a direct attack. The fighting line gradually advanced, taking
such cover as the pilápiles of the rice-fields could give, until they
arrived within 100 yards of the parapet, when Zabala, waving high
his sword, gave the order for the assault, falling a moment after
pierced through the breast by a shot from a lantaca. Two captains fell
near him, but the lieutenants led their companies to the assault;
the cazadores sprang across the ditch and clambered up the high
parapet with the agility and fury of leopards, bayoneting those of
the defenders who remained to fight it out, and sending volley after
volley into those who had taken to flight.
The Spanish loss was 11 killed and 33 wounded, whilst 200 of the rebels
were killed. This heavy loss did not however appear to intimidate them
in the least, for on the 8th they made two desperate attempts to retake
the position, in both of which they came within close range of the
Spaniards, who poured repeated volleys into them by word of command,
whilst the mountain-guns played upon them with ease. In this action
the Spaniards lost 5 killed and 25 wounded, and they calculated the
rebel killed at 300.
CHAPTER XI.
THE INSURRECTION OF 1896-97--CONTINUED.
The Division encamps at San Nicolas--Work of the native engineer
soldiers--The division marches to Salitran--Second action at
Anabo II.--Crispulo Aguinaldo killed--Storming the entrenchments
of Anabo I.--Burning of Imus by the rebels--Proclamation by
General Polavieja--Occupation of Bacoor--Difficult march of the
division--San Antonio taken by assault--Division in action with
all its artillery--Capture of Noveleta--San Francisco taken by
assault--Heavy loss of the Tagals--Losses of the division--The
division broken up--Monteverde's book--Polavieja returns to
Spain--Primo de Rivera arrives to take his place--General Monet's
butcheries--The pact of Biak-na-Bato--The 74th Regiment joins
the insurgents--The massacre of the Calle Camba--Amnesty for
torturers--Torture in other countries.
On the 10th (March) the division marched to Presa-Molino, which was
occupied that same evening, and leaving three companies of infantry to
guard the position, the division continued its march through a most
difficult country, arriving in the afternoon on the Zapote River,
in touch with the 4th Brigade, formerly commanded by Galbis and now
by Barraquer.
From there Lachambre with his staff rode over to Parañaque, and
reported himself to the Captain-General Polavieja.
The troops encamped on the downs of San Nicolas, one brigade on
each side of the River Zapote. Notwithstanding the comparatively
favourable emplacement of the camp, the troops and their officers
suffered severely from the effect of the climate upon frames weakened
by over-exertion, by indifferent nourishment and by sleeping on
the ground. Malarial fevers, intestinal catarrh, dysentery, and
rheumatism sapped their vitality, whilst nostalgia preyed upon the
younger soldiers and depressed their spirits. Since the 15th February
the division had lost in killed, wounded, and invalided, no less than
135 officers, and troops in greater proportion.
Yet still greater exertions were to be required from the soldiers. The
4th Brigade was incorporated in the division, and two additional
battalions, one from the 3rd Brigade and the other from the Independent
Brigade, brought the number of combatants nearly up to 12,000.
Having previously made a practicable road by Almansa to Presa Molino
and Salitran, defended by redoubts at the most difficult fords,
and having organised his transport with such means as the country
afforded, Lachambre again set out, his objective being Imus, but the
attack was to be from Salitran.
The work of the native engineer soldiers, and of the 74th Native
Regiment in constructing this road and the redoubts, merits the
highest praise, and it must be admitted that it is almost impossible
for an army of white men to carry on a campaign in the Philippines
or in similar territory, without the assistance of native pioneer or
engineer troops.
The road being ready, and the convoys of provisions having gone
forward, on the morning of the 22nd March the division started on
its march to Salitran, where it arrived on the evening of the 23rd,
having had some sharp skirmishes on the way.
Early on the 24th the division set out for Imus, and once more the
formidable trenches and redoubts of Anabo II., restored, strengthened,
and crowded with determined defenders, barred their path. These works
had once already been taken by assault, and had cost the division
the loss of the brave General Zabala and other officers and men.
Protected on each flank by a deep ravine with a river at the bottom,
and with open ground in front, the attack had been rendered more
difficult by flooding the arable land before the trenches, and the
position of the rebels was an exceedingly strong one. Lachambre had
to accept a direct attack, but he sent a body of troops forward on
each flank to advance simultaneously and overlap the ends of the
entrenchment.
The infantry deployed, the firing line advanced under fire without
stopping to within three hundred yards of the parapet, when
they halted, taking what cover they could and keeping up a steady
fire. Then the mountain battery was brought up and fired common shell
at close range, breaching the parapet. A rush forward soon brought
the firing-line within 150 yards of the parapet. General Marina,
watching the engagement well to the front, had one of his staff
officers killed at his side; seeing the favourable moment arrive,
he gave the order for the assault.
Once more the troops exhibited their conspicuous bravery. The long
line, led by its officers, dashed forward with the bayonet, the
bugles sounding the charge, and with impetuous speed, soon reached
the parapet. However terrible the attack, the stout-hearted Tagals
stood firm, disdaining to fly.
Bolo and bayonet clashed, European courage and Malay fury had full
play, till in the end, as ever in equal numbers and in stand-up fight,
the European prevailed. Many of the defenders fell, the rest sought
safety in flight.
The engagement lasted two and a half hours without cessation, and
over three hundred rebel dead were counted in or near the works,
amongst them was Crispulo Aguinaldo, a brother of General Emilio
Aguinaldo. The Spaniards lost 9 killed and 108 wounded.
After a short rest the division resumed the advance upon Imus, and
bivouacked after marching about a couple of miles.
On the 25th the advance was continued on a broad front. Scarcely had
the division marched for half-an-hour when the leading ranks came
in sight of another line of entrenchments more than two miles long,
six feet high, and five feet thick, well protected with cane fences in
front, one of these being at a distance of 100 yards from the parapet.
Lachambre orders the centre to make a direct attack and the wings a
flanking movement. The rebels retain their fire till the Spaniards
arrive within two hundred yards, and then the parapet is crowned with
flame both from small arms and lantacas. The scene of the day before
was repeated, the parapet stormed, with a rebel loss of over six
hundred. After a short halt the advance against Imus was resumed. The
distance was short, and the appearance of the thousands of bayonets
and the explosion of a few shells produced an indescribable panic
amongst the inhabitants and the many who had come from other towns
to assist in the defence.
They took to flight, disregarding the protests of their leaders
Emilio Aguinaldo and Andrés Bonifacio. In order to cover his retreat,
the former ordered the magazine to be blown up and the town to be
burned. This delayed the advance of the Spaniards in the centre, but
the wings moved forward and the thousands of fugitives were exposed to
a flanking fire, and more than eight hundred of them bit the dust. It
was afternoon before Lachambre could enter what remained of Imus,
when as a mark of honour for their splendid services, the colour
of the 74th Regiment of Native Infantry was raised upon the tower
of the church--all the troops presenting arms and afterwards giving
enthusiastic cheers.
Thus was taken the citadel of the Katipunan with a loss to the
Spaniards of 25 killed and 129 wounded.
The taking of Imus gave General Polavieja an opportunity of offering
an amnesty to the rebels, which he did not neglect. On the 26th of
March he issued a proclamation offering pardon to all who had borne
arms against the Royal Authority, or who had assisted the rebels,
provided they presented themselves before Palm Sunday the 11th of
April. Leaders of the rebels were to present themselves with their
forces and arms.
On the 26th March the division, leaving a garrison in Imus, started
for Bacoor to take the defences in reverse, and such was the effect on
the rebels of their defeat at Imus and of the advance in overwhelming
force, that they fled, and the division occupied Bacoor almost without
firing a shot.
It was otherwise with Binacayan, for Marina's Brigade having made a
reconnaissance in force on the 28th, were received with a heavy fire,
and after an hour's skirmish in which some were killed on each side,
they returned to their camp at Bacoor; Lachambre considering that
an attack in that direction would result in a useless waste of life,
for the advance would be along narrow causeways across swamps. Having
received provisions and ammunition by sea from Manila, he returned
with his division to Imus, the garrison of which had not been molested
by the rebels.
At daylight on the 31st March, the division left Imus and marched
across country in a westerly and southerly direction, fording numerous
streams running at the bottom of deep ravines, as well as many
irrigating canals and ditches. Soon after the start the right flank
was fired upon, the fire increasing as the column moved forward. The
engineers had to improve the approaches to the fords of the Rivers
Julian and Batong Dalig under fire.
The leading brigade carried several entrenchments on its front and
flank without halting, but extending skirmishes on either flank to
beat off the enemy. The rear brigade was attacked on both flanks and
had to fight a rearguard action as well. The division bivouacked for
the night at Bacao, a point from which it threatened the rebel towns of
San Francisco, Santa Cruz, Rosario and Noveleta, all within easy reach.
The losses on the day's march were 6 killed and 37 wounded, whilst
400 rebel killed were counted on open ground, and many must have
fallen amongst the bushes and trees.
They, however, were not at all dismayed, and surrounded the bivouac
at night, firing repeated volleys and engaging the outposts.
On the following day (1st April), the division with all its baggage
crossed the River Ladron, and took up a position in the centre of a
large tract of rice-fields, having Noveleta on the north, San Francisco
on the south, Rosario and Santa Cruz to the west, and San Antonio on
the east. San Antonio was first taken by assault after the parapet
had been breached by the fire of two batteries of mountain guns. The
fugitive Tagals who escaped with their lives took refuge in Noveleta.
The situation was now as follows: Arizon's Brigade threatened Noveleta,
Marina's Brigade threatened Rosario and Sarralde's Brigade attacked
Santa Cruz--the baggage being in the centre and out of fire.
At this moment a dense mass of the enemy issuing from San Francisco,
made a desperate attack upon the Spaniards nearest to them.
The whole of the division with its twelve guns, was now in action
and surrounded by the enemy, Lachambre in the centre keenly watching
the fight. When he judged the right moment had arrived, he ordered
Arizon's Brigade to storm Noveleta.
The Brigade greeted this order with thundering shouts of "Viva España,"
and with the pluck that has always distinguished the Spanish soldier
when well led, carried the entrenchments at a run, and fought a hand to
hand combat with the defenders, who were either killed or driven out,
notwithstanding that these were the very best of the rebel troops,
amongst them being many of Aguinaldo's Guards, wearing a special
uniform, some of them having served in the native regiments. Here,
again, the 74th Native Infantry distinguished themselves by their
remarkable bravery, and once more their colour was displayed from
the church tower as a recognition of their valuable and loyal services.
The capture of Noveleta placed the division in communication with
the marines occupying the entrenchments of Dalahican.
This action cost the division 11 killed and 58 wounded, but many
hundreds of the rebels were killed.
In consequence of this, the rebels abandoned Cavite, Viejo, and
Binacayan, which were occupied the following day without resistance.
The rebels, however, on the 4th, and again on the 5th, attacked the
troops in Noveleta and sustained the combat for some time, killing
10 and wounding 33 Spanish, but leaving 50 of their own dead on
the ground.
On the 6th the division marched from Noveleta, which was occupied
by a garrison of marines, and took the direction of San Francisco,
the advanced guard in extended order across the same open ground upon
which the engagement of April 1st was fought. The rebel positions
on the right flank were marked by lines of skirmishers with their
supports and reserves. The Tagals had, however, inundated the part
of this plain immediately in front of the town, and the advance was
made with great difficulty; the guns and ammunition boxes having to
be carried by the gunners with the assistance of the infantry. With
undaunted bravery the troops struggled on under a heavy fire, but
Lachambre, realising the difficulty and the danger incurred, changed
the direction of the advance. The right wing under Arizon inclined to
the right, and the left, under Marina, bore away to the left. Half a
brigade crossed the River Ladron, notwithstanding the opposition of
the rebels, and attacked the town from the east. Firmer ground was soon
reached, the guns that had cost so much labour taking up, were mounted,
and a rain of shell soon fell amongst the rebels. The infantry poured
in steady volleys, advancing in the intervals of firing. The whole
combined attack being within a proper distance for the final rush,
Lachambre gave the word, and like greyhounds released, the Spanish
and native infantry leaped to the assault. The parapet was high and
deep the ditch, for the defenders had not spared their labour on it,
and as the Spanish line reached the edge, the rebels boldly mounted
the parapet and discharged their arms at close quarters. In this
critical moment the moral superiority of the white man once more was
manifest. The Spanish troops reached the parapet and a hand-to-hand
combat with the bolder rebels took place, the bayonet against the
spear or bolo. The less-determined of the enemy fled, and in a few
minutes 120 Tagals lay dead against the parapet, and five guns and
eighty rifles remained as trophies to the victors. The companies
re-formed for the pursuit, but the enemy fired the thatched huts
to interpose a curtain of flame between them and their pursuers; a
measure which was only partially successful, for some of the troops,
nimbly darting through the lanes, shot down or bayoneted many of
the fugitives, killing 400 in the pursuit, besides those who died at
the entrenchments. The Spanish loss was 25 killed and 125 wounded,
including several officers. The fighting had lasted four hours over
very difficult ground, and the troops were exhausted. Lachambre
therefore camped in the town, which has many fine edifices and a
spacious, church and convent. The bells of the church, in a joyful
peal, announced the Spanish triumph. The rebels were under the command
of Andrés Bonifacio, the President of the formidable Katipunan. This
terrible blow to the insurrection was followed by the occupation of
the towns of Santa Cruz and Rosario, without firing a shot.
Many of the natives had joined the rebellion under compulsion, and
had long desired to submit themselves. Now they came in by hundreds
every day to claim the amnesty offered by General Polavieja.
Fifty-two days had the campaign lasted, fifty-seven combats had taken
place, and the total loss of the division was 1 general, 14 officers,
and 168 men killed, and 56 officers and 910 men wounded. Probably a
far larger number died or were invalided from disease, induced by the
fatigue, exposure and privations inseparable from such a campaign,
especially as most of the men were mere youths, raw recruits, and
with little possibility of taking care of themselves, even if they
knew how. Notwithstanding the excessive fatigue and the depressing
nature of the surroundings, the Spanish troops maintained a fine
martial spirit, and ever showed themselves ready to respond to
the calls made upon them. They were well led by their officers,
who devoted themselves unsparingly in their country's service, and
they had confidence in their generals, who were untiring in their
exertions to do their best for their men. Lachambre displayed the
greatest solicitude for the well-being of the force under his command;
whilst showing the utmost resolution, and pushing his attacks home
in every case, yet he sacrificed his men as little as possible, and
always had patience to wait till his flanking attacks could join in
the assault. The distances the division had to traverse were very
small, but the absence of roads and bridges made the provisioning of
the army a matter of the utmost difficulty.
Those who know the poverty of the Spanish Army in animals,
vehicles, and stores, will understand what Lachambre and his staff
accomplished. On the 12th April, 1897, the division was broken up,
and the brigades were stationed at various places in Cavite and the
neighbouring provinces.
The general, brigadiers, officers, and troops, are fortunate in having
as chronicler of their exploits, so painstaking and appreciative an
officer as Lieut.-Colonel Don Federico de Monteverde y Sedano, who in
his book, 'La Division Lachambre,' published in 1898, gives a detailed
account of the campaign, with sketches illustrative of the various
actions. Señor Monteverde does justice to every Spaniard, from the
divisional-general downwards. I could wish he had said something more
about the services of the 73rd and 74th Regiments of Native Infantry,
who seem to have been always in the forefront of the battle and where
the hardest work was being done, as in assisting the magnificent
engineer corps, without whom I doubt if the campaign could have been
successful. His book, however, is invaluable to those who may have
to conduct operations in the Philippines, and the invariable success
achieved by Lachambre, contrasts remarkably with the failures in the
early part of the rebellion, and one cannot help seeing a parallel
between this little war and the greater one in South Africa. Each was
mismanaged at the beginning, but as soon as the invading forces were
organised in one command, success was achieved.
A few days after the breaking up of the division, General Polavieja
embarked for Spain, very much broken in health. In a letter written
on the 9th March to the Minister of War, Polavieja declared himself
too ill to ride and asked for his relief. He, however, still remained
at Parañaque, directing the campaign till after the capture of San
Francisco.
The Spanish press took sides for or against him, the papers advocating
the interests of the friars praised him, whilst the Liberal press
held him up to ridicule.
There is no doubt that he directed the military operations in an
efficient manner, but under his government the arbitrary arrests,
cruelties, and tortures, inflicted upon all who were suspected of being
sympathisers with the rebels, or from whom money would be extorted,
that had begun under Blanco, continued and increased. For Blanco,
having been informed of the cruelties inflicted, issued an order
forbidding the practice.
The next governor-general was General Primo de Rivera, who had held
that office from 1880 to 1883, and had found it a very profitable
one. He arrived on the 23rd April and went to the front on the 29th;
on the 4th May, Naic was taken, also a small place called Quintana,
and Indang. At Naic there was very heavy fighting, and some at Indang.
The troops then advanced to Maragondón, which was taken on the 10th
after a most stubborn resistance, the Spaniards losing many men and
the rebels still more heavily.
This place was the last where the rebels made a stand, in Cavite
province. After this defeat they dispersed in roving bands and kept
on the move.
The whole province was a scene of desolation, towns burnt, churches
bombarded, stone houses blown up, property looted, putrefying bodies
lying about in hundreds, the fields laid waste, the cattle driven off,
the country depopulated, a remnant of the inhabitants hiding in the
woods; a few of the bolder ones returned to the ruined houses. Such
was the result of this unhappy rebellion.
I have this description from an eye-witness, and he assured me that he
had been told by a colonel commanding one of the most distinguished
regiments engaged in the campaign, that not less than 30,000 natives
lost their lives in that province alone during the rebellion.
The rebels gave no quarter to Spaniards, and the Spaniards only
occasionally took prisoners. However, once taken they were usually
released after being exhorted to return to their homes.
Whilst the operations of Lachambre's division were proceeding in
Cavite, General Monet, with a force of 3000 men, was carrying on an
indiscriminate butchery of men, women, and children, in Bulacan and
Pampanga, but he displayed no military qualities, and ultimately
escaped, leaving his forces to surrender.
The Spanish Volunteers in Manila continued their series of abominable
outrages, although in August, Primo de Rivera issued a decree
forbidding intimidation, plundering and ravishing. He was ultimately
obliged to disband them.
Driven out of Cavite, the remnant of the rebels under Aguinaldo took
refuge in the hills and held a strong position near Angat, in the
province of Bulacan. As it would have taken a long time to reduce them,
Primo de Rivera tried conciliation, and employed Don Pedro Paterno,
a native gentleman of means, who had been educated in Spain, as
mediator. By his instrumentality, an arrangement was arrived at which,
after being approved by the Government in Madrid, was signed by the
mediator as attorney for the rebels and the governor-general for Spain.
This, known as the pact of Biak-na-bato, was signed on December
14th, 1897.
In consequence, Aguinaldo and a number of the prominent rebels were
escorted to Hong Kong by a relative of the governor-general, and
there received a sum of $400,000, being the first instalment of the
sum agreed upon.
They lived in a quiet and economical manner upon their own
resources. They did not divide the indemnity nor convert it to their
own use, but kept it as a war fund in case of need.
The event showed the wisdom of this course, for Primo de Rivera had
led them to understand that an amnesty and reforms were to follow,
but, apparently, had caused the Spanish Government to look upon the
arrangement in a very different light, and he subsequently denied
that any treaty existed. No reforms were ever granted, and things
in Luzon went on in the same old way. The friars joined in raising
a large subscription for Primo de Rivera, and this seemed to incline
him more favourably towards them.
The amnesty was disregarded, and the priests continued their arbitrary
courses against those who had been concerned in the rebellion. Bands
of marauders infested the provinces and the country was in a very
unsettled state, some insurgent bands approaching Cavite.
On March 24th, the 74th Regiment of Native Infantry in garrison at
that town, the regiment that had distinguished itself so remarkably in
Lachambre's division, being always in the front, was ordered to march
out against them. Whatever the reason, whether they felt that their
splendid services had not been duly acknowledged, or, as is likely,
their pay was months in arrears, they refused to march against their
own countrymen. Eight corporals were called out of the ranks and shot
then and there in the presence of the regiment, which was again ordered
to advance, and a threat made that a refusal would mean death to all.
All did refuse and were sent to barracks to await sentence. The next
morning the entire regiment with arms and equipment, marched out
and deserted in a body to the insurgents, saying they were willing
to fight the foreign enemies of Spain, but not against their own
friends. The following day another regiment joined them, but I have
no note of its number.
It was now that an event occurred in Manila that showed how little
desire there was amongst the Spaniards to treat the natives with
ordinary justice, much less to conciliate them.
This was the massacre of the Calle de Camba, quite a short distance
from the American Consulate, and it was perpetrated on the 25th and
26th of March. On the first of those day a number of Visayan sailors
from the vessels in the Pasig had assembled in a house in the above
street, which was their usual resort.
Somehow the story got about that an illegal assembly was being held,
and the police, without more ado, attacked the meeting and shot down
a dozen, taking sixty-two prisoners. The next morning the whole of
these prisoners were marched to the cemetery, and all shot, though
many them were known to have been merely passing by at the time.
This is vouched for by Mr. Oscar F. Williams in an official letter
to Mr. Cridler, dated 27th March, 1898. It could hardly have been
a mere coincidence that a revolt of the Visayas broke out about ten
days later, when they made a desperate attack upon the city of Cebú
in which many lives were lost and much property damaged.
It seems hardly worth while to relate any more instances of Tagal
revenge or Spanish brutality. The country that had been almost pacified
was now again in revolt and amongst the insurgents were two battalions
of well-trained and veteran troops.
But now events were impending of transcendent importance--the
Spanish-American War had broken out.
Previously, however, Primo de Rivera left Manila to return to Spain,
but before going he granted an amnesty to all who had tortured
suspected persons to extort evidence from them.
Some of the victims had died under torture rather than bear witness
against their friends, for the Tagal is a Stoic after the manner
of the Red Indian. Others survive, mere wrecks, maimed for life,
and living mementoes of Spanish cruelty.
Torture for extracting evidence from suspected persons is illegal in
all Christian countries and their dependencies, and also in Japan,
but has not yet been entirely routed out in British India nor in
Egypt. In 1897, four cases of police torture in the North-West
Provinces and Oudh, ended in convictions.
In Spain, some police officers are now on their trial for applying
the thumb-screw to the fingers of anarchist prisoners in the Castle
of Monjuich with such severity, that one of them, a railway porter,
lost the use of his hands and arms. And Ysabelo de los Reyes, a native
of Ilocos, declares that he was tortured in the same prison by thirst,
having been fed upon salt food and deprived of water.
Last March (1900), a captain of police was tried at Sambor, in
Austrian Galicia, for torturing prisoners with the thumb-screw
and by deprivation of food, and was sentenced to a long term of
imprisonment. In Corea, China, and Siam, torture forms part of the
legal procedure before sentence, to say nothing of the various
and lingering deaths the judge may order after the prisoner has
confessed. Let us hope that now there will be no more of it in the
Philippines.
CHAPTER XII.
THE AMERICANS IN THE PHILIPPINES.
Manila Bay--The naval battle of Cavite--General
Aguinaldo--Progress of the Tagals--The Tagal Republic--Who
were the aggressors?--Requisites for a settlement--Scenes
of drunkenness--The estates of the religious orders to be
restored--Slow progress of the campaign--Colonel Funston's
gallant exploits--Colonel Stotsenburg's heroic death--General
Antonio Luna's gallant rally of his troops at Macabebe--Reports
manipulated--Imaginary hills and jungles--Want of co-operation
between army and navy--Advice of Sir Andrew Clarke--Naval officers
as administrators--Mr. Whitelaw Reid's denunciations--Senator
Hoar's opinion--Mr. McKinley's speech at Pittsburgh--The false
prophets of the Philippines--Tagal opinion of American Rule--Señor
Mabini's manifesto--Don Macario Adriatico's letter--Foreman's
prophecy--The administration misled--Racial antipathy--The curse
of the Redskins--The recall of General Otis--McArthur calls
for reinforcements--Sixty-five thousand men and forty ships of
war--State of the islands--Aguinaldo on the Taft Commission.
Manila Bay.
The width of the entrance to the vast Bay of Manila is nine and a
half marine miles from shore to shore. It is divided into two unequal
channels by the Island of Corregidor and Pulo Caballo, and a rock
called El Frayle, about a mile and a half from the southern shore,
farther reduces that channel.
The Boca Chica, or northern entrance between Corregidor Island and
Punta Lasisi, is two marine miles wide, and in the middle of the
channel the depth of water is about thirty fathoms.
The Boca Grande, or southern entrance between Pulo Caballo and El
Frayle, is three and a half marine miles wide, with a depth of water
in the fairway of about twenty fathoms.
In both channels the tide rushes in and out with great force.
With channels of such a width there was no difficulty in taking a
squadron in at night, and little chance of suffering damage from the
hastily improvised batteries of the Spaniards.
And it will be evident to all having the slightest knowledge of
submarine mining that the conditions are most unfavourable to defence
by such means. As a matter of fact, the Spaniards possessed only
nine obsolete submarine mines fitted to explode by contact. These
were sent over to Corregidor, but were not sunk, as it was obvious
that they were useless.
On the other hand, it was a perfect position for the employment of
torpedo boats or gunboats, there being excellent anchorage for such
craft on both sides of the Channel and in Corregidor Cove. But at the
time of the declaration of war, the Spaniards had no torpedo boats
in the Philippines. The Elswick-built cruisers Isla de Cuba and Isla
de Luzon were fitted with torpedoes, and might have been watching the
channels for a chance to use them. Admiral Montojo knows best why he
did not detach them on this service.
There was then nothing to prevent the entrance of the American
Squadron; the mines, torpedo boats and narrow channels only existed
in the imagination of some American newspaper correspondents.
But Admiral Dewey's exploit does not need any such enhancing, it
speaks for itself.
To any one having a knowledge of the Spanish navy, and especially
of the squadron of the Philippines, the result of an action against
an American Squadron of similar force could not be doubtful. As a
matter of fact the Spanish ships, except the two small cruisers
built at Elswick in 1887, were quite obsolete. The Castilla and
Reina Cristina were wooden vessels, standing very high out of the
water, and making admirable targets, whilst their guns were small,
some of them had been landed at Corregidor, though never placed in
battery. The boilers of one vessel were in the arsenal.
But even allowing for the fact that the tonnage of the American
Squadron was half as much again as that of the Spaniards, and that
they had more than twice as many, and heavier guns, no one would
have supposed it possible that the Spanish Squadron could have been
completely destroyed without inflicting any damage upon the enemy.
It was indeed a brilliant victory, reflecting great credit upon
Admiral Dewey and the officers and crews of the American ships, not
only for what they did that day, but for their careful preparation
that enabled them to score so decided a success.
The Spanish sailors put up a good fight and showed pluck, but they
had no skill as gunners, and so failed in the hour of their country's
need. Admiral Montojo bravely commanded his fleet, but as soon as
the action was over he seems to have considered that his duty had
terminated, for he returned to his Villa in San Miguel, leaving the
remnants of his squadron and the Cavite arsenal to its fate.
We must infer that Admiral Dewey's victory and its consequences
were not foreseen by the American Government, for they had made no
preparations to send troops to Manila, and from the time they learned
of the destruction of the Spanish Squadron, till they had assembled
a force strong enough to take and hold the city, three weary months
elapsed. This was a very hap-hazard way of making war, and the delay
cost many thousands of lives as will be seen later on.
General Aguinaldo.
On the 19th May, 1898, Don Emilio Aguinaldo, former chief of the
insurgents, arrived in Manila in pursuance of an arrangement with
the American Consul-General at Singapore. He came with a suite of
seventeen persons on board an American gunboat, and after an interview
with Admiral Dewey, was landed at Cavite and given two field-pieces,
a number of rifles and a supply of ammunition.
He soon reasserted himself as the leader of the insurrection, which was
already in active progress, and gained some signal successes against
the Spaniards. On the 24th May he issued a proclamation enjoining his
followers to make war in a civilized manner and to respect property.
I do not intend to discuss the negotiations between Mr. Pratt and
Aguinaldo, nor between the latter and Admiral Dewey. This subject
has been very fully treated by Mr. Foreman in the second edition of
his book. The treating with Aguinaldo was not approved by Mr. Day at
Washington, and the Consul-General and Consuls who had participated
in it, and even taken credit for it, were severely rapped over the
knuckles and promptly adopted an apologetic tone (see Blue Book). But
whatever was the agreement with Aguinaldo, it is evident that had it
not been for his assistance and that of the insurgents, the Spanish
forces could have retired from Manila to Tarlac or other place inland
out of reach of the guns of the fleet and could have prolonged their
resistance for years.
The Tagal Republic.
The Tagals had made much progress since the insurrection of
1896-7. Their ideas had advanced considerably since their rudimentary
organization in the Province of Cavite, as can be gathered from the
improved style of the various proclamations and decrees published
by Aguinaldo.
They now organized a Government, a real Civil Administration, extending
over a great part of Luzon, and sent an expedition to Visayas. They
established a Constitution, a representative government, and reopened
the courts and schools, whilst the native clergy carried on public
worship as usual. Aguinaldo repeatedly asserted the determination
of the Tagal people to fight to the death for independence. At this
time the insurgents held 9000 Spaniards as prisoners of war, and they
claimed to have 30,000 men under arms.
Paymaster Wilcox, U.S.N., and Mr. Leonard R. Sargent who travelled
through part of Luzon for more than 600 miles, and during six weeks,
reported [9] to Admiral Dewey that a regular and orderly Administration
had been established, and was in full working order.
Aguinaldo was at the head of this Government and of the army
co-operating with the American forces by the written request of General
Anderson. This should have ensured him and those with him at the very
least courteous and considerate treatment at the hands of the American
Commanders, and in fact he received this from Admiral Dewey. But as
soon as the direction of affairs passed into the hands of the general
commanding the army the deeply-rooted contempt felt by Americans for
the coloured races was allowed full play, Aguinaldo and his staff
found themselves ignored, or treated with scarcely veiled contempt,
and the estrangement was gradually increased.
I do not know which party was the aggressor on February the 4th, 1899,
each swears that it was the other. The cui bono test cuts both ways,
for whilst it appears that the attack on Manila secured two doubtful
votes in the Senate for the ratification of the Treaty whereby the
Philippines were bought from Spain, on the other hand, Aguinaldo may
have felt it necessary to prove to America that the Philippines would
fight rather than bow their necks to the Yankee yoke. So that both
parties may have had an interest in beginning hostilities. In any case,
the next day Aguinaldo offered to withdraw to a greater distance if an
armistice was arranged, but Otis declared that "fighting must go on."
Personally, I think that if a sympathetic and conciliatory attitude had
been adopted, had the local government established been recognized,
had Aguinaldo and his staff been given commissions in the Native
Army or Civil Service, and the flower of the Tagal Army taken into
the service of the United States, a peaceful settlement could have
been made on the lines of a Protectorate.
I therefore look upon the war as unnecessary, and consider the lives
already sacrificed, and that will have to be sacrificed, as absolutely
thrown away.
The tragical side of American unpreparedness is manifest in the state
of anarchy in which the whole Archipelago has been plunged by the
American unreadiness to occupy the military posts as soon as they were
vacated by the Spanish garrisons. A hideous orgy of murder, plunder,
and slave-raiding has prevailed in Visayas, and especially in Mindanao.
Three conditions were essential to a peaceful settlement:--
First.--A broad-minded and sympathetic representative of America,
fully authorized to treat, and a lover of peace.
Second.--A strict discipline amongst the American forces.
Third.--The principal aim and object of the Tagal insurrection must
be secured.
General Otis does not seem to me to fulfil the first condition,
he lacked prestige and patience, and he showed that he had an
insufficient conception of the magnitude of his task by occupying
himself with petty details of all kinds and by displaying an ill-timed
parsimony. Apparently he had no power to grant anything at all,
and only dealt in vague generalities which the Tagals could not be
expected to accept.
As regards the second point, I regret that I am not personally
acquainted with the gentlemen from Nebraska, Colorado, Dakota and
other states serving in the United States Army or volunteers. I have
no doubt that they are good fighting-men, but from all I can hear
about them they are not conspicuous for strict military discipline,
and too many of them have erroneous ideas as to the most suitable
drink for a tropical climate.
Manila was in the time of the Spaniards a most temperate city; a
drunken man was a very rare sight, and would usually be a foreign
sailor. Since the American occupation, some hundreds of drinking
saloons have been opened, and daily scenes of drunkenness and
debauchery have filled the quiet natives with alarm and horror. When
John L. Motley wrote his scathing denunciation of the army which the
great Duke of Alva led from Spain into the Low Countries, "to enforce
the high religious purposes of Philip II.," not foresee that his
words would be applicable to an American Army sent to subjugate men
struggling to be free "for their welfare, not our gain," nor that this
army, besides bringing in its train a flood of cosmopolitan harlotry,
[10] would be allowed by its commander to inaugurate amongst a strictly
temperate people a mad saturnalia of drunkenness that has scarcely
a parallel.
Such, however, is undoubtedly the case, and I venture to think that
these occurrences have confirmed many of the Tagals in their resolve
rather to die fighting for their independence than to be ruled over
by such as these.
More important still was it to take care that the Tagal insurrection
should not have been in vain. That rebellion probably cost fifty
thousand human lives, immense loss of property, and untold misery. It
was fought against the friars and was at last triumphant. The
Spanish friars had been expelled and their lands confiscated. Were
the Americans to bring them back and guarantee them in peaceable
possession, once more riveting on the chain the Tagals had torn off?
This seems to have been General Otis' intention. I think he might
have stood upon the accomplished fact. But he did not.
The Treaty of Peace under Article VIII. declares that the cession
cannot in any respect impair the rights of ecclesiastical bodies
to acquire and possess property, whilst Article IX. allows Spanish
subjects to remain in the Islands, to sell or dispose of their property
and to carry on their professions. Presumably General Otis felt bound
by the Treaty in which these general stipulations had been embodied
by the Peace Commission, in direct contradiction to the advice
given them by Mr. Foreman (see p. 463, 55th Congress, 3rd Sess.,
Doc. No. 62, part 1), who pointed out the necessity of confiscating
these lands, but Mr. Gray replied: "We have no law which will allow
us to arbitrarily do so."
As soon as the effect of the treaty was known, Archbishop Nozaleda,
who had fled to China from the vengeance he feared, returned to
Manila. He seemed to have a good deal of interest with General Otis,
and this did not please the natives, nor inspire them with confidence.
Furthermore, it was reported and generally believed that the friars'
vast estates had been purchased by an American Syndicate who would
in due time take possession and exploit them.
One can understand the Tagals' grief and desperation; all their blood
and tears shed in vain! The friars triumphant after all!
I do not wish to trace the particulars of the wretched war that
commenced February, 1899, and is still (October, 1900) proceeding.
In it the Americans do not seem to have displayed the resourcefulness
and adaptability one would have expected from them. For my part, I
expected a great deal, for so many American generals being selected
from men in the active exercise of a profession, or perhaps controlling
the administration of some vast business, they ought naturally to
have developed their faculties, by constant use, to a far greater
degree than men who have vegetated in the futile routine of a barrack
or military station. They prevailed in every encounter, but their
advance was very slow, and their troops suffered many preventible
hardships. We know very little as to what happened, for the censors,
acting under instructions from General Otis, prevented the transmission
of accurate information; nothing was cabled, except the accounts of
victories gained by the American troops.
It would not be right, however, to pass over the fighting without
rendering due tribute to the heroism of the American officers and
soldiers.
Who can forget Colonel Funston's gallant exploit in crossing the Rio
Grande on a raft under fire with two companies of Kansas Infantry
and enfilading the Tagals' position? Or his leading part of same
regiment in a charge upon an enemy's earthwork near Santo Tomás,
where he was wounded?
What could be finer than the late Colonel Stotsenburg's leading of the
Nebraska regiment in the attack on Quíngua, where he was killed? And
since we are speaking of brave men, shall we not remember the late
General Antonio Luna and his gallant rally of his army in the advance
from Macabébe, when he fearlessly exposed himself on horseback to
the American fire, riding along the front of his line? To justify
the slow progress of the army, jungles, forests, swamps and hills
were introduced on the perfectly flat arable land such as that around
Malolos, Calumpit, and San Fernando, extending in fact all the way from
Manila to Tarlac. [11] This country supports a dense population, and
almost every bit of it has been under the plough for centuries. The
only hill is Arayat. During the dry season, say from November to
May or June, the soil is baked quite hard, and vehicles or guns can
traverse any part of it with slight assistance from the pioneers. The
only obstacles are the small rivers and creeks, mostly fordable, and
having clumps of bamboos growing on their banks providing a perfect
material for temporary bridges or for making rafts.
The campaign was marked by an absence of co-operation between the land
and sea forces. Admiral Dewey, apparently, was not pleased with the
way things were managed, for he is said to have stayed on board his
ship for months at a time. The warships remained at anchor in Manila
Bay whilst arms [12] and ammunition were landed at the outposts or
on the coasts without hindrance, and it was not till November that
troops were landed at Dagupan, the northern terminus of the railway,
though this obviously ought to have been done in February, so as to
attack the enemy front and rear.
The necessity for small gunboats soon made itself felt, but such
was the jealousy of the army towards the navy that it was decided
that these must be army gunboats, and General Otis is reported to
have purchased thirteen small gunboats at Zamboanga, in March 1899,
without consulting or informing Admiral Dewey or even asking for an
escort for them. It so happened that the Spaniards evacuated Zamboanga
before any American forces arrived, and the insurgents promptly took
possession of the gunboats already paid for and proceeded to plunder
them of everything useful to them. A native account says that they
took the gunboats up the Rio Grande into the interior, but this is
denied by the Americans. Ultimately a cruiser was sent down to convoy
the gunboats, and if I am correctly informed, they were commissioned
in charge of junior naval officers.
Obviously, the services of the navy should have been utilised to the
utmost extent, and advantage should have been taken of the prestige
they had gained by the victory over the Spaniards, and of the great
popularity and sympathetic personality of Admiral Dewey. A serious
responsibility rests upon whoever allowed jealousy to prevent the
co-operation of the land and sea forces, since by failing to secure
this they needlessly sacrificed the lives of American soldiers and
prolonged the war.
Lieut.-General Sir Andrew Clarke, R.E., a former governor of the
Straits Settlements, and the greatest authority in England on the
affairs of the Malay States and Islands, was good enough to write a
letter which was forwarded to Mr. Day, and published in the Blue Book,
p. 628.
He pointed out that, although a moderate military force might be
desirable at one or two important centres, a naval force was of more
value, especially gunboats able to move freely amongst the islands
and ascend the many rivers and inlets of the sea.
Therefore to the fleet and its officers he advised that political
and civil administration of the Philippines should, at least in the
first instance, be entrusted. Sir Andrew believed, and I venture to
say that I thoroughly agree with him, that amongst the officers of
the United States navy, active and retired, can be found many men of
wide experience, broad views, and generous sympathy well fitted to
administer the affairs of the protectorate. Sir Andrew also advised,
as Foreman did, and as I do, that the members of the Religious
Orders, i.e., the Augustinians, the Dominicans, the Franciscans,
and the Recollets, should be advised to return to Spain, receiving
compensation for their property.
Sir Andrew Clarke summed up his advice as follows: "Enlist native
sympathy by fairness and justice, and rule through native agents,
supervised by carefully selected American residents."
As the fleet, by destroying the Spanish squadron, had rendered it
possible to bring troops by sea, and by capturing the arsenal and
blockading the Port of Manila, had invigorated the insurrection,
and in fact had brought about the cession of the islands by Spain,
it would appear to outsiders that it and its officers had a strong
claim to the leading part in completing the settlement and pacification
of the Archipelago for which the best authorities considered them to
possess special qualifications. Besides, if peace was really wanted,
it would have been better to entrust the negotiations to the man
who had had his fight rather than to one looking for his chance. The
craze for military renown is nowhere more rampant than in the United
States. Occasions are few and far between, and we must not expect
generals to throw them away and fly in the face of Providence.
This, however, did not commend itself to those who pull the strings;
we ignore the reasons, but we see the result. Perhaps it was thought
that to allow Dewey to add to his victor's laurel wreath the palm of
the pacificator would be too much honour for one man, and might raise
him to an inconvenient height in the estimation of his fellow citizens.
A year and twenty days after his decisive victory Admiral Dewey sailed
from Manila in his flagship. Wherever the British ensign flew he was
received with every demonstration of honour and respect both by naval
and military officers and by civilians. His reception in New York was
marked by an almost delirious enthusiasm. But long before he arrived,
Mr. Whitelaw Reid, disgusted with the conduct of the campaign, made
a speech at the Miami University and denounced the President for
neglect of duty which brought on the war in the Philippines.
He said: "If the bitterest enemy of the United States had sought to
bring upon it in that quarter the greatest trouble in the shortest
time, he could have devised for that end no policy more successful than
the one we have already pursued." It must be added that Mr. Whitelaw
Reid, perhaps to prevent being accused of having sympathy with the
enemy, denounced Aguinaldo and the Tagals as rebels, savages and
treacherous barbarians, unfit for citizenship or self-government, and
declared that the Philippines belong to America by right of conquest.
I suppose Mr. Whitelaw Reid, or perhaps any citizen of the United
States, has a right to denounce his own President, and certainly
the management of the Philippine annexation has been bad from the
beginning.
But I think Mr. McKinley was badly served by the Peace Commission. They
seem to me to have made many and egregious mistakes.
1. They took General Merritt's opinion that the Tagals would submit,
and accepted Mr. Foreman's assurance of Tagal plasticity and
accommodating nature.
2. They disregarded the intimation of D. Felipe Agoncillo, the
accredited agent of the Tagals, that these would accept no settlement
to which they were not parties.
3. They treated several millions of civilised Christian people like
a herd of cattle to be purchased with the ranch.
4. Under Article VIII., they guaranteed the religious orders the
possession of estates already taken from them.
5. Under Article IX., they gave the expelled friars the right to
return and exercise their profession.
To illustrate their careless procedure, I may add that they did not
even accurately determine the boundaries of the Archipelago to be
ceded, and now, in August 1900, $100,000 is to be paid to Spain for
Sibutu and Cagayan Sulu Islands, left out by mistake. If any man has a
right to say, "Save me from my friends," that man is William McKinley.
As regards Aguinaldo and the Tagals, I think that Mr. Whitelaw Reid's
irritation at their protracted resistance has led him on too far. I
prefer the opinion of Senator Hoar, who, speaking in the Senate of
three proclamations of Aguinaldo, said: "Mr. President, these are
three of the greatest state papers in all history. If they were found
in our own history of our own revolutionary time we should be proud
to have them stand by the side of those great state papers which
Chatham declared were equal to the masterpieces of antiquity."
In the same speech he says, and I commend his words to the reader's
attention: "Mr. President, there is one mode by which the people of
the Philippine Islands could establish the truth of the charges as
to their degradation and incapacity for self-government which have
been made by the advocates of Imperialism in this debate, and that
mode is by submitting tamely and without resistance to the dominion
of the United States."
Mr. Whitelaw Reid, however, was perfectly right in one thing. The
Philippines belong (or will belong) to America by right of conquest. On
August 28th, 1899, Mr. McKinley addressed the 10th Pennsylvania
Regiment at Pittsburgh soon after their arrival from Manila. He
said: "The insurgents struck the first blow. They reciprocated
our kindness with cruelty, our mercy [13] with Mausers.... They
assailed our sovereignty, and there will be no useless parley until
the insurrection is suppressed and American authority acknowledged
and established. The Philippines are ours as much as Louisiana, by
purchase, or Texas, or Alaska." Here we get down to the bed rock,
and discard all flimsy pretences. The Americans have undertaken a war
of conquest, they bought it in fact, but I fear they are not happy
either about its material progress or its moral aspect. We shall have
to wait till November to see what they think about it.
But whenever the cost in lost lives, ruined health, and shattered
minds, to say nothing of dollars, comes to be known, there will be
a great outcry in America.
Mr. McKinley and his advisers are much to be pitied, for they were
misled by the information given them by those they relied on.
The False Prophets of the Philippines.
Here is an extract from General Merritt's evidence taken from the
Blue Book, fifty-sixth congress, third session, document No. 62,
part I, p. 367:
Mr. Reid: Do you think any danger of conflict is now reasonably
remote?
General Merritt: I think there is no danger of conflict as long as
these people think the United States is going to take possession
there. If they imagine or hear from any source that the Spaniards
are to be reinstated there, I think they will be very violent.
Mr. Davis: Suppose the United States, by virtue of a treaty with
Spain, should take Luzon ... paying no attention to the insurgents
--how would that be taken by Aguinaldo?
General Merritt: I think Aguinaldo and his immediate following
would resist it; but whether he could resist to any extent I do not
know, because his forces are divided. I believe that, as matters
go, Aguinaldo will lose more or less of his power there.
The Chairman: If the United States should say, We will take this
country and govern it our own way, do you think they would submit
to it?
General Merritt: Yes, sir.
Mr. Davis: How many troops in your opinion will be necessary to
administer the government of this island--to secure the
administration of our government there?
General Merritt: From 20,000 to 25,000 would be requisite at first.
I admire the conviction of this distinguished officer that the benefits
of American rule would be highly appreciated by the Tagals, of whom,
by-the-bye, he knew next to nothing, having only been a few weeks in
Manila amongst sycophantic Mestizo-Americanistas.
That interesting people were, however, of a different opinion. On
p. 4582 of the 'Congressional Record,' I find that Señor Mabini, in
a manifesto published at San Isidro, April 15th, 1899, states that
"race hatred is much more cruel and pitiless among the Anglo-Saxons"
(he is comparing them with the Spaniards). Again he says, "Annexation,
in whatever form it may be adopted, will unite us for ever to a nation
whose manners and customs are different from our own, a nation which
hates the coloured race with a mortal hatred, and from which we could
never separate ourselves except by war." The outbreaks against the
negroes that have recently happened [August, 1900] in New Orleans,
Liberty City, Georgia, and in New York, seem to justify Señor Mabini's
remarks.
Don Macario Adriatico, in an answer to a message of General Miller,
writing from Jaro, January 3rd, 1900, says: "It could easily be
conceived that the Philippines would not suffer a new reign, least of
all of a nation on whose conscience the curse of the Redskins rests
as a heavy load."
In other documents they refer to the probable action of the Trusts,
and anticipate that, what with the Sugar Trust, the Tobacco Trust,
and the Hemp Trust, they would soon find themselves reduced to the
condition of porters and workmen, or even of domestic servants.
They seem to have an intelligent anticipation of what will probably
befall them when conquered, and hence their desperate resistance to
a large American army.
But let us now turn up the evidence of another expert on the
Philippines, Mr. John Foreman, who also ventured to prophesy what
the Tagals would do (Blue Book, before mentioned, p. 443).
Mr. Foreman (answering Mr. Day): "The Tagals are of a very
plastic nature, willing in their nature (sic), I should say, to
accommodate themselves and take up any new established dominion
which might be decided upon, and I think they would fall into
any new system adopted.
"The inhabitants of the Central Islands or Visayas are more
uncouth, decidedly less hospitable, and somewhat more averse
to associations and relations with outsiders than the Tagals,
but I think they would easily come under sway. They want a little
more pressure and would have to be guided, more closely watched,
and perhaps a little more of the iron hand used than in Luzon."
Thus was the administration in Washington misled, and it is probable
that the American military chiefs reported that they could easily
overcome all opposition, so they were allowed to try.
Yet in June, 1900, we read, "The recall of General Otis is taken
to mean that the administration considers the war to be at an end,
and that there is no longer any necessity for military rule."
General McArthur is appointed to the command, however, and the first
thing he does is to cable to Washington for more troops, whilst Admiral
Remey asks for an extra battalion of marines. These are to be sent,
also at least three regiments of infantry. Sixty-five thousand men
and forty ships of war are now admitted to be the proper garrison to
hold down the Philippines.
However necessary reinforcements may be, so deep is the racial
antipathy between the United States' soldiers, white or black,
and the natives, that every additional man sent out is a source of
disaffection, and even exasperation. Not only will the volunteers
become demoralised and diseased in mind and body by their sojourn in
America's new possession, but the very fact of their presence renders
the pacification of the country more difficult. The more troops are
kept there, the more discontented the natives will be.
To bring this chapter up to date, the position seems to be as follows:
There is a recrudescence of activity amongst the insurgents; fighting
is going on over a great part of the Archipelago, the American troops
are harassed and overworked, sickness is rife, including the bubonic
plague; yet, notwithstanding all this, the Taft Commission has taken
over the administration of the islands from September 1st.
The date fixed is not a convenient one for the Commission, as it is
in the middle of the rainy season, but it has probably been selected
to suit the presidential campaign in America.
Aguinaldo has issued a proclamation warning the Filipinos against the
Taft Commission, which, he says, has no authority from Congress; does
not represent the sentiments of the American people, and is simply the
personal instrument of Mr. McKinley sent out to make promises which
it has no power to keep, and which the United States Government will
not be bound to observe. He denounces the Americanistas, and threatens
condign punishment to all who accept offices under the Commission. It
would appear that a settlement on present lines is still some way off.
Judge Taft seems to have inherited the cheerful optimism of General
Otis. On September 1st he reported that the insurrection is virtually
ended, and on 20th forwarded another favourable report. On 21st,
General McArthur cabled accounts of engagements in several provinces
of Luzon. The American troops at Pekin are being hurried to Manila,
as the reinforcement of General McArthur is absolutely imperative.
CHAPTER XIII.
NATIVE ADMIRATION FOR AMERICA.
Their fears of a corrupt government--The islands might be an
earthly paradise--Wanted, the man--Rajah Brooke--Sir Andrew
Clarke--Hugh Clifford--John Nicholson--Charles Gordon--Evelyn
Baring--Mistakes of the Peace Commission--Government should be a
protectorate--Fighting men should be made governors--What might
have been--The Malay race--Senator Hoar's speech--Four years'
slaughter of the Tagals.
Not a few of the natives in arms were, and still are, sincere admirers
of the true greatness of the United States. The noble deeds and words
of America's great men attain the summit of human grandeur in their
fervid imaginations.
The statesmen and the historians of the great Republic receive their
tribute of praise from Filipino lips.
The names of Washington, Lincoln, Prescott, Motley, are known and
honoured by them. Were the natives treated according to the immortal
principles of right and justice laid down or praised by such as
these, they would welcome the tutelage, and, in fact, all Asia might
envy them.
But they will never consent to become the prey of the politician,
the boss, the monopolist, and the carpet-bagger, and from these they
must be assured of protection before they will submit.
What confidence can they have in a form of government under which
the tariffs on their great staples will be made in the interests of
their American competitors.
Under such a system, and with a pension list steadily growing by
millions of dollars year by year, their comfortable competence would,
in a few years, be reduced to the hideous poverty of over-taxed
British India.
Having passed so many years amongst this people, I may be expected
to give some opinion as to whether the Philippines can be governed
by America.
The islands were badly governed by Spain, yet Spaniards and natives
lived together in great harmony, and I do not know where I could
find a colony in which the Europeans mixed as much socially with
the natives. Not in Java, where a native of position must dismount
to salute the humblest Dutchman. Not in British India, where the
Englishwoman has now made the gulf between British and native into
a bottomless pit.
It will be difficult for the Americans to avoid this social ostracism
of the natives, and in this respect they are not likely to do as well
as the Spaniards, being less tolerant.
As regards the administration of the government, no doubt great
improvements can be made; but I abstain from prophecy, remembering
Merritt's and Foreman's want of success in that line. There is
certainly a wonderful opportunity to show the world how to govern a
tropical protectorate or dependency.
So rich a country with so intelligent and industrious a population
only requires good guidance to make it an earthly paradise. But
the guidance should be given by the gentle hand of an elder sister,
and not by the boot of a frontier ruffian.
Much as our officials praise the administration of the Indian
Empire, I think it quite possible with a few years of disinterested
tutelage to weld the Philippines into a nation, more united, freer,
happier, richer and better educated, than the finest state in that
vast possession. What is wanted is The Man, no stubborn and tactless
general "spoiling for a fight," harsh, peremptory, overbearing, but
a civilian of the highest rank, or a naval officer, one of America's
very best, full of sympathy, tact and patience, yet firm as Stonewall
Jackson. He must have a gracious presence, and "magnetism" in the
highest degree, for he must rule by personal influence, by inspiring
confidence and affection.
Not otherwise did Rajah Brooke obtain his election to the sovereignty
of Sarawak; Sir Andrew Clarke pacify the Malay Peninsula; nor is it
otherwise that Hugh Clifford is leading the Malays of North Borneo
to peaceful pursuits.
The man, when found, must be invested with absolute power, and be
backed up by all the forces of the Republic.
The British Government gave America an example of what to avoid
when it sacrificed Governor Eyre, of Jamaica, to a shrieking gang
of pseudo-philanthropists, when, in a great emergency, whilst the
honour of white women and the lives of men were at the mercy of a mob
of negroes, he omitted some legal technicality before hanging one of
the cowardly instigators.
However, I do not think America will go back on her sons like that.
Great Britain has produced some men who could have taken up the
burden of the Philippines. It happens that the three I shall cite
were all soldiers, but their extraordinary magnetic qualities by no
means proceeded from their profession.
The God-like man who died at Delhi, the beloved of John Lawrence,
would have made an ideal ruler: the people would have worshipped him.
The hero who died at Khartoum could have ruled the Philippines,
or any Asiatic or African country, and the people would have loved him.
To quote one who is still with us, Lord Cromer has coped with
difficulties of a different kind, yet, perhaps, as great as those of
the Philippines, and in a few years has changed the face of the land of
Pharaoh, and lightened the lot of millions. This has been done by the
assistance of a few engineers, administrators, judges and soldiers. He
and all of them have displayed the most unfailing tact and patience,
indomitable courage and fortitude, and each has put honour and duty
before all. Men like John Nicholson, Charles Gordon and Evelyn Baring,
are rare, but their peers doubtless exist amongst Americans of the good
old colonial stock, and it is the President's business to find them,
and send them out to protect and govern America's great dependency.
America has, I suppose, taken these islands from Spain to save them
from the ruthless [14] Teuton, and to show the world that she can
do for the Philippines what we have done for Egypt. Unfortunately,
she began wrong by treating with Spain, and buying the islands,
as if the natives were cattle on a ranch.
Then the Peace Committee went wrong over the estates of the Religious
Orders, as before explained.
In my opinion, the form of government should be a protectorate,
varying in character with the civilisation of the different islands,
the executive functions being in the hands of the natives whenever
possible, but under inspection to prevent abuses. On this basis peace
could, I think, be made, and then America should remember that the
most worthy of the natives are precisely those who have been in arms
for their freedom. Their chiefs (with one or two exceptions), are the
men who should be appointed to govern provinces, and the fighting-men
enrolled in the native army.
No offices of government should be given to the so-called
Americanistas, who are mostly people who need not be taken into
account, and whose support is worth nothing. They will go on with
their pettifogging and their pawnbroking, and that is enough reward
for them. They are Americanistas because they cannot help themselves,
and not from any attachment to American ways. Formerly the Spaniards
protected them; now the American bayonets stand between them and the
Tagal bolos.
Without this, well they know that what happened to the mulattos in
Hayti would surely happen to them sooner or later--perhaps sooner.
It is, indeed, sad to see what is, and to think what might have been
accomplished by a little patience, a little forbearance, a tinge of
sympathy, for a gallant people struggling for freedom and light. But
no patience was vouchsafed to them, no forbearance was shown them,
nor can I discover in what has been done the faintest sign of sympathy
for them.
Yet the Malay race can claim to have enlisted the sympathies of
some not undistinguished men. Rajah Brooke, Spenser St. John, Hugh
Clifford, Professor Blumentritt, Louis Becke, Joseph Conrad--the
names that first occur to me--have all confessed to an affection for
them. The old Spanish conquerors speak of their dignified courtesy
and gentle manners.
There are, however, in America, generous souls who can judge
the Tagals fairly and even indulgently. I do not allude to those
who raise a clamour to discredit the administration for political
purposes, but to the noble, eloquent, and truly patriotic speech,
inspired in the best traditions of the United States, delivered by
Mr. Hoar in the Senate on April 17th. I hope that touching appeal to
the national conscience will bear fruit, and that, by the exercise
of true statesmanship, an end may be put to this dreadful war, and
a pacification effected satisfactory to Filipinos and Americans.
For four long years, slaughter and destruction have ravaged one of
the fairest lands on earth, converting what might be a paradise into
a pandemonium.
What evils have these poor Tagals not suffered in that time? Arbitrary
imprisonment, torture, confiscation of property, banishment to
unhealthy places, military executions, bombardments, the storming and
burning of towns, indiscriminate slaughter, and the bubonic plague,
added to the calamities they are always exposed to--volcanic eruptions,
floods, earthquakes, typhoons, locusts, epidemics.
Famine seems to be the only calamity they have been free from, but
even that may not be far distant.
CHAPTER XIV.
RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES.
At the Spanish conquest--Rice--the lowest use the land
can be put to--How the Americans are misled--Substitutes
for rice--Wheat formerly grown--Tobacco--Compañia
General de Tabacos--Abacá--Practically a monopoly of the
Philippines--Sugar--Coffee--Cacao--Indigo--Cocoa-nut oil--Rafts of
nuts--Copra--True localities for cocoa palm groves--Summary--More
sanguine forecasts--Common-sense view.
Agricultural.
The great wealth of the Archipelago is undoubtedly to be found in
the development of its agriculture. Although the Central and Ilocan
Mountains in Luzon and parts of Mindanao are rich in gold, it is the
fertile land, the heavy rainfall and the solar heat, that must be
utilized to permanently enrich the country. The land is there and the
labour is there, and all that is wanting is capital, and a settled
government that will make roads and bridges and keep them in repair,
clear the rivers of obstructions and improve the ports, and above
all, establish and maintain some tolerable courts of justice. The
sun, the rain, the soil, and the hardy Philippine farmer will do the
rest--a population equal to that of Java could live in affluence in
the Philippines.
The agriculture of the Philippines at the time of the first arrival
of the Spaniards consisted mainly in the cultivation of rice. It is to
the Spaniards that the natives owe the introduction of maize, coffee,
cacao, sesame, tobacco, the indigo plant, the sweet potato, and many
fruits. They also imported horses, horned cattle, and sheep. But
the great development of the cultivation of sugar and hemp is almost
entirely due to British capital, with some assistance from Americans.
The natives probably learned from the Chinese how to terrace the
hillsides and the sloping lands, and how to erect the pilápiles, or
small dykes, for retaining the rain. At that time, and for centuries
after, taxes were paid in paddy as they have been in Japan until
quite recently.
Under the heading "Tagals," a description is given of the planting
of paddy, and an illustration shows the aspect of a newly-planted
paddy-field or tubigan. Mountain rice-lands are called bacores or
dalatanes. The cutting and harvesting of paddy is paid for in kind,
sometimes in Camarines Sur, a third of the crop is given for getting
it in, but in the province of Manila it is cultivated in equal shares
to the farmer and the owner of the land.
By looking at the illustration it will be seen that, the fields
being divided into such small patches of irregular shapes at
different levels, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to use a
reaping-machine. I have elsewhere given the reasons for my opinion
that the cultivation of rice is the lowest use that the land and
the husbandmen can be put to, and whenever the cultivation is given
up, it is probably an indication that the cultivators are raising
some more profitable crop, and earning money by exporting valuable
produce, wherewith to import rice from countries in a lower stage
of civilisation.
This is most certainly the case in the Philippines, and year by year,
as the exports of hemp, sugar and tobacco have increased, the imports
of rice from Saigon and Rangoon have risen correspondingly. And yet the
United States' Department of Agriculture, issued in the latter part of
1899 a circular with the title,'Plant Products of the Philippines,'
[15] which, amongst other inaccurate appreciations, says: "It seems
strange that an almost exclusively agricultural country should not
produce enough food for its own population, but such is at present the
case with regard to the Philippines." It proceeds to say that in some
years the value of rice imported into Manila from Saigon was valued
at $2,000,000. But I would point out to the author of that circular
that the export of the three great staples of the Philippines in
those years averaged, perhaps, $30,000,000, and this, evidently,
could not have been accomplished if they had cultivated their own rice.
The Spaniards sometimes raised this same groundless clamour, and,
perhaps, the author of the circular took it from them; but I look
upon it as a great mistake arising from insufficient knowledge of
the subject. The rice imported into Manila is largely shipped to the
tobacco and hemp provinces, Cagayan and Albay, where the people are
exclusively employed in the cultivation and preparation of those
valuable products, and are far richer, and on a higher grade of
civilisation than the rice-growers of Cochin China.
In the Philippines themselves, the people of the rice-growing districts
are the poorest and most backward of all.
Besides paddy, the natives cultivate the dava or míjo (Panicum
miliaceum), the mongo, a species of lentil (Phaseolus mungo), called
in some provinces balat or balatong, for their own consumption.
When rice is dear, they mix a certain amount of maize with it, and
when it is really scarce they eat the seeds of the sorghum (Holcus
saccharatus) instead of it. They also make an infusion of these seeds,
which is not unlike barley-water. The camote (Impomoea batata) is
the principal food of the more uncivilised tribes.
All the natives find a great resource in the banana, which the Tagals
called saguin. The following varieties are excellent: Bungulan,
Lacatan, Ternate, and Tindoc.
Wheat was formerly grown in northern Luzon. The late Archbishop
of Manila, Fray Pedro Payo, informed me that, when he was a parish
priest years ago, he always ate bread made from Philippine flour,
which he thought far better and safer than the Californian flour that
had superseded it.
Tobacco is an important crop in the Philippines, and from the year
1781 was cultivated in Cagayan as a government monopoly. In the
villages of that province the people were called out by beat of drum
and marched to the fields under the gobernadorcillo and principales,
who were responsible for the careful ploughing, planting, weeding,
and tending, the work being overlooked by Spanish officials. Premiums
were paid to these and to the gobernadorcillos, and fines or floggings
were administered in default. The native officials carried canes,
which they freely applied to those who shirked their work.
In another part of the book I have referred to the series of abuses
committed under the monopoly: how the wretched cultivators had to
bribe the officials in charge of the scales to allow them the true
weight, and the one who classified the leaves, so that he should
not reject them as rubbish and order them to be destroyed; in fact,
they had to tip every official in whose power it was to do them any
injustice. Finally, they received orders on the treasury for the
value of their tobacco, which were not paid for months, or, perhaps,
for years. They sometimes had to sell their orders for 50 percent of
the face value, or even less.
However, even the Spanish official conscience can be aroused, and at
the end of 1882 the monopoly was abolished.
Here it is only right to honourably mention a Spanish gentleman to
whom the natives of the Cagayan Valley in a great measure owe their
freedom. Don Jose Jimenez Agius was Intendente General de Hacienda,
and he laboured for years to bring about this reform, impressed
with the cruelty and injustice of this worst form of slavery. The
Cagayanes were prohibited from growing rice, but were allowed as
an indulgence to plant a row or two of maize around their carefully
tilled tobacco-fields.
Possibly this circumstance has led the author of the circular I have
before quoted to make the extraordinary statement: "Tobacco, as a
cultivated crop, is generally grown in the same field as maize." Does
he think it grows wild anywhere?
In 1883, the "Compañia General de Tabacos de Filipinas" was established
in the islands, the capital being raised in Paris and Barcelona.
This Company has been under very capable management; the technical
department being overlooked by M. Armand Villemer, a French engineer
of great ability and experience. The Company has done a great deal
to improve the cultivation of the plant and the preparation of the
leaf. They run light draught paddle-steamers and barges on the Cagayan
River, and sea-going screw-steamers from Aparri to Manila.
Their estates are mentioned under the heading "Cagayanes."
Besides the Cagayan Valley, the following Provinces produce tobacco
in considerable quantities.
In Luzon, the Ilocos North and South, Abra, Union, Nueva Ecija. Also
Masbate, Ticao, and most of the Visayas Islands. The Igorrote also
raise a considerable quantity.
The quantity of tobacco and cigars exported since 1888 is given in
the Appendix; and, seeing the enormous extent of land still available
in the Cagayan Valley, there can be no doubt that the production can
be very largely increased as the demand grows.
The export of leaf tobacco from Manila, the only shipping port, has
increased from 204,592 quintals in 1888, to 287,161 quintals in 1897,
and during the same period the export of cigars has increased from
109,109 mil to 171,410 mil.
The cultivation of the Musa textilis is almost a monopoly of the
Philippines, and, indeed, of certain parts of them.
Volcanic soil, a certain elevation above the sea, and exposure to
the breezes of the Pacific, a bright sun and an ample rainfall,
seem necessary to the production of a fine quality of this fibre.
Several attempts have been made to produce this fibre elsewhere; the
Government of British India sent a gentleman to Manila to study the
question. He wrote a report, but I have never heard that any abacá
was produced.
The plant was said to grow wild all along the Sarawak rivers; but
here again some mistake must have been made, for nothing seems to
have come of it.
There is, in fact, nothing so far to compete with it, and there
is an immense and growing market. The price has lately fluctuated
enormously, and I do not intend to prophesy what profits might be
made in planting it.
In 1897, no less than 915,338 bales were exported, about 114,400
tons, and if we take the average price at that time as $15 per bale,
we get a sum of over $13,730,000 as the value of that year's export,
the largest in quantity, but not in value.
The export of hemp has been almost entirely developed by British and
American enterprise, and dates from very recent times.
The spread of the sugar-cane cultivation in the Philippines from the
year 1870 was rapid, and is in great measure due to the advances
made by British and American houses to the planters. It was for
many years a most profitable business, and this is proved by the
large and handsome houses of the planters in the towns of the sugar
districts. The continual increase of the beet sugar production, however
brought down prices to such an extent as to reduce the profits below
the heavy interest paid on loans or advances. But it seems now that
bottom has been reached, and that rising prices and more economical
methods of financing and of manufacturing will give the planters a
fresh start. Those who know what has been and is being done by central
sugar factories in Cuba, will not doubt the possibility of doing
better in the Philippines, where labour is cheaper and is on the spot.
Under the headings Pampangos, Pangasinanes, and Visayas, will be found
many interesting particulars of the working of sugar plantations in
these provinces.
In 1893, the export of sugar amounted to 260,000 tons; since then it
has declined, but in 1897 it still amounted to close on 200,000 tons.
The export of coffee has almost entirely ceased, and the cause is
ascribed to the ravages of an insect which destroys the bushes. Lipa,
in Batangas province, was the great coffee centre, and became one
of the richest towns in Luzon. Notwithstanding this prosperity, the
plantations were never cultivated with proper care. Weeding was much
neglected. In 1888, the export reached 107,236 piculs, but in 1897
it had fallen to 2111 piculs.
There is an opening for coffee-planting on many of the elevated
plateaux of the islands, and capital with skill ought to find its
reward.
The Moros of Lake Lanao export a certain quantity of coffee of
indifferent appearance but excellent flavour.
Cacao grows well in many parts of the Archipelago, but I have never
seen any large plantations of it. A few trees may be seen in the
gardens of old houses, but they must be protected from insects and
rats, and require looking after.
The quantity raised in the islands is not sufficient to supply the
home demand, so that cacao beans are imported from Venezuela and
chocolate from Spain.
It is a risky business to plant cacao in the northern Philippines;
the trees are delicate and suffer from the typhoons. And the produce
is so valuable that, unless watched at night or protected in some way,
the cones may when nearly ripe be carried away by thieves.
In Palawan, where the typhoons do not ravage, I have seen cacao trees
30 feet high, with an abundant crop.
The plant from which indigo is elaborated was cultivated in former
years to a considerable extent in some provinces, notably the Ilocos,
but the export trade was destroyed by the adulterations of the Chinese.
In 1895, 6672 quintals were exported from Manila, but only 462 quintals
in 1896. Ten specimens of Ilocos indigo were shown at the Madrid
Exhibition of 1887, and the price varied from $12 to $67 per quintal.
For home use the dye is sold in a liquid form, contained in large
earthen jars called tinajas. It is known as Tintarron.
Sesame and other oil-giving seeds are cultivated to a small extent
in several provinces, but neither the seed nor the oil figure in the
list of exports.
The cocoa-nut palm grows in most of the lowlands of the Philippines,
except in the North of Luzon. In suitable soil it grows to the very
edge of the sea, as in the Cuyos Islands, In the provinces of Laguna
and Tayabas there are large numbers of these trees and a lively
business is carried on in making oil from nuts or in sending them to
Manila for the market or for shipment.
When large quantities are to be sent, they are formed into rafts in
a very ingenious manner, each nut being attached by a strip of its
own fibre without any rope being required.
These rafts are sometimes a hundred feet long and ten or twelve feet
wide, and are navigated across the lake and down the Pasig. Finally
they are brought alongside a steamer, the nuts are cut adrift and
thrown into the hold through the cargo ports.
The nuts that are to be used for making oil are stripped of their
husks and cut in halves. They then pass to a workman who is provided
with an apparatus called a Cutcuran. This is mounted upon a trestle
and consists of a revolving shaft of hard polished wood, carrying
on its overhanging end an iron disc about three inches in diameter
having teeth like the rowel of a spur.
This is set edgeways in a slot in the shaft. On each side of the
trestle near the ground is a treadle; from one of these a cotton
cord passes over the shaft taking a round turn and is made fast
to the other treadle. The operator sits astride the trestle with a
foot on each treadle. By working them alternately he produces a rapid
revolution of the shaft in alternate directions, and the cutting disc
being double-edged it cuts both ways. By holding a half nut against
the revolving cutter he in a few seconds rasps out every particle of
the nut which falls upon a tray in fine shreds.
The shredded material is then heated in a cast-iron pan over a slow
fire, and whilst hot is filled into bags of strong material which
are placed in the press.
This is constructed entirely of hard wood, and the pressure is obtained
by driving wedges with a heavy mallet.
The system is primitive, but all the apparatus is practical and
very cheap.
D. Carlos Almeida of Biñan stated to me in 1890 that 400 large
cocoa-nuts gave by this process one tinaja or jar of oil, equivalent
to 10½ English gallons, which was then worth on the spot six Mexican
dollars. It is sold in Manila. At this time cocoa-nuts were sold in
Santa Cruz, the capital of the Laguna, for about $15 per thousand. The
oil cake was used either to feed pigs or as a manure about the roots
of coffee-plants. The owner of cocoa-palm groves in Luzon or Visayas
lives in anxiety during several months of each year, for should
the vortex of a typhoon pass over or near his plantation, a large
proportion of his trees may be destroyed.
The true locality for such plantations is in the southern and western
parts of Mindanao and Palawan, to the south of a line drawn from
the northern point of Mindanao to Busuánga Island in the Calamianes,
preferring the most sheltered spots.
In this region the danger from typhoons is inconsiderable, and the
trees flourish exceedingly. I have been shown trees in bearing at
Puerta Princesa which I was assured were only three years old. I
saw older trees bearing immense bunches of nuts, too many to count,
and it seemed wonderful to see a slender trunk bearing aloft sixty
feet in the air so heavy a load. From fifty to one hundred trees
can be planted on an acre according to the space allowed to each,
and when in full bearing after six or seven years each tree might
give eighty nuts in a year. The crop goes on all the year round.
Copra is prepared from the nuts either by drying the whole nut under
cover in the shade, allowing the water to become absorbed and then
breaking up the kernel for bagging, or else by breaking it up first
of all and drying it in the sun.
In the first case a large airy shed is required, and the process takes
three months. In the latter case three days of sunshine will suffice,
but the kernels must be protected from the dew at night and from any
chance shower of rain. Artificial heat does not produce good copra,
and besides is expensive to apply.
Making copra is one of the most paying enterprises in the Philippines,
but it requires capital to be laid out several years beforehand,
unless a plantation can be bought to start with.
Previous to 1890, the quantity of copra exported was so small that
no record was kept of it. In that year 74,447 piculs were exported,
and the trade has gone up by leaps and bounds, so that in 1897 no
less than 811,440 piculs were sent out, over fifty thousand tons.
The present position of agriculture seems to be that there are in
the Philippines somewhere about six millions of civilised Christian
people tilling eight million acres of land, and exporting some thirty
million dollars' worth of produce each year. They also raise a large
quantity of food-stuffs for their own consumption, but import perhaps
a couple of million dollars' worth of rice because it is cheaper to
buy it than to grow it, as we in England import wheat for the same
reason. The area of land under cultivation is computed at one-ninth
of the total area of the islands.
The author of the circular Plant Products of the Philippines, to
which I have before referred, makes the following remarks: "In view of
the natural fertility of the soil and the vast extent of these rich
lands not yet under cultivation, it is safely assumed that the total
agricultural production of the islands could be increased tenfold."
This gentleman seems to be of a sanguine disposition, and he reminds
me rather of Oscar F. Williams' cheerful optimism. But in one way he
is more cautious than that gentleman. He does not fix a time for his
prophecy to be accomplished.
I would point out, however, that in the seventy-five million acres
comprised in the islands there are volcanic cones, peaks of basalt,
stony plains, unexplored regions, swamps and other undesirable
localities for establishing farms or plantations, and that some of the
good lands are held by warlike tribes who would resent any intrusion
into their domains.
There are, it is true, great tracts of land in Mindanao and Palawan,
and no doubt in time they will come under cultivation.
Taking everything into consideration, I hold to my view that with
peace, honest government and a good Vagrancy law, the export of
produce might be doubled in twenty years if capital is forthcoming in
sufficient amount. The land is worth nothing without the husbandmen,
and it will take the Philippines a long time to recover from the
devastating effects of the insurrection of 1896-7 and the American
war of subjugation.
CHAPTER XV.
FORESTAL.
Value exaggerated--Difficulties of labour and transport--Special
sawing machinery required--Market for timber in the islands--Teak
not found--Jungle produce--Warning to investors in companies--Gutta
percha.
During the three and a quarter centuries the Spaniards have held the
Philippines, the forests of Luzon have supplied enormous quantities
of the finest timber for building houses, churches, convents, bridges,
warships, lighters and canoes. No care has ever been taken to replant,
and the consequence is that at this day long logs of many kinds most
wanted are not obtainable, all the large trees of valuable timber have
long ago been cut, and only in the most distant and least accessible
places are any worth having to be found.
The greatest nonsense is talked about the value of the Philippine
forests, but in fact it is only in the fever-stricken Island of
Mindoro, and in certain parts of Palawan and Mindanao, that any large
and valuable trees can be found.
Labour is a great difficulty; wood-cutters are scarce, and they are a
wild, unruly lot; only men inured to such a rough life can resist the
malaria of the woods, and even they are occasionally down with fever.
Chinamen would not venture into the forests, and only the natives
of each district are available, as they do not care to go far from
their houses. In order to engage them it is necessary to make them
advances of money which it will seldom be possible to recover. A good
deal of tact is required in dealing with the cutters, they are very
independent and will not put up with abuse. A considerable capital
is required to give advances to, and feed these men, also for buying
buffaloes, which die unless good care is taken of them.
If a cutter can be found who has buffaloes of his own, it is better
to hire them with him, as then they are sure to be taken care of.
The dragging the large logs to a river or port can only be done by
teams of buffaloes. The conditions prevailing prevent the employment
of chutes, wire ropes and winding engines, or tram-lines.
The valuable trees do not grow together in numbers as in the forests
of California and Oregon, but are found at considerable distances
from each other. It is therefore only possible to commence the use
of mechanical conveyance at the spot where the logs can be assembled
by animal labour. Even so, the number of logs from any district will
be so small that it will hardly pay to lay down a tramway.
The logs are squared in the woods and the butt ends are rounded like
the runners of a sleigh, two holes are chopped at the top corners
with a small adze called a palacol, through which rattans are passed
for the buffaloes to be yoked to. They are then dragged down to the
river or sea. The wood is too heavy to float, and bundles of bamboos
are attached to it to give it buoyancy.
The idea of putting up saw-mills in the forests is absurd--for the
reason given above.
The wood is very hard and tough, and specially made machinery is
required to work it.
The framing must be heavier, the feed lighter, and the teeth of
the saws much smaller and with less set. I have had some excellent
machinery and saws specially made in England for this purpose, by
Thomas Robinson & Son of Rochdale, but I sent home logs of the woods
required to be worked, for the saws, planers, and moulding cutters
to be made to suit. The ordinary sawing machinery as shown in trade
catalogues would be of no use at all.
The whole business is extremely risky, it requires a manager, immune
to jungle fever, a man of great vigour yet patient and tactful. Such a
man, understanding the native ways, would probably succeed after years
of hard and dangerous work; but I warn any one thinking of taking up
this business that in Luzon valuable trees are few and far between,
and distant from port or river, whilst in other islands where there
are timber trees they stand there because no one could ever be induced
to go and cut them.
As for exporting these timbers to the United States or other places,
there is no need to do that, for demand for timber in Manila and other
towns is greater than the supply, and iron construction is increasing
in consequence.
Oregon or Norway pine is of no use for building purposes in the
Philippines, for it would be devoured within a year or two by the anay
(white ants). I am told, however, that in spite of warnings the United
States military authorities have constructed stables and storehouses
of this timber.
I think it quite useless to mention the names of the different
Philippine timbers, as those who take an interest in them can purchase
the 'Manual de Maderero' (Wood-cutters' Manual) and obtain all the
information they require from it.
Molave is the most important, being proof against the white ants,
and almost imperishable. Ypil and yacal are splendid woods for large
roofs. They can be obtained long enough for tie-beams, even for wide
spans, and excellent roof-frames can be made by bolting them together.
On the Zambales mountains and in Benguet and Lepanto there are
forests of coniferæ. When the Manila-Dagupan Railway was being
built, I had some sample sleepers brought down from thence. They
were quite suitable, but could only be used if thoroughly creosoted,
as otherwise they would merely provide food for the white ants. As
there are no gasworks in the Islands, creosote could not be produced,
nor would it pay to import it from Hong Kong or elsewhere on account
of the freight and duties.
There is no market in the islands for pine and no one cuts the
trees. They are not of great size. The Igorrotes burn them to clear
the land for planting.
True ebony is not found in the forests, but a very handsome and heavy
wood, called Camagon, is the nearest approach to it, being dark-brown
nearly black, streaked with bright yellow. It is found of larger size
than ebony and is sold by the pound.
Teak has often been reported to exist and samples of the alleged
teak have been shown to me. On comparing them with teak from
Rangoon a considerable difference was noted and the characteristic
odour was absent. My own impression is that there is no teak in
the Philippines. I have paid two dollars a cubic foot for teak in
Manila and if there was any to be had, this price would, I think,
have fetched it out.
As for such jungle produce as gum-damar, canes, and rattans, if the
reader will refer to my remarks on Palawan he will see that the most
valuable products are mostly worked out, and that in any case this
is not white man's business.
There is, however, one branch that, in view of increasing scarcity
and rising price, should be carefully looked after by the Philippine
Administration; I refer to the collection of gutta-percha in
Mindanao. This caused quite a boom for a short time, but as usual
the Chinamen got hold of the stuff and mixed it with various kinds
of rubbish, so that it was soon discredited in the European market.
An official of high-standing might be appointed to the double office of
Protector of the Natives, and Conservator of the Forests in Mindanao,
and rules for collecting the gutta without destroying the trees should
be prepared and enforced by personal visits from the conservator and
his deputies, to whom all the gutta should be handed, being paid for
in cash. This would probably yield a large revenue to the Government
and greatly benefit the natives, for they might receive half the value
of the gutta instead of the minute fraction the Chinese now give them.
The reader who has perused the previous remarks will no longer be
liable to be caught by tales of the fabulous riches of the Philippine
forests. And, above all, he should keep clear of any companies that
may be formed to exploit them. Energetic and tactful individuals may
succeed, but the success will be due to personal qualities, and will
be contemporaneous with that gifted party and disappear with him. This
is what happened to the "Laguimanoc Saw Mills and Timber Company"
as soon as the founder left.
A large proportion of the jungle produce of Mindanao, Palawan, and
the smaller Southern Islands is smuggled away by the Chinese traders
to Sandakan or Singapore.
All that appears in the Table of Exports is two or three hundred tons
of gum copal shipped each year from Manila.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE MINERALS.
Gold: Dampier--Pigafetta--De Comyn--Placers in
Luzon--Gapan--River Agno--The Igorrotes--Auriferous
quartz from Antaniae--Capunga--Pangutantan--Goldpits at
Suyuc--Atimonan--Paracale--Mambulao--Mount Labo--Surigao--River
Siga--Gigaquil, Caninon-Binutong, and Cansostral
Mountains--Misamis--Pighoulugan--Iponan--Pigtao--Dendritic gold
from Misamis--Placer gold traded away surreptitiously--Cannot
be taxed--Spanish mining laws--Pettifogging lawyers--Prospects
for gold seekers. Copper: Native copper at Surigao and
Torrijos (Mindoro)--Copper deposits at Mancayan worked by
the Igorrotes--Spanish company--Insufficient data--Caution
required. Iron: Rich ores found in the Cordillera of Luzon--Worked
by natives--Some Europeans have attempted but failed--Red
hematite in Cebú--Brown hematite in Paracale--Both red and
brown in Capiz--Oxydized iron in Misamis--Magnetic iron
in San Miguel de Mayumo--Possibilities. Coal (so called):
Beds of lignite upheaved--Vertical seams at Sugud--Reason
of failure--Analysis of Masbate lignite. Various Minerals:
Galena--Red lead--Graphite--Quicksilver--Sulphur Asbestos--Yellow
ochre--Kaolin, Marble--Plastic clays--Mineral waters.
It is a great mistake to suppose that nothing is known of the geology
and mineralogy of the Philippines, or that no attempts have been made
to exploit them.
The maps of the Archipelago are marked in dozens or hundreds of places,
coal, copper, lead, iron, gold, and a number of works treating of
the subject have been published. Amongst the authors are the mining
engineers, Don Enrique Abella and Don José Centeno. But some of their
most important reports are still in manuscript, for the revenues of
the Philippines were almost entirely absorbed in paying the salaries
of the officials, and there was a great disinclination to spend money
in any other way.
At the Philippine Exhibition, held at Madrid in 1887, more than
seven hundred specimens of auriferous earths or sand, gold quartz,
and ores of various metals were shown, and in this branch alone there
were 109 exhibitors from all parts of the Archipelago.
Besides ores there were the tools and utensils used by the miners,
and models of the furnaces and forges in which the metals were reduced
and worked, with the metals in different stages of concentration or
manufacture, and a complete show of the finished products.
A great many Mining Companies have been formed in Spain or in Manila
at different times which have all failed from a variety of causes,
want of skill, bad management, costly administration, or because the
richness of the vein or seam had been exaggerated.
The difficulty of getting labour is considerable, as mining is a work
the generality of natives do not care to take up, although in some
provinces they are used to it, for example, in Camarines Norte and
in Surigao.
Employers seem to forget that the ordinary food of a native, rice
and fish, is not sufficiently nourishing to enable him to do hard
and continuous work, such as is required in mining. A higher rate of
pay than the current wage is essential, to allow the miner to supply
himself with an ample ration of beef or pork, coffee and sugar,
and provision should be made for him to be comfortably housed.
In this complaint of want of labour it is not always the native who
is to blame, and if a mine cannot afford to pay a reasonable price
for labour, it had better stand idle.
Probably the one great reason why mines have not prospered in the
Philippines is that there has never been slavery there, as in Cuba,
Peru, Mexico, Brazil, ancient Egypt, and other great mining countries,
where whole populations have been used up to minister to the avarice
of their fellow-men.
Names of some Metals in Tagal.
Gold Guinto.
Silver Pilac.
Copper Tangsó.
Lead Tinga.
Tin Tinga puti.
Iron Bacal.
Steel Patalím.
Forged Steel Binalon.
Coal Uling.
Gold.
From my remarks upon the other minerals it will be seen that I have
no illusions on the immediate prospects of working them.
With gold, however, it is different. For centuries large quantities
have been collected or extracted, mostly, no doubt, from placers,
still some rich veins are known to exist.
The early writers agree that gold is plentiful. Dampier says: "Most,
if not all, the Philippine Islands are rich in gold."
Speaking of the Batanes Islanders, he says:--
"They have no sort of coin, but they have small crumbs of the metal
before described" (he seemed at first to doubt whether it was gold),
which they bind up very safe in plantain leaves or the like. This
metal they exchange for what they want, giving a small quantity of
it--about two or three grains--for a jar of drink that would hold
five or six gallons. They have no scales, but give it by guess."
In the 'Relacion de las Islas Filipinas,' 1595(?), the author remarks
that the Tagals "like to put on many ornaments of gold, which they
have in great abundance."
Farther on, he says of Luzon:--
"The people of this island are very clever in knowing" (valuing)
"gold, and they weigh it with the greatest subtleness and delicacy
which has ever been seen; the first thing they teach their children
is to know gold and the weights used for it, for amongst them there
is no other money."
Farther on, he says:--
"Ilocos ... has much gold, for the principal mines of these islands
are in the mountain ranges of this province, of which they get the
advantage, for they trade with the miners more than any people. The
Spaniards have many times endeavoured to people the mines so as to
work them, but it has not been possible up to the present, although
the Governor, Gonzalo Ronquillo, took the greatest pains, and it cost
him many men, the country being so rough and destitute of provisions."
In Pigafetta's 'Voyage Round the World' (Pinkerton), Vol. ii., p. 333,
we read that at Caraga (Mindanao) a man offered an ingot of massive
gold for six strings of glass beads.
On p. 331, he says:--
"The king who accompanied us informed us that gold was found in his
island in lumps as large as walnuts, and even as an egg, mingled with
earth; that they used a sieve for sifting it, and that all his vessels,
and even many of the ornaments of his house were of this metal."
On p. 348, he says that he saw many utensils of gold in the house of
the Raja or King of Butuan.
On p. 349, we find the following remarks:--
"What most abounds is gold. Valleys were pointed out to me in which
by signs they made me comprehend there were more lumps of gold than
we had hair on our heads, but that, for the want of iron, the mines
exact greater labour to work them than they feel inclined to bestow."
Coming down to later days, Thomas de Comyn, 1810, writes:--
"Gold abounds in Luzon and in many of these islands; but as the
mountains which contain it are in the power of pagan Indians, the veins
are not worked, nor even the mines known. These savages collect it
from placers or streams, and bring it as dust to the Christians who
inhabit the plains, in exchange for coarse cloth or fire-arms, and
at times they have brought it in grains of one or two ounces' weight.
"It is the general opinion that this class of mines abound in the
province of Caraga, situated on the east of the great island of
Mindanao, and that there, as well as at various other points, gold
is found of 22 carat fine."
He states that the Royal Fifth, or rather Tenth (for it was found the
mines could not pay a fifth, and it was reduced by half), in the year
1809 amounted to $1144. This would represent an extraction of gold
equal to only $11,440; but this was probably but a small part of the
whole, as from the circumstances of the case the gold dust from the
washings would be surreptitiously disposed of, and only the few mines
that were worked, paid the tax. I had occasion, about twelve years
ago, to make inquiry how much gold was raised in Camarines Norte,
and a person well-informed on the subject estimated it at a value of
$30,000 gold dollars.
Gold is certainly very widely distributed in the islands. I have
seen women washing the sands of the River San José del Puray in the
province of Manila, and noted what small specks they collected. I
was informed that their average earnings were about 25 cents per
day. Whether these sands could be dredged and washed mechanically on
a large scale with profit I cannot say.
In 1890, I ascended the Puray River and went up the Arroyo Macaburabod
to where it bifurcates. There, close to the boundary of the province
of Manila and district of Moron, I found a face of disintegrated
quartz glittering with large crystals of iron pyrites.
This was near a geological frontier where the igneous and sedimentary
rocks joined, and the neighbourhood was highly mineralized, there being
iron, coal, and gold within a short distance. I took a large number
of samples, and the analyst Anacleto del Rosario declared that one
of them gave an assay of 17 dwts. of gold to the ton. But of course
such assays prove nothing, for the accidental presence of a grain of
gold in the sample would make all the difference in the results.
Near Gapan in Nueva Écija more profitable washings are situated,
and at times large numbers of men and women are to be seen at work,
especially after a sudden flood has come down. The sands of the River
Agno also yield gold, and the washing for it is quite an industry
amongst the Pangasinan women about Rosales, but the return is said
to be small. But after a north-westerly gale has heaped up the black
sand at the mouth of this river in the Bay of Lingayen, the people
turn out in numbers to wash it, and sometimes have better luck. But
although these washings are poor, a considerable quantity of gold
is obtained from the Igorrotes, and there is no doubt that these
people have for centuries worked quartz veins or pockets, and that
they only extract sufficient for their modest requirements in the way
of purchasing cattle, cloth, and tools. They do not hoard any gold,
for they say that it is safer in the mine than in their houses. When
one of them requires a few ounces he goes to his mine, gets it out,
and immediately proceeds to purchase what he wants. Possibly they
do not consider the supply inexhaustible, and they have thought for
to-morrow, or for those who will come after them. It is not their
object to exhaust the bounties of nature in the shortest possible time.
When they have found a rich pocket they build a house over the pit,
and when not at work they cover the hole with roughly-hewn planks or
logs ; they take precautions in disposing of the detritus, so that
it does not call attention from a distance.
In the Exhibition of 1887 the Comandante Politico-Militar of
the Province of Benguet showed samples of auriferous quartz from
Antaniac and from Capunga, also quartz with visible threads of gold
from the latter place, also leaf gold from the veins, two specimens
of auriferous quartz from Pangutantan with gold extracted from it,
and gold-dust from the River Agno.
Other exhibits included specimens of gold-bearing rock from Lepanto
and Infantas, and compact auriferous quartz from the celebrated
gold-pits of Suyuc near Mancayan. All these quartz reefs are worked
by the Igorrotes.
Gold is also found near Atimonan in Tayabas, but the neighbourhood of
Paracale and Mambulao, and the slopes of Mount Labo are most famous
in Manila.
During the last century large quantities of gold were taken from
the surface-workings, which are now exhausted, or only afford a
miserable living to the natives who treat the auriferous earths in
a very primitive way.
The gold having been taken, the next thing was to use the reputation of
the mines to attract capital, and this was done to some considerable
extent, one company being founded on the ruins of another. One of the
later ones was the "Ancla de Oro," or Golden Anchor, but its capital
was expended without results. The late Don Antonio Enriquez, a Spanish
gentleman well-known to British and Americans in Manila, worked some
mining properties there for some years, and had faith in them.
He consulted me about them, and I forwarded some samples of the ores
to my agents in London, who had them analyzed by Messrs. Johnson &
Matthey, but the results were not encouraging, and did not confirm
the analysis made in Manila.
About 1890, Messrs. Peele, Hubbell & Co. got out an American mining
expert, whose name I forget, but I believe he was a mining engineer
of high standing. He spent some time at Mambulao and Paracale, and
made a careful examination of the country. It was understood that
his report did not encourage any further expenditure in prospecting
or development. But of late years further attempts have been made to
boom the place, and the Mambulao Gold Mining Syndicate, London, 1893,
has been formed. I am unaware on what new information the promoters
rely to justify their bringing this place again before the public.
Surigao, in the old kingdom of Caraga, is rich in gold which is very
widely disseminated. Father Llovera, a missionary who, in March, 1892,
made an excursion up the River Siga to visit some unbaptized Mamanúas
in the mountains, declares that the sands contain much gold, so much
so that particles were plainly visible. This river takes its rise in
the eastern Cordillera, between Cantilan and Jabonga, and runs in a
north-easterly direction into the southern part of Lake Mainit. The
missionary also declares that veins of gold were visible in some of
the pieces of rock lying in the bed of the river, which they broke
to examine. But he does not seem to have brought back any specimens,
as one would expect.
His declaration is confirmed by Dr. Montano, a French traveller and
skilled explorer, who however does not say that he saw the gold dust
amongst the sand.
From Surigao to Gigaquil the people are engaged in washing the sands
for gold.
Foreman states that for many months remittances of four or five
pounds weight of gold were sent from Mindanao to a firm in Manila,
and that it was alluvial gold from Surigao extracted by the natives.
Don José Centeno, Inspector of Mines, says in a report: "The most
important workings effected in Surigao are in the Caninon-Binutong
and Cansostral mountains, a day's journey from the town.
"These mountains consist of slaty talc much metamorphosed, and of
serpentine. In the first are found veins of calcite and quartz from
half-an-inch to three inches thick, in which especially in the calcite
the gold is visible mixed with iron and copper pyrites, galena and
blende. It is a remarkable circumstance that the most mineralized
veins run always in an east and west direction, whilst the poor
and sterile veins always follow another direction. The workings are
entirely on the surface, as the abundance of water which flows to
them prevents sinking shafts, and nothing is known of the richness
at depth. Rich and sterile parts alternate, the gold being mostly in
pockets. From one of the veins in Caninoro in a length of eighteen
inches one hundred ounces of gold were taken."
Some time after this find, Messrs. Aldecoa & Co., a Manila firm,
erected stamps at Surigao, and a certain amount of gold was sent up by
every steamer to Manila, but in spite of the apparently favourable
circumstances, the enterprise was ultimately abandoned and the
machinery removed.
I do not know the reason, but people in Manila are so used to the
collapse of mining companies that it is regarded as their natural
and inevitable end, and no explanations are required.
Nieto (p. 75) mentions the northern parts of the province of Surigao
and Misamis as the richest in gold. In Misamis there is both alluvial
gold and rich quartz reefs, the richest known spots being Pighoulugan
on the River Cagayan, Iponan and Pigtao. The ore at the latter place
is auriferous iron pyrites, called by the natives Inga.
Nuggets weighing from two and a half to four ounces have been found in
these places, so that Pigafetta's stories are not without foundation.
On March 20th, 1888, a clerk of Don Louis Génu, a merchant in Manila,
called upon me on business and exhibited a large pickle bottle full
of gold which he had just received from Cagayan de Misamis. There
were several pounds weight of it, and I carefully examined it with
a lens. I found it in pieces, many of them half an inch or more in
length, slightly flattened, and having minute particles of white
quartz adhering to them, and a few loose particles of quartz. The
pieces were not water-worn, and had evidently formed part of a seam
of dendritic or lace gold, such as I had seen exhibited by a vendor
of mining properties in Denver, Col., just a year before.
This exhibit opened my eyes to the possibilities of gold mining in
Mindanao, but I did not leave my business to go prospecting.
The natives of this part of Mindanao look upon washing for gold as
their chief resource. A certain quantity of what they collect is used
to make ornaments, and passes from hand to hand instead of coin in
payment of gambling debts, and stakes lost at cockfights. The Mestizos
and Chinamen get hold of the rest and send it away surreptitiously,
so that no statistics can be collected. It is impossible to tax gold
collected in this way, but the Government might derive a profit by
establishing posts in each district where gold would be purchased
at a fixed price and so get, say, ten or twenty per cent. out of it
instead of allowing the Chinese and Mestizos to make perhaps forty
or fifty per cent. according to the ignorance of the vendor.
Foreman is probably quite right in saying that the influence of the
friars has always been exerted against any mining company, whether
Spanish or foreign. They did not want a rush of miners and Jews to
the Philippines. But now, under the American Government, their power
must decline, and new undertakings will, in a measure, be free from
this hindrance.
The Spanish mining laws and regulations are excellent and a perfect
model for legislation on the subject. They are based on the principle
that the ownership of the surface gives no title to the minerals
underneath, which belong to the State. The owner can, however, obtain
a title by developing a mine.
The ingenuity and unscrupulousness of that vile breed, the native
Pica-Pleito or pettifogging lawyer, has greatly contributed to stop
Europeans from proceeding with mining enterprises, as success would
bring down these blackmailers in swarms.
It is to be hoped that the new government will lay a heavy hand on
these birds of prey. Rightly considered, they are only a species of
vermin, and should have verminous treatment.
Now that the fortune of war has handed over the sovereignty of the
Philippines to an enterprising and energetic race, I cannot doubt
that the mystery of centuries will be dispelled.
Amongst the Californian, Colorado, or Nevada volunteers, there
should be men having the courage, the knowledge of prospecting,
and the physical strength necessary for success in this quest, if
they can obtain permission from their superiors to attempt it. The
prospects are so good that they should not have any difficulty in
getting capitalists to finance them.
They will require to go in a strong party to prevent being cut off
by the savages, and to escort their supplies of provisions.
As deer and wild pig abound they will be able to supply themselves in a
great measure with meat by sending out a couple of good shots to hunt.
For such as these gold mining ought to be most remunerative, and
enable those who survive the many perils to retire with a fortune
after a few years of hard work. But so far as I know there is not at
present sufficient information about any mines in the Philippines,
whether of gold or any other metal, to warrant the establishment of
companies for purchasing and working them.
Mining claims can be staked out and registered under the present
laws by natives or foreigners, but in limited areas, and placers or
river beds can be worked by all without leave or license, and cannot
be monopolised.
I wish to avoid prophesy, but I shall be much surprised if the
Philippines, in American hands, do not turn out in a few years an
important gold-producing country.
Copper.
Native copper has been found in several places in the islands,
amongst them are Surigao and Torrijos in Mindoro.
In the article on the Igorrotes, I have spoken of the copper mines
of Mancayan, and related how, when worked by the savages they were
successful to the extent of supplying themselves with cooking-pots,
trays and ornaments, besides leaving an annual surplus of about
nineteen tons of copper, which was sold.
A Spanish company obtained the concession about 1864, and drove out
the natives.
The title was the Sociedad Minera de Mancayan, and they experienced
considerable difficulties in getting a merchantable product, their
science being at a disadvantage compared to the practical knowledge
of the Igorrotes. They, however, persevered, and got up to a make of
about 180 tons in one year--nearly ten times the production obtained
by the Igorrotes. But the usual fate of Philippine mining companies
overtook them, and the works were closed in 1875, it was said from
scarcity of labour.
Several kinds of ores are found at Mancayan, almost on the surface,
red, black and grey copper, also sulphates and carbonates of copper.
About Mambulao cupro-ferruginous quartz and copper pyrites are found,
but are not worked.
I am quite unable to venture any opinion on the prospects of
copper-mining and smelting in the Philippines, but no doubt experts
will shortly obtain the necessary data to decide what can be done,
but capital should be laid out with great caution, and the many
difficulties of climate, carriage and labour taken into consideration.
Iron.
There is plenty of iron ore in the Philippines. In Luzon it occurs
plentifully in the western spurs of the Cordillera all the way from
Bosoboso to San Miguel de Mayumo, and it is now worked near the latter
place in a primitive way. Plough-shares, cooking-pots and bolos are the
principal productions; the fuel used in all cases is charcoal. I sent
to the Philippine Exhibition of 1887 at Madrid a dozen bolos made from
native iron. The ore is very rich, giving 70 to 80 per cent. of iron;
when polished it is of a beautiful silvery white colour, very tough,
and of the finest quality. Attempts have been made by Europeans to
work the iron ores of Luzon, but they have invariably ended in the
bankruptcy of the adventurers, and in one case even in suicide.
When deer-shooting at the Hacienda de San Ysidro above Bosoboso many
years ago, I learned from the natives there that in the next valley,
not far from the hamlet of Santa Ines, there existed the remains
of some old iron-works, abandoned years ago. They said there were
unfinished forgings still lying about, amongst them two anchors. I
did not, however, go to examine them, being intent on shooting.
Red hematite is found in Cebú, brown hematite in Paracale and other
parts of Camarines Norte, and both red and brown in Capiz. In Misamis
oxydized iron is found. Some of the iron about San Miguel de Mayumo
is magnetic.
I do not believe that at present, and for many years to come, it is
possible to work these ores and make iron and steel to compete with
American or British imported iron.
But the time may come when, under different conditions, these
remarkable ores may be turned to account; in fact, it is asserted a
scarcity of high class iron ore will soon occur, in which case the
Philippine ores of such extraordinary richness will come into use.
Coal.
It is common to see coal mentioned amongst the mineral resources of
the Philippines, but so far as I have been able to learn, no true
coal has been found there, nor in any of the adjacent islands. There
are beds of lignite of varying quality, and when enthusiastic finders
are told of the poor quality of their samples, they reply at once,
"It will be better at depth."
The Philippine formations seem to greatly resemble those of Borneo,
and there it was found that the lignite got poorer at depth, so that
mines were abandoned from this cause alone.
The Philippine beds of lignite have been violently upheaved by the
cataclysms of former ages, and are often turned up vertically,
as at the mines of Sugud in Albay. I was consulted about these
mines after a considerable sum had been thrown away. The Spanish
engineer employed commenced by building himself a commodious house;
he then laid a tramway from the port to where the mine was to be,
and bought a winding engine. The available capital was expended,
and nothing more was done.
The position of the seams at Sugud very much resembles the occurrence
of the seams at the Pengaron mine in Borneo, which stopped work 18th
October, 1884, after a precarious existence of thirty-six years, on
account of the poor quality of the coal and the relatively high cost
of extraction. This is on the authority of Dr. Theodor Posewitz in
'Borneo: its Geology and Mineral Resources,' 1892, and what follows
so exactly applies to all the so-called coal in the Philippines,
that I shall quote the paragraph:--
P. 480.--"A number of analyses were carried out, and practical tests
were applied on board various ships. The result was always ore or
less favourable, yet nobody would have the coal."
The coal mine in the British Colony of Labuan was given up after
several years' working.
People blame the Spanish Government, the priests, the natives,
the roads, but the reason of failure in the Philippines is very
simple. "Nobody would have the coal," that is to say on board ship. The
lignite could be used on land, but there is little demand for it,
except for navigation. Some of it is liable to spontaneous combustion
in the bunkers, some is so charged with sulphur as to be bad for the
furnaces, or else it will not keep steam. I doubt if there is any good
coal between Japan and Australia, and as long as coal from there can
be delivered at present prices in Manila, I don't advise anybody to put
money into Philippine coal unless they know more about it than I do.
It has often been said that the Philippines have never been
explored. This is, however, only true of certain regions, and as
regards beds of the so-called coal you will find them marked on the
maps all over the principal islands.
If you proceed to the village nearest the spot, you will find, very
probably, that the seam has been known for a century, and that pits or
adits have been made and a lot of money spent to no purpose. Nobody
ever made any money out of Philippine lignite that I know of, but I
don't prophesy whether anybody ever will.
I append an analysis of some so-called coal that was brought me from
Masbate in 1889.
Analysis of Masbate Lignite.
Laboratory of A. del Rosario y Sales.
No. 1367. 16th April, 1889.
Lignite from Masbate.
Colour, black.
Physical condition, fragile.
Fracture, splintery.
Colour, when reduced to powder, blackish brown.
Burns with difficulty, giving a short flame; not very smoky, and
leaves a brick-red ash.
Coke not very spongy, pulverulent and lightly agglutinated.
Density at 33° C., 1·3082.
Analysis.
Hygroscopic water 3.73
Volatile constituents 45.49
Coke Fixed carbon 48.20
Ash Silica 12
Aluminic 2.46
Ferric, calcic
Magnesic
Chloric
Sulphuric acids, etc.
100.00
Coke = 50.79. Equivalent calories 5203.44
Ash = 2.58. Absolute calorific effect, centesimal 64.41
Sulphur per 100 of lignite 0.1633
Iron calculated in metallic state 1.2173
Lead reduced by 1 gramme of combustible (mean) by
Berthier's assay grammes 21.90
Various Minerals.
Lead.--Galena is found in Tayabas and in Camarines Norte; in the
latter province there is found chromate of lead with ferruginous
quartz. This ore is often found mixed with iron or copper pyrites,
and sometimes with blende.
I have seen samples of galena from Cebú which was said to be
auriferous, but I have never heard that any of these ores have been
worked anywhere in the islands.
If it should be found profitable to smelt the gold-bearing ores, as
is so splendidly done at Denver, Col., the galena will be necessary
to the success of the process.
Red Lead is found in Camarines Norte and other places.
Graphite.--In 1891 some pieces of this valuable mineral were shown
to me by a native, who said he had found the ore in Mindoro, but he
would not say from what locality.
Quicksilver.--I have seen small bottles of this handed round by
native disciples of Ananias. But I have never seen a bit of cinnabar
or other ore of mercury, and I shall not believe there is any of this
metal in the Philippines until I see the ore in situ, or have good
testimony to that effect.
Sulphur abounds; there are several places where it can be obtained
in large quantities near the volcanoes.
Asbestos.--This curious mineral would not strike a native as being
of value.
All I can say about it is that at the Madrid Exhibition of 1887 a
specimen of this substance was shown by the Civil Governor of Ilocos
Norte as having been found in that province.
Yellow Ochre is found in Batangas, Camarines, Albay, Leyte and Antique,
amongst other places.
Kaolín is found in Manila, Batangas and Camarines Sur, and probably
in many other places.
Marble of a yellowish colour has been quarried at Montalban. I
have used some of it, but found it full of faults, and not very
satisfactory.
Plastic Clays for pottery and for making bricks and tiles abound.
Mineral Waters.--As might be expected in a volcanic region, hot
springs and mineral waters of very varied constituents abound.
I do not think that the analyses of these would interest the general
reader.
I may say that I have derived great benefit from the hot-springs of
Los Baños on the lake, and greatly regretted that I could not remain
at the extraordinary vapour baths of Tibi near Tabaco.
CHAPTER XVII.
MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRIES.
Cigars and cigarettes--Textiles--Cotton--Ahacá--Júsi--Rengue--Nipis
--Saguran--Sinamáy--Guingon--Silk handkerchiefs--Piña--Cordage--
Bayones--Esteras--Baskets--Lager beer--Alcohol--Wood oils and
resins--Essence of Ylang-ilang--Salt--Bricks--Tiles--Cooking-pots--
Pilones--Ollas--Embroidery--Goldsmiths' and silversmiths' work--
Salacots--Cocoa-nut oil--Saddles and harness--Carromatas--Carriages
--Schooners--Launches--Lorchas--Cascos--Pontines--Bangcas--Engines
and boilers--Furniture--Fireworks--Lanterns--Brass Castings--Fish
breeding--Drying sugar--Baling hemp--Repacking wet sugar--Packing
tobacco and cigars--Oppressive tax on industries--Great future for
manufactures--Abundant labour--Exceptional intelligence.
The manufactures of the Philippines, such as they are, have been
mentioned when describing the different tribes or peoples and only
a summary is necessary here.
The making of cigars and cigarettes employs probably 30,000 people in
the Province of Manila, the vast majority being women. But the best
cigars are made by men who have been trained under skilled operatives
brought from Havana.
A vast improvement has taken place since the Government monopoly has
been abolished, and now the Manila cigars are as well-made and are
put up in as tastefully decorated boxes as the Havanas.
Cigarettes are now largely made by machines; the Compañia de Tabacos
de Filipinas having rows of them in their factories.
Textiles are made in hand-looms all over the Archipelago by the women
in their spare time.
But in certain Provinces large numbers of women are regularly employed
at the loom-working for those who make a business of it. In Ilocos and
Union very excellent coverlets, sheets, serviettes, handkerchiefs and
towels are woven from cotton, as well as the fabrics called abacá,
júsi or rengue, nipis, saguran, sinamay and guingon. This last is
very suitable for military or naval uniforms; it is a blue cotton
cloth similar to what sailors call dungaree.
In some of the towns of Pampanga and Bulacan, notably in Baliúag
where the people are specially clever and industrious, excellent silk
handkerchiefs are woven. In Camarines and Albay the fabrics of abacá
are more commonly woven, and in Cebú the women are accustomed to work
at the loom.
But it is from Ilo-ilo and neighbourhood that a very large trade is
done with the other islands in many kinds of textiles. There also the
Visayas work industriously at it as a trade and produce most beautiful
fabrics of piña, silk, cotton, and abacá, as well as the cheaper sorts
for the use of the working classes. In some of the mixed materials a
beautiful effect is produced by running stripes of silk, either white
or of the most brilliant colours, lengthways through the piece. I
have sent some of these júsi dress fabrics to ladies in England and
they have been greatly appreciated when made up by a bonne faiseuse.
They are very suitable for wearing in the Philippines or elsewhere
in the tropics, being light and gauzy. This material, as well as
some of the other fine gauzy fabrics, takes a long time to make in
a hand-loom, the advance is imperceptible. I should like to put some
of the calumniators of the Filipinos to work a hand-loom and make a
dress-length of júsi. I think every one would recant before he had
made a yard.
At the Philippine Exhibition of 1887 there were more than three hundred
exhibitors of textiles, and one of them, the Local Board of Namaypacan
in the Province of Union, showed one hundred and forty-five different
kinds of cloths.
There are several rope-works at Manila and the material used is abacá,
the ropes produced are equal to any to be had anywhere.
In Camarines Sur both harness and hammocks are made from this material.
In the Provinces ropes are made of cabo-negro, a black fibre from the
wild palm, said to be indestructible; of burí, of fibre from the anabó,
of the bark of the lapuit, and of rattan. Bayones or sacks for sugar,
estéras or sleeping mats, hats and cigar cases, and baskets of all
sorts, are made at different places and from the commonest up to the
very finest. That called the Tampipi is now regularly kept in stock
in London, and is very handy for travelling.
There is a lager beer brewery in Manila that must have piled up money
since the American garrison arrived.
Alcohol is distilled both from sugar and from the juice of the
nipa-palm (Nipa fructicans).
The oils and resins of Ilocos have been mentioned when describing the
Ilocanos; they are not exported, finding a ready market in the country.
Essence of Ylang-ylang is distilled in Manila and other towns; it
used to fetch formerly 1000 francs per kilogramme.
Salt is made at many places between Parañaque and Cavite.
Bricks, tiles, cooking pots [bangas], stoves [calanes], sugar moulds
[pilones], and draining pots for the pilones [ollas], are made in
many provinces.
The industry of the women is also shown by the very beautiful
embroideries of all sorts, either in white or coloured silks or in
gold or silver. Some of this latter work, however, is done by men.
In some cases they introduce seed-pearls or brilliant fish-scales in
their work. The slippers worn by the women on grand occasions are
often works of art, being richly embroidered in silver and gold on
cherry coloured velvet.
Some notable pieces of goldsmiths' and silversmiths' work have been
done in Manila, and in the provinces some of the natives carve bolo
handles and other articles out of buffalo horn and mount them in
silver with much taste.
The salacots, or native hats, are beautifully woven by hand from
narrow strips of a cane called nito [lygodium], and the headmen have
them ornamented with many pieces of repoussé silver (see Illustration).
Cocoa-nut oil is expressed in the province of the Laguna, in Manila
and other places. Soap of the ordinary kind is manufactured from it.
Saddles and harness are made in all the leading towns, and the ordinary
country vehicle, the carromata, is made in the chief towns of provinces
and some others; but some of the components, such as the springs,
and axle-arms and boxes are imported. But in Manila really elegant
carriages are constructed, the leather for the hoods, the cloth for
the linings, the lamps, as well as a good deal of the ironwork, being,
however imported.
In former years large frigates have been built, armed, and fitted out
at Cavite and other ports, but at present the ship-building industry
is in decadence, and the shipwrights capable of directing so important
a job have died out. The increasing scarcity and high price of timber
is now a difficulty, and sailing vessels are in little demand. Small
steamers and launches are now built, but larger steamers are ordered
from Hong Kong or Singapore, or, in case of vessels well able to make
the passage, the order goes to England.
The native craft called lorchas, pailebotes, pontines, barotos, paraos,
cascos, guilálos, barangayanes, bangcas, vintas and salisipanes are
still built in large numbers. The last are very light and fast craft
used by the Moros on their piratical expeditions.
Engines and boilers for steam launches are made in Manila, church
bells are cast of a considerable size; iron castings are also made.
Amongst the miscellaneous articles manufactured are all sorts of
household furniture, fireworks and lanterns. Dentists, painters,
sculptors and photographers all practise their trades.
There is no doubt that the Filipinos have learnt a certain amount
from the Spaniards as regards their manufactures; but, on careful
consideration, I think they have learnt more from the Chinese. Their
first sugar-mills were Chinese and had granite rollers, and from them
they learnt the trick that many a moulder might not know, of casting
their sugar-pans in a red-hot mould and cooling slowly and so getting
the metal extremely thin yet free from defects. The casting of brass
cannon and of church bells has been learnt from them, and doubtless
they taught the Igorrotes how to reduce the copper ores and to refine
that metal. Again, the breeding of fish, an important business near
Manila, and the manufacture of salt round about Bacoor comes from
them. I am not sure whether the hand-loom in general use is of the
Chinese pattern, but I think so.
Distilling the nipa juice is certainly a Chinese industry, as also
the preparation of sugar for export. This is done in establishments
called farderias, and is necessary for all sugar made in pilones
or moulds. The procedure is described under the head of Pampangos,
and an illustration is given of the process of drying the sugar on
mats in the sun.
Many native men and women and numbers of Chinese coolies are employed
in Manila, Ilo-ilo, and Cebú in preparing produce for shipment.
The hemp used to come up from the provinces loose or merely twisted
into rolls to be pressed into bales at the shipping ports, but of
late years several presses have been erected at the hemp ports in
Southern Luzon and on the smaller islands.
There are a number of hemp-presses in Manila, each requiring about
sixty coolies to work it, and one or two clerks to attend to the
sorting and weighing.
They were paid so much per bale pressed.
Steam, or hydraulic presses, would long ago have been substituted but
for the fact that the clerks or personeros were each allowed one or
two deadheads on the pay list, and this was so profitable to them
that they strongly opposed any changes, and none of the merchants
cared to take the risk of the innovations.
Two presses were set in line, astride a pair of flat rails, a small
one called the Bito-bito for the first pressure on the pile of hemp,
and the large one to squeeze down the bale to its proper size.
They were simply screw presses having hardwood frames set deep into
massive stone foundations and surrounded by a granite pavement.
A pair of these presses, i.e., a Bito-bito and a press erected in
Manila under my direction in 1888, cost $4400, the woodwork foundation
and pavement costing $2850, and the screws, nuts, capstan-heads,
etc., costing $1550. The small press had a screw 4 inches diameter
and 6 feet long, and was worked by two or four men. The large press
had a screw 8 1/4 inches diameter, and 12 feet long.
Both screws worked in deep gun-metal nuts and had capstan-heads. When
the large press was near the end of its travel the capstan bars
were manned by forty coolies putting out their utmost strength and
shouting to encourage each other as they tramped round on the upper
floor keeping step.
The turn out was about 250 bales from daylight to dark. Each bale
weighed 2 piculs, say 280 lbs., or eight to the English ton. The
bales should measure 10 cubic feet, that is a density of 28 lbs. per
cubic foot. The hemp could be pressed into a smaller volume, but it
is asserted that the fibre would be seriously damaged. Sometimes from
careless pressing the bales measure 12 cubic feet. They swell after
leaving the press and after being moved.
At the date I have mentioned, the charge for screwage was 50 cents
per picul, but it has been raised since then.
Dry sugar was exported in its original bags, and loading and shipping
cost 12½ cents per picul. Wet sugar usually required repacking for
export, and the charge for discharging the coaster and rebagging was
17½ cents per picul, as well as 12½ cents for loading and shipping.
It lost 2½ per cent. in weight in repacking and 10 per cent. during
the voyage in sailing vessel to Europe or America. So that altogether
one-eighth of the total was lost to the shipper, and there was a
good perquisite to the skipper or mate in pumping the molasses out
of the bilges.
The repacking was usually done by natives, and the old mat bags
scraped by women who receive half the sugar they save. The mats are
sold to the distillers and are thrown into their fermenting vats,
to assist in the manufacture of pure Glenlivat or Bourbon whisky,
Jamaica rum or Hollands gin.
In 1891 I saw on board a steamer just arrived from Antwerp hundreds
of cases containing empty gin bottles packed in juniper husk, the
labels and capsules bearing the marks of genuine Hollands.
They were consigned to one of the Manila distillers, and must have
enabled that respectable firm to make a large profit by selling their
cheap spirit as imported liquor.
Undoubtedly the manufactures and industries of the Philippines are in
a primitive condition, but the tax called the Contribucion Industrial
has discouraged improvements, for as soon as any improved machinery
or apparatus was adopted, the tax-gatherer came down upon the works
for an increased tax. Thus any sort of works employing a steam-engine
would be charged at a higher rate. This tax, if it cannot be abolished,
should be reformed.
There is a great future before the manufactures of the Philippines,
for the people are industrious, exceptionally intelligent, painstaking
and of an artistic temperament, so that an ample supply of labour is
always available for any light work if reasonably remunerated. They
will not need much teaching, and only require tactful treatment to
make most satisfactory operatives.
CHAPTER XVIII.
COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROSPECTS.
Philippines not a poor man's country--Oscar F. Williams' letter--No
occupation for white mechanics--American merchants unsuccessful
in the East--Difficulties of living amongst Malays--Inevitable
quarrels--Unsuitable climate--The Mali-mali or Sakit-latah--The
Traspaso de hambre--Chiflados--Wreck of the nervous system--Effects
of abuse of alcohol--Capital the necessity--Banks--Advances to
cultivators--To timber cutters--To gold miners--Central sugar
factories--Paper-mills--Rice-mills--Cotton-mills--Saw-mills--Coasting
steamers--Railway from Manila to Batangas--From Siniloan to the
Pacific--Survey for ship canal--Bishop Gainzas' project--Tramways
for Luzon and Panay--Small steamers for Mindanao--Chief prospect
is agriculture.
The commercial prospects of the Islands are great, even if we do not
instantly take for gospel the fairy tales we are told about Manila
becoming the centre of the trade of the Pacific. There can be no
doubt that if peace and an honest administration can be secured,
capital will be attracted and considerable increase in the export of
hemp, tobacco, and sugar will gradually take place as fresh land can
be cleared and planted. As I have elsewhere said, the Philippines
in energetic and skilful hands will soon yield up the store of gold
which the poor Spaniards have been so mercilessly abused for leaving
behind them. But the Philippines are not and never will be a country
for the poor white man.
A white man cannot labour there without great danger to his health. He
cannot compete with the native or Chinese mechanic, in fact he is not
wanted there at all. For my part, I would never employ a white man
there as a labourer or mechanic, if I could help it, more especially
an Englishman or an American, for I know from experience what the
result would be. As foreman or overseer a white man may be better,
according to his skill and character.
Now let me, as soon as possible, expose the absurdity of a mischievous
letter, which I fear may already have done much harm, but I hope my
warning may do something to counteract its effects. I quote from the
Blue Book so often mentioned: pp. 330-1.
Mr. Williams to Mr. Day.
U. S. S. Baltimore, Manila Bay,
July 2nd, 1898.
Sir,
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
If long occupation or possession on the part of our government
be considered, I believe early and strenuous efforts should be
made to bring here from the United States men and women of many
occupations--mechanics, teachers, ministers, ship-builders, merchants,
electricians, plumbers, druggists, doctors, dentists, carriage and
harness makers, stenographers, type-writers, photographers, tailors,
blacksmiths, and agents for exporting, and to introduce American
products natural and artificial of many classes. To all such I pledge
every aid, and now is the time to start. Good government will be
easier the greater the influx of Americans.
My despatches have referred to our present percentage of export
trade. If now our exports come here as intestate, duty free, we have
practical control of Philippine trade, which now amounts to many
millions, and because of ingrafting of American energy and methods
upon the fabulous natural and productive wealth of these islands,
can and probably will be multiplied by twenty during the coming
twenty years. All this increment should come to our nation and not
go to any other.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
I hope for an influx this year of 10,000 ambitious Americans, and
all can live well, become enriched....
(Signed) O. F. Williams,
Consul.
I venture to say that the man who wrote this astonishing letter,
taking upon himself the responsibility of advising "early and strenuous
efforts" to send from the United States thousands of men and women
of many occupations to Manila, and of assuring them that "all could
live well and become enriched," knew nothing at all about the state
of the Philippine Islands, and is a most unsafe guide.
What on earth would all these tradespeople find to do in the
Islands? Where could they be housed? How could they be supported? If
they came in numbers, the doctors and druggists might indeed find
full employment prescribing and making up medicine for the many
sufferers from tropical ailments, especially the typhoid fevers,
that would attack the unacclimatised immigrants and the ministers
could earn their daily bread by reading the Burial Service, whilst
the type-writers would be busy typing letters to friends at home
announcing the deaths that occurred; and warning them against
coming to starve in Manila. But I defy any one to explain how the
ship-builders, electricians, plumbers, tailors and blacksmiths are
to make a living. As regards merchants or agents for exporting,
I may say that Americans have not been very successful in Manila in
this capacity. The great and influential firm of Russell & Sturgis
came to grief through over-trading, and another noteworthy firm,
Messrs. Peele, Hubbell & Co. failed from rash speculations in sugar,
and not from any persecutions by the Spanish authorities, as has been
falsely stated in a magazine article. I speak with knowledge on the
matter, as I was well acquainted with this firm, having been their
Consulting Engineer for the construction of the Slipway at Cañacao for
which they were agents. I think it only right to say that the gentlemen
who were heads of these American firms were worthy upholders of the
high reputation of their country. They failed, but no imputations
rested on the characters of the partners, and I have always heard
them spoken of with great respect, especially amongst the natives.
Those of them who were personally known to me were men who invariably
showed every courtesy and consideration to all who came in contact with
them, whether Europeans or natives. Notwithstanding their misfortunes
they were a credit to their country, and they did a good deal towards
the development of the trade of the Philippines.
I believe that the estates of Russell & Sturgis when realised,
paid all their liabilities in full, and besides left considerable
pickings in the hands of the liquidators and their friends. Two or
three firms were built up out of their ruins. Some Chinese half-castes
and natives had received heavy advances from this firm, especially
about Molo and Yloilo. One well-known individual had received $60,000,
and when summoned before the court he claimed the benefit of the 'Laws
of the Indies,' by which his liability was limited to $5. The judge,
however, ordered him to repay the principal at the rate of a dollar
a month! I had this information from the judge himself.
Curiously enough, American merchants have been equally unsuccessful
in other parts of the Far East. Many will remember the failure of
Messrs. Oliphant & Co., the great China merchants, agents for the
American Board of Missions, [16] notwithstanding their desperate effort
to retrieve their position by reviving the coolie trade with Perú, and
in later days Messrs. Russell & Co. of Hong Kong also came to grief.
I can give no explanation of the reasons for these four great failures,
but I conjecture that all these firms were in too much of a hurry,
and tried to "hustle the East." Yet in face of this calamitous
experience, Oscar F. Williams advises more to come, "pledges every
aid," and predicts that "trade can, and probably will, be multiplied
by twenty during the coming twenty years."
For my part, I should think it great progress if the exports and
imports of the Philippines could be doubled in twenty years. The
idea of sending plumbers to Manila where lead pipes are not used,
is a comicality only matched by the suggestion that tailors are
wanted amongst a population dressed in cotton shirts and trousers,
and where the white people wear veranda-made white duck suits.
Both notions are more suitable for a comic opera than for an official
document.
There is only one more paragraph in this letter that I need comment on.
Mr. Williams says: "Good government will be easier, the greater the
influx of Americans."
To those who know the East there is no necessity to argue on this
point. I therefore state dogmatically that the presence of white
settlers or working people in the Islands would add enormously to
the difficulties of government. This is my experience, and during
the Spanish Administration it was generally admitted to be the case.
In British India the Government does not in the least degree favour the
immigration of British workmen. The only people who are recognised as
useful to that country are capitalists and directors of Agricultural
or Industrial enterprises.
A large number of American mechanics turned loose amongst the
population would infallibly, by their contempt for native customs,
and their disregard of native feeling, become an everlasting source
of strife and vexation. Impartial justice between the parties would
be unattainable; the whites would not submit to be judged by a native
magistrate, and the result would be a war of races.
It may be taken as probable that there is no crime, however heinous,
that could be committed by an American upon a native, that would
involve the execution of the death penalty on the criminal. [17] On
the other hand, I can quite believe that natives laying their hands
upon Americans, whatever the provocation, would be promptly hanged,
if they were not shot down upon the spot. The natives, it should
be remembered, are revengeful, and will bide their time; either to
use the bolo upon one who has offended them, to burn down his house,
set fire to his crop, or put a crow-bar in amongst his machinery. I
fear that American brusqueness and impatience would often lead to
these savage reprisals.
I think, therefore, that the American Administration of the Philippines
should be empowered to prevent or regulate the immigration of
impecunious Americans or Europeans whose presence in the Islands
must be extremely prejudicial to the much-desired pacification. No,
the poor white is not wanted in the Islands, he would be a curse, and
a residence there would be a curse to him. He would decay morally,
mentally, and physically. The gorgeous East not only deteriorates
the liver, but where a white man lives long amongst natives, he
suffers a gradual but complete break-up of the nervous system. This
peculiarity manifests itself amongst the natives of the Far East
in the curious nervous disorder which is called mali-mali in the
Philippines and sakit-latah amongst the Malays of the Peninsula and
Java. It seems to be a weakening of the will, and on being startled,
the sufferer entirely loses self-control and imitates the movements
of any person who attracts his attention. It is more prevalent amongst
women than men. I remember being at a performance of Chiarini's Circus
in Manila, when General Weyler and his wife were present. The clown
walked into the ring on his hands, and a skinny old woman amongst the
spectators who suffered from the mali-mali at once began to imitate
him with unpleasing results, and had to be forcibly restrained by
the scandalised bystanders.
Running amok marks a climax of nerve disturbance, when the sufferer,
instead of committing suicide, prefers to die killing others.
He usually obtains his wish, and is killed without compunction,
like a mad dog.
Both natives and white residents are at times in rather a low
condition of health, and if after exercise or labour they fail to get
their meal at the proper time, when it comes they cannot eat. In its
lighter form this is called desgána or loss of appetite, but I have
seen natives collapse under such circumstances with severe headache
and chills. This more serious form is known as traspaso de hambre,
and is sometimes the precursor of fever and nervous prostration.
The Roman Catholic Church has had the wisdom to recognise and make
allowance for the liability of residents and natives of the Philippines
to this serious disorder, and has relaxed the usual rules of fasting,
as being dangerous to health.
Amongst the Europeans who have been long in the Islands, many are
said to be "chiflado," a term I can only render into English by the
slang word cracked. This occurs more particularly amongst those who
have been isolated amongst the natives.
It is not easy to account for, but the fact is undeniable. I have
heard it ascribed to "telluric influence," but that is a wide and
vague expression. Perhaps the explanation may be found in the extreme
violence of the phenomena of nature.
The frequent earthquakes, the almost continuous vibration of the soil,
the awe-inspiring volcanic eruptions, with their sooty black palls of
ash darkening the sky for days together, over hundreds of miles, the
frightful detonations, [18] the ear-splitting thunder, the devastating
rage of the typhoons, the saturated atmosphere of the rainy season,
and the hot dry winds of Lent, with the inevitable conflagrations,
combine with depressing surroundings and anxieties to wreck the nerves
of all but the strongest and most determined natures. If to all this
the white resident or sojourner in the Philippines adds the detestable
vice of intemperance, or even indulges in a liberal consumption of
spirits, then instead of merely shattering his nerves, he is likely
to become a raving maniac, for it takes much less whisky to bring on
delirium tremens there, than it does in a temperate climate.
Long sojourn in some other lands appears to act in a different
manner. In tropical Africa it seems to be the moral balance that
is lost. The conscience is blunted if not destroyed, the veneer of
civilisation is stripped off, the white man reverts to savagery. The
senseless cruelties of Peters, Lothaire, Voulet, Chanoine, and of
some of the outlying officials of the Congo Free State are not mere
coincidences. They must be ascribed to one common cause, and that is
debasement by environment. The moral nature of a white man seems to
become contaminated by long isolation amongst savages as surely as
the physical health by living amongst lepers.
If a poor white man wishes to sink to the level of a native, he has
only to marry a native woman, and his object will be fully attained in
a few years. But he will find it very much to his pecuniary interest,
for she will buy cheaper and sell dearer than he can, and will
manage his house and his business too, most economically. Some of her
relations will come and live with him, so that he will not feel lonely,
and a half-caste family will grow up round about him, talking the
dialect of their mother, which he, perhaps, does not understand. But if
the poor white man takes out a white wife, he will probably have the
pain and distress of seeing her fade away under the severity of the
climate, which his means do not permit him to alleviate. White women
suffer from the heat far more than men. Children cannot be properly
brought up there after the age of twelve. They must either be sent
home to be educated, or allowed to deteriorate and grow up inferior
to their parents in health, strength, and moral fibre. When I think
of these things, I feel amazed at Oscar F. Williams' presumption
in writing that letter. I hope that not many have taken his advice,
and that any who have will call on him to fulfil his imprudent pledges.
However, now I have done with the poor white man. Capital is the
great necessity of the Philippines. The labour is there if Generals
Otis and McArthur have left any natives alive.
More banks are wanted. At present there are three important banks in
Manila, and two of them have branches in Yloilo. The Hong Kong and
Shanghai Banking Corporation has the largest resources; next comes the
Chartered Bank of India, Australasia, and China, and lastly the Banco
Español Filipino. The first two give the most perfect facilities for
business. I was only interested in importing, but certainly nothing
more could be desired by an importer than their system of opening
credits against shipping documents; for practically he only had to
pay for the goods when they arrived in Manila. All their business
was done in the most expeditious manner, and I could suggest no
improvement on their methods.
The Banco Español Filipino was in a measure under government control,
its procedure was consequently very slow, and its ways those of
bygone days.
These banks, however, did not advance money to cultivators to clear
lands, plant crops, or erect machinery, as the returns are too slow,
not to say doubtful. Yet this is what is wanted; banks in Manila
and the chief towns that will advance money for such purposes, under
the advice of experts personally acquainted with the cultivators and
their lands. Such a business certainly requires great intelligence
and discernment.
Still there is a future for such banks, for agriculturists have to
pay enormous rates of interest and commissions for money to carry
on their plantations. Such banks could also finance timber-cutters,
gold miners, and other bona fide workers.
Amongst the enterprises I have recommended when writing about
the Pampangos, and others engaged in planting sugar-cane, is the
establishment of central sugar factories in suitable localities. Such
undertakings, judiciously administered, would have every prospect
of success.
There is also room for paper-mills, rice-mills, cotton-mills,
and saw-mills, but all these, especially the last, need careful
consideration for the selection of the locality where they are to be
placed. The manufacture of various kinds of leather could be greatly
extended and improved. There is employment for more coasting steamers
and schooners. The latter and hulls of small steamers can be built
in the country from the native timber.
Although the development of means of communication is all-important,
it is evident from the configuration of the Archipelago that no great
length of railway is required, nor would it pay to construct them
in so mountainous a country. Water-carriage is all-important. In
Luzon a line of railway might be made from Manila to Batangas with
a branch into the Laguna province. It would traverse a fertile and
thickly-populated country.
A short line of railway or electric tramway from near Siniloan on
the Lake to the Pacific would be most useful in giving access to and
developing the eastern coast, or contra costa, as it is called. This
coast is very backward in every way, indeed from Baler to Punta
Escarpada on its extreme north, it is quite unknown, and remains in the
possession of the Dumagas, an aboriginal tribe of heathen savages of
low type, just as at the time of the Spanish conquest; and it would be
worth while to study the question of cutting a ship-canal through this
narrow strip of land if the mouth could be protected from the Pacific
surf. There is also Bishop Gainza's project that might be revived, that
of cutting a canal for country craft from Pasacao in Camarines Sur to
the River Vicol. In Negros and Panay some short lines from the ports
through the sugar lands might pay if constructed very economically.
Tramways between populous towns not far apart in Luzon and Panay
would probably pay very well, as the people are fond of visiting
their friends.
It will probably be many years before Mindanao will be in a position
to warrant the construction of railways. The island has relapsed into
barbarism as a consequence of the withdrawal of the Spanish garrisons
and detachments, and of nearly all the Jesuit missionaries.
It could, however, give employment to a flotilla of small steamers
and sailing vessels on its northern and southern coasts.
Such is my opinion in brief upon the possibilities of the development
of industries and commerce.
That the commerce of the islands, now mainly British, will ultimately
pass into American hands, can scarcely be doubted. They are not yet
firmly seated in power, but their attitude to British and foreign firms
is already sufficiently pronounced to allow an observant onlooker to
make a forecast of what it will be later on.
Dominating Cuba, holding the Philippines, the Sandwich Islands and
Porto Rico, the Americans will control the cane sugar trade, the
tobacco trade, and the hemp trade, in addition to the vast branches
of production they now hold in their hands.
CHAPTER XIX.
LIFE IN MANILA.
(A CHAPTER FOR THE LADIES.)
Climate--Seasons--Terrible Month of May--Hot
winds--Longing for rain--Burst of the monsoon--The
Alimóom--Never sleep on the ground floor--Dress--Manila
houses--Furniture--Mosquitoes--Baths--Gogo--Servants--Wages
in 1892--The Maestro cook--The guild
of cooks--The Mayordomo--Household budget,
1892--Diet--Drinks--Ponies--Carriage a necessity for a lady--The
garden--Flowers--Shops--Pedlars--Amusements--Necessity of access
to the hills--Good Friday in Manila.
Climate.
The average shade temperature of Manila all the year round is 83°
Fahrenheit. The highest I have ever seen there was 96°, at 2 P.M. in
May, and the lowest 68°, at 6 A.M. in December.
The temperature of the sea-water on the shore at Malate is usually
82°, and that of well-water about the same. The water-pipes from the
reservoir at San Juan del Monte are not buried, but are carried on an
embankment. They are partly shaded from the sun by clumps of bamboos,
but on a hot afternoon the water sometimes attains a temperature
of 90°.
Those figures are high, yet the heat is mitigated by the sea-breeze,
and the nights are usually cool enough to allow a refreshing sleep.
The climate of Manila is not harmful to the constitutions of healthy
Europeans or Americans between twenty and fifty years of age, provided
they at once adopt a mode of life suitable to the country, and in
clothing, diet, habits and recreations, adapt themselves to the new
conditions. On the other hand, I apprehend that, for persons of either
sex over fifty who have had no previous experience of life in the
tropics, there will be great difficulty in acclimatising themselves,
and the mortality amongst such will be abnormal. Ladies' complexions
will not suffer more than if they lived in a steam-heated house in
Harlem, New York.
In all this part of the world the weather depends upon the
monsoons. These blow with great regularity over the ocean, six months
from the north-east and six months from the south-west. Their action
on any particular place is, however, modified by the situation of
mountains with regard to that place. The changes of the monsoon occur
in April--May and October--November. It is the south-west monsoon
that brings rain to Manila, and it has a fine stretch of the China
Sea to career over, all the way, in fact, from the shores of Sumatra,
till it drives the billows tumbling and foaming into the bay.
The typhoons form far out in the Pacific near the region of the Western
Carolines, and, whirling round the opposite way to the hands of a
watch, they proceed on a curve that may strike Luzon, or, perhaps,
go on for a thousand miles or more, and carry death and destruction
to the fishermen of Fo Kien or Japan.
When a typhoon passes clear, the usual result is several days of
continuous heavy rain, but the air is cleared and purified. But should
the vortex of the cyclone pass over your residence, you will not be
likely to forget it for the rest of your life.
The year in Manila may be roughly divided into three seasons:--
Rainy Season--June, July, August, September. In these four months
about 100 inches of rain may fall, and 20 more in the rest of
the year.
Cool Season (so-called)--October, November, December, January.
Hot Season--February, March, April, May.
May is the terrible month of the year, the month of fevers and
funerals. Let all who can, leave Manila before this month arrives.
Hot, dry winds, dust-laden, pervade the houses, and have such an
effect even on well-seasoned hardwoods, that tables, wardrobes and
door-panels, split from end to end, or from top to bottom, with a
noise like a pistol-shot, leaving cracks a quarter of an inch wide
that gape till the rainy season restores the moisture.
At this time the heat is at its maximum, and all nature gasps or
fades. Not a drop of rain has fallen for months, the roads are inches
deep in dust, the rivers nearly stagnant, and covered with a green
scum, the whole country quite brown, the vegetation burnt up by the
sun. Only the cockroaches rejoice; at this season they fly at night,
and you may have a few fine specimens of the Blatta Orientalis alight
on your face, or on the back of your neck, should you doze a moment
on your long chair. Personally, I am proof against a good deal, but
must confess that the hairy feet of a cockroach on my face or neck
make me shudder.
As the month draws to a close, every afternoon the storm-clouds
gather over the Antipolo Hills. All Manila, lying in the glare and
dust, prays for rain. Overhead, a sky like burnished copper darts
down heat-rays that penetrate the roofs, and literally strike the
heads of the occupants. The dry air is surcharged with electricity to
such an extent that every living thing feels the powerful influence;
the sweetest natures become irritable, and quite ready to admit that
"this is, indeed, a beastly world."
The nervous system suffers, the newspapers relate cases of stabbing,
or even running amok amongst the natives, and perhaps some suicides
occur. If, as not unfrequently happens, you should at this time
receive an invitation to the funeral of a friend or compatriot just
deceased from typhoid fever, and to be buried within twenty-four
hours, you will begin to wonder whether Manila is good enough for
you. Day after day the rain-clouds disperse amidst the rumbling of
a distant thunder-storm, and day after day do longing eyes watch for
their coming, and hope for the cloud-burst.
At last, when the limit of endurance seems reached, a cool breath of
air heralds the downpour. The leaves rustle, the feathery bamboos
incline before the blast, the sky darkens, the cataracts of heaven
are loosed, and the water tumbles down in torrents.
Now keep yourself in the house, and on the upper floor, and let the
water from your roofs run to waste. The natives, usually so careless of
a wetting, avoid bathing or wetting themselves with the first waters,
which they consider dangerous, and not without reason. The exhalations
from the newly-wetted earth are to be avoided; these earth-vapours are
called by the Tagals Alimóom. Now the dust is washed off the roofs and
leaves, and in three days the fallows are covered with small shoots
of grass or weeds, the maidenhair ferns and mosses spring from every
stone wall. The reign of dust is over; the reign of mud begins. Now the
frogs inaugurate their nightly concerts. After a time you get used to
the deafening noise; you do not even hear it. But they suddenly stop,
and you are astonished at the stillness.
As the rainy season proceeds, the air is almost entirely saturated
with moisture: the saturation in August sometimes exceeds 97 per cent.
Now green mould will grow upon your boots and other leather articles,
if left a couple of days without cleaning. Everything feels damp,
and it is a good plan to air your wardrobe round a brazier of red-hot
charcoal.
You will have noticed that the natives universally build their houses
upon piles. So do the Malays all over the Far East. This is the
expression of the accumulated experience of centuries, and you will
be wise to conform to it by never sleeping on the ground floor. To
a dweller in the Philippines this tip is worth the price of the book.
Dress.
The dress of both sexes should be as light as possible; my advice is,
wear as little as possible, and wear it thin and loose. The access
of air to the body is necessary to carry off the perspiration, some
of which is in the form of vapour.
Ladies will find the greatest comfort in the simple but elegant
dresses called batas, which are princess robes made of embroidered
cambric or lawn. The materials for these dresses can be purchased in
Manila, and excellent sempstresses and embroiderers can be hired at
moderate wages, and the dresses made in the house. For the evenings,
thin silk or muslin dresses, cut low, are most suitable.
Men who are young and robust should wear white duck jackets,
and trousers without waistcoats. Elderly men, or those subject to
rheumatism, will do well to wear thin flannel suits. The material
for these can be got in Hong Kong. For travelling and shooting,
unbleached linen, guingon, or rayadillo, is the best material,
made into Norfolk jackets and pantaloons. I always found white or
brown leather shoes the best wear, and canvas shooting-boots capped
and strapped with leather. A Panama hat, or a solar topee, is the
best head-wear. If one has to be much in the sun, a white umbrella,
lined with green, should be carried. Dress is not an expensive item
in Manila. Up to 1892, the washing for a whole family, with bed and
table-linen, could be done for $12 per month.
Houses.
Most of the older houses in Manila are of ample size, and well suited
to the climate, but some of the newer ones, built to the designs
of a Spanish architect, and having glass windows, are very hot and
uncomfortable. It is essential to live in a good-sized house, so
as to escape the heat by moving to a different part as the sun goes
round. Thus you will have your early breakfast in one corner of the
balcony; your tiffin, perhaps, on the ground floor; your tea in the
open corridor looking on the garden, and your dinner, at 7.30 P.M.,
in the dining-room under the punkah.
House-rent is paid monthly, and, up to 1892, a good detached house of
moderate size could be got in one of the best suburbs for $100 per
month, and for less in Santa Ana. Such a house would stand in its
own garden, and would have stables for several horses, and shelter
for one or two carriages.
I understand that house-rent is now nearly doubled in consequence
of the American competition. From their lavish expenditure, we must
infer that the new-comers possess large private means in addition to
their salaries.
Furniture.
The furnishing of a tropical house is much simplified, because no
carpets or curtains are needed. The floors are of polished hardwood,
and they take a good deal of work to keep them in good order. A
few rugs can be put down here and there, if a little colour is
required. Where the floor is bad, Chinese matting can be laid down at
small expense. Some of the Mestizos import costly furniture, but few
of the European residents attempted to follow their example. Vienna
bent-wood furniture, with cane seats, was commonly used, and was very
suitable, also bamboo or rattan furniture, brought from China or made
in the country. Such things as wardrobes or bookcases should have
ring-bolts on each side for lashing to the walls. A child or grown
person might be killed by a heavy piece of furniture falling on it
during an earthquake.
Furniture of all sorts is made in Manila of Red Narra, or other
wood, by Chinese cabinet-makers, who will work to purchasers'
requirements. Very excellent teak-wood furniture is made in Hong Kong
and Shanghai.
The problem of furnishing a large house for a moderate sum, and making
it comfortable, and at the same time artistic and refined, is not a
difficult one, and has often been very satisfactorily solved in Manila.
Large stoneware flower-pots and pedestals can be purchased in Manila,
and no more suitable ornament can be found than handsome palms, ferns,
or flowering plants, for halls, corridors, or reception rooms.
The beds should be large, and have thin, hard mattresses and horse-hair
pillows stuffed rather hard. The coolest thing to lie upon is a fine
grass mat, or petate. Covering is seldom required. On the bed will
be seen a large bolster lying at right angles to the pillows, so as
to be parallel to the sleeper. The use of this is not apparent to
the newly-arrived Briton or American. This is the Abrazador, used
throughout the boundless East.
The candidate for repose, whether on the hard bed, or harder floor
or deck, lies on his side, and rests his upper arm and leg on the
Abrazador, thus relieving his hip and shoulder from much of his
weight. He takes care to keep it a little way off his body to allow
the air to circulate.
A mosquito-net must be fitted to every bed, but may not always be
required. In the sleeping-room there should be no curtains, and
the least possible amount of furniture, and, during the hot season,
the bed should stand in the middle of the room. It is advisable to
have no light in the bedroom, but good lights are a necessity in
the dressing-rooms.
By being careful about this you will keep your bedroom free from
mosquitoes. Petroleum is commonly used in the Philippines for lighting,
and unless the lamps are of the best quality, and carefully trimmed,
there is considerable danger of accident. I used to keep some plants
in pots in each room so as to throw the earth over any oil that might
get alight. Whenever there was a shock of earthquake, I extinguished
the petroleum lamps, and lighted candles instead. And whenever we went
out to a dinner or dance, every petroleum lamp was extinguished, and
cocoanut-oil lights or candles substituted in case of an earthquake
whilst we were out.
Frequent baths are indispensable to good health in Manila. Enormous
earthenware tubs, made in China, can be procured. These are placed
in the bath-room, and filled in the evening, so that the water gets
refreshingly cool during the night. It is not at all advisable to get
into the water, as the effect is not so good as dashing the water over
the head with a small bucket called a tabo. By using the water thus,
and rubbing the skin briskly with a towel, a reaction soon sets in,
and the bather feels quite invigorated.
A bath of this kind when rising, and another before dressing for
dinner, will do much to mitigate the rigour of the climate.
From several stories told me by friends recently returned from Manila,
it would seem that the Americans there, or some of them, at least,
are not sufficiently alive to the necessity of daily baths, but I
refrain from giving particulars.
This seems strange when one remembers the profusion with which baths
are provided in all the modern hotels in the great cities of America.
Now I must tell you about gogo. This is the dried bark of a creeper
that grows wild in the woods, and it is the finest thing possible to
keep your hair in order.
There are several kinds of this plant, the three most commonly used
are gogo bayugo (Entada scandens Benth.); gogong casay (Peltophorum
ferrugineum Benth.); gogong paltaning (Albizzia saponaria Blum.).
As washing the hair with gogo is one of the luxuries of the
Philippines, I shall describe how it is done.
A servant pounds a piece of the stem and bark, and steeps it in a
basin, twisting and wringing it occasionally until the soluble part
has been extracted. He then adds to the liquor two or three limes,
squeezing the juice out, and soaking the peel. He also throws in
a handful of crushed citron-leaves, and strains the liquor through
muslin.
The servant then ladles this over your head with a calabash, or
cocoa-nut shell, whilst you rub your hair with your hands.
As the liquor is strongly alkaline, you must be careful to keep
your eyes closed until the head has been rinsed with water. Your
hair-wash is made fresh whenever you want it, and may cost from two
to three pence.
The fragrance of the citron-leaves is delicious, and when you have
rinsed and dried your hair, you will find it as soft, as bright, and as
sweet-smelling as the costliest perfumes of Bond Street could make it.
Servants.
In the good old times we were well off for servants in Manila. They
flocked up from the provinces seeking places, and those employers
who took pains to enquire closely into the antecedents of applicants,
could almost ensure being well served.
Englishmen paid good wages, and paid punctually, hence they could
command the best servants.
Personally, I may say that I kept my servants for years--some nearly
the whole time I was in the islands. I had very little trouble with
any of them. There are people who say that they have no feeling,
but I remember that when I embarked with my family on leaving Manila,
my servants, on taking leave at the wharf, were convulsed with tears
at our departure.
A family living comfortably in a good-sized house would require the
following servants:--
Wages in 1892.
Dollars.
Mayordomo, or steward, who would act as butler 8 per month.
Two houseboys, one would valet the master, the
other would trim lamps and pull the punkah, @ $6 12 per month.
Sempstress or maid to mistress 6 per month.
Gardener or coolie, would carry water for
baths, sweep and water 6 per month.
Coachman, would look after one pair of horses
and carriage 12 per month.
Food for six servants, @ $3 each 18 per month.
Maestro cook 18 per month.
--
80
American competition for servants has more than doubled these rates
of pay. Cooks get $50 now.
The house-boys and maid live in the house, and sleep on the floor,
with a grass mat and pillows. The mayordomo sometimes lives quite
near, being, perhaps, a married man. The coachman has his room by
the stables, and the gardener lives in the lodge, or in a small hut
in the garden.
The maestro-cook does not usually sleep on the premises. He
arrives about 11 A.M., bearing two baskets depending from a pinga,
or palma-brava staff, resting on his shoulder. These baskets will
contain the day's marketing--eggs, fish, meat, chicken, salad,
tomatoes, bananas, firewood, and many other things.
He promptly sets to work, and by twelve, or half-past, presents a
tiffin of three or four courses.
His afternoon is devoted to preparing the more elaborate dinner due
at 7.30 P.M., when he will be ready to serve soup, fish, entrées,
a roast, a curry, and sweets, all conscientiously prepared, and sent
in hot. Most excellent curries are made in Manila, both by Chinamen
and natives. To my mind, the best are made from prawns, from crab,
or from frogs' legs. If you cannot eat anything else at dinner,
you can always make out with the curry.
The dinner over, the cook asks for orders, and takes his departure,
to return with perfect punctuality the following day.
The Chinese cooks all belong to a guild, which is a trades' union
and a co-operative society, and are bound to follow the rules.
They would never dream of going into a market and bidding one against
the other.
Their system is to assemble early every morning at the guild house,
and for each man to state his requirements. A scribe then tabulates the
orders--so many turkeys, so many chickens, etc., and two experienced
cooks are commissioned as buyers to go into the market and purchase
the whole lot, the provisions being afterwards fairly divided amongst
the members, each having his turn to get the choice pieces, such as
saddle of mutton, kidneys, etc. But if a dinner-party is contemplated,
the cook who has to prepare it gets the preference.
They thus obtain everything much cheaper than the native cooks, even
after taking a good squeeze for themselves. I believe that they have
a fixed percentage which they charge, and would consider it dishonest
to take any more, whilst the guild would not approve of their taking
any less.
If you send away your cook, the guild will settle for you who is
to replace him. All your culinary fancies will be well known to the
council of the guild, and they will pick out a man up to your standard.
It was customary to give the cook a fixed sum per day to provide
tiffin and dinner, and this was paid once a week.
I found that two dollars a day was sufficient to amply provide for my
family, and I could have one guest to tiffin or dinner without notice,
and be confident that the meal would be sufficient. In fact, this was
part of my agreement with the cook. By giving short notice, the dinner
could be extended for two or three people at an additional charge.
The cook rendered no account of the money he received; but, if I
was not satisfied with the meals he provided, I admonished him,
and if he did not do better I discharged him. I may say, however,
that there was very seldom cause for complaint, for the Chinese are
thorough business men.
When a dinner-party was given, the cook provided according to order,
and sent in his bill for the extras. There was no housekeeping, and
no need to order anything, and you knew exactly how much you were
spending weekly, and how much a dinner-party cost.
The cleaning and polishing your plate and glass, the laying the
table, the tasteful adorning of it with variegated leaves, with
ferns or flowers, and the artistic folding of the serviettes, may
with confidence be left to the mayordomo's care; every detail will
be attended to down to the ylang-ylang flowers in the finger-bowls.
With such servants as these, the mistress of the house, free from
domestic cares, may take her shower-bath, and, clad in Kabaya
and Sarong, await the moment when she must resume the garments of
civilisation, and receive her guests looking as fresh, in spite of
the thermometer, as if she had stepped out of a coupé in Piccadilly
or Fifth Avenue. Ladies used to the ministry of Irish Biddy or Aunt
Chloe ought to fancy themselves transported to heaven when they find
themselves at the head of a household in Manila.
I append a note of household expenses for a family living moderately
in Manila in 1892. I suppose the cost has been doubled under American
rule.
Household Budget in 1892.
For a family of three adults and three children.
Mexican Dollars.
House-rent per month 100
Servants' wages and food per month 80
Washing per month 12
Forage and grain for two ponies per month 16
Allowance to cook for market per month 60
Extra for two dinner-parties of six or eight
guests each 20
Bill at Almacen (grocery store) for groceries,
ordinary wines, spirits, and petroleum per month 65
Bill at Botica (drug store) for soda water, ice
and various articles per month 20
Case of champagne for dinner-parties per month 25
Repairs to carriage, shoeing horses, materials
for cleaning stable, etc. per month 10
Garden expenses--plants, tools, hose per month 5
Subscriptions to clubs, telephone, newspapers,
and charities per month 20
Tobacco and cigars per month 7
Taxes on servants and horses per month 10
Clothing for self and family per month 50
Pocket money, entertainments, and sundries per month 100
-----
Per month 600
Say $7,200 per annum.
Diet.
For the benefit of Boston readers (if I should be lucky enough to
have any in that learned city), I may say that pork and beans is not
a suitable diet for a tropical country. I should also forbid the "New
England dinner," and roast goose, or sucking pig, stewed terrapin,
and pumpkin pie. A light diet of eggs or the excellent fish to be had
in Manila, chickens fattened on maize, beef or mutton, once a day,
and rice, vegetables and salad, with plenty of ripe fruit, according
to the season, is desirable. The fare can be diversified by oysters,
prawns, crabs, wild duck, snipe, and quail, all of which are cheap
and very good in the season. There are no pheasants in Luzon, but
the jungle cock (labuyao) is as good or better.
In the tropics a good table is a necessity, for the appetite needs
tempting. Such a diet as I have mentioned will keep you in health,
especially if you are careful not to eat too much, but to eat of the
best. If you economise on your table you will have to spend the money
at the drug-store. Taboo pork, because--well, when you have been a
week or two in the country you will not need to ask why--Moses and
Mahomet knew what they were about.
My remarks about drinks are intended for the men, as ladies do not
need any advice on this subject. In a tropical climate it is necessary
to be very careful in the use of spirits.
Having lived for more than twenty-five years in the tropics, and
having kept my health remarkably well, I feel warranted in giving my
experience. I have made surveys, or directed works, in many climates,
exposed to all weathers, and I know that the very worst thing a man
can take, if he has to work or march in the sun, is spirits. There is
nothing that will predispose him to sunstroke as much as spirits. For
marching, walking, or shooting, in the sun, I know nothing like cold
tea without milk or sugar. It should be poured off the leaves after
infusing for two minutes.
When you reach shelter you can take a lemon squash or a cagelada--this
is the juice of cageles (a kind of orange) with sugar and water--which
is a most cooling drink. Never take spirits to buck you up to your
work. Whatever spirits you drink, let it be after sunset. I am a
believer in drinking wine at meals; it makes me shudder to see people
drinking tea, lemonade, or milk, with their dinners, and laying up
for themselves torments from dyspepsia, for which they have to swallow
pills by the boxful.
Ponies.
There is a race of ponies in the islands that is descended from Spanish
and Arab horses, and owing to an absolutely haphazard breeding, the
size has diminished, although the symmetry has been preserved. Those
from Ilocos are the smallest, but they are the hardiest and most
spirited.
A pair of ponies and a Victoria is an absolute necessity for a lady
in Manila, and I have little doubt that an American judge would
declare the "failure to provide" to be cruelty and grant a divorce
if applied for.
Both harness and carriages are made in the city, but imported harness
can be had, better finished, at double the price.
In my time a fine pair of ponies could be bought for $200 to $300;
a new Victoria for $500, and harness for $60. The cost of keeping a
pair of ponies was $16 per month, and a coachman $12 per month, food,
and livery. What the cost is now I have no information.
The public carriages were not fit for a lady to use, though sometimes a
suitable one could be hired by the week or month from a livery stable.
The ponies are wonderfully strong and sure-footed. I weigh over 200
lbs., yet some of these ponies have carried me about all day over
rough ground without stumbling. They carry a lady beautifully, and
riding is the best form of exercise a lady can take.
The Garden.
The garden will be a great source of occupation to the mistress of
the house. If it is sheltered from the wind and supplied with water,
she can grow almost anything. And plants will come up quickly, too,
under the influence of the heat and moisture.
There are nursery gardens at Pasay, where all sorts of plants and
seedlings can be obtained; in fact, these are hawked about morning
and evening.
The so-called gardener rarely has much skill, but he will clean up
the garden and water it, and do what he is told.
The most beautiful and delicate ferns can be grown, and
magnificent orchids got to flower, if they are well sheltered in
a mat-shed. Bananas and pines grow without trouble, and radishes,
salads, tomatoes, cucumbers, and melons, can be raised.
Shops.
You can get most things you want in Manila. The drug-stores are mostly
in German hands, but there is one English one where the usual English
articles can be got.
There is an ample supply of wines, spirits, and preserved provisions
at the grocers, and the drapers keep on hand any quantity of silks,
muslins, and piece-goods, with all the necessary fixings. French and
German shoes are in plenty.
The goods in the jewellers' shops and in the fancy bazaars are all of
a very florid style, to suit the gaudy taste of the wealthy Filipinos.
Such piece-goods and haberdashery as are in common use are brought
round to the ladies at their own houses by Chinese hawkers, who,
having small expenses, sell remarkably cheap.
They are always very civil and attentive, and will gladly get you
any article that they have not in stock at the moment.
Ladies save going about in the heat and dust by purchasing from
these men.
Amusements.
The amusements for ladies were limited to riding, lawn-tennis, boating,
picnics, and frequent dances. I remember many delightful dances
in Manila. One was given to the officers of the U.S.S. Brooklyn,
and another to the U.S.S. Richmond. At the latter, the ladies were
in traje del pais, i.e., dressed as natives and mestizas. And very
handsome some of them looked. Now and again some theatrical company
would come over, mostly from Saigon. There were a good many dinner
parties given amongst the British community, and weekly receptions
at most of the principal houses, during the time I lived in Manila,
where you could get a little game of cards, dance, flirt, or take it
easy, just as you liked.
The ladies very wisely took a rest from two to four, to be fresh for
the evening. The proper hour for calling was at 9 P.M. or 10 A.M. on
Sundays after High Mass.
I knew several ladies, English and American, who look back upon a
term of years spent in Manila as the happiest in their lives.
Children born in Manila can remain there without damage to their
health till ten or twelve years old, and after having spent a few
years at home are indistinguishable from children born and brought
up in England.
The principal thing lacking in Manila is means of access to the hills
where people could go occasionally for a change and during the hot
season. I have little doubt that the Americans will provide this
before long.
Manila was not without its frivolous element; but there was one
period of the year when all frivolities were suspended, and religious
observances monopolised the people's time. That was in Lent, and the
ceremonies culminated on Good Friday.
The Very Noble and always Loyal City of Manila celebrates the
greatest day of the Christian year very devoutly. On foot, and robed
in black, its inhabitants high and low throng the churches and attend
the procession.
All shops are closed, vehicular traffic is suspended, the ensigns
hang at half-mast, the yards of ships are crossed in saltire; not a
sound is heard.
The capital and the whole of the civilised Philippines mark the
crucifixion of our Saviour by two days of devotion, of solemn
calm. Under Spanish rule a stately procession, attended by the highest
and the humblest, filed slowly through the silent streets, the Civil
Government, the Law, the Army, the Navy, the Municipality and the
Religious Orders, being represented by deputations in full dress,
who followed bare-headed the emblems of the faith in the presence of
an immense crowd of natives, who bent the knee and bowed the head in
homage to the crucified Saviour.
I never failed to witness this imposing spectacle when in Manila,
and it was mortifying to me to remember that Good Friday in London
is nothing but a vulgar holiday, and that probably not one person out
of a hundred in its vast population realises in the least degree the
event that solemn fast is intended to commemorate.
The death-like stillness of Good Friday remained unbroken till High
Mass was over on Saturday morning, when the cathedral bells rang out
a joyous peal, soon taken up by the bells of the numerous churches
in the city and all over the provinces.
The ensigns were run up to the staff or peak, the yards were squared,
and royal salutes thundered out over land and sea, whilst clouds of
white smoke enveloped the moss-grown ramparts of the saluting battery,
and the useless, lumbering masts and spars of the flagship. Then
steam-whistles and sirens commenced their hideous din, the great doors
of the houses were thrown open, and hundreds of bare-backed ponies,
with half-naked grooms, issued at full gallop to the sea or river.
Then Manila resumed its every-day life till the next Holy Thursday
came round.
CHAPTER XX.
SPORT.
(A CHAPTER FOR MEN.)
The Jockey Club--Training--The races--An archbishop
presiding--The Totalisator or Pari Mutuel--The Manila
Club--Boating club--Rifle clubs--Shooting--Snipe--Wild
duck--Plover--Quail--Pigeons--Tabon--Labuyao, or jungle
cock--Pheasants--Deer--Wild pig--No sport in fishing.
Manila was not so badly off for sport as might be thought. The
pony-races, conducted under the auspices of the Jockey Club, excited
the greatest interest amongst all classes.
The ponies underwent their training at the race-course in Santa Mesa,
and their owners and other members of the club were provided with
early breakfast there. The native grooms took as much interest in
the success of the pony they attended as the owner, and they backed
their favourite for all they were worth.
Only members were allowed to ride, and the weights were remarkably
heavy for such small ponies. When the races came off, business was
almost suspended for three days, and all Manila appeared at the
race-course. There were sometimes two thousand vehicles and immense
crowds on foot.
The ladies in their most resplendent toilettes were received by the
stewards, presented with elegantly-bound programmes, and conducted
to their places on the grand stand.
Presently a military band would strike up the "Marcha Réal," as the
Governor-General's equipage entered the enclosure, and that exalted
personage, dressed in black frock coat and silk hat, white trousers
and waistcoat, with the crimson silk sash of a general, just peeping
from under his waistcoat, was conducted to his box, followed by his
suite and the favoured persons invited to join his party.
The highest authority in the country presided and handed the prizes to
the winning jockeys, who were brought up to him by the vice-president
of the club. But on an occasion when the Governor-General and Segundo
Cabo were absent, I witnessed the races which were presided over
by no less a personage than His Grace the Archbishop of Manila,
Fray Pedro Payo, in his archiepiscopal garments, and smoking a big
Havana cigar. The old gentleman enjoyed the sport and most graciously
presented the handsome prizes to the winners.
Betting was conducted by the totalisator, or pari-mutuel, the bet
being five dollars, repeated as often as you liked. As I presume my
readers understand this system, I shall not describe it. The natives
bet amongst themselves to a considerable amount.
Pavilions were erected by different clubs or bodies, and a
profuse hospitality characterised each day. Winners of large
silver cups usually filled them with champagne and passed them
round. Bets were made with the ladies as an excuse for giving them
presents. Dinner-parties were given in the evenings at private houses,
and there were dinners at the clubs. There were two race-meetings in
the year. No doubt this sport, temporarily interrupted by insurrection
and war, will again flourish when tranquillity prevails.
There was a boating-club in connection with the British Club at
Nagtajan, now removed to Ermita, and some very good skiffs and boats
were available. There was a regatta and illuminated procession of
boats each year.
Polo clubs and rifle clubs had a rather precarious existence,
except that the Swiss Rifle Club was well kept up, and there were
some excellent shots in it. There was a lawn tennis club, which had
ladies and gentlemen as members, and some very good games were played
there and valuable prizes given.
Shooting was a favourite sport with many Englishmen and a few mestizos.
Excellent snipe-shooting is to be had in all the paddy-fields around
Manila and the lake. But at San Pedro on the Pasig, there is a wide
expanse of rough ground with clumps of bushes, and it was here that
the most exciting sport was to be had, and it took some shooting
to get the birds as they flew across the openings between the
bushes. Snipe-shooting began in September, when the paddy was high
enough to give cover, and lasted to the end of November. The birds,
when they first arrived, were thin, but they soon put on flesh, and
by November were fat and in splendid condition for the table. There
is no better bird to be eaten anywhere than a Manila snipe. Bags of
eighty were sometimes made in a morning by two guns.
Excellent wild-duck and teal-shooting was to be got on and around
the lake and on the Pinag de Candaba, and wherever there was a sheet
of water. When crossing the lake I have seen wild fowl resting on the
surface in such enormous numbers that they looked like sandbanks. They
are not easy to approach, but I have killed some by firing a rifle
into the flock. The crested-lapwing and the golden-plover are in
plenty, and on the seashores widgeon and curlew abound. Inland, on
the stubbles, there are plenty of quail. Pigeons of all sorts, sizes,
and colours, abound at all times, especially when the dap-dap tree
opens its large crimson blossoms. Some kinds of brush-turkeys, such
as the tabon, a bird (Megapodius cuningi) the size of a partridge,
that lays an egg as large as a goose egg and buries it in a mound of
gravel by the shore, are found.
The labuyao, or jungle cock, is rare and not easy to shoot in a
sportsmanlike way, although a poacher could easily shoot them on a
moonlight night.
In the Southern Islands some remarkable pheasants of most brilliant
plumage are to be found, and whilst in Palawan I obtained two good
specimens of the pavito real (Polyplectron Napoleonis), a very handsome
game bird with two sharp spurs on each leg. They are rather larger
than a partridge, but their fan-shaped tails have two rows of eyes
like a peacock's tail, there being four eyes in each feather.
Deer and wild-pig abound, and can be shot within four hours' journey of
Manila by road. Round about Montalban is a good place for them. They
are plentiful at Jala-jala, on the lake at Porac in Pampanga, and
round about the Puerto Jamelo and Pico de Loro, at the mouth of Manila
Bay. In fact, they are found wherever there is cover and pasture for
them. The season is from December to April.
The usual way is to go with a party of five or six guns and employ
some thirty native beaters, each bringing one or two dogs.
The guns are stationed in suitable spots and the beaters and their
dogs, fetching a compass, extend their line and drive the game up to
the guns. This is rather an expensive amusement, as you have to pay
and feed the beaters and their dogs; but it is very good sport, and
in proceeding and returning to camp from two beats in the morning and
two in the afternoon, you got quite as much exercise as you want or as
is good for you. The venison and wild-pig is very good eating, but it
is difficult to get it to Manila fresh, whatever precautions you take.
Taken all round, Luzon is well supplied with game, and may be
considered satisfactory from a sportsman's point of view.
There is no sport to be had in fishing; in Luzon, so far as I know,
there are no game fish. When living on the banks of the Rio Grande,
near Macabébe, I noticed some natives taking fish at night by placing
a torch on the bow of a canoe, which was paddled by one man slowly
along near the bank, another man standing in the bow with a fish-spear
of three prongs, similar to the "grains" used in England. As the fish
came up to the light he struck at them with his spear and managed to
pick up a good many.
This appeared good sport, and I arranged for a native to come for me
in a canoe with torch, and I borrowed a spear. We started off, but
there was some difficulty in standing up in a small, narrow canoe,
and darting the spear. My first stroke was a miss, the fish escaped;
my second, however, was all right, and I shook my catch off the spear
into the canoe, but the native shouted out, "Másamang áhas pó!" (a
poisonous snake, sir) not forgetting to be polite even in that
somewhat urgent situation. The snake was wriggling towards me, but
I promptly picked him up again on the spear and threw him overboard,
much to my own relief and that of the Pampanga.
It was one of those black and yellow water-snakes, reputed as
poisonous. That was enough fishing for me, and I remembered that I had
a particular appointment at home, and left fishing to professionals.
Curiously enough, fish cannot be taken by the trawl, for a mestizo
got out a trawling steamer with gear, and men to handle it, and after
repeated trials in different places, had to give it up as a bad job.
CHAPTER XXI.
BRIEF GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF LUZON.
Irregular shape--Harbours--Bays--Mountain ranges--Blank
spaces on maps--North-east coast unexplored--River and
valley of Cagayan--Central valley from Bay of Lingayen
to Bay of Manila--Rivers Agno, Chico, Grande--The Pinag of
Candaba--Project for draining--River Pasig--Laguna de Bay--Lake
of Taal--Scene of a cataclysm--Collapse of a volcanic cone 8000
feet high--Black and frowning island of Mindoro--Worcester's pluck
and endurance--Placers of Camarines--River Bicol--The wondrous
purple cone of Mayon--Luxuriant vegetation.
The island of Luzon is of so irregular a shape that it cannot be
intelligibly described without the aid of a map.
That part of it to the north and west of the isthmus of Tayabas lies
with its longitudinal axis due north and south, and has a fairly
even coast line, there being only two great indentations, the Bays of
Lingayen and Manila, both on the west coast. There are also on that
side and to the south the smaller bays of Subic, Balayan, Batangas,
and Tayabas.
On the east coast of this northern part are the unimportant bays of
Palanan, Dilasac, Casiguran and Baler, besides the great bay of Lamon,
sheltered by the islands Calbalete and Alabat.
But in the remainder of Luzon, from the isthmus of Tayabas eastward
and southward, the coast line is most irregular, and the width much
reduced. A chain of mountains commencing at and forming the two
above-mentioned islands and running in a south-easterly direction
forms the peninsula of Tayabas.
Another range, starting near the Bay of Sogod, runs a little south of
east as far as Mount Labo (1552 metres), turns south-east, and runs
along the southern shore of the fertile valley of the River Vicol,
and with many a break and twist and turn reaches Mount Bulusan, whose
slopes run down to the waters of the Strait of San Bernardino. The
convolutions of this range form on the south the secure harbour of
Sorsogon, and on the north the bays of Albay, Tabaco, Lagonoy and
Sogod, besides a multitude of smaller ports and bays, for the coast
line is wonderfully broken up by spurs of the main ranges running out
into the sea. Luzon generally is very mountainous, and more especially
so that part lying to the north of 16° 5', where the great ranges
of mountains run in crooked lines but with general north and south
direction. The range running parallel to the Pacific coast is called,
in its most southern part, the Caraballos de Baler, and the rest of
it, up to Punta Escarpada, is known as the Cordillera del Este, or
the Sierra Madre. The central range, starting from Mount Caraballo in
the latitude before mentioned, is called the Cordillera Central for
about a degree of latitude, and from there is known as the Cordillera
del Norte, terminating at Punta Lacatacay, in longitude 121° east
of Greenwich.
The mountains on the western coast are not so lofty, nor do they form
a connected range. They are known as the Sierras de Ilocos. Some of
these ranges are thirty or forty miles long. There are cuts in places
where rivers find an outlet to the sea, such as the Rio Grande de
Laoag, the Rio Abra, and some lesser streams. All these ranges have
spurs or buttresses. Those of the Central Cordillera extend as far,
and join with, the coast range on the west, covering the whole country
and leaving no large plain anywhere, for the valley of the Abra though
long is very narrow. There is a little flat land about Vigan.
But the eastern spurs of the central range, in the part of Luzon under
consideration, do not interlace with the spurs of Sierra Madre, but
leave a magnificent valley more than two degrees of latitude in length
and varying breadth. This is the only great valley of northern Luzon,
and through it runs the Rio Grande de Cagayan and its tributaries,
the Magat and the Rio Chico, with numerous minor streams.
Coasting steamers with about twelve feet draught cross the bar of
the Rio Grande and lie at Aparri. The river is navigable in the dry
season as far as Alcalá for light draught steamers. Alligators abound
in these rivers. In this valley, which extends through the provinces
of Cagayan and Isabela up into Nueva Vizcaya, there is to be found a
great extension of rich alluvial soil on which can be raised, besides
other tropical crops, most excellent tobacco, the cultivation of
which was for many years obligatory upon the inhabitants, who were
forbidden to grow rice.
Little has been done in the way of making a trigonometrical survey of
the Highlands of Luzon, but some military reconnaissance sketches have
been made from time to time by staff or engineer officers employed in
building forts, and from these several maps have been compiled. One of
the most complete of these is by that intrepid explorer and painstaking
geographer, D'Almonte. Another map has been published by Colonel
Olleros. It must be admitted that these maps do not agree with each
other, but that is not unusual in maps of the Philippines, and results
from a custom of the Spanish engineers of doing too much in the office
and not enough in the field. Colonel Olleros has, however, on his map
shown the lesser known mountain ranges very vaguely, and has left more
than a thousand square miles of territory quite blank. This tract lies
between the central range and the Cagayan River, and is inhabited by
the Apayaos, Calingas, Aripas, and Nabayuganes. Olleros also leaves
some large blanks on the east coast, and he is quite right to do so,
for this coast has hardly been visited since Salcedo sailed past it at
the time of the Conquest, and nothing is known about that part of the
island which remains to this day in possession of the savage Dumagas,
a Negrito tribe. That coast is almost entirely destitute of shelter,
and is exposed to the full force of the Pacific surf. It is made more
dangerous by tidal waves which are formed either by distant cyclones
or by submarine upheavals and occur without warning.
The largest and richest valley in Luzon is that which extends without
a break from the shores of the Bay of Lingayen to the Bay of Manila,
having an area of some 3000 square miles, and comprising the best
part of the Provinces of Pangasinan, Tarlac, Nueva Écija, Pampanga,
Bulacan and Manila.
The town of Tarlac is situated about half-way between the two bays,
and approximately marks the watershed. About half-way between Tarlac
and the northern shores of Manila Bay there rises from the plain an
isolated mountain of volcanic origin, Mount Arayat. The crater has been
split through and the mountain thus shows two peaks. It is covered with
forest to the very summit. Arayat was thrown up within historic times,
and the Indians have a tradition that it was completed in one night,
which is a most unlikely story.
Mount Arayat is 2880 feet in height, and in fine weather is plainly
visible from Manila and Cavite, and even from the mouth of the bay.
The principal rivers of this valley are the Agno, the Dagupan, the
Rio Grande and the Rio Chico of Pampanga.
The Agno rises in the mountains of Lepanto, runs south through the
province of Benguet, and S.W., W. and N.W. in Pangasinan into a
labyrinth of creeks communicating by many mouths with the Bay of
Lingayen. The river between Dagupan and San Isidro is navigable
for vessels drawing seven or eight feet, and such craft could reach
Salasa. From there to Rosales only lighters of very small draught
could pass, and after a long spell of dry weather rice-boats drawing
only one foot sometimes run aground. Its principal tributaries are
the Tarlac and the Camiling, with dozens of smaller streams bringing
the whole drainage of the eastern slopes of the Zambales mountains
from Mount Iba to San Isidro.
The Dagupan river rises in the mountains about the limits of Union and
Benguet and runs parallel to the Agno to 16° N. lat., and between it
and the sea. Then it turns to the westward, and runs past the towns
of Urdaneta, Sta, Barbara, and Calasiao, entering the Bay of Lingayen
at Dagupan. It has a multitude of small tributaries which are very
differently shown on D'Almonte's and Olleros' maps, and undoubtedly
this part has never been surveyed.
The Pampanga river has its source on the southern slopes of the
Caraballo, in about 16° 10' N. lat. It runs south in two branches,
the Rio Grande and the Rio Chico; the first, being the easternmost,
receives the drainage from the western slopes of the Cordillera del
Este, whilst the Chico receives tributaries from both sides in the
flat country and also the overflow from the Lake of Canarem.
These two branches unite just north of Mount Arayat, and continue in
a southerly direction. The river is navigable for small craft drawing
three feet as far as Candaba in the dry season, and in the rainy
season as far as San Isidro in Nueva Écija. When in flood during
the rainy season, this river brings down a large body of water and
annually overflows its banks in certain places, where gaps occur. The
escaping water spreads itself over a low plain forming an inundation
some sixteen miles long and several miles wide, called the Pinag de
Candaba. This remains during the rainy season, and when the level
of the Rio Grande has fallen sufficiently, the water of the Pinag
commences to fall also, and during the middle and latter part of the
dry season, and the beginning of the rainy season, only patches of
water remain here and there, which are utilized for breeding fish,
and a crop is raised on the land left dry. A project for draining
the Pinag and reclaiming the land was many years ago got up by a
Spanish colonel of engineers, and, at the request of an English
company, I went up to investigate and report on it. I found that,
irrespective of the difficulties and expense of the proposed works,
the vested rights of the natives of the many towns and villages in
and around the Pinag rendered it impossible to carry out the scheme.
Vast flocks of wild duck and other water-fowl frequent the Pinag,
and good sport is to be had there. Below the Pinag the river spreads
itself over the low country, forming a labyrinths of creeks mostly
navigable for craft drawing three to four feet, but the mouths are
all very shallow and the bars can only be crossed about high tide. The
water is brackish or salt. An immense extent of country is intersected
by these creeks, certainly 200 square miles, and there are said to
be 120 mouths connecting with the bay. With the exception of two or
three of the principal channels, this swamp has never been surveyed,
and what is shown on the map is merely guessed at. The muddy soil
is covered with mangrove in the low parts submerged at each tide,
and with the Nipa palm where the banks rise above high water. Under
the heading Pampangos will be found particulars of the manufacture
of nipa-thatch carried on here, and of collecting and distilling
the juice. With the exception of a few half-savage natives the only
living things are wildfowl, fish in abundance, alligators, snakes,
and blue crabs. This is indeed a great dismal swamp, more especially
at low tide.
It is difficult to find one's way in these creeks, and although
I frequently traversed them, I found it necessary to take a swamp
Indian as a guide.
The city of Manila is situated astride the River Pasig on a strip
of land between the Bay of Manila and a great sheet of freshwater
called the Lake of Bay. In consequence of this situation, Manila
can communicate by the bay, the lake, the creeks and rivers with the
provinces of Bataan, Pampanga, Nueva Écija, Bulacan, Morong, Laguna,
and Cavite. Until the opening of the Manila-Dagupan railroad the
whole transport of the Archipelago was by water, and the possession
of navigable rivers meant progress and wealth, whilst the absence
of rivers meant stagnation and poverty. Around the city the land is
quite flat, but at about four miles distance there is a sharp rise
to a plateau of volcanic tuff, the surface of which is from sixty to
eighty feet above sea level, of which more anon. The River Pasig is
the overflow from the lake and the outlet for the River San Mateo,
which runs into it at right angles. The lake serves as a receiver for
the great floods that come down the San Mateo valley; for the level of
that river at Santolan, the intake of the waterworks, sometimes rises
more than twenty feet. When this occurs, the flood on reaching the
Pasig is divided; part runs into the lake, and part into the bay. The
current of the Pasig in that part between the junction of the San
Mateo and the outlet from the lake is reversed. Then when the flood
subsides, the water which has entered the lake runs out very slowly
into the bay, for the head produced by the greatest flood becomes
insignificant from being spread over the vast extent of the lake.
Rice, sugar, cocoa-nuts, bamboos, timber, and fruits are the principal
products of the province of La Laguna. The inhabitants supply the
Manila markets with poultry. The Pasig and the lake are navigated by
light draught steamers which ply daily to Biñan, Calamba, and Santa
Cruz. There are also numerous native small craft, which bring down
the produce. To the south of Manila the province of Cavite slopes
gently up from the shores of the bay and from the lake to the
high cliffs at the northern end of the volcanic lake of Taal. The
valley is intersected by numerous streams all of which run into the
bay. Part of this province, near Manila, is a stony and sandy desert,
but other parts of it are extremely fertile, and large crops of rice,
with some coffee, and cacao, and fruits, are raised. The Augustinians
and Dominicans have large estates here, and have expended considerable
sums on dams to retain water for irrigation.
The Lake of Bombon, or Taal, has in its centre an island containing
the remains of the volcano. From the nature of the surrounding
country it is conjectured that on the spot now occupied by the lake
a volcanic mountain, some 8000 feet high, formerly stood. The great
bed of volcanic tuff already mentioned, extending from thence up to
Meycauayan more than sixty miles distant, is thought to have been
ejected from that lofty volcano, leaving a vast hollow cone, which
ultimately collapsed, causing a convulsion in the surrounding country
that must have rivalled the famous cataclysm of Krakatoa. This is
the opinion of D. José Centeno, a mining engineer employed by the
Spanish Government, and was fully confirmed by my learned friend,
the late Rev. J. E. Tenison-Wood, who carefully examined the locality,
and studied all the records.
The province of Batangas is very rich and fertile; it has some
mountains, but also a considerable extension of sloping or flat
land. In beauty it will compare with the best parts of Surrey, such
as the view from Leith Hill, looking south. Sugar and coffee are the
principal products, and the towns of Taal, Baúang, Batangas, and Lipa
are amongst the wealthiest of Luzon. The fields are well cultivated,
and oxen are much used, both for ploughing and for drawing carts. The
beef in this province is excellent.
Opposite to this beautiful and wealthy province lies the huge island
of Mindoro. Ever black and gloomy does it look, its lofty mountains
almost perpetually shrouded in rain-clouds. When I lived in Balayan
I had a good view of this island from my windows, and can scarcely
remember its looking otherwise than dark and forbidding. Nothing
comes from it but timber and jungle produce. There are known to be
some beds of lignite. Only the coast is known, and the jungle fever
prevents exploration. The island of Marinduque is healthier and more
advanced. It produces hemp of fine quality.
The province of Tayabas is very mountainous, and is still mostly
covered with forest; there are no wide valleys of alluvial soil. Some
rice is grown, also large quantities of cocoa-nuts, and some coffee
and cacao. Timber and jungle produce form the principal exports. I
have seen many specimens of minerals from this province and think it
would be well worth prospecting. But the climate is unhealthy, and
dangerous fevers prevail. This circumstance has been useful to the
Spanish Government, for when a governor or official had made himself
disliked he could be appointed to Tayabas with a fair prospect of
getting rid of him either by death or by invaliding in two or three
years at most.
Camarines Norte is also mountainous, and there is not much cultivation,
only a little rice and hemp. The population is very sparse,
and the inhabitants are mostly employed (when they do anything)
in washing for gold at Mambulao, Paracale, and other places on the
Pacific coast. If they strike a pocket, or get a nugget, they go on
the spree till they have spent it all and can get no more credit,
and then unwillingly return to work. Camarines Sur possesses a wide
expanse of fertile soil in the valley of the River Bicol, in which
are the Lakes of Buhi and Bato, and the Pinag of Baao. The Bicol
rises in the province of Albay and runs through the whole length of
Camarines Sur, generally in a north-westerly direction, running into
the great Bay of San Miguel. It is navigable for small vessels up
to the town of Nueva Cáceres. Alligators abound here. A gap in the
coast range gives access to this valley from the port of Pasacao. The
ground is level for leagues around, yet from this plain two extinct
volcanoes rear their vast bulk, the Ysarog, 6500 feet high, and
the Yriga, nearly 4000 feet high. Camarines Sur contains more than
five times as many inhabitants as Camarines Norte, although not very
different in area. Their principal occupation is the cultivation of
the extensive rice lands. They also produce some hemp and a little
sugar. Large quantities of rice are exported to Manila, to Albay,
and to Bisayas. Cattle are raised in the island of Buriás, which
belongs to this province; it also produces some palm sugar. This
province is much richer than either Tayabas or Camarines Norte.
The province of Albay is the southernmost and easternmost part of
Luzon, and is one of the richest and most beautiful regions of that
splendid island. The northern part, which commences at Punta Gorda
on the Bay of Lagonoy, is similar to the neighbouring Camarines Sur,
as is also the western part, about the shores of Lake Bato. A little
to the southward, however, the gigantic Mayon rears its peak 8000
feet into the sky. The symmetry of this wondrous cone is but feebly
rendered by the photograph. Some of the most violent eruptions of this
remarkable volcano are mentioned under another heading in the Appendix.
On this volcanic soil, with the life-giving heat of the sun tempered
by frequent rains, the vegetable kingdom flourishes in the utmost
luxuriance. Tree-ferns, lianas, orchids, palms grow vigorously. On
the mountain slopes the Musa textilis, or abacá plant, finds its most
congenial habitat. Little rice is grown, the inhabitants being mostly
engaged in the more remunerative occupation of planting and preparing
this fibre.
A description of the manner of its preparation, with photographs
of the growing plants and of the apparatus for cleaning the fibre,
will be found under the description of the Vicols.
The island of Catanduanes belongs to Albay province, and its
characteristics and productions are the same. The configuration of
the province of Albay is most favourable to the production of this
fibre. The plant seems to require a light volcanic soil, a certain
height above the sea, and exposure to the Pacific breezes in order
to flourish.
To summarise the description of Luzon we may say that its agricultural
wealth, present and future, lies in the valley of the Rio Grande
of Cagayan, in the great valley lying between the Gulf of Lingayen
and the shores of the Bay of Manila, in the rich lands of Cavite,
Batangas, and Laguna, in the valley of the River Bicol, and on the
slopes of the volcanoes of Albay.
The production of the great northern valley is principally tobacco;
of the middle valley, sugar and rice; of the southern valley, rice,
and of the volcanic slopes, Manila hemp. The Sierras of Ilocos are
highly mineralised, as are also the mountains of Tayabas, whilst as
already stated washing for gold is the principal industry of Camarines
Norte. Parts of this great island, as in Bulacan and Pampanga, support
a dense population of 500 to the square mile; whilst, in other parts,
hundreds or even thousands of square miles are absolutely unknown,
and are only populated by a few scattered and wandering savages,
many of whom have never seen a white man.
THE INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES.
Description of their appearance, dress, arms, religion, manners
and customs, and the localities they inhabit, their agriculture,
industries and pursuits, with suggestions as to how they can be
utilized, commercially and politically. With many unpublished
photographs of natives, their arms, ornaments, sepulchres, and idols.
CHAPTER XXII.
Aetas or Negritos, Including Balúgas, Dumágas, Mamanúas, and
Manguiánes.
These people are generally considered to be the aborigines of the
Philippines, and perhaps at one time inhabited the entire group. The
invasion of the Malays dispossessed them of the littoral, and of
the principal river valleys, and the Spanish Conquest drove them
gradually back into the mountains. It seems strange that these
irreclaimable savages should be able from their eyries on Mount
Mariveles to distinguish a great city with its Royal and Pontifical
University and yet remain unconverted, uncivilised, and independent
of all authority, just as they were before Legaspi arrived.
They are a race of negroid dwarfs of a sooty black colour, with
woolly hair, which they wear short, strong jaws, thick lips, and
broad flat noses. The men I have seen in the jungle near Porac and at
Mariveles were about 4 feet 8 inches in height, and the women about
a couple of inches shorter. The men only wore a cord round the waist
with a cloth passed between their legs. The women wore a piece of
cloth around the hips, and as ornaments some strings of beads round
their necks. However, like many other savages in the Philippines and
elsewhere, those of them, both men and women, who are accustomed to
traffic with the Christian natives, are possessed of clothes which
they put on whenever they enter a village. Their appearance was not
prepossessing; the skin of a savage is rarely in good order or free
from some scaly eruption, and the stomach is commonly unduly distended
from devouring large quantities of vegetable food of an innutritious
character. Still they were not so unpleasing as might be supposed,
for although their figures are not good according to our standards,
nor are their muscles well developed, either on arms or legs,
yet there was a litheness about them that gave promise of extreme
agility and great speed in running. As a matter of fact, they do
run fast, and climb trees in a surprising way. The Tagals and other
Malays who go barefooted use their toes to pick up an object on the
ground rather than stoop as a European would do, but the toes of the
Negritos are more like fingers. They come near the Quadrumanes in
this respect. The men carried bows, about five feet six inches long
and a quiver full of iron-pointed arrows--also a wood-knife, or bolo,
very roughly made. The former they make themselves; but the latter
they obtain from the Tagals. I can confirm from my own experience a
statement of various travellers, that they are fond of lying close
to fires or in the warm ashes, for when I arrived at a bivouac
of these people near Porac, their skins were covered with ashes,
and I saw that they had recently arisen from their favourite lair,
the prints of their forms being plainly visible. They had with them
some wretched starveling dogs which assist them in the chase.
It would seem that the Negritos must be descended from a race which
formerly extended over a vast area, for remains of them exist in
Southern India, in the mountains of Ceylon, and in the Andaman Islands.
In the Malay Peninsula they are called Semang. From the description
of them given by Hugh Clifford, in his interesting book, 'In
Court and Kampong,' they appear to be identical with the Philippine
Negritos. Crauford, in his 'History of the Indian Archipelago,' gives
the measurement of a Negrito from the hills of Kêdah as four feet
nine inches. Mr. F. V. Christian, in a paper recently read before
the Royal Geographical Society, stated that he had found tombs of
Negritos on Pónapé one of the Caroline group.
The Negritos build no houses, and are nomadic, in the sense of
moving about within a certain district. They live in groups of
twenty or thirty under a chief or elder, and take his advice about
camping and breaking up camp, which they do according to the seasons,
the ripening of jungle fruit, movements of game, etc. They seem to
have great reverence for their dead and for their burial-grounds,
and apparently dislike going far away from these places where they
suppose the souls of their ancestors are wandering. They bury their
dead, placing with them food and weapons for their use, and erect a
rough shelter over the graves.
It would be curious to learn the opinion of these poor savages
on the proceedings of some learned Teuton, prowling around their
graveyards in search of skulls and skeletons for the Berlin or Dresden
Ethnographical Museum.
They have no tribal organisation and even make war on other groups,
seeking victims for the death-vengeance. They are therefore unable
to assemble in large numbers; nor is it easy to see how they could
subsist if they did so. They put up rough sloping shelters against
the sun and wind, consisting of a framework of saplings or canes,
covered with coarse plaited mats of leaves which they carry with them
when they move their camp.
In Pampanga and Bataan, they are occasionally guilty of cattle
stealing, and even of murdering Christians, if a favourable opportunity
presents itself. In such a case an expedition of the Cuadrilleros of
the neighbouring towns is sent against them.
If they can be found, their bows and arrows are no match for
the muskets of the Cuadrilleros, and some of them are sure to be
killed. After a time peace is restored.
The trade for jungle produce is too profitable to the Christians for
them to renounce it, whatever the authorities may order.
The Negritos do not cultivate the ground but subsist on jungle fruits
and edible roots, their great luxury is the wild honey which they
greedily devour, and they barter the wax with the Christians for
rice and sweet potatoes. They also hunt the deer and wild pigs, and
as Blumentritt says, they eat everything that crawls, runs, swims,
or flies, if they can get it. They chew buyo like the Tagals and
other Malays, and are inordinately fond of smoking.
They are said to hold the lighted end of their cigars in their mouths,
a thing I have seen done by the negroes on the Isthmus of Panama.
They appear to have no religion, but are very superstitious. They
celebrate dances at the time of full moon, the women forming a ring
and the men another ring outside them, something like a figure in the
Kitchen Lancers. They move round to the sound of some rude musical
instruments in opposite directions.
Whether this performance is intended as a mark of respect to the
moon, or is merely held at the full for the convenience of the light,
I cannot say.
Several travellers have stated that they sacrifice pigs when
it thunders. As thunder-storms are very frequent and often of
extraordinary violence in the Philippines, this custom would imply the
possession of a large number of pigs on the part of the Negritos. Those
of Mariveles and of the Zambales mountains do not appear to possess
any domestic animals, except dogs, and they find it difficult to
kill the wild pigs, active as they are. Consequently, I think this
must apply to those Negrito tribes, such as the Balúgas and Dumágas,
of whose condition I shall speak later. They are also said to offer
up prayers to the rainbow. This offering can be made with greater
ease than the sacrifice of a pig, but the frequency of rainbows at
certain seasons will keep them pretty closely to their devotions.
Ratzel, 'History of Mankind,' vol. i., p. 471, says: Among the Negritos
of Luzon, a fabulous beast with a horse's head which lives in trees
is venerated under the name of Balendik. And on p. 478: When killing
an animal, the Negritos fling a piece heavenwards crying out at the
same time, "This is for thee."
They show great respect for old age, and the British War Office might
learn something from them for they are reported to tend with love
and care every old man of warlike repute.
Their language largely consists of curious clicks and grunts, and
those of them who trade with the Christians usually learn enough of
the local dialect to do the necessary bargaining.
There are some varieties of the Negritos who are more or less mixed
up with the Malays, but their origin is not clear.
The Malay women are very unprejudiced, perhaps there are no women
on earth more ready to form temporary or permanent alliances with
foreigners: they do not disdain even the Chinamen. They perhaps do
not like them, but they know that John Chinaman makes a good husband,
provides liberally for his family, and does not expect his wife to
do any hard work.
By some writers the Malay women, notably the Visayas, are accused
of unbounded sensuality (Anto. de Morga. Sucesos de Filipinas),
but anyhow the Tagal women draw the line at Negritos, and will have
nothing to do with them.
Fray Gaspar de San Agustin however thought that the Visaya women
would not be so particular.
This being so, the hybrid races in Luzon must have sprung from the
union of Remontados--that is to say, of Malays who took refuge in
the hills either from a natural love for savage life, or as fugitives
from justice--with the Negrito women.
Amongst these varieties are the Balúgas, who live in the eastern
cordillera of Nueva Écija, in north and south Ilocos, and in the
mountains of Tayabas. Some of these people have advanced a step in
civilisation, they build huts and do a little rude cultivation.
The Dumágas, another hybrid race, occupy the eastern slopes of the
Sierra Madre from the northern frontier of El Principe district to the
Bay of Palanan, where the last Tagal village is situated, the Tagals
thinly peopling the shores. But from Palanan to Punta Escarpada the
whole coast is in the undisputed possession of the Dumágas.
The Dumágas keep up a friendly communication with the few Christian
villages near them, and do a small trade with them. They even work on
their lands and help in fishing for a small remuneration, generally
paid in cotton cloth.
They have no known religion, they marry without ceremony, and are
said to disregard the ties of kinship.
Those who live far from the Christian villages are said to be entirely
brutal and devoid of all virtue, for they will sell their own children
for a little rice. They are almost irreclaimable from their savage
and independent character.
Some of these Dumágas live amongst the Irayas and the Catalangánes,
two heathen and semi-independent tribes showing signs of Mongolian
blood, who occupy a considerable stretch of country in the province of
Cagayan between the Rio Grande and the Sierra Madre, say about twenty
geographical miles north and south of the 17th parallel. These Dumágas
intermarry with the tribes they live amongst, and have adopted their
dress, religion, and customs.
The Mamanúas, also a hybrid race, inhabit the mountains of the
north-east promontory of Mindanao. They are few in number. There were,
in 1887, four Jesuit mission stations amongst them, three of which
are on Lake Mainit, or Sapongan, as it is called on some maps.
The Manguiánes, who are probably a hybrid Negrito-Visaya race, occupy
almost the whole interior of Mindoro, up to within two leagues of the
coast. There are a few in the mountains of Romblon and Tablas. There
are three varieties of these people, those residing near the western
coast are much whiter, with lighter hair and full beards.
Those living in the centre of the island are of a darker colour, have
sloping foreheads and less intelligence, while those of the southern
part, by their oblique eyes, aquiline noses and olive colour, show
signs of Chinese blood.
They are docile and do not fly from civilised man. A primitive
agriculture and the collection of jungle produce enables them to
obtain from the Christians, in exchange, rice, knives, bells, gongs,
tobacco, and buyo. They are not much advanced in religion, but are
very superstitious. They believe that the spirits of their ancestors
and relations never leave the places where they lived, but remain to
protect their descendants and families. There is noted amongst these
people a strong sense of morality and honesty, which unfortunately
is not recognised by their Christian neighbours, who are accustomed
to oppress them with the most exaggerated usury.
Since these words were written, Dean C. Worcester has published his
book on the Philippines, and amply confirms these remarks. He saw
a good deal of the Manguiánes, and bears testimony to their honesty
and morality, and adds: "On the whole, after making somewhat extensive
observations amongst the Philippine natives, I am inclined to formulate
the law that their morals improve as the square of the distance from
churches and other civilising influences."
He gives some particulars of their laws, and of their ordeals, which
are common to many of the Malays. There are some Manguiánes in the
Island of Palawan. They inhabit the mountains in the interior of
the southern part of the island, and little is known about them,
for the pirate races, or Mahometan Malays, who occupy the coasts,
keep a strict watch to prevent their communicating with outsiders.
The few who have been seen by the Spaniards, are said to be
industrious, and physically similar to the Tagbanuas. Their customs
are said to be influenced by their constant intercourse with the
Mahometans. They were thought to number about 4000 in 1887, by Don
Felipe Canga Arguelles, the Governor of the Island. The Moors appear
to oppress the Manguiánes of Palawan much as the Christian natives
do the Manguiánes of Mindoro.
The illustration represents a Negrito from the Island of Negros, a very
favourable specimen of his race. He wears the head-dress of a chief,
and is armed with a bow and arrow of portentous length. His figure,
though not muscular, gives promise of great agility.
The Negritos of Palawan are few in number, and resemble those of
Mariveles. They use a piece of cloth, made of the inner bark of a
tree as their only garment. They call this the Saligan. They inhabit
the upper parts of the mountains between Babuyan and Barbacan, say
from 10° to 10° 20' N. latitude. They do a little agriculture in a
primitive fashion. The men clear the land, the men and women together
do the planting, and the women alone the reaping.
Their arms are bows and arrows, and the only education of the young
is in archery, which is taught them by their mothers from their
earliest infancy.
They are said to be generous, hospitable, and inoffensive, but
extremely revengeful if they are ill-treated. They have no religion,
but perform certain ceremonies from time to time. Canga-Arguelles
computed them to number about 500 in 1887.
The only use the Negritos can be to the United States will be as
a subject of study for the elucidation of problems in ethnography,
and to furnish skeletons for the museums.
PART I.
Luzon and Adjacent Islands.
Chapter XXIII.
Tagals (1). [19]
The most important race in the Archipelago is the Tagal, or Tagalog,
inhabiting Central Luzon, including the following provinces:--
Batangas, Bulacan, Bataan, Camarines Norte, Cavite, Laguna, Manila,
part of Nueva Écija and Tayabas, the districts of Infanta, Morong,
and part of Principe, also the Island of Corregidor and the coast
of Mindoro. They probably number about one million five hundred
thousand souls.
Antonio de Morga, in his work 'Sucesos de Philipinas,' says (p. 126):
"The women wear the báro and saya, and chains of gold upon their
necks, also bracelets of the same. All classes are very clean in
their persons and clothing, and of good carriage and graceful (de
buen ayre y gracia").
They are very careful of their hair, washing it with gogo and anointing
it with ajonjoli oil [20] perfumed with musk.
In the 'Relacion de las Islas Philipinas,' 1595 (?), the anonymous
author said of the Tagals: "The people of this province are the best
of all the Islands, more polite, and more truly our friends. They
go more clothed than the others, the men as well as the women. They
are light-coloured people of very good figures and faces, and like
to put on many ornaments of gold, which they have in great abundance."
In other respects, however, they seem, from the same author, to be
less worthy of praise, for he goes on to tell us: When some principal
man died, in vengeance of his death they cut off many heads, with
which they made many feasts and dances.... They had their houses
full of wood and stone idols, which they called Tao-tao and Lichac,
for temples they had none. And they said that when one of their
parents or children died the soul entered into one of these idols,
and for this they reverenced them and begged of them life, health,
and riches. They called these idols anitos, and when they were ill
they drew lots to find which of these had given them the illness,
and then made great sacrifices and feasts to it.
They worshipped idols which were called Al Priapo Lacapati, Meilupa,
but now, by the goodness of God, they are enlightened with the grace
of the Divine Gospel and adore the living God in spirit.
The old writer then remarks on the cleverness and sharpness of the
boys, and the ease with which they learned to read and write, sing,
play, and dance.
This characteristic appears general to the Malay race, for, speaking
of the Javanese, Crauford says: They have ears of remarkable delicacy
for musical sounds, are readily taught to play upon any instrument
the most difficult and complex airs.
According to Morga, at the time of the Conquest, the Tagals wrote
their language in the Arabic character. He says: They write well in
these Islands; most people both men and women, can write. This tends
to show that the equality of the sexes, which I shall refer to later,
has been customary from ancient times.
Tomas de Comyn (1810) says:
The population of the capital, in consequence of its continual
communication with the Chinese and other Asiatics, with the sailors
of different nations, with the soldiers, and with the Mexican convicts
who are generally mulattoes, and who arrive in some number every year,
has come to be a mixture of all the bloods and features, or otherwise
a degeneration of the primitive race.
At Cainta, on a branch of the Pasig, the natives are darker, taller,
and of a different type. This is accounted for by the fact that,
in 1762-63, during the English invasion, a regiment of Madras Sepoys
occupied the town for many months, long enough, in fact, to modify the
native type to such an extent as to be plainly visible 125 years later.
Crauford says that some Christian inhabitants of Ternate followed
their priests (Jesuits) to Luzon when the Spaniards were driven out of
Molucas by the Dutch in 1660. They were located in Marigondon. There
is now a town called Ternate between Marigondon and the sea, near
Punta Restinga. But, with the exception of the capital and these
two places, I think the Tagals have not greatly altered in physical
characteristics since the Conquest--notwithstanding Ratzel's statement
that "Spanish-Tagal half-breeds in the Philippines may be numbered
by the hundred thousand," which I consider erroneous.
The fact is, that wherever a small number of male Europeans live
amongst a native race, the effect on the type is smaller than may
be supposed, and what there is becomes obliterated or disseminated
in course of time. Colour may be a little altered, but all the other
characteristics remain. The mestizas are not so prolific as the native
women, and notwithstanding Jagor's assertion to the contrary, they
often marry natives, and especially if their father has died while
they were young. I knew in the town of Balayan three handsome sisters,
daughters of a Spaniard who had died many years before. Although they
lived in a house which had been at one time the finest in the town,
and still retained some remnants of its former grandeur, they had
reverted entirely to the native customs and dress. They spoke only
Tagal, and all three of them married natives.
The tendency of the Philippine native to revert to old customs is
well marked, and I agree with Jagor when he says: "Every Indian
has an innate inclination to abandon the hamlets and retire into
the solitude of the woods, or live isolated in the midst of his own
fields," in fact to Remontar.
The Tagals are considered by Wallace as the fourth great tribe of the
Malay race. He only mentions the Tagals, but in fact the population
of the Archipelago, except the Negritos and some hybrids, belongs
to the Malay race, although slightly mixed with Chinese and Spanish
blood in a few localities. They are here and there modified by mixture
with other races, and everywhere by their environment, for they have
been Roman Catholics and subject to Spanish influence, if not rule,
for upwards of three centuries.
They differ little in physical appearance from the Malays proper
inhabiting the Peninsula, and although their manners and customs are
somewhat changed, their nature remains the same. They retain all the
inherent characteristics of the Malay.
The Tagal possesses a great deal of self-respect, and his demeanour is
quiet and decorous. He is polite to others, and expects to be treated
politely himself. He is averse to rowdiness or horse-play of any kind,
and avoids giving offence.
Characteristics--Family Life.
For an inhabitant of the tropics he is fairly industrious, sometimes
even very hard working.
Those who have seen him poling cascos against the stream of the Pasig
will admit this.
He is a keen sportsman, and will readily put his money on his favourite
horse or game-cock; he is also addicted to other forms of gambling. The
position taken by women in a community is often considered as a
test of the degree of civilisation it has attained. Measured by this
standard, the Tagals come out well, for amongst them the wife exerts
great influence in the family, and the husband rarely completes any
important business without her concurrence.
Crauford considers the equality of the sexes to be general throughout
the Indian Archipelago, more particularly in the Island of Celebes,
where the inhabitants are the most warlike of all.
The Tagals treat their children with great kindness and forbearance,
those who are well-off show much anxiety to secure a good education
for their sons, and even for their daughters.
Parental authority extends to the latest period in life. I have seen
a man of fifty years come as respectfully as a child to kiss the
hands of his aged parents when the vesper bell sounded, and this
notwithstanding the presence of several European visitors in the house.
Children, in return, show great respect to both parents, and come
morning and evening to kiss their hands. I may remark that their
manner of kissing is different to ours. They place the nose and lips
against the cheek or hand of the person to be saluted, and draw in
the breath strongly.
Appearance--Manners.
The Malays in general are not, perhaps, a handsome race, their flat
noses disfigure them in the eyes of the recently-arrived European or
American, and it takes time to get accustomed to them.
Still, their rich brown skin often covers a symmetrical, lithe and
agile figure, the small hands and feet denoting their Turanian origin.
The youth of both sexes up to the age of puberty are not seldom
of striking beauty, and their appearance is not belied by their
behaviour. They are trained in good manners from their earliest youth,
both by precept and example.
Palgrave says of them: "Nowhere are family bonds closer drawn, family
affections more enduring, than amongst the Malay races.... His family
is a pleasing sight, much subordination and little restraint, unison in
gradation, liberty not license. Orderly children, respected parents,
women subject, but not suppressed, men ruling, but not despotic,
reverence with kindness, obedience in affection, these form a lovable
picture, nor by any means a rare one in the villages of the Eastern
Isles."
It may here be interesting to note the very contradictory opinions
that have been expressed upon this subject.
John Foreman. W. G. Palgrave.
'The Philippine Islands,' 'Malay Life in the Philippines,'
p. 194. p. 146.
"Home discipline and training "Children early trained by
of manners are quite ignored, precept and example to good
even in the well-to-do families. manners, show less disposition
Children are left without to noise and mischief than is
control, and allowed to do just ordinary elsewhere at their
as they please, hence they age."
become ill-behaved and boorish."
As will be seen in my text, my own experience rather confirms
Palgrave's opinion, and I should say that even the children of the
peasantry would compare favourably both in manners and intelligence
with the children at the Board Schools in London, and to say nothing
of Glasgow or Liverpool.
Amongst the Tagals, it is customary when speaking of or to a man to use
the prefix Si--thus Si José, Mr. Joseph--whilst a woman is spoken of
or to as Aling Maria, Miss Mary. The word Po is used for Sir. Thus:
Óo-po--Yes, sir; Hindí-po--No, sir; Uala-po--There is none, sir;
Mayroóm-po--There is some, sir.
Cleanliness.
The sense of personal dignity and self-respect, the dominant feeling
in the Malay nature, is shown in the Tagals by a general cleanliness
in their persons and clothing. They usually live near water, and
nearly all of them can swim.
The heat of the climate makes bathing a pleasure, and as the
temperature of the sea or river is commonly 83°F., a prolonged
immersion causes no inconvenience.
On the morning of a feast-day the number of bathers is increased,
and at the time of high tide, a very large proportion of the
population seems to be in the water, both sexes and all ages mixing
indiscriminately, the adults decently covered and all behaving
themselves as decorously as the bathers at Brighton, Newport, or
Atlantic City.
They have not yet arrived at that precise stage of civilisation that
develops the Rough, the Larrikin, or the Hooligan. Palgrave says:
A Malay may be a profligate, a gambler, a thief, a robber, or a
murderer, he is never a cad.
Palgrave had not great opportunities of knowing the Tagals, but I
confirm the above opinion, although I do not agree with the views on
the future of the Philippines, and what is best for them, expressed
in his fantastic and hyphen-infested verbiage, all seemingly written
for effect.
Superstitions.
The Tagal is extremely superstitious, and like his kinsman, the
Dayak, he is a believer in omens, although he has not reduced them
so completely to a system, and three centuries of Christianity have
diverted his superstitions into other channels.
In his mind, each cave, each ravine, each mountain, each pool, each
stream, has its guardian spirit, to offend or to startle which may
be dangerous. These are the jinni of Southern Arabia and Socotra.
The Balete tree (Ficus Urostigima--Sp.) corresponds to our Witch Elm,
and certainly at night has a most uncanny appearance. Each of these
great trees has its guardian spirit or Tic-balan.
Daring, indeed, would be the Indian who would pass such a tree,
enter a cave, ascend a mountain, or plunge into a pool without bowing
and uttering the Pasing tabi sa nono [By your leave, my Lord] that
may appease the spirit's wrath, just as the Bedouin of Dhofar cry,
"Aleik Soubera--aleik soubera," to propitiate the jinni.
His mental attitude in this respect reminds me of a story told me
many years ago by a lady residing in Hampshire. A lady neighbour of
hers inquired from her whether she taught her children to bow when
the Devil's name was mentioned. My informant replied in the negative,
whereupon the lady remarked, "I do, I think it is safer." This is the
way with the Tagal, he bows because he thinks it is safer. If that
prudent lady is still alive and may chance to read this, she may be
pleased to learn that her opinion is shared by the whole Malay race.
Child-birth has its anxieties everywhere, and the more artificial
the life the woman has led, the more she suffers at that critical
time. The Tagal woman whose naturally supple frame has never been
subjected to tight-lacing, nor compressed within a tailor-made costume,
has a far easier time of it than her European sister, but superstition
and quackery combine to terrify and ill-use her.
The Patianac, an evil spirit, profits by the occasion, and his
great delight is to obstruct the birth, or to kill and devour the
infant. The patianac might be busy elsewhere, but from the ridge-pole
of the house a bird of ill-omen, the dreadful Tic-tic, raises a warning
cry, for its office and delight is to call the attention of the evil
spirit to the opportunity of doing mischief. Instantly every door
and window is closed and every chink stopped to prevent its entrance,
whilst the anxious father and his kinsmen, naked as they were born,
walk around and underneath the house, slashing the air with sticks
or bolos to frighten away the spirit. Sometimes a man will get up on
the ridge-pole to drive away the Tic-tic.
Meanwhile, in the stifling room, it is too often the case that violent
means are used to expedite the birth, so violent indeed, that they
sometimes result in the permanent injury or in the death of the woman.
Some years ago the Government instituted an examination for midwives,
and only those were allowed the practice who had been properly
instructed, so that these absurdities and cruelties are on the wane,
except amongst the poorest or in outlying districts.
The Asúan is merely a cannibal ghost, but the Tagal ghost throws
stones, a thing I have not heard of a ghost doing in Europe.
All sorts of stories are told about the Asúan, similar to ghost
stories in other lands.
About 1891 a house in Malate was stoned night after night, and
although every effort was made to find out the authors, they were
never discovered, and the natives steadfastly believed it to be the
doing of the Asúan.
There is another superstitious idea firmly rooted in the minds of
the Tagals and other natives, of which the following is an instance:
A villainous-looking native had been captured with some property stolen
from my house, and was sent to the lock-up at the police station, from
whence he promptly escaped, but was recaptured later. My coachman,
a most meritorious servant who had been with me for years, assured
me in an impressive manner, and with an air of conviction, that
the culprit was one of those wizards who are able to pass through
a keyhole by drawing themselves out into the thinness of a piece of
string, and my other servants accepted this view implicitly.
The famous Tulisanes or bandits, thoroughly believe in the power of the
Antin-Antin or amulet to render them invulnerable to bullets. It is,
indeed, remarkable that notwithstanding the numbers of these criminals
who have been shot by the Guardia Civil with their Antin-Antin upon
them, this absurd belief should flourish, but there is no doubt it
does. These charms consist of any sort of necromancers' rubbish, or
are sometimes writings in invocations, usually worn round the neck
under the clothing.
The profession of the Roman Catholic religion has perhaps helped this
superstition to linger on, for the wearing of scapularies is common,
especially amongst the women. These articles are manufactured for
the priests and some are sent out to Antipolo, to be blessed at the
shrine of Nuestra Señora de Buen Viage y de la Paz, and sold to the
pilgrims who crowd in thousands to this shrine in May of each year.
A Tagal woman sometimes wears as many as three of these scapularies
hung from silk threads round her neck and covered by her upper
garment. They usually dispose two in front, where they conceive the
danger is greatest, and one on the back, as a further precaution
against an attack from the rear.
Wearing these holy amulets, and having crossed herself and uttered
a prayer before coming downstairs in the morning, the Tagal wife or
maid feels that she has done all she can, and that if any backsliding
should occur, during the day, it will not be her fault.
She believes greatly in lucky or holy numbers--I heard the following
story related by a native lady to a native priest when going to
Batangas by steamer.
The lady was telling the priest of her husband's illness (it appeared
to have been congestion of the lungs), and she prepared and applied a
poultice of three heads of garlic in honour of the Three Persons of the
Blessed Trinity; this not producing the desired effect, she then made a
poultice of five heads of garlic, in honour of the Five Wounds of our
Blessed Saviour, and successively others of seven heads, in honour of
the Seven Pains of the Blessed Virgin; twelve heads in honour of the
Twelve Apostles, and last of all a poultice of thirty-three heads
of garlic in honour of the Thirty-three years our Blessed Saviour
remained on earth. The priest had nodded approval as she went on,
but as she stopped he said: "And then?" To which the lady replied,
"Then he died."
This poor man came off easily, for in some cases people who suffer
from fits and other diseases are thought to be possessed by devils,
and are severely beaten to drive out the evil spirit. The patient
does not always escape with his life.
The women often dream of lucky numbers in the Manila Lottery and make
every endeavour to purchase the number they have dreamt of.
Amongst the Christian superstitions may be mentioned the feast of San
Pascual Bailón at Obando. Those who attend this function are commonly
the rowdier class of inhabitants of the Capital, and they go mostly
on foot, making music and dancing on the way. They also dance in the
courtyard in front of the church, not forgetting to refresh themselves
with strong drink in the meanwhile.
This is not at all an edifying spectacle, for the dancers are covered
with dust and with the perspiration from their active exertions. I
do not know the legend that gives occasion to this curious form of
devotion. Occasionally, and especially during Holy Week, another form
of penitence is practised by the natives. I remember, about 1892,
seeing one of these penitents, a man having a mask on his face, the
upper part of his body bare, and a long chain fastened to one ankle
and dragging on the ground behind him. In one hand he bore a flagellum
with which he from time to time lashed himself on the shoulders,
which bore evident marks of the discipline they had received. A youth
who followed him occasionally jerked the chain, throwing the penitent
violently at full length upon the dusty road. This form of penitence
is not approved, however, by the priests, for when I called on the
parish priest, the same evening, I mentioned the circumstance to him,
and he directed the penitent to be locked up, to stop what he rightly
termed a scandal.
On many occasions the natives had got up a religious excitement,
and great gatherings have taken place at some spot where a miraculous
appearance of the Blessed Virgin, or some supernatural manifestation
has been alleged to have occurred.
All these affairs have been somewhat sceptically inquired into by the
priests under a general order to this effect issued by the archbishop,
and so far as my experience goes, the excessive religious ardour of
the natives has rather been checked than stimulated.
When writing about the Visayas I shall have more to say about
misdirected religious zeal. The Tagals practise circumcision as
a hygienic measure, and not as a religious rite. The operation is
usually performed at the age of fourteen by a companion or friend of
the patient, and a sharp flint or piece of volcanic glass (obsidian)
is used for this purpose. From what I have heard, this custom is really
maintained by the women, who refuse their favours to the uncircumcised
of their own nation, though with foreigners they are more complaisant.
Cursing.
In cursing, the Tagal displays a directness quite worthy of the
Anglo-Saxon. All his remarks are very much to the point, and would
have earned the approval of the late lamented and reverend author of
the Ingoldsby Legends. Leaving out the world-wide reflections upon
the virtues of an opponent's female ancestry, since these appear to
belong indiscriminately to all nations, the principal Tagal curses
are as follows:--
1. May an evil wind blow upon you.
2. May the earth open and swallow you up.
3. May the lightning strike you.
4. May the alligator eat you.
The superiority of the Tagal style as compared with the French
Mortbleu, Ventre bleu, must be apparent to all unprejudiced
observers. The Tagal has drawn all his curses from the grand and awful
operations of nature in his own country, except the last, where he
invokes the dreaded saurian, the most fearsome inhabitant of the
Philippine swamps, rivers, and coasts--formerly venerated by his
ancestors and respectfully addressed by them as nono, or grandfather.
Under American guidance and example, I think the Tagals quite capable
of developing a startling vocabulary of swear-words, and in course
of time rivalling their instructors in profanity, with a touch of
their old style to give a little local colour.
Courtship.
Courtship is sometimes a long business amongst the Tagals. It is still
customary in the country districts for the impecunious candidate for
matrimony to serve the father of the damsel he desires to wed for a
period which may extend to a couple of years or more. He is called a
Catipado, and is expected to make himself generally useful, and to
take a hand in any labour that may be going on, sowing or reaping,
mending the roof, or patching the canoe.
It is his privilege to assist the girl of his choice in her
labours. The girls of a household are expected to husk the rice
for the next day's use. This is done in the cool of the evening,
out of doors, a wooden mortar and long heavy pestle being used. It
is a well-recognised occasion for the lover to assist and entertain
his sweetheart.
Very pretty do the village maidens look, as, lightly clothed in almost
diaphanous garments, they stand beside the mortars plying the pestle,
alternately rising on tiptoe, stretching the lithe figure to its full
height and reach, then bending swiftly to give force to the blow.
No attitude could display to more advantage the symmetry of form which
is the Tagal maiden's heritage, and few sights are more pleasing than
a group of these tawny damsels husking paddy midst chat and laughter,
while a tropical full moon pours its effulgence on their glistening
tresses and rounded arms.
Marriage.
But let us return to the Catipado. He must be very careful not to
give cause of offence to the elders of the family, more especially
towards the end of his term, as there may be a disposition amongst
them to dismiss him, and take on another to begin a new term. In fact,
many natives have shown themselves so unwilling to consent to their
daughter's marriage, when no sufficient reason could be given for
their refusal, that the Governor-General, representing the Crown,
is entrusted with a special power of granting the paternal consent
in such cases.
No regular marriage can be celebrated whilst the girl is a minor,
without the father's consent.
When this is refused, and the patience of the lovers is exhausted,
the girl leaves her father's house and is deposited in the house of
the fiscal, or churchwarden, under the care of his wife.
A petition on stamped paper is then prepared, reciting the
circumstances; this goes to the parish priest and to the
Gobernadorcillo, who require the father to state the grounds of
his refusal. If they are satisfied that no good reason exists,
the petition, with their approval noted on it, goes to the
Governor-General, and in due time a notification appears in the
official Gazette that the Governor-General has been pleased to overrule
the father's negative, and a license (on stamped paper also) for the
marriage to be celebrated, is delivered to the priest. This procedure
is very necessary, but it has the disadvantage of being slow and
expensive, so that in some cases, instead of adopting this course,
the youthful pair allow themselves some advances of the privileges of
matrimony, and perhaps there arrives a time when the obdurate parent
finds himself obliged to consent to legalise an accomplished fact to
avoid an open scandal.
The erring damsel, however, may think herself lucky if she escapes
a fatherly correction laid on with no grudging hand, before the
reluctant consent is granted.
The priest will of course require the youthful sinners to confess
and do penance for their previousness before he will marry them.
The marriage ceremony is a very simple one, and usually takes place
after early Mass. The priest fixes the fee according to the means
of the party; it is often a substantial one. After the ceremony
comes a Catapúsan or assembly, when the relatives and friends are
entertained. There will be music, and unless the priest disapproves
of dancing, that will be indulged in. The Augustinians mostly allow
dancing, but the Dominicans often object to it as an immoral amusement.
The house will be hung with bright-coloured cloths and paper lanterns;
the table loaded with refreshments, both light and heavy.
Wedding Feasts.
Roast pig is a standing dish at these feasts, the animal being roasted
whole, on a spit over a fire made on the ground. A professional roaster
superintends the operation, and the pig is brought to a fine even
colour all over. Sometimes there are roast turkeys or roast mutton and
kid, possibly beef cooked in various ways, surely fish of different
kinds, fresh, salted, or smoked; the indispensable boiled rice or
morisqueta, and an abundance of sweets, fruits in syrup, guava jelly,
and Dutch cheese. There will be chocolate and perhaps coffee. As to
drinks, besides some native brews, there will be Norwegian or German
export beer, or Tennant's beer in stone bottles, square-face gin,
and Spanish red wine (Vino Tinto).
Unlimited Buyo, cigarettes and cigars are provided. All these things
are hospitably pressed upon all comers, especially upon any European
present. If his politeness prevents his refusing this miscellaneous
assortment, unless he is favoured with the digestion of an ostrich, he
will rue it next day, and perhaps for several days. The worthy priest
is naturally in the place of honour, and like the wise man he mostly
is, he perhaps brings, slung under his habit, or sends beforehand,
a capacious leather bottle, with a supply of generous wine direct
from some convent vineyard on the peninsula, a pure natural wine,
undefiled and unfortified by German industrial spirit. A tall and
portly Augustine monk, in his spotless and ample white robes, presents
a very imposing and apostolic appearance, and looks quite in his place
at the head of the table. The host seldom sits down with his guests,
but busies himself attending to their wants.
CHAPTER XXIV.
TAGALS AS SOLDIERS AND SAILORS.
The houses of the well-to-do natives are large and airy, and are kept
scrupulously clean under the vigilant eye of the mistress.
Hospitality is a characteristic of the Tagal. According to his means
he keeps open house on religious feast-days or on family festivals,
and readily invites to his table at any time travellers who may be
passing through the town. Having enjoyed their hospitality on many
occasions, I can testify to their kindness and liberality. They placed
at my disposal their riding-ponies, vehicles or canoes, and did all
in their power to show me anything remarkable in their neighbourhood.
The Tagals make good soldiers, and can march long distances
barefooted. Morga remarks how quickly they learned to use the arquebus
or musket in the wars of the conquest. They gave proofs of their
pluck and endurance when assisting the French in Tonquin. If well
led they will advance regardless of danger; when once engaged they
become frenzied and blood-thirsty, most difficult to restrain. They
are not improved by being made to wear gloves, boots, helmets, and
European uniforms.
In this they are not singular, for the Ceylon Rifle Regiment (a Malay
corps) was utterly ruined, and never did any good after being put
into boots and gloves by some narrow-minded martinet.
As sailors they are unsurpassed in the East. They navigate their
schooners and lorchas with much skill, although the rigging and
outfit is seldom kept in thorough good order unless they have a
Spanish captain.
They serve both as sailors and firemen in the fine flotilla of
coasting-steamers belonging to Manila, and they manned all the smaller
vessels of the Spanish Navy in the Philippines.
Most of the British and foreign steamers in the far East carry four
Manila men as quarter-masters. They are considered to be the most
skilful helmsmen. Their ability as mechanics is remarkable. They
bear out entirely Morga's description of them: "Of good talent for
anything they undertake."
They will, without any European supervision, heave down wooden
sailing-vessels up to about 1000 tons, and repair the keel, or
strip, caulk, and re-copper the bottom. I have often seen this
done. They build from the excellent hard wood of the country,
brigantines, schooners, lorchas, also cascos, and other craft for
inland navigation and shallow waters. These latter vessels are most
ingeniously contrived, and admirably adapted to the conditions under
which they are to be used, and although not decked, carry their cargoes
dry, and in good order, in the wettest weather. They make the most
graceful canoes, and paddle or punt them with remarkable dexterity.
In Manila and Cavite are to be found a fair number of native
engine-fitters, turners, smiths and boiler-makers.
There must be some 400 steam sugar-mills in the islands (besides
6000 cattle-mills). The engine-drivers and firemen are all natives,
and mostly Tagals.
There are also in the capital large numbers of native house-carpenters,
quarrymen, stone-masons, and some brick-layers and brick-makers.
Curiously enough, foundry work is not much done by Tagals, although
when Legaspi arrived in Luzon he not only found cannon mounted at
Manila, but there was a cannon-foundry there, and another at Tondo.
There are foundries at the latter place to this day belonging to
Chinese half-castes, but church bells are more to their way now
than cannon. They, however, cast small brass mortars with handles
like quart pots, which are used for firing salutes at the feasts of
the church. But I think most of the workmen were then, and are now,
Chinese.
They make their own gunpowder, and fireworks of all kinds. They are
inordinately fond of these, and get up very creditable displays. They
are careless in handling them, and I was eye-witness of an explosion
of fireworks during a water fête, on the passing in front of the
governor's palace at Malacañan, when a number of people were killed. I
never learned how many had perished, and the newspapers were forbidden
to enlarge upon it.
Excellent carriages are built in Manila entirely by native labour,
the carromatas, or two-wheeled vehicles used for travelling, being
made in the suburbs, or in Malabon.
Carriage-building is an important trade, for an incredible number of
vehicles of all sorts are used in Manila.
Of an evening, in the Luneta, some hundreds may be seen, and on one
occasion, at the races of the Jockey Club in Santa Mesa, two thousand
vehicles were reported to be present.
Painting and decorating is executed by Manila men in excellent
style. This art was taught them by Alberoni, and other Italians. Their
pupils have covered the walls of many buildings with frescoes in the
Italian style, very fairly done. There is much scope for their art
in decorating altars and shrines.
The Tagals also show some talent for sculpture, as any visitor to
Manila can see for himself by inspecting the Jesuit Church, which
is a marvel of patient artistic labour, having taken eleven years
to construct. Some of the carving there, however, is so delicate and
minutely detailed, that it appears more suitable for a show case in
a museum than for the adornment of a place of worship. Of course,
every detail of design is due to the Jesuits themselves, amongst whom
talented men of every profession can be found.
As a fisherman, the Tagal excels, and the broad expanse of Manila Bay,
some 700 square miles in area, gives ample scope for his ingenuity. He
practises every kind of fishing Corrales de Pesca, or fish-stakes
within the five-fathom line, casting nets and seines in the shallow
water, huge sinking nets attached to bamboo shear-legs mounted on
rafts in the estuaries, drift nets and line-fishing in the deeper
parts of the bay.
From Tondo, from Parañaque, Las Piñas, Bacoor, and Cavite Viéjo,
and from dozens of other villages, go hundreds of large canoes,
crowded with men, and heaped up with nets, to fish near the San
Nicolas Bank, or about Corregidor Island, and they often return with
large catches. Some fish by night, with torch and spear; in fact,
they seem to be quite at home at any kind of fishing.
The nets and sails of the canoes, and the clothes of the fishermen,
are all tanned by them with the bark of the camanchile tree.
The salting, drying, or smoking of the fish caught in the bay is quite
an extensive business. The smoked sardines, or tinapá, are very tasty,
as also the pickled mullet roes called Bagón de Lisa. But the small
shrimps fermented in a jar, and brought to a particular stage of
putrefaction, [21] much appreciated by the natives, will not suit
European or American tastes.
The vast Bay of Manila holds fish and mammals of all sorts and sizes,
from small fry to that huge but harmless monster of the deep, Rhinodon
tipicus, with a mouth like the opening of a hansom cab, scooping in
jelly-fish by the bushel.
The péje-rey, like a smelt, the lenguádo, or sole, the lísa, or
mullet, the bacóco, corbína, pámpano, and others whose names I have
forgotten, are excellent. The oysters are good, but very small. Prawns
are excellent, large and cheap. Crabs are good, but large ones are
not plentiful. Clawless lobsters are caught amongst the rocks of
Corregidor and Mariveles. The largest turtle I have ever seen was
caught off Malabon. It can be seen in the Jesuits' Museum, Manila.
Sharks of all sorts, enormous saw-fish, [22] hideous devil-fish,
[23] and monstrous conger eels, as well as poisonous black and yellow
sea-snakes, abound, so that the fisherman does not have everything his
own way. Amongst these men are to be found some excellent divers. I
have found them quite able to go down to the keel of a large ship and
report whether any damage has been done. Where a sheet of copper has
been torn off, they have nailed on a new sheet, getting in two or three
nails every time they went down. I enquired from one of these men who
had frequently dived for me, when a European diver with diving-gear
could not be obtained, if he was not afraid of sharks? He answered,
"No es hora del tiburon"--it is not the sharks' time--and I found he
considered that he was very fairly safe from the sharks between ten and
four. Before ten and after four was a dangerous time, as the sharks
were on the look-out for a meal. I cannot say that I should like to
trust to this, especially as I have seen sharks about at other times,
and one afternoon, in the bay, had to keep off a hammerheaded-shark
from coming near a British diver who was examining the rudder of a
steamer, by firing at it from the stern. Some sharks are heavy and
slow-moving creatures, but the hammer-headed kind are endowed with
a surprising activity, and twist and turn like an eel.
My native diver informed me that he was much more afraid of the
Manta than of any shark, and that once when he was diving for some
purpose--I do not recollect when--at the bottom a shade fell on him,
and, on looking up, he beheld an enormous manta right above him--in
his words, "as big as a lighter." However, it passed on, and he was
able to regain the surface.
Perhaps the most remarkable talent possessed by the Tagal is his gift
for instrumental music.
Each parish has its brass band supplied with European instruments,
the musicians generally wearing a quasi-military uniform. If the
village is a rich one, there is usually a string band as well. They
play excellently, as do the military bands. Each infantry battalion
had its band, whilst that of the Peninsular Artillery, of ninety
performers, under a band-master holding the rank of lieutenant, was
one of the finest bands I have ever heard. There were few countries
where more music could be heard gratis than in the Philippines,
and for private dances these bands could be hired at moderate rates.
The Tagal is also a good agriculturist. According to his lights, he
cultivates paddy with great care. It is all raised in seed-plots, the
soil of which is carefully prepared, and fenced about. The fields are
ploughed and harrowed whilst covered with water, so that the surface
is reduced to soft mud. When the ground is ready for planting, the
whole population turns out, and, being supplied with the young shoots
in bundles, of which tally is kept, proceed to plant each individual
shoot of paddy by hand.
Ankle-deep in the soft mud of the paddy-fields stand long rows of
bare-legged men, women and children, each in a stooping position,
holding against the body with the left hand a large bundle of
rice-plants, incessantly and rapidly seizing a shoot with the right
hand, and plunging it into the black slime with the forefinger
extended.
Hour after hour the patient toil goes on, and day after day, in all the
glare of the burning sun, reflected and intensified from the surface
of the black water, till the whole vast surface has been planted. The
matandang-sa-naya, or village elder, then announces how many millions
of rice shoots have been put in. The labour is most exhausting,
from the stooping position, which is obligatory, and because the eyes
become inflamed from the reflection of the sun on the black water. As
the paddy is planted during the rainy season, it often happens that
the work is done under a tropical downpour instead of a blazing sun.
When driving along a road through paddy-fields in October, it
seems incredible that every blade of that luxuriant crop has been
transplanted by hand. Yet the people who do this are branded as
lazy. I think that they are quite ready to work for a sufficient
inducement. Whenever I had works to execute I never experienced any
difficulty in obtaining men. I made it a rule to pay every man with
my own hands every Saturday his full wages without deductions. On
Monday morning, if I wanted 300 men, there would be 500 to pick and
choose from. I should like to see some of their depreciators try an
hour's work planting paddy, or poling a casco up stream.
The undulating nature of the ground renders it necessary to divide
paddy land into small plots of irregular outline at varying levels,
divided from each other by ridges of earth called pilápiles, so as
to retain the rain or irrigation water, allowing it to descend slowly
from level to level till it reaches its outlet at the lowest point. The
Tagals fully justify their Turanian origin by the skill and care which
they show in irrigation. About Manila, the sacáte, or meadow-grass,
which is the principal food of the thousands of ponies in the city,
is cultivated on lands which are exactly at a level to be flooded by
the spring-tides.
The mango-tree is carefully cultivated, and the fruit is, to some
extent, forced by lighting fires of leaves and twigs under these trees
every evening in the early part of the year to drive off insects,
and give additional warmth.
In Batangas and La Luguna, and, to some extent, in Bulacan, the Tagals
cultivate the sugar-cane successfully.
But where they really shine, where all their care is lavished,
where nothing is too much trouble, is in the cultivation of the buyo
(Piper betel). This is a climbing plant, and is grown on sticks
like hops. There were many plantations of this near Pineda, which I
frequently visited. It is grown in small fields, enclosed by hedges
or by rows of trees to keep off the wind.
The soil is carefully prepared, and all weeds removed. As the tendrils
grow up, the sticks are placed for them. The plants are watered by
hand, and leaf by leaf carefully examined every morning to remove
all caterpillars or other insects. The plants are protected from the
glare of the sun by mat-shades supported on bamboos.
The ripe leaves are gathered fresh every morning, and taken to market,
where they find a ready sale at remunerative prices for chewing with
the areca nut, and a pinch of slaked shell lime.
Whenever I have had Tagal hunters with me deer-shooting, I have
been struck with their knowledge of the natural history of their
locality. They thoroughly understood the habits of the game, and
almost always foretold correctly the direction from which the deer
would approach the guns.
They have names for every animal and bird, and for the different ages
or conditions, or size of antlers, of the deer.
Even insects and reptiles are named by them; they could give details
of their habits, and knew whether they were poisonous or dangerous.
They always showed themselves greatly interested in sport, and much
appreciated a good shot. They spoke of a gun that killed well as a hot
gun (baril maínit). If they were trusted with a gun they were very
reluctant to spend a cartridge unless for a dead certainty. If two
cartridges are given to a hunter, he will bring in two deer or pigs,
otherwise he will apologise for wasting a cartridge, and explain how
it happened.
Their usual way of taking game is to set strong nets of abaca in the
woods in the form of a V, then the beaters and dogs drive the game
towards the hunters, who are concealed near the apex, and who kill
the deer or wild pigs with their lances whilst entangled in the nets.
I have found the Tagals very satisfactory as domestic servants,
although not so hard-working as the Ilocanos. Some of them could clean
glass or plate as well as an English butler, and could lay the table
for a dinner party and ornament tastefully with flowers and ferns,
folding the napkins like a Parisian waiter.
They could also write out the ménu (their orthography having been
previously corrected), and serve the dinner and wines in due sequence
without requiring any directions during the meal.
Some of them remained in my service the whole time I was in the
Philippines; one of them, Paulino Morillo, came to England with me
in charge of my two sons, and afterwards made three voyages to Cuba
with me. I gratefully acknowledge his faithful service. His portrait
is appended.
I did not find them sufficiently punctual and regular as cooks, nor
did they make their purchases in the market to as much advantage as the
Chinese cooks, who never bid one against another to raise the price.
As clerks and store-keepers I found the Tagals honest, assiduous,
and well-behaved. As draughtsmen they were fairly skilful in drawing
from hand sketches, and excelled in copying or tracing, but were quite
untrustworthy in taking out quantities and computing. Some of them
could write beautiful headings, or design ornamental title-pages. I
have by me some of their work that could not be done better even in
Germany or France. But the more skilful they were the more irregular
was their attendance, and the more they had learned the worse they
behaved.
When doing business with the Tagals, I found that the elder men could
be trusted. If I gave them credit, which was often the case, for
one or two years, I could depend upon the money being paid when due,
unless some calamity such as a flood or a conflagration had rendered
it absolutely impossible for them to find the cash. In such a case
(which seldom happened) they would advise me beforehand, and perhaps
bring a portion of the money, giving a pagaré, bearing interest, for
the remainder, and never by any possibility denying the debt. I never
made a bad debt amongst them, and gladly testify to their punctilious
honesty. This idea of the sacredness of an obligation seems to prevail
amongst many of the Malay races, even among the pagan savages, as
I had occasion to observe when I visited the Tagbanúas in Palawan
(Paragua). They certainly did not learn this from the Spaniards.
The More Instruction the less Honesty.
When dealing with the younger men who had been educated in Manila,
in Hong Kong, or even in Europe, I found that this idea had been
eradicated from them, and that no sufficient sense of honour had been
implanted in its stead.
In fact, I may say that, whilst the unlettered agriculturist, with his
old-fashioned dress, and quiet, dignified manner, inspired me with
the respect due to an honest and worthy man, the feeling evolved
from a discussion with the younger and educated men, dressed in
European clothes, who had been pupils in the Atenéo Municipal, or in
Santo Tomás, was less favourable, and it became evident to me that,
although they might be more instructed than their fathers, they were
morally below them. Either their moral training had been deficient,
or their natures are not improved by education. I usually preferred
to do business with them on a cash basis.
Unsuitable Training.
Dare I, at the tail-end of the nineteenth century, in the days of
Board Schools, County Councils, conscientious objectors, and Hooligans,
venture to recall to mind a saying of that grand old Conservative, the
Peruvian Solomon, Tupac Inca Yupanqui? "Science should only be taught
to those of generous blood, for the meaner sort are only puffed up,
and rendered vain and arrogant by it. Neither should such mingle in
the affairs of state, for by that means high offices are brought into
disrepute." [24]
That great monarch's words exactly express my conclusions about the
young Tagals and other natives.
To take a young native lad away from his parents, to place him in a
corrupted capital like Manila, and to cram him with the intricacies
of Spanish law, while there is probably, not in all those who surround
him, one single honest and upright man he can look up to for guidance
and example, is to deprive him of whatever principles of action he may
once have possessed, whilst giving him no guide for his future conduct.
He acquires the European vices without the virtues; loses his native
modesty and self-respect, and develops too often into a contemptible
pica-pleito, or pettifogger, instead of becoming an honest farmer.
The more educated Tagals are fond of litigation, and with the
assistance of native or half-caste lawyers will carry on the most
frivolous and vexatious lawsuit with every artifice that cunning and
utter unscrupulousness can suggest. The corrupt nature of the Spanish
courts is a mainstay to such people. Although they may be possessed
of ample means litigants often obtain from the court permission to
sue a foreigner in forma pauperis.
They are unscrupulous about evidence, and many will perjure themselves
or bring false witnesses without shame. It is said that blank stamped
paper of any year can be obtained for a sufficient price for the
purpose of forging documents relating to the sale of land; as there
are people who regularly keep it for this purpose.
The feeling of envy is strong within them, and any Spaniard or
foreigner who appears to be succeeding in an industrial enterprise in
the provinces, such as planting or mining, is sure, sooner or later,
to be attacked by the pettifoggers or their men of straw, and he will
be bled heavily when he comes before the courts, and perhaps have to
go to the Court of Appeal or even to the Tribunal Suprémo in Madrid
before he can obtain a verdict in his favour.
The credulity of the Tagal is remarkable; he has on occasion given
way to outbursts of ferocity, involving death and destruction to
numbers of innocent people.
In 1820, during an epidemic of cholera, he was led to believe that
this strange sickness had been produced by the foreigners, who had
poisoned the water. An indiscriminate massacre of foreigners was the
consequence of this calumny, and but few escaped. The authorities,
always prompt to repress uprisings against the Government, allowed time
for the foreigners to be massacred before they interfered. It is not
easy to say how many English, French, or Americans met their deaths
at the hands of the populace, for such details are never allowed to
be published.
I may say, however, that one should not be too hard on the Tagals
for this crime, since at a much later date a massacre of priests
occurred in Madrid, on account of a similar belief. It was started
because a lad, the servant of a priest, was seen to throw some white
powder into the Fuente Castellana. I have not at hand the details of
this massacre, but the friars were slaughtered like pigs.
In the dreadful epidemic of cholera in 1882, the natives behaved very
well, and I must give General Primo de Rivera credit for keeping
strict order and promptly organising the construction of temporary
hospitals, the inspection of every parish of the city, the conveyance
of the sick to hospital, and the burial of the dead. It was done
under military direction, and with the assistance of the priests,
the civil authorities, and the principal inhabitants. No disturbances
occurred owing to the strong hand of the Governor-General, although
some of the evil-disposed natives began to murmur about the doctors
carrying about the disease.
The mortality was dreadful; I believe that some 30,000 people lost
their lives in the city and province of Manila in three or four
months. In order to nurse the sick and bury the vast number of dead,
it was necessary to employ the convicts and prisoners. All these people
behaved remarkably well, although many succumbed to the disease. The
survivors were pardoned outright, or had their sentences reduced. If
the Governor-General had shown signs of weakness, the horrors of 1820
might have been repeated.
To give a better idea of the credulity of the Tagals and other
natives, I may say that in 1868 telegrams were received in Manila
(viâ Hong Kong), which were made public in the islands, announcing
the Spanish revolution of September, and the news, with stupendous
exaggerations, reached the remotest villages and the most miserable
huts. A general and indelible idea took possession of the minds of
the natives that Revolution (they thought it was a new emperor or a
great personage) had decreed that all were equal, that there should
be no difference between Indians and Spaniards, that the latter had
to return to Spain and Indians be substituted in all employments,
and that the tribute would be greatly reduced. That there would be
no conscription nor corvée (personal work), that the Pope would name
several Indian bishops, and that the Spanish priests would return
to the Peninsula. That a new captain-general would arrive who would
marry a native lady, who would be made a princess, that their children
would be kings and sovereigns of the Philippine Empire.
All this was confirmed by prophecies, by dreams, and revelations, and
great miracles by the Virgin of Antipolo and of St. Joseph, and other
patrons of the Indies, not omitting St. Peter, for whom the native
clergy profess a profound veneration, and who is the patron saint of
a brotherhood which has caused much trouble in the Philippines.
General Gándara, informed of all these absurdities by the friars,
did not fail to appreciate the immense importance of the movement
which, like the teachings of the so-called gods of Panay and Samar
who collected thousands of followers, might produce a general
insurrection. He therefore took due precautions, and invited all
the Spaniards in the Philippines, without distinction of party, in
support of the Government constituted in Spain. There was, however,
much agitation and much travelling to and fro amongst the native
clergy and the pettifogging lawyers. It was, however, not till 1872
that the conspirators succeeded in producing the mutiny of Cavite,
which was quickly suppressed, with much slaughter of the mutineers.
The chief amusement of the Tagal is cock-fighting. I shall not
describe this well-known sport, but will remark that it provides no
inconsiderable revenue. The right of building and running the cock-pits
of each province is farmed out to Chinese or Chinese half-breeds,
and no combats may take place except in these places. They are
opened after Mass on Sundays and feast-days, and on some other days
by special leave from the authorities. The love of this sport and the
hope of gain is so general that the majority of the natives of Manila
are breeders of game-cocks, which they tend with assiduous care, and
artisans often carry their favourite birds to their work and tether
them in the shade, where they can keep them in view. Horse-fights
occasionally take place. The ponies of the Philippines, although
not usually vicious to man, will fight savagely with each other, and
inflict severe bites. I remember a case where two ponies harnessed to
a victoria began fighting and a Guardia Civil attempted to separate
them, when one of the ponies seized him by the thigh, lifted him
off his feet, and shook him as a terrier might shake a rat; the
flesh of the man's thigh was torn away and the bone left bare. This
dreadful wound caused his death. The occurrence took place in front
of the church of Binondo in Manila. Bull fights have been an utter
failure in Manila, although many attempts have been made to establish
them. Flying kites is a great amusement with young and old in the
early months of the year, when the N.E. monsoon blows. Fights are
organised: the competing kites have crescent-shaped pieces of steel
attached to the tails, and the competitor who can cut the string of
his opponent's kite by causing his own to swoop suddenly across it,
is the winner. Betting on the result is common. The Tagals are also
fond of the theatre, and some years ago there was a Tagal theatre in
Binondo where comedies in that language were played. I have also met
strolling players in the country towns.
But of all kinds of shows a good circus is the one that fetches his
last dollar out of the Tagal. Guiseppe Chiarini reaped a silver harvest
in Manila on both occasions he pitched his tents there. His advance
agent, Maya, a Chilian, paved the way for success, and the pompous
announcement that Chiarini was born in the sacred city of Rome, greatly
impressed the natives, who flocked in thousands to his circus. Chiarini
considered himself able to tame the most vicious horse, and purchased
a fine Manila pony that no one could manage. The beast, however,
was not subdued by his powers, and, seizing the tamer's cheek, bit
off a large piece.
On feast days in the larger towns, open-air plays are sometimes
given, and what with preparations, rehearsals, and performance,
absorb the attention of a large number of the inhabitants for a
couple of months. I witnessed a very notable performance of this
kind some years ago at Balayan in the province of Batangas, the
characters being played by the sons and daughters of the principal
people there. The subject was taken from the 'Wars of Grenada.' In
the first act we saw a Christian king and his court, also his only
and peerless daughter. After these had had their say, an ambassador
from the Moslem king was announced, and the king summoned his council
to consider the communication. He took his seat upon the throne,
with grey-bearded councillors on each side. The Moslem envoy, and his
suite and escort, entered on horseback and very unnecessarily galloped
about and gave an exhibition of their horsemanship. Then the envoy,
still on horseback, harangued the king, and arrogantly demanded the
hand of the beauteous princess for his master, threatening war to
the knife in case of refusal. He then retired to his camp.
Next came the discussion of the demand which the grey-beards think
it hopeless to resist. The Moslem envoy was sent for, and amid great
grief the princess was about to be confided to his care, when there
rushed in a young Christian warrior and his followers, who swore they
would never allow a Christian princess to wed a Paynim, and dismissed
the envoy with contumelious remarks. He retired vowing vengeance. All
this occupied a long time, and I did not remain for the rest. I think
it took two days to act. But from the volleys of musketry and firing
of rockets and mortars which I heard, a sanguinary war must have been
waged and many of the characters must have perished. The play was
acted in a more spirited way than usual; some of the male performers
declaimed their parts with energy. Some were mounted on fine ponies,
and were well got up and armed.
The girls' dresses were rich, and they wore a great deal of
jewellery. Some of the princesses were very handsome girls. There is a
sort of a superstition that any girl performing in one of these pieces
is sure to be married within a year. This makes them very ready to
undertake a part, as they obtain an excellent opportunity to display
their charms to advantage, and so help to fulfil the prediction. The
play was witnessed by the mass of the population of Balayan and by
numerous visitors from the neighbouring towns. It was considered a
very successful performance, and it carried my memory over the wide
Pacific to Peru, where I have seen similar plays acted by the country
people in the Plaza of Huacho.
Tagal Literature.
Tagal literature does not amount to very much, and the policy of
the Government of late years has been to teach Spanish as well as
the native dialects in the schools. This did not meet the approval
of the old school of priests; but many of the younger ones have
accepted the Government view. In the Exhibition of the Philippines,
Madrid, 1887, Don Vicente Barrantes showed twenty volumes of grammars
and vocabularies of the Philippine dialects, and thirty-one volumes
of popular native poetry, besides two volumes of native plays. The
Reverend Father Raimundo Lozano exhibited twenty-eight volumes of
religious works in the Visayas-Panayano dialect, and the Reverend
Father Francisco Valdez a study of the roots of the Ilocan dialect
in manuscript. Many works in the native dialects have been written by
the Spanish priests, such as one by the Reverend Father Manuel Blanco,
the learned author of the 'Flora Filipina,' of which I give the title
and the first verse:--
Tagaloc verses to assist in "Manga dalit na Tagalog at
dying well. pagtulong sa mamaluatay na
tanang Cristiana."
Manila, 1867, VIII., 62 pag 8o.
"Aba bumabasa baquin baga caya
Tila camuntima i nata cang bohala."
I now give the title of a secular poem in English and Tagal, that
the reader may compare the words and note the subject:--
Story of the life of the "Salita at buhay nang
beauteous shepherdess marilang na pastora na si
Jacobina, a native of Jacobina tubo sa Villa
Moncada, who became the Moncada Naguing asáua
wife of the King, nang Policarpio de
Policarpio de Villar, Villar sa cabarian nang
in the kingdom of Dalmacia nagga roon nang
Dalmatia, and bore a isang supligna anac ang
son named Villardo. pangaia i si Villardo."
The poem begins--
"O maamong Ester mananalong Judit
Mariang linanag nitong sang daigdig."
and concludes--
"Panang nang pupuri ang lahat nang cabig
Sa yanang inaguling ang tinamo i sangit."
I do not think it is necessary to quote any more, as this gives the
reader sufficient idea of the language.
There is much that is good in the Tagal, much to like and
admire. Antonio de Morga, Sinibaldo de Mas, Tomás de Comyn, Paul de la
Gironière, Jagor, Bowring, Palgrave, Foreman, Stevens, Worcester--all
have some good to say of him, and with reason. But the piratical
blood is strong in him yet. He requires restraint and guidance from
those who have a higher standard for their actions than he has. Left
to himself he would infallibly relapse into savagery. At the same
time he will not be governed by brute force, and under oppression
or contumelious treatment he would abandon the plains, retire to the
mountains, and lead a predatory life. Although not just himself nor
truthful, he can recognise and revere truth and justice in a master
or governor. Courageous himself, only a courageous man can win his
respect. He is grateful, [25] and whoever can secure his reverence
and gratitude will have no trouble in leading him.
I have testified to the Tagal's excellence in many handicrafts and
callings, yet I greatly doubt whether they have the mental and moral
equipment for any of the professions. I should not like to place my
affairs in the hands of a Tagal lawyer, to trust my life in the hands
of a Tagal doctor, nor to purchase an estate on the faith of a Tagal
surveyor's measurement.
I do not say that they are all untrustworthy, nor that they can never
become fit for the higher callings, but they are not fit for them
now, and it will take a long time, and a completely changed system
of education, before they can become fit.
What they want are examples of a high type of honour and morality that
they could look up to and strive to imitate. There are such men in
America. Whether they will be sent to the Philippines is best known
to Mr. McKinley.
CHAPTER XXV.
Pampangos (2).
The Pampangos are close neighbours of the Tagals. They inhabit the
rich and fertile province of Pampanga and a large part of that of
Tarlac. There are also some detached colonies of them in the towns
of Bataán, Nueva Écija, Pangasinán, and Zambales. The population of
Pampanga is given in the census of 1876 as 226,000. Allowing one-half
the population of Tarlac to belong to this race, we have to add
41,000, and supposing one-tenth the population of Bataán, Nueva Écija,
and Zambales, to be Pampangos, say 27,000, we get 294,000 as their
number in 1876. Doubtless they have largely increased since then. The
Pampangos speak a different language from the Tagals, yet they can
understand each other to some extent. Many of the better class speak
both languages. The Pampango does not greatly differ from the Tagal in
appearance or character, but his environment and his occupations are
different. He is not so much a sailor, a fisherman, or a mechanic. He
excels in agriculture, is a good organiser of labour, rides well,
is a good hunter, and makes a bold and determined soldier. Large
numbers of this war-like race have fought under the Spanish flag
against the Mahometan princes of the Moluccas, of Mindanao, and Sulu,
as also against the British and the Dutch.
Pampangos as Cultivators.
The towns of San Fernando, Guágua Bacolor, Mexico, Angeles, Candaba,
and many others have been built up by Pampanga industry. They contain
many fine houses, where the European traveller is sure of a hospitable
reception.
The staple crop of Pampanga is sugar, and I shall explain their
organisation for its cultivation and manufacture.
In Luzon the land is usually cultivated under an arrangement known
as Aparceria.
The conditions of Aparceria vary according to the locality, and to
established custom, since on the land near a town a smaller share is
given to the cultivator than on land near the forests, where if he
were not satisfied he might commence to clear land for himself. Also
the land near the towns is more valuable than that at a distance for
various reasons.
The following is an example of the terms usual in Pampanga. The
land-owner provides:
A. Cleared land ready for the plough.
B. Sugar-cane points for the first planting.
C. Sugar-mill, boiling-pans and the building for same.
D. Money advances to keep the cultivator and his family, and for
taking off the crop.
E. Carts for carrying the cane to the mill.
The cultivator, or inquilino, provides:
1. His labour and that of his family for ploughing, planting and
cultivating the cane and fencing the plantations.
2. The ploughs and implements of husbandry.
3. The cattle (water buffaloes) for the above labours and for
working the mill if it is a cattle mill.
The money advanced to the cultivator by the land-owner is charged 20
per cent. per annum interest.
For a daily task of 9 pilones from cattle-mills or 10 pilones from
steam-mills there are employed:
2 Labourers to cut cane at 25 cents and food .50 cents.
1 Carter at 25 cents and food .25
2 Mill attendants at 25 cents and food .50
Sugar boiler and fireman at 25 cents and food .75
1 Megass carrier at 25 cents and food .25
------
Mexican dollars 2.25
Or 25 cents per pilon.
Sugar Crop.
The land-owner pays the men's wages, and the cultivator gives them
three meals a day and cigars.
The sugar-moulds (pilones) cost about 12½ cents each, and the cost
is divided between the parties.
In making up the account, 6½ per cent. per annum is charged on the
value of the land, machinery and building.
The molasses which drains from the sugar belongs to the land-owner.
These pilones are supposed to contain 140 lbs. of sugar when
filled. They are placed upon a small pot to allow the molasses to drain
off. When delivered their weight may be from 112 to 120 lbs. according
to the time they have been draining. This sugar polarises about 80
per cent. according to circumstances and requires to be treated at
the farderias in Manila to bring it up to an even sample before it
is exported. The sugar loaves are cut up, sorted, crushed, mixed
with other sugars, sun-dried, and a certain quantity of sand added
before being put into bags for export as Manila Sugar, usually No. 7
or No. 9 Dutch standard. It will be seen from the above figures how
moderate the expenses are. Of course each land-owner has a number of
cultivators, and often a number of mills.
Notwithstanding the low price of sugar which has prevailed for many
years, the provinces of Pampanga has made money out of it as the
handsome houses of the land-owners in all their towns testify.
The sugar crop in Pampanga has never quite reached a million pilones,
but has exceeded nine hundred thousand, say from fifty to sixty
thousand English tons. The cane is crushed in small steam or cattle
mills having three horizontal rollers.
These mills are mostly made in Glasgow and have now in Pampanga
entirely superseded the Chinese mills with vertical rollers of granite
or the native mills with vertical rollers of hard wood. [26]
In former years I pointed out, in a report written for General
Jovellar, what a great advantage it would be to Pampanga if the
planters would abandon the use of pilones and make sugar suitable
for direct export and so obviate the manipulation in the farderias
at Manila.
They could make a sugar similar to that produced in Negros and known
as Ilo-ilo.
Now that the Philippines have passed into the hands of the United
States, I do not doubt that central sugar factories will be established
and will turn out centrifugal sugars polarizing 96 per cent. similar
to the Cuban sugar.
Pampangos as Fishermen.
There are some Pampanga fishermen on the River Betis, at San José,
and amongst the labyrinth of creeks and mangrove swamps forming the
north-western shores of Manila Bay.
Their avocation is not destitute of danger, for these swamps are
the home of the alligator. [27] Although they are not as large as
some I have seen in the River Paraguay or on the River Dáule, in
Ecuador, they are quite large enough to seize a horse or a man. I
was once visiting Fr. Enrique Garcia, the parish priest of Macabébe,
when a native woman came in and presented him with a dollar to say
a Mass in thanksgiving for the escape of her husband from death that
morning. She told us that he was pushing a shrimp-net in shallow water
when the buaya seized him by the shoulder. The fisherman, however,
called upon his patron saint, and putting out his utmost strength,
with the aid of Saint Peter, succeeded in extricating himself from
the reptile's jaws and in beating him off. His shoulder, however,
was badly lacerated by the alligator's teeth. It was lucky for him
that he was in shallow water, for the alligator usually holds its
prey under water and drowns it.
The Pampangos also fish on the Rio Grande, the Rio Chico, and in the
Pinag de Candaba. This latter is an extensive swampy plain, partly
under cultivation in the dry season, partly laid out as fish-ponds.
The Nipa palm grows in abundance in the delta of the Bétis, and
small colonies of half-savage people are settled on dry spots amongst
these swamps engaged in collecting the juice or the leaves of this
tree. The stems are punctured and the juice runs into small vessels
made of cane. It is collected daily, poured into jars and carried in
small canoes to the distillery where it is fermented and distilled.
The distilleries are constructed in a very primitive manner, and are
worked by Chinese or Chinese half-breeds.
The produce is called Vino de Nipa, and is retailed in the native
stalls and restaurants.
The leaves are doubled and sewn with rattan strips upon a small piece
of bamboo, they are taken to market upon a platform laid across the
gunwales of two canoes. This arrangement is called bangcas mancornadas,
canoes yoked together. The nipa is sold by the thousand, and serves to
thatch the native houses anywhere, except in certain parts of Manila
and other towns where its use is forbidden on account of the great
danger of its taking fire.
From circumstances that have come under my own observation, I believe
it to be a fact that when trade in nipa thatch is dull, the canoe-men
set fire to the native houses in the suburbs of Manila to make a
market. I have noticed more than once that houses have commenced to
burn from the upper part of the thatched roof where they could not
have caught fire accidentally. The Province of Pampanga extends to
the westward, as far as the crests of the Zambales mountains, and the
Cordillera of Mabanga is included within its boundaries. There is but
little cultivated land beyond the town of Porac to the westward. Here
the Pampangos trade with the Negritos, who inhabit the Zambales range,
getting from them jungle produce in exchange for rice, tobacco, sugar,
and other articles. Occasionally the Negritos steal cattle from
the Pampangos or at times murder one of them if a good opportunity
presents itself.
Pampangos as Hunters.
The natives of this part of the province are good wood-men and hunters.
In addition to taking game by nets and ambuscade, some of them hunt
the deer on ponies which are trained to run at full speed after the
game, up or down hill, and to get near enough for the rider to throw
or use his lance.
Being at Porac in 1879 with the late Major Deare, 74th Highlanders
(now 2nd Batt. Highland Light Infantry), an enthusiastic sportsman,
we saw two men who had practised this sport for years, and were told
that their arms, ribs, legs and collar-bones had been broken over and
over again. We saw them gallop down a rocky and precipitous descent
after a deer at full speed.
We could only wonder that they were alive if that was a sample of
their hunting. Their saddles were fitted with strong martingales and
cruppers and with triple girths so that they could not shift. The
saddles themselves were of the usual native pattern, like miniature
Mexicans. The men were light weights.
N.B.--If any reader of this contemplates travelling in the
Philippines, let him take a saddle with him. It should be as small
as he could comfortably use, and light. The ponies are from twelve
to thirteen hands high, but are remarkably strong and clever. I know
from experience that a good one will carry fourteen stone over rough
ground with safety.
Tulisanes.
Pampanga has produced some notable bandits or Tulisanes who have given
the Spaniards much trouble. Of late years there has been a diminution
in the number of crimes of violence, due in a great measure to the
establishment of the Guardia Civil by General Gándara in 1867.
I once built a nipa house on the banks of the Rio Grande, near
Macabébe, and resided there for several months, carrying on some
works. I was new to the country and ignorant of the customs of
the people.
There were no other Europeans in the vicinity, except the priests.
I took care to treat all my native neighbours with strict justice,
neither infringing their rights, nor allowing them to impose on me.
There came to stay with me Mr. A. B. Whyte, then an employé, now a
partner in one of the leading British firms in Manila, who frequently
had ten thousand dollars in gold in his safe, and similar sums were
remitted to him from Manila at different times for the purchase
of sugar.
One day we received a visit from an officer of the Civil Guard who came
to warn us that we were in danger of an attack, that his post was too
far off for him to protect us, and that the locality bore a very bad
name for crimes of violence. We thanked him for his visit and warning,
entertained him to lunch, and informed him that we intended to remain,
after which he returned to his post at Apalit. On making inquiry we
found that some of our immediate neighbours were well-known bandits,
but were thought to have retired from business. However, they never
attacked us, and probably prevented any other Tulisanes from doing so
lest they should get the blame. But had I encroached on their land or
treated them contemptuously, or had I allowed them to impose upon me,
I do not doubt we should have been attacked and to say the least we
might have found ourselves in a tight place.
A nipa house is no place to defend, for it can be burnt in a few
minutes in the dry season, and a spear can be pushed through the sides,
or up through the floor with ease.
In cases like this one cannot entirely depend upon the assistance
of native servants, for they have sometimes joined with criminals to
rob or murder their master.
There is a curious custom amongst bandits to invite an outsider to
join them in a particular enterprise, and it is considered mean and as
denoting a want of courage to refuse, even when a servant is invited
to help rob or kill his master. Moreover, there is much danger in
refusing to join the bandits, for it will give dire offence to them and
perhaps have fatal consequences. This invitation is called a Convite
[see Chap. V.].
The hereditary taint of piracy in the Malay blood, and the low
moral standard prevailing in the Archipelago, as well as fear of the
consequences of a refusal, render it more difficult than a stranger
can realise for a native servant to resist such a temptation.
Pampanga Women.
The women in Pampanga are smart in appearance, clever in business,
and good at a bargain, whether buying or selling. The men are well
aware of this and when selling their produce or buying a sugar-mill,
they like to have the assistance of their wives, who are always the
hardest customers to deal with.
They are excellent sempstresses and good at embroidery. In some
villages they make very durable silk handkerchiefs with coloured
borders of blue, red or purple. Straw hats, mats, salacots, cigar
and cigarette cases are also made by them.
Their houses are kept clean, and the larger ones are well-suited for
entertainments, as the sala and caida are very spacious, and have
polished floors of narra, or some other hard close-grained wood very
pleasant to dance on.
A ball at a big Pampanga house is a sight that will be
remembered. Capitan Joaquin Arnédo Cruz of Sulípan, on the Rio Grande,
a wealthy native sugar-planter, used to assemble in his fine house the
principal people of the neighbourhood to meet royal or distinguished
guests. One of his daughters is married to a distinguished lawyer,
my friend Don Felipe Buencamino, author of the remarkable State
paper addressed to the United States Senate, and published in the
Congressional Record of January 9th, 1900, pp. 752-53-54. Capitan
Joaquin possessed a magnificent porcelain table-service of two hundred
pieces, specially made and marked with his monogram, sent him by a
prince who had enjoyed his hospitality.
He gave a ball for the Grand Duke Alexis of Russia, who afterwards
declared that the room presented one of the most brilliant sights he
had ever seen.
This from a son of an Emperor might seem an exaggeration, but brilliant
is the only word that can describe the effect produced on the spectator
by the bright costumes and sparkling jewellery of the women.
Their dress seems to exercise a fascination upon Europeans which the
costume of any other eastern country fails to do.
Monsieur Paul de la Gironière, in his charming book, 'Vingt Ans aux
Philippines,' says, about the Mestiza dress: "Nothing so charming,
so coquet, so provocative as this costume which excites to the highest
point the admiration of all strangers."
He goes on to say that the women are well aware of this, and that on
no account would they make a change. I will add my opinion that they
are quite right, and may they ever stick to the saya, the báro, and
the tapis under the Stars and Stripes, may they ever be as natural,
as handsome and as prosperous as when the writer dwelt amongst them
on the banks of the Rio Grande under the paternal rule of Alcalde
Mayor Don José Fécéd y Temprado.
CHAPTER XXVI.
Zambales (3).
The Zambales are a small and unimportant tribe of the Malay race, with
some admixture of Negrito blood. They inhabit part of the province of
Zambales from the River Nája down to South Felipe, a coast village
in 15° N. latitude, and in their mountains there roam a good many
Negritos. The Zambales are subjugated and converted to Christianity,
but some still maintain a partial independence amongst the mountains,
paying, however, the "Reconocimentio de Vassallaje." At the time of
the conquest, these people were famous head-hunters, and otherwise
manifested a bloodthirsty disposition. They lived in villages of
thirty to forty families, quite independent of each other, and their
chiefs possessed but little influence. When one of a family died the
surviving male relatives put on a black head-cloth or turban, which
they durst not remove until one of them had killed some one else so
as to satisfy the death vengeance. A murder could be atoned for by a
payment in gold or in goods, or a slave or Negrito might be delivered
up to be sacrificed to the manes of the departed. It was customary
amongst them to take with them to their feasts the heads or skulls
they possessed. The heads were placed on poles and ceremonial dances
were performed around them. They also emulated the Vikings by making
drinking cups out of their enemies' skulls.
Their religion was similar to that of the Tagals. Their principal god
was called Malayari, but he had under him two deputy gods, Acasi and
Manglobag, and a large number of inferior gods. Their chief priest
was called Bayoc, and exercised great influence amongst them. They
celebrated baptism with the blood of a pig. Amongst them, as in
Borneo and with many tribes of Malays who are not Mahometans, the
pig is considered as the most acceptable sacrifice to the gods. For
particulars about this I refer the reader to 'Life in the Forests of
the Far East,' by Spenser St. John.
Now, at last, they have been brought into the Christian fold,
though, perhaps, amongst the pine-clad mountains, heathen customs
maintain their hold upon the wild hillmen. These latter trade with
their Christian and partly-civilised brethren, bringing them jungle
produce, tobacco, and the small bezoar stones, so highly prized
by the Chinese, in return for articles they require. The Zambales
raise some rice and a little sugar. Their trade is inconsiderable,
their exports being limited to Sapan wood, jungle produce, timber,
fire-wood, and charcoal, all of which is shipped to Manila, where it
finds a ready sale. The total population of this province was 94,551
in 1876, but only a portion of these were Zambales.
Pangasinanes (4).
The Pangasinanes inhabit the north-western part of the province of
Pangasinan, and the northern part of the province of Zambales from
the River Naja, which runs into the Bay of Bazol, round Cape Bolinao
to Sual, including the Island of Cabarruyan and Santiago. But the
southern and eastern part of their province is partly inhabited by
Pampangos and Ilocanos.
On the other hand, there are some Pangasinanes scattered about the
northern part of Nueva Écija amongst Tagals and Ilocanos, and there
are a few as colonists in Benguet.
In former times the Pangasinanes occupied a wider extent of
country. When Juan Salcedo arrived he found them occupying the southern
part of La Union; but they have been and are still being pushed back
by the more hard working and energetic Ilocanos.
As the limits of their province do not correspond to the ethnographical
boundaries, it is not easy to estimate their numbers. I think there
may be about 300,000 of them.
The Pangasinanes were subjugated by the Spaniards in 1572, and in
1576 they were all Christians. Their manners and customs are similar
to those of the Pampangos and Tagals, but they have a rougher and
more uncouth appearance. Their chief occupation is cultivating rice,
and whenever this is the case the people are poor and little advanced
in civilisation. It is the lowest kind of agriculture any people
can follow. The first sign of prosperity in an eastern people is
given when they begin to import rice, as it shows that they have
a more remunerative occupation to follow than cultivating it for
themselves. Thus the Cagayanes who grow tobacco, the Pampangos who
grow sugar, and the Vicols of Albay and neighbouring islands who grow
hemp, all import rice.
Mr. J. W. Jamieson, the Acting British Consul at Sumao, in a report on
the trade of Yunnan, issued the 7th of December, 1898, says: "Apart
from minerals, the province possesses a few other resources and the
inhabitants are lazy and unenterprising to a degree. So long as they
can grow enough rice to feed themselves and procure enough cotton to
make the few articles of clothing necessary in this equable climate,
they are content."
I am glad to find this confirmation of my views in this
matter. Mr. Jamieson's remarks apply to all the rice-growers I
have seen.
The rice is raised in the delta of the Agno and about that
river. Formerly, the Pangasinanes not only sent rice to Manila,
but exported it to China, Siam, and Annan.
For this trade they built their own vessels at Lingayen, and in the
flourishing period, some twenty-five years ago, their shipwrights used
to turn out eight or ten schooners in a year, vessels able to carry
300 to 400 tons dead weight. Since the introduction of steamers into
the coasting trade, the construction of sailing vessels has greatly
diminished. Still, they turn out two or three a year.
In some parts of the province they make sugar, but it will not compare
in quality with that made in Pampanga. It has a smaller grain and a
paler colour, but less sweetening power. The average of thirty samples,
taken as the sugar was ladled out of the tacho, was--
Crystallizable sugar 70.40 per cent.
Uncrystallizable 13.00
Ash 1.97
It is drained in pilones, or earthenware moulds; but, unlike the
Pampanga custom, the moulds are not delivered with the sugar, but
the leaf is wrapped in the dried sheaths of the palm, tied about
with split rattan. Most of the sugar is sent by sea to Manila and
exported to China for direct consumption in one of the provinces
where it finds a ready sale.
Indigo was formerly cultivated here and exported, and at one time
a good deal of Sapan wood was also exported, but the trade in these
articles has almost ceased.
Amongst the industries of Pangasinan may be mentioned the manufacture
of hats, hundreds of thousands of which were made at Calasiao from
grass or nito, and sent to Boston or New York. There are also at
Calasiao, and in some other towns, blacksmiths who forge excellent
bolos or wood-knives from the iron-bands taken off bales of cotton
cloth or sacking.
Carromatas, the two-wheeled vehicles of the country, are constructed
in Lingayen and Dagupan, and are said to be very well made.
I may mention here that the ponies raised in these provinces are
inferior to the Ilocanos or even the Albay breed.
The sands of the River Agno near Rosales, and of the streams coming
down from Mount Lagsig, are washed for gold, principally by women
who obtain but a meagre return.
The civilisation of the Pangasinanes is only skin-deep, and one of
their characteristics is a decided propensity to remontar, that is,
to abandon their towns or villages and take to the mountains, out of
reach of all authority. There are some great land-owners in Pangasinan;
one of them, Don Rafael Sison, owns an estate that stretches from
Calasiao and Santa Barbara to Urdaneta.
Ilocanos (5).
This hard-working and industrious race occupies the northern and
western shores of Luzon, from Point Lacatacay on the 121st meridian,
east from Greenwich, to San Fabian, on the Gulf of Lingayen. This
includes the three provinces of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and La
Union. The Ilocanos have also pushed into the north-eastern part of
Pangasinan, where they occupy seven towns, and they inhabit the town
of Alcalá in the province of Cagayan, several villages in Benguet,
parts of the towns of Capas and O'Donnell in the provinces of Tarlac,
and some towns in Zambales and Nueva Écija. They are all civilised
and have been Christians for three centuries. Amongst them dwell many
converted Tinguianes and Igorrotes, who speak the Ilocan dialect.
Blumentritt attributes the energy and activity of the Ilocanos to an
admixture, even though it be small, of these brave and hardy races. In
dress and appearance they are similar to the Tagals, and like them
carry the indispensable bolo. They cultivate tobacco, cotton, rice,
maize, indigo, sugar-cane, and a little cacao and coffee. They also
grow the pita (Agave Americana), which gives the fibre for the nipis
textiles, ajonjoli (Sesamum indicum, L.), from which they extract oil,
which is used in medicine and for the hair, and they even grow some
wheat. They extract a black resin from the Antong (Canarum Pimela),
which is used as incense or for making torches; another resin from
the Bangad, which is used as a varnish, another from the Cajel (Citrus
Aurantium), and many others used either in medicine, for torches, for
varnishing, or for paying the seams of wooden vessels. They get gum
from the Balete (Ficus Urostigma), and from the Lucban, or orange tree
(Citrus decumana, L.), oil from the Palomaria (Calophyllum inophyllum,
L.), and from a large number of other trees, some only known by the
native name, and the use of which is uncertain. They obtain dyes
from many trees growing wild in the forests, amongst others from the
Tabungao (Jatropha Curcas, L.), the Lomboy (Eugenia Lambolana, Lam.),
the sibucao (Coesalpinia Sappan, L.). Their cultivation of indigo is
declining, partly because the demand has diminished in consequence of
the introduction of chemical substitutes, and also because the Chinese,
into whose hands the whole produce of these provinces found its way,
adulterated it so abominably as to discredit it altogether. Yet so
great is the facility of Ilocan territory for growing indigo, that
Gregorio Sy Quia of Vigan exhibited in Madrid in 1887 no less than
seventy-five different kinds of indigo, and seventy-five different
seeds corresponding to the samples. At the same exhibition, no less
than twenty-four different kinds of rice were exhibited from Ilocos,
and this by no means exhausts the list. Every kind has a distinctive
name. The textile industry flourishes amongst these industrious
people. The Local Committee of Namagpacan, in the province of La
Union, sent to Madrid for the above-mentioned exhibition, no less
than 145 different textiles, whilst other towns sent looms and other
implements. Amongst the articles woven are quilts, cotton blankets
(the celebrated Mantos de Ilocos), napkins and towels, and a great
variety of material for coats, trousers, women's dresses and other
uses. Guingon (called by sailors dungaree), a blue stuff for clothing,
costs from $0.50 to $0.31, 2s. 8d. per vara (2 feet 9 inches),
a mixture of cotton and silk, for men's wear, $1.25 per vara, silk
handkerchiefs $0.25 each.
The Ilocans also make nets for fish, and for deer and pigs; baskets
of all sorts, salacots or hats.
They grow two kinds of cotton for textiles, the white and the
Coyote. Another kind, a tree cotton from the Boboy (Eriodendron
anfractuosum, D.C.), is only used for stuffing pillows. They extract
oil from the seeds of all three kinds.
Like the other civilized natives they live principally on rice and
fish, which they capture in large quantities. Blumentritt mentions
two kinds, the "Ipon" and the "Dolon," which they salt or pickle.
They have fine cattle, which they sell to the Igorrotes. It will
be noted that the Tinguianes, on the other hand, sell cattle to
the Ilocanos. The ponies of Ilocos are highly valued in Manila,
where there is a great demand for them. They are smaller than the
ponies of other provinces, but are very hardy and spirited, and
go at a great pace. Tulisanes formerly infested these provinces
and found a ready refuge in the mountains, when pursued by the
cuadrilleros, or village constables, who were only armed with bolos,
lances, and a few old muskets. But the creation of the Civil Guard,
formed of picked officers and men, who were armed with Remingtons and
revolvers, and whose orders were, "Do not hesitate to shoot," made this
business very dangerous, and the three provinces suffer little from
brigandage. When Juan Salcedo conquered the Ilocos, he found a caste
of nobles amongst them who possessed all the riches of the country,
and treated the cailanes, or serfs, with great rigour. Their tyranny
caused several bloody rebellions, and although at present matters in
this respect have improved, there is still room for complaint that
the people who do the work do not get a fair remuneration for it,
the rich man always endeavouring to keep the poor man in permanent
indebtedness. In consequence of this, the Ilocanos are ever ready to
emigrate, and besides the places I have mentioned, there are thousands
of them in Manila and other parts of the islands. They easily obtain
employment either as servants, cultivators, or labourers, for they are
superior in stamina to most of the civilised races, and in industry
superior to them all.
I have no doubt that there is a great future before this hardy,
enterprising, and industrious people.
Ibanags or Cagayanes (6).
The Ibanags inhabit the Babuyanes and Batanes Islands and the northern
coast of Luzon, from Point Lacaytacay to Punta Escarpada, and all
the country comprised between the Rio Grande and the summits of the
Sierra Madre as far south as Balasig.
They also hold the left bank of the river from the sea, right up to the
confluence of the River Magat for an average width of some five miles.
They are said to be the finest race and the most valiant men in the
islands, and to have manfully resisted the Spaniards.
However, they were conquered and converted to Christianity. From the
year 1781 they have been subjected to the worst form of slavery, the
forced cultivation of tobacco. The detestable abuses brought into this
system by the unblushing rascality of the agents of the treasury,
became, finally, so glaring, and the condition of the Ibanags so
dreadful, that, in 1882, the Governor-General, Moriones (see Chapter
"Spanish Government"), forced the hand of Cánovas and the royal family,
who desired to sell the monopoly, and this horrible slavery ceased,
having lasted over a century, going from bad to worse.
Since that date the condition of the Ibanags has greatly improved; they
have continued the cultivation of tobacco, and private enterprise has
done much to introduce the finest seed and to improve the cultivation
and preparatory operations. The "Compañia Tabacalera de Filipinas,"
a Franco-Catalan enterprise, has established the Haciendas of San
Antonio, San Rafael, and Santa Isabel, in the district of Isabela.
They have built large warehouses in Tumaúini and have agents in all
the principal towns.
On the river they have a stern-wheel steamer, the Antonio Lopez,
and a number of steel-lighters for carrying down tobacco.
The tobacco is ready for transport in December and January. It is sent
down the river to Aparri, from whence it is shipped to Manila. In a
normal dry season (February to August), the river is navigable for
steamers of two feet draught up to Alcalá, the trade of which town
is not important; but that of Tuguegárao is so, and up to that point
the current is not strong.
Amongst the Ibanags the distinction of noble and plebeian has been
as strongly marked as amongst the Tagals, Pampangos, and Ilocanos,
and the intense cupidity of the nobles, or rather usurers, which name
better describes them, has led to many bloody outbreaks on the part
of the oppressed and enslaved debtors.
The government has steadily encouraged the Ilocanos and others to
settle in Cagayan and plant tobacco, giving them free passages and
advances of money in the days of the monopoly.
On the other hand, the discontent of the Ibanags has led them
to migrate to other provinces when possible, for the authorities
prevented them from doing so by force when they could. They especially
endeavoured to get to Manila, and I remember many years ago the
arrival of a starving and ragged band, who had tramped all the way
from Isabela to Manila to escape from their cruel task-masters.
However, things are better with them now, and I hope means will be
found under the Stars and Stripes to introduce a better system of
finance, and to curb the greed of the usurer, either by legislation
or by competition on a fair and humane basis. The Ibanag language is
spreading greatly amongst the hill-tribes around them as a commercial
language, just as Ilocano is spreading on the West Coast.
Under American influence an immense development of the provinces
of Cagayan and Isabela may be expected in the near future, and the
Ibanags will doubtless benefit by this.
CHAPTER XXVII.
Igorrotes (7).
This is an important, and to me, the most interesting of the
independent or partly subdued races of the Philippines. They are a
fine, hardy, industrious, and warlike race, well worth a great and
patient effort to bring them within the pale of Christianity, and
to advance the civilisation they have already attained. They are of
a dark bronze colour, with straight black and abundant hair, large
dark eyes set rather obliquely as amongst Chinese. Their faces are
broad with high cheek-bones, the nose aquiline and the head large. The
features in general have a Mongolian cast, and a certain nasal twang
in their speech resembles that of the Southern Chinese. The men have
capacious chests, showing good lung-power, their muscles well developed
indicating great strength and ability to resist fatigue. The women
have also well-marked figures and rounded limbs. The fashions vary
with different tribes, but it is common to find both sexes wearing
their hair cut in a fringe over the forehead, but reaching down to
the eyebrows, long enough at the sides to cover the ears, left long
at the back of the head, where it is gathered up into a knot.
The Igorrotes of Lepanto wear beards, some of them are as thick
as a Spaniard's, but the tribes farther South pull out, not only
their beards, but all the hair on their bodies, except that of the
head. Their dress varies from a mere apron (Bahaque) when at work in
the fields, to an ornamental jacket very smartly cut and elaborate
sword-belt when at war or on any full-dress occasion. These jackets are
very handsome and have stripes of blue, crimson and white. They wear
a variety of head-dresses, turban, Salacot or a kind of cocked-hat
and feathers. Both men and women wear cloaks or plaids of bright
colours made of cotton. Although the word Igorrote has come to be
almost a generic name for the heathen Highlanders of North Luzon,
it is here limited to those who dwell on the Western part of the
Cordillera Central, comprising the whole of the districts of Benguet
and Lepanto, part of Bontoc and parts of the Provinces of La Union
and Ilocos Sur. The sub-tribes Buriks and Busaos are included.
Tattooing is very general amongst them. In some districts you can
hardly find a man or woman who has not a figure of the sun tattooed in
blue on the back of the hand, for in Central Benguet they worship the
sun. Some of them tattoo the breast and arms in patterns of straight
and curved lines pricked in with a needle in indigo blue. The Busao
Igorrotes, who live in the North of Lepanto, tattoo flowers on their
arms, and in war-dress wear a cylindrical shako made of wood or plaited
rattan, and large copper pendants in their ears. These people do not
use the Talibon, and prefer the spear. The Burik Igorrotes tattoo
the body in a curious manner, giving them the appearance of wearing
a coat of mail. But this custom is probably now becoming obsolete,
for at least those of the Igorrotes who live near the Christian
natives are gradually adopting their dress and customs.
White is the colour of mourning, as amongst the Moros of Mindanao and
Sulu. Both sexes are fond of personal ornaments, such as ear-rings,
collars, arm-rings, bangles, leg-rings and belts. Collars of
crocodiles' teeth are highly esteemed. In the long list of their
manufactures I shall enumerate their ornaments. Their arms are the
talibon, a short double-edged sword; the gayang, a javelin or assegai;
and the aligua, a light axe, having a spike at the back opposite to
the cutting edge. After throwing their javelins, they rush on with
their drawn swords, holding their shield, called a calata, on the
left arm. This is made of light wood and is long and narrow. With the
exception of the shape of the shield their equipment is much like
that of the Roman Legionaries twenty centuries since. The aligua
appears to be used, not as a fighting weapon, but to decapitate
their fallen enemies and as a means of carrying the head home on a
spike. Great rejoicings, with feasts and dances, were held after a
successful skirmish, and large quantities of liquor consumed. But the
constant pressure of the Spanish authority has in a great measure
stopped these petty wars. They make a kind of beer called Basi by
fermenting cane-juice, and another liquor, something like the chicha
of the Peruvian Coast Indians, from rice. This latter is called
bundang. They are great smokers, and make their own pipes of various
materials. They appear not to have universally adopted the Malay
custom of chewing buyo. There is a settlement of Christian Igorrotes
on the coast of Ilocos Sur, close to the boundary of La Union,
which has been established many years. But in general the Igorrotes
have steadily refused to embrace Christianity, and evidently do not
want to go to the same heaven as the Spaniards. The behaviour of the
troops led against them in 1881 by General Primo de Rivera doubtless
confirmed them in this repugnance. The expedition did not do much in
the way of fighting, Remingtons and mountain-guns failed to subdue
the bold mountaineers armed only with javelin and sword. The Spanish
officers and men, however, are reported to have abominably mishandled
the Igorrote women. For this ravishing foray the late King Alfonso
XII. bestowed the title of Vizconde de la Union upon Primo de Rivera,
and showered promotions and crosses upon his staff.
The Igorrotes live in villages with a population of three or four
hundred souls. There is a chief to each, but the villages are
not organised into states, each being independent. The chief is
supposed to be chosen from the families called Mainguel, who have
distinguished themselves in war. As a matter of fact, the richest
man usually becomes chief. The wealthy families vie with each other
in the grand feasts which they give to all comers. The noble and
the illustrious guests are personally invited to these feasts, but
the common people assemble at beat of drum. The chief presides at the
meeting of the Bacuanes or nobles in whom are vested the village lands,
and who direct its affairs.
The common people are in a kind of bondage to the nobles, and
cultivate their lands for them. In Lepanto they are called cailianes
as in Ilocos. Their houses are square, and similar to those of
the other natives in the outlying districts, being raised on posts
above the ground-level. A framework of bamboos is supported on four
trunks of trees, the roof is thatched with cogon (elephant grass)
and the sides are closed in by canes, bamboos or pine planks. Each
house stands in an enclosure of its own, strongly fenced with rough
stones or posts. They are far inferior to the Christian natives
in the arrangement of their houses. Instead of having a separate
kitchen on a pantalan or raised platform, the fire is made in the
centre of the house, and the smoke finds its way out through a hole
in the roof. The rafters and inside of the thatch is blackened by
the soot. They make no windows to their houses and only a small door,
the ladder to which is drawn up when they retire to rest. They are not
clean in their persons, and neglect to wash their clothes, or clean
the interiors of their houses. They thus compare very unfavourably
with the Tagals as regards cleanliness, although, as we shall see,
in some other respects they are greatly above them. Each village has
its Town Hall, which they call the Balta-oa. This is where the Town
Council assembles to settle the affairs of the community, to hear
requests for divorces, and to administer the law to offenders. Public
festivities also take place here.
They are monogamous, and have the highest respect for the holiness
of the marriage tie. It is not absolutely indissoluble, but can be
dissolved by the village council on serious grounds; but apparently
divorce is systematically discouraged, and the sacredness of marriage
is upheld. In former times adulteresses were punished by beheading,
but more lenient views now prevail, and a good whipping is considered
sufficient to meet the case. Generally death only dissolves the tie,
and even then only partially, as re-marriage is difficult; for it is
not proper for the widow to marry again without the consent of her
late husband's family, which may not easily be obtained, and if she
contracts new ties, the children of her first marriage are removed from
her control. On the other hand, Igorrote respectability requires that
a widower should entirely neglect his toilet and commune silently with
his grief for several years before taking to himself a new wife. Like
most heathen, they show the greatest respect and affection for their
parents, and cherish them to their life's end.
In sharp contrast with the license accorded to young girls by the
Tagals and Visayas, the Igorrotes carefully guard the chastity of their
daughters, and do not allow them to go about without a chaperon. The
father even often accompanies them on their excursions. When they
arrive at the age of puberty, the boys and girls are separated.
In each village there are two special buildings not too near each
other. In one of these the girls sleep under the watchful guard of
a duenna, who looks after their morals, and in the other the youths
under the care of an elder. The youth caught violating the sanctity of
the damsels' dormitory, or the maiden who is detected in an intrigue,
or shows signs of maternity, may expect a severe correction. They do
not seem to raise as many difficulties about the marriage of their
daughters as the Tagals do, and they do not make it a matter of a
mercenary bargain. When a youth takes a fancy to a marriageable maiden
of his own degree, he applies through his parents to the father of the
girl, and if he and his daughter look with favour on the proposal,
the young man is admitted to cohabit with the damsel. But if within
a certain period the girl does not show signs of succession, the
would-be bridegroom is sent about his business. On the other hand,
if pregnancy is announced, the wedding takes place with all possible
ceremony, including an invocation of the Anitos or ancestral gods,
feasts and dances, which last eight or nine days, but the young couple
are excused from attendance. The Igorrotes, in fact, openly recognise
a custom which is practised to a great extent in the agricultural
districts of England and Scotland, with this difference, that the
Christian youth in the latter countries often evades the marriage,
while the heathen Igorrote carries out his engagement. I think,
on the whole, the heathen comes out best.
Although so desirous of offspring, they like to have them come one
at a time, and they consider it to be an evil omen when one of their
women brings forth twins. In such a case the last born is handed over
to whoever desires to adopt it. This is held to avert the omen and
straighten things out again.
Of late years the establishment of forts with the Tagal or Visayas
garrisons in the Igorrote territory, and closer contact with Christians
generally, have tended to demoralise the heathen, and, above all,
to lower somewhat their lofty ideal of chastity.
Amongst the Igorrotes of Lepanto, and those farthest removed from
Spanish influence, when a man of position dies, a notification is
sent to all his blood-relations, even though they reside at a great
distance, and the corpse is not buried until they have all arrived
and have each taken the dead man's hand in theirs, inquiring of him
tenderly why he has abandoned his family. All this time a great feast
is going on outside the house, vast quantities of rice and meat are
provided and consumed, and an unlimited allowance of beer drunk by
the guests. The expense is often out of all proportion to the means
of the family and perhaps involves them in debt for years.
In the Igorrote territory under Spanish influence this extravagance
and delay of burial is discouraged. Some of the Igorrotes dry their
dead over a fire in a similar way to the Tinguianes. The dead are
buried in a sitting posture, after the manner of the Peruvian Indians,
but enclosed in coffins, which are placed in any small cave or cleft
in the rocks, enlarged by hand if necessary. The Igorrotes believe
in a Supreme Being, the creator and preserver; he is called Apo in
Benguet, and Lu-ma-oig in Lepanto. The wife of Apo is called Bangan,
the daughter Bugan and the son Ubban. There are two inferior gods,
Cabigat and Suyan, these deities hold intercourse with mankind
through the Anitos or ancestral spirits, some good, some evil,
who reward or chastise mankind in this life. They represent these
spirits by roughly-carved idols of wood. Some of these idols are
male and others female. Occasionally the carving is of an obscene
nature, and similar to some clay images I have seen taken from tombs
in Peru. They practise family prayer, and the object of it is to
solicit the favour of the Anitos. Sometimes the will of the Anitos
is declared through an old priestess called an Asitera, who receives
a fee for her pains. The ancestral spirits are more worshipped than
the gods. Poultry, swine, and dogs, may not be slaughtered except in
a sacrificial manner. There is a priest in every village called the
Manbunung who first consecrates the animal to the Anitos, and then
kills it and returns it to the owner, reserving, however, the best
piece for himself. In company with his first-born son he takes the
lead at prayer-meetings, or on special occasions, such as illness,
marriage, the commencing some important work, or averting some evil
omen. This man makes some pretence at healing the sick, but rather
with charms and incantations than by administering medicine. There
is a sacred tree near each village, which is regarded as the seat of
the Anitos. In the shade of this is a sacrificial stone. Sometimes
near a house may been seen a small bench for the Anitos to repose on,
and a dish of rice or other food for their refreshment. The Igorrotes
believe that there are two places where the souls of the dead travel
to. One is an agreeable residence provided with everything necessary
to happiness, and is for the spirits of those who have died a natural
death. But if they have been evil-doers, such as robbers or murderers,
and have escaped due punishment on earth, they are punished here by
the other souls before being allowed to enjoy the advantages of the
place. But the souls of brave warriors killed in battle, and of women
who have died in child-birth, arrive at a much more desirable place,
a real heaven, and reside amongst the gods.
The Igorrotes of Cabugalan in Lepanto regard eels as the embodiment
of their ancestors; they will not catch them or do them any harm,
but feed them when opportunity offers. The Asiteras assist at feasts
and make invocations and propose toasts which are drunk by the men
present. The private or family feasts are called Bumaguil, being
held in the giver's house or courtyard, but public entertainments or
feasts of the whole village are called Regnas, and are held in or in
front of the Balta-oa or Town Hall. They are preceded and followed
by songs and dances. The songs are inharmonious and monotonous. The
dances vary with the localities. In one dance bowing to the beer-mugs
is a feature. As amongst other Malay races, ordeals are in fashion
to decide disputes. One consists in a priest or chief scratching the
scalps of the disputants with a small iron fork. Whoever loses most
blood during this operation has lost his case. The Igorrotes work
hard at their agriculture, and their rice-farming is excellent. They
plough the valleys with the aid of buffaloes and terrace the hillsides,
which they cultivate by hand. They burn down the pine-forests to clear
the hills. They irrigate where possible, carrying the canals over any
ravine by means of rude aqueducts. They grow considerable quantities
of tobacco, [28] which is, however, of inferior quality. This they
sell to the civilised natives, and it is exported. I suppose it goes
to Hamburg to make German Havana cigars, just as conger eels go to
Paris to make fillets of soles. They cultivate sweet potatoes, also
the ordinary potatoes, which grow well, and although small, are much
prized in Manila, and meet with a ready sale. The Igorrotes of Lepanto
eagerly seek new seeds to plant. It is strange that an agricultural
people like this should have little or no idea of breeding cattle, but
instead of doing so, they purchase from the Ilocanos and others cattle,
horses, and pigs for consumption, paying good prices for them. They
even buy dogs to eat. I have been assured by Mr. Ernest Heald, formerly
British Vice-Consul at Sual, that he has often seen Igorrotes returning
to the hills from Dagupan, leading strings of dogs, which they had
purchased for food at prices varying from twenty-five to fifty cents,
and that the dogs seemed to have an instinctive idea what they were
being taken away for. The cooking of the Igorrotes is abominable,
especially their way of cooking meat. It would not obtain the approval
of Brillat Savarin. They seem to have no objection to eating it putrid,
and their robust constitutions apparently prevent their suffering
from ptomaine poisoning. The most remarkable characteristic of the
Igorrotes is their skill as smiths, miners, and metallurgists. Their
forges are not usually in their villages, but are hidden away in the
forest; they use piston-blowers instead of bellows, and charcoal as
fuel. Their lance-heads, swords, and other weapons are well shaped
and of excellent quality. They worked the copper ores of Mancayen in
Lepanto very successfully. From official documents it appears that
from 1840 to 1855 they sold on an average each year about nineteen
tons of copper, either in ingots or manufactured. Then a Spanish
Company took up the work and ignominiously failed. Gold mining and
washing was formerly a monopoly of the nobles, and the washing is
so still to some extent. For centuries, and long before the Spanish
conquest, the Igorrotes have brought down gold to trade with the coast
natives. Such particulars as are known to me about Igorrote mining,
smelting, and gold-washing, will be found under the headings Gold,
Copper, Iron, in Chapter XVI.
I have added to this account of them a list of such of their
manufactures as I have seen or could learn of, and in most instances
I have given the Igorrote name. The Igorrotes have several dialects,
so that the names of the various articles may vary according to the
locality. Herewith a list of the dialects and the places where each
is spoken, taken from Spanish official sources.
Dialect. Locality.
Benguetano. The greater part of Benguet.
Igorrote. Lepanto.
Igorrote del Abra. Five villages of Bontoc.
Igorrote de la Gran Cordillera. By the reduced Igorrotes and
the independent tribes of the
Caraballo.
Igorrote Suflin. In fifteen villages of that
Cordillera.
Many of the Principales or head-men and others under Spanish influence
speak and write Ilocano, which they find necessary for their trade
with that people. More than twenty years ago there were seven schools
in Lepanto regularly attended by five hundred and sixty-two children,
of whom one hundred and ten could then read and write Spanish. No
doubt by this time these schools have considerably increased.
I am much impressed by the great industry of these people and with the
great skill they show in everything they undertake. It is therefore
disappointing to read in Foreman's book 'The Philippine Islands,'
p. 213: "Like all the races of the Philippines, they are indolent to
the greatest degree." Foreman goes on to say, Polygamy seems to be
permitted, murders are common, their huts are built bee-hive fashion,
they keep a Dr. and Cr. account of heads with the Negritos. All this
is probably in consequence of accepting idle stories as facts, and
is nothing less than a libel on the Igorrotes. A people who believe
in a Supreme Being, Creator of heaven and earth, in the immortality
of the soul, in an upper and lower heaven, in punishment after
death, if it has been evaded in life, who are strict monogamists,
and who have a high belief in the sacredness of the marriage tie;
a people who guard the chastity of their daughters as carefully as
the British or the Americans; a people physically strong, brave,
skilful, and industrious, have nothing in common with the wretches
Foreman described under their name. These people live in the fairest
and healthiest parts of Luzon, no fevers lurk amongst those pine-clad
mountains, no sultry heats sap the vital powers. What an opportunity
for a grand missionary enterprise! What a noble material to work on,
every condition seems favourable. The very fact of their rejection of
the form of Christianity presented to them, and their distrust of the
Spaniards, may influence them in favour of some simpler doctrine. I
shall feel well repaid for my labour in describing these people,
if the truthful picture I have attempted to present of them should
interest those who have the means and the will to inaugurate a new era,
to help them along the Path. A perusal of what the old chroniclers say
about them convinces me that they have done much themselves to improve
their moral condition, and that many detestable customs, at all events
attributed to them, have long since been relegated to oblivion.
I now give a list of the Missions in the Igorrote and Tinguian
territory that existed in 1892.
Missions in Tinguian and Igorrote Territory.
1892.
Province. Town. Population. Missionaries.
Rev. Father--
Abra Pidigan. 2,418 P. Ornia.
Bucay. 3,688 J. Lopez.
La Paz y San Gregorio. 2,802 P. Fernandez.
Villavieja. 1,912 M. Fonturbel.
Bangued. 8,702 A. Perez.
Tayum. 3,064 L. Vega.
Dolores. 2,522 F. Franco.
Lepanto Cervantes y Cayan. 2,200 A. Oyanguren.
Benguet La Trinidad y Galiano. 849 J. Garcia.
R. Rivera.
--------
28,157
All the inhabitants of these towns and villages are Christians, and
either they or their ancestors were baptised by missionaries of the
Augustinian order.
Some Manufactures of the Igorrotes.
Weapons.
Native Name.
Say-ang Lance, for war or for killing deer.
Talibon Short double-edged sword.
Ligua, or Aligua Axe used for decapitating the fallen enemy.
Calaság or Caláta Long narrow wooden shields.
Bunneng Wood knife.
Sayac or Dayac Sharp bamboo spikes to be set in the paths.
Bows and arrows (the Igorrotes possess
these, but are not skilful archers).
Clubs.
Gay-ang Javelins (favourite weapons of Igorrotes).
Accoutrements.
Alpilan or Sacupit Knapsacks.
Lagpi. Haversacks.
Saddles.
Bridles.
Rangán Saddle-bags.
Baot Whips.
Upit Pouch for medicine and antidote for
snake bite.
Sac-dey Uniform or war jackets.
Bariques Chief's sword belt.
Balques Ancient sword belts used by their ancestors
are preserved as heirlooms in the family.
Clothing.
Tacoco Hat made of rattan for head-men.
,, for married men.
Suebong ,, ,, bachelors, woven from cane.
,, ,, women.
Sachong ,, ,, chiefs.
Calogón or catlocón ,, made of rattan and cane used by
Christian Igorrotes.
Sarquet or Barguet Headcloth used by head-men.
Loc-bo Caps.
Olei or Ulás Cloaks or plaids.
Cobal Loin-cloth of bark or cotton.
Baag or Bahaque Aprons.
Palingay ,, for women.
Atten Skirts used by head-men's wives or
daughters.
Tachun Waterproof hoods to cover the head and the
load carried on the back, e.g., to keep
tobacco dry in transit.
An-nanga Waterproof capes of Anajas leaves.
Sandals.
Clogs.
Ampaya, Samit Tapis, cloth worn by women round the hips.
Barique or canes Sashes.
Baquet Woman's belt to hold up the tapis.
Bado Woman's shirt.
Shirts made of the bark of the pacag.
Ornaments.
Chacang A gold plate used by head-men or chiefs
to cover their teeth at feasts or when
they present themselves to Europeans of
distinction.
Balangat A coronet of rattan.
Aponque Collar or necklace.
Apongont A coronet of scented wood (candaroma).
Onó Necklace of reeds and coloured seeds.
Bariques ,, vertebræ of snakes.
Siquel Necklace made of seed of climbing plant
called Bugayon.
,, ,, white stones.
,, ,, crocodiles' teeth.
,, ,, boars' tusks.
,, ,, mother-of-pearl.
Al-taque Coronet of polished mother-of-pearl.
Garin Bangles or bracelets of copper.
Bali Arm-rings, often of copper and gilt.
Baney Leg rings of nito and fibre, or of copper,
used by men.
Arisud Ear-rings.
Tabin ,, of copper, used by men.
Bit-jal or Bit-hal Bracelets of boars' tusks.
Galaong or Galang Bracelets of mother-of-pearl.
Onon-ipit Necklace or collar of metal, having three
pendants, the centre one being tweezers
for pulling out hairs, the other two
instruments for cleaning out the ears.
Household Goods.
Gui-pan Small knife for peeling roots and
splitting cane.
Lodó Ladle of cocoa-nut shell for water.
Idas Wooden spoons.
Latoc Large wooden dish, with receptacles for
sauce and salt.
Dalela Rice dish of copper.
Sagatan Strainer of cane and rattan.
Sarangos-án Funnel made of a cocoa-nut shell.
Labba Basket used for carrying provisions.
Pidasen Baskets for domestic use.
Tinac-dag
Alat or Minuiniata Small basket for collecting eggs.
Babaco Provision basket.
Bigao Basket for cleaning rice.
Opit-daguil Provision basket.
Opigán or Acuba-quigan Basket for keeping clothes in.
Cal-culven Cane basket blackened by smoke.
Tapil Small basket of cane.
Hugones Great baskets to hold rice.
Agabin Creels for carrying fish.
Apisang or Sacupif Large basket used for carrying tobacco on
the back.
Sulpac Large bamboos for carrying water.
Tang-tang Calabashes for measuring or holding basi.
Ting-galon Goblet of plaited cane used at feasts for
drinking basi.
Pambián Spinning wheels.
Paga-blang Looms.
La-labayán Apparatus for holding skeins of cotton.
Qui-tan-gang Wooden drainer for the spoons or paddles
used for stirring up the basi when
brewing it.
Balai-ti-ado Rack to hold spoons.
Quil-lit Earthen cooking-pot.
Ongot Drinking-cup for water.
Soled Dish of plaited rattan for boiled camote
(sweet potatoes).
Dapilag Dish of plaited rattan for boiled rice.
Personal Effects.
Palting Pouches for tobacco and gold.
Upit Tobacco pouch plaited of rattan.
Suput Purse made of cotton ornamented with
copper wire.
Cuaco Pipes of wood, stone, clay, or metal.
Nupit Tobacco boxes.
Sacopit Carved walking sticks.
Tad Umbrellas.
Pamiguin Pneumatic tinder-box, or fire squirt.
Apit Pocket book of cane and rattan.
Dubong Deer-skin pouch used when travelling.
Quidatang Case with fittings for striking a light.
Sagay say Combs.
Tooth-brushes.
Miscellaneous.
Tali Ropes of Alinao bark.
Sinal-lapid Ropes of Labtang bark.
Ratén Nets for taking deer and pigs.
Chi-ay Traps for taking jungle-fowl.
Anitos Images of the household gods.
Sipas Foot-balls of rattan.
Disig Humming tops.
Casabang Branch of a tree used to frighten away
snakes.
Hammocks for sleeping or travelling.
Tugas Throne for a chief and his favourite.
Harrows.
Ploughs.
Cradles.
Coffins.
Musical Instruments.
Sulibao or Culibao Large drum, played with one stick.
Quinibal Small drum held between the knees and
played with two sticks.
Calalen or Bab-balasan Flutes played by single women.
Cong-gala or Flutes (nose flutes) played by men.
Tong-gala
Ganza Large flat gong held in right hand, and
played with left, vibrations stopped with
right elbow. If a human jaw-bone, taken
from a dead enemy, is fitted as a handle,
the value is enhanced.
Pinsac A small gong.
Bating-ting or Triangles made of iron.
Palas-bating-ting
Cingo-cingco Violin played by single men.
Guitar, the body made from cocoa-nut shell.
Palgong-bocancang Cane instrument played by the women going
to and coming from their work. Holding it
in the right hand, they cover the orifice
with the index-finger, and strike the other
end on the left hand.
Mining Tools, etc.
Native names unknown Crow-bars.
Hammers.
Wedges.
Outfit for gold washing.
Blowers for smiths' forges.
Furnaces for smelting copper.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Isinays (11).
A small tribe living in the northern part of Pangasinan, towards
Mount Caraballo del Sur. They are now merged in the Pangasinanes,
and have lost all distinctive customs.
Abacas (12).
A small tribe living about Caranglan in the South Caraballo. They were
formerly fierce and warlike, but have been pacified and converted
to Christianity. They had a separate language which has died out,
and their customs are now those of the Christian natives.
Italones (13).
These people live in the south-west corner of Nueva Vizcaya, about
the head-waters of the River Magat. They are numerous, and occupy
many towns and villages, amongst them Bayombong, Dupax, Bambang,
and Aritas. They were formerly warlike head-hunters, and are said to
have devoured the hearts and brains of their slain enemies in order
to inherit their courage and wisdom. This is a Chinese idea, and is
even now practised in Canton, where pieces of the heart and liver of
a particularly hardened and desperate criminal are retailed by the
executioner at a high price for the above purpose. They wear their
hair long like the Ilongotes. Their weapons were the lance, shield,
or wood-knife, and in their customs and religion they resembled the
Igorrotes. They were said to ornament the hilts of their swords with
the teeth of their slain enemies. All these detestable customs have
now disappeared; they have been converted to Christianity, and now are
peaceful agriculturists and hunters. Game and fish abound; a telegraph
line runs through their territory with a station at Bayombong. This
is part of the line from Manila to Aparri.
Ibilaos (14).
These savages inhabit the hilly country about the sources of the River
Casepuan, which, according to D'Almonte's map, is a tributary of the
River Casiguran, which runs into the Bay of Baler; but, according
to Olleros, is a tributary of the Rio Grande de Cagayan. However
this may be, their habitat is on the borders of Nueva Écija and
Nueva Vizcaya. Some of these people have been subjugated, but the
others live a nomadic life in the mountain forests, and resemble the
Negritos. Their pleasure is to lie in wait and shoot the passers-by
with their arrows. Like the Italones they are said to ornament
their weapons with the teeth of the slain, and, like them, wear
their hair long. The independent Ibilaos live by the chase, and on
jungle produce, and do no cultivation. They are small of stature and
weak. It is possible that they are a hybrid Negrito Malay race. Their
bloodthirsty propensities make them a curse to their neighbours.
Ilongotes (15).
The Ilongotes inhabit the rocky fastnesses of the range of mountains
on the east coast, called the Caraballo de Baler, the whole length
of the Distrito del Principe, the north-east corner of Nueva Vizcaya
and a strip of the southern part of Isabela.
Their neighbours on the east are the Negritos, who live along the
sea-shore. These people are also their neighbours on the north,
where they inhabit the mountains.
On the west they have the Ifugaos in the northerly part of their
boundary, and civilised Indians of mixed races in the southern
part. Their nearest neighbours to the south are some scattered Tagals.
Blumentritt describes them from a photograph lent him by
Dr. A. B. Meyer, as having eyes long and deeply sunk, upper lip and
chin hairy, the hair long plaited in a tail, and often reaching the
hips. A Spanish authority describes them as similar to the other
hillmen, but wearing long hair, and dirty and disagreeable in their
aspect
Their dress is as primitive as that of the other savage races,
the adult men wearing a band of beaten bark round the waist, the
women wearing a tapis, and the children going quite naked. They wear
rings or spirals of brass wire on their arms, necklaces, and other
ornaments. But when the men have occasion to go into the Christian
villages, they wear shirts and trousers. I have myself seen instances
of this custom amongst the Tagbanúas in Palawan.
They are clever smiths and know how to temper their weapons. Their
lances have different shaped heads, and the shafts are made of Palma
Brava. Their swords are well-made and ornamented, and are carried in
a wooden scabbard from a belt of webbing. This appears to be their
favourite weapon. They never go unarmed, even for a few paces, and
they sleep with their weapons beside them. Their shields are of light
wood, carved, and painted red.
Their domestic life is not unlike that of the Christian natives,
for they are not polygamists; they, however, are more careless and
dirty. They purchase their wife from her parents. They subsist by
hunting and fishing, and by cultivating rice, maize, sweet potatoes,
and other vegetables. They grow tobacco, which they exchange for
other goods with the Christian natives. They catch the wild carabaos
in traps. They are ineradicably addicted to head-hunting, and wage
a continual war with all their neighbours, but if an interval of
peace occurs, they fight one family or clan against another, for they
must have heads. The marriage ceremony cannot be completed till the
bridegroom has presented the bride with some of these grisly trophies;
heads of Christians for choice.
They signify war by placing arrows in the path and sprinkling blood
upon it. Treaties of peace, or rather truces, are sometimes ratified by
human sacrifices, and the ceremony of blood-brothership is practised.
They have few religious practices, although they believe in a Supreme
Being, and in the ancestor-worship common to the country. The relatives
assemble to celebrate a birth by a feast. On the fifth day a name
is given to the infant. They take care of the sick and endeavour to
cure them with herbs, to which they ascribe medicinal virtues. If the
patient dies, the relatives devour everything in the house in order to
mitigate their grief, and they bury the corpse within twenty-four hours
of death, placing some provisions upon the grave. From a statement
in a Spanish official publication, the Ilongote dialect is spoken
in two towns and twenty-two rancherias of Nueva Vizcaya, and in four
rancherias in the district of Principe. This shows that at least on
their western border they are now somewhat held in check. But the
poor Negritos still have to suffer their incursions.
Mayoyaos and Silipanes (16).
These people are very numerous, and inhabit the north-west corner
of Nueva Vizcaya, and the south-west corner of Isabela, between the
Cordillera Central and the River Magat. For neighbours, they have on
the east the Ifugaos, those deadly lasso-throwers; on the west, the
Igorrotes are separated from them by the Cordillera; to the north
they have the Gaddanes, and the Itetapanes, and to the south the
Italones. In appearance, dress, arms and ornaments, they resemble the
Igorrotes of Lepanto. The Ifugao language is spoken at the missions
of Quiangan and Silipan, and in a large number of hamlets of these
people. They were pacified and converted to Christianity about half
a century ago, and are gradually improving in civilisation.
Ifugaos (17).
The Ifugaos, who bear a strong resemblance to the Japanese, inhabit
a territory in central Nueva Vizcaya, and in the south of Isabela,
mostly between the River Magat and the Rio Grande, but they have
a great many hamlets on the left bank of the Magat. They cultivate
rice, camote, and other crops, but prefer to live by robbery whenever
possible. They are persistent head-hunters, frequently at war with
the neighbouring tribes, or amongst themselves.
One notable peculiarity must be mentioned. Besides the lance, knife,
and bow and arrows, they use the lasso, which they throw with great
dexterity. Lurking near a trail, they cast the fatal coil over some
unwary traveller, and promptly decapitate him, to add his skull to
their collection, and decorate their hut.
It is their custom to wear as many rings in their ears as they have
taken heads.
Major Galvez, after a skirmish with these people, found the corpse
of one of their warriors who wore thirty-two death-rings in his ears.
Their religion is said to be after the style of the Igorrotes, and
some other hill-tribes of Luzon. Their chief god Cabunian had two
sons, Sumabit and Cabigat, and two daughters, Buingan and Daunguen,
who married amongst themselves, and from them the human race is
descended. Ancestor-worship is also practised. The Spaniards built
and garrisoned a chain of forts in the Ifugao territory to keep them
in order, and of late years their murderous incursions have been
kept in check. It would require an enquiry on the spot to say whether
there is any prospect of this tribe becoming civilised, and converted
to Christianity.
Gaddanes (18).
The Gaddanes occupy the north-east quarter of Saltan and Bondoc,
and their territory stretches over into Isabela in a south-easterly
direction to the River Magat, thus bordering on the five-mile strip
of Ibanag territory on the left bank of the Rio Grande. The upper
part of the Rio Chico runs through their Saltan territory, and the
River Libug through their Isabela territory.
In appearance they are darker than any other of the hillmen of
Luzon. They are not as well built as the Igorrotes. They have round
eyes, and large, flat noses. They are very dirty. Their houses are
built on lofty piles, and the ladder is drawn up at night, or in war
time. They are partly converted to Christianity, and are of a milder
disposition than their neighbours.
Itetapanes (19).
These people live in Bontoc, almost the centre of Northern Luzon. On
the west they have the Busaos Igorrotes, on the east the Gaddanes,
to the north-west they have the Guinanes, and to the south the
Mayoyaos. They are more like the Gaddanes than any other neighbours,
especially in the eyes and hair, yet in other respects they are
something like the Negritos in appearance, and much more so in their
dispositions and customs, for it has not been possible to civilise
them. Their arms are the same as the Busaos, and, like them, they wear
a cylindrical shako, which they dye a brilliant red. They appear to
be a hopeless race.
Guinanes (20).
These terrible neighbours of the peaceful Tinguianes inhabit both
slopes of the Cordillera Central in Abra and Bontoc. They do not pass
to the west of the River Abra, or its affluent, the Pusulguan.
On the south the Guinanes have the warlike Busaos, who are well able to
defend themselves, and to retaliate on their aggressors. Consequently,
the Tinguianes are the principal victims; in fact, some years back,
they had no peace, and are not now free from danger.
The fame and respect enjoyed by a successful head-hunter is the great
incentive to them to persevere in their sanguinary forays, which they
conduct with the greatest cunning.
The return of the head-hunters to their village with their ghastly
trophies is celebrated by prolonged and frantic orgies--feasting
and drinking, singing war-songs, music and dancing. In fact, their
rejoicings only differ in degree and intensity from those customary
in Christian nations to celebrate the slaughter of their enemies.
So fond are the Guinanes of getting heads, that when not at war with
other tribes they fight amongst themselves.
They are much like the Igorrotes, and, like them, are settled in towns
and villages. They practise agriculture, and are excellent smiths,
and forge specially good knives, which are much esteemed by the Busaos,
and find a ready sale amongst them.
Little is known of their manners and customs, or of their numbers,
since few travellers care to run the risk of having their skulls
added to the collection of some connoisseur.
I cannot suggest any use this tribe could be to the United States,
for I do not think the most enthusiastic or devoted missionary would
hanker after being appointed to convert them, and even if such an
one could be found, the probability of his success would be very small.
CHAPTER XXIX
Caláuas, or Itaves (21).
A small tribe, living in a strip of country stretching across the
great loop formed by the Rio Chico de Cagayan just before it enters
the Rio Grande. They are peaceful and industrious cultivators,
and grow rice and excellent tobacco. In former days, when the State
monopoly was in force, they used to smuggle this, and were attacked,
and their plantations laid waste in consequence. But now they are
able to trade freely, and must have become prosperous. Very little
is known about them. The word Caláuas is also spelt Calaguas.
Camuangas and Bayabonanes (22).
These people live in the southern part of the province of Cagayan,
say about 17° 30' north latitude. On the north they have the Caláuas,
or Calaguas, and on the south the Dadayags. D'Almonte's map shows no
hamlets in their territory, and the nearest visita is Gamuasan. Nothing
is known about them, and Blumentritt considers it not improbable that
they are a branch of the Dadayags.
Dadayags (23).
A small tribe living in the north-west comer of Isabela, not far from
the left bank of the Rio Grande.
Nabayuganes (24).
These people, who have a language of their own, live in two
long valleys extending from the Cordillera Central towards the
east. According to D'Almonte's map, these parallel valleys lead down
to the town of Malaneg, and in each of them there is a river. That
in the northern valley is called the River Nabbuangan, and that in
the southern valley the River Nabbuanguan. They join before reaching
Malaneg, forming the River Nagalat, a tributary of the Rio Chico
de Cagayan. Nothing is known of their religion or nature. On the
north-east of the Nabayuganes live the Aripas.
Aripas (25).
This tribe inhabits the hills to the west of the junction of the Rio
Grande and Rio Chico of Cagayan. They have the Apayaos on the west,
the Ibanags on the east, the Calingas on the north, and the Ilanes
on the south. They are peaceful, and partly converted to Christianity.
Calingas (26).
These people inhabit the mountains to the north of the Aripas. On
their north and east they have the Ibanags, and on the west the
Apayaos. They are supposed to have a good deal of Chinese blood in
their veins. They are now peaceful, like the Aripas.
Tinguianes (27).
The Tinguianes inhabit the western half of the province of Abra, and
their villages are thickly scattered about on the eastern slopes of
the Ilocos mountains, and on the banks of the River Abra. They have
also pushed their way to the extreme north-east corner of Abra, and
they extend southwards and westwards along the coast as far as Punta
Darigayos. Santiago is a Christian Tinguian town, and was founded
in 1736.
The Tinguianes are of a peaceful disposition, and are gradually
becoming civilised and converted to Christianity. In fact, of late
years, the advance of the Spaniards has been considerable. It is only
in the more remote parts of their territory that some of them retain
their independence, and their ancient laws, beliefs and customs. The
constant intercourse they have with the Ilocanos has resulted in
spreading that dialect amongst them, whilst their own language is
dying out.
In appearance the Tinguianes differ considerably from the other
mountain tribes of Luzon, being taller, and of a much lighter
colour. Their noses are not flattened like those of the Malays, but
are aquiline, and remind one of the features of the Cholos of the
Peruvian coast. They are a cleanly people; the men wear turbans,
jacket and trousers; the women belonging to their nobility have
their garments beautifully embroidered. They wear arm-sheaths, and
sometimes leg-sheaths, made of plaited fibre, and ornamented with
beads, or with coloured stones, brought from the Batanes islands,
which they purchase in Ilocos. They also wear necklaces of these
stones, copper or silver ear-rings, and other trinkets.
Spanish writers consider these people to have a strong admixture of
Chinese blood, and suppose it may be from a remnant of the pirates
under Li-ma-hon, who were defeated by Juan Salcedo in 1574. The learned
Blumentritt, however, dissents from this opinion, which he considers to
be a modern invention, and gives Salcedo credit for doing his work very
thoroughly, and not letting many of the pirates escape. He says that,
although in dress and appearance the Tinguianes are very similar to
the fishermen of the province of Fo-Kien, there are no Chinese words
to be found in their dialect, and that consequently the intermixture
of Chinese can only have been small. However this may be, the coast of
Fo-Kien, which is opposite Formosa, is only about 500 miles from the
Port of Vigan, the currents are favourable for the southerly voyage,
and sailing craft can cross in either monsoon. Consequently, either
as traders, fugitives, or castaways, Fo-Kien sailors or fishermen
could easily have arrived on the coast.
The Tinguianes assiduously cultivate their land, and irrigate their
rice-fields with some skill. They breed horses and cattle, which
they sell in the markets of Ilocos, as well as jungle produce, wax,
skins and gold-dust. They raft timber down the Abra River and make
for sale various articles of wood, such as bateas, ladles and spoons,
also they make mats and baskets.
Their marriages are conducted in a similar manner to those of other
tribes, the ceremony, whether Christian or heathen, being followed by
the usual feasts and dancing, and music in the intervals of eating and
drinking. Their instruments are drums, flutes and guitars. As usual,
roast pig is the principal dish, the animal being roasted whole on
a spit of cane. When the feast is over the newly-married couple are
conducted to their house by the principal chief or elder. A large mat
being spread on the ground they lie down on it keeping at a distance
of several feet from each other. A boy of six or eight years of age
then lies down between them, and the elders retire leaving the trio
together. The bride and bridegroom are forbidden to indulge in any
caresses, nor even to speak to each other till the following day. The
healthy life led by the women enables them to recover very rapidly
after child-birth. In fact, they return to their usual avocations
directly after the ceremony of purification, which consists of washing
the newly-born infant in running water. Divorce among the heathen is
merely a matter of paying a fine of some thirty dollars, in money or
in kind, to the village chief or elder, or to the Goberna-doreillo,
if the village is under Spanish rule. Divorce is not allowed amongst
those who are converted, and this must be a great hindrance to their
acceptance of Christianity.
They take little care of the sick, and when hope is given up the
patient is left alone to die. The Peruvian Indians have a similar
custom. Amongst the Serranos, when a sick person does not soon show
signs of recovery, a family meeting is called, and a fixed sum is
voted for his cure, say twelve or twenty reals. When this amount has
been spent, the patient is removed from his couch and laid upon a
hide on the ground outside the house. A child is posted to fan him
and keep off the flies, and only water is given him till he dies.
The Tinguianes formerly buried their dead in pits dug under their
houses, after subjecting the corpses to a baking or drying process,
and on certain days in the year food was placed near the tombs for the
souls of the dead to partake of. Those who are converted have of course
to bury their dead in the cemetery, and to pay a fee to the priest.
They share the idea that seems to prevail amongst all Malays, that the
soul is absent from the body during sleep, and that consequently it
is dangerous and wicked to awake anybody suddenly. The most dreadful
thing that can happen to anybody, therefore, is to die whilst sleeping,
leaving his soul wandering about. Their most desperate curse is to
wish that this may happen to an adversary. This seems to reach a higher
level of cursing than the oaths of the Tagals which I have previously
mentioned. The usual respect for ancestors is shown, and any weapons
or ornaments which have belonged to them are carefully preserved as
valued heirlooms. The names of an ancestor must, however, on no account
be pronounced by his descendants, so that if any necessity arises to
answer a question which involves mentioning the name of one, a friend
not related to the person enquired about must be called in to answer.
Monsieur de la Gironière visited these people, and describes them
as men of good stature, slightly bronzed, with straight hair,
regular profiles, and aquiline noses. The women truly beautiful and
graceful. They appeared to him to resemble the people of the South
of France, except for their costume and language. The men wore a
belt and a sort of turban made from the bark of the fig-tree. Their
arms consisted of a long lance, a small axe, called aligua, and a
shield. The women wore a belt and a narrow apron which came down to
their knees, their heads being ornamented with pearls, and grains of
coral and gold were fixed amongst their hair. The upper parts of their
hands were painted blue, and they wore plaited sheaths ornamented
with beads on their fore-arms; these sheaths strongly compressed the
fore-arm, being put on when the women were young, and they prevented
the development of the fore-arm, whilst causing the wrists and hands
to swell. This is a beauty amongst the Tinguianes as the little foot
is amongst the Chinese.
They occupied seventeen villages, and each family had two habitations,
one on the ground for use in the day, and one fixed on piles or on
the summits of lofty trees, as much as sixty or eighty feet from the
ground, where they sleep, to protect themselves from the nocturnal
attacks of the Guinanes, their mortal and sanguinary enemies. From
these lofty dwellings they threw down stones upon assailants. In
the middle of each village there is a large shed which serves for
meetings and public ceremonies. He further states that after an attack
of the Guinanes had been repulsed from Laganguilan-y-Madalay by the
Tinguianes he went to an assembly at that village and witnessed a
ceremony in honour of the victory. The heads of the slain enemies were
exhibited to the crowd, and various speeches were made. The skulls
were then split open and the brains removed and given to some young
girls, who worked them up with their hands in a quantity of basi or
native beer. The compound was then served in cups to the chiefs, who
partook of it with every appearance of enjoyment, and was afterwards
handed round to all the warriors in due order. M. de la Gironière and
his Tagal servant also partook of this refreshment out of politeness
to their hosts. The ceremony was followed by a dance and a smoking
concert, during which copious libations of basi were consumed.
M. de la Gironière has omitted to mention how his hosts, after this
drunken orgy, managed to regain their elevated sleeping quarters,
sixty or eighty feet from the ground. One would think that the Tinguian
coroner would have been busy the next morning. He, however, does tell
us that, being unable to sleep, he got up in the night and looked
about him, finding a well or pit, which he descended. At different
levels in this shaft were short galleries or niches, and in each of
these was a dried or mummified corpse. This shaft was sunk inside
the house where he slept.
He learnt from the Tinguianes that they believed in the existence
of the soul, that it leaves the body after death, but remains in
the family. Also that they venerated any strange object, such as a
rock or tree which resembled some animal. They would make a hut over
or near it, and celebrate a feast, at which they sacrificed pigs;
they afterwards danced and drunk basi, then burnt down the hut and
retired. They had, he says, only one wife, but might have several
concubines, who, however, did not inhabit the conjugal domicile, but
each had a hut of her own. The riches of a Tinguian was demonstrated
by the number of porcelain vases he possessed. According to M. de la
Gironière, the Tinguianes mummified their dead by subjecting them to a
long drying process. The body, propped up on a stool, was surrounded
by braziers with charcoal or wood embers, and the moisture which
exuded from it was wiped off by the women with cotton. When the body
was well dried up it was kept above ground for fifteen days and then
committed to the tomb. The neighbours and friends kept up the wake
and pronounced eulogies on the defunct until they had consumed all
the eatables and liquor in the house, when they took their departure.
These people must have very greatly increased in numbers, as the
Spanish authority has extended its protection to them, checking the
incursions of the Guinanes and other savages. It has been stated that
in former years the Tinguianes were much sought after as recruits for
the garrison of Manila. They do not appear to be a warlike race, yet so
fine a body of men ought to be able to supply a battalion of infantry
for the native army which the United States will have to raise, for
nobody can suppose that 25,000 young Americans can be permanently kept
in garrison in the Archipelago. But this I discuss in another chapter.
Adangs (28).
According to D'Almonte's map in the latitude of Pasuquin, Province
of Ilocos Notre, the Cordillera del Norte bends to the eastward and
throws out a spur to the north-west, forming a Y, and enclosing a
considerable valley, through which runs a river called the Bate,
Bucarog, or Arimit, which falls into the Bay of Bangui. This is the
habitat of the Adangs, a small tribe, yet a nation, for their language
has no resemblance to that of any of their neighbours. Their customs
are nearer those of the Apayaos than any other. They are civilised and
have been Christians for generations. Their chief town is Adan or Adam.
Apayaos (29).
This race was formerly very warlike, but is now more civilized, and
many even converted to Christianity. They inhabit the mountainous
region round about the River Apayao, on the east of the Cordillera
del Norte and extend down towards the plains of the Rio Chico.
They pay some attention to agriculture, and besides growing vegetables
and maize for their own use, they raise tobacco and cacao which
they trade away to the Ilocanos in exchange for such articles as
they require.
Their houses compare favourably with those of the other
hill-tribes. They are raised to a considerable height, being square
in form with heavy hardwood posts at the corners. The floor is made of
cedar planks, the roof is thatched with cogon or reeds, and the walls
and partitions are of plaited palm leaves. A fire-place is arranged in
one corner. They ornament the walls with remarkable taste, hanging up
the ornaments and arms of their ancestors, which they greatly prize
and will not part with for any price.
They also highly value Chinese and Japanese pottery or porcelain.
Needless to say that the worship of ancestors is with them piously
performed.
They used to be head-hunters and made the death of any of their
chief men an excuse to lie in ambush and massacre any inoffensive
passers-by for the purpose of taking the heads to place round the
corpse and afterwards bury them with it.
However, the steady pressure of the Spanish authority, during long
terms of years, has nearly eradicated this detestable custom, and
if practised at all, it is only in the remoter fastnesses of the
mountains, where they cannot yet be controlled.
The Apayaos living in the plains are mostly reduced to obedience,
and many pay the poll-tax.
It would seem that there is a prospect of these people being civilised
and becoming useful cultivators.
Catalanganes and Irayas (30-31).
The Irayas live in scattered hamlets on the summits of the Sierra
Madre, and on its western slopes right down to the Rio Grande. Their
territory extends for about twenty geographical miles on each side of
the 17th parallel. Amongst them live many Negritos who have renounced
their nomadic life, and have adopted the manners and customs of their
hosts. The tattooing of the Irayas and Negritos is similar. The Irayas
are a Malay tribe amongst whom are found individuals of a Mongolian
type, others are hybrid Negrito Malays.
They do a little slovenly agriculture, using buffaloes for
ploughing. They catch an abundance of fish from the four considerable
streams running through their territory. They consume a large quantity
of fish with their rice, and salt and sell the surplus to their
neighbours. They are characteristically light-hearted and hospitable,
and readily receive remontados and other strangers. Their religion is
the usual Anito worship. They build wretched houses, and are very dirty
in their habits, throwing their refuse down in front of the house.
The Catalanganes take their name from the River Catalangan which runs
into the Rio Grande near Ilagan. They are a branch of the Irayas,
but show a more strongly marked Mongolian type.
They are cleaner than the Irayas, and more industrious, and provident,
storing up provisions against a bad harvest.
Their fields are much better kept than those of the Irayas, and they
employ their spare time in felling trees and hewing them into canoes,
which find a ready sale at Ilagan.
They dress much like the Christian Malays, but are tattooed in patterns
of Chinese or Japanese origin.
Their laws prescribe severe penalties for theft and other
crimes. Their weapons are bows and arrows, and they are said to be
very cowardly. Their choice of weapons confirms this statement.
They differ much from the Irayas in character, for they are
inhospitable, avaricious and greedy, and of a gloomy disposition. On
the other hand, they keep their houses cleaner.
They have temples for worship, and some roughly-made
monuments. According to Semper, they have two pairs of gods which they
specially worship in June: Tschichenan, with his wife Bebenaugan,
and Sialo with his wife Binalinga. The usual ancestor-worship also
prevails, and they show great respect for the Anitos according to
seniority, providing special shelters and little benches near their
houses for their convenience.
Both Irayas and Catalanganes have Gobernadorcillos appointed by the
Spanish Military Governor of Isabela. They pay the poll-tax, called
by the Spaniards "Acknowledgment of Vassalage," but are otherwise
independent and administer their own laws and customs. They are quite
peaceful, and will doubtless in time advance in civilisation.
CHAPTER XXX
Catubanganes (32).
A tribe of savages inhabiting the mountains of Guinayangan in
Tayabas, from whence they raid the Christian villages and drive off
cattle. Nothing is known about their origin or habits; they have some
wandering Negritos as neighbours.
Vicols (33).
The Vicols inhabit the southern half of the province of Camarines
Norte, the whole of Camarines Sur and Albay, the islands of
Catanduanes, Burias, and Ticao, and the northern shores of
Masbate. They are civilised, and have been Christians for centuries.
They speak a dialect of their own, which, according to Jagor,
is midway between Tagal and Visay, which dialect is spoken in its
greatest purity by the inhabitants of the Isarog volcano and its
immediate neighbourhood, and that thence towards the west the dialect
becomes more and more like the Tagal, and towards the east like the
Visay until by degrees, before reaching the ethnographical boundary,
it merges into those kindred languages.
In manners and customs they appear to be half-bred between these two
races, yet, according to F. Blumentritt, they preceded the Tagals,
and were in fact the first Malays to arrive in Luzon. They show signs
of intermixture with Polynesian or Papuan stock.
They are physically inferior to the Tagals, nor do they possess the
proud warlike spirit of the dwellers in north Luzon. They are less
cleanly, and live in poorer houses.
The men dress like the Tagals, but the women wear the patadion instead
of a saya, and a shirt of guinára.
Blumentritt says the men carry the Malay kris instead of the bolo, but
I did not see a kris carried by any one when I visited the province.
In fact, the regulations enforced at that time by the Guardia Civil
were against carrying such a weapon. The bolo, on the other hand,
is a necessary tool.
I visited the province of Camarines Sur, going from Manila to Pasacao
by sea, and from there travelled by road to an affluent of the River
Vicol, and then by canoe on a moonlit night to Nueva Cáceres, the
capital of the province.
Here I met a remarkable man, the late Bishop Gainza, and was much
impressed by his keen intellect and great knowledge of the country.
He was said to be a man of great ambition, and I can quite believe
it. Originally a Dominican monk, it was intended that he should have
been made Archbishop of Manila, but, somehow, Father Pedro Paya, at
that time Procurator of the Order in Madrid, got himself nominated
instead, and Gainza had to content himself with the bishopric of
Nueva Cáceres.
He was a model of self-denial, living most frugally on a small part of
his revenue, contributing a thousand dollars a year to the funds of
the Holy Father, and spending the remainder in building or repairing
churches and schools in his diocese, or in assisting undertakings he
thought likely to benefit the province.
Amongst other works, I remember that he had tried to cut a canal from
the River Vicol to the Bay of Ragay. He had excavated a portion of
it, but either on his death, or from the difficulties raised by the
Public Works Department, the work was abandoned.
The Franciscan friars, who held the benefices in that province,
opposed him, and annoyed him in every possible way.
The present bishop, Father Arsenio Ocampo, formerly an Augustinian
monk, is a clever and enlightened man, with whom I had dealings when
he was Procurator-General of his Order.
I have made this digression from my subject, because so much has
been said against the clergy of the Philippines, that I feel impelled
to bring before my readers this instance of a bishop who constantly
endeavoured to promote the interests of his province.
Nueva Cáceres possessed several schools, a hospital, a lepers'
hospital, and a training-college for school-mistresses had just been
established by Bishop Gainza's initiative.
The shops were mostly in the hands of Chinese, who did a flourishing
trade in Manchester goods, patadoins, and coloured handkerchiefs.
There were several Spanish and Mestizo merchants who dealt in hemp
and rice.
From Nueva Cáceres I travelled by a good road to Iriga, a town near
the volcano of that name, passing close to the Isarog on my way. From
Iriga I visited the country round about, and Lake Bula.
Some years after I went from Manila by sea to Tabaco, on the Pacific
coast of Albay, getting a fine night view of the Mayon volcano (8272
feet) in violent eruption.
From Tabaco I drove to Tivi and visited the celebrated boiling-well
and hot-springs at that place, much frequented by the natives, and
sometimes by Europeans, for the cure of rheumatism and other diseases.
Now that the Stars and Stripes float over the Philippines it is to
be hoped that a regular sanatorium will be erected at this beautiful
and health-restoring spot, the advantages of which might attract
sufferers from all the Far East.
On these journeys I had a good opportunity of studying the people. The
chief exports are Abacá (Manila hemp), and rice. In Camarines Sur
the principal crop is rice, whilst in Albay the hemp predominates,
and they import rice.
The cultivation of rice, which I have briefly described when writing
of the Tagals, is not an occupation calculated to improve the minds
or bodies of those engaged in it, and I have noticed that wherever
this is the staple crop the peasantry are in a distinctly lower
condition than where cane is planted and sugar manufactured. Their
lives are passed in alternate periods of exhausting labour and of utter
idleness, there is nothing to strive for, nothing to learn, nothing
to improve. The same customs go on from generation to generation,
the same rude implements are used, and the husbandman paid for his
labour in kind lives destitute of comfort in the present, and without
hope for the future.
Nor can the cultivation and preparation of hemp be considered as a
much more improving occupation.
Little care, indeed, is required by the Musa textilis after the
first planting, and the cleaning of the fibre is a simple matter,
but very laborious.
Several Spaniards are settled in these provinces, also a few agents
of British houses in Manila, and some Chinese and Mestizos. They
usually complain bitterly of the difficulty they experience in getting
hemp delivered to them owing to the laziness and unpunctuality of
the natives.
Yet, notwithstanding this, most of them live in affluence and some
have amassed fortunes by Vicol labour. There is, in fact, a good deal
of money in Albay, Daraga, and other towns in the hemp districts, and
they are the happy hunting-ground of the Jew pedlar who there finds
a good market for yellow diamonds and off-colour gems unsaleable in
London or Paris. Houndsditch and Broadway will do well to note.
The peasantry, however, either from improvidence or aversion to steady
labour, seem to be rather worse off than the Tagals and Pampangos,
more especially those amongst them who cultivate paddy.
The whole of the large amount of hemp exported from Manila and Cebú
is cleaned by hand.
Several attempts have been made to employ machinery, but the inherent
conditions of the industry are unfavourable to success in this line.
The plants are grown principally on the eastern slopes of the volcanic
mountains of Southern Luzon, and the adjacent islands where the soil
is soft and friable and roads are unknown.
The heavy stems of the plants cannot profitably be conveyed to fixed
works for treatment, and no machine has yet been devised light enough
to be carried up to the látes or plantations and able to compete with
hand labour. In a recent report to the British North Borneo Company,
Mr. W. C. Cowie mentions his hopes that Thompson's Fibre Company
are about to send out a trial decorticator, with engine and boiler
to drive it, to the River Padas, in that company's territories, for
cleaning the fibre of the numerous plants of the Musa textilis growing
in that region. It will be interesting to learn the result. Possibly
the conditions of transport by rail or river are more favourable than
in the Philippines, and in that case a measure of success is quite
possible. But few errors are more expensive than to unwarrantably
assume that machinery must necessarily be cheaper than hand labour.
Anyhow, as regards the Philippines here is a nice little problem. If
the mechanics of Massachusetts and Connecticut cannot solve it,
I do not know who can.
The Vicol labourers proceed to the látes in couples, carrying their
simple and efficient apparatus, all of which, except the knife,
they make themselves.
One man cuts down the plant, removes the outer covering, and separates
the layers forming the stem, dividing them into strips about one and
a half inches wide, and spreading them out to air.
The other man standing at his bench, takes a strip and places the
middle of it across the convex block and under the knife, which is
held up by the spring of a sapling overhead. Then, placing one foot
on a treadle hanging from the handle of the knife, he firmly presses
the latter down on the block. It should be explained that the knife
is not sharp enough to cut the fibres. Firmly grasping the strip
in both hands, and throwing his body backwards, he steadily draws
the strip towards him till all the fibre has passed the knife; then,
removing his foot from the treadle, the knife is lifted from the block
by the spring, leaving the pulp and waste behind it. Sweeping this
off, he reverses the half-cleaned strip, and twisting the cleaned
fibre round one hand and wrist, and grasping it also with the other,
he draws the part he formerly held, under the knife, pressing the
treadle with the foot as before, and thus completes the cleaning of
one strip. The fibre is often six feet long, and only requires drying
in the sun to be marketable.
A man is able to clean about twenty-five pounds of hemp per day,
and receives one half of it for his labour.
He usually sells his share to his employer for a trifle under the
market price.
CHAPTER XXXI
The Chinese in Luzon.
Mestizos or half-breeds.
When Legaspi founded the city of Manila, in 1571, he found that Chinese
junks frequented the port, and carried on a trade with Tondo and the
other native towns.
Three years later, the Chinese pirate, Li-ma-hon, made an attack on
the new city with a force of 2000 men in ninety-five small vessels,
but was repulsed.
In 1603, the Chinese in Manila, under Eng-cang, rose against the
Spaniards, and entrenched themselves in the suburbs. The Spaniards
failed in the first assault with heavy loss, but ultimately the Chinese
were defeated, and 23,000 were massacred, the few remaining being made
galley-slaves. In 1639, another insurrection of the Chinese occurred
and again some 23,000 were massacred.
In 1662, in consequence of the Chinese pirate Cong-seng demanding
tribute from the governor of the Philippines, a decree was made that
all Chinese must leave. The Chinese, however, refused, and entrenched
themselves in the Parian, or market-place, outside the walls. They were
attacked, and many thousands were killed. A body of 2000 endeavoured
to march north, but were massacred by the Pampangos.
In 1762, when Manila was taken by the forces of the Honourable East
India Company, the Chinese eagerly joined in the plundering. It having
been rumoured that the Chinese intended to join the British forces,
Don Simon de Anda condemned them all to death, and most of them were
hung, their property passing to their executioners.
In 1820, there occurred the fifth and last massacre of the
Chinese. The mob of Manila took advantage of the abject cowardice of
the acting-governor, General Folgueras, and of other authorities,
and for hours vented their spite on the unhappy Chinamen, showing
them no mercy, and carrying off their goods.
Since that time no general massacre has taken place, but such is the
dislike of the natives to the Chinese, that these latter would have
been quickly exterminated if the Spanish Government had failed at
any time to protect them.
The Chinese are mostly herded together in Manila, and in some of
the larger towns. Some few venture to keep stores in the villages,
and others travel about at the risk of their lives in the sugar,
hemp and tobacco districts, as purchasers and collectors of produce.
I consider that they should not be allowed to do this, for the
invariable result of their interference is to reduce the quality of
everything they handle. Their trade is based upon false weights and
measures, and upon adulteration, or insufficient preparation of the
produce. They are very patient with the natives, and this gives them
a very great advantage over a European, even if the latter is used
to Eastern ways. An American would probably have less patience than
any European in negotiating a purchase of produce from an up-country
native; the waste of time would exasperate him. I feel sure that most
of those who know the Philippines will agree with me as to the evil
results of the operations of the Chinese produce-brokers. Adulterated
sugar, half-rotten hemp, half-cured tobacco, badly-prepared
indigo--that is what the Chinaman brings in. He spoils every article
he trades in, and discredits it in the world's markets.
The Chinese nowhere cultivate the soil, except the gardens and
market-gardens around Manila, and a few of the large towns.
This is, perhaps, not due to their unwillingness to do so, but because
they dare not; the natives are too jealous of them, and their lives
would not be safe away from the towns.
Their genius is commercial, and they are at home in shop, bazaar, or
office. I think that the Chinese agriculturist does not leave his home
for the Philippines. Most of those in the islands come from Amoy, and
the district round that port. Some few are from Macao; they seem to be
all townsmen, not countrymen. Each shopkeeper has several assistants,
ranging in age from boys of ten or twelve upwards. On arrival, they are
placed in a sort of school--a very practical one--to learn Spanish;
for instance, numbers and coins, with such terms as Muy barato--very
cheap. As a Chinaman cannot pronounce the letter R, but substitutes L,
this becomes Muy balato. Thus, also, the Roo-Kiu Islands become the
Loo-Chew Islands, in Chinese.
The Chinaman is an excellent shop-keeper or pedlar, and some years
ago, the British importers of Manchester goods made it a practice
to give credit for goods supplied to the Chinese; the banks also
extended some facilities to them. In consequence, however, of heavy
losses to several British firms, this custom has been abandoned,
or considerably restricted.
The Chinese are good barbers, cooks and gardeners. As breeders of
fish they are unrivalled. Besides this they compete successfully
with the Tagal in the following trades: blacksmiths, boiler-makers,
stokers, engine-drivers, ship and house carpenters, boat-builders,
cabinet-makers and varnishers, iron and brass-founders, shoe-makers,
tin-smiths. These artisans are very industrious, and labour constantly
at their trades. Their great feast is at the Chinese New Year, which
occurs in February, when they take about a week's holiday, and regale
themselves on roast pig, and other delicacies, making also presents
of sweets, fruits, and Jocchiu hams, to their patrons and customers.
There are Chinese apothecaries in Manila, but they are mostly resorted
to by their own countrymen, and their awful concoctions are nasty
beyond belief. They deal largely in aphrodisiacs.
Some Chinese doctors practise in Manila, and are said to make wonderful
cures, even on patients given up by the orthodox medicos. They feel
the pulse at the temporal artery, or else above the bridge of the nose.
They used to suffer a good deal from the jealousy of the Spanish
practitioners, and were persecuted for practising without a
qualification.
Large numbers of Chinese coolies are employed in Manila handling coal,
loading and unloading ships and lighters, pressing hemp, drying sugar,
and in other work too hard and too constant for the natives.
The number of Chinese in Luzon has been variously estimated at from
30,000 to 60,000 men, and two or three hundred women. The anonymous
author of 'Filipinas--Problema Fundamental' (Madrid, 1891), gives
the number of Chinese in the whole Archipelago as 125,000, and he
evidently had access to good information. The fact is nobody knows,
and in all probability the Spanish authorities had an interest in
understating the number.
The Chinese were organised quite separately from the natives. Wherever
their numbers were considerable, they had their own tribunal, with
a Gobernadorcillo and Principales, the former called the Capitan-China.
In Manila, this Capitan was a man of importance, or else the nominee of
such a person. Certain governors-general received, nay, even extorted,
large sums from the Capitan-China. Weyler is said to have been one of
these offenders, but Jovellar caused the Capitan-China to be turned out
of Malacañan for offering him a present. No one who knew them would
ever believe that Moriones or Despujols would condescend to accept
presents from the Chinamen. One favourite trick of the more corrupt
governors-general was to have some very obnoxious law made in Spain;
for instance, obliging the Chinese to become cabezas-de-barangay, or
responsible tax-collectors of their own countrymen, and then extort
a ransom for not putting the law in force. Weyler was said to have
received $80,000 from the Chinese on this account, but some of this
would have to go to Madrid.
At another time it was proposed that the Chinese should be obliged to
keep their accounts in Spanish on books having every leaf stamped, and
that every firm should employ a trained accountant who had passed an
examination in book-keeping, and obtained a diploma as a commercial
expert. What it cost the Celestials to avoid this infliction I do
not know.
Amidst all this extortion from the Spaniard, and notwithstanding the
ever-present hatred of the native, the Manila Chinaman is a sleek
and prosperous-looking person, and seems cheerful and contented. If
he becomes wealthy he may very likely become a Christian, less,
perhaps, from any conviction or faith, but from motives of interest,
and to facilitate his marriage to a native woman, or half-caste. He
invariably selects an influential god-father, and dutifully takes him
complimentary presents on his feast-day, wife's feast-day, etc. Baptism
used to cost him a substantial fee, but it brought him business, for
the priests were good customers to him. Now, however, with freedom
of religion, with civil marriage and the withdrawal of the friars,
he may be able to marry without the trouble of changing his religion.
Whether Christian or heathen, he usually keeps a few sticks of incense
burning before an image at the back of his shop, and contributes to
any subscription the priest may be raising.
I look upon the Chinaman as a necessity in the Philippines, but
consider that he must be governed by exceptional legislation, and not
be allowed to enter indiscriminately, nor to engage, as a matter of
course, in every calling.
If attempts are to be made to settle them on the land, great care must
be shown in selecting the localities, and great precautions taken
to prevent fighting between the Chinese and the natives. However,
there should be plenty of room for tens of thousands of agricultural
labourers in Palawan and Mindanao; but I consider women to be
essential to the success of such colonies. The family is the base of
any permanent settlement, and it ought to be made a condition that
a considerable number of women should come over with the men.
Mestizos, or Half-Breeds.
From the intercourse of Spanish and other Europeans with
the native women, there has sprung a race called Mestizo, or
Mestizo-Espanol. Similarly, the Chinese, by their alliance with native
women, have produced the Mestizo-Chino, or Sangley.
It is very difficult to say how many there are of these people, for
opinions differ widely. The anonymous author of a pamphlet called
'Filipinas' (Madrid, 1891), gives the number of Spanish Mestizos in
the Archipelago, in 1890, as 75,000, whilst he estimates the number
of Chinese Mestizos at no less than half a million. The Spanish
Mestizos vary much in appearance, character and education, according
to whether they have come under the influence of their father or
their mother. Many of them are people of considerable property, and
have been educated in Spain, Germany or England, or at the university
in Manila. Others have relapsed into the ordinary native life. As a
class they are possessed of much influence. Both in Manila and in the
country towns they own large houses, and much landed property. Their
superior intelligence and education enables them to prosper in business
or in professions. Some of them are doctors of medicine, or lawyers. A
very few have studied engineering. Again, a fair number are priests,
and of these, some are men of great learning.
The Mestizos are the capitalists, which is to say the usurers of the
country. They have not personally participated much in the revolts
against the Spaniards, nor yet in the fighting against the Americans,
though they may have given small sums to assist the movement. They will
be there, though, when offices are to be distributed, and will make
hard masters, more oppressive, in fact, than any European or American.
This is what M. André, Belgian Consul-General, says of them: "This
class is composed entirely of usurers and pawnees. All the pawn-shops
and gambling-houses belong to the principal Mestizo families. There
is not one family free from that stigma. In the plantations belonging
to the rich families of Mestizos or Indians, the workmen are treated
very inhumanly."
There can be no doubt that the Spanish Mestizos are very unpopular
amongst the natives, and that an uncomfortable time would await them
should the islands become independent. They are perfectly aware of
this, and in their hearts long for the protection of one of the Great
Powers. At the same time, they are anxious to get the lion's share
of the loaves and fishes.
The Chinese Mestizos differ both in appearance and character from
the Spanish Mestizos, owning less land, and being more addicted
to commercial pursuits, for which both sexes show a remarkable
aptitude. It is customary for the daughters, even of wealthy
families, to trade on their own account from an early age. A case
was mentioned to me where five dollars was given to a young girl to
begin trading. With this she purchased a pilon of sugar, and sending
out some of her father's servants to the woods, collected a large
quantity of guavas. She then caused the cook to make the material
into guava jelly, which she packed in tins or jars collected for the
purpose. Then another servant took the jelly out for sale, and disposed
of it all. The capital was soon doubled, and invested in sayas and
handkerchiefs bought at wholesale prices, which were then hawked round
by a servant. Some years afterwards, I made the acquaintance of this
young lady, and found that she was then dealing in diamond and pearl
jewellery, and had a large iron safe in which she kept her stock,
which was then worth several thousand dollars, all made by her trading.
Chinese Mestizos are owners of cascos and lorchas for loading or
unloading vessels, also of farderias, or establishments for mixing
and drying sugar.
In Manila, the Sangleyes, as they are called by the Spaniards
and natives, have a gobernadorcillo and tribunal of their own. In
Santa Cruz they are very numerous, and amongst them are to be found
jewellers, silversmiths, watch-makers, or rather repairers, sculptors,
gilders and painters, besides one or two dentists of good renown.
PART II
THE VISAYAS AND PALAWAN
CHAPTER XXXII
THE VISAYAS ISLANDS.
Area and population--Panay--Negros--Cebú--Bohol--Leyte--Samar.
This name is given to the group of six considerable islands
lying between Luzon and Mindanao, and also to the race inhabiting
them. Beginning at the west, these islands are Panay, Negros, Cebú,
Bohol, Leyte, and Samar. There are also a number of smaller islands.
Many of the larger as well as the smaller islands are thickly
populated, and an extensive emigration takes place to the great and
fertile island of Mindanao, where any amount of rich land waits the
coming of the husbandmen. I can find no later records of population
than the census of 1877. This may seem strange to an American,
but to those who know the ignorance and ineptitude of the Spanish
administration, it will seem a matter of course. Such data of the
population as the Government Offices possess, are mostly due to the
priests and the archbishop.
Since 1877 there has undoubtedly been a great increase of population
amongst the Visayas, and in 1887 the population of Panay was considered
to be more than a million.
The Visayas Islands contain fewer heathen than any other part of the
Philippines. In Panay there are a few Negritos and Mundos; in Negros
some Negritos and Carolanos. The illustration opposite p. 207 is a
full-length photograph of Tek Taita, a Negrito from this island. In
Cebú a few Mundos live around the peak of Danao. In Bohol, Leyte,
and Samar there are no heathen savages.
It may be said that the heathen in these islands would have died out
before now but that they are reinforced continually by remontados,
or fugitives from justice, also by people whose inclination for a
savage life, or whose love of rapine renders the humdrum life of
their village insupportable to them.
The following Table gives the area of each of the six larger islands,
and the population in 1877.
Area in square miles.
Population according to Census of 1877.
Capitals.
Panay
(divided into 4,898 777,777 [29] Capiz.
three provinces-- Antique.
Capiz, Antique, Ilo-ilo.
Ilo-ilo)
Negros 3,592 204,669 Bacolod.
Cebú 2,285 403,296 Cebú.
Bohol 1,226 226,546 Tagbilaran.
Leyte 3,706 220,515 Tacloban.
Samar 5,182 178,890 Catbalogan.
---------
2,011,693
Panay.--This island is approximately an equilateral triangle, with
the western edge nearly north and south, having one apex pointing
south. A chain of mountains extends in a curved line from the northern
to the southern point, enclosing an irregular strip of land which
forms the province of Antique. The rivers in this part of the island
are naturally short and unimportant. The northern part of the island
is the province of Capiz, the principal river is the Panay, which,
rising in the centre of the island, runs in a northerly direction for
over thirty miles, entering the sea at the Bay of Sapian. The eastern
and southern part of the island is the province of Ilo-ilo. The
principal river is the Talana, which, rising quite near the source
of the River Panay, runs in a southerly and south-easterly direction
into the channel between Negros and Panay to the north of the island of
Guimaras. There are many spurs to the principal range of mountains, but
between them is a considerable extent of land under cultivation. The
province of Ilo-ilo is one of the richest and most densely-populated in
the Philippines. It now contains at least half a million inhabitants.
Ilo-ilo is open to foreign commerce, and vice-consuls of many nations
reside there. Yet the port has neither wharves, cranes, moorings or
lights. The coasting steamers drawing up to 13 feet enter a muddy
creek and discharge their cargo on the banks as best they can, whilst
the ocean-going ships lie out in the bay and receive their cargoes
of sugar and other produce from lighters, upon each of which pilotage
used to be charged for the benefit of an unnecessary number of pilots,
and of the captain of the port, who received a share of the pilotage
and strenuously resisted a reform of this abuse.
Under American protection, Ilo-ilo may be expected to become a
flourishing port, provided with every convenience for discharging,
loading, and repairing ships, as becomes the importance of its
trade. The town of Ilo-ilo contained many large buildings, some
of them owned by British subjects. During the fighting last year,
however, several buildings were burnt.
During the Spanish rule the streets were entirely uncared for, being
a series of mud-holes in the rainy season, and thick with dust and
garbage in the dry season.
The town and port together are notorious examples of all the worst
characteristics of Spanish rule.
The principal towns of this wealthy province are Pototan, Santa
Barbara, Janiuay, and Cabatuan, each of which has more than 20,000
inhabitants.
The industries and productions of this and the other islands are
treated of under Visayas when describing the inhabitants.
Negros.--A long island of irregular shape, lying between Panay and
Cebú. Its axis is nearly north and south, and a chain of mountains
runs up it, but nearer to the east than to the west coast.
A little to the north of the centre of this chain, the celebrated
volcano Canlaon raises its peak over 8300 feet. It is frequently in
active eruption, and can be perceived at an immense distance when the
atmosphere is clear. I have seen it and its long plume of vapour from
a steamer when passing the north of the island.
In the Sierra de Dumaguete, a range occupying the centre of the
southern promontory of the island, and about the centre of the range,
there is the volcano of Bacon, about which little is known.
Cebú is a long and narrow island something in the shape of an
alligator, looked at from above, with the snout pointing to the
southward and westward. It is opposite to Negros, and separated
from that island by the Strait of Tanon. It is, in fact, a range of
mountains rising out of the sea, and is very narrow, being nowhere
more than 22 miles wide. There being a large population of Visayas,
and the mountains not being very high, the wandering heathen have to
a great extent been weeded out, and only a remnant of wretched Mundos
remain about the crests of the cordillera.
The capital city, Cebú, was the first in the Archipelago to possess
a municipality, and was, in fact, until 1571, the capital of the
Philippines.
It possesses some fine buildings; is the seat of a bishop, and formerly
of the Governor-General of Visayas. It is open to foreign commerce,
and vice-consuls of the principal nations reside there.
There can be no rivers in an island of this configuration, for the
water runs away as from the roof of a house. The crops and industries
have been spoken of under the head of Visayas.
There are considerable beds of lignite near Compostela, and various
efforts have been made to work them, so far, I fear, without much
success. Remarkable shells, and some pearls are obtained round about
Cebú and the adjacent islands.
Bohol lies off the southern half of the eastern coast of Cebú, and
is only half the size of that island, but it has more than half the
population. It is hilly, and the towns and villages are situated
on the coast. Only the southern and eastern coast is visited by
coasting vessels, the navigation to the north and west being impeded
by a labyrinth of coral reefs. The soil of this island is not rich,
and the more enterprising of the natives emigrate to Mindanao.
Leyte is an island of very irregular shape--something like a hide
pegged out on the ground--and lies between the northern half of Cebú
and the southern part of Samar, from which it is only separated by a
very narrow passage called the Janabatas Channel, and the Strait of
San Juanico. The southern extremity of Leyte approaches the northern
promontory of Mindanao, and forms the Straits of Surigao, the second
entrance from the Pacific to the seas of the Archipelago. The island is
mountainous, and has two lakes, one called Bito is at the narrowest
part, and one called Jaro, near the town of that name. There are
several good ports. The exports, which go to Manila, are hemp and
sulphur of great purity.
Samar.--This is the largest of the Visayas, and yet has fewest
inhabitants. It lies to the eastward of all the other islands,
and consequently its east coast, like that of Luzon and Mindanao,
is exposed to the full fury of the north-east monsoon, and to the
ravages of the heavy rollers of the Pacific that burst without warning
on its rocky coast.
Its chief port, Catbalogan, is situated on the western coast, and
is well-sheltered. From the coast many lofty peaks are visible,
but the interior of this island is little known. The exports are
hemp and cocoa-nut oil. The northern point of Samar approaches
the southern extremity of Luzon, and forms the historic Strait of
San Bernardino, one of the entrances to the Philippine Archipelago
from the Pacific. It was by this Strait that the annual galleon from
Acapulco entered, and here also the British privateers lay in wait
for their silver-laden prey.
CHAPTER XXXIII
The Visayas Race.
Appearance--Dress--Look upon Tagals as foreigners--Favourable
opinion of Tomas de Comyn--Old Christians--Constant wars with the
Moro pirates and Sea Dayaks--Secret heathen rites--Accusation of
indolence unfounded--Exports of hemp and sugar--Ilo-ilo sugar--Cebú
sugar--Textiles--A promising race.
The most numerous and, after the Tagals, the most important race in
the Philippines is the Visaya, formerly called Pintados, or painted
men, from the blue painting or tattooing which was prevalent at the
time of the conquest. They form the mass of the inhabitants of the
islands called Visayas and of some others.
They occupy the south coast of Masbate, the islands of Romblon,
Bohol, Sibuyan, Samar, and Leyte, Tablas, Panay, Negros, and Cebú,
all the lesser islands of the Visayas group and the greater part of
the coast of the great island of Mindanao. In that island the Caragas,
a very warlike branch of the Visayas, occupy the coast of the old
kingdom of Caraga on the east from Punta Cauit to Punta San Agustin.
Another branch of the Visayas distinguished by a darker colour and
by a curliness of the hair, suggesting some Negrito mixture, occupies
the Calamiancs and Cuyos Islands, and the northern coasts of Paragua
or Palawan as far as Bahia Honda.
In appearance the Visayas differ somewhat from the Tagals, having
a greater resemblance to the Malays of Borneo and Malacca. The men
wear their hair longer than the Tagals, and the women wear a patadion
instead of a saya and tapis.
The patadion is a piece of cloth a yard wide and over two yards long,
the ends of which are sewn together. The wearer steps into it and wraps
it round the figure from the waist downward, doubling it over in front
into a wide fold, and tucking it in securely at the waist. The saya is
a made skirt tied at the waist with a tape, and the tapis is a breadth
of dark cloth, silk or satin, doubled round the waist over the saya.
In disposition they are less sociable and hospitable than the Tagals,
and less clean in their persons and clothing. They have a language of
their own, and there are several dialects of it. The basis of their
food is rice, with which they often mix maize. They flavour their
food with red pepper to a greater extent than the Tagals. They are
expert fishermen, and consume large quantities of fish. In smoking
and chewing betel they resemble the other races of the islands. They
are great gamblers, and take delight in cock-fighting. They are fond
of hunting, and kill numbers of wild pig and deer. They cut the flesh
of the latter into thin strips and dry it in the sun, after which it
will keep a long time. It is useful to take as provision on a journey,
but it requires good teeth to get through it.
The Visayas build a number of canoes, paraos, barotos, and vintas, and
are very confident on the water, putting to sea in their ill-found and
badly-equipped craft with great assurance, and do not come to grief
as often as might be expected. Their houses are similarly constructed
to those of the other inhabitants of the littoral.
Ancient writers accused the Visaya women of great sensuality and
unbounded immorality, and gave details of some very curious customs,
which are unsuitable for general publication. However, the customs I
refer to have been long obsolete among the Visayas, although still
existing amongst some of the wilder tribes in Borneo. The Visaya
women are very prolific, many having borne a dozen children, but
infant mortality is high, and they rear but few of them. The men
are less sober than the Tagals--they manufacture and consume large
quantities of strong drink. They are not fond of the Tagals, and a
Visaya regiment would not hesitate to fire upon them if ordered. In
fact the two tribes look upon each other as foreigners. When discovered
by the Spaniards, they were to a great extent civilised and organised
in a feudal system. Tomas de Comyn formed a very favourable opinion of
them--he writes, both men and women are well-mannered and of a good
disposition, of better condition and nobler behaviour than those of
the Island of Luzon and others adjacent.
They had learnt much from Arab and Bornean adventurers, especially
from the former, whose superior physique, learning, and sanctity, as
coming from the country of the Prophet, made them acceptable suitors
for the hands of the daughters of the Rajas or petty kings. They had
brought with them the doctrines of Islam, which had begun to make
some converts before the Spanish discovery. The old Visaya religion
was not unlike that of the Tagals, they called their idols Dinatas
instead of Anitos--their marriage customs were not very different
from those of the Tagals.
The ancestors of the Visayas were converted to Christianity at, or
soon after, the Spanish conquest. They have thus been Christians for
over three centuries, and in constant war with the Mahometan pirates
of Mindanao and Sulu, and with the Sea Dayaks of Borneo. However, in
some localities they still show a strong hankering after witchcraft,
and practise secret heathen rites, notwithstanding the vigilance of
the parish priests.
A friar of the order of Recollets who had held a benefice in Bohol,
assured me that they have a secret heathen organisation, although
every member is a professing Christian, taking the Sacrament on the
great feasts of the Church. They hold a secret triennial meeting of
their adherents, who come over from other islands to be present. The
meeting is held in some lonely valley, or on some desert island,
where their vessels can lie concealed, always far from any church or
priest. All the Recollet could tell me about the ceremonies was that
the sacrifice of pigs formed an important part of it
The Visayas are no less credulous than the Tagals, for in Samar,
during my recollection, there have been several disturbances caused by
fanatics who went about in rags, and by prayers, incoherent speeches,
and self-mortification acquired a great reputation for sanctity. The
poor ignorant people, deluded by these impostors, who gave themselves
out to be gods, and as such, impervious to bullets, and immortal,
abandoned their homes and followed these false gods wherever they went,
listening to their wild promises, and expecting great miracles. They
soon came into collision with the Guardia Civil; and on one occasion,
armed only with clubs and knives, they made a determined charge on a
small party of this corps under the command of a native officer. The
Guardia Civil formed across the road and poured several steady volleys
into the advancing crowd, breaking them up and dispersing them with
heavy loss and killing the false god. The native officer received
the laurel-wreathed cross of San Fernando as a reward for his services.
The Visayas are taxed with great indolence, yet they are almost the
only working people in districts which export a great quantity of
produce. Leyte and Samar produce a good many bales of excellent
hemp, and it should be remembered that every bale represents at
least twelve days' hard work of one man in cleaning the fibre only,
without counting the cultivation, conveyance to the port, pressing,
baling, and shipping.
In Negros and Panay the sugar estates are much larger than in Luzon,
and mostly belong to Spaniards or mestizos. They are not worked by
aparceria as in Luzon, but the labourers are paid by the day. Great
troubles often occur as bands of labourers present themselves
on the plantations and offer to work, but demand an advance of
pay. Sometimes, after receiving it, they work a few days and then
depart without notice, leaving the planter in great difficulty and
without redress. Strict laws against vagrants are urgently required
in Visayas. On the other hand the planter is more free to introduce
improvements and alterations than when working by aparceria when he has
to consult the inquilino or cultivator about any change. The cane-mills
are much larger than in Luzon, and are mostly worked by steam engines.
The sugar is handled differently from the custom of Pampanga. Pilones
are not used, and no manipulation in farderias is required to
prepare it for export. The cane-juice is carefully clarified and
skimmed, then boiled in open pans to a much higher point than when
making pilon-sugar, and to get it to this point without burning or
over-heating much care and experience is required.
From the teache it is ladled into large wooden trays, always in
thin layers, and is there beaten up with heavy spatulas until it
becomes, on cooling, a pale yellow amorphous mass. It is packed in
mat-bags, and is then ready for shipment. It travels well and loses
but little during a Voyage to San Francisco or New York. None of it
goes to England, which is now entirely supplied by the vile beet sugar
"made in Germany," except for a few hundred tons of Demerara crystals
imported for use by connoisseurs to sweeten their coffee.
Ilo-ilo sugar is shipped under three marks, No. 1, No. 2, No. 3. An
assortment or cargo of this sugar should consist of 1-8th No. 1,
2-8ths No. 2, 5-8ths No. 3.
A representative analysis of Ilo-ilo sugar is as follows:
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
Crystallizable sugar 86.60 84.50 81.20
Glucose 5.40 5.50 6.56
Mineral matter (ash) 1.50 2.56 3.72
Sand trace .24 1.28
In Cebú the properties are small and are mostly in the hands of
Visayas. There are, perhaps, five or six steam-mills, but most of the
cane is ground in cattle-mills. They follow the practice of negroes
in making sugars direct for export, but the produce is of a lower
quality. An analysis of the Cebú sugar is as follows:
Cebú Superior. Cebú Current.
Per Cent. Per Cent.
Crystallizable sugar 81.10 71.00
Glucose 7.90 12.50
Mineral matter (ash) 2.16 2.23
The sugar produced in the other Visayas islands is quite insignificant.
Ilo-ilo and Cebú are the principal ports in the Visayas
territory. Besides what they shipped to Manila in 1897, they exported
directly to the United States, Great Britain, or other countries,
the following: Ilo-ilo, 127,744 tons of sugar; 51,300 piculs of Sapan
wood; Cebú, 15,444 tons of sugar; 80,271 bales of hemp; 46,414 piculs
of Copra. And it must be remembered that the Visayas cultivate most
of the rice, maize, and other food-stuffs which they consume, and
also make their own instruments of agriculture. Besides this, Ilo-ilo
exported to other parts of the Philippines a million dollars' worth of
textiles of cotton, silk, and other fibres, made by the Visayas women
in hand-looms. The women in Antique make the finest piña, a beautiful
transparent texture of the utmost delicacy, woven from the fibres of
the leaves of a non-fruiting pine (ananas). When doing the finest work
they have to keep their doors and windows closed, for the least draught
would break or disarrange the delicate filaments. The export from other
ports in Visayas of textiles of cotton and silk is considerable, and,
in addition to what they sell, the Visayas women weave most of the
material for their own clothing and for that of the men.
The Visayas also export mat-bags for sugar, which are called bayones;
mats for sleeping on, called petates or esteras; pillows stuffed
with cotton, hides, mother-of-pearl shell, Balate (Bèche de Mer),
edible bird's-nests, gutta-percha, gum-dammar, wax, rattans, coffee
(of indifferent quality), and leaf tobacco. Both the island of Panay
and the coasts of Negros are dotted over with cane plantations.
The Visayas extract oil from cocoa-nuts and forge excellent weapons
from scrap iron. The bands from bales of Manchester goods are much
esteemed for this purpose.
If we take all these points into consideration, the Visayas may not
appear so deplorably indolent as they have been said to be. When
writing of the other races, I have pointed out that the indolence
imputed to them rather goes beyond what is warranted by the facts.
It will be understood that there are degrees in the civilisation of
the Visayas, and as amongst the Tagals and other races, considerable
differences will be found to exist between the dwellers in the towns
and those in the outlying hamlets, whilst the Remontados may be
considered to have relapsed into savagery.
The Visayas do a certain amount of trade with the heathen hill-men
of their islands, and as will be pointed out when describing these
tribes, it is hard to say whether the Christian Visayas or the
Mahometan Malays rob these poor savages more shamefully.
The Visayas are a promising race, and I feel sure that when they have
a good government that will not extort too heavy taxes from them,
nor allow the native and half-caste usurers to eat them up, their
agriculture and industries will surprisingly increase.
It is to the Visayas that the American Government must look to provide
a militia that will now hold in check, and ultimately subjugate,
the piratical Moros of Mindanao and Paragua. The fighting qualities
of this race, developed by centuries of combat with their Mahometan
aggressors in defence of hearths and homes, will be found quite
sufficient if they are well armed and led to make an end of the Moro
power within a very few years.
That this aspiration is one well worthy of the countrymen of Decatur,
will, I think, be admitted by all who have read my description of
the Moros under the heading of Mindanao.
CHAPTER XXXIV
The Island of Palawan, or Paragua.
The Tagbanúas--Tandulanos--Manguianes--Negritos--Moros of southern
Palawan--Tagbanúa alphabet.
The island of Palawan, or, as it is called by the Spaniards,
La Paragua, is situated between the parallels 8° 25' and 11° 30'
N. lat. The capital, Puerto Princesa, was founded in 1872, and is
situated on the east coast in lat. 9° 45', being 354 miles from Manila,
210 miles from North Borneo, and 510 miles from Singapore. Palawan is
about 250 miles long, and from 10 to 25 wide, with an area of about
5833 square miles, the third in size of the Philippine Islands. There
are several good ports in the northern part, which is much broken up,
and its coasts studded with numerous islets, forming secure anchorages.
Off the western coast is a large submarine bank, with many coral
reefs and islets. The navigation on this coast is very dangerous,
and can only be done in daylight.
The harbour of Puerto Princesa is an excellent one, and sufficiently
large for all requirements.
Limestone and other sedimentary formations predominate. No volcanic
rocks are known to exist. It is conjectured that the island has been
formed by an upheaval, and it bears little resemblance geologically
to any of the other Philippines. Plastic clays suitable for making
bricks, tiles, and pottery, abound.
Nothing is known about the mineralogy, except that rock-crystal is
found, a magnificent specimen of great purity and value was sent from
the island to the Madrid Exhibition of 1887.
A chain of mountains, with peaks of varying elevation up to 6500 feet,
runs lengthways of the island, much nearer to the western coast than
to the eastern. The descent from the summits to the eastern coast
is, therefore, gradual, and on the western coast it is abrupt. Mount
Staveley, Mount Beaufort (3740 feet), Pico Pulgar (4330 feet), and
the Peaks of Anepalian, are in the central part of the island.
The following record is taken from the observations made by Captain
Canga-Arguelles, a former governor, during his residence of three
years in Puerto Princesa.
Month. Mean Temp. Barometer.
Fahrenheit. Inches. Rainy Days.
January 85 30.34 4
February 81 30 3
March 85 30.07 4
April 87 29.92 5
May 84 29.80 4
June 82 29.90 12
July 80 .. 17
August 82 29.84 4
September 79 29.88 20
October 85 29.90 20
November 82 29.95 8
December 82 30 4
-----
Mean 82.83 105
It will be seen that the temperature is not excessive, and that
the distribution of the rainfall is favourable to agriculture and
planting. The force of the monsoon is much spent when it arrives
on the coast of Paragua, and the typhoons only touch the northern
extremity of the island.
Volcanic phenomena are unknown, and there is no record of earthquakes.
From the lay of the island there is always one coast with calm water,
whichever way the monsoon is blowing.
The troops and civil population of Puerto Princesa suffer to some
extent from intermittent fevers; but the reports of the military,
naval, and civil infirmaries, state that the disease is not very
severe, and that it yields to treatment, and this assertion is
confirmed by the reports of the French travellers, Drs. Montano and
Rey and M. Alfred Marche.
The northern part of the island has been colonised from the other
Philippines, and the Christian inhabitants number about 10,000
distributed amongst several small villages. The southern coasts are
occupied by Mahometan Malays, who number about 6000, and the rest
of this large island, except Puerta Princesa, is only populated by
savages, the principal tribes being the--
Tagbuanas, estimated to number 6,000
Tandulanos, estimated to number 1,500
Negritos, estimated to number 500
Manguianes, estimated to number 4,000
--------
12,000
This gives a grand total of 28,000 inhabitants, or 5.6 to the
square mile. In the island of Luzon, in which extensive districts
are uncultivated and unexplored, the mean density of the population
in 1875, was 76.5 per square mile, and in the provinces of Batangan
and Pasgasinan, which are, perhaps, the best cultivated, the density
was 272 inhabitants to the square mile.
The fauna has been studied to some extent, a French collector having
resided for a considerable period on the island. It comprises monkeys,
pigs, civets, porcupines, flying squirrels, pheasants, and a small
leopard, this latter not found in any other of the Philippines,
and showing a connection with Borneo.
The island is covered with dense forests, which have been little
explored.
The Inspeccion de Montes (Department of Woods and Forests) gives a
list of 104 different kinds of forest-trees known to be growing there,
and states that ebony abounds there more than in any other province
of the Philippines. According to Wallace, the camphor-tree is found
in the island.
Amongst the timbers mentioned in the Woods and Forests lists are
ebony, camagon, teak, cedar, dungon, banaba, guíjo, molave, and
many others of value. The forest or jungle-produce will comprise:
charcoal, firewood, bamboos, rattans, nipa (attap), orchids, wax,
gums, resins, and camphor. Edible birds'-nests are found in various
localities. Fish is abundant in the waters, and balate (Bèche de mer)
is collected on the shores and reefs.
Puerto Princesa is visited by a mail steamer from Manila once in
twenty-eight days. A garrison of two companies of infantry was kept
there, and several small gun-boats were stationed there, which went
periodically round the island. Piracy was completely suppressed,
and the Mahometan Malays were kept in good order by the Spanish forces.
The dense primeval forests which have existed for ages, untouched
by the hand of man, undevastated by typhoons, volcanic eruptions, or
earthquakes, must necessarily have produced an enormous quantity of
decayed vegetable matter, rich in humus, and such a soil on a limestone
subsoil, mixed with the detritus washed down from the mountains, may
reasonably be expected to be of the highest fertility, and, perhaps,
to be equal to the richest lands of the earth, most specially for
the cultivation of tobacco.
The varied climates to be found from the sea-level to the tops of the
mountains should allow the cultivation of maize, rice, sugar-cane,
cotton, cacao, coffee, and hemp, each in the zone most favourable
to its growth and fruitfulness. The exemption from typhoons enjoyed
by this region is most important as regards the cultivation of
the aborescent species, and the cocoa-nut palm would prove highly
remunerative on land not suited for other crops.
Tagbanúas.
The Tagbanúas are said to be the most numerous of the inhabitants of
Palawan. I understand that this word comes from Taga, an inhabitant,
and banua, country, and therefore means an original inhabitant of
the country, as opposed to later arrivals.
They inhabit the district between Inagáhuan, on the east coast,
and Ulugan and Apurahuan, on the west coast. Their numbers in 1888
were estimated at 6000. In 1890 I spent ten days amongst these
people, and employed a number of them as porters to carry my tent,
provisions, and equipment, when travelling on foot through the
forests to report on the value of a concession in the neighbourhood
of Yuahit and Inagáhuan. I therefore describe them from personal
knowledge. They are of a yellowish colour, and generally similar to
the Mahometan Malays of Mindanao. Those who have settled down and
cultivated land have a robust and healthy appearance; but those who
are nomadic, mostly suffered from skin diseases, and some were quite
emaciated. Their Maestro de Campo, the recognised head of their tribe,
lived near Inagáhuan, and I visited him at his house, and found him
quite communicative through an interpreter.
Maestro de Campo is an obsolete military rank in Spain, and a
commission granting this title and an official staff, is sometimes
conferred by the Governor-General of the Philippines, or even by
the King of Spain, upon the chiefs of heathen tribes, who have
supported the Spanish forces against the pirates of Sulú, Mindanao,
or Palawan. Sometimes a small pension accompanies the title.
I also learnt much about the Tagbanúas from a solitary missionary,
a member of the Order of Recollets, Fray Lorenzo Zapater, who had
resided more than two years amongst them, and had built a primitive
sort of church at Inagáhuan.
They are sociable and pacific; their only weapons are the cerbatana,
or blow-pipe, with poisoned darts, and bows and arrows, for the knives
they carry are tools and not weapons. They do not make war amongst
themselves, but formerly fought sometimes to defend their possessions
against the piratical Mahometans, who inhabit the southern part of the
island. These heartless robbers, for centuries made annual raids upon
them, carrying off the paddy they had stored for their subsistence,
and everything portable worth taking. They seized the boys for slaves,
to cultivate their lands, and the girls for concubines, killing the
adults who dared to resist them. However, since the establishment of
a naval station and the penal colony at Puerto Princesa in 1872, the
coast has been patrolled by the Spanish gun-boats and the piratical
incursions have come to an end. The nomadic Tagbanúas, both men and
women, were quite naked, except for a cloth (tapa-rabo) which the men
wore, whilst the women wore a girdle, from which hung strips of bark or
skin reaching nearly to the knees. Round their necks they wore strings
of coloured beads, a turquoise blue seemed to be the favourite kind,
and on their arms and ankles, bangles made of brass wire. Coming out
of the forest into a clearing where there were two small huts built in
the usual manner, and another constructed in the fork of a large tree,
I found a group of these people threshing paddy. Amongst them were two
young women with figures of striking symmetry, who, on being called by
the interpreter, approached my party without the slightest timidity or
embarrassment, although wearing only the fringed girdle. I learnt that
they had both been baptized but on asking the taller girl her name,
instead of answering me, she turned to her companion and said to her,
"What is my name?" to which the other answered, "Ursula." I then asked
the shorter girl her name, and she also, instead of answering me, asked
the other girl, "What is my name?" to which the taller one answered,
"Margarita." These names had recently been given them instead of their
heathen names, and I could not be sure whether they had forgotten
their new names or whether, as is the case in several tribes, they must
never pronounce their own names nor the names of their ancestors. They
thankfully accepted a cigarette each, which they immediately lighted.
On the following Sunday, these girls came to Mass at the Inagáhuan
Church, completely dressed like Tagal women, and although they passed
in front of me, I did not recognize them until I was told, for they
looked much shorter.
When the missionary accompanied me to visit any of these people,
I observed that as we approached a house the people were hurriedly
putting on their clothes to receive us, but they were evidently more
at ease in the garb of Adam before the fall.
The Tagbanúas have no strong religious convictions, and can be easily
persuaded to allow their children to be baptised. The population of
Inagáhuan and Abortan at the time of my visit was, according to the
missionary, 1080, of whom 616 were baptised. But from this number
many had been taken away by their half-caste or Chinese creditors
to Lanúgan, a visita of Trinitian, to collect wax and almáciga--the
forests near Inagáhuan and Yuáhit being entirely exhausted. The
heathen Tagbanúas believe in future rewards and punishment, and call
the infernal regions basaud. They believe in a Great Spirit, the
creator and preserver, who presides over all the important acts of
life. They call him Maguindose, and make offerings to him of rice and
fish. Polygamy is allowed amongst them, but from what I saw is not
much practised. When a Tagbanúa proposes marriage to the object of
his affections, he leaves at the door of her hut the fresh trunk of
a banana plant. If she delays answering till the trunk has withered,
he understands this as a negative, and the damsel is spared the pain
of verbally refusing; but if she approves of his suit, she sends him
her answer in good time.
The lover then conveys to the house of the bride's parents, where
all her relations are assembled, large baskets of boiled rice. He
takes a morsel of this and places it in the mouth of the girl, she
then does the same to him, and by this symbolic act they assume the
responsibilities of matrimony. This particular ceremony is common to
many Philippine tribes. The remainder of the cooked rice furnishes
the basis of the marriage feast.
They are said to cruelly punish adultery; on the other hand, divorce
is easily obtained.
When one of their number is very ill, they get up a concert (?) of
gongs and drums with the hope of curing him, and during the performance
nobody must approach the patient's couch. I could not learn whether
the music was intended to cheer up the sick person, or to frighten
away the evil spirit, which they look upon as the cause of his malady;
but I incline to the latter belief, because the so-called music is
calculated to frighten away any living thing.
If, however, the patient does not improve, he is then consulted as
to where he would like to be buried, and about other details of the
ceremony and funeral feast. This reminds me that I have read of a
Scotchwoman consulting her dying husband as to whether the scones
to be made for his funeral should be square or round. Such, however,
is the custom of the Tagbanúas.
Immediately after death the relatives place by the corpse the weapons
and effects belonging to the deceased and sprinkle ashes on the floor
all around--then they retire and leave the dead alone for a time. Later
on, they return and carefully examine the ashes to see whether the
soul of the defunct, when abandoning the body, left any foot-marks.
Then, forming a circle round the dead, they chant a dirge in honour
of the departed, after which they commit his body to the earth in the
midst of his cleared land, unless he has selected some other spot,
burying with him his arms and utensils, not forgetting the wood-knife
and a liberal ration of cooked rice and condiments for his journey
to the other world. They then abandon both hut and land and never
return to it. They bury small children in jars called basinganis.
I was much interested in these people, and felt a great pity for
them. All energy and determination seemed to have been crushed out
of them by centuries of oppression from their predatory neighbours,
and when at last the Spanish gun-boats delivered them from these
periodical attacks, they were held in what was practically slavery by
their half-caste or Chinese creditors. The respectability of a Tagbanúa
is measured by the weight of gongs he possesses, just as the importance
of a Malay pirate-chief depends on the weight of brass-guns he owns.
The half-castes, or Chinese, will supply them with a brass-gong worth,
say $5, for which they charge them thirty dollars to account. This must
be paid in almáciga (gum-dammar) at $5 per picul. Consequently the poor
savage has to supply six piculs of almaciga. Now this gum was worth $12
per picul in Singapore, and the freight was trifling. Consequently the
savage pays the greedy half-caste, or avaricious Chinaman, $72 worth
of gum (less expenses) for a $5 gong, and these rascally usurers take
care that the savage never gets out of their debt as long as he lives,
and makes his sons take over his debt when he dies. These terms are
considered very moderate indeed; when I come to speak of Mindanao
I shall quote some much more striking trade figures. Many of the
traders there would think it very bad business to get only $72 for
goods costing $5.
Instead, therefore, of being allowed to till their land, these people
are hurried off to the most distant and least accessible forests to
dig for almáciga. This gum is found in crevices in the earth amongst
the roots of secular trees. I was assured that deposits had been found
of 25 piculs in one place--more than a ton and a half, but such finds
are rare, as the gum is now scarce. The savage has to hide or guard his
treasure when found, and he or his family must transport it on their
backs for twenty, thirty, or forty miles, as the case may be, making
repeated journeys to deliver it to their creditor. I think this hard
work, and want of good food, explains the emaciation I noticed amongst
these people. Some few of them were not in debt. Near Inagáhuan, I
found a man named Amasa who had a small cane-field, and was at work
squeezing the cane with a great lever-press, which reminded me of
the wine-presses in Teneriffe. The lever was made of the trunk of a
tree; the fulcrum was a growing tree, whilst the pressing block was a
tree-stump hollowed at the top. The juice was boiled to a thick syrup,
and found a ready sale in the neighbourhood. Amasa was the biggest
and strongest man I saw amongst the Tagbanúas, and stood five feet
nine inches high. He possessed a comfortable house and clothes,
yet he accompanied me on one of my journeys as a porter, but the
exposure at night was too much for him, and he had an attack of fever
when he returned. Near Amasa lived a Christian woman named Ignacia,
a widow. She had lived ten years in one place, and had an abundant
supply of paddy stored in huge baskets in her house. She also had a
plantation of cacao trees, many of them in full bearing. They were
rather neglected, but had grown remarkably. I bought some of her
produce for my own use.
I was surprised to find that the Tagbanúas could read and write;
one day I observed a messenger hand to one of them a strip of bark
with some figures scratched on it, which the latter proceeded to
read, and on inquiring from the missionary, I learnt that they had
an alphabet of sixteen or seventeen letters. I obtained a copy of
this from the Padre Zapater, and it will be found on page 319. They
do not use a pen, but scratch the letters with the point of a knife,
or with a nail, or thorn.
The Tagbanúas are very fond of music and dancing. On the evening of
my arrival at Yuahit, a collection of about a dozen huts with forty
inhabitants, they gave an open-air performance in my honour. My party
consisted of a boat's-crew of eight Tagal sailors of the Navy, two
servants, an interpreter, and two companions. The orchestra consisted
of four brass gongs of varying sizes, and a tom-tom. Torches were stuck
in the ground to illuminate the scene, and the whole of the inhabitants
of the hamlet turned out and watched the proceedings with greatest
interest. The dances were performed by men, women, and children,
one at a time, and were perfectly modest and graceful. The women were
dressed in shirts and bright-coloured patadions, and were adorned with
silver rings, brass bangles, and armlets, some had strings of beads
round their necks. The best dance was performed by a young woman,
holding in each hand a piece of a branch of the bread-fruit tree,
which they call Rima, with two of the large handsome leaves. These
she waved about very gracefully in harmony with her movements. The
spectators behaved very well, and were careful not to crowd round me. I
rewarded the dancers with beads and handkerchiefs, and the musicians
with cigars. This dancing seemed to me a very innocent amusement,
but I was sorry to find that the missionary took a different view. He
associated the dances with heathen rites and forbade them, confiscating
the dearly-bought gongs of his converts, as he said they were used
to call up evil spirits. However, I observed that he had hung up the
largest gong to serve as a church-bell, after having sprinkled it with
holy water. I remembered having read how the Moravian missionaries
in Greenland put a stop to the dancing which formerly enlivened the
long dark winter of that desolate region, and I asked myself why the
Christian missionary, whether teaching in the icy gloom of the Arctic
circle, or in brilliant sunshine on a palm-fringed strand, must forbid
his converts to indulge in such a healthful and harmless recreation,
in both cases almost the sole possible amusement. I could see no reason
why the heathen should have all the fun. The labours of the missionary
were, however, very much to the benefit of the Tagbanúas, as inducing
them to settle down, build houses, and raise crops for their support.
The Spanish gun-boats had stopped the inroads of Moros by sea, and
detachments of native troops along the coast stopped the raiding by
land. For twenty years the Tagbanúas had suffered little, and for
several years absolutely nothing from the Moros, yet they apparently
could not realise their security, and were afraid to accumulate
anything lest it should be taken from them. To the ravages of the
pirate, there has succeeded the extortion of the usurer, and John
Chinaman waxes fat whilst the wretched Tagbanúa starves.
Whilst travelling through the jungle I found some natives cutting
canes, and my interpreter pointed out to me an emaciated couple, and
assured me that during the famine of the previous season, these poor
wretches had killed and eaten their own child to save their lives. What
a state of things in a country where maize will grow up and give edible
grain in forty-two days from the date of planting it! I trust that the
change of government may result in some benefit to these poor people,
and that a Governor or Protector of Aborigines may be appointed with
absolute power who will check the abuses of the half-caste and Chinese
usurers, and give the poor down-trodden Tagbanúas, at one time I firmly
believe a comparatively civilised people, a chance to live and thrive.
Tandulanos.
The Tandulanos are physically similar to the Negritos, but less
robust. They inhabit the shores of Palawan, being scattered along
the western coast between the Bay of Malampaya and Caruray. They
are more savage than the other races of the island, but they fulfil
their engagements with rigorous exactness. They make rough canoes,
and subsist principally on fish and shell-fish, and they do no
cultivation. They are very skilful in the use of the harpoon which
they employ for fishing. If they can obtain iron, they use it for
their harpoon-points, otherwise they point them with the spike from
the tail of a skate.
They use a most active poison on their harpoons and darts, so much so,
that it is said to produce almost instantaneous death.
This poison is unknown to the other tribes. They refuse to sell their
cerbatanas, or blow-pipes, from which they shoot their darts.
They are said to intermarry indiscriminately, without regard to
kinship. Their number was computed at 1500 in the year 1888, and they
are probably not much more numerous now.
These people are, like the Negritos, whom they resemble, a hopeless
race, not capable of advancing in civilisation.
Manguianes and Negritos of Palawan.
These people have been described under the heading Aetas or Negritos,
in Part I. The first-named inhabit the interior of that part of the
island occupied by the Moros who jealously prevent them from holding
any intercourse with strangers.
Moros of Southern Palawan.--These people do not differ in any essential
particular from the Moros of Mindanao. They look back with regret on
the good old days before the advent of the steam gun-boats, and the
establishment of the fortified posts along their shores when they
could make their annual raids and massacre, plunder, and enslave,
the wretched Tagbanúas without interference. They will doubtless take
full advantage of any negligence of the United States authorities to
keep up the gun-boat flotilla, and to maintain the military posts.
They now live by agriculture, all the labour being performed by
slaves, and by trading with the savages of the mountains, vying with
the Christians in usurious rapacity.
John Chinaman in Palawan is just the same as his brother in Mindanao--a
remorseless usurer, and a skilful manipulator of false weights and
measures, but no worse in the treatment of the unhappy aboriginal
than the Christian native or half-caste.
Puerto Princesa, the capital, had a population at the time of my
visit in 1890 of about 1500, of which number 1200 were males and 300
females. About half the males were soldiers and sailors, one-fourth
convicts, and the remainder civilians. Most of the women had been
deported from Manila as undesirable characters in that decorous
city. Notwithstanding their unsavoury antecedents, they found new
husbands or protectors in Puerto Princesa the moment they landed. Such
was the competition for these very soiled doves, that most of them
had made their new arrangements before leaving the jetty alongside
which the steamer they arrived in lay.
There was some little cultivation round about the capital, but as
usual trading with the aborigines for gum, rattans, balate, green
snail-shells, and other jungle produce was the most entrancing pursuit.
At a short distance from the town was a Government Sugar Plantation,
which I visited. If sugar planting could flourish anywhere, it surely
should have done so here, for the land cost nothing, the convicts
did all the unskilled labour and the machinery was paid for by the
Government. Yet the blighting influence of the official mind succeeded
even here in causing the place to be run at a loss. The sugar badly
prepared was shipped to Manila to be sold at a reduced price, and
sugar for the troops and general use was imported from other parts.
The governor of the island, during the later period of Spanish rule,
has usually been a naval officer, and as the communications are
principally by sea, and any punitive operations have to be performed
by the gun-boat flotilla, this would seem to be a precedent the United
States might follow with advantage.
Tagbanúa Alphabet.
Communicated to F. H. Sawyer by Fray Lorenzo Zapater, Missionary at
Inagáhuan, Palawan.
[Illustration: Tagbanúa Alphabet.]
N.B.--The Roman letters are to be pronounced as in Spanish and the
Tagbanúa correspondingly, Ah, bay, say, day, aye or ee, o or oo, pay,
ku, etc.
Notes by the Padre Zapater.
(Translation.)
1. The consonants in the Tagbanúa alphabet are eleven and sometimes
twelve, but the vowels are three, since the ia and the oa which
are vowels, are compound letters, although strictly they may be
considered as vowels, but the ia and the ua are written the same,
as has been said.
2. In reading the Tagbanúa alphabet, you begin from the bottom upwards.
3. To write the consonants with their vowels, for example, ba, be,
bi, bo, bu, you put a dash at the right or left. If on the right,
it means be, bi, and if on the left of the consonant bo, bu.
N.B.--Father Zapater's note 3 is somewhat obscure, or rather badly
expressed. It perhaps ought to have been said that a dash right and
left means ba.
PART III
MINDANAO, INCLUDING BASILAN.
CHAPTER XXXV.
BRIEF GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION.
Configuration--Mountains--Rivers--Lakes--Division into
districts--Administration--Productions--Basilan.
Mindanao is of a very irregular shape, which it is not easy to
describe. It has some resemblance to a winged skate, with a long tail,
one of the Raiidæ, which is common in Manila Bay. The head of the skate
is turned to the east; the peninsula of Surigao forms the northern
wing, and Punta Panguian the tip of the southern wing, out of which,
however, a great piece has been bitten, corresponding to the Gulf of
Davao. The body is represented by the main part of the island, and
the tail commences at the isthmus of Tucúran and stretches westward
for a degree of longitude. This straight part is the old kingdom of
Sibuguey. On the north of it, however, a huge excrescence appears; this
is the peninsula of Dapitan, and on the south, opposite to it, there is
a similar projection, which is cut in two by the Gulf of Dumanquilas.
Mt. Silingan represents the spike or hook usually found on the tails of
these fish, and from here the tail bends southward and westward through
an arc of 60°. This part represents the peninsula of Zamboanga, and
the town of that name is situated at the tip of the tail. A continuous
chain of mountains down the centre of the tail represents the vertebræ.
Beginning on the east, we find a long stretch of coast from Surigao to
Cape San Agustin with only one or two anchorages for small vessels. The
rest of the coast is exposed to the full force of the Pacific Ocean,
and from November to April is quite open to the N.E. monsoon. It is
also subject to tidal waves or rollers just as are the coasts of Peru
and Chili. A destructive bore enters the river mouths and inlets,
and heavy seas get up off all the headlands. In the channels between
Surigao and the islands off the northern coasts, rapid currents
are formed and overfalls render navigation dangerous for country
vessels. In fact, during the strength of the N.E. monsoon the east
coast, from Placer to the Bay of Mayo, is hemmed in with surf, and
without a single port. Behind point Taucanan, however, is found Port
Balete and Port Pujada. This latter is the best port in the island,
being well sheltered from the N. and N.E. The country about it is well
watered, and produces timber trees of great size and fine quality. The
waters contain plenty of fish, and turtle, also some mother-of-pearl
shells. The forests give the best kinds of almáciga, and wax.
The hill-men are partly independent but pacific, and the Visaya
population is considerable in the district of Mati.
In general, the east coast is rocky, and very foul in many
places. The land is fertile and well-wooded. Gold is found in the
Cordillera, and on its eastern slopes all the way from Surigao to
Punta Tagobong. One of the northern towns is called Placer on this
account. The inaccessibility of the east coast during the strength
of the N.E. monsoon has retarded the civilisation of Surigao which
was settled in the early years of the conquest. The Caraga-Visaya,
who inhabit a considerable district on this coast, are old Christians
and have always been ready to fight for their faith.
Practically parallel to this coast is a chain of mountains which
begins at Surigao and extends down to Punta San Agustin with hardly
a break. I shall call this the eastern Cordillera. In this chain,
near the northern end, lies Lake Mainit (Hot Lake), having steep sides
with twenty fathoms close to the edge, and two hundred fathoms in the
middle. This cavity has, no doubt, been formed by volcanic action,
like the lake of Taal. On the slopes of the mountains around it are
many thermal springs which run into the lake, and in rainy weather the
summits are always shrouded in vapour by the evaporation of the rain.
The lake is subject to tremendous floods. Dr. Montano, who visited
it in December, 1880, speaks of a rise of twelve fathoms. He also
says that a ground-swell gets up in this sheltered lake; this must
be from some modified volcanic action still going on. As usual in
Philippine crater-lakes, this is a great breeding-place for alligators.
The Eastern Cordillera being so near the coast, there are of course
no navigable rivers running into the Pacific, but the streams become
impassable torrents during the heavy rains which begin in June, and
prevent communication by land for many days or even weeks at a stretch.
Approximately parallel to the Eastern Cordillera, and at about
fifty geographical miles distance, there stands another range which
I shall call the Central Cordillera. A line drawn from Punta Diuata
to the middle of the Gulf of Sarangani, nearly due north and south,
intersects Mt. Sinalagao, Mt. Panamoyan, the active volcano, Mt. Apo
and Mt. Matutuan, which appear to be the loftiest peaks of the range.
From Mt. Panamoyan in about 7° 50' N. Lat. a spur strikes eastwards at
right angles to the range, reaching half-way across the valley. This
spur then turns to the south parallel to the range for some twenty
miles, and from the middle of the east and west part, another spur
turns south for about 20 miles, thus forming a letter E with the
points looking south.
In the wide valley between the Eastern and Central Cordilleras, and
taking the drainage of the whole watershed is the River Agusan. Rising
about the 7th parallel on the slopes of Mt. Tagoppo, this river runs
a very sinuous course in a general northerly direction, but inclining
slightly to the west, receiving innumerable tributaries on either
side. At about 8° 15' N. Lat. the Agusan expands or overflows, forming
a series of shallow lakes, choked up with driftwood and vegetation,
and varying in extent with the rainfall.
Continually gathering volume, it runs into the Bay of Butuan about 9°
N. Lat.
At Moncayo, in 7° 45' N. Lat., the Agusan is one hundred yards wide,
and is navigable for canoes even much higher up.
The spur previously spoken of as striking east and south from
Mt. Panamoyan, forms two small watersheds. The western one gives rise
to the River Libaganon, and the eastern to the River Salug. Both these
rivers run in a southerly direction, and unite to form the River Tagum,
which runs for a short distance S.E. and falls into the head of the
Gulf of Davao.
A little way south of Mt. Panamoyan some mountain streams dash down
the sides of the Cordillera and running through a gap unite to form
the River Davao which flows in a south-easterly direction till it
reaches the plain, when it changes its course and runs east into the
Gulf of Davao. From Point Sipaca, in 9° N. Lat., a range of mountains
stretches in a southerly direction for about sixty miles. Amongst
these are Mt. Sipaca, Mt. Saorag, and Mt. Quimanquil. With the
Central Cordillera this range forms a watershed, and the torrents
on the steep sides of Sinalagao and Quimanquil dash down and take
a southerly direction to form the headwaters of the River Pulangui
and ultimately become the Rio Grande. In 7° 50' N. Lat. two important
affluents join, the River Sauaga and the River Malupati, a few miles
lower the Calibatojan and the Kaya-Kaya bring their tribute, and the
united flood with rapid current casts itself headlong into the deep
Cañon of Locosocan and runs in this for over four miles to Salagalpon,
where another cataract occurs. The river continues for miles a rushing
torrent amongst huge boulders, at the bottom of this cleft, so narrow
in places, where the rocks jut out and nearly meet overhead, that it
seems like a tunnel. In 7° 46' N. Lat. there is a small volcano close
to the left bank which, whenever it rains, becomes active and gives
off stifling fumes of sulphur. At Mantanil, in 7° 40' N., the river
can be navigated on bamboo rafts, handled by skilled Manobo pilots,
but not without much risk; for some distance down there are two buchis,
or sinks, where the water runs down into subterraneous passages through
the river-bed, forming dangerous whirlpools. There are also several
rapids which require great dexterity to pass safely. The banks are
still high; but, on approaching the confluence of the Kulaman river,
on the left bank, the gorge is much lower, and on arriving at Ilang
the country opens out.
South of the confluence of the River Molita, vintas can navigate
the river, and a little lower down, at the confluence of the River
Simuni, is the place reached by the gunboat Taal in 1863 on a 6-foot
draught. The river now runs in a southerly and westerly direction,
with dozens of bends till about 6° 45' N. Lat., when, on reaching
Lake Liguasan (really a Pinag) a shallow and weedy expanse of water,
it turns to the west, and then north-west. At Tumbao it bifurcates,
and enters the Bay of Illana by two mouths forming a long narrow
delta of deep and rich alluvial soil.
From Tumbao to Tamontaca is the most beautiful and fertile part of
this river. On both banks grow cocoa-palms, areca-palms, banana and
cacao-trees, coffee-bushes, and hemp plants in abundance, and amongst
them are groups of native houses forming a continuous village,
of which the placid river, here fifty yards wide, forms the main
street. These houses are mostly occupied by friendly Moros.
Nearly parallel to the Sipaca-Soarag-Quimanquil range a second
range stretches irregularly in a north and south line, ending at the
coast near Cagayan. Amongst these mountains is Mt Quitanglag. From
Pt. Sulanan the western extremity of the Bay of Macajalar, a third
range stretches south, then south-east, then south again for some
thirty miles. Between this range and the Bay of Iligan there is
a fourth range of hills. These four ranges form three valleys or
watersheds, each of which has its river, with a general course from
south to north, all three running into the Bay of Macajalar.
The most easterly is the River of Tagoloan which has fourteen
tributaries, the next is the River Cagayan with only three, then the
River Capay with seven tributaries, all on the left bank.
Proceeding westward we come to the great and deep Lake of Lanao,
described under the heading Moros, but which has never been surveyed,
and then to the Gulf of Panguil, which, on the map, looks like a
forearm and clenched fist, which nearly cuts Mindanao in two. The
isthmus is only fourteen miles across in a straight line.
This was formerly a regular pirates' track, over which they hauled
their vessels, but it was till lately guarded by a chain of forts
connected by a military road called the Trocha of Tucuran.
Two rivers running in a general direction from west to east and having
between them a dozen tributaries, run into the Gulf of Panguil. The
most northerly of the two is the Mipangi and the other is the Lintogo.
We now arrive at the peninsula of Sibuguey which I have likened
to the tail of the skate. Around Lake Lanao there is an irregular
loop of hills, and from the western end of this starts a cordillera
which stretches right down the centre of the peninsula of Sibuguey
and Zamboanga. A line drawn from Punta Sicayati (in the Dapitan
excrescence) to the eastern shore of the Gulf of Dumanquilas will
intersect a range of mountains which cross the Cordillera of Sibuguey
nearly at right angles and with equal arms north and south. But the end
of the northern arm bifurcates and throws out two ranges N.E. and N.W.
In the watershed thus formed three rivers take their rise, and have
a general course from south to north but bearing a little to the
westward. The easternmost of these is called the Dapitan, and runs
into the bay of the same name. The next is the Dipolog, which runs
into the sea west of Punta Sicayab; and the last is the Lubungan,
running in about two leagues more to the west.
The other rivers in the peninsula are so unimportant that I do not
enumerate them. Like those on the east coast they become raging
torrents in the rainy season.
On the northern and southern coasts, which are more protected than the
eastern, sheltered anchorages are to be found here and there, but no
such fine natural harbours exist as abound in Southern Luzon. There is,
however, less need for them, as it is very rare that the typhoons,
which are so destructive in Luzon and the Visayas, cause damage in
Mindanao, except at its northern and eastern corner. But for service
on these coasts, vessels of a light draught of water are the most
useful, as they can more easily find sheltered anchorage.
Mindanao is not nearly so unhealthy as is commonly supposed. Zamboanga
and neighbourhood, Davao, Surigao, Talisay, and several other
places, are really quite healthy for Europeans, if they take care
of themselves.
Earthquakes are frequent. They would sometimes be destructive, but
there is so little in the way of buildings to destroy.
Divisions for Administrative Purposes.
Zamboanga is the chief military station and the residence of the
commandant-general of the island.
Mindanao is divided into five districts:--
1st. District chief town Zamboanga (capital of the island).
2nd. District chief town Misamis (includes Lake Lanao).
3rd. District chief town Surigao (includes the whole kingdom
of Caraga, also the valley of the Agusan).
4th. District chief town Davao (shores of the bay and peninsula
of San Agustin).
5th. District chief town Cotta-bato (valley of the Rio Grande
and ancient Sultanate of Buhayen).
The island of Basilan forms a sixth district under the
commandant-general of Mindanao.
Each of these districts was under a politico-military governor and
other officials, as follows:--
1st District, Major, Naval Lieutenant, Captain of Port.
2nd District, Lieut.-Colonel.
3rd District, Lieut.-Colonel.
4th District, Major.
5th District, Lieut.-Colonel.
6th District, Naval Lieutenant, Naval Station.
Besides these politico-military governors there were the following
officers in charge of military districts:--
Mumungan in 2nd district (Fort Weyler and vicinity to look after
the Moros of Lake Lanao) Major.
Dapitan in 2nd district (To look after the Moros of Sindangan
Bay) Major.
Bislig in 3rd district (To look after the Mandayas and Manobos)
Captain.
To attend to the administration of justice there was a third-class
judge in each district. From their decisions there was an appeal to
the Audiencia at Cebú, and from there to the Supreme Court, Madrid.
In Zamboanga where there is (or was) a custom-house, there resided a
Treasury delegate of the second class. In each of the other districts
there is one of the fourth class.
The southern naval division has its headquarters at Isabela de Basilan.
Productions of Mindanao.
The climate and soil of Mindanao are suitable for growing almost
any tropical crop to great advantage: hemp, sugar cane, tobacco,
coffee, cacao, rice, indigo, sesame, maize, sweet potatoes, pepper,
all flourish. But the island is very backward; it is only recently
that the savage races have been settled in the reducciones. The
population is very sparse, and natives are more addicted to washing
the sands for gold or seeking jungle-produce than disposed to apply
themselves to agriculture.
The exports have hitherto been very small. About some of the northern
ports a good beginning has been made in cultivating and preparing hemp,
and several Spaniards have laid out plantations there.
There is a small export of coffee and cacao, and the circumstance
that the greater part of the island is free from typhoons renders it
exceptionally favourable for planting these valuable products, or for
growing unlimited quantities of cocoa-nut for making copra. For the
same reason the timber in Mindanao is larger than in the best districts
of Luzon, and some of the trees are truly magnificent. Mindanao,
with its inhabitants busily engaged in murdering their neighbours
and enslaving their children, can, of course, never prosper; but if
such outrages are repressed, and peace assured, the population will
rapidly increase and agriculture will prosper.
Amongst the forest produce gutta-percha took a leading place,
but this product came through the hands of the Chinese traders,
who, as their custom is, adulterated it to such an extent that its
value became greatly depreciated in European and American markets,
and the trade fell off. Some lignite is found in Mindanao, but I have
no confidence in the value of Philippine coal-fields. They have been
too much broken up by volcanic action. I have very little doubt that
petroleum will be found in Mindanao when it is explored. It has been
reported in Mindoro and Cebú.
The early explorers of the Archipelago state that the natives wore
little clothes, but abundance of gold ornaments. Now they wear more
clothes but little gold. It is surprising how quickly the heathen
become impoverished whenever they have Christian neighbours.
Basilan.
The sixth district of Mindanao is formed of the Basilan group of some
forty islands lying opposite to Zamboanga, having a total area of
170,000 acres. The only important one of the group is Basilan Island,
which has an irregular outline, an oval with two projections opposite
each other, east and west, the latter resembles a turtle's head and
the former a turtle's tail, so that the shape of the island on the
map is that of a turtle with his head to the west. The total length
from the point of the beak to the tip of the tail is about thirty-two
geographical miles, and the width across the body about twenty-one
miles. The port of Isabela is sheltered by the Island of Malamaui,
on which there is a Moro rancheria called Lucbalan, and a Christian
visita, Sta. Barbara. The capital, Isabela, is situated about the
centre of the channel, and to the east of the mouth of the Pasahan
(now called Isabela) River.
To the south of the town, which is situated on a stony slope at a
short distance, the fort is placed at an elevation of about sixty
feet above the sea. It commands both entrances of the channel.
There is a barrack near the fort, a prison, military infirmary, school,
town hall. The naval station consists of store-houses and workshops,
marine-barracks, hospital, and magazine.
There is a church, and missionaries' residence. The island is hilly but
fertile in places. Some twenty to thirty acres are under cultivation
near Isabela, and the Moros who form the principal population make
their slaves work on the lands about their hamlets. There are no
manufactures worth mentioning.
The Christian population is as follows:--
Inhabitants.
Town of Isabela 921
Hamlet of San Pedro de Guihanan 130
Hamlet of Santa Barbara 50
Reduccion of Panigayan 25
Reduccion of Tabuc 12
Scattered Christians 12
Members of the Naval Station 86 variable.
Garrison of the Fort 40 ,,
------
1276
The Moro population is distributed in about fifty villages or
hamlets. They can turn out about 4400 fighting-men, and are considered
valiant and hardy.
The Moros of Basilan, according to Father Foradada, have not the
sanguinary instincts of those of Lake Lanao or of Joló, and any
outrages they commit are, he thinks, due to the instigations of the
Moros of Joló, who unfortunately keep up a communication with them
and corrupt them.
Amongst the most influential Dattos of Basilan is Pedro Cuevas,
a Tagal. He was formerly a convict, but escaped, and, by force of
character and desperate courage, he became a leading man amongst
the Moros. Having rendered some services to Spain, he received a
pardon, and now has extensive plantations, a sugar-mill, and herds
of cattle. He is, in fact, about the richest and most influential
man in the island, and has become reconciled to the Church, and was
much trusted both by the military and naval authorities and by the
missionaries.
The map of the island is from a report of Father Cavalleria who went
by sea right round it in 1893.
CHAPTER XXXVI
THE TRIBES OF MINDANAO.
Visayas (1) [Old Christians].
In another part of the book I have given a description of the Visayas
in their own islands, and have spoken of their enterprise and industry
as manifested in the extent of their exports of sugar and hemp,
and in their manufacture of textiles of the most varied kind.
The Visayas of Mindanao have been modified by their environment both
for good and evil. Thus they are bolder and more warlike than their
brethren at home, having had for centuries to defend themselves
against bloodthirsty Moros. The Visayas of Caraga are especially
valiant and self-reliant, and they needed to be so, for the Spaniards,
whenever hard pressed by English, Dutch or Portuguese, had a way of
recalling their garrisons, and leaving their dependents to shift for
themselves. The Visaya of Mindanao, therefore, though not a soldier,
is a fighting-man, and their towns possess a rudimentary defensive
organisation called the somaten. This, I believe is a Catalan word,
and indicates a body of armed townsmen called together by the church
bell to defend the place against attack. This service is compulsory
and unpaid.
The arms have been supplied by the Spanish Government, and have
generally been of obsolete pattern. I have seen in Culion flint-lock
muskets in the hands of the guards. Latterly, however, Remington
rifles have been supplied, and they are very serviceable and quite
suitable for these levies.
The Visayas have been the assistants of the missionaries, and from
them come most of the school-masters and mistresses who instruct the
children of the recently-converted natives.
Their language is fast extending, and their numbers are increasing,
both naturally, and by a considerable voluntary immigration from the
southern Visayas Islands.
To the inhabitants of these small islands, fertile Mindanao, with its
broad lands, free to all, is what the United States were a generation
ago to the cotters of Cork or Kerry--a land of promise.
There is, however, a demoralising tendency at work amongst the
Visayas. The profits of bartering with the hill-men are so great, that
they are tempted away from their agriculture, and from their looms,
to take up this lucrative trade, in competition with the Chinese.
The Visaya has one great advantage over the Chinaman; he has the
courage to go up into the hills, and find his customers in their
haunts. This the Celestial could not do, but has to remain at his
store on the coast and await the hill-men.
Both traders cheat the hill-tribes most abominably.
Dr. Montano mentions a case which happened in Butuan in December, 1879.
A Visaya went into the interior taking with him some threads of
different colours which he had purchased for seventy-five cents, and
returned with jungle produce worth ten dollars. This he invested in
beads, brass-wire, and other articles of trade, and returned to the
woods. In a month he came back, bringing produce to the value of 100
dollars, and 400 dollars to his credit with the natives.
The tribes of Mindanao pay their debts with scrupulous exactness. If
they die before paying, their sons assume the debt, and unless they
are killed or taken as slaves by other races, the money is sure to
be paid. Consequently, this rapacious usurer had sold them goods
costing 10 dollars, 75 cents, for 510 dollars, of which 110 dollars
in cash, and 400 dollars credit. It is satisfactory to learn that
the commandant at Butuan made him disgorge, and freed the hill-men
from their heavy debt.
To sum up, the Visaya is a necessary man in Mindanao, and the
immigration should be encouraged. All the Visaya towns bordering on
the Moros should have their somatenes armed, exercised, and supplied
with ammunition. Amongst Visayas are to be found plenty of men well
suited to command these bands. As they are fighting the Moros for
life and property, they may be trusted to stand up to them manfully.
The illustration shows a party of Visayas militia belonging to the
town of Baganga, in Caraga, under a native officer of gigantic stature,
Lieutenant Don Prudencio Garcia.
Mamanúas (2).
A hybrid race between Negritos and Malays.
They are not numerous, and live in the northern promontory of
Surigao, from near the River Agusan to the east coast, south of Lake
Mainit. They are, indeed, miserable wretches, wandering in the hills
and forest without any fixed habitation, their only property a lance,
a bolo, and some starveling curs.
Sometimes they plant a few sweet potatoes, and at certain times
in the year they get wild honey; at other times they hunt the
wild pig. They lay up no provisions, and wander about naked and
hungry. They are difficult to convert, having no good qualities to
work upon. They promise anything, but never perform, being able to
give as a reason--some evil omen, for instance--that, on coming out
in the morning, they have heard the cry of the turtle-dove (limbucun)
on the left hand.
Notwithstanding all these difficulties, the zeal of the missionaries
has not been wasted, and several reducciones of Mamanúas have been
founded, and are progressing to some extent.
Manobos (3).
The Manobos are a warlike heathen race, widely extended in
Mindanao. The great River Agusan, taking its rise in the district
of Davao, in 7° N. latitude, falls into the Bay of Butuan about
9° N. latitude. Its general course is parallel to the eastern
Cordillera, from which it receives numerous tributaries. At almost
8° 15' N. latitude it expands, and forms four considerable lakes of
no great depth, and varying in extent according to the season. They
are partly covered by aquatic plants. These lakes are called Linao,
Dagun, Dinagat and Cadocun; they are quite near each other. The Manobos
inhabit this spacious valley from Moncado, in 7° 45', to about 8° 45'
N. latitude on the right bank, where they come in contact with the
Mamanúas and Mandayas; but on the left bank they extend nearly to the
sea, and up to the eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera. They even
extend over the Cordillera to the head waters of the Rio Grande. They
occupy the left bank of the Pulangui, and their southern frontier on
the Rio Grande is at 7° 30' N. latitude, where one of their chiefs,
called the Datto Capitan Manobo, lives. The river is navigable for
vintas up to here, and, in 1863, the gunboat Taal, drawing six feet,
steamed to within five miles of this point, say up to the River
Simuni. They extend up the Pulangui to about 8° 15' N. latitude. In
appearance they have a Mongolian cast of feature. Their faces are
longer than amongst the Mandayas; their noses are not flattened,
but straight, and projecting, and slightly curved at the lower
end. Their general aspect is robust; their stature is about 5 feet 7
inches. Their usual dress consists of short drawers reaching to the
knee, and a sort of singlet, or short shirt.
They live in clans under a bagani, or head-murderer (see Mandayas for
explanation), who is usually accompanied by his brothers-in-law. They
are polygamists; still, the first wife is the head, and all the others
must obey her. Each wife has her own house, just as the late Brigham
Young's harem had at Salt Lake City. But they are satisfied with fewer
than that prophet, there being none amongst their dattos who have
nineteen wives. They are slaveholders, as the children taken in war
become slaves, and all the work of cultivation is done by the women,
children and slaves.
Their houses are built on piles, as are also their granaries. They
cultivate on a considerable scale, and raise quantities of rice, maize,
sweet potatoes and tobacco, not only to supply their own wants, but
to sell in boat-loads to the Visayas. Their arms are lances, shields,
swords and daggers, and, in some parts, bows and arrows. They are
said to be expert archers where they use the bow. They raise numbers
of horses for riding.
In valour, and in disposition to come to close quarters in fighting,
they resemble the Igorrotes of Luzon. They stand up squarely to the
Moros, which few other races have the pluck to do. Like the Igorrotes,
their religion consists in ancestor-worship, but they call their
idols Dinatas instead of Anitos. They are much impressed by thunder,
which they call the voice of the lightning, and a rainbow fills them
with awe. Like the Tagals, and some races in British India, they
consider the crocodile a sacred animal, and respectfully address it as
grandfather. They also, like the old heathen Tagals, consider rocks,
caves, or balete trees, as residences of spirits. They celebrate a
feast in honour of the Dinatas after the harvest, and make sacrifices
of swine.
Tag-Busan is their god of war, and it is usual amongst them to go on
the war-path after the harvest is secured; the bagani, as high priest
of this god, carries his talisman hung round his neck.
They make ambuscades, and attack neighbours or enemies in the
most treacherous manner, either by setting fire to their houses and
murdering them as they attempt to escape from the flames, or they cut
through the piles supporting the houses, covering themselves with their
shields interlocked whilst doing so, and spearing the occupants when
the house falls. When an enemy has been felled, the bagani, taking
a consecrated sword, never used in fighting, cuts open the chest,
and immerses the talisman of the god in the blood; then, tearing
out the heart or liver, he eats a piece. The Sácopes are not allowed
this privilege, which belongs only to the chief, as the high priest
of the god of war. The children of the slain are taken as slaves,
and the young women for concubines. One of the prisoners is kept to
be sacrificed in some cruel manner to Tag-Busan on the return of the
expedition as a thank-offering.
The death of a relative requires to be atoned for by the murder of
any innocent person passing by, the avenger concealing himself near
a path, and killing the first stranger who comes.
The Manobos are very smart in handling canoes or rafts on their
rivers, which are very dangerous to navigate, and have many rapids and
whirlpools; the Pulangui even precipitates itself into a chasm, and
runs underground for a league and a half. However, the terrible picture
I have drawn of their habits is becoming year by year a thing of the
past to thousands of Manobos, although still kept up in places. The
intrepidity of the Jesuit missionaries is proof against every danger
and every privation, has carried them up the River Agusan, on which,
at short distances apart, they have established towns or villages, and
have brought many thousands of Manobos within the Christian communion.
Father Urios, one of these missionaries, baptized 5200 heathen in one
year, and now no less than twenty Christian towns or villages stand
on the banks of the River Agusan and its tributaries, populated by
perhaps fifteen thousand Manobos, formerly heathens, who have given
up their detestable practices and their murderous slave-raids to
occupy themselves in cultivating the soil, whilst their children of
both sexes are receiving instruction from Visaya school-masters and
mistresses. There is always a tendency to remontar amongst them, and
sometimes nearly all the inhabitants of a village take to the woods
and hills. Yet, secure from attack, the number of converts steadily
increases. The Baganis have become gobernadorcillos, and their chief
vassals tenientes, jueces de paz, and cuadrilleros. Some of the old
Baganis who were well off were so anxious not to be behind the Visayas,
that they sent to Manila for hats, black cloth coats and trousers,
and patent leather shoes, to wear on the great feasts of the Church,
and on the occasion of the annual village festival.
This is a long way from human sacrifices to the Tag-Busan, and
ceremonial cannibal rites, which these men formerly practised. I look
on this warlike and vigorous race as capable of becoming valuable
citizens, but they will require careful handling for some years to
come. They must not be rushed, for, if alarmed by innovations, they
may take to the woods en masse, and the labour of years will have
been wasted.
I look to this tribe, when trained to use fire-arms, and stiffened
with a few Americans, to destroy the power of the pirate races--the
murderous, slave-hunting Moros, with whom it is useless to make
treaties, who cannot be converted till the power of their dattos is
broken, and who must be sternly put down by force unless the nascent
civilisation of Mindanao is to be thrown back for a century.
In the beginning of June, 1892, a Bagani of the Manobos performed
the paghuaga, or human sacrifice, on a hill opposite Veruela, on the
River Agusan. The victim was a Christian girl whom he had bought for
the purpose from some slave-raiders.
Mandayas (4).
The Mandayas live on the Eastern Cordillera of Mindanao which
runs parallel to the coast, and their territory extends from the
7th to the 9th parallel. They occupy the country down to the River
Salug. They are remarkable for their light colour, some having quite
fair complexions. Their faces are wide, the cheek-bones being very
prominent; yet their appearance is not unpleasing, for they have
large dark eyes shaded by long eye-lashes.
They are much respected by other tribes as an ancient and aristocratic
race, and the war-like Manobos eagerly seek, by fair means or foul,
to obtain Mandaya women for wives.
They usually shave off their beards, and also their eyebrows, wearing
their hair long, tied in a knot at the back.
They are powerfully built, and of good stature. The men wear short
drawers, and on grand occasions don an embroidered jacket. Both men
and women wear large ear-ornaments. The women are clad in a bodice
and patadion with ornaments of shells, beads, or small bells. The
men are of a bold and warlike disposition, ready to fight against
other villages of their tribe when not at war with the Manobos, the
Guiangas, or the Manguangas, their neighbours. They have a language
of their own which has a great affinity to the Visaya.
Their houses, four or five forming a village, are built on lofty piles
thirty or forty, or even fifty feet above the ground. The floor is
of thick planks and has a parapet all round pierced with loop-holes
for defence. Above this parapet the house is open all round up to
the eaves, but this space can be closed in by hanging shutters in bad
weather. The construction of dwellings at such a height must involve
an enormous amount of labour. Each group of houses forming a village
is usually surrounded by a strong palisade of sharp-pointed posts,
and further defended by pits lined with sharp stakes, which are
lightly covered over with twigs and leaves.
Several families live in one house, after the custom of the Dayaks of
Borneo, to provide a garrison for defence. An ample supply of arms is
kept in the house, bows and arrows, spears, swords and knives. They
are liable to be attacked in the night, either by the Manobos,
the Moros, or by the sácopes of some neighbouring datto, who shoot
flaming arrows covered with resin into the roof to set it on fire,
or covering themselves with their shields from the arrows of the
defenders, make a determined attempt to cut down the piles so that the
house will fall. The attacking party is most often victorious, and the
defenders, driven out by fire, or bruised and entangled amongst the
fallen timbers, are easily killed, the women and children, with the
other booty, being carried off by the assailants. Under this reign
of terror the population is diminishing. These people not only kill
for booty, but also for the honour and glory of it. Each warrior is
anxious to become a bagani, and to be allowed to wear the honourable
insignia of that rank. The dress of a bagani indicates approximately
the number of murders he has committed. A scarlet head-cloth shows
that he has killed from five to ten men; a red shirt, in addition,
from ten to twenty, whilst a complete suit of red shows that he has
murdered more than twenty persons, and is a much-desired and very
honourable distinction, a sort of D.S.O. or K.C.B. amongst them.
All the dattos are baganis; they could hardly possess enough prestige
to govern their sácopes without this title.
The Mandayas are superstitious, and much attached to their own
beliefs, and on this account it is difficult to convert them to
Christianity. The devotion of the Jesuits, however, has not been in
vain, and several pueblos on the east coast round about Bislig, Caraga,
and Cateel-Baganga are now inhabited by Christian Mandayas, some of
whom have intermarried with the Visayas, or "old Christians." These
Mandayas are now safe from attack. They give their attention to
cultivation, and are increasing in numbers and rising in the scale
of civilisation.
Ancestral-worship is their religion, and their Dinatas, or wooden
idols, are stained red with the sap of the narra tree. They have
priestesses whom they call Bailanes, and they are said to occasionally
make human sacrifices.
As amongst other tribes in Mindanao, the Limbucun, or turtle-dove,
is a sacred bird, and rice and fruit is placed for its use on a small
raised platform, and it is never molested.
They are organised in a strict feudal system, the headman or datto of
each village is in fact the only free man of his clan. The others are
Sácopes--that is, followers or vassals who, as well as the datto,
possess slaves. A Mandaya datto can seldom raise more than fifty
spears; sometimes two or three federate, but expeditions on a large
scale cannot be undertaken, for it would be impossible to feed several
hundred men in their country, such is the poverty of the inhabitants.
Sometimes a small group of Mandaya dattos recognises as suzerain
some neighbouring datto of the piratical Moros, who always tries to
keep them isolated and to prevent any intercourse or trade with the
Christians, unless through themselves.
The Mandayas have canoes and bamboo rafts on the streams and rivers
running through their territory. They catch a good many fish.
Their agriculture is on a very reduced scale, and is limited to small
plantations of rice and sweet potatoes near their villages; they
keep poultry. They do not dare to travel far from their houses for
fear they might be seized for slaves, or even sold to be sacrificed
on the death of a datto. Sometimes when a man has been condemned to
death for some crime his datto sells him to some person requiring a
victim for the death-vengeance, if he is assured that it is intended
to kill him. The datto thus combines the execution of justice with
a due regard to his own profit.
Manguángas (5).
According to Blumentritt, this tribe lives in the Cordillera Sagat,
and extends as far as the Great Lake Boayan or Magindanao, and an
old estimate gives their number as 80,000. On his map he shows, the
Lake and River Boayan in dotted lines, the latter is made to fall
into the Rio Grande.
On two modern maps of Mindanao which I have, one by Jesuits and the
other from Don Jose Nieto Aguilar's book on this Island, neither
the river nor the lake appear; but, in their stead, a lofty range
of mountains is shown. In each of these maps the Manguánga territory
occupies an entirely different location.
As the Jesuits have three reducciones or villages amongst this
tribe, I accept their map as constructed according to the latest
information. They show in their earlier maps the Manguánga territory
at the head of the Bay of Davao, its southern frontier being some
twelve miles from the sea, and about the head-waters of the River
Salug and the River Agusan.
The reducciones are called Gandia, Pilar, and Compostela. In the
general Report of the Jesuit Missions of 1896, the mission station of
Jativa is stated to consist of six reducciones of Manobos, Mandayas
and Manguángas, with a total population of 1389.
In the general report of the following year the Manguángas and other
tribes are not specifically mentioned, and the total population of
the mission station of Jativa is given as 1458.
In a later ethnographical map of Mindanao the Manguánga territory
appears still more circumscribed, being limited to a strip of land
between the Rivers Julep and Nabo, affluents of the River Agusan;
Nieto's map, however, shows them extending over the Eastern Cordillera
towards Linguit, which is situated on the coast in about 7° 50'
N. latitude.
Dr. Montano, who went up the Rio Salug in 1880, passing through the
Manguánga territory, says he found the banks deserted.
There can be no doubt that this once numerous tribe has been reduced
to a mere remnant, part settled in the before-mentioned reducciones,
and part still wandering in mountains.
Montéses or Buquidnónes (6).
The Spanish word Montés, means hill-man. Buquid, in Tagal, means
arable land; and Taga-buquid, a countryman. The Tagal equivalent of
hill-man is Taga-bundoc, which corresponds to the jungle-wallah of
British India. The word Buquidnónes may mean cultivators, and their
extensive plantations fully justify this designation. It is therefore
rather a vague expression, but still designates a particular tribe
in Mindanao, whose numbers were estimated to amount to 13,000 ten
years ago, and who have probably largely increased since then.
They occupy the valleys through which the Rivers of Cagayan and
Tagoloan run, and the hills between them and on both sides.
They hold the country of the head-waters of the Pulangui, and the right
bank, as far south as the Manobos extend on the left bank, say to 7°
30' N. latitude. In the north they extend right up into the peninsula
between the Bay of Macajalar and the Bay of Lunao, occupying the lofty
mountains of Sabrac, Sinalagao, Quimanquil, and the sacred Balatucan,
whence the souls of the dead jump from earth to heaven.
Father Clotet, from whose letters to his superiors I have taken these
particulars, considers them to be divided into three large groups.
The first consists of those living in the hills and valleys of the
rivers Tagoloan, Cagayan, and Iponam; the second, of those bordering
on the Manobos of the Agusan between Gingoog and Nasipit, and the
third of those who live on the right bank of the Pulangui and on some
of its affluents.
They bear some resemblance to their neighbours the Manobos, being of
good stature, well-built, even handsome, and are of an affable and
friendly disposition; some of them are so smart and well-bred as to
be not in the least inferior to the most civilised of the Visayas,
and to judge by their free and open address, and the absence of all
affectation when settling their business with the old Christians,
nobody would take them for heathens.
Father Urios said that, from the extent of their intelligence, they
were fit to be kings of the Manobos, so much superior were they
to these.
In their dress they show a far greater idea of decorum and modesty
than any other race in Mindanao, both men and women. The latter wear a
white shirt, which is held in at the waist by a long skirt, reaching
to the ankles. Over this they wear a very short and tight jacket,
to the edges of which they sew strips of cloth of many colours in a
pleasing tracery, the short wide sleeves being trimmed in the same way.
They show great taste in choosing the colours and designs with which
they ornament their dresses. On the left side at the waist they hang
some bead ornaments, small bells, and bunches of scented herbs. On
their legs they wear many loose rings of brass, copper, or silver,
which rattle when they walk. Their manner of dressing their hair
is singular, and characteristic. They take the bulk of the hair,
and without plaiting it they twist and knot it in a high and large
coil. All round the head fall curls cut to one length, but on the
forehead there is a fringe coming down almost to the eye-brows. They
secure the coil with a handsome and showy comb, well made of metal,
or precious metals, according to the means of the wearer. Many of them
are loaded with bracelets from the wrists to near the elbows, either of
metal, of tortoise-shell, or mother-of-pearl. In their ears they wear
large ornaments called balaring, made of a plug of soft wood, having
on each end a circular plate of brass, copper, silver, or of engraved
gold, one larger than the other. The hole of the ear is greatly
stretched to allow the smaller plate to pass through; the plug then
remains in the hole, and is covered at each end by the plates. They
wear also necklaces, sometimes of great value. These manufactures
seem to be very similar to those of the Igorrotes, which have been
detailed at length in the description of that interesting people.
Father Clotet mentioned a curious necklace worn by one of these women,
formed of ancient silver coins, diminishing in size from the centre to
the extremities. In the middle was a silver dollar of Charles III. He
considered this to be worth thirty dollars, which was quite a capital
to a Montés in a small hamlet.
Even when pressed by necessity they will not sell these ornaments, and
they consequently pass from father to son for many generations. They
wear rings of brass, silver or gold, not only on their fingers,
but also on their toes.
The dress of the men on ordinary occasions is quite simple, but on
grand occasions they wear long trousers of European cloth, jackets of
the same stuff, and fine beaver hats. Their shirts of fine linen are
not worn outside the trousers as amongst the Tagals, only the front
being shown, which is often beautifully embroidered. Those amongst
them who, although heathens, have a frequent intercourse with the
Christians, have their hair cut short and take great care of it; but
those living amongst the hills let it grow long, and, rolling it into a
knot, tie it up in a kerchief like the charros of Aragon. Some of them
paint their teeth black, and file them into points. The wealthy men and
women cover their teeth with thin gold plates, like the chiefs amongst
the Igorrotes, but unlike them they take them off to eat. It would
seem to be indecent to show one's teeth to any person of superior rank.
They believe in a future life, and are polytheists. They worship
the gods of the cardinal points: the god of the north is called
Domalongdong; he of the south, Ongli; of the east, Tagolambong;
of the west, Magbabaya.
This last god, Magbabaya, which means Almighty, has, however, two other
gods of equal rank: Ibabasag and Ipamahandi. The first is invoked for
the safe delivery of pregnant women; the second takes care of the
horses and cattle, and as there is hardly a Buquidnon who does not
possess some of these animals to assist him in his labour, Ipamahandi
is constantly called upon to help them when any accident happens.
Tagum-Banúa, the god of the fields, is prayed to for a good harvest,
and a feast called the Caliga, corresponding to our harvest festival,
is held in his honour. The Tao-sa-sulup, or men of the woods,
correspond to the Tic-Balan of the old heathen Tagals, and inhabit
the trunks of secular trees, especially the Balete, or rocky crags
or caves, intervening in the affairs of mortals to favour them or
upset them. Consequently they make sacrifices to these spirits to
propitiate them and gain their favour.
Tigbas is a much respected god, looked upon with special reverence
as having come down from heaven. He is represented by stone idols
on stone pedestals, only possessed by the principal dattos, who keep
them amongst the heir-looms of their ancestors, and only allow their
near relations or intimate friends to see them.
Talian is a small idol in the figure of a monkey squatting, usually
made from the root of the willow. This they carry about with them,
hanging from a cord round its neck. When on a journey, if they fear
an ambush, they hold out the cord with the little idol on it like a
plumb-line, and let it spin. When it comes to rest, its face is turned
in the direction where the enemy is concealed. They then carefully
avoid that direction, if they have been following it, by turning off
and taking another path. If one of them is ill, they submerge the idol
in a cup of water which he immediately drinks. Otherwise, by simply
touching the suffering part, they find relief, and even a radical cure.
The Busao, an evil spirit, must be kept in good humour, and to this
end they offer to it meat and drink, and sing and dance in its honour,
praying to it to deliver them from any calamity they fear.
The elders are charged with the duty of offering fruits and of
sacrificing the pigs and fowls to the deities. It will be seen what a
strong religious bias prevails amongst these people, who are convinced
that all the affairs of life are in the hands of Divine Providence,
and of the necessity of prayer and sacrifice.
Marriages amongst them are arranged by the parents or by the head
chief of their tribe, the Masalicampo (Maestro de Campo). A house
is prepared for the young couple, and an abundant feast is made
ready, including an ample supply of a fermented drink called pangasi,
which is preserved in large jars. When the guests have assembled, and
everything is ready, the bride and bridegroom exchange a few words, and
each receives from their respective fathers a small morsel of cooked
rice. This they hold out for a short time on the palms of their hands,
and then each places the morsel in the mouth of the other, and this
action solemnises the marriage. The Tagbanúas have the same custom.
Immediately an animated conversation bursts out amongst the guests,
and a profuse and carefully-cooked feast is served.
To the feast succeeds a prolonged drinking bout, the guests sucking
up the liquor through straws or canes from the jars which contain
it. Amongst the Montéses it is not considered good form to return
home from a wedding ostentatiously sober.
Polygamy is allowed, but little practised, only the dattos having
two or perhaps three wives.
Father Barrado, who was a missionary amongst them, remarked on the
repugnance these people have to pass through the territory of some
other datto, and Dr. Montano, who crossed Mindanao from Davao to
Butuan, confirms this very fully as regards Mandayas and Manobos. In
order that they may do this in safety, the principal dattos have a
large and highly-ornamented lance called a quiap. In return for a
small fee they lend this to any of their Sácopes who desire to pass
through another datto's territory as a passport, or safe conduct. When
carrying this lance, far from being molested, travellers are treated
with consideration and deference, even in time of war.
The principal dattos show their grandeur by having enormous jars,
in which they preserve their heir-looms or rare and curious objects,
or use for holding provisions. Gongs also are much esteemed amongst
them. But their most precious possessions are certain wooden-boxes
or trunks with copper coins nailed all over them in patterns, in
which they keep their clothes and arms. In this they resemble the
rajahs and sultans of the Malays. They use swords and lances, bolos,
and sometimes the Malay kris with inscriptions and marks in Arabic,
these last are got from the Moros. Some of their arms are beautifully
made with carved handles of hard wood, and inlaid with silver,
having sheaths of polished wood. Some of them have coats of mail,
made of brass plates and wires, ornamented with silver. These appear
to be of great antiquity, and it is not known where they came from
originally. Others have quilted jackets such as Cortes found amongst
the Mexicans. Notwithstanding their amiable characteristics, they make
forays like the Manobos, and attack other tribes, killing the adults,
and carrying off the children as slaves and the girls as concubines.
They use the pneumatic tinder-box like the Igorrotes. They are fond
of smoking, and raise large crops of excellent tobacco, selling their
surplus in Cagayan de Misamis. They prefer to smoke their tobacco
in pipes, which they make themselves. They also chew buyo. On their
voyages they carry pouches to contain their belongings, and a curious
crescent-shaped box made of brass plate, which they tie on in front.
Although able to make long journeys on foot, they usually ride, and
are excellent horsemen, riding up and down the steepest paths. Their
horses are adorned with one or two necklaces of sleigh-bells, so that
they can be heard approaching from a distance.
They have no calendar, but know from the appearance of certain
constellations in the heavens, to which they give names of their own,
that the rainy season is approaching, and they then set to work busily
to prepare their land for sowing or planting.
They use the plough, and make extensive plantations of maize,
which is their principal article of food, and also of rice, they
sell the surplus to the inhabitants of the coast towns, for articles
they require, especially salt. They make small stone hand-mills for
grinding maize, and what is much more curious, they have invented
and manufactured cotton gins, having two wooden rollers geared
together, worked by a crank on the upper one. These gins work with
great regularity.
In 1889 they were much interested in planting and preparing Abacá,
and Gingoog, one of their outlets, exported no less than 11,000 piculs,
or the equivalent of 5500 bales in twelve months. They also take down
to the coast-towns quantities of wax and resin. Their labour ought
to make them wealthy, but here again we find the rascally Chinaman,
who, intoxicating them with some vile spirits, deceives them in the
price, cheats them in the weight, and sends them back sick and ill
from their unaccustomed libations, with some wretched rubbish in
exchange for their valuable produce. By this means their industry is
checked, and those who take down goods return in worse plight than
they went. Any decent Government would prohibit the demoralisation
of this interesting people, but the Chinaman well understands how to
deal with the local Spanish authorities, and even subscribes largely
to the church, for he likes to have two strings to his bow.
The musical instruments of the Montéses are clarinets, flutes,
guitars of three strings, and a small drum.
At the time of the harvest, from the first peep of day to sunrise,
before beginning to work, they sing or chant certain songs, the men
and women taking alternate verses.
They have courts of justice to punish robbery and other offences. Their
laws are traditional, passing from father to son, and occasionally
altered at the discretion of the principal datto, to whom they appeal
if they have been gravely offended. The principal datto having taken
his seat, his head is bound round with the pinditon, or head-cloth,
with three points, and he takes the quiap (already mentioned) in his
hand. He then invites two inferior dattos, who take seats one on each
side of him. The prisoner is then led forward by a guard, who sticks
their lances in the earth near the seats of the tribunal. The case
is argued on both sides, the court deliberates and gives judgment and
sentence, which is executed upon the spot, fine, corporal-punishment,
or death. This is quite an ideal criminal court, and worthy of all
respect.
Amongst them it is considered as a want of education and good manners
to mention their own names, and if a stranger asks, "What is your
name?" the person interrogated does not answer, but some one else
replies, "His name is so-and-so." This actually happened to me amongst
the Tagbanúas of Paragua, when I visited them. (See Tagbanúas.)
They believe in omens, and have many curious customs, too long to
relate, but I shall mention one.
If a stranger enters a house to visit those who inhabit it, and during
the conversation a fowl should fly and pass before him, the people of
the house instantly kill it, and cooking it as quickly as possible,
they eat it in company with the visitor to allay his fright, and cause
his soul to return to his body, for it might have left him when he
was startled.
The houses in their villages are large and well-built, sometimes the
walls are of thick planks of hard wood tied together with rattan,
for they use no nails. The houses in the country are smaller, and
low in the roof, but always so high from the ground that the longest
lance will not reach the floor.
Great respect is shown to the dead. They are usually buried in their
fields with lance, sword, and bolo laid beside them. They make a
mound of earth over the grave, fixing several stakes like St Andrew's
crosses, and protecting the whole with the bark of a tree fastened over
the stakes. From a high post hangs a bag of rice, that the soul of the
defunct may sustain itself on the long journey to Mount Bolotucan,
the highest peak of the whole region. The soul having arrived on
this peak, gives one great jump, and reaches heaven, at a higher or
lower level, according to the greater or lesser probity of its life
on earth. Wherever it lands, there it remains to all eternity. The
relations make great lamentations at the death, and loose their hair
which they do not roll up for a greater or lesser period, according
to the love they bore the dead.
It is pleasing to be able again to state that the bravery, the wisdom,
and the faith and charity of the Jesuits exercised amongst this race
has had a rich reward. During the four years which concluded in 1889,
no less than 6600 heathen Montéses renounced their superstitions, their
polygamy, and their slave-hunting murdering raids, and, accepting
the doctrines of our Saviour, were baptized into the Christian
faith. Besides the older coast towns, mostly occupied by Visayas,
twenty-four Christian villages extend from the Bay of Macajalar far
into the Montése country, now giving the hand to the military garrisons
on the Rio Grande amongst those irreclaimable pirates the Moros.
The Cross was triumphing over the Crescent in Mindanao quite as much,
nay, much more, by the voices of the missionaries as by the Spanish
bayonets. It will be an outrage on Christianity, a blot on their
renown, if through ignorance or folly, the United States should so act
as to put a stop to this holy and civilising work, and so give occasion
for some future author to write another "Century of Dishonour."
Atás or Ata-as (7).
These people occupy a considerable territory from the River Libaganon,
which falls into the Gulf of Davao round the northern slopes of Mount
Apo, about the head-waters of the rivers running into Lakes Liguan
and Buluan. To the north they have the Tagavauas and the Manobos;
to the south the Vilanes, and on the east the Guiangas, Bagobos and
Calaganes. The swampy country on the west separates them from the
Moros of Lake Liguan. From the extent of their territory the Atás
are probably very numerous.
They appear to be a hybrid Malayo-Negrito race, but have advanced
considerably in social organisation. They go decently dressed, the men
wearing short drawers and a shirt of Chinese pattern, and the women a
patadion and an embroidered bodice--with strings of beads round the
neck for ornament. They weave stuffs similar to those made by the
neighbouring tribes. They are said to be of a determined character,
and to stand up to the Moros in defence of their families and property.
They also attack other tribes and commit atrocious murders, not
sparing women and children.
A missionary passing near their territory on the River Libaganon in
November 1892, found several households in great grief on account of
unprovoked murders committed by the Atás.
As the Atás live remote from the sea-coast and have no navigable rivers
running through their territory, the missionaries have not yet been
able to make much impression on them, but they are working their way
up the Davao River, and the reduction of Belen established in 1891
is quite on the borders of the Atás territory. Murders, slave-raids,
and human sacrifices, are still the ordinary events of Atás life.
The illustration shows two determined-looking Atás warriors with spear
and shield, two women and two young girls, all carefully dressed and
wearing their ornaments.
Guiangas (8).
The Guiangas live on the slopes of Mount Apo, to the North of the
Bagobos, whom they much resemble in manners and customs. In view of
the small territory they occupy, they cannot be numerous.
They have a rather effeminate air, the men wearing their hair long;
but notwithstanding this, they are quite robust, of remarkable agility,
and very adroit in the use of arms.
Montano gives the average height of the man as 5 feet 4½ inches,
and measured some up to 5 feet 7½ inches. The men wear short drawers
and huge ear ornaments. Their weapons are the bow and spear. They
are organised on the same feudal system as the other tribes being
governed by their dattos. Their houses, as usual, are built on high
piles. They are tolerably industrious, and occasionally work for the
Visayas on their plantations. They possess horses, cattle, and poultry,
and make the usual plantations of rice, camote, and maize.
As regards their religion, Tighiama is the Creator, and Manama the
governor of the world. Todlay, the god of love, is husband of the
Virgin Todlibun, and the women celebrate certain rites in his honour.
Dewata is the protector of the house, and he is said to love blood. It
is therefore incumbent on the head of every household to avenge any
insult in the blood of the offender.
As amongst other tribes, the death of a datto, or of one of his
wives, requires a human sacrifice in number proportionate to the
rank of the defunct. The victims are usually taken from amongst the
slaves of the datto, but in some cases they are purchased by public
subscription. Being securely fastened to trees so that they cannot
move, the largest subscriber inflicts a stab--politely avoiding
giving a mortal wound, then the others follow in accordance with
the importance of their subscription. The cries of the victim, thus
gradually done to death, are drowned by the vociferations of his
executioners. These sacrifices are still carried on in the remoter
districts, but the missionaries are beginning to convert the Guiangas
nearest the coast, and have established several reducciones in Guianga
territory, such as Garellano, Oran, Guernica, Oyanguren. In the parish
of Davao and its missions, there were at the end of 1896 nearly
12,000 Christians, and the missionaries were actively at work and
were meeting with success. If they are re-established, and supported,
in a few years' time human sacrifices will only be a dread tradition
of the past.
The illustration shows a group of Guiangas, both men and women,
the latter wearing many ornaments.
Bagobos (9).
This small tribe occupies the southern and eastern slopes of the
Apo volcano, reaching down to the coast of the Bay of Davao, between
the River Taumo on the north, and the River Digos on the south. They
also have an outlying settlement at Piapi--now called Vera--on the
Ensenada de Casilaran. The lower part of their territory is swampy,
and the inhabitants of this district suffer from fever and ague, and
present a sickly appearance. They resemble the Manobos in disposition
and in customs, and their weapons are the same. Their dress consists of
short drawers and a jacket. The women wear a shirt and patadion. They
are moderate in eating, and cleanly in their persons. Dr. Montano
greatly praises the beauty of their country, especially about the
banks of the Rio Matina.
The peculiarity of the Bagobos is that they are horse-Indians,
everybody--men, women and children--rides in their country.
They breed these horses, which are small, but endowed with remarkable
endurance, and their saddles, although rude, are scientifically
constructed, like miniature McClellans. They ride with very short
stirrups, and the men are always seen spear in hand when mounted. They
carefully preserve by tradition the genealogy of their horses, and
give their favourite animals a ration of 4½ lbs. of paddy per day,
as well as grass.
The basis of their food is rice and sweet potatoes, which they
cultivate, using the buffalo and plough, and getting the manual labour
done by their slaves.
They plant coffee, cacao, and bananas, but having assured their
subsistence, they love to wander off into the woods to seek for
jungle-produce, such as wax, honey, almáciga, and the coarse cinnamon
of the country, all of which finds a ready sale on the coast.
They are said to strictly perform all their engagements.
They cultivate abaca, and from the filament of this plant their women
weave the tissues called dagmays, which they polish by rubbing them
with shells till they take a lustre like silk. They dye these stuffs
in a primitive manner, but with satisfactory results.
The men are tolerable smiths, and forge their weapons from old
iron, which they obtain in barter. They make bits (for horses),
and bracelets, and collars of brass. Amongst them gold is said to be
dearer than in Paris, although the sands about Malalag, just south
of their territory, yield gold.
The Jesuits have made many converts amongst them, and they were, till
the Spanish-American war, under the spiritual care of the veteran
missionary, Father Urios, and his assistants. In October, 1894, 400
Bagobos were baptized. I am unable to give the numbers of the Bagobos,
even approximately, but, from the small territory they occupy, they
cannot be numerous.
The illustration shows the celebrated Datto Manib, one of the principal
baganis (head-murderers) of the Bagobos, of the Apo, accompanied by
his lance-bearers, one of whom holds the quiap. Behind him are some
of his wives and children, and other followers. But not even the hard
heart of this blood-stained wretch could withstand the persuasion of
the Jesuits, and in 1894 he was baptized, and commenced to build the
town of Santillana for himself and followers.
CHAPTER XXXVII
THE TRIBES OF MINDANAO--CONTINUED.
Calaganes (10).
A small tribe living on the south-eastern slopes of Mount Apo, about
the head-waters of the River Digos, which runs into the Gulf of Davao,
a little north of the Ensenada de Casilaran.
They are reported to be of good stature, and of a dark colour, to
understand the language of the Vilanes, but to speak their own tongue,
which is similar to the Manobo. They are industrious cultivators of
the soil, and store provisions for their use, never suffering from
famine, but rather assisting others less careful. Their country is
very broken, consisting of deep valleys, divided from each other by
lofty crests. These valleys are full of people, so that the tribe
must be numerous.
Father Urios visited them in January of 1894, and was well treated. The
reducciones of Aviles and Melitta have been recently formed amongst
them, and their conversion was proceeding till the war began. Their
territory forms part of the parish and missions of Davao.
Tagacaolos (11).
The Tagacaolos live in the district of Davao, on the west coast of the
gulf from Malalao as far south as Lais. There are also some living on
the peninsula of San Agustin, between Cuabo and Macambol. Physically,
they are inferior to the neighbouring tribes, not so much in stature
as in muscular development. They are timid, and those who are
still heathen select places for their hamlets that cannot easily
be surprised, such as rocks, or crags without forest round them,
although this obliges them to carry water from a great distance.
A considerable number of them have been converted, and settled in
hamlets near the coast, but the mass of them are still heathen.
Their faces are long, the nose thin, and the extremity of it slightly
curved.
They are the victims of the Bagobos and Guiangas, who attack them for
the purpose of carrying them off into slavery. They themselves prey
on the Vilanes, who are less capable of defence, and make slaves of
them. They also fight amongst themselves. They make human sacrifices
to their god Mandarangan, who lives in the crater of the Apo volcano,
to avert his wrath, and when any noise is heard from the volcano,
they consider that he is demanding a victim.
In 1896, more than 300 Tagacaolos had been baptized, and were
living in a civilised manner in the town of Malalag, now called Las
Mercedes. The conversion of this tribe was being actively carried on
by the assistants of the veteran missionary, Father Urios, who resided
in Davao until the Spanish-American war. Las Mercedes was improving,
and promised to become a town of some importance.
A detachment of infantry was stationed there.
The influence of the missionaries extended beyond the reducciones, and
had some effect amongst the heathen in discouraging human sacrifices
and tribal wars. It may be expected that, before long, these dreadful
rites will be put an end to, if the missionaries are enabled to return.
Dulanganes (12).
The Dulanganes hold a territory about twenty miles square to the south
of the Tirurayes, which extends from the crests of the mountains to
the coast. On the east they have the Vilanes. I have not been able
to learn anything whatever about this people, nor, so far as I know,
are there any reducciones in their territory.
Tirurayes (13).
The Tirurayes occupy the hills to the south of the delta of the Rio
Grande, the coast being occupied by Moros.
They are reported to be of low type, physically, and to hold the
chastity of their wives and daughters as of no account.
The proximity of the Moros probably accounts for this looseness of
morals. The missionaries have been working amongst them for years,
and in 1891 they had baptized 109. However, the converts were not
settled in towns, but wandered about the hills as they liked. Since
then, more of them have been baptized, and were settled in Tamontaca,
and several reducciones have been founded in their territory. In
Tamontaca, during 1896, between heathen and Moros, there were 152
conversions and baptisms during the year, besides 197 baptisms of
infants born of Christian parents. The Tagacaolos used to apply
to the missionaries for everything they required--medicine for the
sick, Spanish red wine for women after child-birth, or boards to make
coffins. So the missionaries not only had to bury them for nothing,
but had to find them the coffin into the bargain.
On the other hand, the Tirurayes declined to cut timber for the
chapels at their reducciones, or to haul it to place, or to do any
kind of work unless paid for it. Their zeal does not lead them to do
anything for the Church as a free offering. They find it very hard to
break themselves of their nomadic customs, and are particularly apt to
remontar. However, they treated the missionaries with great respect,
and these could go anywhere amongst them without danger.
Since the war, the missionaries have abandoned Tamontaca, and the
whole neighbourhood is in disorder.
Tagabelies (14).
The Tagabelies inhabit the hilly country between Lake Buluan and
the Gulf of Sarangani, to the west of the volcanoes Magolo and
Maluturin. They are reported to be very ferocious, and have not been
visited by the missionaries.
Samales (15).
These people inhabit the islands of Samal and Talicud, in the Gulf
of Davao, and are not to be confounded with the Moros Samales of
Tawi-tawi and Jolo.
The Samales surpass both the Moros and Nisayas in muscular development
and stature.
Their feet and hands are large; they have high and projecting
cheek-bones, and a stiff beard standing out round the face gives it,
according to Montano, something of a cat-like appearance. Both sexes
dress like the Moros.
They are less ferocious than their neighbours, and do not, like them,
go about armed.
They do not commit any aggressions, and are industrious. In character,
they are superior to the Moros, and are not like them--cunning and
deceitful.
They have been on good terms with the Spaniards for a long time,
but until quite lately they were very obstinate, and could not be
persuaded to be baptized.
They cultivate the usual crops, fish, and make salt. The women weave
dagmays.
They used to have slaves, whom they purchased from the Moros or
Manobos, and treated them well.
Formerly, they enclosed their dead in wooden coffins, made in two
parts, the shallower part serving as a lid. Each piece was hollowed
out of a solid log. They placed the coffins on a rude platform in a
cave or niche in the rocks, or else built a thatched roof over it to
keep off the rain.
They placed near the coffin buyo and bonga for chewing, and vases
containing rice and maize. Each year after the harvest they went to
visit the dead, and renewed the offerings.
Little is known of their former religion, but they worshipped the
serpent, and believed in the immortality of the soul, and in a place
of punishment by fire, which they called Quilut.
The patience and zeal of the missionaries has, however, been richly
rewarded, and in June, 1894, a number of Samales were baptized,
including most of their dattos. By the autumn of that year there was
not a heathen left in the islands, and the Samales are now settled in
seven villages--San José, San Ramon, Alcira, Tarifa, Carmona, Cervera,
and Peña Plata. This last was the residence of the missionary, who
was accompanied by a lay brother. The population at the beginning of
1897 was 1625.
Vilanes (16).
These people, the prey of every warlike tribe, and even of the
Tagacaolos, live on the summit of the mountains of Buhian, to the
east and west of the lake of that name.
Some of them extend as far south as the eastern shore of the Gulf of
Sarangani, and they people the two islands of Sarangani and Balut.
They are short and thickset, with little agility.
Montano describes them as having flat, broad noses, underhung jaws,
and receding foreheads, giving them an appearance of stupidity.
Father Urios, however, writing about the Vilanes of Sarangani and
Balut, gives a more favourable description of them. He says they
are docile and industrious, and more active and intelligent than the
Moros Sanguiles, who live on these same islands.
He thought them easy to convert, for they have no religious system of
their own; but they believe in God, and in the immortality of the soul.
Although living so near the Moros, they have not adopted any of their
religious ideas.
The Sarangani Vilanes dress like the Bagobos, and handle the lance
and the bow, and are good shots in hunting game.
Subanos (17).
The word Subanos means dwellers by the rivers, from suba--a river.
This numerous tribe inhabits the western peninsula of Mindanao from
Misamis to Zamboanga, except the coasts which are mostly occupied by
Visayas or Moros.
They are of a darker colour and inferior in physique to the Mandayas
and Montéses.
Like other races in Mindanao the Subanos are organised under dattos
or baganis in a feudal system. It is said that he who has killed one
enemy may wear a red head-cloth, whilst other tribes only concede
this distinction to a warrior who has killed five.
In religion, they are polytheists, and worship the following deities
amongst others:
Tagma-sa-dugat, or Lord of the Sea.
Tagma-sa-yuta, or Lord of the Earth.
Tagma-sa-manga bugund, or Lord of the Woods.
Tagma-sa-manga Suba, or Lord of the Rivers.
Tagma-sa-Saquit, or Lord Protector of the sick.
But they are said not to possess wooden idols like the Manobos,
Mandayas and Montéses. They raise rough altars of sticks, on which
they lay out offerings to their deities. They call these altars
Paga-paga. The offerings consist of rice, chickens, eggs, buyo and
tobacco, also a large jar of pangasi, a beer brewed from rice. When
making their offerings, they sing, dance, and pray round the altar
to the sound of the sucaran, a rough kind of cymbal or gong. Amongst
the Subanos only the dattos or rich men have more than one wife. The
marriage ceremonies are very elaborate, and conclude with two great
feasts or drinking bouts, one in the house of the bride's father,
the other in the house of the bridegroom. Divorce can be obtained if
the couple cannot agree, or if either quarrels with the father- or
mother-in-law. It is not readily conceded, and the case is sometimes
argued for days before the council of elders of the village. Children
are only given names when four or five years old. The Subanos have
no money in circulation, and any trading is effected by barter.
They bury their dead the day after their decease, wrapping the body
in a mat. The grave is dug about a yard deep, and near the house. The
Balian or priest accompanies the bearers, and sprinkles water on
the house and ground as he goes. Women do not accompany the funeral
party. The body is laid on a bed of leaves, resting on a framework of
sticks or canes at the bottom of the grave. The sides are protected
in the same way, and over it another framework is constructed,
carrying an earthen jar containing food and clothing. The weapons
of the defunct are laid over him, and the grave is filled in with
earth, great care being taken not to let a particle of it touch the
body. Sacrifices are made to the god Diuata; these constitute the
funeral feast, which is consumed in silence. When it is concluded,
the dishes and pots which contained it are turned upside down.
On the eighth day another feast is held, when they talk and dance,
intoxicating themselves with copious libations of pangasi. The priest
then goes through a ceremony the purport of which is to hand over the
soul of the defunct to Diuata-sa-langit, the god of heaven. He begs
the soul to go away with the god, and to trouble them no more. They
then renew the dancing and drinking, and thus conclude the period
of mourning.
The houses of the Subanos are similarly constructed to those of the
Manobos, Montéses, and other tribes, but are not always raised so
high from the ground, and are more roughly built. Their food is
similar to that of the other heathen tribes. The men wear their
hair long, but coiled up on the head, and covered with a kerchief
worn like a turban. They dress in a tight jacket and trousers,
either white, blue, or red. Sometimes they wear a sash. The men do
not wear ear-ornaments of any kind. The women wear large combs made
by themselves from bamboos, but no head-covering. Their ornaments
are ear-rings, strings of beads round the neck, and many bangles
or bracelets of brass or silver. They are clothed in a short shirt,
either of homespun or Manchester cotton, and a skirt worn tight round
the body, and reaching below the knees.
The weapons of the Subanos are the lance, which they call talanan,
a round shield they call taming, a scimitar they call campilan,
the Malay kris they call caliz, the machete or pes.
Their agriculture and industries are very primitive, and on a small
scale.
They have scarcely any other musical instrument than brass gongs
called Agum, which are played as dance music to their two dances,
the Saldiringan and the Sinigay. In the first of these dances the men
stand up in a row, opposite a row of women. All hold a palm-branch
in each hand with which to beat time. They jump up and down with eyes
fixed on the ground.
For the Sinigay, however, the partners touch each other's hands,
but only with the points of the fingers. The Subano, equivalent to
our Mrs. Grundy, would feel shocked to see gentlemen dancing with
their arms round their partners' waists.
The principal feast is called Birclog, and it lasts eight days. A large
shed is built, the priests offer prayers to the before-mentioned gods,
and sacrifice swine and poultry. The pigs are strangled by a rope
held or jerked by all the priests, and are placed on the altar one
at a time. Above the carcass is placed a live cock, which they kill
by wounding it through the mouth and letting it bleed to death. They
also offer tobacco, rice, and pangasi.
The offerings are taken away to be cut up and cooked. They are then
served, and the pangasi goes round, the priests being always served
first and getting the best of everything, as seems to be the case
all the world over.
When the first lot of people have been fed, they vacate the shed,
which is instantly filled by a fresh lot. Sometimes in one of these
feasts they consume twenty pigs and forty ten-gallon jars of the
strong rice-beer. When intoxicated, their conduct, according to Father
Sanchez, S.J., is apt to overstep the bounds of propriety, but in this
they are very much like more civilised people in the same condition.
The only vessels possessed by the Subanos are some canoes, or dug-outs,
on the rivers. These are sometimes of great length, and are called
by them Sacayan. They propel them with great skill, using a long
double-ended paddle which they use standing up, and alternately on
either side. Like many other races of the Far East, they consider
a lunar eclipse as the precursor of great calamities, and make
a deafening noise to frighten away the serpent or dragon which is
swallowing the moon. They consider the turtle-dove, or limocon, as an
omen-bird, and will halt or perhaps return if they hear its cry when
starting on a journey. Also if they hear any one sneeze whilst going
down the ladder of the house, they return, and remain within doors.
Some of the Subanos bear Moro titles, such as Timuay, which is
equivalent to third class judge. Father Vilaclara, S.J., a bold and
enterprising missionary, visited, in 1890, the house of a Subano
named Audos, who had recently succeeded his father as Timuay of the
Sindangan River.
He counted twenty-nine persons, great and small, in the house,
but this did not include the whole family, as several were absent
at their occupations. The house was built on piles, according to the
universal custom, and the floor could not be reached from the ground
by the longest lance. It measured eighteen yards long by ten yards
wide, and formed one vast apartment, there being no partitions of
any kind. The floor was made of strips of bamboo, and on this account
it must be out of reach, for as the inhabitants sleep on grass mats
laid on the floor, they could easily be speared in the night through
the interstices of the canes.
Five married couples and their children occupied this apartment,
each having its own part of the floor, its own store of rice, its own
pigs and poultry. Each family cooked and ate independently, but all
showed the greatest respect to the aged grandparents, and consulted
them about their affairs. Father Vilaclara appears to have ultimately
converted the whole family, beginning with the boys, whom he took under
his charge, dressed and fed them, and taught them to speak Visaya.
Gold-washing and gold-mining is practised by the Subanos between
Dapitan and Misamis, where there is a vast extension of gold-bearing
sand and earth. Near Pigtao auriferous iron pyrites occurs. The native
name for this ore is Inga.
Horses are very abundant in the district of Misamis, and in common
use for riding and as pack carriers.
The Subanos have the reputation of being war-like, yet until
lately they were entirely dominated by the Moros wherever they came
in contact. Since 1893 the Spaniards have isolated them from the
Ilanao Moros by establishing a chain of forts, and making a Trocha,
or military road, across the narrow neck of land from Tucuran on the
Bahia Illana to Balatacan on Bahia Panquil. The width of the isthmus
here is about sixteen miles, and the forts are called Alfonso XIII,
Infanta Isabel, Sta. Paz, and Sta. Eulalia, and Maria Cristina.
The Subanos appear to be much more refractory to civilisation and
Christianity than the Montéses, the Manobos or the Mandayas. This no
doubt comes from the strong influence that vile nests of pirates and
slave-traders around Lake Lanao has for centuries exercised over them,
but in time the Trocha, if kept as it should be, in the interests of
civilisation, will destroy that.
The Jesuit missionaries were actively at work round about the Bay of
Dapitan in the extreme north of the Subano territory, and to some
extent round about Zamboanga in the extreme south, until the war
between Spain and America broke out.
In the Dapitan district there were at the end of 1896 nearly 15,000
Christians residing in the towns and villages under the spiritual,
and temporal guidance of the Jesuits. During that year 208 heathen
were baptized in the Dapitan district, but only 21 in the Zamboanga
district.
It is safe to assume that in the Dapitan district alone there are
10,000 Christian Subanos.
The number of heathen Subanos, amongst whom there are a few
semi-Mahometans, may be about 90,000. From these figures it is quite
evident that the missionary enterprise should be extended, but in
order to do this the insolence of the Moros must be chastised.
CHAPTER XXXVIII
The Moros, or Mahometan Malays (18 to 23).
These terrible pirates who have for centuries laid waste the coasts
of the Philippines and the adjacent islands, with fire and sword,
carrying off tens of thousands of Christians or heathen into slavery,
have only within the last few years had their power definitely broken
by the naval and military forces of Spain and by the labours of the
Jesuit missionaries, amongst the heathen tribes of the island.
It is scarcely half a century since they annually attacked the
Visayas Islands and even Southern Luzon, and they have been, up to
quite lately, the great obstacle to the civilisation of the Southern
Philippines. In Culion, Cuyos and other islands the churches are built
within a stone fort, in which the population took refuge when the
Moros appeared. The old Spanish sailing men-of-war could not cope with
these sea rovers, who in their light prahus, salisipanes, or vintas,
kept in shallow water or amongst reefs where these vessels could not
reach them. Of course, if the pirates were surprised when crossing
open water, they ran great risks, since their artillery was always very
deficient, but they sailed in great numbers, and if it fell calm they
would cluster round a solitary man-of-war and take her by boarding.
In consequence, a special force was raised in the Philippines to
protect the coasts against these pests. It was called "La Marina
Sutil," or the Light Navy. This force consisted of large flat-bottomed
launches propelled by oars and sails. They were half-decked forward,
and carried a long brass gun, on a slide, and some swivels on the
quarters. These boats were coppered and fitted with a cabin at the
after part. They carried forty or fifty men, all natives, and squadrons
of them were stationed at the principal southern ports from whence they
patrolled the coasts. Most of the officers were natives or mestizos;
some of them survive to this day. These vessels rendered good service,
and to some extent checked the incursions of the pirates, but they
had not the speed to follow up the fast-rowing vintas of the Moros,
which could always escape from them unless caught in narrow waters. In
1824, D. Alonso Morgado was appointed Captain of the Marina Sutil,
and severely chastised the Moros.
Some of these rowing gun-boats are still to be seen rotting on the
beach at the southern naval stations. But the introduction of steam
gun-boats in 1860 gradually did away with the Marina Sutil, and sounded
the knell of piracy in the Philippines. The Moros received terrible
chastisement at the hands of these steam gun-boats, one of which,
with a crew of only forty men, has been known to destroy a whole
fleet of pirates, and now their power on the sea has become only a
dread tradition of the past.
Even with all the advantages of steam propulsion, their suppression
has been a matter of the utmost difficulty, for the Moros are not only
possessed of the greatest personal valour, but are extremely skilful in
taking advantage of every circumstance that can favour their defence.
Their towns are mostly built in the water, like the City of Brunei,
the houses having bamboo bridges to connect them with the shore,
which can be removed when desirable. They select a site well protected
by reefs or islands, or only to be approached by long and tortuous
channels through mangrove swamps enfiladed by guns cunningly concealed
from view; a very death-trap to an attack by boats.
On rising ground and flanking their settlements they built their
Cottas or forts. The walls of these strongholds are a double stockade
of great trunks of trees, the space between them being filled with
rock, stones, or earth rammed in. Some of these walls are 24 feet
thick and as much as 30 feet high, defended by brass and iron guns,
and by numerous lantacas. Such places can stand a deal of battering,
and are not easily taken by assault, for the Moros mount the ramparts
and make a brave defence, firing grape from their guns and lantacas,
and as the assailants approach, hurling their spears on them to a
surprising distance, with accurate aim, and manfully standing up to
them in the breaches.
Should the assault slacken they never fail to rush out, helmet on
head, clad in coats of mail, and with sword and buckler engage the
foe in a desperate hand-to-hand struggle where quarter is neither
asked nor given.
The annals of Moro-Spanish war include many well-contested combats,
where, to use the language of Froissart, "many heavy blows were
given and received," where the most desperate exertions of Spain's
bravest officers, backed up by their war-like and hardy troops, not
seldom failed to carry the forts held by the indomitable and fanatic
Moros. Such Homeric combats were those between that dreaded Sultan
of Mindanao, Cachit Corralat and Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera,
and Captain Atienzas' bold attack on the hosts of the confederated
Moros of Lake Lanao. Nor were the Spanish missionaries less active
than the soldiers on the field of battle, or in the most desperate
assaults. Crucifix in hand, Father San Agustin and Father Ducos
calmly walked through many a hail of bullets and many a flight of
spears leading and encouraging their half-savage converts in their
resistance to these cruel oppressors.
Not to be out-done by either soldier or priest, Captain Malcampo, of
the Spanish Navy, drove his vessel, the Constancia, right up to the
Cotta of Pangalungan till her bowsprit touched the ramparts, then,
sword in hand, leading a company of boarders, and using the bowsprit
as a bridge, he carried the fort by assault, and put the garrison to
the sword.
The thirsty soil of Mindanao has drunk freely of Spanish blood,
and Pampango, Tagal, and Visaya have all worthily borne their part
in this long drawn-out crusade of the Cross against the Crescent.
But not alone the Moro sword and spear has delayed for so long the
conquest of Mindanao. Deadly fevers lurk in the lowlands, the swamps
and the creeks of that rich and fertile island.
The Moros appear impervious to the malaria. At all events they live
and thrive in, or in close proximity to, mangrove swamp and flooded
jungle. The Tagal or the Visaya is not immune, and some even resist
an attack of the terrible perniciosa less than a white man. I shall
never in my life forget the awful sights I witnessed in 1887 and
1892 when some native regiments returned to Manila from the war in
Mindanao. Any one who saw Shafter's army disembark on their return
from Cuba will understand me. Those who could march were mere walking
corpses, but the shrunken forms, the livid tint and the glassy eyes
of those who could not stand (and there were hundreds of them),
brought the horrors of mismanaged war to the onlooker like one of
Vereschagin's realistic masterpieces.
But as the slaughter of the Dervishes at Omdurman teaches, not even the
most dauntless bravery can prevail against modern weapons in the hands
of tolerably disciplined troops. The quick-firing gun, the howitzer
with shrapnell shell, the machine-gun and the magazine-rifle must
inevitably bring about the subjugation of every lowland population not
supplied with these dread engines of civilisation, and only the hardy
dwellers in Nature's loftiest fastnesses, the Himalayas or the Andes,
may hope to retain their independence in the future.
It is a striking instance of the irony of fate that, just as modern
weapons have turned the scale in favour of the Spaniards in this
long struggle, and brought the Moros within measurable distance of
subjection, when only one more blow required to be struck, Spain's
Oriental Empire should suddenly vanish in the smoke of Dewey's guns,
and her flag disappear for ever from battlements where (except for
the short interval of British occupation, 1762-3) it has proudly waved
through storm and sunshine for three hundred and twenty-eight years.
Such, however, is the case, and it now falls to the United States to
complete the task of centuries, to stretch out a protecting hand over
the Christian natives of Mindanao, and to suppress the last remains of
a slave-raiding system, as ruthless, as sanguinary and as devastating
as the annals of the world can show.
The Moros of Mindanao are divided into five groups or tribes; Illanos,
Sanguiles, Lutangas, Calibuganes, and Yacanes.
(18) The Moros Illanos, who are the most important and the most
dangerous community, are described fully later on. They inhabit the
country between the Bay of Iligan and Illana Bay, also round Lake
Lanao, the Rio Grande and Lake Liguan.
(19) The Moros Sanguiles live on the south coast from the Bay of
Sarangani to the River Kulut.
(20) The Moros Lutangas occupy the Island of Olutanga and parts of
the adjacent coasts, all round the Bay of Dumanguilas and Maligay,
and the eastern coast of the Bay of Sibuguay.
(21) The Moros Calibuganes occupy the western coast of the Bay of
Sibuguay, they are also dotted along the outer coast of the Peninsula
as far as the Bay of Sindangan. They communicate by land across
the mountains.
(22) The Moros Yacanes occupy the western part of the Island of
Basilan, and the islands of the Tapul group.
(23) The Moros Samales are not inhabitants of Mindanao, but occupy
and dominate the Islands of Jolo, Tawi-tawi and most of the smaller
islands of those groups.
Physically, the Moro is a man built for the fatigues of war, whether
by sea or land.
His sinewy frame combines strength and agility, and the immense
development of the thorax gives him marvellous powers of endurance
at the oar or on the march.
Trained to arms from his earliest youth, he excels in the management of
the lance, the buckler and the sword. These weapons are his inseparable
companions: the typical Moro is never unarmed. He fights equally
well on foot, on horseback, in his fleet war canoe, or in the water,
for he swims like a fish and dives like a penguin.
Absolutely indifferent to bloodshed or suffering, he will take the life
of a slave or a stranger merely to try the keenness of a new weapon. He
will set one of his sons, a mere boy, to kill some defenceless man,
merely to get his hand in at slaughter. [30] If for any reason he
becomes disgusted with his luck, or tired of life, he will shave
off his eyebrows, dress himself entirely in red, and taking the oath
before his Pandit, run amok in some Christian settlement, killing man,
woman and child, till he is shot down by the enraged townsmen.
Wanton destruction is his delight. After plundering and burning some
sea-coast town in Visayas or Luzon, they would take the trouble to
cut down the fruit trees, destroy the crops and everything else that
they could not carry away.
Yet, as they made annual raids, it would have appeared to be good
policy to leave the dwellings, the fruit trees, and the crops,
in order to tempt the natives to re-occupy the town and accumulate
material for subsequent plundering.
Commonly, very ignorant of his own religion, he is none the less
a fanatic in its defence, and nourishes a traditional and fervent
hatred against the Christian, whether European or native.
Looking upon work as a disgrace, his scheme of life is simple; it
consists in making slaves of less war-like men, to work for him,
and taking their best looking girls for his concubines. His victims
for centuries, when not engaged on a piratical cruise, have been the
hill-tribes of the island, the Subanos, the Tagacaolos, the Vilanes,
the Manguangas and others.
Originally immigrants from Borneo, from Celehes or Ternate, with some
Arab admixture, the Moros have for centuries filled their harems
with the women of the hill-tribes, and with Tagal and Visayas and
even Spanish women, taken in their piratical excursions. They are
now a very mixed race, but retain all their war-like characteristics.
Cut off from the sea by the Spanish Naval forces, they turned
with greater energy than ever to the plundering and enslaving
of their neighbours, the hill-men. These poor creatures, living
in small groups, could offer but little resistance, and fell an
easy prey. But now the devoted labours of the Jesuit missionaries
began to bear fruit. They converted the hill-men, and gathered them
together in larger communities, better able to protect themselves,
and although the Moros sometimes burnt whole towns and slew all who
resisted, carrying off the women and children into slavery, yet,
on the other hand, it often happened that, getting notice of their
approach, the Jesuits assembled the fighting men of several towns,
and, being provided with a few fire-arms by the Government, they fell
upon the Moros and utterly routed them, driving them back to their
own territory with great loss. Of late years the Moros have found
their slave-raids involve more danger than they care to face, and
even the powerful confederation of Lake Lanao was, till the Spanish
American war, hemmed in by chains of forts and by Christian towns.
But they have by no means entirely renounced their slave-raiding,
and in order to give a specific instance of their behaviour in recent
years, I will mention that on the 31st. of December, 1893, a party
of 370 of them, under the Datto Ali, son to Datto Nua, accompanied
by seven other Dattos, all well armed, and forty of them carrying
muskets or rifles, and plenty of ammunition, made an unprovoked and
treacherous attack on Lepanto, a Christian village in the Montés
country, near the confluence of the Kulaman River with the Pulangui,
between the Locosocan and Salagalpon cataracts. This is the extreme
southern settlement of the Jesuits, and the nearest missionary resided
at Linabo, whilst the nearest garrison was at Bugcaon, some four
leagues distant.
The inhabitants, not being provided with fire-arms, sought safety
in flight, but the Moros captured fourteen of them. They profaned
the church, hacked to pieces the image of Our Saviour, and cut up
a painting of Our Lady of the Rosary, smashed the altar, and with
the débris, lighted a bonfire in the middle of the church, which,
strange to say, however, did not take fire.
They stole the cattle and horses, looted the village, and marched
off with their spoil and the fourteen captives.
When, however, they reached the ford on the River Mulita, five of
the Christians refused to proceed into slavery. These were the Datto
Mausalaya, another man named Masumbalan, and three women. They were
all put to death by the Moros and barbarously mutilated. The flesh
was cut from their bones, and it is said that the Moros consumed some
of it, and so terrified the other captives that they marched forward
into life-long slavery.
Had the converts in Lepanto been supplied with a few fire-arms,
this disaster would not have happened.
The Mindanao Moros commonly wear a bright coloured handkerchief as a
head-cloth or turban, a split shirt of Chinese pattern, wide trousers,
and gaudy sashes.
The young men shave their heads, but after marriage they let their
hair grow long.
The dattos, mandarines, and pandits usually cultivate a moustache,
others pluck out all the hair on the face. The poorer women commonly
dress in white and wear a jacket and a skirt coming down well below
the knee. The richer ones wear silks of the brightest colours.
A white turban or head-cloth is a sign of mourning.
The illustration shows a group of Moros of the East coast. They are
unarmed, unlike those of Lake Lanao.
The Moro noble takes great pride in his long descent, and in the
distinction gained in war by his ancestors. During the long hours of
their friendly meetings called Bicháras, they relate to each other
tales of their ancestors' heroism.
Their feudal system has been more or less copied by Subanos, Manobos,
Montéses and other hill-races. The datto or mandarin is the feudal
chief amongst all these, but the Moros have gone a step further,
and have instituted rajahs and sultans, although with only a shadowy
authority; for every important matter must come before the council
of dattos for approval.
They use titles similar to those of the Malays of Borneo and
Johore. Tuang, the head-man of a village; Cuano, a Justice of the
Peace; Lamudia, Nacuda and Timuay, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd class judges;
Gangalia, a constable; Baguadato, a principal, or Cabeza; Maradiadina,
eldest son of a principal. A datto is known by the richness of his
apparel and by using gold buttons, and especially by always carrying
a handkerchief in his hand. He is usually followed by a slave carrying
his siri-box.
Like the Malays, they call the heir of a rajah the Rajah-muda; the
nephew of a sultan uses the epithet Paduca; the son of a sultan calls
himself Majarasin, the pure or mighty.
Orang-Kaya, corresponds to a magnate; Cachil, to a prince of the
blood. The war-minister of a sultan is called the Datto Realao.
A principal priest is called a Sárif or sheriff; and an ordinary
priest a Pandita, or learned man.
The learning of these worthies is of the most rudimentary description,
and consists in being able to read the Koran in Arabic, and to recite
certain prayers which they often do not understand.
They have some wretched sheds for places of worship which they call
Langa. During the fast of Sanibayang, which lasts for seven days,
they are supposed to abstain from all nourishment. However, at
midnight, when they think their god may be napping, they indulge in
a hurried meal on the quiet. At the end of their week of abstinence
they undergo a purification by bathing, and indemnify themselves for
their fasts by several sumptuous banquets. They are forbidden to eat
swine's flesh, or drink spirituous liquors, but they are not at all
strict in their religion, and the savoury smell of roast pork has
been known to overcome their scruples.
They are very fond of smoking tobacco, and of chewing buyo; some
indulge in opium smoking.
Their amusements are gambling, cock-fighting, and combats of
buffaloes. Their slave-girls perform various libidinous dances to
the sound of the agun, or brass gong, and the calintangang, a kind
of harmonium of strips of metal struck by a small drum-stick.
The dance called the Paujalay is usually performed at a marriage of
any importance, and the young dancers, clad in diaphanous garments,
strive to present their charms in the most alluring postures, for
the entertainment of the dattos and their guests.
They have also a war-dance called the Moro-moro, which is performed by
their most skilful and agile swordsmen, buckler on arm and campilan
in hand to the sound of martial music. It simulates a combat, and
the dancers spring sideways, backwards or forwards, and cut, thrust,
guard, or feint with surprising dexterity.
The Moros are polygamists in general, although the influence of the
Christian women taken as captives and sometimes married to their
captors, has, in many cases, succeeded in preventing their husbands
from taking a second wife. The cleverness and aptitude for business
of Christian Visayas, and Tagal women captives, has sometimes raised
them to the highest position in rank and wealth amongst the Moros;
and few of them would have returned to their former homes, even if
an occasion had offered. The custom of seizing girls for slaves and
concubines which has prevailed amongst the Moros for centuries, has
of course had the effect of encouraging sensuality, and the morals
of Moro society may be compared to those of a rabbit-warren.
The Moros do not always treat their slaves with cruelty, they rather
strive to attach them to their new home by giving them a female
captive or a slave-girl they have tired of, as a wife, assisting them
to build a house, and making their lot as easy as is compatible with
getting some work out of them.
But perhaps the greatest allurement to one of these slaves is when
his master takes him with him on a slave-raid, and gives him the
opportunity of securing some plunder, and perhaps a slave for himself.
Once let him arrive at this stage, and his master need have no fear
of his absconding.
The Spaniards have for years refused to send back any slaves who
claim their protection, yet it has been remarked by Dr. Montano, and
by missionaries and Spanish military officers, that slaves have been
employed fishing or tilling the ground near the Spanish outposts,
and only rarely would one step within the lines to obtain his liberty.
If caught running away from their masters, the dattos, they are
sometimes put to death, or mutilated in a most cruel manner.
The famous Datto Utto, of the Rio Grande, is said to have stripped
a runaway slave naked and to have tied him to a tree, leaving him to
be stung to death by the mosquitos or devoured piecemeal by ants.
This same Datto Utto, towards the end of 1889, made himself so
objectionable to the Datto Abdul, one of his neighbours, that the
latter determined to place himself and his people under Spanish
protection. His village consisted of eighty houses and was situated
on the banks of Rio Grande.
Datto Abdul gave proofs of engineering skill, for he constructed
eighty rafts of bamboos, and placing a house upon each with all its
belongings, inhabitants and cattle, he floated his whole village
fifteen miles down the river and landed at Tumbao, establishing
himself under the protection of the fort.
The Datto Ayunan, who resides in the same neighbourhood, also came
over to the Spaniards, and learned to understand and speak Spanish very
fairly. He had at least three thousand followers, and in the fighting
on the Rio Grande in 1886-87 he took the field, supported the Spanish
forces against the other dattos, and rendered important services.
Several other dattos and chiefs have submitted to the Spaniards;
for instance, the Sultan of Bolinson, who has settled at Lintago,
near the barracks of Maria Christina. In the district of Davao more
than five thousand Moros are living peacefully under Spanish rule.
The famous Datto Utto, who gave so much trouble, lost followers and
prestige, and now where the Moro King of Tamontaca held his court and
reigned in power and splendour on the Rio Grande, a Jesuit Orphan
Asylum, and Industrial School flourished [till the war caused it
to be abandoned], bringing up hundreds of children of both sexes,
mostly liberated slaves of the Moros, to honest handicrafts or
agricultural labour.
Amongst the Moros, the administration of justice is in the hands
of the dattos or of their nominees. Offences are punished by death,
corporal chastisement, or by fines.
However, the customs of the country admit of an offended person taking
the law into his own hand. Thus he who surprises his wife in the act
of adultery may cut off one of her ears, shave her head, and degrade
her to be the slave of his concubines.
If he catches the co-respondent he may kill him (if he can).
A calumny not justified, is fined 15 dollars; a slight wound costs the
aggressor 5 dollars; a serious wound, 15 dollars, and the weapon that
did the mischief; a murder can be atoned by giving three to six slaves.
Adultery incurs a fine of 60 dollars, and two slaves; or death,
if the fine is not paid.
He who insults a datto is condemned to death, unless he can pay 15
taels of gold, but he becomes a slave for life. The datto acting as
judge takes as his fee one-eighth of the fine he imposes.
A slave is considered to be worth from 15 to 30 dollars according to
his or her capabilities or appearance.
The dattos impose an annual tax on all their subjects whether Moros
or heathen. It is called the Pagdatto, and consists of a piece of
cloth called a Jabol, a bolo, and twenty gantas of paddy (equal to 10
gantas of rice) from each married couple. A ganta equals two-thirds
of a gallon, so that the tax in rice would only be 6.6 gallons,
a little over ¾ bushel.
Their language is a degraded Arabic with words from Malay, Chinese,
Visaya, Tagal, and some idioms of the hill-tribes.
Very few of them can read or write.
Their year is divided into 13 lunar months, and the days of the week
are as follows:--
Monday. Sapto.
Tuesday. Ahat.
Wednesday. Isnin.
Thursday. Sarasa.
Friday. Araboja.
Saturday. Cammis.
Sunday. Diammat.
Their era is the Hejira, like other Mahometans.
Their marriage customs are peculiar. When one of them takes a fancy
to a damsel, he sends his friend, of the highest rank, to the house of
the girl's father, to solicit her hand. The father consults the girl,
and if she is favourable he makes answer that the young man may come
for her. The would-be bridegroom then proceeds to the mosque and calls
the Imam, who goes through a form of prayers with him, after which they
proceed in company to the maiden's house, followed by a slave bearing
presents, and from the street call out for leave to enter. The father
appears at a window and invites them in, but when about to enter, the
male relations of the damsel simulate an attack on the visitor, which
he beats off, and throws them the presents he has brought with him.
He then enters with the Imam and finds the lady of his desires
reclining upon cushions, and presents his respects to her. The priest
then causes her to rise and, taking hold of her head he twirls her
round twice to the right, then taking the hand of the man he places
it on the forehead of the girl, who immediately covers her face. The
priest then retires, leaving them alone. The bridegroom attempts
to kiss and embrace the bride, who defends herself with tooth and
nail. She shrieks and runs, and the bridegroom chases her round and
round the room.
Presently the father appears, and assures the bridegroom that he
may take for granted the virginity of his daughter. The bridegroom
then leaves the house to make preparations for the wedding-feast,
which begins that night, and finishes on the third night, when the
bride takes off all the garments she has worn as a maid and dresses in
handsome robes provided by the bridegroom. At the end of the feast, the
emissary who first solicited her hand for his friend conducts her to
the house of the bridegroom, accompanied by the guests singing verses
allusive to the occasion, and cracking jokes more or less indecent.
Contrary to the custom in other countries, it is easier to get
divorced than to get married, for this is the privilege of the man,
who can repudiate his wife at any time.
They celebrate the baptism of their children, and the circumcision of
their boys, with feasts and entertainments. They fire off cannon and
lantacas on the death of a datto, and with all sorts of instruments
make a hideous discord in front of the house of death.
Professional wailers are employed, and the pandits go through many
days of long-winded prayer, for which they receive most ample fees.
They have regular cemeteries, and, after the burial, place on the
grave the head of a cock with a hot cinder on the top of it. I am
quite unable to explain what meaning is attached to this custom, but
they are soaked in all sorts of superstitions, and thoroughly believe
in amulets or talismen, as do the Tagals in their Anting-Anting.
Owing to the multitude of slaves they possess, they make considerable
plantations of rice, maize, coffee, and cacao. They sell the surplus
of this produce to Chinamen or Visayas settled in the coast towns, as
also wax, gum, resin, jungle-produce, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl
shell, balate and cinnamon. It is estimated that they sell produce to
the value of a million dollars a year. They also employ their slaves
in washing the sands for gold, and, according to Nieto, in mining
for silver and other metal.
I have not seen this latter statement confirmed by any other author.
Their industries are the forging of swords, cris, and lance-heads,
casting and boring their lantacas.
To bore these long guns they sink them in a pit, ramming in the
earth so as to keep the piece in a truly vertical position. They
then bore by hand, two or four men walking round and turning the bit
with cross-bars. Some of these lantacas are worthy to be considered
perfect works of art, and are highly decorated. I have seen several
double-barrelled. (See Illustration.)
The Moro women employ their slaves in spinning and weaving. They make
excellent stuffs of cotton and of abaca, dyeing them various colours
with extracts of the woods grown in the country.
Their houses are large and spacious, and they live in a patriarchal
manner, master and mistress, concubines, children, and slaves with
their children, all jumbled together. They possess plenty of horses,
cattle, buffaloes, goats and poultry.
They use Spanish or Mexican silver coins, but most of their
transactions are by barter.
To wind up this description of the Moros of Mindanao, it must be
said of them that they are always ready to fight for the liberty of
enslaving other people, and that nothing but force can restrain them
from doing so. That they will not work themselves, and that as long
as their sultans, dattos, and pandits have a hold on them, they will
keep no engagements, respect no treaties, and continue to be in the
future, as they have always been in the past, a terror and a curse
to all their neighbours.
CHAPTER XXXIX
THE CHINESE IN MINDANAO.
Tagabáuas (24).
These people live in the very centre of Mindanao on the high peaks of
the cordillera. If a straight line be drawn on the map from Nasipit,
on the Bay of Butuan, to Glan, on the Gulf of Sarangani, it will
intersect their habitat which may extend from about 7° 30' to 8°
N. lat. I can learn nothing about their manners and customs. They
are reputed to be ferocious.
The Chinese in Mindanao.
The Chinese in Mindanao are almost entirely settled in the coast
towns, and are occupied in trade. They do not engage in agriculture,
but keep stores and sell to the civilised natives and to the hill-men.
They understand that they need protection, and are equally ready to
make a present to the judge, to subscribe for a gilded altar for the
church, or to render service to the governor, in order to be on good
terms with the court, the priest, and the military.
Very few Chinese women come over, therefore the men have native
wives or concubines, and are begetting Chinese half-castes on an
extensive scale.
They are not averse to a little slave-dealing, and will casually buy
a boy or girl from slave-hunters, or will order such a slave as they
require from the slave-hunters, who then proceed to execute the order,
which probably involves the sacrifice of several lives.
Thus they will order a smart boy, or a pretty girl, of fifteen or
sixteen, and so forth.
Father Barrado, writing from Cotta-Bato, June 3rd, 1890, relates
that a boy of eight years of age was purchased by a Chinaman for
thirty dollars.
As soon as his master had brought him to the house, he fastened the
door, and being assisted by four other Chinamen, tied the boy's hands
and feet, and gagged him.
The four assistants then laid him out at full length on the ground,
face downwards, and held him firmly, whilst his master took a red-hot
marking-iron from the fire, and branded him on both thighs, just as
if he was marking a horse or a cow.
Luckily, the boy escaped from the house, and found refuge with Father
Barrado, who took charge of him, and administered a severe reprimand
to the brutal Chinaman.
The Chinamen abominably cheat all those who are unable to protect
themselves. Their business is based upon false weights and measures,
and on adulteration. In the end, they spoil every business they enter
upon, just as they have done the tea trade in their own country,
and the tobacco and indigo trade in the Philippines.
They require to be closely looked after, and should be made to pay
special taxes, which they can well afford.
Some of the Chinese become converts, not that their mean and sordid
souls are in any degree susceptible to the influence of the Christian
religion, but in order to obtain material advantages.
They hope to be favoured in business, and to be able to get a Christian
wife, which otherwise might not be easy; for although a Visayas woman
does not disdain a Chinaman, she would not care to marry a heathen.
In any case, the Chinaman most likely remains a heathen at heart,
and if he returns to China he becomes a renegade.
CHAPTER XL
THE POLITICAL CONDITION OF MINDANAO, 1899.
Relapse into savagery--Moros the great danger--Visayas
the mainstay--Confederation of Lake Lanao--Recall of
the Missionaries--Murder and pillage in Davao--Eastern
Mindanao--Western Mindanao--The three courses--Orphanage
of Tamontaca--Fugitive slaves--Polygamy an impediment to
conversion--Labours of the Jesuits--American Roman Catholics
should send them help.
The present condition of the island is most lamentable. Nothing could
be more dreadful; robbery, outrage and murder are rampant. Every evil
passion is let loose, and the labour of years has been lost. Mindanao,
which promised so well, has relapsed into savagery, as the direct
consequence of the Spanish-American war, and the cession of the
Archipelago to the United States.
It should be understood that Spain, far from drawing any profit from
Mindanao, has, on the contrary, expended annually considerable sums,
derived from the revenues of Luzon and Visayas, in maintaining a
squadron of gunboats to police the seas, and keep down piracy, in
building and garrisoning forts to suppress the slave-trade, and in
assisting the missionaries to attract the heathen, by providing them
with seeds, implements of husbandry, and with clothing, also in giving
them fire-arms and ammunition to protect themselves from the Moros.
Annuities were paid to friendly Moro dattos as rewards for services
rendered, or as compensation for the cession of some of their rights.
The Moros have always been the great danger to the peace of the island,
as the Visayas have always been the mainstay of Spanish authority.
Had it not been for the war with America, the Moros would have been,
by this time, completely subdued.
Even as it was, half the island was practically free from danger
from them. If you draw a line on the map from Cagayan de Misamis to
the head of the Bay of Sarangani, it will roughly divide the island
into halves. The Moros who lived to the eastward of this line were
pacific, and some thousands of them had been baptized, and had given
up polygamy and slave-trading.
Had they risen in arms--which was not at all likely--they could have
been put down by the Visayas militia under the local authorities.
To the west of this line, until quite lately, the Spanish garrisons
dotted along the banks of the Rio Grande from Polloc and Cotta-bato to
Piquit and Pinto, dominated the Moro dattos of that region, and nearly
joined hands with the forts and garrisons on the rivers running into
the Bay of Macajalar.
The only remaining seat of the Moro power was the country around Lake
Lanao, where the dattos had formed the Illana confederation to resist
the advances of the Christians.
This lake has never been surveyed, and no two maps agree on its size,
shape or position. It is, however, known to be very different from
the other large lakes in Mindanao, which are shallow, whilst this,
on the contrary, is deep; in some places, three or four fathoms will
be found close in shore. At Lúgud and Tugana the banks are steep.
There are five or six islands in it; the largest is called Nuza. It
is high and flat-topped, situated near the middle of the lake, and
on it are five hundred houses.
The length of the lake may be about 14 miles, and its greatest breadth
about the same.
There is a road all round it, reported to be in good condition for
vehicles, except at Taraca, where the ground is soft. This road may be
about fifty miles long, and is said to have houses on both sides of it
nearly all the way. The accompanying sketch, from D. José Nietos' map,
shows forty-three towns clustered round the lake, but in reality it is
only one vast town, and the names are those of districts or parishes,
each under the rule of a datto. The Sultan lives at Taraca.
The land about the lake is very fertile, and is cultivated by the
slaves.
The produce is of excellent quality, and the Moros not only supply
themselves, but export annually about 1000 tons of rice, and 900 tons
of coffee.
The River Agus, which drains the lake, is not navigable.
Although it has a great body of water, the impetuosity of the current,
rushing amongst rocks, forms dangerous rapids.
The surface of the lake must be considerably above the sea-level.
The approaches to the northern end of the lake on both sides of the
river were defended by many cottas, or forts. Most of those were
taken and destroyed by the Spanish forces in 1894-96, but they are
now probably being rebuilt.
Half-way between the lake and the Bay of Iligan stands Fort Weyler,
which had a strong garrison of infantry, cavalry, artillery and
engineers, and was impregnable to any Moro attack. To the south of
the lake, on the shores of Illana Bay, stand Forts Corcuera and Baras,
whilst to the westward, between Illana Bay and Panguil Bay, lie four
forts across the narrow isthmus called Alfonso XIII., Infanta Isabel,
Santas Paz, and Eulalia and Maria Cristina.
These, with the trocha, or military road of Tucúran, cut off the
Illano Moros from communication with their brethren of Sibuguey,
or with their former victims, the Subanos.
Further to the northward, Fort Almonte kept watch over the quondam
pirates of the Liangan River.
These forts and posts were garrisoned by nearly 3000 regular troops,
all natives, except the artillery (see List of Posts in Mindanao,
p. 386), and in addition a field force of several thousand men,
also of the regular army, was encamped at Ulama, Pantar, and other
places to the north of the lake, and three small steam-vessels had
been transported overland in sections, and launched upon the lake.
Thus everything was ready for the final blow, for the Moros were
completely hemmed in by Spanish garrisons or Jesuit reducciones;
but the breaking out of the Tagal insurrection, in 1896, obliged
General Blanco to withdraw, not only the field army, but to reduce
the garrisons in order to hold Manila and Cavite until the Peninsular
troops could arrive.
Later on, the war between the United States and Spain, and the
immediate destruction of the Spanish naval forces by the American
squadron, caused the Spanish authorities to sink the flotilla in
the lake, to abandon all the posts on the north coast of Mindanao,
the trocha of Tucúran, and all the forts on the Rio Grande,
and to concentrate their whole force at Zamboanga, leaving the
recently-converted heathen and the missionaries to defend themselves
against the Moros as best they could.
The missionaries of the district of Cotta-bato have taken refuge in
Zamboanga, fearing to fall into the hands of the Moros, who would exact
a heavy ransom for their delivery. As for the hundreds of liberated
slave children, both girls and boys, who were gathered together under
the protection of the missionaries at the asylum of Tamontaca, they
are doubtless once more in the hands of the cruel Moros of Lake Lanao;
some, perhaps, have been sold by these wretches to the heathen tribes
for twenty or thirty dollars each, to be offered up as sacrifices to
Tag-busan, the god of war of the Manobos, or to Dewata, the sanguinary
house-god of the Guiangas.
The missionaries of the north of Mindanao were recalled by the Father
Superior to Manila; but in some of the towns the native converts
and Visayas have detained them by force, and keep a watch on them to
prevent their escape. They treat them well, and allow them to exercise
their ministry.
As there are no Moros in that part of the island, the missionaries
are not in danger, for they are much beloved by their converts,
whose only desire is to keep them amongst them.
The district of Davao has been, like other localities, the scene of
murder and pillage since the withdrawal of the Spanish authorities. At
midnight of February 6th, the bad characters and outlaws of the chief
town, under the leadership of Domingo Fernandez, a native of Zamboanga,
and formerly interpreter and writer in the office of the Governor
of Davao, rose in arms, and attacked the house of Don Bonifacio
Quidato, sub-lieutenant of the local militia. They cut his throat,
and bayoneted his wife as she lay in her bed. They then attacked all
the well-to-do people of the place, committing many barbarous acts,
and plundering their houses.
Most of the Spanish residents escaped from the town in a lorcha, and,
after a terrible voyage of sixteen days, suffering from hunger, and
undergoing many severe privations, arrived in Zamboanga more dead
than alive. The veteran missionary, Father Urios, and three other
Spaniards, could not escape, and remained in the power of the bandits.
This is only one instance of what is going on all over the island. In
the words of one who knows the country well, Mindanao has become a
seething hell, and is in a condition more dreadful than ever before
in historic times.
But amongst these various tribes, Christian or heathen, there is said
to be one subject, and one only, upon which they all agree. They have
combined to resist by force the American invasion. If it is attempted
to conquer them by force of arms, it will be a difficult, a tedious,
and a costly operation--a campaign far more sickly than that now
proceeding in the arable lands around Manila, where the ground is hard,
the country very level, and where field-guns can be taken anywhere
during the dry season. It is my belief that, if skilfully handled,
half the island--the eastern half--could be pacified without war,
although, no doubt, gangs of bandits would have to be destroyed;
but this could be done by the Visayas and the converts, organised as
a militia, and paid whilst on active service.
But this pacification requires the assistance of the missionaries. They
are not likely to give that assistance unless terms are made with them,
and one of those terms will surely be that they shall be allowed to
continue their beneficent work unhindered and unvexed.
So the United States Government is confronted with a dilemma. Either
they must shoot down the new Christians, to introduce and enforce
freedom of worship which the converts do not want, and cannot
understand, or they must negotiate with the Jesuits for them to use
their influence to pacify the island, and thus subject themselves
to the abuse and the outcry such a proceeding will bring upon them
from the divines and missionaries of Protestant sects, and from their
political opponents.
As for the western half of the island, a part may be pacified with the
help of the missionaries, but military operations on a considerable
scale will be required there sooner or later against the Moros of
Lake Lanao.
This would be a holy war, a war of humanity, and I would say to
the Americans: Look back on the deeds of your forefathers, on the
days when your infant navy covered itself with imperishable glory,
when it curbed the insolence of the Bashaw of Tripoli, the Bey of
Tunis, and the Dey of Algiers, teaching all Europe how to deal with
Mediterranean pirates. Inspire yourselves with the Spirit of Decatur
and his hero-comrades whose gallant deeds at Tripoli earned Nelson's
praise as being "the most bold and daring act of the age," and do not
hesitate to break up this last community of ex-pirates and murderous
slave-hunters.
The Moros of Lake Lanao could be simultaneously attacked from north and
south. In 1894, the Spaniards attacked by the north, and transported
all their artillery and stores and their small steamers built in
sections, by paths on the eastern side of the River Agus. Some of
the Moros remained neutral in that campaign. Such were the Dattos of
Lumbayangin and Guimba. Their cottas were spared. The distance in a
straight line from the mouth of the Agus near Iligan to the lake is
fifteen miles.
The path winds a good deal, and the country is hilly, wooded on the
heights, and intersected by streams. There is a path on the west
bank of the Agus, the country there is more open, and a large part
of it is under cultivation. A good outfit of mountain-guns would be
required on this northern expedition.
The other attack could be made from the south, the forces landing at
Fort Baras, or at Lalabuan. From either of these places there is what
in the Philippines is called a road to Ganasi at the southern end of
the lake. The distance in a straight line is about twenty miles. The
two roads join at about half way, just before coming to the cotta of
Kurandangan in the Sultanate of Puálas.
This road is reported to have no steep gradients, no boggy parts,
and no unfordable streams. The country is fairly open, as there is
no thick forest, but only scrub and cogon, or elephant grass. From
a description given by a Tagal who traversed this road, it appears
to be practicable for field artillery. The combined attack, north and
south, could be supported by an advance from the eastward of irregular
forces of the Montéses from the reducciones of the Tagoloan, Sawaga
and Malupati Rivers, if they were supplied with arms and ammunition
for this purpose.
It seems to me that we have here the usual three courses; the fourth,
to do nothing, and allow Moro and Christian to fight it out, would
be unworthy of the United States, or of any civilized government.
1. Put a stop to slave-hunting and murdering by a military expedition
against the Moro Dattos.
2. Maintain garrisons to keep the peace and protect the missionaries
and their converts and trust to their efforts to gradually convert
the Moros.
3. Arm all the Christian towns round about the Moros and organise
the men as local militia, so that they can protect themselves against
Moro aggression.
All these courses are expensive, the second less expensive than the
first, the third less expensive than the second.
However, if either the second or third course is adopted, it is very
probable that before long the first course would become imperative,
for the Moros are faithless and treacherous in the extreme, and no
treaty unsupported by bayonets has the least chance of being respected.
To adopt the second or third course, then, only amounts to putting
off the evil day.
The missionaries can be of the greatest service in pacifiying the Moros
whenever the power of the dattos is broken and when slavery can be put
an end to. The object of the expedition I have spoken of should not be
to exterminate the Moros, but merely to break the power of the dattos
and pandits, and to free their followers and slaves from their yoke.
It is generally taken for granted that a Moro cannot be converted,
but this is not the case in Mindanao. Father Jaoquin Sancho, S.J.,
informs me that when the political power of the dattos has been
destroyed, their followers have been found ready to listen to the
teachings of the missionaries and beginning by sending their children
to school, then perhaps sanctioning the marriage of their daughters
with Christians, they have finally cast in their lot with the Roman
Catholic Church, not in scores, nor hundreds, but by thousands. He says
that his colleagues baptized in one year after 1892, in the district
of Davao alone, more than three thousand Mahometan Moros. He adds that
their religious receptivity is much greater than that of the heathen
tribes, that once baptized they remain fervent Christians, whilst
the Mandayas, Manobos, Montéses and other heathen are only too apt,
with or without reason, to slip away to the forests and mountains and
resume their nomadic life, their heathen orgies, and human sacrifices.
I have already spoken of the success of the missionaries on the
Rio Grande and of their industrial and agricultural orphanage at
Tamontacca, where they were bringing up hundreds of children of both
sexes, mostly liberated slaves of the Moros, to be useful members
of society. This noble institution occupied the very spot where the
former Moro Sultan of Tamontacca held his court.
Two or three more institutions like this, established at points a few
miles distant from Lake Lanao, and protected from aggression on the
part of the Moro, would gradually undermine the power of the Dattos
by affording an asylum to all fugitive slaves attempting to escape
from cruelties of their masters.
For years past the Spaniards have protected all slaves who have fled
to them from their masters. The Datto Utto applied to General Weyler
to restore to him forty-eight slaves who had taken refuge at a Spanish
fort on the Rio Grande, but Weyler refused, reminding the datto that
he had signed an engagement to keep no slaves, but only free labourers,
who had the right to fix their residence where they pleased.
I assume that no slaves who seek the shelter of the Stars and Stripes
will ever be sent back again into bondage.
As a guide to the strength of the expedition which will sooner or
later have to be sent against the Moros of Lake Lanao, I may say that
the total war strength of the Moros of Mindanao was estimated in 1894
at 19,000 fighting-men, 35 guns, 1896 Lantacas and 2167 muskets or
rifles. (See list, p. 387).
They have probably since then obtained a large supply of rifles and
ammunition. This traffic in arms should be at once stopped.
Swords and spears they have in abundance.
But of these 19,000 men many have submitted to the Spanish rule,
or have become allies of the Spaniards, like the Datto Ayunan, the
Datto Abdul, the Sultan of Bolinson and many others.
Probably 10,000 men would be the very utmost that the Moros of Lake
Lanao could bring on the field, and only a part of these would have
fire-arms, which they could have little skill in handling.
They would on no account give battle in the open, but would fight
in the bush, and desperately defend their cottas. They would not
concentrate their forces, for want of transport for their food supply;
besides, the nature of the country would prevent this.
They could not stop a flotilla from being launched on the lake and
from capturing the islands as a base of operations.
The flotilla would be operating on inside lines of communication. It
could threaten one side of the lake, and in less than two hours be
landing troops on the opposite side.
In fact, with a moderate force, their subjugation would not be so
difficult as has often been supposed.
It should be made clear to the Sácopes and to the slaves that
the war is waged against the Sultans and Dattos, that the people
would have their lives and property and the free exercise of their
religion guaranteed to them, and that the adults should be exempt
from taxation and conscription for the rest of their lives or for
a term of years. Then the resistance would soon slacken, and the
sultans and dattos might be captured. Those who would not conform to
the new condition of things might be allowed to emigrate to Borneo or
elsewhere, but their subjects and slaves should by no means be allowed
to go with them, for they will soon become useful agriculturists and
good Christians, and Mindanao cannot spare them.
The question of slavery, more especially of slave-concubines,
will require delicate handling, but by adopting a conciliatory but
firm policy, this curse may gradually be got rid of without causing
disturbance or bloodshed. Cranks and faddists should not be allowed
to handle this question, but it should be placed in the hands of some
one well versed in human nature, and a true friend of freedom.
The wise policy of the British authorities in Zanzibar and Pemba is
well worthy of imitation.
As happens in Africa, the greatest impediment to the conversion of
the heathen polygamist is the obligation to renounce all his wives
but one. This is a sore trial, more especially when they have paid
a good price for them, or if they are good cooks.
Father Urios having persuaded a Manobo, who wished to be baptized,
to do this, the man said to him: "Of my two wives I have decided to
keep the elder, but I make a great sacrifice in separating from the
other, for I had so much trouble to obtain her. Her father would only
give her to me in exchange for fifteen slaves. As I did not possess
them, I was obliged to take the field against the timid tribes in an
unknown country, and to capture these fifteen slaves. I was obliged
to fight often, and to kill more than thirty men."
The illustration represents a scene from the labours of Father Gisbert
amongst the Bagobos. He is exhorting a blood-stained old datto and
his wives and followers to abandon their human sacrifices, exhibiting
to them the image of the crucified Redeemer, whose followers he urges
them to become.
As regards the maintenance of the missions, I do not for one moment
doubt that the liberality of the Roman Catholics of the United States
is quite equal to the needs of the pioneers of civilisation, who have
laboured with such remarkable success.
Altogether the Jesuits administered the spiritual, and some of the
temporal affairs of 200,000 Christians in Mindanao.
They educated the young, taught them handicrafts, attended to the
sick, consoled the afflicted, reconciled those at variance, explored
the country, encouraged agriculture, built churches, laid out roads,
and assisted the Administration. Finally, when bands of slave-hunting,
murdering Moros swept down like wolves on their flocks, they placed
themselves at the head of their ill-armed parishioners and led them
into battle against a ferocious enemy who gives no quarter, with
the calmness of men who, long before, had devoted their lives to the
Master's cause, to whom nothing in this world is of any consequence
except the advancement of the Faith and the performance of duty.
They received very meagre monetary assistance from the Spanish
Government, and had to depend greatly upon the pious offerings of
the devout in Barcelona and in Madrid. It is to be feared that these
subscriptions will now fall off as Spain has lost the islands; if so,
it is all the more incumbent upon the Roman Catholics of America to
find the means of continuing the good work.
I feel sure that this will be so--Christian charity will not fail,
and the missions will be maintained.
For their devotion and zeal, I beg to offer the Jesuit missionaries
my profound respect and my earnest wishes for their welfare under
the Stars and Stripes.
To my mind, they realise very closely the ideal of what a Christian
missionary should be. Although a Protestant born and bred, I see in
that no reason to close my eyes to their obvious merit, nor to seek to
be-little the great good they have done in Mindanao. Far from doing so,
I wish to state my conviction that the easiest, the best, and the most
humane way of pacifying Mindanao is by utilising the powerful influence
of the Jesuit missionaries with their flocks, and this before it is
too late, before the populations have had time to completely forget
the Christian teaching, and to entirely relapse into barbarism.
List of Posts in Mindanao Garrisoned by Detachments of the Native
Army with Spanish Officers in 1894.
Field Officers.
Officers.
Men.
1st District.
San Ramon .. 1 12 Infantry.
Santa Maria .. 1 34 Infantry.
Margos-sa-tubig .. 2 60 Infantry.
2nd District.
Fort Weyler, Mumungan 1 7 321 Infantry.
Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 1 18 Artillery.
Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 2 112 Engineers.
Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 1 30 Cavalry.
Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 3 158 Disciplinary Battn.
Iligan .. 1 30 Tercio
Civil.
Almonte .. 2 58 Infantry.
Almonte .. .. 8 Artillery.
Almonte .. 1 20 Disciplinary Battn.
Tangok, Alfonso XIII. .. 1 20 Infantry.
Balatacan, Infanta Isabel .. 1 20 Infantry.
Trocha de Tucuran, Sta. Pax
and Sta. Eulalia Maria
Cristina .. 3 150 Infantry.
Dapitan.
Sundangan .. 1 32 Infantry.
Parang-parang 1 3 500 Infantry.
Parang-parang .. 1 12 Artillery.
Parang-parang .. 2 60 Disciplinary Battn.
Parang-parang .. 3 60 Engineers.
Matabang .. 3 200 Infantry.
Matabang .. .. 10 Artillery.
Baras .. 3 200 Infantry.
Baras .. .. 10 Artillery.
Sarangani.
Glan .. 2 45 Infantry.
Makra .. 1 32 Infantry.
Balut .. 1 20 Infantry.
Tumanao .. 1 Sergt. 15 Infantry.
5th District.
Cottabato .. 3 100 Infantry.
Cottabato .. 1 12 Artillery.
Libungan .. 1 Sergt. 12 Infantry.
Tamontaca .. 1 20 Infantry.
Taviran .. 1 22 Infantry.
Tumbao .. 1 60 Infantry.
Kudaranga .. 1 20 Infantry.
Reina Regente .. 3 100 Infantry.
Pikit .. 1 60 Infantry.
6 Artillery.
Pinto .. .. 60 Infantry.
6 Artillery.
Coast.
Pollok .. 1 Sergt. 11 Infantry.
Panay .. 1 11 Infantry.
Lebak .. 1 11 Infantry.
---- ---- ------
2 65 2758
This number is exclusive of the garrisons of Zamoanga and Davao.
Basilan 2 officers, 50 men.
Estimate of the Moro Forces in Mindanao in the Year 1894.
District. Fighting-men. Guns. Lantacas. Rifles.
Tucaran 1,000 2 54 162
Parang-parang 2,500 2 29 117
Malabang 3,500 1 342 265
Baras 2,000 4 19 23
Lake Lanao and
surrounding district 10,000 26 1,452 1,600
-------- ---- ------- -------
19,000 35 1,896 2,167
The fighting-men of the River Pulangui, and the Rio Grande comprised
within the 5th District are not included in this list, as many of
them have submitted to the Spaniards, and there appears little to
fear from them. Only those who are quite independent and war-like,
and who may be considered dangerous have been set down.
Population of Mindanao in 1894.
As given by José Nieto Aguilar.
Districts. Area in Population Christians. Moros. Heathen.
Hectares. Total.
[31] Zamboanga 2,984,696 17,000 8,000 90,000 115,000
[32] Misamis
(Dapitan and
Camiguin Is.) 1,098,000 116,000 100,000 20,000 236,000
[33] Surigao 1,070,190 68,000 8,000 12,000 88,000
Bislig 441,291 21,076 .. 10,000 31,076
[34] Davao 1,044,333 1,500 .. 17,300 18,800
Cotta-bato 2,829,379 4,000 80,000 [35] 120,000 204,000
------- ------- ------- -------
227,576 196,000 269,300 692,876
APPENDIX.
SOME OF THE COMBATS, MASSACRES AND REBELLIONS, DISPUTES AND CALAMITIES
OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
1521. Magellan and several of his followers killed in action by the
natives of Mactan, near Cebú; Juan Serrano and many other Spaniards
treacherously killed by Hamabar, King of Cebú.
1525. Salazar fights the Portuguese off Mindanao, and suffers great
losses in ships and men.
1568. Legaspi's expedition attacked in Cebú by a Portuguese fleet,
which was repulsed.
1570. Legaspi founds the city of Cebú, with the assistance of the
Augustinians.
1571. Legaspi founds the city of Manila, with the assistance of
the Augustinians.
1572. Juan Salcedo fights the Datto of Zambales, and delivers his
subjects from oppression.
1574. Siege of Manila by the Chinese pirate Li-ma-hon with 95
small vessels and 2000 men. The Spaniards and natives repulse the
attack. The pirates retire to Pangasinan, and are attacked and
destroyed by Juan Salcedo.
1577. War against Mindanao and Joló, parts of which are
occupied. Disputes between the missionaries and the military
officers who desire to enrich themselves by enslaving the natives,
which the former stoutly oppose, desiring to convert them, and grant
them exemption from taxes according to the "Leyes de Indias." They
considered the cupidity of the soldiers as the chief obstacle to
the conversion of the heathen. The Crown decided in favour of the
natives, but they did not derive all the benefits they were entitled
to, as the humane laws were not respected by the governors.
The Franciscans arrived in Manila.
1580. Expedition sent by Gonzalo Ronquillo to Borneo to assist
King Sirela.
1581. Expedition sent by the same to Cagayan to expel a Japanese
corsair who had established himself there. The expedition succeeded,
but with heavy loss.
Expedition against the Igorrotes to get possession of the
gold-mines, but without success.
The Jesuits arrive in Manila.
1582. Expedition against the Molucas, under Sebastian Ronquillo. An
epidemic destroyed two-thirds of the expedition, which returned
without accomplishing anything.
Great disputes between the encomenderos and the friars in consequence
of the ill-treatment of the natives by the former. Dissensions
between the Bishop of Manila and the friars who refused to submit to
his diocesan visit.
Manila burnt down.
1584. Second expedition against the Molucas, with no better luck
than the first.
Rebellion of the Pampangos and Manila men, assisted by some
Mahometans from Borneo. Combat between the English pirate, Thomas
Schadesh, and Spanish vessels.
Combat between the English adventurer Thomas Cavendish
(afterwards Sir Thomas), and Spanish vessels.
1587. The Dominicans arrive in Manila.
1589. Rebellion in Cagayan and other provinces.
1593. Third expedition against the Molucas under Gomez Perez
Dasmariñias. He had with him in his galley 80 Spaniards and 250 Chinese
galley-slaves. In consequence of contrary winds, his vessel put into
a port near Batangas for shelter. In the silence of the night, when
the Spaniards were asleep, the galley-slaves arose and killed them
all except a Franciscan friar and a secretary. Dasmariñias built the
castle of Santiago, and fortified Manila with stone walls, cast a
large number of guns, and established the college of Sta. Potenciana.
1596. The galleon which left Manila for Acapulco with rich
merchandise, was obliged to enter a Japanese port by stress of weather,
and was seized by the Japanese authorities. The crew were barbarously
put to death.
1597. Expedition of Luis Perez Dasmariñias against Cambodia, which
gained no advantage.
1598. The Audiencia re-established in Manila, and the bishopric
raised to an archbishopric.
Expedition against Mindanao and Joló, the people from which were
committing great devastations in Visayas, taking hundreds of captives.
Much fighting, and many killed on both sides, without any
definite result.
1599. Destructive earthquake in Manila and neighbourhood.
1600. Great sea combat between four Spanish ships, commanded by
Judge Morga, and two Dutch pirates. One of the Dutchmen was taken,
but the other escaped.
Another destructive earthquake on January 7th, and one less violent,
but long, in November.
1603. Conspiracy of Eng-Cang and the Chinese against the
Spaniards. The Chinese entrench themselves near Manila; Luis Perez
Dasmariñias marches against them with 130 Spaniards. They were all
killed and decapitated by the Chinese, who then besieged Manila, and
attempted to take it by assault. Being repulsed by the Spaniards,
all of whom, including the friars, took up arms, they retired to
their entrenchments. They were ultimately defeated, and 23,000 of
them were massacred. Only 100 were left alive, and these were sent
to the galleys as slaves.
1606. The Recollets arrive in Manila.
Fourth expedition against the Molucas. Pedro de Acuña, having received
a reinforcement of 800 men--Mexicans and Peruvians--attacked and took
Ternate, Tidore, Marotoy and Herrao, with all their artillery and
provisions. He left 700 men in garrison there, and returned to Manila,
dying a few days after his arrival. The Augustinians furnished a
galleon for this expedition. It was commanded by the Rev. Father
Antonio Flores.
1607. Revolt of the Japanese living in and near Manila, and heavy
losses on both sides.
1609. Arrival of Juan de Silva with five companies of Mexican
and Peruvian infantry. Attack on Manila by a Dutch squadron of five
vessels. They were beaten off with the loss of three of their ships.
1610. Unsuccessful expedition against Java. This was to have been
a combined attack on the Dutch by Portuguese and Spaniards, but
the Spanish squadron did not arrive in time to join their allies,
who were beaten by the Dutch fleet in the Straits of Malacca.
Terrific earthquake in Manila and the eastern provinces.
1616. Violent eruption of the Mayon volcano.
1622. Revolt of the natives in Bohol, Leyte and Cagayan, which were
easily suppressed.
1624. The Dutch landed on Corregidor Island, but were beaten off.
1627. August. Great earthquake.
1628. Destructive earthquake in Camarines.
1638. Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera makes an attack on the Moros
of Mindanao, and conquers the Sultanate of Buhayen and island of
Basilan. He also defeats the Joloans.
1639. Insurrection of Chinese in the province of Laguna and in
Manila. Out of 30,000, 7000 ultimately surrendered. All the rest were
massacred by the Tagals.
1640. The Dutch attacked the Spanish garrisons in Mindanao and
Joló. The governor-general, fearing they might attack Manila, withdrew
the garrisons from the above places to strengthen his own defences,
thus leaving the Moros masters of both islands.
1641. Eruption of the Taal volcano. Violent earthquake in Ilocos.
1645. The Dutch attacked Cavite and other ports, but were repulsed.
Rebellion of the Moros in Joló, and of the natives of Cebú and other
provinces, who were oppressed by forced labour in building vessels,
and other services.
In these years there were great disputes between the Spaniards of the
capital and the friars.
Great earthquake in Manila, 30th November, called St. Andrew's
earthquake.
1646. Long series of strong earthquakes, which began in March with
violent shocks, and lasted for sixty days.
1648. Great earthquakes in Manila.
1653. Great devastations by the Moros of Mindanao, which were
severely punished.
Rebellion in Pampanga and Pangasinan against being forced to cut
timber gratuitously for the navy. Suppressed after a serious
resistance.
1658. Destructive earthquake in Manila and Cavite.
1662. The Chinese pirate, Cong-seng, demands tribute from the
Governor of the Philippines. A decree is issued ordering all Chinamen
to leave the Philippines. The Chinese entrench themselves in the
Parian, and resist. Thousands were killed, and 2000 who marched into
Pampanga were all massacred by the natives.
Great troubles occurred between the governor, Diego de Salcedo,
and the archbishop.
1665. 19th June, violent and destructive earthquake in Manila.
1669. During the government of Manuel de Leon, further troubles
occurred between the archbishop and the Audiencia. The archbishop
was banished, and sent by force to Pangasinan. But a new governor,
Gabriel de Cruzalegui, arrived, and restored the archbishop, who
excommunicated the dean and chapter.
1675. Destructive earthquake in South Luzon and Mindoro.
1683. Great earthquake in Manila.
1689. Archbishop Pardo having died, was succeeded by P. Camacho,
and now great disorders arose from his insisting on making the diocesan
visit, which the friars refused to receive, and would only be visited
by their own Provincial. Again Judge Sierra required the Augustinians
and Dominicans to present the titles of the estates they possessed
in virtue of a special commission he had brought from Madrid, which
they refused to obey, and the end of the dispute was that Sierra was
sent back to Mexico, and another commissioner, a friend of the friars,
was appointed, to whom they unofficially exhibited the titles.
1716. Destructive eruption of the Taal volcano, and violent
earthquake in Manila.
1717. Fernando Bustillo Bustamente became governor, and
re-established garrisons in Zamboanga and Paragua. He caused various
persons who had embezzled the funds of the colony to restore them,
imprisoning a corrupt judge. He was assassinated by the criminals he
had punished, and nothing came of the inquiry into his death.
1735. Earthquake in Baler, and tidal wave.
At this time, the audacity of the Moro pirates was incredible. They
ravaged the Visayas and southern Luzon, and carried away the
inhabitants by thousands for slaves. The natives began to desert the
coast, and take to the interior. Pedro Manuel de Arandia, obeying
repeated orders, decreed the expulsion of the Chinese.
1744. Another rising in Bohol, due to the tyranny of a Jesuit priest
named Morales. The chief of this rising was a native named Dagohoy,
who put the Jesuit to death, and maintained the independence of
Bohol, paying no tribute for thirty-five years. When the Jesuits
were expelled from the Philippines, Recollets were sent to Bohol,
and the natives submitted on receiving a free pardon.
1749. Eruption of the Taal volcano, and earthquake in Manila. The
eruption lasted for twenty days.
1754. Violent eruption of the Taal volcano, which began on 15th
May, and lasted till the end of November. This was accompanied
by earthquakes, an inundation, terrifying electrical discharges,
and destructive storms. The ashes darkened the country for miles
round, even as far as Manila. When the eruption ceased, the stench
was dreadful, and the sea and lake threw up quantities of dead fish
and alligators. A malignant fever burst out, which carried off vast
numbers of the population round about the volcano.
1762. A British squadron, with troops from India, arrived in the
bay 22nd September, and landed the forces near the powder-magazine of
S. Antonio Abad. On the 24th, the city was bombarded. The Spaniards
sent out 2000 Pampangos to attack the British, but they were repulsed
with great slaughter, and ran away to their own country.
The civil population of Manila were decidedly in favour of resisting
to the last drop of the soldiers' blood; but the soldiers were not at
all anxious for this. Confusion arose in the city, and whilst
recriminations were in progress, the British took the city by assault,
meeting only a half-hearted resistance.
The natives immediately began plundering, and were turned out of the
city by General Draper. The Chinese also joined in the robbery, and a
few were hanged in consequence. The city was pillaged. The British
regiments are said to have behaved well, but the sepoys ravished the
women, and killed many natives.
Cavite was about to be surrendered, but as soon as the native troops
there knew what was going on, they began at once to plunder the town
and arsenal.
1763. A British expedition sailing in small craft took possession
of Malolos on January 19th, 1763. The Augustin and Franciscan friars
took arms to defend Bulacan, where two of them were killed in action.
It was said that the Chinese were conspiring to exterminate the
Spaniards. Simon de Anda, the chief of the war-party amongst the
Spaniards, issued an order that all the Chinese in the Philippines
should be hanged, and this order was in a great measure carried
out. This was the fourth time the Spaniards and natives exterminated
the Chinese in the Philippines.
Peace having been made in Europe, the British evacuated Manila
in March, 1774.
In order to satisfy their vanity, and account for the easy victory
of the British, the Spaniards made various accusations of treachery
against a brave Frenchman named Falles, and a Mexican, Santiago de
Orendain. Both those men gallantly led columns of Pampangos against
the British lines in the sortie before mentioned. Although the
Pampangos, full of presumption, boldly advanced against the British
and sepoys, they were no match for disciplined troops led by British
officers, and were hurled back at the point of the bayonet. The
inevitable defeat and rout was made a pretext for the infamous charges
against their leaders. It may be asked, Was there no Spaniard brave
enough to lead the sorties, that a Frenchman and a Mexican were
obliged to take command?
The Spaniards in this campaign showed themselves more at home in
making proclamations, accusations, and intriguing against each other,
than in fighting. However, the friars are exempt from this reproach,
for Augustinians, Dominicans and Franciscans, fought and died, and
shamed the soldiers.
No less than ten Augustinians fell on the field of battle, nineteen
were made prisoners, and twelve were banished. The British are said
by the Augustinians to have sacked and destroyed fifteen of their
conventos, or priests' houses, six houses of their haciendas, and to
have sold everything belonging to them in Manila. The Augustinians
gave their church bells to be cast into cannon for the defence of
the islands.
Spaniards and natives, however, showed great unanimity and enthusiasm
in massacring or hanging the unwarlike Chinamen, and in pillaging their
goods. Nearly all the Chinese in the islands, except those in the parts
held by the British, were killed.
During the Anglo-Spanish war there were revolts of the natives in
Pangasinan and in Ilocos, then a very large province (it is now divided
into four), but both these risings were suppressed. The same happened
with a revolt in Cagayan. Disturbances also occurred in many other
provinces.
Simon de Anda became Governor-General, and carried out the expulsion of
the Jesuits from the Philippines. Great troubles again occurred between
the Archbishop and the friars over the diocesan visit.
1766. 20th July, violent eruption of the Mayon volcano.
23rd October, terrible typhoon in Albay, causing enormous destruction
of life and property.
1777. José Basco y Vargas, a naval officer, came out as
Governor-General, and found the country overrun with banditti. He made
a war of extermination against them, and then initiated a vigorous
campaign against the Moros. He repaired the forts, built numbers of
war vessels, and cut up the pirates in many encounters. Basco governed
for nearly eleven years.
1784. During the government of Felix Marquina, a naval officer, the
Compañia de Filipinas was founded to commence a trade between Spain and
the Philippines. Marquina was succeeded by Rafael Maria de Aguilar,
an army officer, who organized the land and naval forces, and made
fierce war on the Moros. He governed the islands for fourteen years.
1787. Violent and destructive earthquake in Panay.
1796. Disastrous earthquake in Manila.
1800. Destructive eruption of the Mayon volcano.
1807. Rebellion in Ilocos.
When the parish priest of Betal, an Augustinian, was preaching to his
flock, exhorting them to obedience to their sovereign, a woman stood
up in the church and spoke against him, saying that they should not
believe him, that his remarks were all humbug, that with the pretence
of God, the Gospel, and the King, the priest merely deceived them, so
that the Spaniards might skin them and suck their blood, for the
priests were Spaniards like the rest. However, the townsmen declared
for the King, and took the field under the leadership of the priest.
1809. The first English commercial house established in Manila.
1811. Rebellion in Ilocos to change the religion, nominating a
new god called Lungao. The leaders of this rebellion entered into
negotiations with the Igorrotes and other wild tribes to exterminate
the Spaniards, but the conspiracy was discovered and frustrated.
1814. Rebellion in Ilocos and other provinces.
Prisoners released in some towns in Ilocos. This rebellion was in
consequence of General Gandarás proclaiming the equality of races,
which the Indians interpreted by refusing to pay taxes.
1st February, violent earthquake in south Luzon and destructive
eruption of the Mayon volcano. Astonishing electrical discharges.
A discharge of ashes caused five hours' absolute darkness, through
which fell showers of red hot stones which completely burnt the towns
of Camalig, Cagsana, and Budiao with half of the towns of Albay and
Guinchatau, and part of Bulusan.
The darkness caused by the black ashes reached over the whole of Luzon,
and even to the coast of China. So loud was the thunder that it was
heard in distant parts of the Archipelago.
Great epidemic of cholera in Manila.
1820. Massacre of French, English, and Americans in Manila by the
natives who plundered their dwellings, after which they proceeded with
the fifth massacre of the Chinese. They asserted that the Europeans had
poisoned the wells and produced the cholera. The massacre was due to
the villainous behaviour of a Philippine Spaniard named Varela, who was
Alcalde of Tondo, equivalent to Governor of Manila, and to the criminal
weakness and cowardice of Folgueras the acting governor-general, who
abstained from interference until the foreigners had been killed,
and only sent out troops when forced by the remonstrances of the
friars and other Spaniards.
The archbishop and the friars behaved nobly, for they marched out in
procession to the streets of Binondo, and did their best to stop the
massacre, whilst Folgueras, only attentive to his own safety, remained
with the fortifications.
1822. Juan Antonio Martinez took over the government in
October. Folgueras having reported unfavourably of the officers of
the Philippine army, Martinez brought with him a number of officers
of the Peninsular army to replace those who were inefficient.
This caused a mutiny of the Spanish officers of the native army, and
they murdered Folgueras in his bed. He thus expiated his cowardice in
1820. The mutiny was, however, suppressed, and Novales and twenty
sergeants were shot. Novales' followers had proclaimed him Emperor of
the Philippines. The constitution was abolished by Martinez, without
causing any rising.
1824. Destructive earthquake in Manila.
Alonzo Morgado appointed by Martinez to be captain of the Marina Sutil,
commenced an unrelenting persecution of the piratical Moros, causing
them enormous losses.
1828. Another military insurrection, headed by two brothers,
officers in the Philippine army.
From this date Peninsular troops were permanently maintained in Manila,
which had never been done before.
1829. Father Bernardo Lago, an indefatigable missionary of the
Augustinian Order, with his assistants baptised in the provinces of
Abra and Benguet more than 5300 heathen Tinguianes and Igorrotes,
and settled them in towns.
1834. Foreign vessels allowed to enter Manila by paying double dues.
1836-7. Great disturbances amongst the natives in consequence of
the ex-claustration of the friars in Spain. The natives divided into
two parties. One wished to turn out the friars and all Spaniards,
the others to turn out all Spaniards except the friars, who were to
remain and take charge of the government.
The disturbances were ultimately smoothed over.
1841. Marcelino de Oráa being Governor-General, a sanguinary
insurrection burst out in Tayabas, under the leadership of a native,
Apolinario de la Cruz. He murdered the Alcalde of the province, and
persuaded his fanatical adherents that he would make the earth open
and swallow up the Spanish forces when they attacked.
His following was composed of 3000 men, women, and children. They were
attacked by four hundred soldiers and as many cuadrilleros and
coast-guards, and suffered a crushing defeat, and a third of them were
slain.
Apolinario de la Cruz was apprehended, and immediately put to death.
Apolinario called himself the "King of the Tagals," and told his
followers that a Tagal virgin would come down from Heaven to wed him,
that with a handful of rice he could maintain all who followed him,
and that the Spanish bullets could not hurt them, and many other
absurd things. His followers declared that he had signified his
intention, in case of being victorious, to tie all the friars and other
Spaniards to trees, and to have them shot by the women with arrows.
There lay in garrison at Manila at this time a regiment composed of
Tagals of Tayabas, and they also mutinied, and were shot down by
the other troops.
1844. Royal order prohibiting the admission of foreigners to the
interior of the country.
Narciso de Claveria became Governor-General, and organised a police
force called the Public Safety for Manila, and similar corps for the
provinces. Up to this time the Alcaldes Mayores of provinces had been
allowed to trade, and, in fact, were almost the only traders in their
provinces, buying up the whole crop. This forced trade is quite a
Malay custom, and is practised in Borneo and the Malay States under
the name of Serra-dagang.
The Alcaldes Mayores used to pay the crown one third, or half, or all
their salary for this privilege, and took in return all they could
squeeze out of their provinces without causing an insurrection, or
without causing the friars to complain of them to the Government, for
the parish priests were ever the protectors of the natives against the
civil authority. This privilege of trading was now abolished as being
unworthy of the position of governor of a province.
1851. Expedition by the Governor-General Antonio de Urbiztondo
against Joló. The force consisted of four regiments, with artillery,
and a battalion of the inhabitants of Cebú, under the command of a
Recollet friar, Father Ibañez. These latter behaved in the bravest
manner, in fact they had to; for their wives, at the instance of the
priest, had sworn never to receive them again if they turned their
backs on the enemy.
The undaunted Father Ibañez led them to the assault, and lost his life
in the moment of victory. Eight cottas (forts), with their artillery
and ammunition, were captured by this expedition, and a great number
of Moros were killed.
After this the Joló pirates abated their insolent attacks. Claveria
made an expedition against the piratical Moros and seized their island
of Balanguingin, killing 400 Moros, and taking 300 prisoners, also
rescuing 200 captives. He also captured 120 guns and lantacas, and
150 piratical vessels. This exemplary chastisement tranquillised the
Moros for some time.
1853. 13th June. Loud subterranean noises in Albay and eruption of
the Mayon volcano. Fall of ashes and red-hot stones which rolled down
the mountain and killed thirty-three people.
1854. Insurrection in Nueva Ecija under Cuesta, a Spanish mestizo
educated in Spain, where Queen Isabela had taken notice of him.
He arrived in Manila with the appointment of Commandant of Carabineros
in Nueva Ecija, and immediately began to plot. The Augustine friars
harangued his followers and persuaded them to disperse, and Cuesta was
captured and executed, with several other conspirators; others were
banished to distant islands.
In this year Manuel Crespo became Governor-General, and a military
officer, named Zapatero, endeavoured to strangle him in his own office.
1855. Strong shocks of earthquake in all Luzon. Eruption of the
Mayon volcano.
1856. In the latter part of this year a submarine volcanic explosion
took place at the Didica shoal, eight miles north-east of the island
of Camiguin in the Babuyanes, to the north of Luzon. It remains an
active volcano, and has raised a cone nearly to the height of the
volcano of Camiguin, which is 2414 feet high.
1857. The old decrees against foreigners renewed.
Fernando de Norzagaray became governor-general, and found the country
over-run by bandits, against whom he employed severe measures. He
greatly improved Manila.
The French in Cochin-China, finding more resistance than they expected,
appealed to Norzagaray for help. He lent them money, ships, and about
a thousand native troops, who behaved with great bravery during the
campaign.
1860. Ramon Maria Solano succeeded to the Government.
In this year two steam sloops and nine steam gunboats were added to
the naval forces, and now the Moros could only put to sea running
great risks of destruction.
These nine gunboats were the greatest blessings the Philippines
had received for many years.
1861. José de Lemery y Ibarrola, Governor-General. Mendez-Nuñez,
with the steam sloops and gunboats, inflicted terrible chastisement
on the piratical Moros.
1862. Rafael de Echague y Bermingham became Governor-General.
Second visitation of cholera in the islands, but not so severe
as in 1820.
1863. Terrible earthquake in Manila and the surrounding country,
causing thousands of victims, destroying the cathedral, the palace
of the governor-general, the custom houses, the principal churches
(except St. Augustine), the public and private buildings, in fact,
reducing the city to a ruin.
At this time the steam gunboats continually hostilised the Moros of
Joló, and caused them great losses.
1865. Juan de Lara y Irigoyen became Governor-General, and
took measures to subdue the bandits, who were committing great
depredations and murders. Hostilities continued in Joló, as the Moros
had recommenced their piratical cruises.
1866. Frequent earthquakes in Manila and Benguet.
At this time the Treasury was in the greatest difficulty, and could
not meet the current payments. A large quantity of tobacco was sold
to meet the difficulty.
1867. José de la Gandara y Navarro became Governor-General. To him
is due the credit of creating that excellent institution the Guardia
Civil, which has extirpated the banditti who infested the islands
for so many years.
An expedition was sent against the Igorrotes, but without effecting
anything of consequence.
1868. June 4th. Intense earthquake in the island of Leyte.
1869. Carlos Maria de la Torre became Governor-General, and was not
ashamed to publish a proclamation offering the bandits a free pardon if
they presented themselves within three months. Hundreds and thousands
of men now joined the bandits for three months murder and pillage, with
a free pardon at the end of it. This idiotic and cowardly proclamation
was most prejudicial to the interests of the country. Finally a special
corps, called La Torre's Guides, was organised to pursue the bandits.
1871. Rafael Izquierdo y Guttierez became Governor-General, and
raised the excellent corps called La Veterana to act as the police
of the capital.
December 8th, eruption of the Mayon volcano, and discharge of ashes
and lava. Two persons smothered, and one burnt.
16th February. Commencement of the series of earthquakes which
preceded the frightful volcanic eruption in the island of Camiguin
on 30th April. Full details of this terrible event are preserved. A
volcanic outburst took place on the above date at 344 metres from
the town of Cabarman, and near the sea. Great volumes of inflammable
gases were ejected from deep cracks in the neighbouring hills,
which presently took fire, and soared in flames of incredible height,
setting fire to the forests. The wretched inhabitants who had remained
in their houses found themselves surrounded by smoke, steam, water,
ashes, and red hot stones, whilst their island seemed on fire, and they
had sent away all their seaworthy craft with the women and children.
At first the volcanic vent was only two metres high, but it continually
increased.
After the eruption, the earthquakes decreased, and on 7th May entirely
ceased.
The volcano gradually raised itself by the material thrown out to a
height of 418 metres.
1872. Military revolt in Cavite, in which the native clergy were
mixed up. A secret society had been working at this plot for several
years, and was very widely extended. It inundated the towns of the
Archipelago with calumnious and libellous leaflets in the native
languages. The conspiracy coincided with the return of the Jesuits in
accordance with a Royal Order, and their substitution for the Recollets
missionaries in many parishes in Mindanao. In turn, the Recollets,
removed from Mindanao, were given benefices in Luzon which, for one
hundred years, had been in the hands of the native clergy, who were,
in consequence, very dissatisfied, and great hatred was aroused
against the Recollets. The mutiny was suppressed by the Spaniards
and the Visayas troops, who bayoneted the Tagals without mercy,
even when they had laid down their arms.
Besides many who were shot for complicity in this revolt, three native
priests--D. Mariano Gomez, D. Jacinto Zamora, and D. José Burgos--were
garrotted in Bagumbayan on the 28th February. Much discussion arose
about the guilt or innocence of these men, and it is a matter on which
friars and native clergy are never likely to agree.
Later on, a rising took place in Zamboanga penal establishment, but
this was put down by the warlike inhabitants of that town, who are
always ready to take up arms in their own defence, and are very loyal
to Spain.
Loud subterranean noises in Albay. Eruption of the Mayon volcano, which
lasted for four days.
1873. Juan de Alaminos y Vivar became governor-general.
The ports of Legaspi, Tacloban and Leyte, were opened to foreign
commerce.
November 14, 1873, violent earthquake in Manila. Eruption of the
Mayon volcano, from 15th June to 23rd July.
1874. Manuel Blanco Valderrama, being acting governor-general,
fighting took place in Balábac, where the Spanish garrison was
surprised by the Moros. José Malcampo y Monge, a rear-admiral, took
over the government of the islands, and, during his administration,
the news of the proclamation of Alfonso XII, as King of Spain was
received, and gave great satisfaction in Manila, which had never
taken to the Republican Government in Spain.
Malcampo led a strong expedition, consisting of 9000 men, against the
Moros, and took Joló by assault, after bombarding the Cottas by the
ships' guns. At the end of his time, the regiment of Peninsular
Artillery had become demoralised, and its discipline very lax. Finally,
the soldiers refused to obey their officers, and broke out of barracks.
Two of them were shot dead by the officer of the guard at the
barrack-gate, Captain Brull, but the affair was hushed up, and
no one was punished. Discipline was quite lost.
1877. Great devastation by locusts in province of Batangas. Domingo
Moriones y Murillo arrived, and took over the government on 28th
February. His first act was to shoot a number of the Spanish mutineers,
put others in prison, and send back fifty to Spain in the same vessel
with Malcampo. This incident is related in greater detail in Chapter
III. The Treasury was in the greatest poverty, and the poor natives of
Cagayan obliged to cultivate tobacco and deliver it to the government
officials, had not been paid for it for two or three years, and were
actually starving. Moriones did what he could for them, and strongly
insisted on the abolition of the "estanco."
To this worthy governor, Manila and the Philippines owe much. He
insisted on the legacy of Carriedo being employed for the object
it was left for, instead of remaining in the hands of corrupt
officials.
He also made good regulations against rogues and vagabonds.
1879. Nov. 8th. Violent typhoon passed over Manila, doing much
damage.
July 1st. Commencement of earthquakes in Surigao (Mindanao), which
lasted over two months.
1880. Fernando Primo de Rivera became Governor-General, 15th April.
On July 14th, a violent earthquake took place, doing enormous damage
in the city of Manila and the central provinces of Luzon. The seismic
disturbance lasted till the 25th July. The inhabitants of Manila were
panic-stricken, and took refuge in the native nipa houses.
General Primo de Rivera made an expedition against the Igorrotes, and
the vile treatment the soldiers meted out to the Igorrote women has
delayed for years the conversion of those tribes.
1881. Eruption of the Mayon volcano, which began on July 6th,
and lasted till the middle of 1882.
At times there were loud subterranean noises, after which the flow of
lava usually increased.
1882. Dreadful epidemic of cholera which, in less than three months,
carried off 30,000 victims in the city and province of Manila. In the
height of the epidemic the deaths reached a thousand a day. The victims
were mostly natives, but many Spaniards died of the disease. Only
one Englishman died, and this was from his own imprudence. A typhoon
passed over Manila on October 20th, and caused great damage on shore
and afloat. Twelve large ships and a steamer were driven on shore,
or very seriously damaged.
On November 5th, another typhoon, not quite so violent as the first,
took place. After this, the cholera almost entirely stopped. On
December 31st, another typhoon occurred.
1883. Joaquin Jovellar y Soler, captain-general in the army, and
the pacificator of Cuba, assumed the government 7th April, and was
received with great show of satisfaction by the Spaniards.
The old tribute of the natives was replaced by the tax on the
Cédulas-personales.
During his time there were threats of insurrection, and additional
Peninsular troops were sent out. He resigned from ill-health
1st April, 1885.
October 28th. Typhoon passed over Manila.
1885. Emilio Terrero y Perinat assumed the government of the islands
on April 4th.
He conducted successful expeditions against the Moros of Mindanao
and Joló.
In the month of May, during the great heat, the River Pasig was covered
with green scum from the lake. The water was charged with gas, the fish
and cray-fish died, and the stench was overpowering, even at a couple
of miles distance from the river.
A huge waterspout was formed in the bay, and passed inland.
November. Death of King Alfonso XII., and mourning ceremonies in
all the islands.
October 2nd. Eruption of the Taal volcano.
1886. 5th March. Separation of the executive and judicial
powers. Appointment of eighteen civil governors instead of
alcaldes--mayores of provinces. Very great inconvenience occurred
through the delay in sending out the Judges of First Instance, and
the duties were, in some cases, temporarily performed by ignorant
persons devoid of any legal training.
11 P.M., 2nd April, an enormous flaming meteor traversed the sky,
travelling from E. to W., and when about the zenith it split into two
with a loud explosion, the pieces diverging at an angle of perhaps
45°; they fell, apparently, at a great distance, producing a violent
concussion like a sharp shock of earthquake.
24th April. Attack by bandits on the village of Montalban. Two of
them were killed by the Guardia Civil.
8th July. Eruption of the Mayon volcano in Albay. It continued to
discharge ashes and lava, bursting out into greater violence at times
till the middle of March, 1887.
March 19th. Don German Gamazo, Minister for the Colonies, lays before
the Queen-Regent, for her approbation, the project of the General
Exhibition of the Philippines, to be held in Madrid in 1887. In it
he says:--
"By this we shall bring about that the great sums of money which are
sent from the metropolis to purchase in foreign countries cotton,
sugar, cacao, tobacco, and other products, will go to our possessions
in Oceania, where foreign merchants buy them up, with evident damage
to the material interests of the country."
When it is considered that the freight from Manila to Barcelona in the
subsidised Spanish Royal Mail steamers was considerably higher than
that charged in the same steamers to Liverpool, that enormous duties
were charged in Spain on sugar and hemp, which enter British ports
duty free, and that British capital was advanced to the cultivators
to raise these very crops, the idiotic absurdity and contemptible
hypocrisy of such a statement may be faintly realised by the reader.
In May the mud of the Pasig became permeated with bubbles of gas, and
floated to the surface. On May 23rd, the writer witnessed several
violent explosions of fetid gas smelling like sulphuretted hydrogen
from the mud of the Pasig at Santa Ana.
June 7th. Triple murder committed at Cañacao by a Tagal from
jealousy.
20th May. Three days' holiday and public rejoicings ordered in
honour of the birth of the King of Spain (Alfonso XIII.).
1887. January 3rd. Troops embarked in Manila for the expedition
against the Moros of Mindanao under General Terrero.
March 5th. The United States warship Brooklyn arrived in Manila.
July 14th. The Penal Code put in force in the Philippines.
December 3rd. The Civil Code put in force in the Philippines.
1888. March 1st. A petition is presented to the Acting Civil
Governor of Manila by the Gobernadorcillo and Principales of Santa
Cruz, praying for the expulsion of the religious orders and of the
Archbishop, the secularization of all benefices, and the confiscation
of the estates of the Augustinians and Dominicans. See Chapter VI.
December 15th. Violent eruption of Mayon volcano with subterranean
noises, storms, thunder and lightning. Don Valeriano Weyler, Marques
de Tenerife, became governor-general.
1890. Agrarian disturbances occurred at Calamba and Santa
Rosa between the tenants on the Dominicans' estates and the lay
brother in charge. During this year there was a great increase
of secret societies. A woman admitted as a mason. A woman's lodge
established. See Chapter IX.
February 21st. Violent eruption of the Mayon.
February 24th. Several explosions occurred at the summit, discharging
showers of white-hot bombs. About 100 metres of the top toppled
over. Many of the inhabitants of the neighbouring towns fled to
a distance.
1891. Don Emilio Despujols, Conde de Caspe, became
governor-general. See Chapter III.
1893. Doroteo Cortes banished to the Province of La Union, other
malcontents banished to different localities.
October 3rd. Eruption of the Mayon and explosion of volcanic
bombs. Loud subterranean noises and deafening thunder.
A vast column of smoke ascended to the sky, from which proceeded
violet-coloured lightning.
The eruption lasted till the end of October.
1894. May. The Datto Julcainim, with seventy armed Moros from Sulu,
landed in Basilan Island to recover tribute from the natives, but
was sent back by a Spanish gunboat.
1896. August 30th. Tagal insurrection broke out near Manila and in
Cavite Province. See Chapter X.
1897. June 25th. Violent and disastrous eruptions of the
Mayon. Complete destruction of the villages San Antonio, San Isidro,
Santo Niño, San Roque, Santa Misericordia, and great damage to other
places by the incandescent lava. A dreadful tempest destroyed houses
and plantations in places where the lava did not reach. About 300
people were either killed outright or died of their wounds. Fifty
wounded persons recovered.
1898. March 24th. Revolt of the famous Visayas or 74th Regiment
at Cavite.
March 25th. Massacre of the Calle Camba.
April 24th. Meeting at Singapore between Aguinaldo and the United
States' Consul, Mr. Spencer Pratt.
April 26th. Aguinaldo proceeds to Hong Kong.
May 1st. Naval battle of Cavite. Destruction of the Spanish squadron
and capture of Cavite Arsenal by the Americans.
May 19th. Aguinaldo and seventeen followers land at Cavite from
the United States' vessel Hugh McCullough, and are furnished with
arms by Admiral Dewey.
May 24th. Aguinaldo proclaims a Dictatorial Government.
June 23rd. He issues a manifesto claiming for the Philippines a
place, if a modest one, amongst the nations.
August 6th. He sends a message to foreign powers claiming
recognition.
August 13th. The American troops enter Manila, the Spaniards making
only a show of resistance.
August 14th. The capitulation signed. General Merritt issues his
proclamation establishing a military government.
August 15th. General McArthur appointed military commandant of the
Walled City and Provost-Marshal-General of the city and suburbs.
September 29th. General Aguinaldo makes a speech at Malolos to
the Philippine Congress, the keynote of which was independence:
"The Philippines for the Filipinos."
October 2nd. The Peace Commission holds its preliminary meeting
in Paris.
November 13th. The insurgents invest Ilo-ilo. Fighting proceeding
in other parts of Visayas between Spaniards and natives.
December 10th. The Peace Commission signs the Treaty. Don Felipe
Agoncillo, representative of the Philippine Government, hands in a
formal protest, of which no notice is taken.
December 24th. The Spaniards evacuate Ilo-ilo.
December 26th. The insurgents occupy the city. The Spaniards evacuate
all the southern island stations except Zamboanga. The Philippine
Congress at Malolos adjourns.
December 29th. New Philippine cabinet formed; all the members
pledged to independence.
President of Congress and Minister for Foreign Affairs, Señor Mabini;
Secretary for War, Señor Luna; Interior, Señor Araneta; Agriculture
and Commerce, Señor Buencamino; Public Works, Señor Canon.
1899. January 5th. The Washington officials announce that they
"expect a peaceful adjustment." [Blessed are they who expect nothing.]
President McKinley instructs General Otis to extend military
government with all dispatch to the whole ceded territory.
January 8th. Protest of Aguinaldo against the Americans.
January 12th. General Otis telegraphs to the War Department that
conditions are apparently improving.
Other dispatches represent the situation as daily growing more acute.
January 16th. A telegram was received at Washington from General
Otis, of so reassuring a character regarding the position at Manila
and Ilo-ilo, that the government officials accept without question
the correctness of his statement, that the critical stage of the
trouble there is now past and that he controls the situation.
A commission nominated by President McKinley, consisting of
Dr. Schurman, President of Cornell University; Professor Worcester
of Michigan University, and Mr. Denby.
January 21st. The Philippine constitution is proclaimed at Malolos.
February 4th. Fighting between Filipinos and Americans began at
Santa Mesa 8.45 P.M., and continued through the night.
February 5th. Fighting continued all day and ended in the repulse
of the Filipinos with heavy loss.
General Otis wires: "The situation is most satisfactory, and
apprehension need not be felt."
February 6th. The U.S. Senate ratifies the Peace Treaty with Spain
by 57 to 27.
Senator Gorman in the course of the debate expressed his belief
that the battle at Manila was only the beginning. If the treaty was
ratified war would follow, lasting for years, and costing many lives,
and millions upon millions of money.
[Senator Gorman makes a better prophet than General Merritt or
Mr. Foreman.]
February 8th. General Otis wires: "The situation is rapidly
improving. The insurgent army is disintegrating, Aguinaldo's influence
has been destroyed."
February 10th. The Americans attack and capture Calocan. President
McKinley signs the Treaty.
February 11th. Ilo-ilo captured by General Miller without loss,
but a considerable part of the town was burned.
February 18th. The American flag hoisted at Bacolod in Negros Island,
opposite Ilo-ilo.
February 22nd. Tagals attempt to burn Manila, setting fire
simultaneously to the Santa Cruz, San Nicolas, and Tondo. Sharp
fighting at Tondo. Many natives were burned while penned in by the
cordon of guards.
February 23rd. The Americans burned all that remained of
Tondo. General Otis issued an order requiring the inhabitants to
remain in their homes after 7 P.M.
March 13. Oscar F. Williams does not expect to live to see the
end of the war. This is the man who on July 2nd, 1898, "hoped for an
influx that year of 10,000 ambitious Americans," who he said could
all live well and become enriched. See Chapter XVIII.
Since the American occupation three hundred drinking saloons have
been opened in Manila.
March 19th. Urgent instructions sent from Washington to Generals
Otis and Lawton to hasten the end.
March 24th. Engagement at Marilao--the Filipinos are defeated.
New York Times says the situation is both surprising and painful
to the American people.
March 31st. The Americans occupy Malolos which the Filipinos had
set on fire, after some skirmishing.
April 1st. Troops resting at Malolos.
The ironclad Monadnock was fired on by Filipinos artillery at
Parañaque (three miles from Manila), and replied silencing the
guns on shore.
April 20th. A column of General Lawton's force, 140 strong,
surrounded and captured by the Filipinos near Binangonan.
April 23rd. Fighting at Quingua. Col. Stotsenburg killed. This was
a severe engagement.
April 26th. Americans capture Calumpit. Washington "profoundly
relieved."
April 27th. Fighting near Apalit.
April 30th. General Otis believes that the Filipinos are tired of
the war.
May 1st. Anniversary of the Battle of Cavite.
May 2nd. Conference between Filipino envoys and General Otis with
the American Civil Commissioners.
General Lawton captures Baliuag.
May 12th. The Nebraska Regiment petitions General McArthur to relieve
them from duty, being exhausted by the campaign. Since February 4th,
the regiment has lost 225 killed and wounded, and 59 since the fight
at Malolos.
May 18th. Filipino peace delegates enter General Lawton's lines at
San Isidro.
May 20th. Admiral Dewey leaves Manila in the Olympia.
May 22nd. The U.S. Civil Commission received Aguinaldo's Peace
Commissioners, and explained to them President McKinley's scheme
of Government.
May 29th. Aguinaldo reported dead.
May 30th. The authorities at Washington admit that more troops are
needed for Manila.
June 1st. Mr. Spencer Pratt obtains an interim injunction in the
Supreme Court, Singapore, against the sale of Mr. Foreman's book,
"The Philippine Islands."
June 5th. Skirmishing in the Laguna district. An attempt by the
Americans to surround Pio del Pilar fails.
June 13th. A Filipino battery at Las Piñas, between Manila and
Cavite, consisting of an old smooth bore gun and two one-pounders
open fire on the American lines. A battery of the 1st Artillery,
the ironclad Monadnock, and the gunboat Helena directed their fire
upon this antiquated battery, and kept it up all the morning.
A correspondent remarks, "This was the first real artillery duel
of the war."
This developed into one of the hardest fights in the war, the
Filipinos made a determined stand at the Zapote bridge.
Reports arrive that General Antonio Luna had been killed by some
of General Aguinaldo's guards.
June 16th. The Filipinos attack the Americans at San Fernando and
are repulsed with heavy loss.
Mr. Whitelaw Reid, addressing the Miami University of Ohio, denounces
the President's policy, or want of policy, in the Philippines.
June 19th. American troops under General Wheaton march through
Cavite Province.
June 21st. General Miles describes the situation at Manila as
"very serious."
June 26th. Twelve per cent. of the American forces sick. Little
can now be attempted as the rainy season is now on.
June 27th. General Otis reports that the Filipinos have no civil
government.
June 28th. It is stated that General Otis will have 40,000 men
available for active operations after the rainy season.
July 12th. General Otis asks for 2500 horses for the organisation
of a brigade of cavalry after the rainy season.
The entire staff of correspondents of the American newspapers protest
against the methods of General Otis in exercising too strict a
censorship over telegrams and letters. They say, "We believe that,
owing to the official despatches sent from Manilla and published in
Washington, the people of the United States have received a false
impression of the situation in the Philippines, and that these
despatches present an ultra-optimistic view which is not shared by
general officers in the field."
July 20th. The rainfall at Manila since 1st June has been 41 inches
and the country is flooded.
July 23rd. Mr. Elihu Root nominated to succeed Mr. Alger as Secretary
for War.
July 27th. General Hall's division captures Calamba on the lake.
August 1st. Mr. Root sworn in as Secretary for War. He contemplates
increasing General Otis' available force to 40,000 men.
August 15th. General McArthur's force captures Angeles.
August 17th. Orders issued at Washington to form ten additional
regiments to serve in the Philippines. General Otis to have 62,000
men under his command.
August 23rd. General Otis applies the Chinese Exclusion law to
the Philippines.
August 24th. The Moros sign an agreement acknowledging the
sovereignty of the United States over the entire Philippine Islands.
The Moros of Western Mindanao are asking for permission to drive out
the insurgents.
August 28th. President McKinley makes a speech to the 10th
Pennsylvanian Regiment lately arrived from Manila. See Chapter XII.
September 1st. Fighting in Negros, American successes.
September 14th. U.S. cruiser Charleston engages a gun mounted by
the Filipinos at Olongapó, Subic Bay, and fired sixty-nine shells
from her 8-inch guns without silencing the gun, notwithstanding that
the Filipinos used black powder.
September 18th. Some of the U.S. Civil Commission had already
started to return; remainder leave.
September 23rd. A U.S. squadron, consisting of the Monterey,
Charleston, Concord and Zafiro, bombarded the one-gun battery of
the Filipinos at Olongapó for six hours, and then landed 250 men who
captured and destroyed the gun which was 16-centimetre calibre.
General Otis, in an interview, is reported to have stated that "Things
are going very satisfactorily."
September 28th. General McArthur captures Porac.
September 30th. General Aguinaldo releases fourteen American
prisoners. They looked well and hearty, and it was evident that they
had been well treated.
October 8th. General Schwan advanced against Noveleta and encountered
a heavy resistance, but ultimately took the town and next day occupied
Rosario.
October 18th. War now said to be beginning in its most serious
phase. The American troops, men and officers, said to be thoroughly
discouraged by the futility of the operations ordered by General
Otis. They feel that their lives are being sacrificed without anything
being accomplished.
October 28th. 17,000 sick and tired soldiers have been sent home
and replaced by 27,000 fresh men. 34,000 are on the way or under
orders. Total will be 65,000 men and forty ships of war.
October 31st. General Otis reports to the War Department that the
continuance of the rainy season still harasses the prosecution of
the campaign.
Count Almenas, speaking in the Spanish Senate, said that through the
ignorance of the Peace Commission the Batanes Islands, Cagayan Sulu,
and Sibutu were not included in the scope of the treaty.
November 7th. General Wheaton, with an American force lands at San
Fabian [Pangasinan] and marches towards Dagupan, driving the Filipinos
before him.
November 13th. Tarlac captured by the Americans under Colonel
Bell. Telegrams from Manila state, "A careful review of the situation
made on the spot justifies the prediction that all organised hostile
operations on a definite plan are at an end."
November 14th. The U.S. cruiser Charleston lost on the Guinapak
rocks to the north of Luzon, and the crew land on Camiguin Island.
November 28th. The province of Zamboanga [Mindanao] said to have
surrendered unconditionally to the commander of the gunboat Castine.
December 20th. General Lawton shot by the insurgents at San Mateo
whilst personally directing the crossing of the river by two battalions
of the 29th U.S. infantry.
1900. January 20th. The Filipinos capture a pack train of twenty
ponies in the Laguna Province. American losses, two killed, five
wounded, nine missing.
February 15th. American newspapers report many cases of insanity
amongst the U.S. soldiers.
February 20th. General Otis signifies to the War Department his
desire for leave of absence from Manila to recruit his health.
March 30th. The bubonic plague, extending in Luzon, and appears
in other islands of the Archipelago. Cases suspected to be leprosy
reported amongst the U.S. troops.
Independent reports represent the situation in the Philippines
as most unsatisfactory. The islands are practically in a state
of anarchy.
April 6th. The War Department issues an order recalling General
Otis, because his work has been accomplished, and appoints General
McArthur in his place.
May 1st. Judge Canty, of Minnesota, makes a report upon the condition
of the Philippines.
He says: "All the native tribes, except a small band of Macabebes and
the Sulu Mahometans, are against us, and hate the Americans worse
than the Spaniards.... The American soldiers are undergoing terrible
hardships, and are a prey to deadly tropical diseases."
June 2nd. General McArthur asks for more troops, and at least three
regiments are to be sent.
June 14th. Rear-Admiral Raney cables for another battalion of
marines.
June 15th. Macaboulos, a Filipino chieftain, surrenders at Tarlac
with 8 officers and 120 riflemen.
June 17th. A regiment of infantry and a battery of artillery embark
at Manila for China.
June 19th. It is reported that, in all, 5000 men are to be sent
from Manila to China.
June 20th. But to-day, the idea prevails in Washington that, under
present conditions, every soldier in the Philippines is needed there.
July 27. Negotiations are being carried on between Spain and the
United States for the cession by the former to the latter of the
Sibutu and Cagayan Islands on payment of a sum of $100,000.
August 4th. The Filipinos kill or capture a lieutenant of Engineers
and fifteen soldiers.
August 8th. Miss Margaret Astor Chanler, who was engaged in Red
Cross work in Manila, declares that the hospitals are inadequate. This
is confirmed by the Washington correspondent of the World. He says
3700 men are now in hospital, and large numbers are unable to find
accommodation. Thousands who are down with fever and other diseases
are without doctors or medical supplies. Eight per cent. of the entire
force is incapacitated.
August 15th. The Filipinos reported to be gaining ground.
The cost of the war said to be nearly £40,000,000, 2394 deaths,
3073 wounded. There are said to be still 70,000 American troops in
the Philippines. The "goodwill" of the war cost £4,000,000.
August 19th. Censored news despatches from Manila show that the
Filipinos are increasing their activity, and scorn the offers of
amnesty.
September 1st. The Civil Commission in the Philippines, presided
over by Judge Taft, assumes the direction of the Government. Judge
Taft reports that the insurrection is virtually ended, and that a
modus vivendi is established with the ecclesiastical authorities!
September 3rd. General McArthur cables that an outbreak has occurred
in Bohol, and that in an engagement near Carmen the Americans lost
1 killed and 6 wounded, and the Filipinos 120 killed.
September 6th. The estimated cost of the Philippines to America is
estimated at three-quarters of a million dollars per day.
September 12th. The first public legislative session of the Civil
Commission was held. Two million dollars (Mexican) were voted for
the construction of roads and bridges, $5000 for the expenses of a
preliminary survey of a railroad between Dagupan and Benguet, and
$5400 towards the expenses of the educational system.
September 17th. General McArthur cables that Captain McQuiston,
who had become temporarily insane, shot a number of men of his
company. The others, in self-defence, shot and killed the captain.
September 20th. The Civil Commission reports that large numbers of
the people in the Philippines are longing for peace, and are willing
to accept the government of the United States.
General McArthur cables reports of fighting in the Ilocos Provinces,
from whence General Young telegraphs for reinforcements, also in
Bulacan, and in Tayabas.
A desperate engagement is fought in the Laguna Province, where the
Americans made an attack upon the Filipino positions, and were repulsed
with heavy loss, including Captain Mitchell and Lieutenant Cooper.
The Filipinos are constantly harassing and attacking the
American outposts and garrisons around Manila, and have caused fourteen
casualties amongst the troops.
CUSTOMS DUES ON EXPORTS, 1896-97.
Articles. Tax per 100 kilos
Gross Weight.
$ cts.
Hemp or cordage 0.75
Indigo 0.50
Tintarron liquid indigo 0.05
Rice 2.00
Sugar 0.10
Cocoa-nuts or copra 0.10
Tobacco in cigars or cigarettes 3.00
Tobacco in leaf from the provinces of
Cagayan, Isabela, and Nueva Vizcaya
in Luzon 3.00
Tobacco in leaf from Visayas and Mindanao 2.00
Tobacco in leaf from any other province 1.50
Estimated receipts from above tax in the
financial year 1896-97 $1,292,550
EXTRA IMPORT TAX ON CONSUMABLE ARTICLES.
(This is in addition to the Customs dues.)
$ cts.
Spirits In barrels or demijohns per litre 0.20
In bottles or flasks per litre 0.30
Beer 0.10
Vegetables or fruits, dried or green per kilog. 0.02
Wheat flour per 100 kilog. 0.50
Common salt per 100 kilog. 1.00
Petroleum and mineral oils per 100 kilog. 1.00
Estimated receipts from above tax in the
financial year 1896-97 $301,000
EXPORT STATISTICS.
16 piculs = 1 ton of 20 cwt.; 8 bales hemp = 1 ton of 20 cwt.;
1 quintal = 100 lbs. Spanish, or about 101¾ English.
+-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | Sugar. |Hemp. | Copra. |Coffee.|Cordage.|Sapan-wood.|Hides and|M.-o'-P.| Gum. | Indigo. | Tobacco |Cigars.|
| | | | | | | |Cuttings.|Shells. | | | Leaf. | |
+-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| | Piculs. |Bales. | Piculs. |Piculs.|Piculs. | Piculs. | Piculs. |Piculs. |Piculs.|Quintals.|Quintals.| Mil. |
| {Manila |1,500,139|571,047| .. |107,236| 1,985| 12,006| 32,658| 184| 5,276| 4,639| 204,592|109,109|
|1888 {Cebú | 267,100| 90,385| | | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|1,197,851| .. | Small | .. | .. | 93,575| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+quantities+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |2,965,090|661,432| only |107,236| 1,985| 105,581| 32,658| 184| 5,276| 4,639| 204,592|109,109|
|-------------+---------+-------+ shipped. +-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| {Manila |1,565,668|475,638| No | 92,993| 1,487| 17,965| 7,701| 387| 7,326| 3,545| 203,085|120,532|
|1889 {Cebú | 187,791| 92,933| records | | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|1,748,049| .. | kept. | .. | .. | 60,739| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+ +-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |3,501,508|568,571| .. | 92,993| 1,487| 78,704| 7,701| 387| 7,326| 3,545| 203,085|120,532|
|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| {Manila | 874,088|449,606| 74,447| 76,756| 3,141| 21,934| 6,300| 501| 3,016| 374| 179,054|109,636|
|1890 {Cebú | 55,280| 56,549| | | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|1,431,054| .. | .. | .. | .. | 22,635| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |2,360,422|506,155| 74,447| 76,756| 3,141| 44,569| 6,300| 501| 3,016| 374| 179,054|109,636|
|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| {Manila |1,174,374|546,854| 245,309| 45,917| 2,403| 17,051| 5,439| 452| 4,168| 2,039| 195,925| 93,248|
|1891 {Cebú | 140,200| 88,693| | | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|1,357,685| .. | .. | .. | | 52,886| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |2,672,259|635,547| 245,309| 45,917| 2,403| 69,937| 5,439| 452| 4,168| 2,039| 195,925| 93,248|
+-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| {Manila |1,089,054|702,228| 259,539| 21,242| 1,762| 29,634| 6,032| 507| 5,005| 5,894| 253,850|138,389|
|1892 {Cebú | 294,220| 88,280| | | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|2,571,989| .. | .. | .. | | 36,277| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |3,955,263|790,508| 259,539| 21,242| 1,762| 65,911| 6,032| 507| 5,005| 5,894| 253,850|138,389|
|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| {Manila |1,712,059|561,391| 184,304| 4,910| 2,251| 53,319| 6,145| 671| 3,638| 940| 230,686|137,458|
|1893 {Cebú | 271,400| 80,080| | | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|2,203,523| .. | .. | .. | | 25,376| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |4,186,982|641,471| 184,304| 4,910| 2,251| 78,695| 6,145| 671| 3,638| 940| 230,686|137,458|
|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| {Manila |1,577,523|661,550| 512,729| 9,502| 1,787| 43,368| 5,236| 347| 1,788| 1,025| 191,706|137,877|
|1894 {Cebú | 163,172|119,721| | | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|1,369,507| .. | .. | .. | | 26,124| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |3,110,202|781,271| 512,729| 9,502| 1,787| 69,492| 5,236| 347| 1,788| 1,025| 191,706|137,877|
|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| {Manila |1,729,625|749,777| 549,319| 3,099| 2,938| 25,034| 6,714| 1,730| 4,044| 6,672| 233,702|146,372|
|1895 {Cebú | 209,352| 89,212| 44,352| | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|1,719,115| .. | .. | .. | | 11,100| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |3,658,092|838,989| 593,671| 3,099| 2,938| 36,134| 6,714| 1,730| 4,044| 6,672| 233,702|146,372|
|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| {Manila |1,563,477|669,778| 558,509| 1,421| 3,484| 12,930| 7,127| 204| 2,803| 462| 219,640|185,017|
|1896 {Cebú | 106,228| 86,818| 49,200| | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|1,957,099| .. | .. | .. | | 35,300| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |3,626,804|756,596| 607,709| 1,421| 3,484| 48,230| 7,127| 204| 2,803| 462| 219,640|185,017|
+-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| {Manila | 811,059|835,067| 765,026| 2,111| 3,786| 17,325| 11,081| 689| 4,029| 251| 287,161|171,410|
|1897 {Cebú | 247,110| 80,271| 46,414| | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|2,051,113| .. | .. | .. | .. | 51,300| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |3,109,282|915,338| 811,440| 2,111| 3,786| 68,625| 11,081| 689| 4,029| 251| 287,161|171,410|
|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| {Manila | 251,169|510,958| 252,840| 176| 72| 5,102| 3,648| 261| 1,122| 206| 175,170|103,707|
|1898 {Cebú | 159,469|235,597| 10,562| | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|2,449,023| 46,051| .. | .. | .. | 51,610| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |2,859,661|792,606| 263,402| 176| 72| 56,712| 3,648| 261| 1,122| 206| 175,170|103,707|
|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| {Manila | 80,374|437,751| 215,819| 784| 183| .. | 6,226| 517| 2,840| 2,578| 114,261|111,646|
|1899 {Cebú | 210,780|148,049| 66,282| | | | | | | | | |
| {Ilo-ilo|1,197,700| 14,938| 9,221| .. | .. | 5,700| | | | | | |
| +---------+-------+----------+---- --+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
| Total |1,488,854|600,738|[1]291,322| 784| 183| 5,700| 6,226| 517| 2,840| 2,578| 114,261|111,646|
+-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+
[1] Value $1,600,000. The copra comes from Laguna, Tayahas, Albay,
Samar, Leyte and Mindanao, and the bulk of it goes to Marseilles,
some to Liverpool, a little to Spain and Italy.
VALUE OF LAND.
MANILA-DAGUPAN RAILWAY.
First Section--Manila to San Fernando.
First sub-section, Manila to Polo.
Second sub-section, Polo to Guiguinto.
Third sub-section, Guiguinto to Calumpit.
Fourth sub-section, Calumpit to San Fernando.
Second Section--San Fernando to Tarlac.
First sub-section, San Fernando to Angeles.
Second sub-section, Angeles to Bamban.
Third sub-section, Bamban to Capas.
Fourth sub-section, Capas to Tarlac.
Third Section--Tarlac to Dagupan.
First sub-section, Tarlac to Panique.
Second sub-section, Panique to Moncada.
Third sub-section, Moncada to Bayambang.
Fourth sub-section, Bayambang to San Carlos.
Fifth sub-section, San Carlos to Dagupan.
AN ESTIMATE OF THE POPULATION OF THE PHILIPPINES IN 1890.
Peninsular Spaniards, including the garrisons, friars,
officials and private persons. 14,000
Spaniards born in the islands. 8,000
Spanish mestizos 75,000
Foreigners of white races 2,000
Foreign mestizos 7,000
Chinese 125,000
Chinese mestizos 500,000
Moros of Mindanao, Joló, Tawi-tawi, Basilan, Balábac, and
other islands 600,000
Heathen in all the archipelago--Igorrotes, Manobos,
Subanos, Montéses, Ibilaos, Aetas, Ifugaos, etc., etc. 800,000
Christian natives 5,869,000
---------
Total 8,000,000
The above is taken from a pamphlet called 'Filipinas' Fundamental
Problem,' by a Spaniard long resident in those islands, published in
Madrid, 1891, by D. Luis Aguado. The pamphlet itself is a violent
attack on Rizal and those who sympathised with him, and holds out
as the only remedy against insurrection the encouragement of Spanish
immigration on an extensive scale.
ESTIMATE OF PHILIPPINE INCOME AND EXPENDITURE, 1896-97.
$
Direct Taxes--
Property tax, $140,280; industrial and commercial tax,
$1,400,700; cédulas personales, [37]$5,600,000;
capitation tax on Chinese, $510,190; acknowledgment of
vassalage from outlaws and heathen, $20,000; tax of 10
per cent. on railway fares, $32,000; various surtaxes,
$63,000; tax of 10 per cent. on the pay of employés
paid by local funds, $80,000; tax of 10 per cent. on
the pay of employés paid by the State, $650,000 8,496,170
Custom House--
Imports, $3,600,000; exports, [38]$1,292,550; loading
tax, $410,000; unloading, $570,000; trans-shipment,
$1000; warehousing, $4000; fines, surtaxes, etc.,
$22,000; tax on consumable goods, [39]$301,000 6,200,550
Monopoly--
Opium contract (farmed out) [40] 576,000
Stamps--
Stamped paper, do. for fines, for bills of exchange,
post office stamps, patent medicine stamps, stamps for
telegrams, receipts, signatures, passports, less
$200,000 paid to Bolmao and Hong Kong Cable Co., etc. 646,000
Lottery--
Profits of the Manila lottery, licenses for raffles,
etc. 1,000,000
Crown Property--
Rents of mining claims, $2000; royalties on forest
produce, $170,000; sale of Crown lands, of buildings,
and fines 257,000
Miscellaneous--
Unexpended balances, $50,000; produce of convict labour,
$4000; sale of buildings and stores of War Department and
Navy, $3800; profits on coining money, $200,000; sundry
receipts, $40,500 298,300
Total [41]$17,474,020
$
General charges--
Ministry of the Colonies, Court of Audit, expenses of
Fernando Po, civil, military and naval pensions, interest
on savings bank deposits, passages of Government employés 1,507,900
State--
Diplomatic and consular expenses 74,000
Grace and Justice--
Courts of Justice, register of property, gaols, the
clergy, missionaries, public worship, passages of
missionaries, college for missionaries 1,896,277
Army--
Pay and allowances, provisions, forage, clothing,
war-like stores, invalids, orphans, extraordinary
credit for the campaign in Mindanao ($624,680) 6,042,442
Treasury--
Central administration, mint at Manila, provincial
administration, pay and allowances of corps of
carbineers (custom house guards), cost of selling
stamped paper, of collecting taxes, of working the
lottery 1,393,184
Navy--
Pay and allowances, victualling and clothing, material
for the station, for the squadron, material for the
arsenal ($1,260,652) 3,566,528
Civil Service--
Colonial Secretary (pay and allowances), Governor-
General, civil governors, political and military
governors, council of administration, the Guardia
Civil, post office, telegraph, health officers of
ports 2,198,350
Education and public works--
Technical schools, nautical do. of drawing, painting,
sculpture and engraving, university, normal school,
observatory of Manila ($20,000 per annum), pay and
allowances of engineers and assistants of public
works, of the woods and forests, of mines, and of the
model farms 615,198
Total 17,293,879
N.B.--Expenditure on Army and Navy $9,608,970, considerably more than
half the total revenue.
Value of Land.
Official valuation of land required for the construction of the
Manila-Dagupan Railway. The expropriation commenced in 1888 and
continued up to end of 1892, and the prices paid were far in excess
of estimate.
+-------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| | First Section. | Second Section. | Third Section. |
+-------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| Sub-section | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. |
+-------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| From kil. | 0 | 13.8| 29.2| 45.8| 60.7| 75.5| 90.5|107.3|116.5|134.6|149.2|162.9|179.3|
| To ,, | 13.8| 29.2| 45.8| 60.7| 75.5| 90.5|107.3|116.5|134.6|149.2|162.9|179.3|192.3|
+-------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ |
|Water meadows or irrigated rice land |480 |240 |240 |240 |220 |200 |120 |100 | 88 | 80 |100 |140 |180 |
|Rice lands (dry), 1st class |200 |192 |180 |168 |120 |108 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 32 | 48 | 72 | 80 |
| ,, 2nd class |168 |160 |160 |152 | 72 | 60 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 16 | 28 | 40 | 44 |
|Cane fields, 1st class |272 |240 |260 |100 | 80 | 60 | 28 | 20 | 20 | 16 | 32 | 40 | 48 |
| ,, 2nd class |200 |160 |192 | 80 | 56 | 40 | 20 | 12 | 12 | 8 | 20 | 28 | 32 |
|Stony land near the sea |140 |120 | | | | | | | | | | | |
|Buyo (betel) plantations |240 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 72 | 72 |
|Nipa palm groves | 88 | 80 | 72 | 60 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 24 |
|Mangrove swamp | 76 | 60 | 48 | 32 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 12 | 16 |
|Gardens and building lots |200 |180 |180 |160 |100 | 88 | 32 | 28 | 28 | 20 | 32 | 48 | 56 |
|Forest land | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 10 | 6.4| 4 | 2.4| 1.6| 4 | 4 | |
|Bush land | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 8 | 4.8| 2.4| 1.6| 1.6| 2.4| | |
|Pasture | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 12 | 10 | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
Price is given in Mexican dollars per acre.
CARDINAL NUMBERS IN SEVEN DIALECTS.
Peninsula Luzon. Borneo. North
and Three Dayak Dialects. Borneo.
Islands.
Malay. Tagal. Pampango. Sabuyan. Lara. Salakan. Ida'an.
1 Satu. Isa. Isa or metung. Sat. Asa. Asa. Iso or san.
2 Dua. Daláua. Adua. Dua. Dua. Dua. Duo.
3 Tiga. Tatlo. Atlu. Tiga. Taru. Talu. Telo.
4 Ampat. Apat. Apat. Ampat. Apat. Ampat. Apat.
5 Lima. Lima. Lima. Lima. Rima. Lima. Limo.
6 Anam. Anim. Anam. Anam. Unum. Anam. Anam.
7 Tujoh. Pito. Pitu. Tujoh. Ijo. Tujoh. Turo.
8 Dulapan. Uálo. Ualu. Lapan. Mahi. Delapan. Walo.
9 Sumbilan. Siam. Siam. Sambilan. Pire. Sambilau. Siam.
10 Sa'puloh. Sang puot. Apulu. Sapulo. Sapuloh. Sapuloh. Opod.
London: Printed by William Clowes and Sons, Limited, Stamford Street
and Charing Cross.
NOTES
[1] England has 51,000 square miles area; Wales, 7378; Ireland,
31,759; Scotland, nearly 30,000. Total, Great Britain and Ireland,
etc., 121,000 square miles.
[2] Worcester, p. 446, mentions Conifers at sea level in Sibuyan
Island, province of Romblon.
[3] Called in Spanish the oropéndola (Broderipus achrorchus).
[4] A whip made from hippopotamus hide.
[5] Expelled in 1768. Readmitted, 1852, for charge of schools and
missions.
[6] Of these 4102 were baptisms of heathen in 1896.
[7] Exchange was then at 4s. 2d.
[8] This word is formed of the first syllable of the names of three
native priests executed after the Cavite mutiny, Fathers Gomez,
Burgos, and Zamora.
[9] Report published in Outlook, September 1st and 21st, 1899.
[10] The Abbé de Brantôme, whose appreciative remarks upon the
courtesans who accompanied the Army of the Duke of Alva are quoted by
Motley in 'The Rise of the Dutch Republic,' would have been delighted
to take up his favourite subject and chronicle the following of the
American Army.
[11] My remarks apply to the accounts published in the Times.
[12] May 11th, 1899, The New York Herald's correspondent at Manila
reports that the insurgents have succeeded in landing ten machine
guns on the island of Panay.
[13] The kindness and mercy are not obvious.
[14] I think, in view of the German atrocities in Africa, including
many cases of flogging women, that this epithet is well earned.
[15] In making these remarks, I am not in any way desirous of
depreciating the Department of Agriculture, for I hold the belief
that its reports are written with exceptional ability. But this
circular bears internal evidence of having been written by some
person, perhaps a consul, unfamiliar with Philippine agriculture,
and published without correction.
[16] Their Hong was colloquially known as Sion Corner.
[17] See the sentence of court-martial on Julius Arnold, musician
of M Company, 25th Infantry, for murdering a woman under the most
atrocious circumstances it is possible to imagine.
[18] The Krakatoa explosion was heard all over the Southern Philippines
like the firing of heavy guns, although the distance in a straight
line is over 1500 miles. This will give some idea of the loudness of
volcanic explosions.
[19] The territory occupied by each tribe is shown on the general
map of Mindanao by the number on this list.
[20] Ajonjoli (Sesamun Indicum, L.). See Chap. XIX. for Gogo.
[21] The Blachang of the Malays.
[22] Pristiophoridæ.
[23] Raiidæ.
[24] 'Comentarios Réales.' Garcilasso Inca de la Vega.
[25] Some ridiculous person has stated in a magazine article that
they have no word in Tagal equivalent to Thank you. This is not true,
for the word Salamat is the exact equivalent.
[26] The roller pinions in both Chinese and native mills are of
hard wood.
[27] Crocodilus Porosus.
[28] They sell about 25,000 bales per annum.
[29] The above was the Christian Visyas population, and is exclusive
of Negritos, Mundos, and other heathen savages and remontados. The
area is taken from a Spanish official report.
[30] See 'In Court and Kampong,' by Hugh Clifford.
[31] The territory of Sibuguey is almost unexplored.
[32] The principal industry of Christians or Moros, is washing the
sands and alluvial soils for gold, which is found in abundance.
Agriculture is progressing.
[33] The principal industry is washing the sands and mining for gold.
[34] From Jesuit records the Christian population of Davao was 12,000
in 1896. This number included over 3000 converted Moros. There were
also some 2,000 Moros residing there. The Jesuits residing on the
spot must know best.
[35] Nieto gives the total as 200,000. I have divided them as above.
[36] Value $1,600,000. The copra comes from Laguna, Tayahas, Albay,
Samar, Leyte and Mindanao, and the bulk of it goes to Marseilles,
some to Liverpool, a little to Spain and Italy.
[37] The total receipts from this tax are $7,000,000
The local funds receive 20 per cent., say $1,400,000
----------
Remainder $5,600,000
[38] See Table of dues on Exports.
[39] See Table of this tax.
[40] In August 1900 the Straits Settlements Government received offers
for the opium and spirit farms in Singapore, Penang and Malacca, for
three years from January 7th, 1901, amounting to $385,000 per month.
[41] In 1886-87 the revenue only amounted to $9,324,974; the Army
estimates for 1888 were $3,918,760, the Navy $2,573,776. If to the
revenue of 1896-97 we add the amount paid over to local funds, the
total will be double the revenue raised ten years before.
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