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Title: The Industrial Arts in Spain
Author: Riaño, Juan F., 1829-1901
Language: English
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[Illustration: image of the book's cover
Spanish Arts
BY
JUAN F. RIAÑO.]
FREDERICK P. PRITCHARD
SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS.
SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ARTS.
_This Volume, forming one of the Series of Art Handbooks issued under
the authority of the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, has
Art Objects of Spanish production in the South Kensington Museum, issued
in 1872, has proved of great value and interest._
_April, 1879._
THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS
IN SPAIN.
BY
JUAN F. RIAÑO.
WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS
[Illustration]
_Published for the Committee of Council on Education,_
BY
CHAPMAN AND HALL, LIMITED,
LONDON.
1890.
RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED,
LONDON AND BUNGAY.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
GOLD AND SILVER WORK 1
IRON WORK 58
BRONZES 68
ARMS 79
FURNITURE 109
IVORIES 126
POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 143
GLASS 228
TEXTILE FABRICS 250
LACE 271
ILLUSTRATIONS.
NO. PAGE
1. Votive Crown of King Swinthila, Madrid 7
2. Leaf of Triptych in Cathedral of Seville 17
3. Processional Cross, 15th century, South Kensington Museum 20
4. Chalice, 16th century, S.K.M. 30
5. Chalice, 17th century, S.K.M. 31
6. Pax, 16th century, S.K.M. 33
7. Jewel, 17th century, S.K.M. 35
8. Silver Dish, 17th century, S.K.M. 36
9. Breast Ornament set with emeralds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 37
10. Breast Ornament set with diamonds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 39
11. Moorish Keys in Cathedral of Seville 60
12. Nail heads, S.K.M. 66
13. Moorish Lamp, Archæological Museum, Madrid 72
14. Tenebrarium in Cathedral of Seville 75
15. Monstrance, dated 1537, S.K.M. 77
16. Sword of Boabdil, Villaseca Collection, Madrid 85
17. Moorish Dagger, 15th century 89
18. Rapiers, 16th and 17th centuries, S.K.M. 97
19. Breastplate, formerly in Bernal Collection 98
20. Saddle of the Cid--Armoury, Madrid 99
21. Muskets 100
22. Botica de los Templarios, from Toledo, S.K.M. 114
23. Vargueño Cabinet, 16th century, S.K.M. 121
24. Ivory cylindrical box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 128
25. Ivory rectangular box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 129
26. Ivory Casket, Moorish, 11th century, Cathedral of Pamplona 131
27. Cross of King Ferdinand I., Archæological Museum, Madrid 136
28. Samian Bowl 144
29. Plateau, (probably of Valencia), S.K.M. 152
30. Moorish Vase at the Alhambra 155
31. Tile, (probably from the Alhambra) 157
32. Hispano-Moresco Vase, 14th or 15th century, S.K.M. 159
33. Hispano-Moresco Plateau with raised ribs and studs,
15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 160
34. Hispano-Moresco Salver, 15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 161
35. Wine Jar, "Tinaja," S.K.M. 164
36. Brim of Well from Toledo, S.K.M. 166
37. Earthenware Bowl, Talavera ware, S.K.M. 174
38. Earthenware Plaque, Alcora ware, S.K.M. 194
39. Marks and Signatures of Painters who worked at Alcora 204--210
40. Room decorated with Buen-Retiro porcelain in
the Palace at Madrid 217
41. Vase, Buen Retiro porcelain, S.K.M. 220
42. Marks used at the porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro 221--223
43. Glass Vase, 16th century, S.K.M 232
44. Pilgrim's Bottle, Glass, 17th century, S.K.M. 233
45. Glass Bottle, modern, S.K.M. 237
46. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 238
47. Glass Vase, Cadalso, 17th century, S.K.M. 239
48. Vase, Green glass with black handle and ribs,
17th century, S.K.M. 242
49. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 245
50. Tapestry at Cathedral of Gerona, 11th century 267
_The Department of Science and Art is indebted to_ MR. JOHN MURRAY _for
the use of the Woodcuts Nos. 19, 20, 30, and 31. No. 50 is from a
Spanish Woodcut._
SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ART.
GOLD AND SILVER WORK.
The Greek and Latin authors who have described the Spanish Peninsula,
state that the quantity of gold and silver ore found there was very
great, and that hence the district became an important centre of
commercial activity of Phœnicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans.
Some authors have gone so far as to assert that the Phœnicians made
the anchors of their ships of gold and silver, and that the
Carthaginians were astonished to find in Andalusia, that the mangers and
vases for holding wine and oil were made of the same materials. These
references have been constantly mentioned in ancient Spanish authors.
Ambrosio de Morales, in his "Antiguedades de España," Alcala 1577,
enters into every detail on this subject.
I have seen a specimen of this period, a bowl of an earlier and
different style to Roman silversmiths' work, which belongs to a
collector in the province of Cordova. This bowl is of a conical shape:
it is perfectly plain, and has an inscription in Iberian characters
engraved on one of its sides: there are signs outside and at the bottom
which indicate that this bowl was made on the wheel. Velazquez in his
"Ensayo sobre las letras desconocidas," Madrid, 1752, describes a silver
bowl of a similar kind, which was found in Andalusia in 1618 full of
Iberian coins: this bowl weighed ten ounces. Several ornaments, chiefly
consisting of necklaces and earrings, may be studied at the Academy of
History, and private collections, in Madrid; they have been classified
by antiquarians as belonging to this uncertain period, and are similar
in style to others which have been frequently found in England and the
north of Europe. The most interesting objects of this kind which I have
seen in Spain, are gold ornaments proceeding from Galicia; they were
found there by Sr. Villaamil, who gave a description of them in the
"Museo Español de Antiguedades," vol. iii. p. 545.
The information and remains which have reached us illustrating silver
and gold work of the Roman domination are more important; we find,
however, in this and similar artistic industries that, as a general
rule, the Romans imposed their style and system on the inhabitants of
the countries which they conquered, and it is not easy to point out any
one example which can be given as an exception to this general rule. It
is, undoubtedly, a fact that objects of all kinds in gold and silver
were used in Spain to a very great extent--for, notwithstanding the
destruction of ages, we still possess inscriptions which allude to
silver statues, and a large number of objects in the precious metals
exist in museums and private collections. See "Inscrip. Hisp. lat.," by
Dr. Emile Hübner, Berlin, 1869. Of these it will be sufficient to
mention one of the most important. It is known in the province of
Santander by the name of the dish of Otañez; and belongs to a gentleman
who lives in that locality. It was found at Otañez at the end of the
last century, buried in a stone quarry. This dish is made of silver, it
weighs thirty-three ounces, and is covered with an ornamentation of
figures in relief, some of which are gilt, representing an allegorical
subject of the source of medicinal waters. In the upper part is a nymph
who pours water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects it in a vessel;
another gives a cup of it to a sick man; another fills with it a barrel
which is placed in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two mules. On
each side of the fountain are altars on which sacrifices and libations
are offered. Round it is the inscription: SALVS. VMERITANA, and at the
back is engraved, in confused characters, the words: L. P. CORNELIANI.
PIII....
Another very interesting silver dish may be seen at the Academia de la
Historia, Madrid. Although not of Spanish manufacture, it deserves
special notice in a description of works of this style. This dish was
found in 1847, buried in a field at Almendralejo, province of
Estremadura: it is 28-6/8 English inches in diameter, and weighs 533
ounces. It is ornamented with fine figures in relief, representing the
Emperor Theodosius appointing a magistrate. The emperor is seated on his
throne in the centre, at the sides are his sons Arcadius and Honorius,
with four soldiers of the guard, and the magistrate, who receives the
volume. In the lower part there is an allegorical representation of a
nymph holding the horn of abundance, winged angels, and ears of wheat,
probably alluding to the abundance and plenty of the empire. Round the
rim is the following inscription:--
D. N. THEODOSIVS PERPET.
AVG OB DIEM FELI CISSIMVM.
At the back, in points, are the following Greek words.
[Greek: POS N MET ποc ↑Ν ΜεΤ]
We can form a very good idea of the jewel work of the Visigothic period
from the discovery of the treasure of Guarrazar. These jewels were found
in 1858 at the village of this name, six miles from Toledo, on the spot
where, in the Visigothic period, a Christian sanctuary had existed. The
objects found, which may be seen at the Museum of Cluny, Paris, and
Armeria Real, Madrid, constitute the most important collection in Europe
of the jewel work of that period. No less than eleven votive crowns,
some of extraordinary magnificence; two crosses with inscriptions, and
a large number of fragments of all kinds, of gold and precious stones,
were found at Guarrazar. Unfortunately a great part of the treasure has
been lost, for the labourers, who were the first to find it, sold
several objects to the silversmiths at Toledo, who melted and destroyed
specimens of the highest artistic interest. Those that remain in Spain
are--
At the Royal Armoury of Madrid: A gold crown of Swinthila inlaid with
precious stones, with pendent cross, and inscriptions of letters hanging
from it: SVINTHILANVS REX. OFFERET. See woodcut on p. 7. A similar crown
of Theodosius, with the inscription: OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM. SCO STEFANO
ETHODOSIVS. ABBA. The cross of Lucetius with the following inscription:
+ IN NOMINE DNI. IN NOMINE SCI OFFERET LVCETIVS: E. Fragments of another
crown and of large crosses: several stones and fragments, and an
emerald, on which is engraved _en creux_ the Annunciation of the Virgin.
At the Archæological Museum, and in several private collections in
Spain, may be seen a large number of stones and pearls which were found
at Guarrazar.
Among the objects at the Archæological Museum at Madrid, a small
section, which proceed from a different locality, have also been
classified as Visigothic. They consist of necklaces, earrings, and
rings, and are less important in workmanship than those found at
Guarrazar. The student will find further details in "Museo Español de
Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 137.
The objects forming part of the treasure of Guarrazar now in the Museum
of Cluny, Paris are: Crown of Recesvinthus, with pendent cross and
inscription: + RECESVINTHVS REX OFFERET. A similar crown, without
inscription. Four crowns formed to imitate basket work, with crosses
hanging from the centres. Three crowns, the rims of which are formed of
_repoussé_ work, only one of which is ornamented with precious stones,
and without pendent crosses. The cross of Sonnicus with the following
inscription: ✠ IN [=D]I NOMINE OFFERET SONNICA [=S C E] MARIE IN SORBACES.
Swinthila reigned from 624 to 631, A.D.; Recesvinthus from 650 to 672
A.D.; hence these crowns belong to the 7th century, and the remaining
objects are certainly of the same period.
Much has been written on these Visigothic jewels by French and Spanish
authors, the most interesting and valuable studies are:--"Descrip. du
Trésor de Guarrazar, par M. Lasteyrie. Paris. 1860." "El arte Latino
Bizantino en España y las Coronas de Guarrazar," by Señor Rios, Madrid,
1861. Consult also his article in "Monumentos Arq. de España." "Coronas
de Guarrazar que se conservan en la Armeria Real de Madrid," by Señor
Rada. Museo Español, vol. iii. Madrid, 1874.
The importance of this goldsmith's work has led these authors to discuss
several archaeological and artistic points which deserve attention. I
will also give my opinions on this subject, which in some respects
differ from those hitherto advanced. In the Middle Ages the name of
crown was equally applied to those worn on the head, to the votive
crowns hung before altars, and to the pendent lamps which were also of
this circular form. The "Etimologies" of San Isidoro help us,
unfortunately, but little on this subject; but Du Cange, in his
"Glossarium Mediæ et infimæ Latinitatis" gives us sufficient details to
understand the differences between them. I refer the student to two
works on this subject, which treat especially of crowns of light, which
none of the authors who have written on Guarrazar have consulted:
"Tratado de la Sagrada Luminaria," by Gonzalez Villar, Madrid, 1798. "De
Lucernis Pensilibus," by Fanceulli, Maceratae, 1802.
The crowns found at Guarrazar were undoubtedly votive offerings, for
they all have chains by which they were suspended in the sanctuary in
which they were found. Their size and the structure of their rims lead
us to suppose that they may have been worn on the head. The same
observation applies to a similar crown at the Cluny Museum; if so, the
chains, cross, and pendent letters were added when the crown was offered
to the sanctuary.
Although details which appear in the handwork of these jewels betray a
certain rudeness, not uncommon in the time they were made, their beauty
and richness are truly surprising. These crowns are decorated round
their rims with rosettes of pearls and sapphires, and a delicate
ornamentation of _cloisonné_ work, which encloses a substance resembling
red glass. From the upper part are attached four chains formed of leaves
_percées à jour_, these are united to a double gold rosette with pendent
sapphires, in the centre of which is set a piece of rock crystal. In the
cross of Recesvinthus the pendant is in the form of a capital, and from
it hangs a small cross of the same style of work: from the lower rim of
the crown are suspended the letters, which are ornamented with the same
vitreous paste, _cloisonné_, and from each hang large single pearls and
sapphires.
The border of some of these crowns is formed of a net-work of small gold
massive balustrades; having between them square spaces in which pearls
and sapphires are set. Others are made simply of _repoussé_ gold, their
chief interest consisting in the ornamentation which has been so
artistically carried out. Some of them have inscriptions and a few
stones set at intervals. The pendants from these crowns are inferior in
richness to the others already described. The pendent crosses are
ornamented in the same style, either with _cloisonné_ work or _repoussé_
inscriptions.
[Illustration: VOTIVE CROWN OF KING SWINTHILA, MADRID.]
One of the most interesting results produced by the study of the
treasure of Guarrazar has been to show us the immense luxury which it
represents, if we remember the period of decay and poverty of the
Visigothic monarchy. We find this magnificence frequently alluded to by
ancient writers. The Arabs when they took possession of Toledo in the
8th century, mention in different works the immense quantity of jewels
of all kinds which they found and carried away. The gold and
silversmith's work of this period was everywhere in a very high state of
development. We find it constantly alluded to in the works of Paul
Silentiarium and other writers of the time of Justinian, and in the
inventories and references given by Du Sommerard of the jewel work
anterior to the Carlovingian period in Italy and France. The Visigothic
kings, who copied from the Eastern emperors even their legal forms,
followed this rule to a great extent in everything which bore relation
to their daily life.
The most important question is to determine the origin and locality
where these jewels were made. M. de Lasteyrie considers that jewellery
ornamented with red glass _cloisonné_ work was only made by nations of
the Germanic race. To prove this he presents, among other arguments, the
comparison of a fragment of the ornamentation which appears on the crown
of Recesvinthus, with a similar one on the Evangelistiarium of
Theodolinda in the treasure of Monza, which he considers to be of German
workmanship. These theories are untenable. Sr. Rios is of a different
opinion, and considers these jewels to have been made in Spain, owing to
the similarity of ornamentation with different specimens which occur in
Spain in architectural remains of the Roman and Visigothic periods.
Both these writers give in my opinion the decorative elements of the
crowns of Guarrazar an importance which they do not possess. The
ornamentation which most frequently occurs consists of a combination of
circles, imbrication, and palms of such an elementary kind that it would
be difficult to ascertain its origin; it appears equally in mosaic work
of the later Roman period, in vases and other objects of the best times
of Greek art, and in Asiatic and archaic works. It may be affirmed that
the ornamentation of the goldsmith's work of the north and south of
Europe are derived from a common origin; from the oriental civilization
which in the first centuries of the Middle Ages penetrated into Europe;
it may also be affirmed that its manufacture and technical proceedings
are precisely similar. Later on, the ornamentation and manufacture of
these jewels received from the western nations some slight
modifications; but this artistic industry by no means proceeded from
them.
One example will be enough to prove this. Setting apart the famous
_cloisonné pectorale_ at the Boulac Museum, Cairo, and other jewels of
the queen, Aah-Hotep, 17th century B.C.; the hawk of a similar period,
Louvre Museum (Paris), and a number of analogous objects in the British
Museum, we have enough specimens of this kind to show that _cloisonné_
work was known in the east from the very earliest period. I will draw
especial attention to the _plaque_ in the Museum of Wiesbaden, found at
Wolfsheim in 1870. It is formed of gold, with a circular and triangular
ornamentation and squares, _découpés à jour_, set with jacinths, or red
glass paste. At the back may be read an inscription in Persian
characters, which gives the name of a Sassanide king, Artachshaber, of
the 3rd century of our era. (See A. von Cohausen, "Roemischer
Schmelzenschmuck," Wiesbaden, 1873). I know no more ancient specimen in
the north of Europe of these jewels with coloured stones, nor can I give
a better example of their oriental origin. Those who may wish to make a
more profound study on this subject, can also examine the interesting
jewels with stones found at Petrossa, Wallachia, in 1835, now in the
Museum of Bucharest. They are attributed to the Visigothic King
Athanaric, who lived towards the middle of the 4th century of our era,
and are considered in the present day of undoubted Sassanide origin.
The artistic and technical origin of the jewels of Guarrazar must be
looked for in the East; their manufacture was most probably Spanish. On
part of these jewels, inscriptions of the names of the _donatarios_
appear, and it is highly improbable that they were made in another
country. We cannot imagine the extraordinary magnificence of the
Visigothic court, so similar to that of Constantinople and other
contemporary ones, without the presence at each of a group of artists
whose task was to satisfy these demands.
The Visigothic style continued to be followed in Spain at the court of
the Christian kings, until the 11th century, notwithstanding the Moorish
invasion, and the poverty of the kingdom. The specimens at the treasury
of the cathedral of Oviedo, and others which will be described farther
on, will give a good idea of the manufacture of jewels of this period.
Among the relics which are kept in the shrine called the _Camara Santa_,
at Oviedo, are two most interesting gold processional crosses studded
with stones, which are known by the names of _Cruz de los Angeles_, and
_Cruz de la Victoria_ or _de Pelayo_. The _Cruz de los Angeles_ is
16½ inches high, by 16 inches wide, it is covered at the back with an
ornamentation in fine filigree work, set with different stones. In the
front are five medallions, and an inscription in the vacant spaces.
Among the gems there is a good cameo, and seven engraved stones in the
Gnostic style. (Consult "Monumentos Arquitectonicos de España, Camara
Santa"). The inscription on this cross shows us that it was made, A.D.
808.
"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei
Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xpi
Hoc signo tuetur pius
Hoc signo vincitur inimicus
Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi
Fulmine divino intereat ipse
Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea
Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCCXLVI."
The cross of Victory is supposed to have been the same wooden one borne
by Don Pelayo when he began, early in the 8th century, his struggles
against the Mahomedan invasion, it was decorated in the next century
with gold platings and precious stones. It is 36 inches high by 28½
inches wide; the ornamentation is similar to the former one, and in the
vacant spaces at the back appears the following inscription, by which
we learn it was made at the Castle of Gauzon, Asturias, A.D. 828.
"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent
Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemæna Regina
Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit
Fulmine divino intereat ipse
Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est
Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis
Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus
Et opera us est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri.
XLII. discurrente Era DCCCLXVI."
Another most interesting object at this shrine is Don Fruela's casket,
which is ornamented with agates set in gold, and is similar in style.
The inscription, which appears outside, gives the date A.D. 910.
"Operatum est Era DCCCCXLVIII."
A diptych which belongs to the same shrine may also be mentioned. It was
given by Bishop Don Gonzalo, who was bishop of Oviedo from A.D. 1162 to
1175. Round it are the words--_Gundisalvus Episcopus me jussit fieri._
This diptych is 5 inches long by 7 wide: it is ornamented with ivory
figures, stones, crystals and engraved gems. Although I do not consider
it to be of Spanish workmanship, it is necessary to mention the splendid
_Arca Santa_, in which it is believed many of the relics were taken to
Oviedo. It is covered with silver plates, with _repoussé_ and chiselled
work representing different religious subjects: the Crucifixion, Our
Lord surrounded by the attributes of the Evangelists, saints, apostles,
angels, and a fine ornamental border with letters, imitating Cufic
inscriptions. This splendid casket is 3 feet 9½ inches long, by 3 and
3½ wide, and 28½ inches high, and appears to have been made
between the 10th and 12th centuries. The figures are similar in style to
the paintings and sculpture of this period, and it is highly probable
that it may have been the work of Italian artists. The Cufic inscription
is illegible, and is interrupted in the angles by the symbols of the
Evangelists. This style of simulated inscriptions was frequently used by
Italian artists.
A cross of the same style as those already described exists at the
cathedral of Santiago. It is made of wood covered with gold platings and
precious stones; some of these are old intagli, which are set in
delicate filigree work. Round it runs a long inscription, from which it
appears that it was a present from _Adefonsus Princeps cum conjuge
Scemena Regina_, and that it was made in Era DCCCCA. Duodecima; A.D.
874. The number of gems which have reached us, after so many centuries
of ruin, the similarity of the different specimens, and the statement
which appears on the cross of King Pelayo, that it was made at the
castle of Gauzon, prove that the goldsmith's industry had attained great
importance in Spain during this period.
By studying the different objects of silver and gold work which still
exist in Spanish churches, we can form a good idea of the historical
progress of this industry in the following centuries of the Middle Ages;
but before we do so, it is well to make some observations upon objects
of _orfèvrerie_, the work of the Moors. There is a constant connection
between these objects and those made of ivory: the same characteristics
exist which I shall hereafter point out as appearing in Moorish ivory
carvings. The art of ivory carving was imported from the East, the
subjects are much alike in ivory and metal when men and animals are
represented, and the inscriptions and bands of ornamentation are similar
in style. The main variations consist in the different systems employed
in metal work, by which the work differs according to the proceedings
adopted, of _repoussé_ or chiselling, filigree, niellos or enamels.
A fine Casket belongs to this kind of oriental work which still may be
seen on the high altar of the cathedral of Gerona, Spain. This casket is
15 inches long by 9 wide and 10½ high. It is made in the usual manner
of wood covered with silver gilt platings with a heavy _repoussé_
ornamentation of leaves enclosed within circles of pearls. Round the
rim of the cover runs the following Cufic inscription:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"In the name of God. The blessing of God and happiness and prosperity
and permanent joy for the servant of God, Alhakem Emir Amumenin
Almostanser Billah, because he ordered this casket to be made for Abdul
walid Hischem, heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished by the
hands of Hudzen Ibn Bothla."
Alhakem reigned in Spain from A.D. 961 to 976, in which year he was
succeeded by his son Hischem II. This casket belongs, therefore, to this
period, and is especially interesting as giving the artist's name. Two
other silver Arabian caskets may be seen at the Archæological Museum,
Madrid, which were formerly at the shrine of San Isidoro of Leon, but
they possess less artistic interest than the casket at Gerona. One of
these is elliptical in form; it is ornamented with a good design of
leaves and tendrils, and Cufic inscription; the whole of the casket is
enamelled in black. The ornamentation belongs to the 12th century. The
inscription only mentions the owner's name, Abdo Shakir. The other
casket is silver-gilt, square in form, and rather poorly ornamented. The
two Cufic inscriptions which surround it are laudatory. At the cathedral
of Oviedo there is another silver casket with a laudatory inscription
and medallions with figures, in which from very early times, the remains
of S^{ta.} Eulalia have been kept. I suspect that this casket and the
former one are not of Spanish Arab workmanship, for besides the
circumstance that their inscriptions can be applied to any owner, their
ornamentation is unlike others of the same kind. In the first casket it
is insignificant, but on the shrine of S^{ta.} Eulalia the background
of the medallions is covered with an imbricated pattern which I have
never seen repeated on any Arab or Moorish example in Spain. It is
highly probable that they were productions of Oriental industry and were
imported commercially.
Several specimens of the 14th and 15th centuries, the last period of the
Moorish domination, exist in Spain. They consist of jewels and sword
handles. The most interesting trinkets are a bracelet and fragments of a
necklace and earrings which are at the Archæological Museum, Madrid.
They are made of gold, covered with a geometrical _repoussé_
ornamentation, and a delicate filigree pattern. There are specimens also
at the Kensington Museum, Nos. 1455 to 1447, 70, consisting of a
bracelet, silver-gilt, formed of seven alternate oval and rectangular
plaques, with impressed pattern and applied filigree and bossed
ornament, and earrings made of gold, formed of clusters of united
circles and lozenges with filigree bosses. Other jewels of less
importance are known to exist, consisting of bracelets, amulets,
earrings, and rings, mostly made of silver niello-work, these are
ornamented with geometrical patterns and inscriptions of little
importance.
Moorish arms are most artistic; they are fully described in the article
Arms. The most important specimens are in the Royal Armoury, and noble
house of Villaseca, Madrid; another fine example of a similar style is
at the Generalife of Granada. The hilt and settings of the sheath are of
solid silver, gilt, and covered with geometrical patterns ornamented in
high relief, parts of which are filled with translucid _cloisonné_
enamel. In some instances the hilt is made of ivory. It is impossible
(see plate on p. 85) to find anything more beautiful than the
ornamentation of these swords, or greater perfection in every detail. It
is evident, therefore, that this industry had reached a very high grade
of perfection at Granada in the second part of the 15th century. The
sword now in the possession of the Villaseca family belonged to Boabdil,
the last Moorish king; the one at Granada to one of Boabdil's nearest
relations.
In continuing our description of Christian silver-work in the 11th and
12th centuries, we meet with two historical chalices of the highest
interest. One was made by the order of Saint Domingo de Silos [A.D.
1045-1074] when abbot of this church. This chalice still exists there,
with the following inscription:--
_In nomine Domini ob honorem Sci Sebastiani Dominico abbas
fecit._
It is ornamented with fine filigree work, forming zones and horse-shoe
arches, in a similar style to that of the silversmiths' work of
Asturias, which has never been completely abandoned in Spain. The author
of the life of this saint, Fr. Juan de Castro, Madrid 1688, says, p.
297, that he does not consider it was ever used for the sacrifice of the
mass, owing to its great height [13 inches]. The other chalice might
have been seen until very lately at San Isidoro, Leon; it has been
temporarily concealed owing to political disturbances. The cup and foot
are of agate, probably specimens of the classic period; the mounting,
which dates from the time of D^{na}. Urraca, is studded with a profusion
of precious stones and pastes. Some of the gems of the chalice and paten
are antiques.[A] In the centre of the paten is set a splendid flat onyx.
Round the lower part runs the following inscription:--
+ _In nomine D[=n]i Urraca Fredi[=n][=a]di._
[A] For further details of this interesting work of art, see "Monumentos
Arquitectonicos de España," in which a good reproduction is given.
Dona Urraca, who was a sister of Alfonso VI., and was generally called
_Urraca Fernandez_, bestowed many important gifts on the church of San
Isidoro. She died A.D. 1101. Another interesting chalice of the same
period, although not of the same importance as those just named, belongs
to Cardinal Moreno, archbishop of Toledo. Round the stem are represented
the emblems of the Evangelists, and the inscription: _Pelagius abbas me
fecit_; this formula appears so frequently that it must be understood
in the sense of _fecit fieri_, ordered to be made.
The Santo Caliz at Valencia has been traditionally held as the cup used
by Our Saviour at the Last Supper. This chalice consists of a circular
cup hollowed out from a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded
round the lip. The base is formed of another inverted sardonyx. These
are united by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by handles, which
are inlaid with delicate arabesque in black enamel. Oriental pearls are
set round the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, sapphires and
emeralds. This chalice is a work of the Roman imperial epoch, and the
mounts are of a later date. Other specimens of jewellers' work of the
Roman period might be mentioned which exist in Spain, but I do not find
sufficient evidence to justify the opinion that they were made in that
country. I consider those that I have described to be of Spanish origin,
for they keep to the same technical modes of workmanship as the jewel
work of Asturias, and the inscriptions which appear on them refer to
historical personages. It would be difficult, considering all things, to
suppose they were imported.
[Illustration: ONE LEAF OF TRIPTYCH IN CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.]
We can mention in the thirteenth century a specimen of Spanish
silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition to the new style,
and the progress in the design of the figures owing to the Italian
Renaissance--I refer to the interesting triptych at the Cathedral of
Seville, known as the "Tablas Alfonsinas," made by the order of Don
Alfonso el Sabio for holding relics. It is of wood, covered inside and
out with silver-gilt plates; it is 22 inches high by 39 wide when its
three leaves are open (the woodcut opposite represents the outside of
left leaf), and is divided inside into fifteen compartments full of
minute ornamentation, among which are set a large number of capsules
covered with rock crystal containing relics, each one with an
inscription of enamelled gold, _cloisonné_. Several good cameos with
sacred subjects appear near the edge of the side leaves. The outside of
this triptych is decorated with twelve medallions containing the arms
of Castile and Aragon, and forty-eight others in which are repeated
alternately the subjects of the Adoration of the Magi and Annunciation
of the Virgin, which are also _repoussé_. In the centres are eagles,
which S^{r}. Rios supposes to allude to Don Alonso's claim to be crowned
Emperor, in which case it was made in the year 1274. (See Mus. esp. de
Antig., vol. ii. p. 83.) The ornamentation which surrounds the panels
belongs to the 16th century. S^{r}. Rios suggests that the possible or
probable author of this interesting object of silversmith work was
Maestro Jorge, a silversmith of Toledo, who is praised by Don Alonso in
his Cantigas--he also mentions the names of Don Lorenzo and Don Niculas
as silversmiths of Seville who worked in this period.
The most important example of Spanish silversmith's work of the 14th
century is the Retablo and Baldaquino of the cathedral of Gerona. Mr.
Street, in his Gothic Arch. in Spain, p. 326, describes this work of art
in the following manner: "The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with
silver plates, and divided vertically into three series of niches and
canopies: each division has a subject, and a good deal of enamelling is
introduced in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels.
Each panel has a cinque-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and
pinnacles on either side. The straight line of the top is broken by
three niches, which rise in the centre and at either end. In the centre
is the Blessed Virgin with our Lord; on the right San Narcisso; and on
the left St. Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain figures of
saints, subjects from the life of the Blessed Virgin, and subjects from
the life of our Lord."
At the base of this Retablo may be read the words--_Pere Bernec me
feu_--Peter Bernec made me. Bernec was a silversmith of Valencia, and in
another document he was called Barners. It has been supposed that two
other contemporary silversmiths, whose names appear in papers of the
cathedral, worked also at the Retablo. Their names were Raimundo Andreu,
and Master Bartolomé. Formerly in front of this altar there was a
magnificent silver and gold frontal studded with stones, a fine work of
the 11th century--which was unfortunately carried off by the French in
their invasion of the Peninsula early in the present century, and was
probably with other innumerable priceless treasures melted by them. See
further details in "Viage Literario de Villanueva," vol. xii. p. 180.
In the Sala Capitular of the Cathedral of Gerona there are three
splendid processional crosses belonging to the 15th and 16th centuries;
one of them is of enamelled gold, and is undoubtedly one of the most
artistic works of the kind in Spain.
Among Spanish art treasures of the 15th century of a historical style
must be mentioned the splendid silver throne of king Don Martin de
Aragon, d. 1410, still existing in the cathedral of Barcelona; it is
covered with chiselled ornamentation, and a band of velvet embroidered
with gold and completely studded with precious stones. This throne is
carried in the procession of Corpus Christi. The monstrance, a splendid
work of art in the Gothic style, ornamented with delicate pinnacles and
jewel work, is placed on a fine silver foot and carried on this day in
front of this throne. This monstrance is covered also with jewels of
great value which almost conceal it, the gifts of royal personages. The
fine Gothic silver-gilt cross must also be mentioned, known at Toledo by
the name of _Guion de Mendoza_; it was borne before the great Cardinal
Mendoza, and was the first cross placed on the highest point of the
Alhambra Torre de la Vela on the day of the conquest, 2nd January, 1492.
The following woodcut represents a processional cross of Spanish work of
the beginning of the 15th century, in the South Kensington Museum, No.
514-'73. It is of wood covered with plates of silver-gilt _repoussé_
work. On one side is a rood with the Virgin and St. John. Over the
figure of Christ is the word Inri. At the extremities angels in high
relief bear the emblems of the Passion. On each side of the figure of
Christ are plaques of translucent enamel representing the penitent and
impenitent thief, at the foot of the cross the Resurrection and
Adoration of the Magi, and above the figure of Christ the Nativity.
[Illustration: SPANISH PROCESSIONAL CROSS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
At the back there is a figure in high relief of the Almighty; in the
four extremities the emblems of the Evangelists in high relief and
enamelled plaques representing the Annunciation, Flight into Egypt,
Christ's descent into Hades.
This cross, which is three feet in height, is marked in several places
with the name of
+-----+ +-----+
| | | |
| PE | | MAR |
| DRO | | TIN |
| | | |
+-----+ +-----+
A large number of images exist in Spain belonging to this period, and
even to an earlier date, chiefly consisting of images of the Blessed
Virgin; their garments are formed of silver platings, chiselled and
_repoussé_ in the traditional Byzantine style. Among the most remarkable
may be mentioned those preserved in the cathedrals of Seville, Pamplona
and Astorga. The following document undoubtedly alludes to one of these
figures. It is dated 12th May, 1367:--
"I Sancho Martinez Orebse, silversmith, native of Seville, inform you,
the dean and chapter of the church of Seville, that it was agreed I
should make an image of Saint Mary with its tabernacle, that it should
be finished at a given time, and that you were to give me the silver and
stones required to make it."
Notwithstanding the poverty of the Spanish monarchs, their personal
ornaments were rich and splendid. We find in "Memorials of Henry the
VIIth," edited by Gairdner, an interesting description by Machado, the
herald or king-of-arms of Henry VII., of the embassy sent to Spain in
1489, to ask for the hand of the Princess Catharine for the Prince of
Wales. The account he gives us of the jewels worn by Queen Isabel la
Catolica is most interesting. They varied at every interview. In one of
these she wore "a line of trimming composed of oblong bosses, of gold,
each decorated with fine and valuable jewels, so rich that no one has
ever seen the like. She wore round her waist a girdle of leather made in
a man's style; the pouch was decorated with a large balass ruby, the
size of a tennis ball, between five rich diamonds and other stones, the
size of a bean. The rest of the girdle was decorated with other precious
stones. Round her neck she wore a rich gold necklace composed of white
and red roses, adorned with jewels. Two ribbons were suspended from her
breast adorned with diamonds, balass and other rubies, pearls, and other
jewels of great value to the number of a hundred or more" (p. 341.)
"After the King came the Queen, mounted on a fine mule, and all the
harness of the said mule was adorned with pearls and other precious
stones. She was dressed in a robe of a rich woven cloth of gold made in
the fashion of the kingdom, and over that a mantilla all spangled with
lozenges of crimson and black velvet, and on each lozenge was a large
pearl. And with each of these pearls was a rich balass ruby the size of
a beech nut, the richest thing that could be seen, no man ever saw
anything equal to it. She had on her neck a large necklace, adorned with
large diamonds, balass rubies, carbuncles, large pearls, and a great
number of other rich precious stones. She had upon her head-dress two
balass rubies as pendants, the size of a pigeon's egg, and at the end of
the said rubies a large pearl, which jewel was supposed to be worth
12,000 crowns" (p. 348.)
In the specimens described belonging to the Visigothic period, and many
others to which we might refer, we find constant similarity in form with
silversmith's work of other European countries. It is true that we
occasionally meet with Moorish _orfèvrerie_, and some details, such as
filigree work, due to oriental influence; but in general Byzantine,
Roman, and Gothic styles were adopted and copied in Spain; and the
technical details were the same with those followed in other countries,
with the exception of _champlevé_ enamel, which appears to have been
almost exclusively used at Limoges in the middle ages. It is
interesting, however, and worthy of remark, that important objects are
also found in Spain decorated with _champlevé_ enamel, such as the
splendid altars of San Miguel in Excelsis (Navarre), and Santo Domingo
de Silos (Rioja), and the image of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban
(Salamanca), three specimens of the greatest importance.
In the Renaissance period, Spanish _orfèvrerie_ enters into its most
brilliant epoch, not only on account of the beauty of the form of the
objects produced, but also owing to its great richness. Among objects of
this period the most important are the _Custodias_ or monstrances of the
cathedrals; these are exclusively peculiar to Spanish art. The almost
incalculable quantity of silver-work produced at this period is
accounted for by the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors, the
discovery and possession of America, and other circumstances which
increased the power and wealth of Spain, and elevated the country to
great importance.
We find frequent mention at this time of silversmiths, many of whom came
from Germany, France, or Italy, attracted by the large number of works
ordered. Many settled in Spain, such as Enrique de Arphe, Jacome Trezzo,
Mateo Aleman, Hans Belta, and others. The Spaniards who joined them were
greater in number, and not inferior in merit. Silversmiths were already
at that time divided into different groups, according to the technical
proceedings which each one adopted: _plateros de la plata_, workers in
silver, was the name given to those who worked exclusively in _repoussé_
and chiselled work, and imitated sculpture and architectural models;
goldsmiths, those who worked jewels with stones, enamels, and
niello-work. Even within these groups were workers in filigree, and
those who decorated different objects with painted or mosaic work,
_atauxia_, in the Moorish style. Almost all the most important Spanish
towns were large centres of these industries. Leon, Burgos, Valladolid,
Cuenca, Toledo, Cordova, and Seville rivalled each other in the number
and quality of their productions. The Venetian ambassador, Navagiero,
who visited Valladolid in 1527, says, "Sono in Valladolid assai artefici
di ogni sorte, e se vi lavora benissimo di tutti le arti, e sopra tutto
d' argenti, e vi son tanti argenten quanti non sono in due altri terre,
le prime di Spagna" ("Il Viaggio di Spagna," Vinegia, 1563, p. 35.)
In order to complete the study of this subject, it is necessary,
besides, to give some notice of the legal dispositions contained in the
Municipal Ordinances and in other laws of a more general character.
In Capmany's "Memorias," vol. i., part 3, p. 88, are to be found several
statutes concerning the silversmiths of Barcelona from the 14th century,
proving the importance of this guild in 1301. At this period three of
its members formed part of the town Council. The introduction of a
statute of 1489 proves the excellence of the works which they made.
"Experience having shown us in past times, and proof existing at the
present time, that such clever silversmiths have existed and exist at
Barcelona that their works are highly reputed by kings and great people,
and held in great honour and estimation in the town itself." The
Silversmiths' guild still preserve the folio volumes full of drawings,
and the description of the different objects which they presented for
the approbation of the jury, during the 16th and 17th centuries. The
designs contained in these volumes constitute a most interesting
collection of jewels, giving a good idea of the great height of this
industry in Barcelona.
Baron C. H. Davillier is about to publish a volume on Spanish
silversmiths, in which etchings of several of these designs will be
reproduced. In the list of artists which follows I give the names of the
most remarkable of those who worked at Barcelona.
In the Municipal Ordinances of Toledo of the year 1494, some laws
relating to silversmiths appeared; they are, however, uninteresting. The
same thing occurs with the Ordinances of Seville, which were re-compiled
in 1526. The guild of silversmiths of Toledo must have been most
important, for in 1423 they already formed a brotherhood or guild under
the protection of St. Eloy, in which they agreed to help the members of
the guild in every way. See "Documentos Ineditos," published by Zarco
del Valle, p. 166. The Ordinances of Granada enter more into details
concerning the technical proceedings of silversmith's work. These
Ordinances appeared in 1538; the work in the Moorish style is described
in full detail; it appears to have been preserved in this locality more
than elsewhere.
We can judge of the enormous quantities of objects which were made by
those still to be seen in Spanish cathedrals and churches, having
survived the French invasion of the present century. For full details of
the barbarous treatment of these works of art during the French
invasion, see Ford's "Handbook of Spain." The expropriations of the
Spanish government during the civil wars of 1833 to 1840, and the
injudicious law of expropriations of 1869 for the purpose of collecting
artistic objects, have brought about the destruction and disappearance
of numberless works of art in order not to give them up to the
government.
The same splendour and abundance of silver objects of every kind existed
in the royal palaces and houses of the grandees. Madame d'Aunoy in her
"Voyage en Espagne, Lyon, 1643," p. 109, says: "L'on ne se sert point de
vaisselle d'étain, celle d'argent ou de terre sont les seules qui soient
en usage. Le duc d'Alburquerque est mort, il y a déjà quelque tems; l'on
m'a dit que l'on avoit employé six semaines à écrire sa vaisselle d'or
et d'argent. Il y avoit 1400 douzaines d'assiettes, 500 grands plats, et
700 petits, tout le reste à proportion, et 40 échelles d'argent pour
monter au haut de son buffet, qui étoit par gradins comme un autel placé
dans une grande salle." The splendid silver table belonging to the
Marquis of Villaseca at Madrid gives a good idea of the furniture of
this time. In the Inventories, a great number of which exist, we find
numerous details of silver objects of every kind. In one which was drawn
up in 1574, of the effects of Princess Da Juana (MS. folio, Acad. de la
Historia), the sister of Philip II., we find mention, without counting
the jewels, of a silver balustrade, weighing 121 pounds, to be placed
round the bed. The greater part of the kitchen utensils were also made
of silver.
Among the most important objects of Spanish silversmith work are
undoubtedly, as I have said before, the custodias.
The name of custodia is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance or
ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, but also to a sort of
temple or tabernacle, of large size, made also of silver, inside which
is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession on Corpus
Christi day. In order to distinguish these objects one from another, the
name of _viril_ is given to the object which holds the consecrated host;
it is generally made of rock crystal, with a gold stem and mount
ornamented with precious stones. The small tabernacles are generally
objects of the greatest importance both from their artistic and
intrinsic value. The description of one of them will be sufficient to
give an idea of their construction.
Although a fine custodia existed formerly at Toledo, which we know
weighed 164 pounds, Cardinal Ximenez de Cisneros wished a finer one to
be made, and caused the plan to be furnished by competition. Diego
Copin, Juan de Borgoña, and Enrique de Arphe presented designs; the one
by Enrique de Arphe was selected. Arphe began his work in 1517, and
continued exclusively employed in this, and without the help of other
master silversmiths, until April, 1524, when he gave up the monstrance
to the authorities of the cathedral. The silversmith, Lainez, finished
in 1523 the gold and jewelled cross which is on the top. It represents a
Gothic hexagonal temple, 8 feet high, of three orders, with all the
variety and number of necessary architectural details such as
pilasters, arches, columns, pyramids, canopies, crest-work, &c., to the
closing of the vaulted roof; the whole is _percé à jour_, and so
delicate that it looks like lace. From the roof hang bells and
incense-holders of filigree work; in the key-stone are studded precious
gems. Carvings in relief, representing passages of the life of Our
Saviour, appear on the base of the six pedestals; they are admirably
carved. In the centre of the second order is a figure representing the
Resurrection of Our Lord. On the pilasters and brackets which appear in
the temple there are more than 260 statues of different sizes, all of
which are executed with the same skill. This monstrance was mounted on
iron wires; and Archbishop Fonseca, wishing that the whole of it should
be made of silver, gave orders that Arphe himself should alter it, which
he did in 1525, when the total weight was found to be 388 pounds. The
_viril_ was then placed inside it, this was made of the first gold
brought from America. It is completely covered with precious stones, and
was bought by Cisneros from Queen Isabel (the Catholic); it weighs 29
pounds of gold. The tabernacle was ordered to be gilt in 1595 by
Archbishop Quiroga; this was done by the Masters Diego de Valdivieso and
Francisco Merino. This splendid work of art remains in this state, and
may be seen at the cathedral of Toledo; it was most fortunately saved
from the rapacity of the French, by being sent to Cadiz during the war.
In 1513 the monstrance at the cathedral of Cordova was also made by
Arphe, it is similar in style and importance to that of Toledo. Before
this, he had also finished the splendid one formerly at Leon, which was
destroyed by the French, as was likewise a similar smaller one, also by
Arphe, formerly at the Monastery of St. Benito, at Sahagun.
The custodia made by Juan de Arphe in 1587, a Leonese artist, and
grandson of Enrique, for the cathedral of Seville, competes with that of
Toledo. It is formed in the same manner as a temple, but in the
Græco-Roman style, covered with an immense number of statuettes, some of
which are upwards of a foot high, and reliefs of all kinds, and
delicate ornamentation, worked with the utmost skill. The chapter of the
cathedral commissioned the theologian, Francisco Pacheco, to direct the
subjects which were to be represented, and when it was finished Arphe
published a full description of the monstrance, which he does not
hesitate to call "the largest and finest work in silver known of its
kind." This opinion is hardly an exaggerated one if we look at this
splendid work of art. Its plan is circular, and measures 3½ yards
high, and weighs 1082 pounds of silver. For details consult Cean
Bermudez' "Diccionario," Descripcion de la Catedral de Sevilla, Museo
Español de Antiguedades, vol. viii., p. I.
Besides these two celebrated silversmiths there was another of the same
family, the son of Enrique, and father of Juan, Antonio Arphe, an artist
also of great merit, who made in 1554 the custodia which still exists at
the cathedral of Santiago.
Cean Bermudez says in his "Diccionario," "that in the same manner as the
city of Leon gave Spain three illustrious silversmiths, Cuenca gave them
other three in the Becerrils," these were Alonso and Francisco Becerril
brothers, and Christoval, the son of Francisco. They all worked at the
famous and splendid custodia of Cuenca, and between them they produced a
most important series of works from 1528 to 1584.
It is extremely difficult to give in so small a space the description of
the works and names of the numerous artists on silver and gold work, who
worked in Spain during the 16th century. At the present time,
notwithstanding the innumerable objects lost, a long list would remain
of the specimens which have reached us, and their different forms and
applications, still visible in the churches of Toledo, Seville,
Zaragoza, Palencia, Santiago, and others of the Spanish peninsula. Some
idea may be gathered of the importance this art attained in Spain by
looking through the following list of artists who worked in silver and
gold, upwards of 450 of whom I have added to the 95 given by Cean in his
dictionary. It must be borne in mind that the objects on a large scale
which reproduce an architectural model, adopt three styles during the
century, all three of them admirable as regards beauty of form. The
first is Gothic, a reminiscence of the former time, improved by the
change which had already taken place, in drawing and modelling. The
second style is known by the name of _plateresque_, when applied to
architecture, and consists in copying the general structure of buildings
in the classical style, and applying the orders and pointed arch, while
keeping to the profusion of decoration of the earlier period, and
modifying the general plan with the object of introducing the greatest
quantity of ornamentation. The third style is the Greco-Roman; it is
more sober in decoration, and has a greater tendency to keep to the
imitation of the classical school.
Besides the objects described, which may be considered as original works
and the most important examples of Spanish silversmiths' work, I must
mention those which came from South America, chiefly from Mexico, which
possess a certain aspect; they consist of carved and _repoussé_ work
ornamented with flora of the country adapted in an oriental style;
others consist of filigree work, double-headed crowned eagles are
frequently met with in the same style as those made at Cordova and
Salamanca.
There are interesting specimens at the Kensington Museum which give an
excellent idea of Spanish silversmiths' work. Besides those already
described attention must be drawn to
No. 305-66. A silver-gilt cross ornamented with foliage, statuettes of
saints and the Evangelists with their emblems, Marked NOE/M. About 1560.
Height 3 feet 2 inches.
No. 302-66. Silver-gilt chalice, ornamented with foliated scroll work
and half figures beaten and chiselled. Marked Estorga. About 1540.
No. 132-73. A silver-gilt chalice, the bowl inscribed outside "+ Sangvis
mevs vere est potvs;" the stem is of baluster form, in several tiers,
ornamented with brackets and large chatons set with crystal, and a band
of cherubim. The foot is chased with masques, festoons, harpies, and
birds, and surrounded by eight semicircular projections, on which are an
armorial shield and a cross set with emeralds and lapis lazuli. Engraved
at bottom "S. I. de Salinas." [See woodcut] With it is a paten dated
1549.
[Illustration: SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
No. 481-75. Chalice, silver-gilt; the bowl chased in relief with the
instruments of the Passion; on the knop are ten applied figures of
Apostles on ground of translucent blue enamel; the foot, which has eight
semicircular projections, is _repoussé_ with representations of the
Evangelists, cherub and other heads, the Crucifixion, and a shield with
the initials L. B. P. around a crown of thorns enclosing a heart. 17th
century. [See woodcut, p. 31.]
No. 314-64. Silver-gilt pax of architectural design; in the centre is a
group in full relief of the Virgin giving the chasuble to St. Ildefonso.
About 1540-50. [See woodcut, p. 33.]
No. 1129-64. Incense holder, boat-shaped, of rock crystal mounted in
silver-gilt. Around the rim is a band of guilloche pattern, set with
amethysts and garnets; on the lids a band inscribed "Oratio mea
dirigatur sicut incensum." About 1540-50.
[Illustration: SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
No. 93-65. Silver triptych with suspending chain, the interior painted
in oils, the exterior engraved in arabesque. About 1550.
We find that Spanish jewels were as magnificent in the 16th century as
were the large architectural objects for ecclesiastical use. One of the
most important in richness and artistic merit was the splendid crown
belonging to the Virgen del Sagrario at Toledo, which it is deeply to be
regretted disappeared in 1868. This crown was made in 1556 by the
silversmith Hernando de Carrion; it then consisted of a gold circle with
chiselled and enamelled ornamentation, set with pearls, emeralds and
rubies. In 1574 Cardinal Loaisa wished to enrich it, and ordered a
silver worker called Alejo de Montoya to add to it an upper part, formed
as an imperial crown, which Montoya agreed to do by a special agreement.
This addition was formed of small figures of angels of enamelled gold,
in pairs supporting the side bands, which met in the upper part forming
a group of allegorical figures, upon which was placed a spherical
emerald, without a flaw, 1½ inches in diameter, which served as a
base to the cross. The bands were studded with precious stones and
ornamented inside with subjects of the life of the Blessed Virgin in
enamel. The height of this crown was 10½ inches by 8½ wide.
Montoya took 12 years to do this work--he finished it in 1586. The fine
bracelets belonging to this crown, which have also disappeared, were
made at the same time by Julian Hernando.
The jewels worn by the Spanish kings and grandees were equally
magnificent. In the description of the gems which Prince Don Carlos, the
son of Philip II, left to be distributed at his death, are included a
sword the hilt of which was of solid gold enamelled in different
colours: this Don Carlos bequeathed to the Grand Master of the Order of
St. John:--a halberd composed of 27 pieces of enamelled gold in high
relief; and a sword with gold mount enamelled in colours with masks,
medals and festoons in the Roman style, made by Rodrigo Reynalti.
Consult "Coleccion de Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de España,"
vol. 27, Madrid, 1855. I owe to the courtesy of Count Valencia de Don
Juan, the following description of arms made by _Toto platero de su
Alteza_ in 1554. [Archives of Simancas legajo, No. 37.] These arms
belonged to Prince Don Carlos.
[Illustration: SPANISH PAX. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
A gold sword, the cross of which is ornamented with masks of white,
grey, and black enamel.
A gold dagger, and sword-belt belonging to the same sword, ornamented in
a similar manner.
Also a gold sword, belt and dagger ornamented with figures of children
in solid gold and enamel.
Although the greater part of these silversmiths were Spaniards, the
Milanese artist, Jacome de Trezzo was very celebrated during the reign
of Philip II. He made several jewels of great importance for the king
and royal family. The splendid tabernacle which was taken by the French
in 1810 from the Escorial was one of his finest works; they carried off
at the same time the superb shrines, the gifts of kings and princes, and
everything they could lay their hands on of gold and silver, loading ten
campaign carts. Consult, "Historia del Escorial," by Quevedo. Madrid,
1849, p. 220.
At the South Kensington Museum are several objects of this kind, which
will give an excellent idea of Spanish jewel work.
No. 334-70. A gold enamelled pendant, in form of a chained dog,
supported on a scroll from which small pearls depend, and suspended by
two chains of alternate enamelled and plain links, united to a fastening
crowned by a bird.
No. 335-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a pelican and her young,
enriched with a carbuncle and pearls, and suspended by pearl links.
No. 336-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a dog enriched with
jewels.
No. 337-70. Enamelled gold pendant, in form of a parrot, set with
hyacinth, suspended by chains.
No.340-70. Enamelled gold pendant representing the Virgin of the
Immaculate Conception.
Nos. 341 and 342-70. Pendants representing the Virgen del Pilar
Saragossa, attended by saints. [See woodcut opposite.]
[Illustration: SPANISH JEWEL, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
Spanish jewel work does not decrease during the 17th century, the
number of artists who worked was very great, and the quantity of objects
of all kinds which were made by them to enrich the shrines of churches,
and the houses of grandees, was remarkable, although their artistic
merit was far inferior to the work of the 16th century. The general
decay of art, which produces in Europe the _barroco_ style, appears in
Spain more exaggerated and to a greater extent than elsewhere. The
objects made during this period reproduce until the beginning of the
18th century the lines and extravagant ornamentation which we meet with
in architecture, the handiwork however continued to be excellent, and no
expense was spared to give an aspect of richness to the objects made.
[Illustration: SILVER DISH. SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
The large quantity of objects of all kinds made of silver, and the
quantity also used in wearing apparel, gave rise to constant
prohibitions restricting its use from the reign of Ferdinand and Isabel,
and even to a far greater extent at the beginning of the 16th century.
In a Decree, issued at Madrid in 1594, "it is forbidden to make or sell
cabinets, escritoires, caskets, brasiers, _chapines_ (clogs), tables,
commodes decorated with silver, either beat in _repoussé_, stamped,
carved or plain, and whoever makes, sells, or buys them, is to lose
them." Notwithstanding this and other restrictions which appeared in the
17th century, this abuse can hardly have been checked, judging by the
number of these objects which have reached us, not counting those
preserved in the shrines of Spanish churches and cathedrals.
The luxury which was apparent in this century of great decay for Spain
will be found in the numerous descriptions which exist of different
feasts and ceremonies.
A good idea may be had of this style of silversmiths' work from the
silver dishes in the South Kensington Museum. An engraving of one of
these appears on the preceding page.
[Illustration: BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH EMERALDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH
CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
During the 17th century, jewellery underwent a complete
transformation--the proceedings and _renaissance_ forms of the Italian
school were abandoned, with all their richness of sculptures, enamels,
and variety of stones. Instead of this, jewels were formed of emeralds,
diamonds or rubies in gold setting, _percés à jour_, producing an
excellent effect. The exceptions to this rule are the objects in which
enamelled work still predominates, a reminiscence of the former century.
Among the finest and best examples may be mentioned the gold crown of
the Virgen de los Desamparados of Toledo, made in Mexico in the 17th
century. It is formed like a basket of flowers, of delicate tracery, and
richly studded with fine emeralds. Several most interesting specimens
exist at Kensington of Spanish jewellery of this kind, bought at the
sale which took place in 1870 of the jewels belonging to the Virgen del
Pilar at Zaragoza.
No. 325-70 is a breast ornament of gold scroll open work, with enamelled
flowers, set with emeralds. [See woodcut on p. 37.]
No. 320-70, a gold breast ornament with five bosses and seven pendants,
set with rose diamonds.
No. 406-73. Breast ornament, gold open strap work and floral filigree,
the lower part an oval pendant, set with table diamonds. [See woodcut on
p. 39.]
The following fine Spanish jewels of the 17th century in the Kensington
Museum are also worthy of attention:
No. 330-64. A pectoral cross, with medallions containing relics.
No. 298-66. Gold filigree cross, within which is an ivory crucifix.
No. 344-70. Enamelled gold pectoral cross set with amethysts.
No. 417, 417A.-69. A pair of earrings of gold open work, branches set
with white crystals.
No. 323, 323A.-70. Silver open work earrings set with rose diamonds.
No. 330 to 330C.-70. Four miniature ewers of silver filigree open work,
the bodies of Chinese enamelled copper.
No. 1224-71. Silver frame _repoussé_, with the Holy Dove, and a bleeding
heart encircled with thorns.
Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, _Churrigueresque_
styles continued to be copied during the beginning of the 18th century,
in the same manner as in the 17th century. At this time, as in the rest
of Europe, a reaction begins in every branch of art, due in Spain to the
influence of French and Italian artists who accompanied the family of
Bourbon. The Academy of Fine Arts of St. Fernando was founded by a king
of that House towards the middle of the century, the teaching was
reduced to copying Greco-Roman models, such as they were understood at
that time.
[Illustration: BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH DIAMONDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH
CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
The great centres which in the 16th century had produced such splendid
works of art had almost completely ceased. No great silversmiths
remained at Valladolid, Leon, Toledo, or Seville. The only localities
which have preserved even to the present day the traditional forms of
these ornaments are Salamanca, Cordova, Astorga, and Santiago. Madrid
absorbed from the middle of the 17th century the whole of this industry.
In Larruga's "Memorias," Vol. IV., will be found every detail given on
this subject. Several important establishments for the object of making
silver work on a large scale were founded at Madrid, the most important
being that of Tomas de Buenafuente, which passed after to Francisco
Novi. Two Frenchmen called Isaac and Miguel Naudin established a
manufactory in 1772. In each the greater part of the work was machine
made. Others were founded to cut and polish precious stones, and mount
paste stones. This was done with great skill by Antonio Martinez in
1778, in a building fitted up for the purpose, which still exists
opposite the Botanical Garden of Madrid. Martinez was pensioned by
Charles III. in Paris and London to study the improvements in this
industry. The principal object of the manufactory was to teach the
technical proceedings required in order to extend this industry in the
country, and supply a school in which machinery, models, drawings, &c.,
were to be met with. Pupils of both sexes were admitted; machinery was
made in the workshops, and Martinez undertook to teach the manufacture
of gold, doublé, or steel trinkets, with or without enamel or stones.
Sword-hilts, buckles, snuff-boxes, needle-cases, handles for sticks,
brooches, necklaces, orders, and other different objects, were made
either of open work or enamelled gold.
Inkstands, dishes, dinner services, chocolate stands, cruets, knives and
forks, were made of silver in different styles, generally imitating the
English manner. [Consult Larruga, "Memorias Politicas y Economicas."
Madrid, 1789. Vol. IV., p. 116.]
The results obtained by the manufactory of Martinez were most
satisfactory; a large number of apprentices were taught there; but their
work was completely French in character; the manner and style of the
Spanish school of silversmiths was completely forgotten.
As I have already mentioned, the traditional forms were preserved in
some localities which require to be mentioned here in order to finish
this account of this industry in Spain. An interesting and varied
collection of modern Spanish peasant jewellery exists at the South
Kensington Museum. Strange to say, although this collection was formed a
very few years ago, in 1870, it would be very difficult now to make
another; for owing to the means of communication having been of late
years so much improved in Spain, the peasantry are leaving off their
national costumes, and substituting in every detail modern fashions.
Among this peasant jewellery the silver gilt necklace and reliquaries of
Astorga, No. 1114-73, deserve special attention. These necklaces were
worn round the neck and part of the body. The neck ornaments of gold and
seed pearls made at Salamanca, those of silver gilt of Santiago; the
filigree work of Cordova in the Moorish style, and the long earrings of
Cataluña with precious stones, are interesting reminiscences of older
times.
LIST OF SPANISH GOLDSMITHS AND SILVERSMITHS.
10TH CENTURY
Years in which
they worked. Residence.
961. Hudzen ben Bozla, a Moor. He made a silver
casket which exists still at Gerona Cathedral Gerona.
13TH CENTURY
1279. Maestre Jorge Toledo.
1283. Modova, Pablo de Burgos.
Niculas (Don)
1262. Perez, Juan Burgos.
14TH CENTURY
1357. Andreu, Raimundo de Gerona.
1358. Barners, Pedro Gerona.
1325. Bartolomé, Maestro Gerona.
Bernec, Pere, V. Barners
1382 to } Capellades, Pedro Tortosa.
1393. }
1378. Fernai, Rodrigo Oviedo.
1334. Frau, Ramon Palma de Mallorca.
1367. Martinez, Sancho Sevilla.
1382 to } Paris, Pedro de Tortosa.
1393. }
1373. Perpiña, Juan Valencia.
1370. Ponce, Bartolomé Palma de Mallorca.
15TH CENTURY
1417. Abello, Joan Daroca.
1495. Alcaçar, Juan de Toledo.
1477. Almerique Barcelona.
1494. Berenguer, Juan Valencia.
1499. Castellano Toledo.
1454. Castelnou, Juan de Valencia.
1460. Castelnou, Jayme de, son of Juan Valencia.
1470. Cetina, Mestre Valencia.
1458 to } Diez, Pedro el Cabalan Toledo.
1463 }
1494. Diaz, Thomas Toledo.
1417. Diaz, or Diez Caro, Ferrando Daroca.
1418 to } Garcia de Valladolid, Alfonso Toledo.
1426. }
1438. Garcia, Alonso Burgos.
1442. Garcia de Pielagos, Juan Burgos.
1477. Gomez, Garcia Valencia.
1424 to } Gonzalez de Madrid, Juan Toledo.
1459. }
1477. Hance
Lorenzo, Don
1425. Medina, Juan de Toledo.
1499. Medina, Pedro de Toledo.
1470. Nadal Yvo, Maestre Valencia.
1493. Narbona, Diego Toledo.
1495. Nuñez, Alonso Toledo.
1485. Oviedo, Fernando de Burgos.
1487. Pizarro Guadalupe.
1457. Rodriguez de Villareal, Alonso Toledo.
1459. Rodriguez de Villareal, Anton Toledo.
1483. Rodriguez, Gonzalo Toledo.
1496. Rodriguez, Geronimo Sevilla.
1459. Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope Toledo.
1417 to } Roiz, Pero Darroca.
1423. }
1489 to } Ruby, Maestre Toledo.
1491. }
1416. Ruiz de Astudillo, Alfonso Burgos.
1431. Ruiz de Medina Toledo.
1426. Ruiz, Juan Toledo.
1498. Ruiz, Juan Toledo.
1404. Sanchez, Martinez Sevilla.
1424. Sanchez, Anton Toledo.
1417. Sancho, Manuel Hernando Burgos.
1487. Segovia, Fr. Juan de Guadalupe.
1418. Valles, Juan Toledo.
1484 to } Vigil, Pedro de Valladolid.
1488. }
Yvo V. Nadal Yvo ----
16TH CENTURY
1586. Abedo de Villandrando, Diego Madrid.
1531. Aguirre, Pedro de Toledo.
1515. Aleman, Mateo Sevilla.
---- Aleman, Nicolas Sevilla.
1596. Alfaro, Francisco Sevilla.
1539. Alonso, Juan Toledo.
1552. Alvarez, Baltasar Palencia.
1568. Alvarez, Francisco Madrid.
1531. Alvarez, Juan Granada.
1560. Alvarez, Juan Madrid.
1538. Alvear, Juan de Burgos.
---- Alvear, Nicolas de Burgos.
1520 to } Andino, Cristoval de Burgos.
1521. }
---- Angel, Pedro Toledo.
1565. Anrique, Joan Toledo.
1570. Avila, Alonso de Toledo.
1567. Avila Cimbron, Diego de Toledo.
1544. Arfe, Antonio de Leon.
1595. Arfe y Villafañe, Juan de Sevilla.
1506 to } Arphe, Enrique de Leon.
1525. }
1531. Baeza, Francisco de Granada.
---- Baeza, Juan Granada.
1580. Ballesteros, Fernando de Sevilla.
1560. Baptista, Juan Toledo.
1584 to } Baroxa, Gregorio de Toledo.
1601. }
1534. Becerril, Alonso Cuenca.
1575. Becerril, Cristoval Cuenca.
1552. Becerril, Francisco Cuenca.
1590. Belta, Hanz Madrid.
Belthae, V.--see Hanz Belthae
1582. Benavente, Juan de Palencia.
1546. Benavente, Pedro de Toledo.
1556. Borgoñes, Juan Toledo.
1538. Buentalante, Alonso de Granada.
1586. Camps, Bernat Barcelona.
1547 to } Carrion, Hernando Toledo.
1561. }
1556. Carrion, Fernando Toledo.
1586. Castro, Juan de Madrid.
1531. Castro, Luis de Granada.
1505. Cetina, Bernardo Juan Valencia.
1546. Comes, Gabriel Barcelona.
1553. Conill, Antonio Barcelona.
1531. Cordova, Anton de Granada.
Cordova, Juan de Granada.
1514. Cota, Martin Toledo.
1567. Davila Cimbron, Diego Toledo.
1558. Davila, Diego Toledo.
1593. Diaz, Francisco Toledo.
1526. Diaz, Hernando Toledo.
1586. Dominguez, Juan Madrid.
1513. Donanti, Juan Sevilla.
1564 to } Dueñas, Alonso de Salamanca.
1598. }
1531. Dueñas, Juan de Granada.
1537. Escripian, Luis Toledo.
1531. Fernandez, Diego Granada.
1554. Fernandez, Manuel Sevilla.
1567 to } Fernandez, Marcos Toledo.
1593. }
---- Fernandez del Moral Madrid.
1531. Flores, Diego Granada.
1572. Font, Joan Barcelona.
1555. Francés, Juan Toledo.
1561 to } Gallego, Miguel Toledo.
1590. }
1531. Garcia, Thome Granada.
1561. Gallo, Gaspar Toledo.
1555. Goden, Juan Toledo.
1509. Gomez, Heros de Valencia.
1573. Gomez, Baltasar
1574. Gonzalez, Pedro Uveda.
1513. Gueran, Ferrer Barcelona.
1531. Hermosilla, Bartolomé de Granada.
1567. Hernandez, Gonzalo Toledo.
1531. Hernandez, Luis Granada.
1567. Hernandez, Marcos Toledo.
1524 to } Hernandez, Pedro Toledo.
1544. }
1531. Herrera, Gonzalo de Granada.
1524. Herreros y Manzanas Toledo.
1585 to } Hanz, Belthae Madrid.
1587. }
1582 to } Honrado, Julian Toledo.
1599. }
1531. Jaen, Fernando de Granada.
1562 to } Lainez, Juan Bautista Madrid.
1573. }
1524. Laynez, Rodrigo Toledo.
1559. Leon, Leoni Madrid.
1597. Leoni, Miguel Madrid.
1531. Lopez, Francisco Granada.
1548 to } Lopez, Juan Toledo.
1570. }
1530. Lopez de Leon, Juan Toledo.
1508. Madrid, Pedro de Toledo.
1531. Mar, Alonso de la Granada.
1588 to } Marques, Lorenzo Toledo.
1614. }
1522. Marquez, Cristoval Toledo.
1531. Martinez, Pero Granada.
1544 to } Martinez, Francisco Toledo.
1547. }
1553. Mas, Miguel Barcelona.
1534. Masanell, Joan Barcelona.
1517. Mayquez, Diego Toledo.
1500 to } Medina, Pedro de Toledo.
1515. }
1538. Mendoza, Alonso de Granada.
---- Mendoza, Blas de Granada.
---- Mendoza, Diego de Burgos.
1564 to } Merino, Francisco Toledo.
1601. }
1579 to } Montoya, Alejo de Toledo.
1586. }
1598. Morales, Luis Madrid.
1592. Morales, Tomas Toledo.
1515 to } Moran Toledo.
1517. }
1556. Moran, Pedro Fernandez de Burgos.
1561. Morel, Thomas du (an Englishman) Toledo.
1574 to } Montoya, Alexo Toledo.
1590. }
1573. Muñoz, Alonso Toledo.
1598. Muñoz, Antonio Madrid.
1573. Niebre, Matias de, a native of Burgundy,
living at Toledo.
1512. Nuñez, Alonso Toledo.
1531. Nuñez, Francisco Granada.
1532 to } Oña, Antonio de Burgos.
1560. }
1531. Oñate, Juan de Granada.
1537 to } Ordoñez, Andres Toledo.
1546 }
1507 to } Ordoñez, Pedro Toledo.
1510 }
1537 to} Orna, Juan de Burgos.
1528.
1581. Ortiz, Pedro Madrid.
1529 to } Oviedo, Diego de Toledo.
1546. }
1586. Pan, Juan Barcelona.
1594. Pardo, Martin Escorial.
1534. Parra, Juan de la Toledo.
1577. Pastrana, Luis de Madrid.
1595. Pedraza, Diego de Estremadura.
1593. Pedraza, Esteban
1559. Perez, Francisco Barcelona.
1598. Perez, Pedro Madrid.
1535. Pierres, a Frenchman, residing at Toledo.
1587. Poch, Pero Juan Barcelona.
1568. Poggini, Juan Pablo Madrid.
1532. Pons, Pere Barcelona.
1574. Portigniani, Juan Bautista Toledo.
1541 to } Ramirez, Pedro Toledo.
1554. }
1590. Reynalte, Francisco de Madrid.
---- Reynalte, Juan de Madrid.
---- Reynalte, Pedro de Madrid.
1590. Reynalte, Rodrigo de Madrid.
1531. Rivera, Diego Lopez de Granada.
1590. Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo {Madrid and
{ Toledo.
1557 to } Rodriguez de Babia, Juan Toledo.
1586. }
1596. Rodriguez del Castillo, Melchor Segovia.
1551. Rodriguez, Duarte Toledo.
1568. Rodriguez Machado, Juan Toledo.
1567. Ros, Felipe Barcelona.
1537. Rozas, Gregorio de Burgos.
1538. Rozas, Jeronimo de Burgos.
1584 to } Ruiz, Diego Toledo.
1590. }
1531. Ruiz, Jeronimo Granada.
1524. Ruiz, Julian, lapidary Toledo.
1590. Ruiz, Juan Toledo.
---- Ruiz, Juan, el Vandolino {Sevilla, Jaen
{and Cordova.
1545. Sabat, Benedicti Barcelona.
1566. Salamanca, Antonio de Madrid.
1590. Sanchez, Andres Toledo.
1522. San Roman, Pedro de Toledo.
1531. Sevilla, Hernando de Granada.
1524. Sigüenza, Pedro de Sevilla.
1595. Tamarit, Andreu Barcelona.
1590. Tello de Moreta Toledo.
1554. Toto Madrid.
---- Trezzo, Jacome de, an Italian, who worked at Madrid.
1589. Trezzo, a nephew of Jacome Madrid.
1590. Urbano, Juan Cordova.
1580. Usatigni, Juan Alonso Madrid.
1537. Valdes, Antonio de Barcelona.
1589. Valdes, Lucas Cordova.
1564 to } Valdivieso, Diego de Toledo.
1598. }
1593. Valdivieso, Lucas de Burgos.
1575. Valla, Narcisco Barcelona.
1548. Valladolid, Juan de Toledo.
1566. Valle, Antonio del Madrid.
1524. Valles, Hernando de Toledo.
1512. Vargas, Gutierre de Toledo.
1563. Vazquez, Baptista Toledo.
1512 to } Vazquez, Diego Toledo.
1543. }
1558. Velasco Toledo.
1580. Velez Toledo.
1569. Vergara, Nicolas de Toledo.
1546. Vicente, Mateo, lapidary Toledo.
1561. Vida, Francisco Barcelona.
1534. Villagran, Juan de Toledo.
1590. Villanueva, Juan Domingo de Toledo.
1552. Villaseca, Alexo Toledo.
1538. Vitoria, Francisco de Granada.
1538. Vitoria, Juan de Granada.
1528. Vozmediano, Diego de Sevilla.
1536. Vozmediano, Juan de Sevilla.
1561. Ximenez, Juan Barcelona.
1537. Ximenis, Rafael Barcelona.
1599. Zepes, Bartolomé de Toledo.
17TH CENTURY
1618 to } Adeba, Jusepe Madrid.
1627. }
1677. Alcario, Francisco de Sevilla.
1664. Aleman, Juan Toledo.
1623. Alonso, Jeronimo Madrid.
1676 to } Alonso de Prado, Pedro Burgos.
1714. }
1622. Alvarado, Ambrosio de Madrid.
1635. Alvarez Brizuela, Blas Madrid.
---- Alvarez, Blas Madrid.
1636. Alvarez de Peralta, Pedro Madrid.
Alvear, Andres Burgos.
1640. Alvear, Juan de Burgos.
1617. Alvear, Juan de Madrid.
1691. Arandas, Gaspar Tarragona.
---- Arfe, Joseph, a grandson of Juan de Arfe Sevilla.
1613. Avalos, Diego de Madrid.
1604. Avendaño de Tudela, Luis Madrid.
1677. Avila, Agustin de Sevilla.
1620. Barinci, Juan Bautista Escorial.
1624. Baraona, Antonio Madrid.
1638. Barona, Pedro Barcelona.
---- Bellicis, V. Bardi
1650. Bardi, Bellicis Barcelona.
1604. Belta, Pedro Madrid.
1602. Benavente, Pedro Toledo.
1645. Belorado, Antonio de Burgos.
1630. Bonino, Pedro Madrid.
1616. Bracho, Alexandro Toledo.
1628. Brizuela, Gaspar Miguel de Madrid.
1622. Calvo, Juan Madrid.
1626. Camanyes or Comanes, Aloy Tortosa.
1650. Campo, Juan del Burgos.
1646. Campo, Juan de Madrid.
1643 to } Carcaba, Felipa, the wife of
1664. } Andres Salinas, worked at Toledo.
1621. Carranza Alvear, Juan de Madrid.
1622. Carranza, Martin de Madrid.
1615. Castro, Juan Madrid.
1651 to } Ciga, Miguel de Burgos.
1670. }
1646. Comañes, Aloy Tortosa.
1668. Concepcion, Friar Juan de la Escorial.
---- Cruz, Friar Eugenio de la Escorial.
1620. Cuello, Amaro Madrid.
1661. Dandez, Agustin Barcelona.
1623. Delgado Maldonado, Miguel Madrid.
1660. Diaz, Juan Segovia.
1619. Dominguez, Luis Madrid.
1613. Duarte, Cristoval de Madrid.
1671. Duran, Juan Toledo.
1613 to } Duran, Jusepe Madrid.
1624. }
1664. Ebrart, Pedro Toledo.
1660. Elizes, Alonso de Toledo.
1642. Espinosa, Juan de Madrid.
1640. Espluga, Tomas Barcelona.
---- Estrada, Manuel de Sevilla.
1624. Estrada, Sebastian Madrid.
1655 to } Faneli, Virgilio Toledo.
1678. }
1630. Franconio, Juan Bautista Sevilla.
1657. Fernandez, Andres Burgos.
1679 to } Fernandez, Gamonal Joseph Toledo.
1694. }
1631. Fernandez de Angulo, Miguel Madrid.
1612. Fernandez de Castro, Juan Madrid.
1618. Fernandez, Martin Madrid.
1627. Fernandez de Tapia, Andres Madrid.
---- Fernandez de Tapia, Juan Madrid.
1667 to } Fortuna, Juan de Toledo.
1670. }
1629. Gallo, Alonso Madrid.
1615. Gamonar, Mathieu de Madrid.
1600 to } Garcia, Alonso Toledo.
1635. }
1622. Garcia, Diego Madrid.
1618. Garcia, Francisco Madrid.
1613. Garcia, Martin Madrid.
1600. Garrido, Gaspar Madrid.
1620. Generino, Francisco Escorial.
1610. Gomez, Antonio Madrid.
---- Gomez, Diego Madrid.
1626. Gomez, Juan Madrid.
1610. Gomez, Marcelo Madrid.
1615. Gonzales, Gonzalo Madrid.
1613. Gonzales, Enrique Madrid.
1634. Gonzales, Francisco Madrid.
1630 to } Gonzales, Pascual Madrid.
1640. }
1654. Gonzales, Rafael Segovia.
1607. Guardia, Melchor, a native of Milan Barcelona.
1679. Güergo, Domingo de Burgos.
1639. Guigelmo, Eugenio Madrid.
1627 to } Guigelmo, Juan Madrid.
1634. }
1618. Heredia, Juan de Madrid.
---- Heredia, Sebastian Madrid.
1631. Hurtado, Luis Madrid.
1694 to } Jaranta, Juan de Toledo.
1698. }
1650. Landeras, Jeronimo de Burgos.
1611. Leal, Sebastian Madrid.
1606. Leoni, Pompeyo Madrid.
1620. Lopez, Domingo Madrid.
1639. Lopez, Francisco Madrid.
1611. Lopez de Alvarado, Antonio Madrid.
1676. Lopez Barona, Andres Burgos.
1617. Lorenzo, Juan Valladolid.
1638 to } Maestre, Luis Toledo.
1646. }
1611. Marisanz, Pedro Madrid.
1653. Martinez, Juan Burgos.
1673. Mata, Francisco de Burgos.
1677. Mata, Pedro de Burgos.
1686. Mayares, Miguel Madrid.
1614 to } Maymó, Bernardo Tarragona.
1625. }
1639. Medina, Juan Bautista de Madrid.
1628. Medina Requexo, Bautista de Madrid.
1641. Mendez, Duarte Madrid.
1614. Mexia, Juan Madrid.
1604. Mimbreño, Alonso Roman Madrid.
1641. Miñano, Juan de Madrid.
1626. Miranda, Alonso de Madrid.
1611. Moles, Juan Madrid.
1639. Montero, Francisco Madrid.
1630. Morales, Francisco Madrid.
---- Morales, Manuel de Madrid.
1695. Muñoz, Juan Madrid.
1661. Nadal, Andres Barcelona.
1620. Nadal, Martin Madrid.
1621 to } Navarrete Escarraman, Bartolomé de Madrid.
1629. }
1613 to } Navarro, Cristoval Toledo.
1623. }
1624 to } Navarro, Manuel Madrid.
1628. }
1626. Nuñez, Antonio Madrid.
1630. Oliva, Gregorio de Madrid.
1650 to } Ortiz de la Revilla, Juan Madrid.
1675. }
1615. Oviedo, Martin de Madrid.
1619. Oviedo, Pedro de Madrid.
1611. Paiba, Vicente de Madrid.
1665. Palomo, Diego Toledo.
1640. Pallares, Juan de Madrid.
1628. Pancorvo, Cristoval de Madrid.
1624. Paradiñas, Andres de Madrid.
1659. Pedraza, Bernardo de Toledo.
1632. Perez, Alonso Madrid.
1652 to } Perez, Antonio Toledo.
1658. }
1680. Perez de Montalto, Antonio Toledo.
1685 to } Perez de Montalto, Miguel Toledo.
1688. }
1630. Puig, Luis Valencia.
1627. Quero, Juan de Madrid.
1632. Quixano, Marcos Madrid.
1617. Ramirez, Agustin Madrid.
1627. Ramos, Juan Madrid.
1628. Reynalte, Juan Madrid.
1660. Riba, Manuel de Toledo.
1624. Ribera, Martin de Madrid.
1617. Rios, Esteban de Madrid.
1626 to } Roda, Agustin Tortosa.
1646. }
1626. Rodriguez, Bartolomé Madrid.
1631. Rodriguez, Eugenio Toledo.
1645. Rodriguez, Gabriel Madrid.
1618. Rodriguez, Diego Madrid.
1613. Rodriguez, Jeronimo Madrid.
1617. Rodriguez, Juan Madrid.
---- Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo Madrid.
1623. Romano Valmaseda, Juan Madrid.
1607 to } Ros, Pedro Barcelona.
1625. }
1617. Rosales, Francisco de Madrid.
1611. Ruiz, Eugenio Madrid.
---- Ruiz, Juan Bautista Madrid.
---- Ruiz de Valdevieso Burgos.
1675. Ruiz de Velasco, Juan Burgos.
1684. Salazar, Francisco Burgos.
1604 to } Salinas, Andres de {Toledo and
1635. } {Madrid.
1639 to} Salinas, Francisco de Toledo.
1670. }
1639 to } Salinas, Vicente de Toledo.
1680. }
1616. Sanchez, Francisco Toledo.
1659 to } Sanchez Ormachea, Pedro Toledo.
1661. }
1614. San Martin, Juan de Toledo.
1610 to } Santillana, Antonio de Madrid.
1617. }
1642. Santo Domingo, Hipolito Madrid.
1653. San Vicente, Jacinto de Burgos.
1640. Sarabia, Cristoval de Sevilla.
1668. Segura, Juan de Sevilla.
1632. Serrano, Francisco Madrid.
1640. Soler, Baltasar Madrid.
1629. Soria, Francisco Madrid.
1608. Soria, Jeronimo de Madrid.
1617. Soria, Lucas de Madrid.
1620. Spagna, Juliano Madrid.
1694. Scase, Gaspar Sevilla.
1662. Suer, or Sueur, Esteban, a Frenchman who
worked at Toledo.
1671. Tellez, Juan Toledo.
---- Tebres, Antonio Toledo.
1677. Tello, Mateo, a German, worked at Sevilla.
1617. Tofino, Alonso Madrid.
1618 to } Valera, Domingo de Madrid.
1623. }
1619. Valedomar, Angel de Madrid.
1626. Valle, Juan del Madrid.
---- Valmaseda, V. Juan Romano ----
1624. Vega, Juan de Madrid.
1672. Velasco Ganado, Pedro Toledo.
1625. Velasquez, Juan Madrid.
1627. Villalta, Antonio Madrid.
1600 to } Villamayor, Baltasar Toledo.
1626. }
1638. Villarago, J. Barcelona.
1622. Villarroel, Andres de Madrid.
1614. Villegas, Martin de Toledo.
1645. Vivanco, Simon Madrid.
1615. Xabier, Antonio Madrid.
1610. Zabalza, Diego de Madrid.
1615 to } Zaldivia, Lucas de Burgos.
1633. }
---- Zoga, Miguel de ----
18TH CENTURY
1746. Aguilar, Geronimo Cordova.
1794. Alamo, Bernardo de Toledo.
1703. Aragon, Diego de Segovia.
1716. Aranda, Alberto Madrid.
1746. Aviles, Manuel de Cordova.
End of } Balmet, Bartolomé Madrid.
18th cent. }
1740. Ballestero, Manuel Cordova.
1730 to } Bargas, Manuel de Toledo.
1752. }
1702. Bargas, Mateo de Toledo.
1739. Bargas y Machuca, Manuel de Toledo.
1789 to } Bargas Machuca, Manuel Timoteo Madrid.
1797. }
1753. Bautista, Vicente Toledo.
18th cent. Benitez, Pedro Salamanca.
End of } Buenafuente, Tomas Madrid.
18th cent. }
1746. Bustamante, Franco Cordova.
1734. Bustos, Floro de Sevilla.
1784. Calzado, José, enameller Malaga.
1746. Camacho, Lorenzo Cordova.
1746. Camacho, Rafael Cordova.
1713. Campo, Matias del Soria.
1734. Castillo, Matias del Aranda del Duero.
1746. Castro, Damian de Cordova.
1748. Castro, Diego Toledo.
18th cent. Chevalier, Luis Claudio, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid.
1728. Colomes, Pedro, worked at the mounts of silver
knives made at Alcora.
End of } Conde, Domingo Madrid.
18th cent. }
1754. Cros, Josef Valencia.
---- Cuerda, Feliz de la Toledo.
1738 to } Cuerda, Jose de la Toledo.
1745. }
1722 to } Dominguez, Juan Antonio Toledo.
1748. }
1776. Elosua, Antonio Burgos.
1776. Elosua, Manuel de Burgos.
1790. Fernandez, Pablo Burgos.
18th cent. Fernandez Clemente, Melchor Salamanca.
1741. Fernandez de la Fuente, Antonio Toledo.
1778. Ferroni, Juan Madrid.
1701. Figueroa, Juan Salamanca.
1688. Fornaguera, Buenaventura Barcelona.
1790. Gallardo, Vicente Sevilla.
1710. Gamonal y Guzman, Juan Toledo.
1746. Garcia, Jose Cordova.
1760 to } Garcia Reyna, Manuel Toledo.
1766. }
1753. Garcia Crespo, Manuel Salamanca.
1772. Gaudin, Isaac, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid.
---- Gaudin, Miguel, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid.
1714. Gomez, Pedro Alcala de Henares.
1746. Hidalgo, Gabriel Cordova.
1700 to } Jaranta, Juan de Toledo.
1717. }
1743. Jaranta y Zapata, Juan de Toledo.
1717 to } Jaranta, Lorenzo Toledo.
1732. }
1746. Jurado, Jose Cordova.
1746. Lara, Diego de Cordova.
1790. Lecaroz, Antonio Sevilla.
1745. Lopez, Bernardino Toledo.
1784. Lopez, Manuel Burgos.
1746. Luna, Andres de Cordova.
---- Luque, Juan de Cordova.
1700. Llanos, Manuel de Burgos.
1746. Madueño, Francisco Cordova.
1790. Mairod y Vassner, José Sevilla.
1734. Manrique, Franco Esteban Aranda de Duero.
1784. Marti, Jose Barcelona.
1778. Martinez, Antonio Martinez.
1754. Martinez, Estanislao Valencia.
End of } Martinez, Gregorio Madrid.
18th cent. }
1703. Martinez del Valle, Jose Segovia.
1693. Matons, Juan Tarragona.
End of } Mendeluce, Fermin Navarra.
18th cent. }
End of } Molinez, Francisco Zaragoza.
18th cent. }
1722. Monteman y Cusens, Lorenzo Salamanca.
1746. Moreno, Manuel Cordova.
1725. Muñoz de Amador, Bernardo Madrid.
1746. Muñoz, Francisco Cordova.
---- Navas, Fernando de Cordova.
1784. Nieva, Antonio de Malaga.
1770 to } Niño, Jose Toledo.
1776. }
1767 to } Niño, Jose Bernardo Toledo.
1777. }
End of } Nivel, Juan Madrid.
18th cent. }
End of } Novi, Francisco Madrid.
18th cent. }
1786. Olivares, Fermin Madrid.
1746. Palomino, Jose Sevilla.
1784. Pechenet, Juan Madrid.
1734. Perez de Oviedo, Francisco Granada.
1746. Pineda, Manuel Cordova.
---- Quintero, José
1760 to } Reyna, Manuel Toledo.
1777. }
1743. Reyno, Tomas Toledo.
End of } Roche, Nicholas Madrid.
18th cent. }
1715 to } Rodriguez de Castro, Juan Burgos.
1757. }
1784. Rovira, José Barcelona.
1746. Roxelio, Francisco Cordova.
1791. Ruiz, Donata Burgos.
1746. Ruiz, Juan Cordova.
---- Ruiz, Miguel Cordova.
1777. Ruiz, Pedro Burgos.
1746. Sanchez, Francisco Cordova.
1731. Sanchez Renentes, Tomas Sevilla.
1767 to } Sanchez Niño, Jose Toledo.
1777. }
1731. Sanz, Pedro Sevilla.
18th cent. Sanz de Velasco, Toribio Salamanca.
1700. Simancas, Francisco de Burgos.
1716. Supuesta, Juan Madrid.
1731. Tamaral, Ignacio Sevilla.
1746. Torralvo, Sebastian Cordova.
1755. Torrijos, Lucas de Burgos.
1771. Urqueza, Domingo Madrid.
---- Valadrez Romero, Luis Sevilla.
1746. Vargas, Jose de Cordova.
---- Vega, Pedro de la Cordova.
1754. Vicente, Bautista Valencia.
1728. Vicente, Luis Valencia.
1734. Villa, Andres de Sevilla.
1713 to } Zurreño, Antonio Madrid.
1715. }
1799 to } Ximenez, Manuel Toledo.
1800. }
I owe to the courtesy of Baron Ch. Davillier the names of the following
artists, which appear in his "Histoire des Principaux Orfèvres
Espagnols," Paris, 1879.
Perez de las Cellas, Antonio, a native of Saragossa;
he worked at Rome in 1456
Ruiz, Alonso; he worked at Toledo in 1431
Ferrandez, Garci; he worked at Toledo in 1431
Pielagos, Juan Garcia, Burgos 1442
Fernai, Rodrigo, a Frenchman, who worked at Oviedo in 1368
Bells, Antonio, Barcelona 1458
Closes, Francisco, Barcelona 1464
Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope, Toledo 1466
Sano, Salvador, Barcelona 1475
Zobarola, Francisco, Banet 1480
Jujuce, a Valencian jew, Pamplona 1356
Freset, Perrin, } Frenchmen working at Olite, Navarre, in 1444
Rodez, Conrat de, }
Bonte, Daniel de, a German, working at Olite, in Navarre about 1400
Valdubia, Maestro Ferrando, Rome 1525
Fuente, Gonsalvo de, Rome 1539
Alfonso, Rome 1546
IRON WORK.
Numerous iron mines have existed in Spain, especially in the Cantabrian
provinces, and have been worked from very early times. They are
mentioned by Pliny, lib. 34, cap. xii., and have given rise to the
development of excellent metal works in the Spanish Peninsula: although
in many localities this tradition has been continued until our days, the
Basque Provinces have in all times excelled in this artistic industry.
The want of durability and the little care taken of objects of
iron-work, owing to the insignificant value of the material employed,
prevent us from being able to mention any important examples of a very
early date. After drawing attention to some interesting specimens which
have reached us from the Spanish-Arabs, we must begin the history of
iron-work in Spain in the second half of the 15th century; it continues
to progress in the 16th, and produced undoubtedly at that period works
which were unrivalled in Europe. The _rejas_ or chancel screens
enclosing chapels in the cathedrals of Toledo, Seville, Granada,
Salamanca, and other churches in Spain, of which it is much to be
deplored no drawings or photographs exist, deserve the especial
attention of those who follow this industry in the present day, owing to
the beauty of their forms, and the inexhaustible variety of models which
they present to the manufacturer.
Besides specimens of Iron-work connected with arms which will be
described in a separate article, the most interesting examples of
Moorish manufacture which have reached us are keys of most delicate
tracery; their perfect state of preservation shows that they have only
been used as symbols of cities or fortresses, which on given occasions
were offered to kings or great people. Even in the present day the
ceremony is still kept up of offering a key to the foreign princes who
stay at the royal palace of Madrid, and in a similar manner as far back
as the Middle Ages, keys have been presented to Spanish sovereigns on
their visiting such towns as Toledo or Seville, and a ceremonial is gone
through of swearing to uphold their privileges, a reminiscence probably
of what occurred when these towns were conquered from the Moors.
One of these keys at Valencia, belonging to Count de Trigona, measures
9½ inches long, and was originally gilt; its handle or bow is closed,
and covered with delicate work in relief. The wards are ornamented in
the same manner with a combination of several words written in Cufic
letters of difficult interpretation. Round the handle we can read most
distinctly in Arabic the name of the artist: "It was made by Ahmed
Ahsan."
This key appears to be of the 13th to 14th century. Two similar ones
existed in the town hall of Valencia of a most monumental character;
they were considered of great antiquity, but it has been ascertained
that they were made in 1632, by the locksmith Juan Marti.
In the shrine of the Cathedral of Seville there are two interesting keys
(_see_ woodcut); one of them is of iron, the other of silver, of a
similar style. For further details see "Museo Español de Antiguedades,"
vol. ii., p. I. The first, which is represented to the right, is of
genuine Moorish workmanship; the wards are covered with letters in Cufic
characters, which several oriental scholars have tried to interpret,
without coming to a satisfactory conclusion, probably owing to the
confused, or double meaning of the letters. It is supposed with good
foundation that this was the identical key which was given to King St.
Ferdinand, the conqueror of Seville, in 1248, the day he took possession
of the city. The silver key, to the left of the plate, has traces of
gold and niello work, representing in the upper part, ships, castles and
lions. Round the handle runs an inscription in Hebrew--"The King of
Kings will open; the King of the whole Earth will enter." In the wards
appear in delicate open work carving the following words in Spanish,
"God will open; the king will enter. Dios abrirá; rey entrará." It may
be affirmed to have been made in the 14th century, and in that case,
symbolizes some event of the life of King Pedro the Cruel, a great
protector of the Jewish race. Five Moorish keys of a similar kind, but
inferior merit, may be seen in the local Museum of Segovia, and the
Archæological Museum of Madrid.
[Illustration: MOORISH KEYS IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.]
The objects of iron-work made by the Christian artists of this period in
Spain must have been good, for although no specimens exist, we have at
any rate historical information which confirms this. In the Consistorial
Ordinances of Barcelona, Capmany, "Memoirs," vol. i., we find that
ironsmiths formed an extensive guild in the 13th century; in 1257 four
of its members formed part of the chief municipal council; this guild
increased in importance in the following centuries. The Ordinances of
Seville of the 15th century, which were reformed in 1502, and those of
Toledo, also re-enforced in 1582, give an idea of what was done by
workers in bronze, the methods of workmanship and other details of
interest. The Ordinances of Seville mention _rejas_ made in Biscay, and
give a good idea of the styles adopted by the iron-masters there. The
Ordinances of Granada repeat almost exactly the former prescriptions.
The Cathedrals and large churches in Spain lent themselves in an
admirable manner to the construction of objects of all kinds in iron
work, especially the railings enclosing the side chapels, or sepulchres,
and the double screens required for the _Capilla Mayor_ and _Coro_,
owing to the ancient Spanish custom of constructing the choir in the
centre of the principal nave of the cathedral. Hence we meet with names
of the iron-masters, _rejeros_, mentioned in early documents as attached
to the different cathedrals in the same manner as painters and
architects. We find Bartolomé Morey working at Palma de Mallorca in 1389
to 1397. He was succeeded by his son Juan, from 1401 to 1407. See
Piferrer, "Recuerdos y Bellezas de España." Maestro Basil worked at
Burgos, and Maestro Pablo at Toledo and its dioceses towards the end of
the same century. Maestro Juan Francés worked at Toledo in 1482. By this
same artist is the beautiful _reja_ of the Capilla Mayor of the
_Colegiata_ of Alcala de Henares; it is signed, "Maestre Juan Francés,
maestro mayor de las obras de fierro en España." From this time the
names of iron-masters are well known and numerous; we may safely affirm
that those who lived in the 16th century have left us the most important
works.
One of the finest specimens of this artistic industry is the splendid
_reja_ which divides the nave at the royal chapel of Granada. Its
immense size has enabled the artist to carry out a splendid
ornamentation in the "plateresque style," combined with reliefs on a
large scale of figures of apostles and saints, terminated at the upper
part with a wide band of ornamentation of leaves and flowers, crowned
with a Rood, with the Virgin and St. John on either side. The splendid
balustrades and supports are forged with the hammer; the figures and
circular piers are formed of large plates, _repoussé_ and carved in the
most admirable manner, and give a good idea of the difficulties of this
work, which the artists of this time had overcome, long before the
various technical facilities of the present day existed. The
ornamentation of this _reja_ was originally gilt, and the figures are
painted in oils. It was made about the year 1520 to 1530; in the lock,
formed as a Gothic pinnacle, is a small inscription, "Maestro Bartolome
me fec." This same artist worked at Jaen and Seville. Cean Bermudez
calls him "sculptor and iron-master."
Two most important specimens of iron-work exist also at the cathedral of
Toledo, enclosing the _Capilla Mayor_ and _Coro_. The _reja_ of the
Capilla Mayor is 42 feet wide by 19 inches high; it rests on a pediment
of marble ornamented with masks and bronze work, upon which rises the
_reja_, which is divided horizontally by means of a frieze of
ornamentation, and this again vertically in five compartments. In each
vertical division there is a pilaster of four sides formed of _repoussé_
plates, carved with a fine ornamentation in the renaissance style, this
is again terminated with life-size figures in high relief of bronze. The
second compartment rises upon the band which divides it in an horizontal
sense; it follows the same decoration in its pilasters, and is
terminated by a series of coats of arms, torches, angels, and a variety
of foliage which finishes the upper part. Upon the centre, hanging from
a thick chain supported from the roof, is suspended a life-size Rood, of
admirable effect, which completes the decoration. In several spots there
are labels with mottos in Latin; in one of them appears the following
inscription, and the date of 1548 when this splendid work was finished:
"Anno MDXLVIII. Paul III. P. M. Carol. V. Imper. Rege. Joannes Martinez
Siliccus. Archipiscopus. Tolet. Hispaniae. Primat." The railings of this
_reja_ are silvered, and the reliefs and salient points gilt. The artist
who made it was Francisco Villalpando, a native of Valladolid; this
model was chosen among those of several artists, who presented their
plans in competition before the ecclesiastical authorities; it is
calculated that ten years elapsed before it was finally finished in
1548. Villalpando was greatly distinguished likewise as a sculptor and
architect. In 1563 a book was printed after his death of a translation
he made of the work on architecture by Sebastian Serlio. Other
remarkable bronze works of art, which will be described further on, were
also by him.
The _reja_ of the coro, which is placed opposite that of the Capilla
Mayor, is almost exactly similar in size. It is less rich in
ornamentation, but so pure and sober in its general lines, and its
ornamentation is so perfect, that it is perhaps superior to the other.
This _reja_ consists of a single architectonical body, divided in six
vertical compartments, covered with bas reliefs of such delicate work
that they appear rather to be by the hand of a silversmith than by an
iron-master. An innumerable number of figures are combined with the
ornamentation in the base, terminations of the columns and coronation;
in the same manner it is full of banderoles with Latin mottos, and gilt
and silvered; it was finished in 1548, as we see by the inscription.
This _reja_ was made by Domingo de Cespedes, a native of Toledo, with
the help of his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo; the design was also chosen
by competition, and it was finished in seven years. Both these admirable
models of iron-work belong to the best productions of the renaissance
school, and contain models which might be adapted with great advantage
to ironwork of every description in the present day.
It would be an interminable task to describe the multitude of railings
similar in richness and good taste to these which happily survive in
Spanish cathedrals and churches. It is sufficient to call attention to
the following. The _reja_ of the Capilla del Condestable in the
cathedral of Burgos, by Christoval de Andino in 1523, has been
considered one of the finest specimens of its kind, owing to the
perfection with which every detail is carried out. A contemporary
writer in describing it says: "Good workmen, and those who wish that
their work may have authority and be blameless, must endeavour to be
guided by ancient models, as your fellow-citizen, Cristoval de Andino;
his works are thereby more elegant and excellent than any others which I
have seen up to the present time; if not, judge of his work by looking
at the _reja_ which he is making for your lord the Condestable, which is
undoubtedly superior to all those which have hitherto been made in
Spain." Sagredo--"Medidas del Romano," quoted by Cean Bermudez. In the
centre of the upper part, towards the middle, appears the inscription:
"Ab. Andino, A.D. MDXXIII." The _reja_ of the _coro_ of the cathedral of
Seville, made by the iron-master, Sancho Muñoz in 1519, a native of
Cuenca, is also very remarkable; besides the finer ornamentation which
covers it, it has figures of kings and prophets representing the
genealogy of Our Lord. The _reja_ belonging to the _capilla mayor_ of
the same cathedral was the work of Friar Francisco de Salamanca,
1518-1533; it is covered with an open-work ornamentation, figures of
angels and bas-reliefs, and is terminated in the upper part with a
representation of the Entombment of Our Lord. The large _reja_ of the
cathedral of Cuenca, made by Arenas in 1517, those at Palencia, by
Andino, 1520, and Rodriguez, 1555; the one at the church of Sn. Juan de
la Penitencia, Toledo; the beautiful railing at the chapel of
Palenzuela, in the cathedral of Salamanca, 1524, and a number of objects
of smaller size, such as iron pulpits in the cathedrals of Barcelona,
and in some chapels at Burgos, Avila, Palencia, and Toledo, several of
which are anterior to the 16th century, are all worthy of the student's
especial notice. Among these objects of smaller dimensions special
reference must be made to the fine and picturesque _reja_ surrounding
the sepulchre of Archbishop Diego de Anaya, in the chapel of Sn.
Bartolomé, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca. The beauty of
its details and the open-worked inscription which surrounds it, place
it at once among the finest specimens of ironwork of the 15th century.
The two window _rejas_ at the house called "de las Conchas" in the same
town--an admirable specimen of Burgundian architecture, although
restored--may be quoted as excellent models of ironwork applied to civil
buildings.
Iron pulpits have been made in Spain with great success. Two interesting
examples of the end of the 15th century still exist at the cathedral of
Avila. They are hexagonal in shape, and supported by lions' claws; they
were originally gilt. One of these pulpits is ornamented in the
Flamboyant style, the other in good Renaissance; consult Sir Digby
Wyatt's "Architect's Note Book in Spain." Friar Francisco de Salamanca
made two interesting iron pulpits for the cathedral of Seville; they are
covered with bas-reliefs representing the Evangelists and subjects taken
from the Acts of the Apostles and the Apocalypse. The pulpit at the
parish church of S^{n.} Gil de Burgos must also be mentioned. Mr. Street,
notwithstanding his want of sympathy with every object not strictly of
the Middle Ages, says: "It is of very late date, end of the 15th
century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration. The support is of
iron, resting on stone, and the staircase modern. The framework at the
angles, top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the ironwork is laid. The
traceries are cut out of two plates of iron, laid one over the other,
and the ironwork is in part gilded, but I do not think that this is
original. The canopy is of the same age and character, and the whole
effect is very rich at the same time that it is very novel. I saw other
pulpits, but none so old as this."
Among the applications of iron to decorations of civil architecture must
be specially mentioned the nails and knockers on the doors of houses,
which are so characteristic of Toledo and other old Spanish towns. This
style was imitated from the Moors. Some doors still exist at the
Alhambra, Granada, covered with enormous heads of nails of a
half-spherical form with embossed pattern. These same nails are
constantly to be found on old Spanish houses, to which are added in the
angles pieces of iron of a most artistic order. A large number of these
nails from Toledo, are in the Kensington Museum. Examples of two are
given.
[Illustration: SPANISH NAIL HEADS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
After the 16th century this industry loses its artistic interest and
importance. Ironwork becomes simply practical and useful, and ceases to
reproduce the grand carved and chiselled works of former times. The
artistic objects are reduced to specimens on a small scale: door-locks,
of which an excellent example exists at the church of Calatravas,
Madrid; a weighing machine, made by the locksmith Salinas for the Mint
in the 17th century, which was exhibited at the Special Loan Collection
of Scientific Apparatus at Kensington in 1876, the fine ornamentation of
the clock of the cathedral of Seville, made in the last century by Friar
Josef Cordero, and the very remarkable iron locks made by Millan at the
beginning of the present century, for the rooms at the palace of the
Escurial, called "Piezas de Maderas finas." The art of inlaying iron
with gold and silver, constitutes in Spain a special industry; the
principal artists who carry it out at the present time with great skill
are Messrs. Zuluaga at Madrid, and Alvarez at Toledo. The splendid
sepulchre of General Prim at the church of Atocha, Madrid, made entirely
of damasquiné ironwork, is worthy of the greatest commendation; the fine
vases and shields of _repoussé_ ironwork inlaid with gold, made by
Alvarez of Toledo, are artistic and excellent revivals of the Milanese
work of the 16th century.
IRON MASTERS.
Year in which Locality of
they worked. Name. their Residence.
1520. Avila, Fr. Juan de Guadalupe.
1527. Andino, Pedro Seville.
1540. Andino, Christoval Toledo.
1557. Arenas, Hernando Cuenca.
1523. Bartolmé, El Maestro Jaen and Seville.
1555. Barco, Alonso Palencia.
1559. Brabo, Hernando Toledo.
1579. Cela, Juan Tomas Zaragoza.
1541. Cespédes, Domingo de Burgos.
1561. Corral, Ruy Diaz del Toledo.
1604. Celma, Juan Bautista Aragon y Galicia.
1692. Conde, Sebastian Seville.
1797. Cordero, Fr. Josef Seville.
1537. Delgado, Juan Seville.
1540. Domingo, Maestro Toledo.
1518. Elias, Joan de Palencia.
1519. Esteban, Maestro Seville.
1494. Frances, Juan Toledo.
1555. Herreros, Llorente Palencia.
1522. Idrobo, Diego Seville.
1524. Juan, Fray Seville.
1518. Lopez, Juan do Urisarri Palencia.
1531. Lemosin Cuenca.
1518. Muñoz, Sancho Cuenca.
1389. Morey, Bartolomo Palma de Mallorca.
1555. Moreno, Benegno Palencia.
1565. Pedro, Maestre Palencia.
1533. Palencia, Antonis de Seville.
1607. Peñafiel, Luis de Toledo.
1510. Prieto, Fernando Seville.
1512. Prelojero, Juan Palencia.
1555. Rodriguez, Gaspar Palencia.
1607. Rodriguez, Bartolomé Toledo.
1607. Silva, Francisco de Toledo.
1533. Salamanca, Francisco de Seville.
1518. Urisarri, Lopez Palencia.
1561. Villalpando Toledo.
1518. Yepes, Juan de Seville.
BRONZES.
Objects of bronze of native origin are less frequently met with in Spain
than those of silver and iron. Many foreign artists worked at this
industry, the history of which only begins in the 16th century. The
specimens of bronze work made by the Moors will be described in their
proper place. It is true that examples of bronze made by the Iberians
and Romans are frequently met with in excavations; they consist chiefly
of hatchets and other arms, bracelets, fibulas, etc., but they are
similar in every respect to objects of the same kind found in other
European countries. During the Middle Ages, objects of enamelled gilt
bronze were used on a very large scale in churches; specimens of a very
high order may be seen in Spain, such as the splendid altar at San
Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre; that at Santo Domingo de Silos, and the
statuette of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban, Salamanca. These
objects were, however, probably made at Limoges, or in some other
locality out of Spain. We hardly can trace any bronze of this period but
cathedral bells. One was made at Puig-Valencia as early as A.D. 622,
melted in 1550, the only trace of the early work being the inscription
and date, which are given by contemporary authors.
Another bell, about half a foot high, of A.D. 875, exists at the Local
Museum of Cordova, with the inscription: "_Offert hoc munus Samson
abbatis in domum Sancti Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era_ DCCCCXIII." We
find the name of "_Joannes Calcena me fecit Anno Domini 1306_," on a
bell at the cathedral of Valencia, and on one of Lerida was to be read:
"_Fecit factum per magistrum Joannem Adam Anno Dei 1418 in mense
Aprili_;" the author appears to have been, by reference to the documents
of the church, "_de burgo Sanctæ Mariæ Turlensis diocesis regni
Franciæ_," for details see Villanueva, vol. ii., p. 147-152, xvi. 88.
Before entering into the renaissance period, I must mention some
remarkable specimens which have reached us, the work of the Spanish
Arabs. Probably the most ancient and interesting is a sculpture
representing a stag, now at the Provincial Museum of Cordova, which
evidently belonged to a fountain. It was found in the ruins of the
palace of Medina Az Zahra, the construction of which corresponds to the
time of Abd er Rahman III., (961); it is undoubtedly work of this
period, and probably belonged to this palace, so celebrated by Oriental
writers. The fragments of a bronze fountain and several lamps, at the
Museum of Granada, are of a later date; they were found in the
excavations of the early city of Illiberis, which was abandoned in the
11th century, when its inhabitants chose the present site of Granada.
The fragments, which are supposed to have belonged originally to a
fountain, consist of a small temple 22 inches high, of an hexagonal
base, with twelve small columns supporting bands of open work, frescoes,
cupola, and turrets: in the angles are birds. There are six lamps, all
of which are mutilated and incomplete; their form and object is
indicated by the remains of chains which suspended them. Some of them
are half melted, giving testimony to the conflagration which the mosque
suffered in the time of the Arabs. Other bronze fragments have been
found in the same locality. All these objects are artistic in their
general lines, but the workmanship is indifferent, and the ornamentation
heavy and coarse.
A bronze lion and a mortar, found some years since in the province of
Palencia, are more artistic in form and general details. The mortar was
found near Monzon, and the lion not far from it. Remains still exist of
a castle, which was founded by the Arabs, in the locality, and which at
the beginning of the 11th century was in the hands of the Christians; it
is highly probable that these objects belonged to its Moorish
inhabitants. If we take into account how frequently we find Oriental
remains in this locality, both these objects may be safely classified as
belonging to the 10th century, although there are details in their
ornamentation which appear rather to be of a later period. The lion is
12½ inches high by 14½ inches long; an aperture in the lower part
which communicates with the mouth of the animal, appears to suggest that
it belonged to a fountain, the water of which issued, or not, owing to
the movement of the tail, which rotates and acts as a key. The shape of
this lion recalls those at the Alhambra; its forms are stiff and
angular, in the conventional Oriental manner of reproducing animated
beings. The surface is covered with ornamentation, the mane is arranged
in mannered and symmetrical curls, like those so common in Assyrian
sculptures. On the back and two sides is the following inscription in
Cufic characters:
[Illustration: Arabic "Perfect blessing. Complete happiness."]
This object is similar in detail and the inscription to a bronze griffin
at the cemetery of Pisa; it belonged to the collection of the painter
Fortuny, and at the sale in 1875 it was bought by Mr. E. Piot.
The mortar is circular in form, and is surrounded by twelve prismatic
sections. Two lions' heads serve to support the hanging rings or
handles. The whole of the outside is most delicately carved with
arabesques, among which are to be met frequently figures of birds and
quadrupeds. See "El arte en Esp.," vol. iii., Madrid, 1864. The
following inscription in elegant Cufic characters runs round the upper
part: it is repeated twice. "Complete blessing, and ever-increasing
happiness and prosperity of every kind, and an elevated and happy
social position for its owner." From the richness of the ornamentation
of this object, it is probable that it was used to pound aromatic drugs.
A bronze lamp of a similar ornamentation was found some years ago at
Cordova--it is not unlike in form and shape Roman lamps of the same kind
made of earthenware. It is engraved all over, and the subject of a dog
pursuing a hare appears often repeated. None of these objects of bronze
work are however equal in importance to a lamp made during the reign of
Mohammed III. of Granada, now at the Archæological Museum, Madrid [See
Plate.] It is composed in its base of a body destined to hold the light,
upon which is supported a large four-sided piece in the form of a
pyramid, which is completed with an octagonal body which surmounts it.
Four graduated balls suspend it. The height of this lamp is 2½ yards,
and taking into account its general structure, it appears as if the
chains or intermediate pieces are wanting, which probably existed on the
inverted bell of the base. The manufacture and elegance of decoration of
this object is of a very high order, and may be compared with bronze
work of Damascus. The greater part of the pieces are covered with
pierced open work, and the motto of the Kings of Granada, "There is no
conqueror but God." In the lower part of the large pyramid, truncated in
four sides, is a long inscription in Arabian characters, stating the
lamp to have been made by order of Mohammed III. year of the Hegira, 705
(A.D. 1305).
The remaining objects of bronze work of Spanish-Moorish production are
less important. They are interesting notwithstanding. The spherical
perfume-burners which were used to roll on the pavement are highly
artistic and might be adopted in the present day. One or two bronze
buckets of a well exist at the Madrid Archæological Museum, with some
small objects of little importance found at Cordova. This artistic
industry has continued until the present day in Spain in the form of
objects of domestic use, such as brasiers, mortars and lamps, several of
which preserve their ancient traditional form.
[Illustration: MOORISH LAMP. ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM, MADRID.]
In metal work as in architecture, a large number of instances exist in
Spain in which the Christian and Moorish styles are blended--as an
example of this style may be mentioned the fine bronze gates of the
cathedral of Toledo. These doors, which are 18 ft. high by 12 ft. wide,
are covered on both sides with bronze plates; the outer side is
decorated with a geometrical Moorish design and small Arabic
inscriptions, alternating with castles and a number of Arabic mottoes.
In one of the side bands and in the lower part may be read in Spanish
the following inscription:
"Estas puertas fueron acabadas en el mes de Marzo era de mil c ccc.
setanta e cinco años."
"These doors were finished in the month of March, in the era of 1375
years" (A.D. 1337).
The fine doors of the cathedral of Cordova, del Perdon, are similar in
style. They are made of wood and covered with bronze plating, and Gothic
and Arabic inscriptions,--the word "Deus," and
[Illustration: Arabic]
"The empire belongs to God, all is His." Round these doors, alternating
with the arms of Castille and Leon, is the following inscription. "Dia
dos del mes de Marzo de la era del Cesar de 1415 años, (A.D. 1377.)
Reinante el muy alto et poderoso D. Enrique, rey de Castilla." These
doors were restored in 1539.
The Puerta del Perdon of the cathedral of Seville is similar in style,
and a good example of moresque bronze work.
Returning to the bronze work of the Christian artists of the renaissance
period, the general rule which may be established with reference to
statues is that they have been made by foreign artists. This is the case
with the splendid groups of figures at the high altar and presbytery of
the Escorial by Pompeyo Leoni, the equestrian statue of Philip IV. by
Pedro Tacca, and others of a similar kind. One of the very few
exceptions to this rule occurs in Bartolomé Morel, a Spaniard, the
author of the statue called the "Giralda" on the tower of the cathedral
of Seville, the desk of the choir, and _Tenebrarium_ at the same church.
These objects were all by him, and are among the finest specimens of
bronze work in Spain. The _Tenebrarium_ is described by Cean Bermudez in
his "Descripcion artistica de la catedral de Sevilla," p. 129, in the
following manner: "This object is better executed and more graceful in
design than any of its kind in Spain. It consists of a triangular
candelabrum, which is used during matins in the three last days of Holy
Week with fifteen tapers, which are extinguished on reading each psalm.
"It was designed and executed by Bartolomé Morel in 1562. Juan Giralte,
a native of the Low Countries, and Juan Bita Vazquez helped him to make
the statues which are at the head of this candelabrum, and Pedro
Delgado, a sculptor of great renown, worked at the foot.
"It is 8 yards and a half high, and the triangular upper part is 3 yards
wide: it is surmounted by fifteen statues which represent Our Saviour,
the Apostles and two other disciples or evangelists. In the vacant space
of the triangle there is a circle ornamented with foliage, in the centre
of which is a figure in high relief of the Blessed Virgin, underneath is
a medallion bust of a king. This centre is of bronzed wood, and is
supported by four small bronze columns, below which are four caryatides,
resting on a nobly designed border ornamented with lions and other
animals in the renaissance style." See woodcut on next page.
[Illustration: THE TENEBRARIUM IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.]
Villalpando distinguished himself at the cathedral of Toledo in the same
way as Morel at Seville. The splendid _reja_ at the Capilla Mayor with
the fine gilt bronze pulpits, the bas-reliefs of the doors of Lions,
1564, the font, and railing surrounding the altar of the Virgin in the
coro were all made by him. The pulpits, made as it is asserted out of
the bronze sepulchre of Dn. Alvaro de Luna are octagonal, six of their
sides are admirably decorated with bas-reliefs of exquisite work
divided by pilasters and terminated by a finely designed frieze. The
door of Lions is covered in a similar manner with bronze plates
ornamented in the finest renaissance style; the knockers are models in
their way. In the opposite door del Reloj, these reliefs have been
copied in 1713 by the silversmiths Zurreño y Dominguez.
Notwithstanding the great merit of these works, the stands for the choir
books are even finer and more exquisite in detail. They are made of gilt
bronze and represent subjects from the life of St. Ildefonso, the
Prophet David and the Apocalypse. They were modelled and designed by
Juan Navarro in 1562, and carved by Nicolas de Vergara and his son some
years afterwards.
Two artists, natives of Aragon, were very famous during the same century
for their bronze work. One of these, Celma, made the pulpits of the
cathedral of Santiago, which are finely ornamented with busts between
the columns, and bas-reliefs representing subjects of the lives of the
saints, and a fine design of leaves and flowers. In one of the
inscriptions may be read: "_Joannes Baptista Celma, Aragonentis patria
pingendi artifex salutis anno 1563. Compostellæ faciebat._" The other
artist was Cela, the author of the fine reja del coro of the church of
the Pilar at Saragossa, dated 1574-79.
Two gilt metal Monstrances of Spanish work of the 16th century are in
the South Kensington Museum. No. 4310, 57, represents an architectural
shrine, decorated with strap and cartouche-work, columns, and arcades in
the renaissance style; it is dated 1537. See woodcut on next page. The
other, No. 190, 66, has an ornamented stem, with knob, on which stands a
triangular shrine with kneeling angels; above is a smaller shrine
surmounted by a crucifix.
[Illustration: SPANISH MONSTRANCE, DATED 1537. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
Objects of bronze work of the 17th century which are not by Fanelli,
Tacca, or other foreigners, are less numerous; most of them show signs
of the decline of art at this period. The chiselled and openworked altar
frontal, at the burial-place of the kings of Spain at the Escorial, is
a very fine work of its kind. The shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa
Forma, also at the Escorial, is an excellent piece of workmanship--both
these objects were made by lay brothers of the convent. Friar Eugenio de
la Cruz and Friar Juan de la Concepcion, silversmiths, worked during the
reign of Philip IV. at chiselling these and other objects of bronze.
The exaggerations and bad taste, which were so common in every branch of
artistic industry, were as prominent in bronzes--the bas-reliefs of this
metal which ornament the back of the high altar of the cathedral of
Toledo, at the "Transparente," are generally mentioned as models of bad
taste. They are by Narciso Thomé; the architecture, painting, statues
and carvings in marble, jasper and bronze are by the same person, as
appears in the inscription which he placed there at its termination in
1734.
On the accession of King Charles III. from Naples in 1759, these defects
were corrected, in part owing to the classical influence which became so
general in Europe, and continued to the early part of the present
century. The silver manufactory of Martinez founded in Madrid under his
auspices, has already been mentioned in treating of silver work. Objects
of bronze of all kinds were made there in this classic style, and at the
porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, where splendid tables were made of
pietre dure, mounted in bronze. The most important objects there
produced may be seen at the chapel of the royal palace of Madrid, and
the palaces of Aranjuez and the Escurial.
ARMS.
Those who have a taste for the study of prehistorical monuments in
Spain, will find a very extensive collection of arms and other utensils
of this period at the Muséo Arqueologico, Madrid, which have been found
in different localities of the country. They chiefly consist of
hatchets, knives, and lance and arrow points made of flint, and are
similar in form to those which have been discovered in the north and
centre of Europe. There are therefore, constant analogies between the
implements used by the primitive Iberians, and those of other European
races of the prehistoric period.
The arms and weapons of the following age, known as the age of bronze,
are less common in Spain, although a few specimens exist in the Muséo of
Madrid, and the "Academia de la Historia." They chiefly consist of
swords, daggers, and lance and arrow points. The hilts are formed of the
same material as the blade in some instances, in others they consist of
a blade fitting into a wooden or ivory handle. The blades are cut on
both sides; they are straight, and finished off in a point; in the
centre runs a thick rim made for the purpose of strengthening the blade,
and that it should not bend. One of these specimens measures 30 inches
long. The daggers are about one-third smaller, with the same rim in the
centre; the bronze hilt is nailed to the blade, and the lance and arrow
points are of the same kind. These weapons are similar in style to the
numerous examples found in other countries, especially England. The
hatchets are also the same, their manner of being fixed on to their
handles and their size and weight being identical with the English ones.
One of the few specimens which varies from this general rule, is a
dagger, with a cylindrical horn-like hilt, belonging to S^{r}. Villaamil:
it was found at Galicia with other interesting arms. (Consult Muséo
Español de Antiguedades, iv. 63.)
The probable antiquity of these weapons always remains a matter of
doubt; this is especially the case with stone implements. When on their
discovery the geological structure of the soil has been studied, some
evidence exists on which to ground an opinion; but this is very seldom
the case in Spain, and Messrs. Prado, Villanova, Botella, and
MacPherson, are among the few and most trustworthy geologists who have
investigated this subject. With reference to bronze implements, Spanish
authors have a tendency to attribute them to prehistoric times. I see no
reason to justify this opinion, and it appears to me that when this
subject has been studied in a more satisfactory manner, it will appear
that these arms were used during the Roman domination at the same time
as the iron ones.
In reaching the Iron period, already within historical times, we find
that the Spanish people, when once under the Roman rule, used the well
known arms and utensils which will be found reproduced in all elementary
books on archæology. In this, as in every other sphere, the Romans
imposed their civilization on the races they conquered. Some important
exceptions, however, exist to this general rule. The Spanish swords must
have been excellent in quality, since the Romans adopted them after the
Carthaginian war: they were however, never able to imitate the manner in
which they were tempered. Suidas says: _Romani patriis gladiis depositis
Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium assumpserunt ... sed ferri boni atem et
fabrica solertiam imitari non potuerunt._ The locality where the best
swords were made in Spain was Bilbilis (Calatayud, province of Aragon),
the birthplace of the poet Martial, who, when praising the waters of the
river Jalon and the excellence of its quality for tempering metals,
says, _Salone qui ferrum gelat._ These swords were wide, and cut on both
edges; their points were sharp, and all of them had in the centre signs
of a central groove running down its length. Several specimens may be
seen at the Museo Arqueologico, Madrid, which are 15 or 19 inches long.
The Spaniards used also swords of another form, which were known by the
name of _falcata_, from falx, sickle; the blade was curved, and it has
been supposed to be the genuine Spanish model. The blade was widened in
proportion from the hilt to the point, which was very sharp: it cut like
a sickle in the interior curve, and only a small part was sharpened in
the opposite side. The best specimen, which exists in the Madrid Museum,
is 22½ inches long. The weapons made at Toledo must have been very
famous during the Roman period: Gracio Falisco, a poet of the time of
Julius Cæsar, says, in mentioning them: _Ima toletano præcingant ilia
cultro_; the sword manufactory there attained afterwards great
importance.
I must end by mentioning the _funda_, or slings, and leaden plummets
(_glandes_), which were thrown so dexterously by the slingers of the
Balearic Islands. The slingers of this province are mentioned with great
praise by ancient authors. (V. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Antiquities. _Funda._)
During the Visigothic domination, some modifications must have been
introduced in the form and number of the arms used, probably owing to
the tradition of the Gothic race, and the Byzantine or Oriental
influences, which they accept in every sphere; but the names and
explanation of these weapons, given by San Isidoro in his "Etimologies,"
lib. xviii., indicate that the Roman system was adopted as a general
rule. The chief modification which may be established for the Visigoths,
and the greater part of the European races, is that from their time the
breast-plates and metallic pieces, which served as a protection for the
legs and arms, fell into disuse, and were substituted by coats of mail
or chain armour. This is deduced from San Isidoro's not describing
these metallic plates; although he gives numerous details on different
sorts of coats of mail, including those made of coarse stuffs woven in
Silisia. At this time, the use of planks or boards to protect the body
was abandoned, and did not prove acceptable until the end of the 13th
century, when they again became very generally adopted in Spain.
During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Spanish Christians continued to
use the same weapons as in other European states. The history of Spanish
arms, in like manner with its artistic history and civilization, is
similar to that of other nations; it frequently occurs that objects of
this kind are classified with those of other countries, the only
exceptions to this general rule being those which result from the
Moorish conquest and influence.
The Arabs, after they took possession of Spain at the beginning of the
8th century, imported, with their arts and industries, special arms and
weapons, the greater part of which were copied from Persian models;
their swords, helmets, and shields deserve special attention; in other
weapons the difference is not so great; and, indeed, in the two first it
is chiefly confined to their decoration.
None of the arms made by the Moors have been so justly celebrated, or so
delicately worked as their swords. An Arabic author, El Camus, says the
Arabs had as many as 1000 names to designate swords. In the first years
of the Hegira, their historians praise the swords made at Yemen, and in
India; later on, those of Syria; Damascus was, however, the great centre
where arms of all kinds were made. Several interesting Arabic
manuscripts are known on this subject, such as the _Treatise on steel
blades_ in the library of Gotha, that on _Different kinds of arms, with
the properties of lances, swords, and horses_, in the Library of Leyden,
and numerous articles by Oriental scholars, which have appeared in the
"Journal Asiatique," and other reviews. The manufacture in Syria decayed
in the 15th century; other centres gained in importance, specially those
in Egypt, Morocco, and Spain, which had rivalled the East in this
industry during the Middle Ages.
The Arabs introduced their forms and manner of decorating arms when they
invaded the Peninsula; it is, however, highly probable that the
traditions still existed at Bilbilis and Toledo of the manner of
tempering steel. It is known that Abd-er Rahman II. (A.D. 822-852)
reformed the manufacture of arms at Toledo, and that in A.D. 965, Al
Hakem II. sent a rich present of specimens made in the locality to Don
Sancho, King of Leon. Notwithstanding the high reputation of the
industries of Cordova, the great centre and court of the Spanish Arabs
during the earlier period of their domination, "it never became famous
for its working steel," as Fernandez Gonzalez tells us in his study on
Spanish moresque swords, from which much of this information has been
derived. (V. Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades, V. I. and V.). Almeria, Murcia,
Seville, and Granada were greatly distinguished in this manufacture
during the domination of the Arabs in Spain.
We know that Almeria, during the 12th and 13th centuries, "was also
famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils of iron,
copper, or glass." (Mohamadan Dynasties in Spain, by Al-Makkari, vol. i.
p. 51.) Abou Said, in writing in the 13th century of Murcia, says,
"Objects are made there of latteen and ron, consisting of knives and
scissors, with an ornamentation in gold. Other similar utensils, proper
for the outfit of a bride, or a soldier, in such large quantities, that
the mere thought of it confuses the imagination."
The same author, when speaking of the swords of Seville, says, "The
steel which is made at Seville is most excellent; it would take too much
time to enumerate the delicate objects of every kind which are made in
this town." These industries must have continued in the hands of the
Moors after the town was conquered by Spaniards in the 13th century. In
the following century we find in the will of King D^{n}. Pedro, "I also
endow my son with my Castilian sword, which I had made here in Seville,
ornamented with stones and gold."
No specimens of Hispaño moresque swords exist previous to the 15th
century. We possess some highly interesting examples of this period,
all, or the most part, of which were made at Granada, the last centre of
civilization of the Spanish Arabs. The most important are the sword,
dagger, and double-handed sword and knife, which, with the authentic
costume, belonging to Boabdil, the last king of Granada, are now in the
possession of the Marquis of Villaseca, at Madrid. These objects were
gained by an ancestor of the marquis, who took Boabdil prisoner in 1482
at the battle of Lucena. In compliance with the chivalrous practice of
the time, the arms of the conquered king went to the conqueror, and have
been kept as heirlooms since that time.
The sword of Villaseca is 39 inches long, this includes 12 inches of the
hilt. (See woodcut.) "The steel blade," says S^{r}. Fernandez, in his
article, vol. v. p. 395, "is of a later date, and appears to have been
added to the sword after the older one had disappeared. It is a Toledo
blade, marked with the letter S, similar to the one used by Alonso
Sahagun the elder, and with a hollow line in the centre."
I am of opinion, however, that it may be the original blade, for the
other sword, which still exists at Granada, of the same kind, has
likewise a blade marked T, Toledo. This coincidence appears to suggest
that those made there were preferred, and in both instances they exactly
fit the sheath, which is the original one.
[Illustration: Arabic]
[Illustration: Arabic]
The hilt of this fine sword is formed of solid gold, enamelled in blue,
white, and red. This decoration runs along the pommel and cross bars.
The axle is made of ivory carved with the utmost skill. Two octagons are
on each side, with the following inscription in semi-Cufic letters: (may
you) "obtain your object." On the other side: "in saving his life."
[Illustration: SWORD OF BOABDIL. VILLASECA COLLECTION, MADRID.]
Four shields surround in the upper part this axle, which contains the
following inscription in rather illegible characters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"In the name of God, power belongs to him, there is no other divinity
but he, happiness proceeds from God alone."
In the lower part in similar shields we read:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"Miracles belong to God, for certainly the ignorant do not know God at
first, for it is their habit to err."
On the pommel is the following inscription:
[Illustration: Arabic]
Say, "He alone is God, Eternal God, who neither created, nor was
engendered."
Under the pommel, on green enamel, appear the following letters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
Say, "The only God, Eternal, not ..."
[Illustration: Arabic]
On the other side: "was neither created, nor engendered, and has no
equal."
On a band which appears under the axle, on enamel, are the following
letters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"God is clement and merciful," and on the other side:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"God is gifted with the best memory."
The learned archaeologist and orientalist, D^{n} Pascual de Gayangos, is
of opinion that this sword was worn hanging round the neck, between the
shoulder blades. A small bag, _tahali_, probably hung also from the
leather girdle, which still exists in the collection of Villaseca.
The _montante_, or double-handed sword, has an iron cylindrical hilt
inlaid with ivory. On it appears the motto of the kings of Granada:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"God alone is the conqueror."
The blade, part of which is wanting, is marked with the crescent.
The dagger is superior in artistic merit. The hilt is made of iron,
ornamented with ivory delicately engraved in arabesques. The blade is
damascened in gold, with inscriptions on one side, repeating:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"Health, permanent glory, and lasting happiness [belong to God"].
On the opposite side:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"It was made by Reduan."
The scabbard of this dagger is most beautiful, its chapes are made of
silver enamelled in green, and the remainder is of crimson velvet
embroidered in gold, from which hangs a fine tassel of silk and gold
thread. A small eating knife is fitted into this same scabbard, which
possesses no artistic interest.
The woodcut on the next page will give a good idea of the blade of a
Moorish dagger of the 15th century.
A sword of a similar kind to the one already described may be seen at
Granada at the _Administrador's_ of the Generalife. It belongs to the
marquis of Campotejar, a descendant of Sidi Jahia, a Moorish prince who
was converted to Christianity. The marquis of Vega de Armijo has an
interesting sword of the same kind, and two others exist at the Museo de
Artilleria, Madrid, which belonged to Aliatar; Boabdil's sword is at the
Royal Armoury. The Hispano Arab sword, which for centuries had been in a
saint's hand at the church of San Marcelo, Leon, is now at the Museo
Arqueologico, Madrid.
The Spanish Moors used helmets similar in form to those of the
Christians, though their manner of decoration was different; after the
importations made by the Crusaders, the similarity must every day have
been greater. The _almofar_, which appears by its name to have been
originally oriental, and which is constantly named in Spanish documents
from the poem of the Cid, was a protection for the head, of a similar
form to those used in France and other countries, consisting of a hood
made of chain armour, covering the head and leaving the face free; upon
it was placed the hood or helmet. Some helmets exist at the Royal
Armoury of Madrid of Spanish Moorish origin; among them are two very
remarkable ones, which have been attributed to Boabdil, the last king of
Granada. (Nos. 2345, 2356, of the Catalogue.) They are decorated with
gold filigree, niellos, and geometrical ornamentation in the best
oriental style, most admirably worked, and different in this respect to
the helmets used in this time. Another interesting helmet, which
belonged to this ill-fated monarch, exists in the province of Almeria.
[Illustration: MOORISH DAGGER, 15TH CENTURY.]
The _adargas_, or shields, are more varied: they were frequently adopted
by the Christians. They were generally round, with a salient point in
the centre, _ombilicus_, or a sort of iron grating made for the purpose
of entangling the adversary's sword. These shields were of wood or thick
cowhide, _vacaries_, and were decorated outside in a variety of ways,
sometimes with pierced iron plates or bands of leather, forming
arabesques; and at other times with an ornamentation of iron, and
leather embroidered with gold and silver, with rich hanging tassels and
pendants. Shields of a prolonged form were also very constantly used,
terminating in a semicircle in the upper part, and in the lower by a
sharp point or a semicircle at the top and bottom, as may be seen in the
paintings of the Sala de la Justicia at the Alhambra. A good collection
of round shields may be seen at the Armoury at Madrid: they are not
earlier in date than the 15th century, the most interesting among them
are Nos. 233, 253, 389, 595, and 607 of the Catalogue. Some of them are
exquisite in work and detail. These shields, although belonging to the
latest period of the middle ages, were used before this time, for they
appear on the ivory casket existing at the cathedral of Pamplona, [V.
Ivories, p. 130], dated A.D. 1005, and in miniatures of Spanish MSS. of
that date. One of the best examples, which may be mentioned to confirm
these indications, will be found in a MS. at the British Museum (Add.
ii., 695), which was painted during a period of twenty years in the
monastery of Silos, near Burgos, and finished and completed A.D. 1109.
Mr. Shaw, in his "Dresses and Decorations," vol. v., reproduces some of
these figures, and says: "The figures which form our plate represent
Spanish warriors of the later part of the 11th century, and are
interesting on account of their remarkable resemblance to the
Anglo-Norman soldiers on the celebrated Bayeux tapestry. This
resemblance is observable in the style of the drawing, as well as in the
costumes. It is highly probable that the military habits of this period
were borrowed from the Saracens. This supposition is strengthened by the
fact that Arabic inscriptions in Cufic letters are found among the
ornaments of the several robes still preserved which belonged to German
and Frankish barons of the 10th and 11th centuries. One peculiarity of
our Spanish warriors is the round shield with the elegant ornaments on
the disc."
These may be considered the chief varieties of Spanish arms in the
Middle Ages. In other instances the French and Italian forms are
adopted. The manufacture of arms was not reduced then as at a later date
to the monopoly of the Government or to determined localities. Besides
the arms made at Toledo, those of Seville, Granada, Valencia, Zaragoza,
Barcelona, the Basque provinces, and Cuellar, were very famous. Readers
of Shakespeare will remember Falstaff's _bilbo_, a rapier made at Bilbao
in the Basque provinces. The principal merit of these arms consisted in
the manner in which the artist tempered his metal. It was generally done
at night in order to distinguish in the darkness the exact colour of the
heated steel in dipping it into the water. The swords known by the name
of _perrillo_ were highly esteemed in Spain during the 15th and 16th
centuries; they were marked with a figure resembling a dog. Cervantes
mentions and praises these blades in his "Rinconete y Cortadillo" and
"Don Quixote." They were made by a Moor of Granada, who it is stated had
been swordsman of King Boabdil, and became a Christian under the name of
Julian del Rey. His godfather was King Ferdinand, and besides working at
Granada he did so at Zaragoza and Toledo. When an artist of merit
excelled in a given locality, it absorbed all the fame of this industry.
During the Renaissance larger centres of this industry were established
in large towns, and the fame of the objects they produced was
concentrated there. Toledo absorbed the importance in the industry of
sword making.
We find that the Municipal Ordinances of the Middle Ages give very
little information by which we can judge of the merits of the objects
produced. A Guild of Armourers existed at Barcelona as early as 1257,
and of Sword makers from the 14th century; but the information given
concerning this subject is very slight. We find more details in the
Ordinances of Toledo, Seville, and Granada, whence we learn that
manufactories of arms existed in these towns.
The sword manufactory of Toledo acquires its greatest importance during
the Renaissance period until the end of the 17th century, when it
terminated. It was re-established again in 1760 under the patronage of
the Government, and continues to work in the present day. Don Francisco
de Santiago Palomares wrote, in 1772, an "Account of the Sword
Manufactory of Toledo," the manuscript of which exists at the Academia
de la Historia (E. 41). The most interesting part of this study consists
in the details given upon the manner of tempering the blades. The names
he has collected of the most remarkable artists, are taken from the
original dies of their marks which existed at the Archives of the
Ayuntamiento at Toledo. These marks have been published in the "Catalogo
de la Armeria," Madrid, 1849, from which I copy them. It must be borne
in mind that Palomares, after quoting the text by the Poet Gracio
Falisco, which I have given at the beginning, does not establish any
definite fact which enables us to study the historical progress of this
manufactory during the Middle Ages. The author says, p. 111: "At the
beginning of this industry there was no centralization or monopoly in
this manufactory, some armourers formed a guild, placing each artist in
his proper place. The kings of Castille granted them privileges of
different kinds."
Bowles says, in his "Introduction to the Natural and Geographical
History of Spain," that the steel used at the manufactory of Toledo was
taken from an iron mine existing at a league from Mondragon, the only
one then known in Spain.
The celebrity of Toledo blades has excited the curiosity of many who
wished to ascertain the cause of their great excellence and renown. Some
supposed the sword manufacturers of Toledo possessed a secret for
tempering their arms: it was not so, however; their only secret being
the waters of the Tagus and the fine white sand on its banks. This sand
was used for cooling the steel: when the steel was red-hot, and began to
give forth sparks, it was uncovered a little and sprinkled with sand,
and sent on to the forgers. As soon as the blade was ready it was
tempered in the following manner: a line of fire was made and the blade
placed in it in such a manner that only four-fifths of its length should
touch the fire. As soon as the blade was red-hot it was dropped
perpendicularly into a bucket of Tagus water; when cold, if it was found
to be bent, a small portion of sand was poured on the yoke, the blade
was placed upon it, and beaten until properly straightened. After this
the fifth part of the blade was fired, and when red-hot was seized with
tongs and rubbed with suet, which soon began to melt; after this the
blade was sent to the grinding-stones, and finished by being polished by
wooden wheels with emery powder.
Charles the Third, a year after he became King of Spain, re-established
officially the manufactory of arms of Toledo. He placed it in a
building near the Miradero Alto, and the works began in 1761. The king
soon found the building too small for the purpose, and ordered his
architect, Sabatini to build the present one, outside the town near the
river Tagus, which was finished in 1783, and from this time has been
under the superintendence of the Royal Artillery. Not a single sword
maker existed in 1760 of any note who was competent to be placed at the
head of the works, and it was found necessary to bring a proper person
from Valencia.
Palomares, who was present, says: "As soon as the building was ready and
disposed for working, Luis Calisto, a famous sword maker, began to work.
Calisto was a native of Valencia, and more than 70 years of age when he
was appointed. Other artists were chosen at the same time by the
Director. In the short space of time in which that chief master armourer
lived, he made most excellent weapons; he was most skilful, and was
probably imitated by his successor."
NAMES OF THE SWORD MAKERS OF TOLEDO.
The numbers given correspond to the plates of their marks, given in
"Catalogo de la Real Armeria."
1. Alonso de Sahagun, el _viejo_, 1570.
2. Alonso de Sahagun, el _mozo_.
3. Alonso Perez.
4. Alonso de los Rios; he also worked at Cordova.
5. Alonso de Cava.
6. Andres Martinez.
7. Andres Herraez; he also worked at Cuenca.
8. Andres Munesten; worked at Calatayud.
9. Andres Garcia.
10. Antonio de Baena.
11. Antonio Gutierrez.
12. Antonio Gutierrez, a son of the former.
13. Antonio Ruiz, 1520; he used the initial letter of his name.
14. Adrian de Zafra; worked at Sn. Clemente.
15. Bartolomé de Nieva.
16. Casaldo y Campañeros; worked at Cuellar and Badajoz.
17. Domingo de Orozco.
18. Domingo Maestre, el _viejo_.
19. Domingo Maestre, el _mozo_.
20. Domingo Rodriguez.
21. Domingo Sanchez; called el Tigerero.
22. Domingo de Aguirre.
23. Domingo de Lama.
24. Domingo Corrientes; worked also at Madrid.
25. Fabrian de Zafra; hijo de Adrian.
26. Francisco Ruiz, el _viejo_, 1617.
27. Francisco Ruiz, el _mozo_.
28. Francisco Gomez.
29. Francisco de Zamora; worked also at Seville.
30. Francisco de Alcozer; worked at Madrid.
31. Francisco Lurdi.
32. Francisco Cordiu.
33. Francisco Perez.
34. Giraldo Reliz.
35. Gonzalo Simon, 1617.
36. Gabriel Martinez.
37. Gil de Almau.
38. Hortuño de Aguirre, 1604.
39. Juan Martin.
40. Juan de Leizalde; worked at Seville.
41. Juan Martinez, el _viejo_.
42. Juan Martinez, el _mozo_, 1617.
43. Juan de Almau, 1550.
44. Juan de Toro.
45. Juan Ruiz.
46. Juan Martinez de Garata.
47. Juan Martinez Menchaca; he lived at the beginning of the 16th
century, and worked at Lisbon, Seville, and Madrid.
48. Juan Ros.
49. Juan Moreno.
50. Juan de Saludo.
51. Juan de Meladoria.
52. Juan de Vargas.
53. Juan de la Horta, 1545.
54. Juanes de Toledo.
55. Juanes de Algruniva.
56. Juanes de Muleto.
57. Juanes, el _viejo_.
58. Juanes de Uriza.
59. Julian del Rey, the Moor; he worked for Boabdil, King of
Granada, 15th century.
60. Julian Garcia; worked also at Cuenca.
61. Julian de Zamora.
62. José Gomez.
63. Jusepe de la Hera, el _viejo_.
64. Jusepe de la Hera, el _mozo_.
65. Jusepe de la Hera, el _nieto_.
66. Jusepe de la Hera, el _visnieto_.
67. Jusepe del Haza.
68. Ignacio Fernandez, el _viejo_.
69. Ignacio Fernandez, el _mozo_.
70. Luis de Nieves.
71. Luis de Ayala.
72. Luis de Belmonte.
73. Luis de Sahagun.
74. Luis de Sahagun.
75. Luis de Nieva; worked at Calatayud.
76. Lupus Aguado, 1567.
77. Miguel Cantero, 1564.
78. Miguel Sanchez.
79. Melchor Suarez; worked at Lisbon.
80. Nicolas Hortuño de Aguirre, 1637.
81. Pedro de Toro.
82. Pedro de Arechiga.
83. Pedro Lopez; worked at Orgaz.
84. Pedro de Lerzama; worked at Seville.
85. Pedro de Lazaretea; worked at Bilbao.
86. Pedro de Orozco.
87. Pedro de Belmonte.
88. Roque Hernandez.
Sarabal; used no mark.
89. Sebastian Hernandez, el _viejo_, 1637.
90. Sebastian Hernandez, el _mozo_; he worked also at Seville.
91. Silvestre Nieto.
92. Silvestre Nieto.
93. Tomas de Ayala, 1625.
94. Zamorano, el Toledano.
Nos. 95, 96, 97, 98, and 99, are the marks of sword makers whose names
are unknown.
Miguel y Manuel Fernandez; worked at Toledo in 1786.
Pedro de Barreta; at Bilbao at the end of the 16th century.
The following names may be added to this list--
Luis Calisto, 1760; and the four following artists are mentioned by
Palomares as working at Toledo.
Juan de Valladolid.
Sebastian Herbás, 1617.
Manuel Ruiz, 1700.
Ignacio Fernandez, 1708.
Juan Orenga, 15th century; worked at Tortosa, and mentioned in the
"Corvacho" of the Arcipreste de Talavera, fol. xi.
Martin Garro, v. p. 120, "Almanaque de la Industria."
Alonso Gutierrez, master of sword making at Madrid in 1625.
This artist, and the eleven following, are mentioned in original
documents at the Academia de San Fernando.
Francisco de Borja, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1634.
Gaspar Martin, sword maker; working at Madrid in 1637.
Juan Mazon de Santorcas, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1636.
Juan de Medina; Madrid, 1620.
Lorenzo de los Rios; Madrid, 1585.
Miguel de Berrio; Madrid, 1575.
Pedro Casado, sword maker; Madrid, 1636.
Francisco de Elias, an apprentice of Pedro Casadós.
Francisco de Salinas; Madrid, 1636.
Acheza----; Toledo.
Camilo, 1500.
Two fine rapiers are in the Kensington Museum, Nos. 626, '68, and 2214,
'55, which belong to the 16th and 17th centuries, and give a good idea
of this industry of Toledo. Woodcuts of these appear on the opposite
page. One of the blades is marked with the name of Francisco Ruiz. A
large and most important collection of rapiers, swords, and other arms
exists at the Royal Armoury of Madrid.
The breastplates are unusually fine, but the finest among them are by
Milanese artists. A good example, which has been considered Spanish, was
formerly in the Bernal Collection (see woodcut on p. 98); it gives an
excellent idea of the artistic importance attained by this industry.
[Illustration: SPANISH RAPIERS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
The saddles used in Spain were similar to those of other European
countries, for we find the same names adapted to the Spanish language.
In the poem of the Cid, 13th century, and other works of the Middle
Ages, _gallega_ and _barda_ saddles are mentioned which were peculiar to
Spain. The _gallega_ saddles were called so from being made in Gallicia;
the _barda_ proceeded from the Moors. We find no details which explain
their exact structure.
[Illustration: BREASTPLATE, FORMERLY IN THE BERNAL COLLECTION.]
A very remarkable collection of saddles of every description may be
studied at the fine collection of armour at Madrid; among them are two
of special interest--No. 2311 of "Catalogue of Armoury"--traditionally
supposed to have belonged to the Cid, and No. 1310, which was used by
King James the Conqueror in the 13th century. The Cid's saddle (see
woodcut) is intended for a war-horse; its bows are covered with black
metal plating, ornamented with a design of leaves and pilgrims' shells,
partially gilt, and the word "Fides," considered to be the Cid's
devise. Much has been written on the origin and authenticity of this
saddle. Cervantes alludes to it in the 49th Chapter of "Don Quixote,"
Part I. For further details see "Catalogue of the Armeria."
[Illustration: SADDLE OF THE CID. ARMOURY, MADRID.]
The greatest novelty which was introduced during the Renaissance period
was the use of fire-arms. The only names of ancient artists that I have
met with, who had any connection with the manufactory of large pieces of
artillery were Pedro Burgues, an iron master of Barcelona, who lived in
1393; Rodrigo de Almanza, and Pedro Colomer, who made fire-arms at
Barcelona in 1413; and the Moor, Alfarax Darhin, an iron master of
Tarazona; V. Fernandez Duro. [Museo Español, vol. v. p. 18.]
Portable fire-arms were introduced into Spain towards the middle of the
15th century. Count Clonard, in treating this subject in the "Memorias
de la Academia de la Historia," ix. p. 214, says:--"Alfonso de Palencia
tells us the _espingarda_, or large hand musket (see woodcut), and
_arbatana_ culverin, were used in the insurrection at Toledo in July,
1467. He assures us they had been very recently invented and named. They
had been mentioned as early as 1449. In the siege of Toledo, Don Alvaro
de Luna could not be kept back from the dangerous position in which he
had placed himself, notwithstanding the shower of stones, rockets,
arrows, and shots of _espingardas_ which were thrown into the town."
[Illustration: SPANISH MUSKETS.]
At the same time as these portable fire-arms were used in Spain, the
ancient _ballestas_, crossbows, so generally used in the Middle Ages,
were very popular. Several artists became very famous in their
manufacture. Alonso Martinez de Espinar enters into many details of this
implement in his rare volume on the "Arte de Ballesteria y Monteria,"
Madrid, 1644, 4to, from which I copy the following passage, p. 11:--"The
crossbow is more secure and less dangerous than the arquebuse; for it
has never been known that a man's life has been lost by breaking the
string or cord, two things which are dangerous, but not to a
considerable extent. The crossbow has many advantages over the
arquebuse: it kills, but does not frighten game; this cannot be done
with the arquebuse, for the sound it makes alarms and frightens the
game, and is heard everywhere. Once set, its shot is secure; which is
not the case with the arquebuse, which often misses fire.
"This weapon has been used in Spain from very early times, and has been
made by the best masters; the most famous among them were--
Azcoitia el Viejo.
Pedro de la Fuente.
Christoval de Azcoitia.
Juan Hernandez.
Juan Perez de Villadiego.
Juan Azcoitia.
Vzedo.
Hortega.
"The only famous maker of crossbows of the present time is Juan de
Lastra."
Espinar does not mention the name of Miguel, a crossbow maker of
Zaragoza, or another celebrated maker who lived at Barbastro. The
ambassador Salinas alludes to them both in an hitherto unedited letter
written to King Ferdinand of Hungary, the brother of the Emperor Charles
V. He says:--"Before I was able to find a lodging in this town of Monzon
(Aragon), which was about five or six days, I went to Balbastro,
Barbastro, and there occupied myself in making a pair of crossbows for
your Majesty. I believe they are so made that they will satisfy the
desires which were required; they were made in my presence and according
to my wishes, and as your Majesty is annoyed when they do not go off as
you wish, I determined to make them in the following manner: One of them
weighs l. ounces, which is considered here a very great weight. I,
knowing your Majesty's wishes, had another made of lvi. ounces, that is
to say 3½ lbs. of Castille, carved and worked in such a manner that
the cords should not break; and that it be pleasant to shoot, I can
affirm your Majesty that the maker is the best which exists in Spain,
and yet he has never made so fine a crossbow as this one which is now
sent to your Majesty; and if not to your liking, I do not expect you
ever will be pleased with one. I have sent them to Victoria in order
that the screws may be made to fit the cords, and have ordered them to
be made without delay; and as soon as they are ready they are to be sent
to Bilbao to be forwarded to Flanders to the Queen, to whom your Majesty
must write, in order that whatever you may wish may be done with them.
When we leave here, it is said, we are to go to Zaragoza, where your
Majesty will stay ten or twelve days. I will order two crossbows from
_Maestro Michel_, who competes with the maker at Barbastro. I will do
the same with these as the others. I entreat your Majesty should provide
that the best of the two should not be lost. I am thoroughly satisfied
with it, and am sure it will please your Majesty. From Monzon, 27th day
of August, MDXXXIII." (Copy of a letter by Martin de Salinas to
Ferdinand, King of Bohemia and Hungary, MS. fol. Acad. of History, c.
71).
Martinez de Espinar gives in his "Arte de Ballesteria," p. 41, the names
of the best Spanish arquebuse or musket makers, and says: "The first
cannon brought to Spain came from Germany; the artist who made them used
the following marks:--
"Two heads.
"A vase.
"A vase and pine.
"A pair of tongs.
"Flames.
"A knife.
"An excellent artificer worked formerly in Italy called Lazari Cominaz,
but many bad cannons have been attributed to him.
"The best Spanish masters were--
"Maestre Simon, el viejo.
"Maestre Pedro, his brother, who made at Madrid excellent cannon and
locks.
"They came over with the Emperor Charles V., and worked also for the
Kings Philip II. and III., and marked the pieces they made with three
sickles.
"Maestre Simon had four sons; all of them followed his profession.
Felipe and Simon Marcuarte have worked for Philip III. and IV. Simon
Marcuarte is still alive. They mark with a sickle in a shield, and make
also excellent hunting-knives, archers' knives, halberds, and other
things. Pedro, their brother, is also an excellent artificer.
"Juan Salado worked in several localities, and died at Salamanca. He was
an excellent arquebuse maker. His mark was the letter of his name and a
horse.
"Sanchez de Mirveña, his son-in-law, followed him. He marked with a lion
and his initials.
"Gaspar Fernandez was brought by King Ferdinand from Salamanca, and the
arms he makes are the best in Spain.
"Pedro Muñoz worked at Seville. He was surnamed El Toledano, and marked
with all the letters of his name.
"Juan de Metola did the same.
"Leguizamo worked at Seville. He marked with his name and two stags.
"Francisco Hernandez used his full name.
"Andres Herraez was a native of Cuenca. He made every sort of arm, and
marked with an eagle and his initials.
"Maestre Cristoval de Ricla marked with an X.
"Pedro Palacios with P P."
A fine musket exists by Palacios at the Royal Armoury of Madrid--No.
427. By Cristoval de Ricla there is a cannon of worked iron, No. 2319,
mounted on its gun-carriage, with the following inscription, "Hizome en
Ricla Cristoval Frisleva año, 1565." A fine gun, also at the Armeria, is
by the same artist.
Juan de Espinar does not mention the following artists, who lived at his
time at Madrid. I find their names given in original documents in the
Library of the Academia de San Fernando.
Bartolomé de Orgaz 1643
Juan de la Cruz 1629
Juan de Mazo 1613
Juan de Pozo 1625
Juan de Zuazo, armourer of his Majesty 1645
Lucas de Ros, armourer of his Majesty 1623-1628
Matias Suezo, was arquebusier of the guards of Seville in 1625
Rafael Villato in 1625
Pero Matia appears in documents of the archives of Simancas as musket-maker
living at the Alhambra at the end of the 16th century.
By extracting the information on this subject which is given in the
introduction to the Catalogue of the Armoury, we find this list can be
brought down to our time:--
Gaspar Hernandez had two excellent pupils.
Domingo Garcia and Juan Belen, who marked with a lion with a lifted paw.
He was appointed gunsmith to King Charles II. in 1699.
Alonso Martinez was an excellent artist; he marked his work with the
letters of his name.
Luis Santos, 1739.
Nicolas Bis.
Matias Baeza, gunsmith of King Philip V., 1739.
Alonso Martinez, 1732.
Diego Esquivel.
Juan Fernandez, appointed in 1726.
Diego Ventura, appointed gunsmith to Charles III., 1760.
Luis Santos.
Matias Baeza, 1740.
Francisco Bis.
Ignacio Barcina.
Sebastian Santos, 1752.
Gabriel de Algora, appointed gunsmith to Ferdinand VI., 1746.
Juan Fernandez.
Manuel Sutil, an excellent artist.
José Cano, 1740.
Joaquin Celaya, 1749.
José Lopez.
Diego Ventura.
Benito San Martin.
Juan Santos.
Francisco Lopez, a great artist, gunsmith of King Charles III., in 1761.
José Cano.
Diego Alvarez, 1775.
Joaquin Celaya.
Salvador Cenarro, 1762.
Antonio Gomez, 1762.
Pedro Ramirez.
Agustin Bustindui.
Sebastian Santos.
Pedro Fernandez.
Gabriel de Algora.
Agustin Ortiz, 1761.
Miguel Cegarra, 1768.
Francisco Lopez.
Francisco Garcia, 1788.
Isidoro Soler, 1792.
Francisco Targarona, 1792.
Gregorio Lopez, 1792.
Agustin Ortiz.
Pedro Fernandez.
Carlos Rodriguez.
Antonio Navarro.
Diego Alvarez.
Valentin Lopez.
Juan de Soto.
Carlos Montargis, 1783.
Manuel Cantero, 1792.
Hilario Mateo.
Antonio Gomez.
Juan Lopez.
Ramon Martinez.
Basilio Escalante.
Manuel Soler.
Melchor Alvarez, the first gunsmith who forged spiral cannon in Spain,
and made double-barrelled guns.
Gregorio Lopez.
Aquilino Aparicio.
Ramon Zuloaga.
Eusebio Zuloaga.
*** The marks used by these artists are given in plate 9 of "Catalogo de
la Armeria de Madrid," 1849.
Daggers, knives, scissors, and other small arms made in Spain, have been
famous from early times. A good example of a dagger is No. 2238, 55 at
the Kensington Museum. A great number of towns have been distinguished
for this industry, such as Albacete, Murcia, Alcazar de San Juan, and
Guadix, where even in the present day much cutlery is produced. The
cutlery made in Spain preserves the traditional Moorish forms. Al
Makkari says, in speaking of these objects, in his "Moham. Dyn. in
Spain," vol. i., p. 93:--"Murcia was likewise famous for the manufacture
of coats of mail, breast-plates, and steel armour inlaid with gold; all
kinds of instruments of brass and iron, such as knives, scissors, and
other trinkets, and especially weapons and other warlike instruments,
wrought in such perfection as to dazzle with their brightness the eyes
of the beholder." The translator adds, p. 393: "Several towns in the
province are renowned for this industry. At Albacete there are several
manufactures of well-tempered scissors, daggers, and knives, which, from
the shape of their blades, betray their Moorish origin. Since the
expulsion of the Moriscos, the Spaniards have kept up this manufacture,
and daggers and knives of the end of the last century are often met with
bearing Arabic inscriptions and verses from the Koran. I have seen one
which on one side has the following inscription, 'I shall certainly kill
thy enemies with the help of God,' and on the reverse, 'Fabrica de
Navajas de Antonio Gonzalez, Albacete, 1705.'"
Sr. Rico y Sinovas has published an interesting article on ironwork in
the "Almanaque de el Museo de la Industria," 1872. He gives the names of
the following artists who were famous in this industry.
Aguas, Juan; he worked at Guadix in 1735.
Albacete, signed Cel, 18th century.
Ambrosio, worked at Mora in the 18th century.
Arbell, Ramon, worked at Olot, Cataluña, in the 17th century.
Beson, Manuel, worked at Madrid.
Castellanos, el _viejo_, worked at Albacete in 1766.
Castellanos, el _mozo_, worked at Albacete in the 18th century.
Castello, Gregorio, 16th century.
Cerda, Miguel de la, worked at Madrid and Segovia in 1590.
Diaz, Pedro, worked at Albacete in the early half of the 18th
century.
Escobar, Cristoval, 16th century.
Escobar, Juan, 17th century.
Fernandez Manso de Payba, Jose, master cutler of the 18th century.
Garcia de la Torre, Teodoro, 18th century.
Garijo, master cutler of Albacete; he worked in 1771.
Gomez, Mateo, worked at Albacete in 1659.
Grande, Juan, 1643.
Gutierrez, worked at Chinchilla, 1701.
Herrezuelo, el _viejo_, worked at Baeza in 1643.
Herrezuelo, el _mozo_, worked at Baeza in 1643.
Horbeira, Angel, worked at Madrid in the second half of the 17th
century.
Lallave, Juan, locksmith of Madrid in 1820.
Leon, worked at Albacete early in the 18th century.
Llorens, Pablo, worked at Olot in 1699.
Moro, worked at Madrid late in the last century.
Ramirez, Juan, worked at Mexico in 1590.
Romero, worked at Albacete in 1769.
Rosel, worked at Mora.
San José, worked at Jaen in 1673.
Selva, Juan, worked at Cartagena in 1780.
Segura, worked at Mora towards the end of the last century.
Sierra, Juan, worked at Albacete in 1771.
Sosa, Madrid, 17th century.
Torres, Albacete, 17th century.
Vicen Perez, worked at Albacete in 1674.
Vilarosa, Antonio, worked in the 17th century.
Vicen Perez, Julian, worked at Albacete in 1710.
Zervantes, Francisco, Toledo, 17th century.
The following artists' names may be added; they consist of master
cutlers of Madrid, and are to be found in a bundle of original documents
at the Academy of San Fernando.
Alcocer, Francisco, 1635.
Baltanos, Lucas de, 1611.
Castillo, Rafael del, 1625.
Cuenca, Francisco de, 1613.
Fuente, Pedro de la, worked at Mora and Madrid in 1628.
Garcia, Bartolomé, 1642.
Gonzalez, Marcos, 1624, 1625.
Heras, Antonio de las, 1611.
Luzon, Andres de, 1611.
Martin, Alonso, 1643.
Martinez de Machuca, Pedro, 1611.
Morel, Alonso, 1643.
Rodriguez de Quiñones, Pedro, 1611.
Torres, Antonio de, 1622.
Valsarias, Lucas de, 1611.
The following names of artists are given in Calomarde's "Historia
Politica de Aragon."
Ferrara, Andres, Zaragoza, 16th century.
Picado, Jeronimo, Calatayud, 1722.
Nieva, Luis, Calatayud, 17th century.
Munester, Andres, Calatayud, 18th century.
FURNITURE.
It is difficult to give an account of the furniture used in Spain from
the earliest times, owing to the absence of specimens belonging to the
Roman or Visigothic period. We are safe, however, in affirming that,
during the domination of the Romans, the same models were used in Spain
as in Rome itself, the similarity between objects of other kinds which
exists, and the continual habit of the Romans of imposing their culture
on the countries which they conquered, is sufficient to justify this
idea. During the first period of the Christian era until about the 11th
century, other objects which have reached us as gold and silversmiths'
work, seem to prove that all industrial art work, including furniture
must have been Classic, Byzantine, or Oriental in form, according to the
period in which these styles predominated. The Roman or Classical style
must have lasted for a considerable time, if we judge by the texts given
by San Isidoro, in his "Etymologies," lib. xx., cap. xi. and xii. San
Isidoro lived in the 7th century of our era. We find he mentions the
words, _de lectis et sellis_, _de vehiculis_, which refer to furniture
of the Roman period; but we do not meet with any distinctive terms which
can be applied to the time in which he lived, on the contrary he
comments on phrases and alludes to the forms of objects in the same
manner as Rufus, Varrus, and other classical writers.
At the invasion of the Arabs in the beginning of the 8th century the
Byzantine element increased in its application to furniture. During the
reign of the caliphs, contemporary authors tell us that luxury of
decoration of every kind was carried to a great extent. The description
of the pulpit or _minbar_ of the mosque of Cordova will give an idea of
its richness. Al Makkari, in his "History of Mohammedan Dynasties in
Spain," says, "the length of the Mihrab was 8 cubits; its breadth, 7
cubits; the height of its dome, 13 cubits. There stood on one side a
pulpit, constructed by Alhahem, equalled by none other in the world for
workmanship and materials. It was made of ivory and exquisite woods,
such as ebony, sandal, Indian plantain, citron wood, aloe, and so forth,
at the expense of 3,575 dinars: the steps by which it was ascended were
nine in number. Another writer says it was formed of 36,000 pieces of
wood fastened together by gold and silver nails, occasionally encrusted
with precious stones, and its construction lasted for seven years; eight
artists being daily employed on it," vol. i. p. 222.
Edrisi, who lived at Cordova at the beginning of the 12th century,
describes this pulpit in the same manner. It was to be seen in the
cathedral of Cordova as late as the 16th century, when it was destroyed,
and its materials employed in the construction of an altar. An Arab
_minbar_ is in the South Kensington Museum, which came from Cairo, and
although belonging to the last centuries of the Middle Ages, it will
give an idea of this structure and its elaborate workmanship.
The oldest specimen of furniture which exists in Spain, belonging to
Christian art, is the shrine of San Millan de la Cogulla, in the
province of La Rioja, described in _Ivories_, p. 134. This casket or
shrine was made by the orders of King Sancho el Mayor, in 1033, in order
to preserve the relics of San Millan. It is of wood, covered with 22
compartments of highly interesting ivory plaques, representing episodes
from the life of the Saint. The names of the artists, _Apparitio_ and
_Rodolpho_, appear on it. In 1808 the French stripped the shrine of its
gold and silver ornaments, but, most fortunately, left the casket and
its ivory carvings behind.
Another interesting object, which is useful for illustrating furniture
in Spain in the 12th century, is the Bishop's throne in the cathedral of
Gerona. It is of white marble of one piece, covered with a simple
ornamentation in excellent taste, in a similar style, and for the same
purpose, as the throne of San Clemente in Rome. It is raised at the back
of the altar, and is ascended by thirteen steps. The Bishop sits on this
throne after the first purification, and continues there until the
Offertory, when he descends and finishes the mass at the altar; owing to
the existence of this chair, one of the most ancient rites of
Catholicism has been preserved at Gerona.
Mention must also be made of the shrine in which the remains of Queen
Urraca are kept in the cathedral of Palencia, and the Cofre del Cid in
the cathedral of Burgos, although they are more interesting for their
antiquity than their artistic merit.
During the 13th century furniture in Spain must have been similar to
that used in other countries, it was influenced by French and Italian
forms; from which, as was the case in architecture, these models were
constantly copied. Some idea of this is given in the triptych known by
the name of the Tablas Alfonsinas, which is fully described in Gold and
Silver Work. (See woodcut on p. 17.)
The principal novelty which we find in Spain in this industry consists
in the combination of the Christian and Moorish styles applied to
furniture. A very remarkable specimen exists at the Academia de la
Historia, consisting of a reliquary, triptych or armoire of very large
dimensions, formerly in the church of the Monasterio of Piedra in
Aragon. It is 13 feet wide and 8 feet high. When the two doors are
closed six compartments appear on each, surrounded by a border headed by
a wide cornice. This cornice is divided in sixteen spaces formed by
arches adorned with stalactite ornamentation in the Moorish style;
inside each span is painted the figure of a saint. In the twelve
compartments which form the doors there are subjects from the life of
Our Lord, beginning with the Annunciation, and ending with the Descent
from the Cross painted in excellent taste. The border which surrounds
these doors is formed of a beautiful geometrical ornamentation, in the
purest Oriental style; in the upper and lower part appears the following
inscription in Gothic characters, which gives us the date in which this
object was made.
Tabernaculum hoc vocabitur aula Dei quia vere Dominis est in loco isto.
Fuit autem constructum ad honorem et reverentiam sacratissimi corporis
Domini nostri Ihu Xpi et pasionis ejusdem nec non ad honorem == et
reverentiam sanctissime genitricis ejusdem et totius celestis curie et
sanctorum ... at fuit ... depictum anno MCCCXC. anima ordinatoris
requiescat ... sinu salvatoris. Amen.
When this triptych is opened several compartments appear, formed by
cusped Gothic arches, placed within others, in the form of a mitre
divided by pinnacles. The ornamentation which fills the vacant space
between the arches, and the seven banderoles in the lower part are in
pure Gothic style, without a reminiscence of Moorish art. In the central
banderole appears the name of _Dopnus Martinus Poncii Abbas_, the abbot
of the monastery where this reliquary was made, and the person by whom
the expense was probably borne. The inside of the doors is divided into
two horizontal zones, which include half the total size. The upper zone
is covered with geometrical tracery, similar to the outer borders. The
lower one is divided into four compartments for each leaf of the door,
eight within two, which are formed by cusped Gothic arches; within these
spaces are painted standing figures of angels holding musical
instruments in their hands and nimbi round their heads. The details and
forms of the instruments and delicate ornamentation of the costumes and
carpets, constitute one of the most beautiful details of this triptych.
These details and several of the architectural lines of the Gothic part
of this ornamentation denote an Italian influence, probably Sicilian,
for this province belonged then to the crown of Aragon. This triptych
is richly gilt, and painted inside and out, and is one of the finest and
most remarkable specimens of the kind which exist in any country. A
plate may be seen in "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 307.
A very interesting specimen of this combination of styles is a recess or
cupboard of the 14th century, which is at the Kensington Museum, No.
1764, 71, [see woodcut]. It is 5 feet 4 inches high, by 8 feet wide; and
is composed of an outer arch, with the tympani ornamented with fine
arabesques in relief, made of stucco,--representing vine tendrils,
leaves, and flowers, similar to those which appear in the Cosa de Mesa
and other Moorish houses at Toledo. The arch is surrounded by two Latin
inscriptions in Gothic characters, of which only the following words are
legible + Autem transies per medium ilorum.... mente +. The first of
these is from St. Luke, iv., v. 30, a passage often quoted by
alchemists.
This arch serves as a portal to the cupboard, which is about a foot
deep, and is divided into two compartments with two rows of shelves.
Each of these is supported by a series of Moorish arches, the tympani of
which are ornamented with tracery, or an ornamentation of leaves in a
geometrical and Oriental manner. On the rim of the upper part is
repeated the following inscription in African characters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"Felicity and Fortune."
On the lower shelf are the following words in Spanish in Gothic
characters: + Dios: te: salve: estrella: de: la: mannana: medicina: de:
los: peccadores: reina + "Hail! morning star; medicine of sinners;
queen."
[Illustration: "BOTICA DE LOS TEMPLARIOS." FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
This "Alhacena," or cupboard, existed formerly in the court of an old
house at Toledo, known by the name of "Casa de la Parra," and is
constantly called "Botica de los Templarios," the Templars' dispensary,
probably because the Templars occupied the parish of St. Michael, in
which the house stands, and because the word "medicine" is mentioned in
the inscription.
In order to increase the list of these objects, which are unfortunately
so rare, it is necessary to mention the organ case, decorated with fine
Moorish tracery, in the chapel founded by Diego de Anaya, Archbishop of
Seville in 1374, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca.
Another specimen of furniture of interest of the 14th century is the
shrine or casket containing the remains of San Isidoro, existing in the
parish church of San Andres at Madrid. This casket is 7 feet 5 inches
long; the cover is formed of two plain surfaces, forming a roof, which
leaves a triangular pediment at each end. The shrine is made of wood,
covered outside with a coat of painting in distemper, and is decorated
with a series of painted compartments simulating pointed tricuspid
arches let into others which are mitre-shaped; in the interior spaces
are painted a series of representations of the life of the saint. This
object is extremely interesting: it is evidently of Spanish workmanship,
although it has great resemblance with the Italian _cassoni_ of the same
period. See vol. iv. "Mus. Esp." p. 593, and "Monumentos
Arquitectonicos"--livraison 67.
The most important period of artistic furniture in Spain must be looked
for in the 15th and 16th centuries: we find in this time works decorated
with sculptured figures and most delicate and exquisite ornamentation.
Nothing gives a better idea of this than the choir seats of Spanish
cathedrals. The cathedrals in Spain are different to those of France and
the north of Europe owing to the circumstance that the choir, or _coro_,
is placed in the middle of the central nave, in the traditional form of
the primitive basilicas, such as San Clemente at Rome, with the
difference however, that towards the last centuries of the Middle Ages
the _pluteus_ or walls that surround it, which are elevated about one
yard from the floor, were turned into an enclosure or wall four or five
yards in height. A space is therefore set apart in the middle of the
church, which, although spoiling the general effect of the nave,
becomes, as is the case in most Spanish cathedrals, a museum of artistic
objects of all kinds. The side facing the presbytery or high altar is
enclosed by a _reja_. [See Iron and Bronze work.] In the three remaining
sides stalls are placed against the wall, forming two rows, one near the
floor, and the other raised about a yard from the lower ones. The
general system adopted is a row of stalls separated from each other by
the arms; the backs of the lower ones serving as stands for the books
which are used by those who sit in the upper range. The subsellæ are
prolonged and form canopies, pinnacles, crest-work, and other varied
ornamentation resting on columns. They are usually made of walnut wood,
and there is not a single vacant space which is left uncovered with
figures or ornamentation in relief: the effect produced by the whole is
admirable. The number of seats varies according to the size of the
choir, or importance of the church.
It is probable that the earliest wood carvers who worked in Spain came
from Flanders or Holland, if we judge by the decided Germanic character
of the figures and ornamentation, and frequent mention made of foreign
masters; but this industry very soon took root in Spain, and Spanish
artists soon equalled or excelled their masters. The most important
choir stalls carved in the Gothic style in Spain belong only to the last
years of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century; those in the
Renaissance style come immediately afterwards, and include the whole
16th century.
One of the finest is that of Leon, it is in the purest German-Gothic
style, and may be considered as a masterpiece in its way: the large
figures are as delicately carved as the small ones. The representations
of the "Last Judgment" and "Tree of Jesse" are as beautiful as can be
imagined. The choir at Zamora is also in the German style; the large
figures which ornament it are splendid in effect. These stalls are fully
described in "The Ecclesiologist," in the following manner: "The stalls,
though not remarkably early, are very fine. The bishops, as usual, at
the centre of the west nave; then three dignitaries on each side; then
at each extremity of the west end a door into the nave; then on the
north and south sides respectively twenty stalls with subsellæ, which
also are returned. All the panelling is very fine: but that at the back
of the subsellæ I will give at full, because the types of, and legends
concerning Our Lord are so remarkably well chosen, that they may be
useful as giving ideas to our own church builders, and might be
introduced with great advantage in stained glass." "Ecclesiologist,"
vol. xiv., p. 363.
The stalls at the cathedral and church of Sto. Tomas of Avila, and
cathedral of Burgos are also very fine. The _coro_ at Barcelona is
extremely picturesque; at the backs of the stalls are placed the coats
of arms of the knights of the Golden Fleece, in a similar manner to
those of St. George's Chapel at Windsor; among these we find the arms of
Henry the VIIIth. In 1519 the Emperor Charles V. held at Barcelona a
chapter of this Order, the only one which has ever been held in Spain.
It would take too much space to enumerate the choir seats in Spain
worthy of notice; those at Toledo rank as the most important, as
including the last period of the Gothic and best Renaissance styles.
This _coro_ contains 45 stalls in the lower, and 71 in the upper part.
Mr. Street fully describes the lower part in his "Gothic Architecture in
Spain," p. 252, and says: "The lower range of stalls, fifty in number,
are the work of Maestro Rodrigo, circa A.D. 1495; and the upper range
were executed, half by Berruguete and half by Felipe de Borgoña, A.D.
1543. The old stall ends are picturesque in outline, very large, and
covered with tracery, panels and carvings with monkeys and other animals
sitting on them. The upper range of stalls is raised by four steps, so
that between the elbows of the lower stalls and the desk above them, are
spaces filled in with a magnificent series of bas reliefs, illustrating
the various incidents of the conquest of Granada. They were executed
whilst the subjects depicted were fresh in the minds of the people, and
are full of picturesque vigour and character. The names of the
fortresses are inscribed on the walls; in some we have the siege, in
others the surrender of the keys; in others the Catholic monarchs,
accompanied by Cardinal Ximenes riding in triumph through the gates."
The upper stalls, although considered by Mr. Street "heavy dull
Paganism," are among the most important artistic works existing in
Spain. Their sculptures and ornamentation reproduce the Renaissance
Italian style in its finest period. Columns of red jasper are combined
with the walnut-wood carvings, and the termination of the upper part
which rests on the wall is of white marble carved by the same artists.
Choir stalls, sharing the fate of other architectural works, followed
the general path of decay after the 16th century. Those stalls at the
cathedral of Malaga, which were carved in the 17th century by José
Michael, Pedro de Mena, and Luis Ortiz, are worthy of mention: the
figures in high relief at the back are very fine. This falling off of
artistic feeling is particularly observable at the cathedral of Cordova;
the stalls there, which were carved by Pedro Duque Cornejo in the 18th
century, are admirable in richness of ornamentation, but the whole
decoration is in the worst possible taste. The fine lecterns which are
placed in the centres of the choirs are often good examples of carving.
An admirable model of this style exists at the cathedral of Zamora.
In treating of furniture of other kinds, the silver chair or throne of
D^{n.} Martin de Aragon must figure in the first instance. It is
described in "Gold and Silver Work," p. 19. In these and other objects
which are not Oriental in style, constant reminiscences are observable
of the similarity of ideas and forms with Italian or French objects. The
large chests or _cassoni_ of different sizes which are constantly met
with in museums, or in private collections, are similar to objects of
the same kind which abound in Italy. Some are covered with fine Gothic
or Renaissance carvings in the same taste as the choir stalls, and are
ornamented also with good iron-work. Some of them were made in the
province of Cataluña of inlaid ivory, imitating in a coarse manner
Florentine and Milanese work. These objects were of the end of the 15th
and beginning of the 16th century. An excellent example exists at the
cathedral of Toledo, near the Puerta de los Leones, consisting of an
iron coffer covered with carved and repoussé work.
A fine cupboard of walnut wood may be seen at the same cathedral which
is unrivalled for its beauty. It is composed of an architectural order
with six pilasters, forming five vacant spaces completely covered with
medallions, groups of children, flowers, and a multitude of subjects of
ornamentation in reliefs, terminating with a frieze crowned with
candelabra and salient points. This piece of furniture was made in
1549-1551, by the sculptor, Pedro Pardo, for holding vestments of the
clergy. In 1780 a reproduction was made by Gregorio Lopez Durango: the
original and the copy face each other in the room which is passed on
entering the Sala Capitular. As Spanish carved wood work of the
beginning of the 16th century may be mentioned the specimens at the
Kensington Museum, Nos. 245 and 246-64, of two panels with armorial
shields.
During the 16th, but more especially the 17th, century it became very
fashionable in Europe to use secretaires or cabinets to a great extent,
which, if we calculate by those that still are found in private houses
in Spain, have never been so numerous in any other country. A great
variety of every description may be seen at the South Kensington Museum.
In looking through old inventories at Madrid, the number of these
escritoires which decorated the rooms of the Palace is almost
incredible. Many of them came from Italy, Flanders, or Germany. In a
memorial drawn up by Pedro Gutierrez and presented to the King, begging
for protection for this industry, he says: "The cabinets and
escritoires, _contadores y bufetes_, which were worth 500, 600, and 700
reales when brought from Germany, are now made in Spain for 250 and 300
reales each." (Acad. de la Hist., N. 6, vol. iv. 371.) The quantity and
importance of those brought from Germany is to be inferred from an edict
promulgated by Philip III., in Valladolid in 1603, in which "cabinets of
every kind coming from Nuremberg are not allowed to enter the country,"
ib. 518.
These cabinets were made in a great variety of ways. Some were, as we
have seen, copied in Spain from foreign models, but the greater number
constituted a characteristic industry of the Peninsula. Some were
covered with wood carvings in a similar style to the large armoires in
the Sala Capitular at Toledo. Others were known by the name of
_Vargueños_, because the great centre of their manufacture is supposed
to have existed at the village of Vargas in the province of Toledo.
These cabinets are effective; their geometrical ornamentation is a
reminiscence of the Oriental style, and the iron work outside is very
striking. A good specimen may be seen at the Kensington Museum, No.
1073, '71; a woodcut of the upper portion is given on the next page.
We also meet with cabinets and armoires with glass doors covered with
tortoise-shell and gilt bronze. A splendid series of inlaid work of
tortoise-shell, ebony, mother-of-pearl and ivory is preserved at the
Sacristy of the Cartuja at Granada, made by a friar of the same convent,
Manuel Vazquez, at the beginning of the last century. Cabinets of ebony,
inlaid and covered with repoussé silver work, must have been very
generally made in Spain; silver was used to so great an extent after the
conquest of America, that a law was issued in 1574 prohibiting with the
utmost rigour the making and selling of this kind of merchandise, in
order not to increase the scarcity of silver. "No cabinets, desks,
coffers, braziers, etc., shall be manufactured of silver."
[Illustration: VARGUEÑO CABINET. SPANISH. 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
Cabinets of inlaid ivory or different coloured woods which were
originally imported from Italy and Germany were constantly reproduced in
Spain, as will appear by the following dialogue:-- "How much has your
worship paid for this cabinet? It is worth more than 40 ducats. What
wood is it made of? The red one is made of mahogany from the Habana, and
the black one is made of ebony, and the white one of ivory. You will
find the workmanship excellent. Here you will find a finer cabinet.
Where was it made? It was brought with these chairs from Salamanca."
("Dialogos Familiares," by J. de Luna, Paris, 1669, p. 111.) Among
cabinets inlaid with bone or ivory there is a peculiar style in which
furniture brought from the Portuguese possessions in the East was
imitated in a rough way. Some also have reached us in which the drawers
are covered with embroidery in silks of different colours, exquisitely
worked. In the 17th century furniture of different kinds was covered
with embroidered silks. At the Kensington Museum there is an interesting
coffer, which came from the Convent of Loeches, and was originally the
gift of Count Duke de Olivares, Philip the IVth's minister.
The cabinets decorated with _pietre duri_, which are frequently met with
in Spain were of foreign make. Madame d'Aunoy, in describing the house
of a grandee of Spain in her "Voyage d'Espagne," p. 56, vol. ii., Lyon,
1643, says, "et de grands cabinets de pièces de rapport enrichis de
pierreries, lesquels ne sont pas faits en Espagne: des tables d'argent
d'entre eux, et des miroirs admirables tant pour leur grandeur que pour
leurs riches bordures, dont les moins belles sont d'argent. Ce que j'ai
trouvé de plus beau sont des _escaparates_; une espèce de petit cabinet
fermé d'une seule glace et rempli de tout ce qu'on se peut figurer de
plus rare." Cabinets ornamented with paintings on glass, or copper, or
enamels came from Flanders, and some rare specimens of damasquine work
were most probably Milanese manufacture.
In Cean Bermudez "Dicc Historico de los Profesores de Bellas Artes"
appear among the sculptors' names, those of the artists who carved the
most important stalls of the cathedrals, and other works of art of a
similar kind, but the names of those who made cabinets have never yet
been published. I have been fortunate enough to be able to collect the
following from unpublished documents which exist at the Library of the
Acad. de San Fernando at Madrid. They worked in the 16th and 17th
century.
Aguayo, Urban de, wood carver 1623
Carpintero, Francisco, wood carver 1630
Garcia, Marcos, wood carver of his Majesty 1637-42
Gomez, Juan, carver in wood 1598
Gorostiza, Juan de, carver in wood 1627
Higares, Nicolas de, carver in wood 1625
Hispano, Francisco, carver in ivory 1618
Hoz, Martin de la, carver in wood 1624
Lara, Benardino, de, carver in wood 1612
Lozano, Pedro 1622
Marcos, Juan, carver in wood 1636
Martinez, Andrés, carver in wood 1622
Martinez, Dionisio, carver in wood 1621-25
Martinez, Gabriel, carver in wood 1623
Murga, Tomas de, carver of his royal Highness 1614
Osoz, Martin de, wood carver 1623
Parezano, Alonso, wood carver of his Majesty 1623
Pelegrin, Joan, wood carver 1614
Peña, Jeronimo de la, wood carver 1622
Quero, Melchor de, carver in wood 1586
Radis, Francisco, master maker of cabinets in
ebony and ivory 1617
Riofrio, Martin de, wood carver 1612
Riofrio, Tomas de, wood carver 1626
Rodriguez, Bernardo de, wood carver 1624
Rodriguez, Domingo, wood carver 1633
Roxo, Domingo, wood carver 1630
Sanchez, Matias, wood carver 1565
Santana, Juan de, wood carver 1617
Sierra, Francisco de, wood carver 1634
Spano, Jeronimo, wood carver 1617
Torres, Juan de, wood carver 1658
Velasco, Lucas de, master in painting and
gilding cabinets 1633
Zorrilla, Domingo 1642
Large arm-chairs of a quadrangular form, with arms, back and seat of
leather or embroidered stuffs, were used to furnish rooms at the same
time as these cabinets; tables, and frames inlaid with ivory,
tortoise-shell, ebony, bronze and silver, were hung on the walls;
side-boards, beds, and braziers were made of inlaid woods or silver.
Women during the 16th and 17th centuries sat on low stools on the
ground. The beds were made of rich brocades embroidered with gold,
(_vide_ Madame d'Aunoy), trimmed with point d'Espagne, and on the
splendid carpets were placed silver braziers which burnt crushed olive
stones. The walls were covered with tapestry and rich silks, and from
very early times stamped, painted or gilt leather _guadameciles_ were
used in Spain to a very great extent. These _guadameciles_ were imitated
in France and other countries in the 16th and 17th centuries; a very
large quantity of this stamped leather is to be met with in England. The
Baron Ch. Davillier has lately published an interesting notice on this
subject, from which I take the following information. ("Notes sur les
cuirs de Cordoue. Guadameciles d'Espagne," Paris, 1878.)
The word guadamecil applied to this leather comes from the village of
_Ghadames_ in Africa, celebrated from the 12th century for this
industry. It was imported by the Moors into Spain, and Cordova became
from the beginning of the Middle Ages the great centre of this
production, although other towns, such as Seville, Granada, Toledo, and
Barcelona, exported these leathers also. The chronicler Ambrosio de
Morales, in his "Las Antiguedades de las ciudades de España," Alcala,
1575, says, p. 10, "A great commerce is produced by the exportation of
skins, and many have been enriched by it, those prepared at Cordova are
so excellent, that now in Spain any goat hide prepared in any locality
is called Cordovan. Guadameciles are made of leather, and are so well
fashioned in Cordova that none can compete with them; they are exported
to the Indies and all Europe. They produce much for the town, and
beautify the principal streets, for the hides are hung out to dry after
they are painted and gilt, and it is a fine sight to see the walls
covered with such variety of colour and form."
A good collection of these guadameciles is in the South Kensington
Museum. See Nos. 471 to 485, '69, and 1651 to 1654, '71.
At the end of the 17th and first half of the 18th century, the Baroque
or Churrigueresque architecture had such influence over furniture, that
although exaggerated examples were very common, they reached in no
country to such a pitch as they did in Spain. As specimens, the enormous
_retablos_ over the high altars made of gilt carved wood may be
mentioned, which are so frequently to be seen in Spanish churches. The
exuberance of uncouth heavy ornamentation destroys the regularity and
harmony of the general effect. Chairs and tables were made then in the
same style, and the _cornucopias_ or decorated mirrors which adorn
Spanish churches and sacristy, belong to this period. The name of
_cornucopia_ was given in allusion to the horn of abundance.
The French influence of the last century brought the same fashions for
furniture into Spain, and we also find there the styles known as Louis
XVI. and Empire. Spain follows the general rule; porcelain plaques from
the manufactories of Alcora and Retiro were let into furniture, and gilt
bronze mountings were very much used. The most important specimens of
furniture of the early present century are the splendid rooms inlaid
with metal work at the Palace, called Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez, and
those known by the name of "Piezas de maderas finas," at the Palace del
Escorial. The description given by J. Quevdo, in his "Historia del Real
Monasterio de San Lorenzo," Madrid, 1849, gives a good idea of their
importance; he says, p. 343, "This series of four small rooms were
decorated at a cost of 28,000,000 of reales (£280,000). The pavement,
friezes, windows, and doors, are made of the most delicate inlaid work
representing landscapes, vases and festoons of flowers, which look as if
they were painted with a brush. King Charles IV. helped in this work,
and they were finished in 1831 under the direction of Angel Maeso. The
splendid iron work was made by Ignacio Millan. It is of polished iron
inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in workmanship."
IVORIES.
No artistic industry in Spain has left behind so little historical
information as ivory carving. Only a very small number of examples of
this art have reached us which are of undoubted Spanish manufacture, but
a group exists among them which has been but little examined or studied;
it is worthy of the utmost attention, on account of its artistic
character, and the inferences which may be drawn from it.
We find no allusion in the works of Pliny or St. Isidoro to the
existence of the industry of ivory carving in Spain during the Roman and
Visigothic dominations. An interesting example of ivory work of the
Roman period, consisting of a consular diptych may be seen at the
cathedral of Oviedo, which, although certainly not carved in Spain, must
not be overlooked here, in order that it may be included among the
number of the carvings which have reached us of this period. The two
leaves of this diptych are complete, and in a perfect state of
preservation: they are 16 inches long by 6 inches wide; in the centres
are two medallions in relief with a bust of the consul, who is
represented in the act of throwing down with his right hand the _mappa_
or handkerchief, and holding in his left hand a sceptre. The right
angles are ornamented with masks, the rest of the surface is plain. The
two following inscriptions run along the upper part of the leaves:
FL·STRATEGIVS APION. STRATEGIVS APION V. ILL: COM. DEVV. DOMM. ET · CONS
· OR.
Flavius Strategius Apius. Strategius Apius, illustrious man, count of
the most fervent servants, and consul in ordinary.
This consul belongs to the period of Justinian, by which emperor he was
invested with this dignity in A.D. 539. We do not know how this diptych
came to Spain; it is generally supposed that it belonged originally to
the shrine of the cathedral of Toledo, from whence it was removed to
Asturias, with other relics, to be concealed there during the invasion
of the Arabs at the beginning of the 8th century. The student will find
further details in "Corpus Ins." by Hübner. "Monumentos
arquitectonicos." "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades." Vol. i. p. 385.
From the invasion of the Arabs, which began early in the 8th century,
and on the foundation of the empire of the Caliphs of Cordova in the
year 756, an era of grandeur began for the Arabs in Spain, coinciding
with their independence from the Caliphs of Damascus, which lasted for
more than two centuries; during this time Cordova became the most
important literary and scientific centre in Europe. The direct influence
of the East and Constantinople may be traced without interruption from
this time on the culture of the Spanish Arabs. At times this culture was
transmitted by the objects of every kind which the Spaniards received
from the East, at others by the influence exercised by the artists who
established themselves on the territory of the Caliphate of Cordova. The
greater part of the industrial arts, which were imported at this time,
became naturalized in the country, and we find them developed in every
locality of the Peninsula, and although we do not possess any positive
historical information stating this fact, which distinctly bears on
ivory carvings, we are safe in affirming that the industry existed among
the Spanish Arabs in a very high state of perfection during the last
years of the Caliphate. The description and details of the most
important ivories which have reached us of this period confirms this
opinion.
At the South Kensington Museum there is a cylindrical box No. 217-'65
with rounded cover. I copy Mr. Maskell's description of this object, of
which a woodcut is given. (Vide "Ivories, Ancient and Mediæval, in the
South Kensington Museum," London, 1872.)
"This beautiful box is carved throughout, except the bottom of it, with
interlacing narrow bands forming quatrefoils, in which on the cover are
four eagles. These have spread wings and stand erect; well designed and
most delicately executed. A small knob serves to lift the lid.
[Illustration: IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
"Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a star having a leaf
ornament. The same decoration is repeated in the spaces between the
larger quatrefoils on the cover.
[Illustration: Arabic]
"The whole is carved in pierced work, except a band which forms the
upper upright portion of the box, round the side of the lid. This band
has an Arabic inscription:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"A favour of God to the servant of God, Al Hakem al Mostanser Billah,
commander of the faithful." He was a Caliph who reigned at Cordova, A.D.
961-976."
Another very interesting oblong box is preserved in the same Museum, No.
301-'66. The cover and sides are carved with scroll foliated ornament:
the hinges and clasp are of chased silver inlaid with niello. Round the
sides, immediately below the lid is the following Arabic inscription in
Cufic characters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"In the name of God. This (box) was ordered to be made by Seidat Allah,
the wife of Abdo-r-rahman, prince of the believers. God be merciful and
satisfied with him."
[Illustration: IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
This inscription must allude to Abd er Rahman III. the first Caliph of
Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el Mumenin. The formula "God be
merciful," &c., denotes that he was dead when it was written. He died
A.D. 961. (See woodcut.)
Another casket, undoubtedly the most important in size which is known of
this period, proceeds from Sanguesa, in the province of Navarre, and is
now preserved in the treasury of the cathedral of Pamplona.
This splendid box, hitherto undescribed, is 15 inches long, by 9¼
wide. A woodcut is given opposite. It is completely covered with
carvings in relief, within circular cusped medallions, with figures in
the centres representing different subjects: men seated, hawking, or
struggling with wild beasts, and numerous single figures of lions,
stags, and other animals. The intermediate spaces contain an
ornamentation of leaves and flowers which is accommodated to the
geometrical style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of this box
appears an Arabic inscription in fine Cufic characters.
[Illustration: Arabic]
"In the name of God. The blessing of God, the complete felicity, the
happiness, the fulfilment of the hope of good works, and the adjourning
the fatal period (of death), be with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the
State), Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made by the orders (of
the said Hagib), under the inspection or direction of his chief eunuch,
Nomayr ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave in the year of 395," [A.D.
1005].
In the centre medallion, on the opposite side to the lock, is
represented the standing figure of a man who is attacked by two lions.
He holds on his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an inscription,
with the following religious formula: "There is no God but God," or a
similar one, for the characters are very illegible and confused. In the
centre of this shield may be read [Illustration: Arabic], "made by
Hair," undoubtedly one of the artists who made the box. Another artist's
name may be read with difficulty in a similar inscription which appears
on one of the medallions on the left side: it is written on the thigh of
a stag, which is attacked by a lion [Illustration: Arabic], "it was made
by Obeidat." Three other inscriptions of a similar character appear in
other parts of this box, which probably give the names of other
artists, but I have been unable to decipher them.
[Illustration: MOORISH CASKET. 11TH CENTURY. CATHEDRAL OF PAMPLONA.]
Among other artistic objects in the shrine of the cathedral of Braga, in
Portugal, there is an ivory box of the same period, and the inscription,
which runs round the cover, mentions the same persons:
"There is no God but God, and Mahomad is his prophet. In the name of
God, a blessing, prosperity and fortune for the Hagib Seifo, d. daula,
for this work, which he ordered to be made by the hands of"--here the
inscription has been broken off--"his principal eunuch." (Vide 'Artes e
Letras,' No. 6, 3rd series, p. 94, Lisbon, 1874.)
Both these caskets were made for Hadjeb Abd el Melik, a minister of
Hischem the second.
It is necessary to add to them an ivory diptych, preserved at the
Provincial Museum of Burgos, which, as we find by the following
inscription, was also made for Abder Rahman III, (A.D. 912-961).
[Illustration: Arabic]
"This was ordered to be made by the Iman servant of God Abder Rahman,
prince of believers."
Two other boxes of the same artistic character, belonging to a private
collection, must also be mentioned. They are both cylindrical, and are
terminated by a spherical cover. They measure 7½ inches high, by
4-5/8 wide, and are covered with a profuse and splendid ornamentation of
figures and animals. Round the lid of one them is a band, with the
following inscription in fine Cufic character:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"The blessing of God and his favours, joy, and prosperity, for
Almogueira, son of the Prince of the faithful, whom may God have
forgiven. It was made in the year 357 [A.D. 967]."
Almogueira was the son of the Caliph of Cordova, Abder Rahman III.
On the other may be read in similar characters--
[Illustration: Arabic]
("In the name of God, clement and merciful, blessing")--this part of the
inscription is missing--"and prosperity and happiness for Riyadh ben
Aflah, captain of the superior guard. It was made in the year 359" [A.D.
969].
The style of the objects which we have hitherto described is undoubtedly
Oriental, and we must seek in Persia the origin of this industry. There
is, however, every probability that these seven ivory boxes were made in
Spain by Spanish Arabs, or artists who had settled there from the East.
On all these carvings the names of Spanish historical persons appear,
and it is hardly possible that they were ordered in remote countries,
especially as some of these objects are small and comparatively
unimportant. It must also be borne in mind that we find in contemporary
authors many details on the luxury and magnificence of this period of
the Spanish Arabs, and the great height which the arts and industries
had reached at that time.
The ivory carvings which I have described present all the
characteristics of the Oriental school, which was copied by European
Christian sculptors during the 11th and 12th centuries. We find in
Christian productions of this period, too constantly to require any
further comment, the same geometrical traceries, flowers, leaves,
animals, and birds. The subjects represented on monuments of Christian
art have been erroneously interpreted by modern ecclesiologists who have
endeavoured to demonstrate the symbolism of these figures in a purely
Christian sense with only the unsatisfactory result of checking and
leading astray art students of the Middle Ages. It is of the utmost
importance to go to the primitive sources from which this art is derived
in order to illustrate this important theory. The Oriental school of
sculpture was soon transmitted, either through the influence of the
Spanish Arabs, or by other means, to Christian artists. As an
interesting example of this may be mentioned the shrine which King Dn.
Sancho ordered to be made, A.D. 1033, in which to deposit the bones of
San Millan, still preserved in San Millan de la Cogulla, in the province
of La Rioja, Spain. This fine shrine is 4 feet 6 inches long, by 2 feet
3½ inches high. It is of wood, and covered with gold plates and
inlaid stones and crystals. Between this metal work are placed 22
plaques of ivory carved with subjects representing passages from the
life of the saint, and single figures of the princes, monks, and
benefactors who helped to defray the expense of this work of art. Among
them there are two small figures with the names of Apparitio
Scholastico, Ramirus Rex. These have been generally supposed to be the
artists' names. A sculptor is also represented carving a shield, and
near him is one of his workmen. Underneath these figures ran formerly an
inscription, of which the first part only remains, containing the name
of the artist--"(Magis) tro et Rodolpho filio."
Two other interesting specimens remain of Spanish Moresque art of the
11th century. One is a casket at the South Kensington Museum, No. 10,
66, which Mr. Maskell describes as "richly carved in deep relief with
foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing one another, and forming
larger and smaller circles. The top and each side is a single plaque of
ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back has two panels. On the two
are two animals, like does; a large bird stands on the back of each,
attacking it with his beak. The sloping sides have, in the large
circles, men on horseback, and animals fighting. The intermediate spaces
are completely filled with foliage, and smaller beasts. Similar
subjects are repeated in the circles on the panels forming the lower
sides of the casket, and among them are two groups of men and women
sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on a guitar, another
holding a cup in one hand and a flower in the other." There is no
inscription on this casket, but in one of the medallions on the lid
there is a bust which is carried on the back of a horse, and which is
probably a representation of the prince for whom the casket was made.
The other example of this period is that known as the cross of Don
Fernando, at the Archæological Museum at Madrid. This cross is 20½
inches by 14. On the front is a figure in high relief of Our Lord with
the inscription: IHE. NAZARENVS REX IVDEORVM. In the upper part is
represented the figure of Our Lord at the moment of his Resurrection,
and in the lower a symbolical figure of Adam; both these figures are in
high relief. Underneath may be read in two lines,--
FERDINANDVS REX.
SANCIA REGINA.
At the back of the cross appears in the centre the Lamb of God: in the
four corners the emblems of the Evangelists. Besides these purely
Christian symbols, the ground work is covered with foliage, circles
interlacing each other, figures of animals of different kinds, and men
struggling with wild beasts. The whole of the ornamentation corresponds
to the style of decoration of the moresque objects which I have already
described. King Ferdinand I. died A.D. 1065, his wife Sancha A.D. 1071;
and documents exist proving that in 1063 they gave this interesting work
of art with other artistic objects to the Church of San Isidoro of Leon,
where it remained until 1870, when it was given up by the authorities of
the church to the Museum at Madrid. The following woodcut represents the
back of the cross:--
[Illustration: BACK OF CROSS OF KING FERDINAND I. ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM.
MADRID]
These different specimens represent, in my opinion, the most
satisfactory view of the art industry of ivory carving during the 10th
and 11th centuries. Several other examples of oriental carving in ivory
still exist in Spain in the shrines of different cathedrals; others of
less artistic interest may be seen at the Archæological Museum at
Madrid. These caskets are for the most part not ornamented with carvings
in relief, but are decorated with inscriptions painted in gold and
colours. The most important are:--
A large casket at the Archæological Museum of Madrid, decorated with
painting in red and green, and a fine inscription in Cufic characters.
A similar casket at the same museum, decorated with a design painted in
green, red, and blue; an inscription in cufic letters runs round a band
in the upper part.
[Illustration: Arabic]
"Made by Mohammad Ben Assarag."
An ivory casket at the Real Academia de la Historia at Madrid, with an
ornamentation and inscription painted in the style of the former ones
and the shield of arms of the Kings of Aragon. The inscription
reproduces several Suras of the Koran, and the arms of the house of
Aragon were probably added when the casket came into the possession of
some person belonging to the family.
A casket exists at the Church of Santo Domingo de Silos (province of
Burgos), which merits a special mention on account of what has remained
to us of the inscription.
This casket is 13¼ inches long by 7½ inches wide and high. It is
ornamented in part with foliage and flowers in the moresque style,
alternating with hunting subjects, men shooting with bows and arrows,
riding upon lions, fantastic animals and leopards mounted on the back of
bulls. The work is inferior in art to the caskets at Pamplona and South
Kensington. On a band which runs round the four sides of the lid is an
inscription in Cufic characters, of which unfortunately the two longer
sides have been destroyed, and have been substituted at a very early
period by bands of cloisonné enamel, evidently belonging to other
caskets. On the two sides an inscription remains, upon which may be read
the year Hegira 417 (A.D. 1026); the name of the artist who carved it,
Mohammad Ibn Zeiyan, and the two first letters of the town in which it
was made (probably Cuenca)
[Illustration: Arabic]
".....for its owner (may God lengthen his days.) It was made in the town
of Cu[enca] in the year 417. (A.D. 1025.) By Mohammad--ibn Zeiyan, his
servant. May God glorify him."
In the geography of Edrisi, an Oriental author who describes Spain in
the beginning of the 12th century, only two names of towns are mentioned
which agree with this inscription, Coria and Cuenca [Illustration:
Arabic]. The first of these towns was always a less important centre
than Cuenca. Edrisi praises the woollen fabrics made at Cuenca, and
there is every probability that this casket was carved there, as there
is also an ivory monstrance at the cathedral of Perpiñan, which has
likewise an inscription in Cufic characters, stating it was made for the
Hageb Ismail.
[Illustration: Arabic]
"The blessing of God. Made at the town of Cuenca, for the Hageb Ismail."
Villanueva in his "Viage por España," Vol. 5, p. 144, mentions two large
ivory caskets with Cufic inscriptions which still exist at the cathedral
of Tortosa, Cataluña.
Another of a similar description is preserved in the Treasury of the
cathedral of Bayeux.
This casket is, as M. André tells us in a pamphlet on "Antiquites Arabes
de la Normandie," Rennes, 1869, O^{m} 42 L. by O^{m} 28 W. and 13 H. It
is decorated with bands of enamelled metal, and covered with a fine
running design of peacocks and other birds. Round the lock runs the
following inscription in Cufic characters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"In the name of God, clement, merciful, the blessing and His benefits
complete."
These ivory caskets were made originally to hold perfumes, jewels, or
precious stones. For besides the Arabic inscriptions which allude to
this, we find the idea distinctly expressed in an inscription in Cufic
letters on a casket which came from Cordova belonging to the Caliphate.
This casket was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1867; I do not know
where it is at present.
It appears at first sight difficult to explain why the Spanish Moors
decorated these objects with the representations of animated beings,
against the precepts of the Koran, and the reason why these objects of
undoubtedly Moorish origin have been preserved until the present day in
the treasuries of Spanish cathedrals. The prohibition of the Koran to
represent animated beings is, however, not so strict as is generally
supposed; it is reduced to the following sentences. "O Believers! Wine
and games of chance, and statues and the divining arrows, are only an
abomination of Satan's work! Avoid them that ye may prosper." [Sura v.
ver. 22.] Later commentators on the Koran have added the severest
prohibitions against painters and artists who represented animated
beings, but to very little effect, and we find in contemporary authors
numerous details of the specimens of sculptures and paintings which
were in the houses of Moorish magnates. Coins, textile fabrics,
furniture, and other objects which have reached us, leave no doubt that
the representations of animated beings were constantly used by the
Spanish and Eastern Arabs from the first century of the Hegira.
The fact that these Moorish caskets should have been used for preserving
the relics of saints in Spanish churches, is explained by the custom
common in the middle ages in Spain and other countries, of offering war
spoils and treasures brought from long and distant peregrinations, and
even objects of natural history, to the different churches. Alligators
may still be seen hanging in churches in Seville, Toledo, Valencia, etc.
The Moors did the same thing: the famous warrior Almanssor, the minister
of Hischem II. at the end of the 10th century, carried off the bells
from the cathedral of Cordova, and had them turned into lamps and used
at the mosque of Cordova. We find in ancient writers frequent mention of
the custom of Spanish Christians of offering these ivory caskets to the
churches, as trophies taken in their warfares with the Moors. The
ecclesiastical authorities probably placed them at the time with other
valuable objects in the treasuries of the churches, filling them with
relics, for such is the manner in which they are found; they have
remained untouched from the earliest times and are constantly mentioned
in local histories of the cathedrals. We must not suppose that the
ecclesiastical authorities ignored their Mohamedan origin, for we find
at every step during the middle ages the names of priests who knew and
interpreted the Arabic language. The principal reason why these objects
of Oriental art have been preserved, is, that the hatred of race and
belief between Moors and Christians was by no means as great as has been
supposed by modern authors, and certainly never went so far as to
destroy objects of industrial and artistic interest. In the year A.D.
1275, certain privileges were granted to Moorish workmen who were set
apart and ordered to repair the Mosque at Cordova, at that time already
converted into a christian cathedral. During the 13th, 14th and 15th
centuries a large number of parish churches were built in Spain in the
Moorish style, either by Oriental architects, or Spaniards who had
adopted their architecture, and numerous examples might be given of
inscriptions and details of ornamentation which confirm most fully these
theories.
Objects of ivory carvings of the middle ages, posterior to the 12th
century, are frequently met with in Spain. Among the most remarkable is
the Virgin de las Batallas, in the cathedral of Seville. This image
belonged to St. Ferdinand, early in the 13th century, and the tradition
exists that it was carried on the king's saddle in battle. The fine
ivory diptychs at the Escorial and Archæological Museum at Madrid must
also be mentioned, and a large number of ivory caskets, and fragments,
existing in the same Museum and in different Spanish churches.
Notwithstanding, however, the numerous examples of ivory carvings which
are still to be met with in Spanish churches and cathedrals, I find no
information which enables us to affirm that this artistic industry
existed in Spain during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. We find
artists mentioned who carved in wood, iron, and silver work, and
numerous details of their work, but ivory carvers are never mentioned,
if any existed, their number must have been comparatively small; and I
am led, therefore, to suppose that the specimens existing in Spain were
imported from Italy or France, and for this reason it is necessary to
end at the Renaissance the history of ivory carving in Spain.
The inlaid ivory work so constantly used in Spanish furniture of the
16th and 17th centuries, cannot be included in this notice on ivory
carvers, owing to its limited character, and the use to which it was
employed. One branch of sculpture must be mentioned representing sacred
images, which were carved in the 16th and 17th centuries by natives of
the Philippine Islands or the Portuguese Colonies. They are frequently
met with in Spain, and are remarkable for their bad and careless
modelling, a mannered unartistic style, combined with the exaggerated
rigidity so common in Chinese and Indian productions. As examples of
this style of art may be mentioned the representations of St. Erasmus,
and the Immaculate Conception (Nos. 9069, '63, 183, '64), in the South
Kensington Museum.
POTTERY AND PORCELAIN.
Roman and Visigothic.--Hispano Moresque earthenware.--Painted,
glazed and lustred pottery.--Terra-cotta.--_Azulejos_ (Tile
decorations).--Pottery made at Talavera, Valencia, Seville, Triana,
Zamora, Puente del Arzobispo.--Unglazed pottery.--Bucaros.--Alcora
ware and porcelain.--Buen Retiro porcelain.
ROMAN AND VISIGOTHIC.
The productions of Ceramic Art have constituted from the earliest times
a very important industry in Spain. Fragments of vases of
greyish-coloured paste, ornamented with bands or zones, are constantly
found in excavations in different localities. It cannot, however, be
determined whether they were importations, or imitations made in the
Spanish Peninsula. The earliest mention which we find of this industry
in Spain is in Pliny (Lib. xxx., cap. xii., line 19, Edition of Paris,
1526-7), who, in praising vases of pottery made in different countries,
mentions those of Saguntum (Murviedro) near Valencia. An epigram by
Juvenal (Sat. v. xxix.), and several by Martial (iv. 45, viii. 6, xiv.
108) on the same subject, prove that the pottery from the eastern coast
of the Mediterranean was very famous at that time.
Count Lumiares, in his work on pottery of Saguntum ("Barros Saguntinos,"
Valencia, 1779, 8vo), mentions having examined more than 1500 specimens
of pottery of different kinds, which he classifies in four groups: grey
pottery, cream-coloured pottery, yellow pottery and red glazed ware,
with ornamentation in relief (Samian ware); this ornamentation
constitutes, in my opinion, the only distinctive feature of the pottery
made at Saguntum.
Remains of this pottery are very frequently found in the ruins of former
Roman cities; a much larger number of specimens of all kinds have
appeared since Count Lumiares wrote his book, none however differ
materially from the terra-cottas of the Roman period found in Italy, or
in other countries. Some of the marks are identical with those given by
Birch and several authors who have written on Roman pottery; hence it
would appear that this industry was imported into Spain, or the forms
and marks copied there to a very large extent.
[Illustration: SAMIAN BOWL.]
The number of inscriptions and potters' marks met with on the vases and
fragments found in Spain is very great. Students who take a special
interest in this subject will find full details in Dr. Emile Hübner's
important work, "Inscrip. Hispaniæ Latinæ," Berlin, 1869. This writer
has collected the greatest number of inscriptions. He mentions 43 which
appear on bricks, 36 on vases and drinking vessels, 63 on lamps, 579 on
vases of red pottery, 115 inscriptions of doubtful reading, 21 which are
incomplete, and 56 written by hand. He gives us, besides, other marks
without inscriptions, representing hands, horses, rabbits, butterflies,
bees, flowers, etc. In an inedited history of the ancient city of
Emporion (Cataluña) [MS., Acad. of Hist., Madrid], the author, Dr.
Joaquin Botet y Sisó, has collected 198 potters' marks. A large number
are still unpublished which have been met with on fragments of pottery
found in Extremadura and Andalucia; we may therefore confidently assert
that the number amounts to upwards of 1500.
During the Visigothic monarchy, after the downfall of the Roman empire,
which lasted until the invasion of the Arabs in the 8th century, the
same style of ceramic industry, copied from the Romans, continued in
Spain. No special study has been made of the pottery of this epoch, but,
judging by the large amount of fragments of vessels for domestic use,
which are constantly found in ruins of the Visigothic period, there can
be no doubt that pottery continued to be manufactured in Spain. What San
Isidoro, who died in 636, says in his "Etimologies, Book xx.," confirms
this opinion, and undoubtedly refers to vessels similar to those of the
Roman period. (_De vasis Escariis, potoriis vinariis et aquariis,
oleariis, coquinariis et luminariorum._)
After the Roman domination and Visigothic monarchy, ceramic art in Spain
may be divided into the following groups:--
1st. Objects imported by the Moors into Spain; these consist of remains
of pottery belonging to the first period of their invasion; lustred
wares, manufactured in the Peninsula, which attained great importance
during the Middle Ages, and still continue to be made in the present
day; terra-cottas, and green and white glazed pottery; and lastly tiles,
_azulejos_, of bright colours in the Moorish style.
2nd. Pottery of a distinct Italian style, made principally at Talavera;
porous, unglazed, coloured pottery, _bucaros_; white, unglazed pottery,
made at Andujar and La Rambla.
3rd. Pottery and porcelain made at Alcora, and the porcelain manufactory
of Buen Retiro, near Madrid.
HISPANO MORESQUE EARTHENWARE.
The Spanish Peninsula was invaded by the Arabs about the year 711 A.D.,
and they absorbed for several centuries the industries of the country.
Ceramic Art attained great importance in their hands during the Middle
Ages and Renaissance period, for even while the pottery works
established at Talavera, Seville, and other localities, manufactured
pottery to a very great extent, which was chiefly imitated from Italian
models, the Moorish style still continued, and has never been
interrupted in the province of Valencia down to the present day.
The Arabs had as early as the beginning of the 12th century, if not even
before, established the industry of metallic-lustred pottery in Spain.
It remains to be seen what were the leading characteristics of the
pottery of the period of the greatest importance of the Spanish Moors
from the 8th to the 11th century.
Cordova, the capital of the independent Caliphs of Damascus, was the
centre from which works of art of all kinds of a high order were largely
exported. The ruins of the palaces at Medina Az zahra have, it is deeply
to be regretted, never been excavated, and Granada is the only locality
where some fragments of Moorish pottery may be studied belonging to this
time.
Granada was almost unknown in the 8th century; the ancient Roman town of
Illiberis, about six miles from the present site of Granada, had alone
any importance: it was one of the bishoprics of Andalucia. The Arabs
first settled in the remains of the Roman city: in the 10th century they
removed to the spot occupied by the present town, and Illiberis was then
abandoned. Roman remains are frequently found at Illiberis, as are also
vestiges of the Moorish occupation, chiefly consisting of objects in
bronze and fragments of pottery. These specimens are decorated with
arabesques in green and black on a whitish ground. Some interesting
examples may be studied at the small _Museo Provincial_ at Granada,
which certainly belong to the 10th or beginning of the 11th century. One
of these fragments has unreadable Arabic letters; another is decorated
with a stag; the most remarkable is a plate fourteen inches in diameter,
in the centre of which is represented a falcon on a horse's back. The
form and every detail of the horse, the plaited tail, ending in the
form of a trident, all are identical with one on which is mounted a man
holding a hawk in his hand, carved on the ivory casket described on page
133 as dated 359 of the hegira (A.D. 969), and probably of Cordovese
manufacture. Both these objects possess a very decided Persian
character, and undoubtedly belong to the date ascribed; for besides the
circumstance of their having been found in ruins of this period, the
shape of the horse is conclusive; its character changes soon after, as
we find in the miniatures of the MS. of the 13th century at the Bib.
Nationale de Paris, containing the "Séances de Hariri." It is almost
impossible to assert whether this pottery was made in, or imported into
Spain. One argument in favour of its Spanish-Moorish origin is that the
glaze and paste are similar to pottery which we know was manufactured at
Granada. The common earthenware proceeding from that locality is
decorated in much the same manner.
Soon after the fall of the Caliphate, metallic-lustred ware was made in
Spain: Edrisi, the most remarkable Arabic geographer of the Middle Ages,
in describing Calatayud, says: "Here the gold-coloured pottery is made
which is exported to all countries." ("Descrip. de l'Afrique et de
l'Espagne," Leyde, 1866.) Edrisi was born in the year 1100. He studied
at Cordova, and finished writing his book in 1154. The circumstance of
this pottery being mentioned in the 12th century as excellent enough for
exportation, certainly makes it appear probable that the _fabrique_
already existed at an earlier date, especially when we bear in mind that
Calatayud was conquered in the year 1120 by the Christians, and it is
impossible to suppose that they established an Oriental industry there
which was foreign to their culture, or to the contemporary Christian
art. This text of Edrisi's has hitherto not been properly interpreted.
In Jauber's translation (Edrisi, Paris, 1836-40), he interprets the word
_guidar_, [Illustration: Arabic], _lutum purum_ of potters, as the name
of a gilt textile, perhaps because in his time it was difficult to
believe in the existence of metallic-lustred pottery. In the Edit. of
Leyden, by Messrs. Dozy and Goeje, the sense of the word is properly
given; indeed, Jauber himself translates it by _porcelain_ in the
chapter of this volume which refers to China.
This text of Edrisi's has never yet been quoted by writers on Ceramic
Art; but once known it is impossible for a moment to state that the
earliest manufacture of Moorish lustred ware was that at Malaga, an
opinion which has been supported hitherto on the quotation from Ben
Batutah's works, which will be given later on. I regret to have found no
other allusion to the lustred ware of Aragon until the 10th century. No
mention is made of it in the geographical texts published by Juynboll,
Al Makkari, or other Arabic writers. From what we know of Aragon in the
16th century, it was a great centre of this industry, and its
productions rivalled those of Valencia and Andalucia.
The next text which alludes to this manufacture is given by Ben Batutah,
a celebrated traveller, who, after travelling for twenty years in the
East, went from Tangiers to Granada, from 1349 to 1351. Passing by
Malaga, he says: "At Malaga, the fine golden pottery is made which is
exported to the furthermost countries." ("Voy. d'Ibn Batoutah," Paris,
1853-58, vol. iv. p. 367.) This text has been constantly reproduced and
commented upon, since Baron Charles Davillier first drew attention to it
in his interesting little _brochure_ on "Faïences Hispano-Moresques."
The next time I find lustred pottery mentioned is in the 15th century.
Eximenus, in his "Regiment de la cosa publica," Valencia, 1499, in
speaking of the excellent things made in the kingdom of Valencia, says:
"The twenty-seventh excellent thing is that some artificial objects are
made there which bring great renown to the country, for they are
excellent and beautiful, and are now to be found in other localities ...
but above all is the beauty of the gold pottery so splendidly painted at
Manises, which enamours everyone so much, that the Pope, and the
cardinals, and the princes of the world obtain it by special favour,
and are astonished that such excellent and noble works can be made of
earth."
Lustred pottery had already attained great importance in Aragon early in
the 16th century. We find in a deed granted at Calatayud in 1507, that
"Muhamed ben Suleyman Attaalab, an inhabitant of the suburb of the Moors
at Calatayud, and an artificer of lustred golden earthenware, engaged
himself with Abdallah Alfoquey of the same locality, to teach him the
said industry, in the space of four years and a half, from the date of
the deed." ("Estado social de los mudejares de Castilla, by Fernandez y
Gonzalez," Madrid 1866, p. 437.) At Muel, a village in the province of
Aragon near Zaragoza, this industry existed to a great extent in 1585.
In the travels of Henrique Cock ("Relacion del viage hecho por Felipe
II. en 1585," por Henrique Cock, publicado por Morel Fatio y Rodriguez
Villa, Madrid, 1876,) we find the following interesting details of the
manner in which this pottery was made, p. 30:--
"Almost all the inhabitants of this village are potters, and all the
earthenware sold at Zaragoza is manufactured in the following manner.
First the vessels are fashioned of a certain ingredient the earth
furnishes them in that locality, in the shape they may require. Once
made, they bake them in an oven fitted for the purpose. They then remove
them to varnish with white varnish and polish them, and afterwards make
a wash of certain materials in the following manner: twenty-five pounds,
_one arroba_, of lead, with which they mix three or four pounds of tin,
and as many pounds of a certain sand which is to be found there. All
these ingredients are mixed into a paste like ice; it is broken into
small pieces and pounded like flour, and kept by them in powder. This
powder is mixed with water, the dishes are passed through it, and they
are rebaked in the oven, and keep their lustre. Afterwards, in order
that the pottery may be gilt, they take very strong vinegar, mixed with
about two reales (a small coin equivalent to 6_d._) of silver in powder,
vermilion, and red ochre, and a little wire. When all is mixed
together, they paint with a feather on the dishes any decoration they
may like, rebake them, and then they remain gold-coloured for ever. This
was told me by the potters themselves."
But nothing can be compared in exactitude to the following receipt of
the manner of preparing this lustred ware, which I was fortunate enough
to find in a manuscript in the British Museum. (Egerton, No. 507, MS.
fol. 102).
Count Florida Blanca wishing in 1785 to establish at Madrid a
manufactory of metallic-lustred ware, had the following report on the
actual state of the industry sent to him from Manises with full details
of the manner in which it was required to be carried out.
"After the pottery is baked, it is varnished with white and blue, the
only colours used besides the gold lustre; the vessels are again baked;
if the objects are to be painted with gold colour, this can only be put
on the white varnish, after they have gone twice through the oven. The
vessels are then painted with the said gold colour and are baked a third
time, with only dry rosemary for fuel.
"The white varnish used is composed of lead and tin, which are melted
together in an oven made on purpose; after these materials are
sufficiently melted, they become like earth, and when in this state the
mixture is removed and mixed with an equal quantity in weight of sand:
fine salt is added to it, it is boiled again, and when cold, pounded
into powder. The only sand which can be used is from a cave at
Benalguacil, three leagues from Manises. In order that the varnish
should be fine, for every _arroba_, 25 pounds of lead, 6 to 12 ounces of
tin must be added, and half a bushel of fine-powered salt: if a coarse
kind is required, it is sufficient to add a very small quantity of tin,
and three or four _cuartos_ worth of salt, which in this case must be
added when the ingredient is ready for varnishing the vessel.
"Five ingredients enter into the composition of the gold colour:
copper, which is better the older it is; silver, as old as possible;
sulphur; red ochre, and strong vinegar, which are mixed in the following
proportions: of copper three ounces, of red ochre twelve ounces, of
silver one _peseta_ (about a shilling), sulphur three ounces, vinegar a
quart; three pounds (of twelve ounces) of the earth or scoriæ, which is
left after this pottery is painted with the gold colour, is added to the
other ingredients.
"They are mixed in the following manner: a small portion of sulphur in
powder is put into a casserole with two small bits of copper, between
them a coin of one silver _peseta_; the rest of the sulphur and copper
is then added to it. When this casserole is ready, it is placed on the
fire, and is made to boil until the sulphur is consumed, which is
evident when no flame issues from it. The preparation is then taken from
the fire, and when cold is pounded very fine; the red ochre and scoriæ
are then added to it; it is mixed up by hand and again pounded into
powder. The preparation is placed in a basin and mixed with enough water
to make a sufficient paste to stick on the sides of the basin; the
mixture is then rubbed on the vessel with a stick; it is therefore
indispensable that the water should be added very gradually until the
mixture is in the proper state.
"The basin ready prepared must be placed in an oven for six hours. At
Manises it is customary to do so when the vessels of common pottery are
baked; after this the mixture is scratched off the sides of the basin
with some iron instrument; it is then removed from there and broken up
into small pieces, which are pounded fine in a hand-mortar with the
quantity of vinegar already mentioned, and after having been well ground
and pounded together for two hours the mixture is ready for decorating.
It is well to observe that the quantity of varnish and gold-coloured
mixture which is required for every object can only be ascertained by
practice."
Excellent lustred ware was made at Murcia, and in several villages of
the province of Valencia; a good example exists of this pottery at the
museum (see woodcut); none, however, was so important as the manufactory
of Manises. Diago, in his "Anales del reyno de Valencia, 1613-40,"
repeats the words of Eximeno: "That the pottery made at Valencia is
painted and gilt with so much art, that it has enamoured every one, so
much so that the pope, the cardinals, and princes send for it,
astonished that things of such beauty can be made of earth."
[Illustration: PLATEAU, PROBABLY OF VALENCIA. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
This and similar texts relating to the exportation of Spanish pottery
explains the fact of these specimens being so frequently met with in
Italy. Pottery of a dark copper-coloured lustre is made at the present
time at Manises, and the imitations and forgeries to be met with at the
dealers' shops in Madrid are made in that locality.
I have mentioned the different historical texts which allude to this
industry, and the technical receipts showing the ingredients employed to
give the lustre. It is now no longer possible to doubt that this pottery
came originally from the East. This opinion has gained ground of late
years; for among the objects discovered by Sir Henry Layard at Nineveh,
and in more recent excavations in Ephesus and Asia Minor, fragments of
pottery have been found with metallic lustre. This and other important
examples of artistic culture undoubtedly arose in Persia. No examples
which may be mentioned can give a better or more distinct idea of this
than a comparison between the Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares at the
South Kensington Museum. The technical proceedings and effect produced
by the metallic lustre on a white ground, with touches here and there of
blue, are exactly the same in both cases. The principal difference
consists in a greater richness and variety of ornamentation which we
find in the specimens brought from Persia, especially those covered with
a turquoise blue lustre, those of a dark blue and metallic lustre, and
those on which gold is applied _en froid_, of which I know no similar
examples in Spain. It is possible they may have existed in the mosques,
but no traces remain of mosques built by the Spanish Moors during the
13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. The mosques at Cordova and Toledo which
still exist are of an earlier date. If we judge by the mosque of Amru at
Cairo, and others of the same early period, tile decorations were not
used in their ornamentation, and it appears probable that this industry
only became important after the 10th century. The similarity of objects
used in Spain and Persia is constantly observed by travellers in that
country. Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, who was sent there as ambassador from
the King of Castille from 1403 to 1406, gives a most interesting
description of tile decoration, by which we find they were used in the
same manner as in Spain. ("Historia del gran Tamorlan," Seville, 1582,
fol.) Another Spanish traveller, Silva de Figueroa, in a MS. belonging
to Don Pascual de Gayangos, in describing his embassy to Persia in 1618
mentions the manner in which these tiles were used. I do not quote from
many other travellers, for their remarks are hardly so valuable as those
of Spaniards, who were accustomed to see these objects in their native
country.
After mentioning the historical sources from which I have traced the
manufactory of Hispano-Moresque lustred ware in Spain, it is advisable
to enumerate the most important examples which have reached us belonging
to the 14th century, or to an earlier date.
The fine vase at the Alhambra, Granada. (See woodcut.)
A vase of the same character which exists at the Archæological Museum of
Madrid.
A vase of the same kind, which belonged to the painter, Mariano Fortuny,
and which was sold at the sale of his art objects in Paris, April 30th,
1875. (_Vide_ "Atelier de Fortuny," Paris, 1875.)
A fragment of another vase, which belonged also to Fortuny, and was sold
at the same time.
A fragment of a vase at the Museo of Granada; it is similar to the
others in form and size, but without metallic lustre.
A large plaque, or _azulejo_, which belonged also to Fortuny.
The _azulejos_, or tile decorations of the house known by the name of
Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo at Granada.
Several dishes and bowls at the Kensington, Madrid, and Cluny Museums,
which belong to this period.
Baron Charles Davillier in his article on Hispano-Moresque lustred ware,
in "Atelier de Fortuny," Paris, 1875, says that interesting specimens of
this pottery exist also at the Museum of Stockholm, and the Cathedral
of Mezzara in Sicily, but that he had not had the opportunity of
studying them.
[Illustration: MOORISH VASE AT THE ALHAMBRA.]
All these objects have hitherto been considered to have proceeded from
Malaga, writers on ceramic art derived their evidence from the text
already mentioned, given in Ben Batutah's travels, the only one which
alluded to the existence of this industry in Spain before the 15th
century; but since I have found in Edrisi's Geography a manufacture
mentioned of lustred pottery which existed at Calatayud at the beginning
of the 12th century, that is to say, more than _two centuries_ earlier
than Ben Batutah's travels, I consider it extremely difficult to
classify them.
The fine vase at the Alhambra is 4 feet 5½ inches high by 8 feet
2½ inches in circumference. It is decorated in the centre with two
antelopes, and a series of elegant traceries of knots, stems, and leaves
which cover the body of the vase. The colours employed are brown and
blue on a yellow ground, the metallic lustre is extremely pale, of a
mother-of-pearl colour. The following inscriptions are repeated all over
the vase in African characters:
[Illustration: Arabic
Felicity and Fortune.]
[Illustration: Arabic
Permanent prosperity.]
A similar vase was at the Alhambra until the beginning of the present
century; it disappeared at that time, and its present whereabouts is
unknown. Drawings exist of this vase which have been published in
Lozano's "Ant. Arab. de España," and Murphy's Atlas of "Arabian Ant. of
Spain."
The fine vase at the Museo Arq. of Madrid is similar in style. It has
been reproduced in a chromo-lithograph in Mus. Esp. de Ant. VI. p. 435.
Both these vases are decorated with colours which are disposed in quite
a distinct manner to all the other specimens of this pottery hitherto
known. The vase at Granada is ornamented in the centre with two
antelopes, and from drawings which have reached us of the companion
vase, we find birds are introduced in the decoration of the handles.
Animals combined with ornamentation are never met with in the immense
number of Moorish traceries of all kinds which may be studied at
Granada. This circumstance has induced me to consider these objects to
have been brought from Persia, for Ben Batutah tells us that several
Persians of importance had settled at Granada; and it is highly
probable that a direct communication existed between these two
countries. It is fair, however, to mention a detail which is against
this argument. The arms of the Moorish kings of Granada appear on the
vase which has disappeared from Granada, and although it may have been
ordered from Persia, it is also possible that it was made in the
province of Andalucia.
The vase which belonged to Fortuny, and the large _azulejo_, Nos. 42, 44
(_vide_ "Atelier de Fortuny"), are very different in style. They have no
colours, and their metallic lustre is very low in tone, a common
circumstance in Hispano-Moorish pottery. The following inscription,
[Illustration: Arabic]
[Illustration: TILE PROBABLY FROM THE ALHAMBRA; FORMERLY IN THE MARRYAT
COLLECTION.]
"Glory to Our Lord the Sultan Abul Hajaj," [A.D. 1333-1354.] occurs on
this tile, an inscription very frequently met with also on the walls of
the Alhambra. Abul Hajaj carried out works of restoration to a very
large extent at the Palace. The two large tiles on either side of the
entrance-door of the Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo at Granada, although
not so fine as the vase and tile which belonged to Fortuny, are similar
in general character, and it is safe therefore to consider these
objects, and others of a similar kind, to have proceeded from the
manufacture of Malaga mentioned by Ben Batutah, or other pottery works
of the same kind, which probably existed at that time in the province of
Granada.
Metallic-lustred dishes have at times an even surface without
ornamentation in relief, and sometimes are ornamented with ribs and
convex dots, which appear to suggest that they are meant to imitate the
structure of nails, bars, or other work common to metal vessels, in the
manner of Etruscan vases.
The finest specimens of Hispano-Moresque ware at the Kensington Museum
are--
No. 8968-'63. A vase which belonged to the Soulages Collection. Mr.
Fortnum, in his "Majolica, Hispano-Moresco, Persian, Damascus and
Rhodian Wares, at the Kensington Museum," London, 1873, describes this
vase as spherical on a trumpet-shaped base, the neck of elongated funnel
form, flanked by two large wing-shaped handles perforated with circular
holes. The surface, except the mouldings, is entirely covered with a
diaper-pattern of ivory or briony leaves, tendrils and small flowers in
brownish lustre, and blue on the white ground. Spanish. 14th or 15th
century. (See woodcut.)
No. 486-'64. Bowl, funnel-shaped, with representation of a ship in full
sail, with the royal arms of Portugal, 15th century.
The following are also especially worthy of mention:--
No. 7659-'62. Bowl and cover, painted with a scroll diaper in alternate
compartments of gold lustre and blue, the cover surmounted by a
cupola-shaped ornament in gold lustre. 16th century.
[Illustration: VASE DIAPERED WITH IVY OR BRYONY IN GOLDEN LUSTRE.
HISPANO-MORESCO, 14TH OR 15TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
No. 489-'64. Plateau with lustred arabesque ornaments in compartments.
In the centre are two simulated Arabic inscriptions. 15th century.
[Illustration: PLATEAU, DIAPERED AND WITH RAISED RIBS AND STUDS, IN BLUE
AND GOLDEN LUSTRE. THE ARMS OF LEON, CASTILE, AND ARAGON.
HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
No. 1680-'55. Plateau, gold shield in the centre, with the arms of Leon,
Castille, and Aragon. The diapered ground is curiously ribbed, and
dotted with raised studs. (See woodcut.)
No. 243-'53. Plateau, in the centre an escutcheon of arms of Aragon,
Leon, and Castile. (See woodcut.)
[Illustration: SALVER, DIAPERED IN GOLDEN LUSTRE, WITH THE SHIELD OF
ARAGON, LEON, AND CASTILE. HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH
KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
No. 104-'69. Vase, with shield of arms, seemingly of Sicily and
Portugal.
Specimens of a later date are distinguished by the redness of the
lustre, such as No. 327-'66, a bowl, with feather-like ornament in the
centre; Nos. 326-'66 and 328-'66 are good examples of this lustred ware
of the last and early present century made at Manises, Valencia.
It is almost impossible to classify the existing specimens of
Hispano-Moresque pottery. A few examples are marked with the monogram of
Manises, or possess some special sign, such as the Eagle of St. John,
which would make it appear they were made in the province of Valencia,
but as the texts from ancient authors only praise this pottery and give
no details of its general characteristics, it is very difficult to
assign any given specimens to the manufactories of Aragon and Valencia.
The receipts which I have given prove that the ingredients used were the
same, the modification in lustre was owing to the different combinations
of silver and copper. The system hitherto adopted of classifying this
ware by the localities in which it has been purchased is not a safe one,
unless borne out by further evidence. All that can be done at the
present time is to point out the oldest specimens, and probable period
of their manufacture. As a general rule the finest specimens are also
the oldest, for this industry decayed after the Moors were expelled from
Spain, and Italian pottery was imported into that country in the 16th
century.
The opinion which has been so generally accepted that gold lustred
pottery was made and exported from the Balearic Islands has been
contradicted by D^{n}. Alvaro Campaner y Fuertes in a letter addressed to
Baron Davillier which appeared in the "Museo Balear," Palma, 1875, in
which he refutes the Baron's arguments on the pottery which he supposes
to have come from that locality.
TERRA COTTAS.--_AZULEJOS_, OR WALL DECORATIONS OF
TILES.--EARTHENWARE.--BUCAROS AND UNGLAZED POTTERY.
The earliest historical notice which I have met with of Terracottas is
in a grant made in A.D. 1222, by King Don Fernando el Santo, in favour
of the manufacturers of bricks or tiles at Talavera (M. S. Bibl.
Nacional Madrid, Dd. 114, p. 17), and another document of a similar kind
by his son, King Don Alonso el Sabio A.D. 1281, in favour of the
Cathedral of Cordova, "that no pottery works should be allowed inside
the town, unless they were established in the same manner as in the time
of the Moors." (Mem. Hist. Español, t. ii. p. 45). Although this
information is not of great importance, it enables us to infer that in
the 13th century an industry existed in Spain which was closely
connected with pottery. Baron Davillier mentions a privilege granted by
King D^{n}. Jaime de Aragon to the inhabitants of Jativa, province of
Valencia, in which he commands, "that any master potter who made jars,
pots, pans, tiles, and bricks, should pay a tribute of one _besant_
yearly for each oven, and be permitted to carry out his industry with no
other obligation or service." (Col. Doc. Ineditos, vol. xviii. p. 67.)
The details concerning this industry in Cataluña are more interesting;
especially on account of the references given to the marks of the
objects proceeding from this manufacture. The potters, who were known by
the generic name of _olleros_ sent, in 1257, two individuals to form
part of the town council. They formed at that time a guild; in 1314 they
agree in their regulations as to the mark to be adopted for their
pottery, and the actual spot is mentioned on which every potter was to
stamp his wares. This stamp was ordered to be very visible, and
instructions are given as to the quality of the clay, and its
manipulation, in order to produce pottery of a first-class order. We
find statutes in this sense up to 1355. But we cannot find in the "Libro
de Ordenanzas" of the potter's guild that any laws existed touching the
technical details of this manufacture; most of the regulations refer to
the management of the guild from 1304, which was composed of potters,
bricklayers, jar-makers, and manufacturers of pottery for domestic
purposes of Barcelona. (Capmany, Memorias Historicas, 1779-92, vol. i.
part 3, p. 69.)
[Illustration: WINE JAR--"TINAJA." SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
These references are not, however, sufficient to identify the kind of
pottery made at that time in Cataluña. It is highly probable that
lustred ware was also made there to a great extent, not only because it
was the most characteristic produce of the Peninsula, but also because
this ware was exported to a great extent, and highly esteemed.
The most important examples of Spanish terra-cotta which have reached us
are _tinajas_, large jars for holding wine and oil.
One of the best _tinajas_ which I know is at the South Kensington
Museum, No. 330-'66. (See woodcut.) It is a wine jar, amphora-shaped,
and ornamented with incised pattern of vine leaves, and stamped diaper
of a Gothic character. This and similar specimens have always been found
in Andalusia and the province of Toledo, and hence we may infer that the
chief centres of this industry existed at Toledo and Seville. They
continue to be made there, and are used for the same purposes as in the
Middle Ages, for keeping stores of wine, oil, meat, grain, etc.
Belonging to this section of objects of a large size, are some specimens
of glazed earthenware made for brims of wells. I only know four or five
examples in the local museums of Toledo and Cordova; the font of the
church of San Salvador, Toledo, belongs also to the same pottery. The
brim of a well, at the South Kensington Museum, No. 1763-'71, is of the
same manufacture. It was bought at Toledo for three guineas at a
shoemaker's shop. It is made of glazed white and green earthenware, with
ornamental Cufic characters in high relief all round, which appear to be
of the 14th century (see woodcut on next page). The inscription, which
is repeated, is imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the words:
[Illustration: Arabic
"The power, the excellence, and the peace."]
There is no difficulty in affirming that this form of earthenware was
made at Toledo, for Marineo Siculo, in his interesting volume treating
of "De las Cosas Memorables de España," Alcala, 1539, says, "much coarse
green and white pottery is made at Toledo."
[Illustration: BRIM OF WELL FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
The manufacture of tiles, as was the case with so many other industries
in Spain, was imported by the Arabs. In the Middle Ages it attained
great importance, and has never ceased in Spain up to the present day.
The earliest tiles (_azulejos_) made in Spain are composed of small
pieces let into the wall, forming geometrical patterns. The proceeding
is similar to that employed by the workers of Byzantine mosaic,--tile
decoration undoubtedly took the place of this mosaic work in Moorish
buildings. It is difficult to fix the precise period when they were
first made, but it must have been posterior to the 10th century, when
Moorish architecture underwent a radical change in its system of
decoration. The oldest tiles which exist in Spain are at the Palace of
the Alhambra, Granada. They belong to the 14th century. The great
variety of their design may be seen in Owen Jones' "Plans and elevations
of the Alhambra," London, fol. 1842, and the fine work published by the
Spanish government, "Monumentos Arquitectonicos." We can judge of the
style adopted by two interesting fragments, both of which came from the
Alhambra, No. 1104-'53, No. 324-'64, South Kensington Museum.
The earliest mention which I have found of this manufacture occurs in a
letter from Doña Juana de Mendoza, the wife of the Almirante de
Castilla, which is addressed to the lady abbess of the nunnery of Santo
Domingo at Toledo. She begs that a large number of "azulejos" of
different colours, black, white, yellow, and green should be sent to
her. She alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and says she was
expecting a master potter from Seville to place these tiles in their
proper places. This shows us that it was only in the province of
Andalusia that the art was known of cutting these tiles into geometrical
sections and mosaic patterns. This letter is not dated, but it is bound
up with other documents of 1422, and evidence exists to prove that both
the Almirante and his wife were dead in 1431. The locality for which the
tiles were required was probably Palencia; the convent of Santa Clara
was built by them at that time, and they both were buried there. It was
extremely difficult to cut and join together these tiles; the workmen
who did so had to pass through a regular examination in compliance with
the municipal ordinances drawn up in the 15th century; without this
requisite they were not allowed to exercise their trade.
We know, from documents existing at the Archives of the Alhambra, at
Granada, that tiles were made there at the end of the 16th and beginning
of the 17th century. We find the names of Antonio Tenorio, Gaspar
Hernandez, and Pedro Tenorio working there at that time as master
potters.
The use of these _azulejos_ was not restricted to Moorish buildings;
they were largely employed to decorate the walls of Christian churches,
convents, palaces, and private houses. The style of work, however, soon
changed, for instead of being made of mosaic work, they were formed of a
single piece like the ordinary tiles, but imitating the Moorish colours.
In the 16th century designs of the Renaissance style alternated with
these, although the system and colouring continued the same. This style
continued in vogue until the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1610. A fine
collection may be seen at the South Kensington Museum of 200 tiles, in
which upwards of 150 varieties of design will be found, Nos. 308-'66 and
367-'66. Their chief characteristic is that only pure colours are used
without gradations or half tints. Lustred reflets are very seldom met
with in tiles; the only examples I know are two beautiful plaques of the
14th century of a pale lustre which are on either side of the entrance
door of the Moorish saloon called Cuarto Real de S^{to}. Domingo, at
Granada; some small polygons of copper-coloured lustre at the Tower of
la Cautiva, Granada: some few details in the coats of arms which are let
into the tiles which adorn the walls of the Chapel at the Alhambra, and
some few tiles with the arms of the Mendozas at the Casa de Pilatos,
Seville.
A few dishes belong also to the 15th century, ornamented with the same
colouring as the tiles without metallic lustre, and generally decorated
with fantastic animals. They are very scarce. Two examples exist at the
South Kensington Museum, Nos. 1459 and 1461-'70. They probably were made
at Seville; all those I have seen come from there, and we know that the
pottery from Seville was much esteemed. In Pedro de Medina's "Libro de
Grandezas y Cosas Memorables de España," Sevilla, 1549, fol. Iii., he
says, "In this town of Triana much excellent pottery of Malaga is made,
coloured white and yellow, and of different sorts and kinds. This
pottery is made in about fifty houses, and it is exported from here to
many localities. In the same manner excellent _azulejos_ are made, of
great variety of colour and design. And likewise fine reliefs of men
and other things. Great quantities of these _azulejos_ are taken to
different localities."
At the introduction of Italian forms of art in Spain, at the beginning
of the 16th century, artistic pottery divided itself into two
schools--one kept to the traditional designs and strong tones of colour,
the other used shaded colours, and especially yellow and blue tints, at
times imitating Italian maiolica, but always following the decoration
characteristic of the Renaissance style.
The Italian influence, and its finest results in Spain may be favourably
studied in Seville, in the tile decorations of the chapel at the
Alcazar, the doorway of the convent of Santa Paula, and a remarkable
sepulchre decorated with tiles at the church of St. Anne at Triana. All
these tile decorations are signed by the same person, and it would be
difficult to find any more remarkable.
The _azulejos_ at the Alcazar represent a picture in the manner and
style of Pietro Perugino; they are admirable in colour and design. Those
which decorate the sepulchre at the church of St. Anne have the
following inscription, "_Niculoso Francesco italiano me fecit, en el
agno del mil ccccciii._" Some very interesting tiles also may be seen in
one of the rooms in the lower part of the Alcazar; they are marked in
the following manner: A.V.S.T.A.--A.V.G.W.S.T.A. 1577-1578. On the floor
of the pavilion of the Emperor Charles V. in the garden there are also
some fine tiles which are signed Juan Hernandez, 1540.
We find mention in Cean Bermudez of a painter of _azulejos_ named Juan
Flores, a native of Flanders; he painted tiles for the royal palaces of
Madrid, the Pardo and Segovia; he was appointed Maestro Azulejero by
Philip II. in 1565.
Returning to other examples of earthenware we meet with the ancient
manufactures of the Balearic Islands, although it is not easy to
determine the kind of pottery which was really made there. Bernardo da
Uzzano, in 1442, made a commercial treaty, (vide Davillier, "Faïences
Hispano Moresques," p. 26), in which he mentions the "faïence" made at
Mallorca and Minorca, which "was exported to a very large extent." The
royal Ordinances for the island of Iviza, which have not been mentioned
by either of these authors, state that the principal traffic and the
greatest industry of ancient times of the island of Iviza consisted in
some vessels of the finest earthenware, well baked and curiously worked,
of which an innumerable quantity were sent off to Africa and other
places, not only on account of the excellence of their worth, which was
admirable, but the speciality of the clay, which preserved from poison.
("Reales Ordinaciones de Iviza," Palma, 1751).
Manufactures of pottery also existed in a great number of localities in
Spain; the most important centres were at Talavera, Valencia, and
Triana. Judging by the manner in which different authors praise the
earthenware of Talavera, its productions were evidently the most
esteemed. The earliest mention we find of Talavera pottery occurs in a
MS. volume dated 1560--a history of this town, in which mention is made
of "white, green, blue and other coloured Talavera ware." In the
inventory of the effects of D^{na}. Juana, a sister of Philip II., 1573,
several objects of "white earthenware of Talavera" are mentioned. In a
report drawn up by order of Philip II. 1576, it is stated that Talavera
"produced fine white glazed earthenware-tiles, and other pottery, which
supplied the country, part of Portugal and India." Father Ramon de la
Higuera in his "Republicas del Mundo," 1595, mentions the ware of
Talavera in terms of the highest praise. In a MS. history of Talavera
written in 1651, (Bib. Nac. Madrid, G. 112,) the author, Father Alfonso
de Ajofrin, says that "the pottery is as good as that of Pisa, a large
number of _azulejos_ are also made to adorn the front of altars,
churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers, and large and small
specimens of every kind. Two hundred workmen work at eight different
kilns. Four other kilns are kept to make common earthenware. Red porous
clay vases and drinking cups are baked in two other kilns, in a thousand
different shapes in imitation of birds and other animals, also
_brinquiños_ for the use of ladies, so deliciously flavoured that after
drinking the water they contained, they eat the cup in which it was
brought them." In another MS. history of Talavera (Bibl. Nac. G. 187) we
find mention of "perfect imitations of oriental china," and that the
pottery made there, "was used all over Spain, and sent to India, France,
Flanders, Italy and other countries, and was esteemed everywhere for the
perfection of the colouring and brilliancy of the glaze."
This information may be increased by quoting another interesting MS. on
the history of this town (Bib. Nac. F. 142) in which the writer, Fr.
Andres de Torrejon, who professed in the convent of Santa Catalina in
1568, says:--"The earthenware pottery made here has reached to a great
height of perfection; it is formed of white and red clay. Vases, cups,
_bucaros_ and _brinquiños_ are made of different kinds, dishes and table
centres, and imitations of snails, owls, dogs and every kind of fruits,
olives, and almonds. These objects are painted with great perfection,
and the imitations of porcelain brought from the Portuguese Indies are
most excellent. Every one wonders that in so small a town such excellent
things should be made. The varnish used for the white pottery is made
with tin and sand, it is now found to be more acceptable than coloured
earthenware, so much so, that persons of importance who pass by this
town although they have in their houses dinner services of silver, buy
earthenware made at Talavera, on account of its excellence. The sand
which was used to make the white varnish was brought from Hita, it is
now found at Mejorada, near Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as
silk."
"The red pottery made at Talavera is much to be commended, for besides
the great variety of objects which they make, the different medals which
they place upon them, they have invented some small _brinquiños_ of so
small and delicate a kind, that the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also
made of the same material. A certain scent is added in the manufacture
of this pottery which excites the appetite and taste of the women, who
eat the pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to their
confessors to check this custom."
In a volume of "Relaciones Topograficas de los Pueblos de España hechas
en 1576," (MS. in fol. t. ii.) we find, in speaking of Talavera, that
the author says: "What is most excellent there is the white pottery, and
tiles and other objects of this earthenware with which the kingdom and
part of Portugal are provided."
In Larruga's "Memorias Politicas y Economicas," (vol. x. Madrid, 1741,)
we find, p. 22, that "the manufactory of fine earthenware of Talavera de
la Reyna continued to make much pottery of importance until 1720: eight
kilns existed then, which employed more than 400 persons, men, women and
children. These manufactories possessed at that time large sums of
money. From that time this industry decayed to such an extent, that in
1730 only four kilns existed where pottery of a very inferior kind was
produced."
The industry was revived later on in the century, but the finest
specimens are of an earlier date. Larruga adds, in p. 17, vol. x., of
his "Memorias," that "Talavera ware is of a lighter clay than the
imitations of this earthenware which were made in other localities."
Pottery of a similar kind was also made in different other localities of
Spain. Mendez Silva says that at Puente del Arzobispo, near Toledo,
"fine pottery is manufactured in about 8 kilns, which produce more than
40,000 ducats yearly." ("Relacion General de España," Madrid, 1645, fo1.
32.) Paton likewise in his "Historia de Jaen," 1628, writes that "the
white unglazed earthenware made at these towns, is very remarkable for
the curious manner in which they imitate different figures of animals,
such as porcupines, fish, syrens, tortoises, &c." Objects of a similar
kind are still made in Spain.
The English traveller Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish
Nation during the years 1760-1761," London, 1763, p. 263, says, "the
pottery fabrics are very numerous and excellent, particularly
Talavera." And in "Annales de l'Espagne," by Alvarez de Colmenares,
Amsterdam, 1741, we find, p. 187, in speaking of Talavera, that "On y
fait des ouvrages vernissés d'une façon ingénieuse, avec des peintures
de bon goût; on estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes
Orientales; on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce négoce rend plus de
50,000 ducats par an."
Udal ap Rhys in his "An Account of the Most Remarkable Places and
Curiosities in Spain and Portugal," London, 1749, in speaking of
Talavera says, "It is noted also for a very curious kind of earthenware
that is made in imitation of China."
Although we find by the remarks we have quoted from contemporary authors
that earthenware of every description was made at Talavera, the
specimens which are more generally met with may be divided into two
groups, which are painted on a white ground, either in blue, or in
colours in the manner of Italian maiolica. The most important examples
which have reached us consist of bowls of different sizes, dishes,
vases, tinajas, holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decorations.
Blue oriental china was imitated to a vast extent, the colouring was
successful but the design was an imitation of the baroque school of the
time, and the figures, landscapes, and decoration follow the bad taste
so general in Spain in the 18th century. The imitations of Italian
maiolica are effective. The colours most commonly used are manganese,
orange, blue and green.
Several specimens of this manufacture are in the South Kensington
Museum; among these may be noted--
No. 327-'76. A large vase painted in blue with cavaliers and men on foot
in a hilly landscape, on the shoulder are the words "Silva Coronel."
No. 1282-'71. Holy-water vessel, with raised flowers and scrolls of
foliage with polychrome decoration.
No. 1281-'71. Soup tureen and cover, white, with raised scrolls and
groups of painted flowers.
No. 351-'76. Another soup tureen with cover and stand, painted with
garlands and the arms of Portugal. On the cover is a group of fishes and
shells in relief.
No. 1279-'71. A bowl decorated within with a bull-fight; outside are
storks and trees in green, orange, and manganese. (See woodcut.)
[Illustration: EARTHENWARE BOWL. TALAVERA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
Several pottery works were established in Spain in the 18th century, all
of them, in the same manner as the earlier fabriques, modified the
system of decorating their wares. In some instances the colours and
designs of Italian maiolica were imitated, others copy the blue
faïences of Pisa, Genoa, and Savona, while others adopted the styles of
Moustiers, Nevers, and Rouen, or English earthenwares.
Ten or twelve manufactories existed at Toledo in the 17th century which
imitated Talavera ware; in the 18th they hardly produced anything of
importance. Ignacio de Velasco in 1735 founded one at great expense at
Toledo in which imitations of Genoese pottery were chiefly made. At the
death of Ignacio in 1738, these works passed to his son George; in 1742
Francisco Hernandez directed them, and in 1747 imitated Japanese models.
Several specimens proceeding from Toledo, at the South Kensington
Museum, painted blue on a white ground, in the style of Savona and
Japan, belong to this period.
In 1755 thirteen pottery kilns existed at Puente del Arzobispo near
Toledo; they still worked in 1791, but their productions were very
inferior in artistic merit.
Earthenware pottery was made at Segovia from a very early period,
chiefly for domestic use, until a manufactory was founded by two
brothers--Manuel and Tomás Ledesma in 1752--they had seen some specimens
which were made at Bolonia for Isabel Farnesio, the widow of King Philip
V., and they endeavoured to imitate them. In 1774 they tried with a most
unsatisfactory result to imitate English wares. This industry fell into
decay towards the end of the century, and only ware of a very common
description was made there.
Talavera ware was also imitated at Zamora. At the middle of the 18th
century works existed there where pottery was made in the manner adopted
at Alcora with few results, for soon after it was established the master
potter, who was at the head of these works, left the locality.
["Memorias," Larruga, Vols. 13 and 34.]
The further we advance into the 18th century, the more we find the
tendency in Spanish ceramic art to imitate the pottery most in vogue in
other countries. Francisco Cavalli, a potter of Ruidoms, won a prize at
Tarragona in 1787, for his excellent imitations of brown and white
Genoese ware. [MS. fol. Bibl. de S. Magestad el Rey, S. 2, E. B. pt. 8.]
The efforts made by King Charles III. towards increasing industrial arts
in Spain, contributed to the reproductions and efforts made to imitate
foreign wares. When the king founded in 1768 the villages of La Carolina
and La Carlota in Andalucia, he ordered that pottery works should be set
up there. At the same time that he established at Madrid the important
porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, he wished that earthenware works
should exist in the same locality, where specimens should be made in
imitation of the best work produced elsewhere. The king was most anxious
to revive to a great extent the almost extinct industry of metallic
lustred pottery, and thanks to this we are able to know most accurately
the receipt and manner in which this lustre was applied. In the same
volume in which I found these documents, [Brit. Mus. MS. Egerton, 507],
are two reports addressed to Count Florida Blanca in 1786, by Iriarte
and Vargas, who were instructed to facilitate the development of this
industry. The first report contains information relating to the pottery
works of the county of Stafford; the second tells us that in the
building of San Isidro el Real, essays had been made to reproduce
English wares, and the lustred productions of Manises, with an idea of
establishing inside or outside of Madrid pottery works on a large scale,
under the protection of Count Florida Blanca. Iriarte and Vargas were of
opinion that these works should be established far from Madrid,
suggesting as the best spot El Viso in La Mancha, owing to the excellent
quality of the clay. Don Sebastian Schepers, a son or brother of
Cayetano Schepers, was at the head of these works. Cayetano was the
chief modeller at the Retiro manufactory. Their imitations of English
earthenware did not succeed; the varnish turned out badly, and they
determined to bring out English workmen. Their imitations of gold
lustred ware were eminently successful, so much so that competent judges
declared it was equal to what was made at Manises. Pottery works where
earthenwares of different descriptions were made existed also at this
time in Madrid; the best were those of Rodriguez and Reato, mentioned in
Larruga's "Memorias Economicas."
At the end of the 18th, and beginning of the 19th century, Valencia and
Aragon supplied the country with painted tiles. One of the finest
examples of this class which have reached us is the pavement of the
chapter house of the cathedral of Saragossa, on which landscapes,
medallions, and animals are finely designed in the Italian renaissance
style. In a shield may be read the following inscription:
Real^{s} Fb^{cas}
D E
Dª Maria Salb
adora
Disdier
Bru f^{t}
Año 1808.
Valencia has been much renowned for its manufacture of painted tiles,
_azulejos_, which continue to be made there in a very creditable manner
at the present time. J. Townsend, in his "Journey through Spain in the
Years 1786-1787, London," 1792, says: "I was most delighted with the
manufacture of painted tiles. In Valencia their best apartments are
floored with these, and are remarkable for their neatness and elegance.
They are stronger and more beautiful than those brought from Holland."
In a "Nouveau Voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1789, p. 56, the author says:
"L'industrie des Valenciens tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les
productions de leur sol. Il contient une espèce de terre, dont ils font
ces carreaux de faïence colorée connus sous le nom de azulejos, et qu'on
ne fabrique qu'à Valence. On en pave les appartements, et on en revêt
leurs lambris; on y peint les sujets les plus compliqués, tels par
exemple qu'un bal masqué, une fête de taureaux. La couleur rouge est la
seule qui ne puisse être fixée sur cette espèce de faïence. Elle
s'altère par la cuisson." In "Voyage en Espagne, 1797-1798," Paris 1801,
the author says, p. 245: "Les plats sont faits de faïence bleuâtre ou
toute autre couleur orné de figures d'oies."
Before we pass to describe another most important branch of Spanish
pottery the unglazed earthenware must be mentioned, which from a very
early period has constituted and still constitutes a most important
branch of its industry. This pottery, generally used for cooling water,
consists of white porous vessels of which a large modern collection may
be seen at the South Kensington Museum proceeding from Andujar and La
Rambla (Andalusia). This industry remains in precisely the same state as
in the time of the Arabs.
The earthenware vessels called _Bucaros_ are similar to these. This
porous pottery was made to a very large extent at Talavera. It was
imported originally from America; the great centre existed at Mejico.
The paste of this ware is unglazed and whitish, black or red--when
painted the colours chosen are generally red, black, and gold. It was
made in Spain as early as the 16th century, and we constantly find
_Bucaros_ alluded to in documents of this period. In the inventory of
the effects belonging to D^{na} Juana, the sister of Philip the Second,
drawn up in 1573, _bucaros_ made at Lisbon, Estremoz, and Montemayor in
Portugal, and those of Ciudad Rodrigo and Castille, are also mentioned.
Madame d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon, [MDCXCIII.], mentions
the habit of Spanish ladies of eating this porous clay. At the South
Kensington Museum there are several good specimens of red pottery of
this kind, Nos. 285 to 318--'72, which, as we have remarked were made at
Talavera and Toledo.
ALCORA POTTERY AND PORCELAIN.
Don Buenaventura Pedro de Alcantara inherited in 1725 the estates
belonging to the title of Aranda in the province of Valencia. Count
Aranda found that the inhabitants of the village of Alcora made coarse
earthenware of every description, and that their vicinity to the sea
coast favoured exportation; he determined, therefore, upon establishing
in 1726 a manufacture of pottery there, in which fine wares might be
made in imitation of those imported from Italy, Germany, France and
England. The count's efforts were so successful that in less than two
years specimens of different kinds of Alcora pottery were exported to a
very large extent.
No account has hitherto been published which gives any idea of the
importance of this manufactory, nor have the names of the artists who
worked there been known, or the works which they executed. Wishing to
ascertain this, I applied to the Duchess of Hijar, the present
representative of the house of Aranda, and permission was granted me,
thanks to the kindness of the Duchess's _Apoderado general_, Sr. Robles,
to look through the Archives, where the accounts, contracts, and details
of the manufactory are kept. This has enabled me to give an idea of the
importance of this industry, and the names of the artists who worked
there, which have been ignored until the present time by writers on
ceramic art.
Count Aranda spent in 1726 about £10,000 in establishing the manufactory
of Alcora, and in May, 1727, the first specimens appeared, consisting of
pottery made "in the manner of China, Holland, and other localities."
The manufactory was at that time under the superintendence of Dn.
Joaquin Joseph de Sayas and Joseph Ollery, a Frenchman, chief
draughtsman and carver, who was engaged at a good salary in 1726, and
brought to Alcora from Moustiers by the painter, Edward Roux. In 1728
Count Aranda increased his salary owing to the "excellent manner in
which Ollery has worked at Alcora, the fine and numerous models which he
constructed, which have contributed to make my manufacture the first in
Spain."
Five painters and two modellers from Cataluña and six Valencian painters
and two modellers joined these French artists. The personnel of the
fabrique was completed with eleven potters from the locality. The French
painters, M. Pierre Maurissy and M. Gras, and the master of the
modellers, M. Sebastian Carvonel, were engaged in 1728 for two years to
work at the manufactory. Ollery only appears in the lists up to 1737.
The Count granted him a yearly pension of 500 francs besides his salary,
"for his especial zeal in the improvement of the manufactory, and his
great skill in directing the construction of every kind of work." From
this date until the manufacture of porcelain in 1764, only Spanish
artists worked at Alcora.
The Count was able from the year 1729 to circulate the pottery made at
Alcora through the Spanish dominions, free of custom-house duties. The
government granted him several other privileges and the manufactory
continued to improve, and spared no pains to import the foreign shapes
and designs which were most acceptable. No Spanish pottery manufactory
could compare with Alcora in the excellence and beauty of its work.
Among the obligations of the artists engaged, whether Spaniards or
Frenchmen, was that of teaching drawing and modelling to a certain
number of pupils. A special Academy was created for this purpose, which
at one time held more than one hundred pupils, who were constantly
renewed and increased with those who appear henceforward in the works at
Alcora. In 1736 there were fifty-six painters, eleven masters, twenty
workers at the wheel, and twenty-five apprentices. In this same year,
1736, specimens of pottery made at Alcora were sent "to all the
dominions of Spain, Rome, Naples, Malta, many Italian cities, Portugal,
and some provinces of France."
The manufactory produced yearly about 300,000 specimens of different
kinds. The ordinances are interesting which in 1732-1733 prescribe,
"that in our manufactory only pottery of the most excellent kind should
be made, similar to the Chinese, to be equally fine as to the earths
employed, that the models and wheels should be perfect, the drawing of a
first-rate kind, and the varnish and colours excellent, and the pottery
light and of good quality, for it is our express wish that the best
pottery should only be distinguished from that of an inferior kind by
the greater or less amount of painting which covers it."
Miguel Soliva, Christobal Cros, Francisco Grangel, Miguel Vilar,
Christobal Rocafort, Vicente Serrania, and Joseph Pastor were the best
painters at Alcora in 1743; they decorated a fine dinner service made
for the Tribunal of Commerce, and the large slabs for the Convent of Las
Descalzas Reales at Madrid, representing the Virgin as the Divine
Shepherdess.
Pottery painted with metallic lustre was made in 1749. We find among the
receipts used in that year one brought from Manises for this object.
We find it also stated in the communications which passed between the
Tribunal of Commerce and the count in 1746, that "the perfection of the
earthenware of Alcora consisted in the excellent models which had been
made by competent foreign artists, the quality of the earth and receipts
brought at great expense from abroad." Joseph Ochando is mentioned in
that year as an excellent painter, and Juan Lopez as the best carver and
modeller. This document tells us "that from the earliest period of the
manufacture pyramids with figures of children, holding garlands of
flowers and baskets of fruits on their heads, were made with great
perfection, likewise brackets, centre and three-cornered tables, large
objects, some as large as five feet high, to be placed upon them,
chandeliers, cornucopias, statues of different kinds, and animals of
different sorts and sizes. The entire ornamentation of a room has also
been made here; the work is so perfect that nothing in Spain, France,
Italy or Holland could equal it in merit."
The objects which were made to a great extent at this time consisted in:
Vases of different shapes.
Small pots, Chinese fashion.
Teapots and covers, Chinese fashion.
Teapots and covers, Dutch fashion.
Cruets, complete sets, Chinese style.
Entrée dishes.
Salt-cellars, Chinese style.
Escudillas (bowls) of Constantinople.
Barquillos (sauce bowls), Chinese style.
Bottles, in the Chinese manner.
Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds with good painted
borders in imitation of lace-work (_puntilla_); some were designed
in the Chinese manner, and especial care was taken with
fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes.
Trays and refrigerators.
In 1750 Count Aranda passed the pottery works on to a private company,
in whose hands they remained until 1766. We know the pottery continued
to be excellent. Unfortunately almost all the details of this period are
missing from the Archives. One of the few documents remaining is a
contract drawn up in October, 1741, with François Haly (the name of this
artist is given by Baron Davillier), a Frenchman, in which he agreed to
work at the manufactory during a period of ten years with a yearly
salary of over 1000 francs, under the following conditions:
"That the travelling expenses of his wife and children should be given
him, and that his salary should be paid as soon as he made before the
Director and two competent judges the different kinds of porcelain which
he had undertaken to make." He agreed to give up his receipts, and it
was promised him that he should have two modellers and one painter
working by his side, and that if in one year Haly's porcelain was
satisfactory the Count undertook to make him a present of 1000 livres
(_tornoises_).
Towards the middle of the century, porcelain was made for the first time
at Alcora. A contract was drawn up on 24th March, 1764, with a German,
called John Christian Knipfer, who had already worked there in the
pottery section. By the original agreement, which exists at the
Archives, we find he was to prepare works of "porcelain and painting
similar to those made at Dresden, during a period of six years, under
the following conditions:"
"That the said Knipfer obliges himself to make and teach the apprentices
the composition and perfection of porcelain paste, its varnishes, and
colours, and whatever he may know at the present time, or discover
during this period of six years; he is not to prevent the Director of
the Works from being present at all the essays made."
"The said Knipfer offers to make and varnish porcelain, and to employ
gold and silver in its decoration, and in that of the ordinary wares;
likewise the colours of crimson, purple, violet, blues of different
shades, yellow, greens, browns, reds, and black.
"That Knipfer will give up an account of his secrets, and the management
and manner of using them, in order that in all times the truth of what
he has asserted may be verified."
From the original documents which exist we gather that Knipfer was
chiefly famed for his excellence in the painting and decoration of
porcelain.
François Martin was engaged in 1774 for his skill in preparing different
pastes for manufacturing porcelain and pipeclay. He agreed to make "hard
paste porcelain, Japanese faïence, English paste (pipeclay), and
likewise to mould and bake it. The necessary materials were to be
provided by the Count of Aranda." His expenses were to be paid if the
specimens he presented to the competent authorities gave a satisfactory
result, and his salary was to be increased to 1200 francs a year.
Knipfer and Martin greatly added to the importance of the works made at
the manufactory. Don Pedro Abadia, the Count's steward, an intelligent
man, possessing great scientific knowledge, who had studied this subject
in Paris and London, writes to the Count that the presence of both these
artists was of absolute necessity at Alcora, "until the workmen who were
near them perfected themselves." For owing to the carelessness of the
managers of the porcelain works in 1776 Count Aranda wrote from Paris,
during his embassy there: "My pottery of Alcora, notwithstanding every
effort which has been made, the money spent, and foreign masters which
have been brought over, gets worse every day instead of improving."
Abadia repeats this in his reports. Porcelain of other kinds decidedly
improved. He says also that the pipeclay which Martin had found at
Alcora was the best in Europe.
In my opinion, a large number of unmarked white biscuit and
demi-porcelain figures which are so constantly found in collections
belong to this period of the manufactory of Alcora. They have hitherto
been classified with very great difficulty, and attributed to the
porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, without any reason which justifies
this opinion. For the help of collectors I will mention the subjects
which they represent, which I have found in a document, dated 1777, of
the figures and groups and other objects made during that year.
FIGURES OF DEMI-PORCELAIN.
Figures of tritons.
" of soldiers, two sizes.
" " one-third _palmos_ high.
" of the four seasons (two sizes).
" of dancers.
" of tritons in form of children.
" with brackets.
" of different animals.
" of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.
Dancing figures in the German style.
Figures of Neptune.
Figures of shepherd and shepherdess.
" of the Moorish king, Armenius.
" of the four parts of the world, two sizes.
" of peasant and his wife.
Small figures holding musical instruments.
Figures representing different monarchies.
" " historical personages.
" " the history of Alexander the Great, two sizes.
" " Marius Curtius, two sizes.
" of elephants.
" of a man mounted on an elephant.
" representing Chinese figures.
" of Heliogabalus.
" of a general on horseback.
" of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.
Large figures representing Julius Cæsar.
Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets.
Groups of Chinese figures.
Snuff-boxes, sugar basins, inkstands.
Rabbits, horns, and pug dogs for holding scent.
Small scent bottles.
Needle cases.
Large vases with foot and cover.
Brackets.
Walking-stick handles.
Knife handles.
Tea-spoons.
FIGURES OF WHITE BISCUIT CHINA.
Figures representing Spanish costumes, two sizes.
Groups of two figures.
Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.
Figures of the four seasons, two sizes.
We find also the following figures of painted and glazed porcelain:
Four seasons, two sizes.
Groups of two figures.
Figure of a Moorish king.
" of musicians and huntsmen.
Figure of peasants.
" of Chinese.
Small figures of a gardener and female companion.
Figures of soldiers in the German style.
In 1780 four rival pottery works were established in the neighbourhood
which copied and imitated the pottery made at Alcora. The two most
important were at Rivasalbes and Onda, the other two at Alcora itself.
Many of the artists who belonged to the works established by Count
Aranda worked at the rival factories; among them were Mariano Causada,
Joaquin Ten, Francisco Marsal, Vicente Alvaro, Christoval Mascarós,
Francisco and Miguel Badenas, and Nadal Nebot; some of these artists
returned to the Count's manufactory. In order to distinguish the genuine
pottery from imitations, orders were given, with the authorization of
the Tribunal of Commerce, that the pottery made there should be marked
henceforward with the letter A; no special mark had hitherto been used
at the manufactory, the artists very often signed the specimens they
made with their monograms or signatures, of which those most frequently
met with will be found accompanying the list of artists' names, for the
help of collectors; all of them have been copied from original
documents. It is interesting for collectors to bear in mind, that all
specimens which are marked with the letter A are _posterior_ to 1784.
The pottery works founded in imitation of the manufactory belonging to
Count Aranda came to an end before 1790, some by special agreement with
the owners themselves, and others by the express orders of the
authorities, in virtue of the privileges granted to the Count.
Mr. Martin died at Alcora in the month of May, 1786. Knipfer left soon
afterwards, and was succeeded by a French artist, M. Pierre
Cloostermans, a skilful man, and well versed in the manufacture of
porcelain pastes, as well as in painting and decorating them. According
to his contract, which was drawn up in Paris in 1787, "Pierre
Cloostermans, chemiste, natif de Paris, demeurant à Paris, Rue de
Clery, au coin de celle Montmartre," agreed to "live for thirty years at
Alcora as director and workman, to make soft and hard porcelains, and
all the necessary colours with which to paint and decorate it."
He also promised to make good pipeclay pottery and marbled wares which
were to be as excellent as those of Strasburg. The expenses of his
journey were paid, his sons were to be employed in the works, and it was
stipulated that if the works increased to a great extent, 500 pounds
(Valencian money), was to be added to his yearly salary. It was against
the Count's express desire that pottery of an exclusively artistic
character should be produced at Alcora; his chief object was to improve
the industry itself. In one of his letters to Abadia, written in
October, 1789, he says: "I wish to export the porcelain of my
manufactory, but chiefly in common objects, such as cups of different
kinds, tea and coffee services, etc. These may be varied in form and
colour, the principal point being that the paste should bear hot
liquids, for we Spaniards above everything wish that nothing we buy
should ever break. By no means let time be wasted in making anything
that requires much loss of time. The chief object is that the pastes
should be of first-rate excellence and durability."
Cloostermans suffered much discomfort and annoyance from other workmen
at Alcora, who were envious of his merit: they put every difficulty in
his path, insulted him daily with pasquins, accused him of not
fulfilling his religious duties, and annoyed him incessantly. His
letters are full of these complaints. Count Aranda treated him with
every consideration. During Cloostermans' stay at Alcora, the pottery
made improved greatly in artistic merit. Figures and groups of many
kinds were attempted, and even Wedgwood jasper ware was creditably
imitated. In 1789, among other pottery that was sent to Madrid were "two
hard paste porcelain cups, adorned with low relief in the English
style." The most important one was moulded by Francisco Garcés, the
garlands and low reliefs by Joaquin Ferrer, sculptor, the flowers on the
covers by an apprentice, helped by Cloostermans. The composition of
these objects was suggested by Abadia, who brought some specimens from
Paris which came from England.
Cloostermans sent the Count in 1789 a number of objects of different
kinds made of porcelain. Among them the most interesting were "a tea and
coffee service painted and gilt of glazed porcelain, and ten unglazed
figures. Those painted by Albaro are marked A, those by Escuder, E, and
by Mas, M, and Cloostermans' son." A large and varied collection of
marbled wares and toys were sent at the same time. Cloostermans' marbled
wares are pronounced superb.
Count Aranda writes in July, 1790, to Diez Robles alluding to a large
collection of pots for plants, which were made at Alcora for the King,
decorated with the royal arms. Another series are still to be met with
at the Royal Gardens; they are of pipeclay, and ornamented with rams'
heads.
In 1784 the Count sent two potters, Christoval Pastor and Vicente
Alvaro, to Paris to study the last improvements in porcelain. They
returned in 1789, and the porcelain they made was much commended and
highly approved. They write to the Count in September, 1789: "We know
that Don Domingo has sent your Excellency 97 objects made by us, marked
No. 3, 1, No. 4, No. 3, with a dot, and No. 3 with the letter 'P'; No. 4
with the letter 'H,' all made by me in clay, and varnished with the
greatest care. Three flask-stands and two toothpick-stands were made by
me, Pastor, before I went to Paris. The marble wares, Nos. 3 and 4, and
other similar objects with gold lines, are also made by me."
In 1784, Mariano Garcia of Valencia made some experiments before the
Directors of laying on gold, and different shades of purples. A number
of specimens were sent to the Count, but Knipfer did not approve of the
plan adopted, and it was afterwards abandoned.
Marbled wares of different colours were made at Alcora in vast
quantities in 1790. A large depôt was established in 1791 of Alcora ware
in the Calle de Luzon at Madrid. The printed prospectuses which were
issued give a long and detailed list of the different productions of the
manufactory, which chiefly consisted of dinner and tea services, and
other objects of domestic use.
In 1792 nearly 100 painters and modellers existed at the manufactory; 45
were employed to work in porcelain and pipeclays, and 26 were
apprentices.
Cloostermans was forced to leave Alcora in April, 1793, owing to certain
disturbances which occurred at Valencia, when, owing to a proclamation
of the Captain-Generals, he and other Frenchmen residing in the province
of Valencia, were ordered to leave the country. The Count gives
instructions that Cloostermans should want for nothing on his journey;
he writes ordering that 3000 reales should be given him, and his yearly
pension of 1200 pounds (_tornoises_). Cloostermans left with his three
sons after giving up the receipts and other documents connected with the
manufactory. In 1795 permission was given that Frenchmen might return to
Spain, and he resumed his post in the manufactory.
The principal efforts at Alcora since Knipfer, Martin, and Cloostermans
entered the manufactory, had been centred in making porcelain and
pipeclay wares of different kinds. A great number of essays with foreign
earths were made; and all those of a suitable kind which were known in
Spain. Count Aranda was always most anxious that Spanish materials
should be used in the manufactory; he says, in a letter written in 1790,
"the Kaolin of Cataluña may be good or bad, but it is acknowledged to be
Kaolin, and if not used these works must be closed." This Kaolin had
been found by Christobal Pastor and Vicente Albaro on their return from
Paris.
Baron Davillier has been good enough to inform me that he has found
mention of some objects of Alcora wares which Count Aranda sent as a
present to his friend Voltaire, at Ferney.
From 1789 to 1797 the following kinds of pottery were made at Alcora:--
Hard paste porcelain (French).
Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.
Porcelain of pipe-clay (English).
Blue pipe-clay porcelain.
Marbled pipe-clay porcelain.
_Bucaro_, painted and gilt.
Strasburg Ware.
Porcelain painted _en froid._
Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.
PORCELAIN (FRITA).
Porcelain painted with gilt lines.
" " without gold.
Porcelain (frita), canary colour.
Boxes in relief.
" plain.
Porcelain (frita), painted with marble wares.
Plain boxes of the same kind.
Porcelain (frita), of blue and brown ground.
Cups and saucers of a similar kind.
BISCUIT PORCELAIN.
Figures.
Vases.
Pedestals.
White porcelain (frita) cups of different kinds.
" " ornamented and plain.
Boxes with busts.
Boxes with ornamentations in relief.
Figures.
Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.
Large figures of the Four Seasons.
Flower vases with rams' heads.
Plain boxes.
Boxes with ornaments in relief.
WHITE PORCELAIN.
Plates, cups, etc.
Figures of different kinds.
PAINTED PORCELAIN.
Cups, saucers, plates, etc.
Cream pots.
Plain snuff boxes, or in the shape of a dog.
Fruit stands in relief.
In 1799 we find mention made of partridges modelled by Christoval Mas,
and Clemente Aycart much commended for his dogs, ducks, tortoises and
frogs.
Joseph Ferrer writes to the Duke of Hijar in the same year, that "he had
just seen a bust of D^{n} José Delgado, a trifle smaller than the one
previously sent of your excellency." These busts and some medallion
portraits were made of porcelain _frite_. Ferrer complains in the same
letter that Delgado the manager had asked for a fine jug and basin of
Sèvres, which had been given by the King of France to the late Count,
and that he had been obliged to hide it away with some English specimens
which were in the warehouse.
Count Aranda died in January, 1798, and was succeeded by his son the
Duke of Hijar. Cloostermans died the same year; Vicente Prats is stated
to be the best painter and decorator at Alcora at this date. In an
extract drawn up of the state of the pottery works in 1798, it appears
that 200 workmen were employed, and pottery of every description was
made, common earthenware, pipeclays in imitation of the English ones,
and porcelain in small quantities; common wares were made in large
quantities; the pipeclays were pronounced superior to the English in
brilliancy, but were so porous that they were easily stained, a large
number of snuff-boxes and other small objects belong to this period.
In 1800, the Duke of Hijar, who succeeded the Count of Aranda in the
management of the manufactory, writes to D^{n} Josef Ferrer, saying:
"As I do not know the authors of the pipe-clay porcelain or that of
other kinds which is sent here, I beg you to order the master workmen of
porcelain and common pottery to engrave, in making it, the initials of
their names, as it will enable me to distinguish the good from the bad."
Twelve porcelain baths with the arms of Spain in blue were made at
Alcora for Queen Maria Louisa in 1800.
The Duke of Hijar ordered in 1800 that a dinner-service should be made
there for his use. He sent instructions that it should be of the same
kind as a tea-service previously sent to his son the Duke of Aliaga. The
painter chosen to decorate it was Mariano Alvaro, and the designs
selected by Ferrer were taken from the Loggie of Raphael.
In the same year some cases of pottery were sent to the Duke; in one of
them was a fine soup tureen modelled by Josef Ferrer, Cloostermans' son,
Pierre, writes at this time, asking to be appointed to the post left
vacant by his father's death; his petition however was not granted.
We have already seen that pottery and porcelain continued to be
manufactured in the present century at Alcora in the same manner as in
the 18th century, but owing to the French invasion of 1808 this industry
suffered the consequences of war, and the work done there greatly
diminished in excellence and quantity. Even before this the Director,
D^{n} José Delgado complains in several documents of the bad state of
the manufactory, the Directors who replaced him, D^{n} Juan Bautista
Cabot and D^{n} Pedro Bezarco, write continually repeating the same
thing. After the French were turned out of Spain, the industry was
revived and strengthened by fresh artists from the porcelain manufactory
of Madrid. D^{n} Luis Poggetti was appointed drawing master there in 1815,
and D^{n} Domingo Palmera master of ornamental art, both these artists
had worked at Buen Retiro, Poggetti as Director of pietre dure, and
Palmera as second-class sculptor. After this time the manufactory of
pottery at Alcora ceased to produce artistic works, and limited itself
to send out common wares for domestic purposes; this system continued
until 1858, when the Duke of Hijar sold the manufactory to D^{n} Ramon
Girona, who brought over English workmen from Staffordshire in order to
improve the wares. Many imitations of the older styles have also been
made at Alcora of late years.
One of the most important results of the present study is the necessity
of changing the classifications of a great number of specimens which
have been believed to be manufactured at Moustiers and other localities
in France, but which in fact were made at Alcora. It is sufficient to
mention the names of Grangel, Cros, Soliva, and Vilar, which one of the
best informed writers on Ceramic industry, Baron Davillier, has
discovered on different specimens of pottery, and which, in his "Hist.
des faïences et porcelaines de Moustiers, etc., Paris, 1863," he
considers to be the names of artists who worked in France, although all
of them belonged exclusively to Alcora, as will be seen in the subjoined
list of artists' names. I am in hopes, also, that many errors may be
corrected in future, touching French and English pottery, which was
imitated to a great extent, and with much success at Alcora.
We gather also by this information that an immense number of objects
were made of pipeclay porcelain, in imitation of English wares; and, in
my opinion, a great quantity of objects of white pipeclay porcelain
which have been found of late years in Spain are of Alcora manufacture.
They have been hitherto classified by amateurs as Leeds pottery. We
find, in papers relating to Alcora, that a decided distinction is made
between white and straw-coloured pottery. This indication may be
sufficient to distinguish it from English wares.
Townsend, in "A Journey to Spain in the years 1786-1787," London, 1792,
p. 255, says: "At Alcora, in the neighbourhood of Valencia, a
manufacture of porcelain has been successfully established by Count
Aranda, and deserves encouragement. I was much pleased with their
imitations of gilding. It is very natural, and the manager informed me
that after many years' trial it was found to be durable."
[Illustration: EARTHENWARE PLAQUE, ALCORA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
Specimens exist of Alcora ware and porcelain at the South Kensington
Museum.
Nos. 1051, 1052-'71. Two fine plaques, painted with mythological
subjects of Pomona and Galatea, the borders raised in form of a frame,
with scroll ornaments [see woodcut of No. 1052].
No. 341-'76. A porcelain cup and saucer, blue ground, gilt; painted with
flowers in white medallions.
No. 333-'76. A plate painted with sprigs, and containing models of fruit
in full relief.
A LIST OF THE DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE
MANUFACTORY OF POTTERY AND PORCELAIN OF ALCORA FROM ITS FOUNDATION,
1726, UNTIL THE BEGINNING OF THE PRESENT CENTURY.
DIRECTORS.
Dr. Joaquin Joseph de Sayas, 1727.
Joseph Ollery, 1727 to 1733.
Manuel de Molina, 1727 to 1735.
Cayetano Allue, 1727 to 1750.
Marcial Guirandeta, 1778 to 1783.
Juan Villalonga, 1789.
Pierre Cloostermans, 1789.
Domingo Abadia, 1789.
Gabriel Berenguer y Cebrian, 1789.
Josef Ferrer, 1799.
Josef Delgado, 1800.
ARTISTS.
Abella, Francisco, 1750, at Alcora.
Alvaro, Cristobal, 1750.
Alvaro, Joseph, paints pottery in 1743, 1750.
Alvaro, Vicente, el mayor, works at the wheel in 1750.
Alvaro, Vicente, painted with Knipfer in 1783; he was sent by Count
Aranda in 1784 to Paris to learn the making of porcelain; he returned to
Spain in 1789, and continued to work at Alcora.
Alvaro, Tiburcio, painted with Knipfer in 1783.
Andrés, Cristoval, modeller and carver in 1783.
Andrés, Francisco, modeller in 1783.
Andrés, Francisco, modeller, 1743 to 1750.
Andrés, Gabriel, painter, 1743 to 1750.
Andrés, Gabriel, figures as one of the leading painters in 1794.
Andrés, Jaime, painter, from 1728 to 1737.
Andrés, Mariano, paints from 1739 to 1750.
Andrés, Mariano, works in 1789.
Andrés, Miguel, painter, 1743 to 1750.
Aparicio, Manuel, painter, 1750.
Arqua, Vicente, 1750.
Aycart, Clemente, sculptor, worked at the porcelain works in 1789.
Aycart, Roque, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Aycart, Ventura, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Bachero, Vicente, painted porcelain in 1789.
Badenas, Cristoval, painter, 1727 to 1750.
Badenes, Francisco, establishes with Miguel Badenas pottery works, where
pottery was made in imitation of Alcora: it was put a stop to by
agreement in 1789.
Badenes, Miguel; see Francisco.
Beltran, Pedro, retouched painting on porcelain in 1783 to 1789.
Berenguer, Cristoval, painter, painted from 1727 to 1750.
Blasco, Bautista, painted from 1727 to 1750.
Blasco, Francisco, painted from 1731 to 1738.
Blasco, Joaquin, painted in 1750.
Blasco, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735; he painted in 1750.
Blasco, Manuel, painter, 1728 to 1750.
Blasco, Vicente, painted 1727 to 1750.
Buxadós, Ildefonso, painted 1727 to 1750.
Buxadós, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783.
Calvo Perales, Joseph, painter from 1727 to 1750.
Calvo, Manuel, painter of common pottery in 1783.
Calvo, Ramon, painted common earthenware from 1750 to 1783.
Campion, Juan, a Frenchman, worked at the wheel in 1743.
Carnicer, Juan, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789.
Carnicer, Vicente, modeller from 1783 to 1789.
Carbonel, Sebastian, a Frenchman; he modelled in 1728.
Catalá, Cristoval, modelled in 1783.
Catalá, Juan, 1750.
Catalá, Manuel, 1750.
Catalá, Pascual, painter from 1729 to 1750.
Catalá, Pedro Juan, painted common pottery in 1783.
Caussada, mayor, Jacinto, painted from 1727 to 1750.
Caussada, menor, Jacinto, from 1727.
Caussada, Joseph, a son of Jacinto, painted from 1743 to 1750. He ran
away from the manufactory and went to work at Talavera, and was brought
back to Alcora.
Caussada, Mariano. It was proposed that he should be turned out of the
manufactory, owing to his having gone over to the works established at
Onda, where he gave them the receipts of the colours and varnishes used
at Alcora; he returned to Alcora in 1789.
Caveta, Pascual, painter, 1743.
Chiva, Cristoval de, painted porcelain in 1789.
Chiva, Joseph, painted from 1727 to 1738.
Chiva, Manuel, painted in 1789.
Cloostermans, Pierre, a French artist; he entered the manufactory in
1787, and continued to work there until his death in 1798.
Cloostermans, a son of Pierre's, was an excellent painter on porcelain
in 1789.
Corrás, Ignacio, a native of Cataluña, painted from 1727 to 1728.
Coll, Jaime, a native of Cataluña, painted from 1727 to 1736.
Cros, Cristoval, painted from May, 1727 to 1743; he was one of the best
artists who painted at Alcora.
Cros, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Cros, Manuel, 1750.
Cros, Pascual, painted from 1727 to 1736.
Cros, menor, Vicente, painted porcelain from 1750 to 1789.
Cros, Vicente, 1735 to 1750.
Datos, Gaspar, modeller, 1731 to 1750.
Datos, Julian, modeller, in 1783.
Datos, Ramon, painted in 1750.
Datos, Vicente, 1750.
Escuder, Vicente, painted with Knipfer from 1783 to 1789.
Fabra, Francisco, painted from 1730 to 1743.
Fabra, Vicente, painter, 1727 to 1735.
Falco, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1743.
Falco, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1735.
Feliu, Vicente Tomas, painter, from 1727 to 1750.
Feliu y Thomas, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783.
Ferrer, Joaquin, a carver, who worked with Mr. Martin from 1783 to 1789.
Ferrer, Esteban, painted porcelain in 1789.
Ferrer y Carnicer, Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783. In December,
1789, he had an oven on his own account at Alcora, the only one which
remained out of four which had been established four years previously
there.
Ferrer, menor, Vicente, 1750.
Ferrer, Vicente, painted from 1727 to 1743.
Flor, Antonio, painted common pottery from 1750 to 1783.
Fores, Joseph, painter, 1727.
Fornench, Joseph, painted in 1739.
Fornench, Phelipe, painted common pottery in 1783.
Fornench, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Fornench, Phelipe, painter, 1727 to 1750.
Fuste, Salvador, painter, 1727.
Galvez, Juan, modeller, 1731 to 1735.
Garcés, Joaquin, painter. He worked with Joaquin Ter at the manufactory
which he established at Alcora, and returned to the Counts in 1789.
Garcés, Francisco, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin in 1783, and was
considered by Cloostermans, in 1789, his most able workman.
Garcés, Joseph, painter, 1727.
Garcés, Pedro, 1743.
Garcia, Mariano, a native of Valencia. He went to Alcora to try a system
of gilding and purple which he had invented, which produced an
unsatisfactory result.
Gasch, Agustin, painter from 1728 to 1750, although he was absent from
the works from 1735 to 1741.
Gasch, Bruno, a son of Juan's, worked at the wheel from 1743 to 1750.
Gasch, Cristoval, worked with the turners, 1731 to 1741, and joined the
painters until 1750.
Gasch, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1729 to 1750.
Gasch, mayor, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Gasch, Joseph, painter, 1731 to 1735.
Gasch, Juan, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1750.
Gasch, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Gasch, Miguel, the son of Juan, painted in 1743.
Gasch, Vicente, 1750.
Gasch, Correo Vicente, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Gardo, Juan, painter and modeller, 1731 to 1735.
Gil, Francisco, modeller, 1783.
Giner, Manuel, painter, 1727.
Gomez, Cristoval, painter on common pottery, 1783.
Gomez, Francisco, modeller, 1731 to 1750.
Gomez, Vicente, painter, 1750, 1783.
Gomez, menor, Vicente, worked at the wheel and painted from 1783 to
1789.
Gorris, Joseph, 1750.
Granell, Cristoval, painter, 1729, 1750.
Granell, Joseph, modeller, 1731 to 1735.
Granell, Vicente, 1731 to 1750.
Grangel, Francisco, pintor, painted from 1727 to 1783. In 1743 the
finest work was given to him.
Grangel, Juan, painted from 1727 to 1750.
Gras, Monsieur, painter, 1728.
Haly, François, 1751.
Herrando, Francisco, 1727.
Herrando, Joseph, painter, 1727 to 1736.
Herrando, Juan, painted from 1729 to 1735.
Herrando, Manuel, modeller, 1783.
Herrando, Pascual, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1743.
Herrando, Thadeo, 1750.
Huguet, Cristobal, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Huguet, Francisco, worked at the wheel and modelled in porcelain from
1783 to 1789.
Huguet y Mascarós, Joseph, painter, 1783 to 1794.
Huguet, Vicente, painter. He worked at the manufactory established by
Joaquin Ten at Alcora, and returned to Count Arandas in 1789, and
continued there in 1794.
Huguet Serra, Joseph, modeller in 1783.
Ibañez, Juan, painter from 1727 to 1735.
Knipfer, Juan, a native of Saxony, 1783.
Lazaro, Joseph, painter, 1727.
Lopez, Julian, 1792.
Llorente, Francisco, 1750.
Lloscos, Joaquin, painter, 1783.
Llosca, menor, painter, 1783.
Malanco, Nicolas, painter, 1727.
Marin, Pedro, painter, 1727 to 1736.
Marques, Miguel, painter, 1794.
Marras, Francisco, painter and modeller in 1727.
Marsal, Bautista, painter from 1727 to 1743.
Marsal, Francisco. He worked at Alcora, and left it for the manufactory
of Onda; in 1783 he returned to Count Aranda's works.
Marti, Miguel, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Martin, Francisco, modeller in 1783.
Martir, Pedro, worked at the wheel in 1739.
Mas, Cristoval, modeller from 1783 to 1789.
Mas, Francisco, painted common pottery in 1783.
Mas, Julian, a skilful painter on porcelain in 1789.
Mas, menor, Manuel, painted common pottery in 1783.
Mas, Manuel, painted from 1727 to 1750.
Mas, Pedro, painter in 1743.
Mascarós, Cristobal, painter from 1728 to 1750.
Mascarós y Thomas, Cristoval, painted on pottery from 1783 to 1794.
Mascarós, Francisco, 1743 to 1750.
Mascarós, Joseph, painted porcelain in 1789.
Mascarós, José, painter in 1735 to 1736.
Mascarós, Pedro Martin, painted from 1729 to 1736.
Mascarós, Vicente, worked at the wheel from 1750 to 1780.
Masso y Fabra, Vicente, painted in 1727.
Massó, Joseph, 1750.
Massó y Fabra, Francisco, painter, 1739, 1750.
Massó Nadal, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750.
Mallol, Joaquin, modeller, 1783.
Mallol, Cristoval, modeller in 1783.
Mallol, Vicente, modeller, 1783.
Maurisi, Pedro, a Frenchman, began to work in 1728.
Mezquita y Chiva, Francisco, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Mezquita, Francisco, painted in 1750.
Mezquita, Jaime, painter, 1731 to 1750.
Mezquita, Pascual, painter from 1727 to 1735.
Miguel, Vicente, 1750.
Miralles, Vicente, worked in clay from 1731 to 1743.
Moliner, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Moliner, Miguel, painted from 1728 to 1750.
Moliner, Vicente, modeller in 1783.
Monfort, Agustin, modeller in 1783.
Monfort, Pablo, modeller in 1783.
Montemenor, Joseph, modeller in 1783.
Montolin, Jacinto, painter, from 1731 to 1750.
Montolin, Juan, painter, the son of Jacinto, from 1735 to 1750.
Montolin, Juan, varnisher and painter in 1783.
Montolin, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789.
Montolin, Vicente, painter of common pottery in 1783.
Montolin, Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750.
Moya, Crisostomo, retouched porcelain in 1789.
Nadal, Felix, 1727 to 1735.
Nadal, Juan, master at the wheel, painter and carver from 1727 to 1737.
Nadal, Miguel, 1783.
Nadal, Nebot, works from 1743 to 1783.
Navarro, Cristoval, worked at the wheel in 1783, and painted porcelain
in 1789.
Nebot, Bautista, painter, 1794.
Nebot, Cristoval, modeller, 1750.
Nebot, Cristoval, menor, 1794.
Nebot, Francisco, 1750.
Nebot, Francisco, painter in 1794.
Nebot, Joseph, worked at the wheel from 1728 to 1740.
Nebot, Joaquin, worked at the wheel in 1794.
Nebot, Juan, painter, 1750 to 1783.
Nebot, Miguel, painter, 1783 to 1794.
Nebot, Narciso, painter, 1794.
Negre, Deodato, painter, 1727.
Negre, Francisco, worked at the wheel from 1783 to 1794.
Negre, Julian, worked at the wheel in 1794.
Negre, Manuel, modeller, 1783 to 1794.
Negre, Ramon, painter, 1783 to 1794.
Negre, Vicente, modeller, 1727.
Nondedeu, Cristoval, modeller, 1729.
Nondedeu, Miguel, turner, 1731 to 1743.
Ochando, Joseph, draughtsman and carver, from 1727 to 1742.
Olery, Joseph, director of the works from 1735 to 1737. In August, 1729,
he was appointed principal draughtsman.
Pacor, Bartolomé, painter, 1728 to 1735.
Palau, Francisco, painter, from 1727 to 1750.
Palmera, Domingo, master of ornamental art, 1815.
Pardo, Cristoval, turner, from 1727 to 1750.
Pardo, Francisco, 1750.
Pardo, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1750.
Pardo, Vicente, master at the wheel in 1728.
Pastor Bartolo, Antonio, painter, 1750.
Pastor Butoni, Antonio, painter, 1750.
Pastor, Bartolomé, a brother of Vicente's, from 1729 to 1750.
Pastor, Bautista, varnisher, 1783.
Pastor, Cristoval, worked at the wheel with Mr. Martin from 1783 to
1789.
Pastor, Gaspar, 1750.
Pastor, Joseph, painted in common pottery and porcelain from 1783 to
1789.
Pastor, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750; his name appears in 1743
among the best artists of Alcora.
Pastor, Vicente, painter, from 1728 to 1743.
Pastor, Vicente, painter, was pensioned in Paris by Count Aranda in
1784; he returned to the works in 1789, and continued there for several
years afterwards.
Peña, Vicente, modeller, 1783.
Perales, Ramon de, painter, 1750.
Periz, Joseph, modeller, from 1727 to 1731.
Periz, Joseph, mayor, painter, from 1750 to 1783.
Periz, Joseph, menor, modeller, 1783.
Perpiñan, Cristoval, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1740.
Perpiñan, Vicente, modeller, from 1731 to 1743.
Pinazo, Andres, draughtsman and carver, 1727.
Poggetti, Luis, drawing master, 1815.
Porcar, Cristoval, painter, from 1727 to 1735.
Porcar, Pascual, modeller, from 1729 to 1735.
Prast, Antonio, painter of common pottery in 1783.
Prats, Cristoval, modeller, 1783.
Prats, Cristoval, turner, from 1731 to 1750.
Prats, Francisco, modeller, from 1750 to 1783.
Prats, Fulgencio, painter, 1783.
Prats, Vicente, painter, from 1750 to 1794. In 1789 he ranked among the
first artists at Alcora.
Querol, Vicente, 1743.
Querol, Joseph, a son of Vicente, painter, from 1727 to 1750.
Querol, Manuel, painter, from 1750 to 1783.
Rech, Joseph, a native of Cataluña, painter, in 1727.
Redolat, Joseph, painter on porcelain in 1789.
Ribot, Joseph, turner, from 1731 to 1735.
Ricart, Antonio, turner, from 1729 to 1735.
Ricart, Clemente, modeller, in 1783.
Ricart, Joaquin, modeller, in 1783.
Robert, a Frenchman, painted in 1729.
Rocafort, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750; he was one of the best
artists at the manufactory in 1743.
Roman, Juan, painted from 1731 to 1735.
Roman, Manuel, painted from 1735 to 1750.
Romualdo, Joseph, painter, from 1728 to 1750.
Roux, Edouard, a French painter, who worked at Alcora, where he had been
brought by Ollery in 1728 until 1735.
Rules, Joseph de, turner, from 1731 to 1735.
Saborit, Cristoval, modeller, in 1783.
Saborit, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1736.
Saborit, Joaquin, painter, 1783.
Saborit, Joaquin, painted from 1728 to 1750.
Saborit, Manuel, modeller, in 1783.
Sagao, Rafael, draughtsman and carver, 1727.
Salvada, Joseph, 1789.
Sancho, Joaquin, painted in 1783.
Serrania, Cristoval, 1750.
Serrania, Vicente, painted from 1728 to 1743.
Soliva, Joaquin, painted pottery in 1783, and retouched porcelain in
1789.
Soliva, Miguel, painted from 1727 to 1750. In 1743 he was considered the
best artist at Alcora.
Soriano, Joseph, turner from 1731 to 1735.
Soriano, Nicasio, turner from 1731 to 1735.
Sorolla, Manuel, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Tarazona, menor, Cristoval, modeller, 1783.
Tarazona, Cristoval, painted from 1727 to 1750.
Tarazona, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1783.
Tarragó, Joseph, painter from 1728 to 1735.
Tarragó, Vicente, painter from 1727 to 1750.
Ten, Francisco, modeller in 1783.
Ten, Joaquin, painter from 1732 to 1750. In 1789 he closes the pottery
works which he had established in imitation of those of Alcora.
Ten, Joseph, 1750.
Ten, Jaime, painter from 1735 to 1750.
Terra, Cristobal, modeller, 1783.
Terra, Vicente, varnisher, 1783.
Thomas, Antonio, modeller, 1783.
Thomas, Gaspar, 1750.
Thomas, Joaquin, modeller in 1783.
Thomas, José, 1750.
Thomas, José, worked at the wheel in 1783.
Thomas, Juan, 1743, 1750.
Thomas, Mateo, 1750.
Thomas Feliu, Vicente, painter from 1729 to 1740.
Thomas, Vicente, 1783.
Torres, Cristoval, painter from 1728 to 1750.
Torres, Juan, from 1731 to 1735.
Vadenes, Cristobal, 1770.
Valentin, Pedro, painter from 1727 to 1743.
Vilar, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1750.
Vilar, Cristobal, sculptor, works in porcelain in 1789.
Vilar, Francisco, 1750.
Vilar, Joseph, modeller in 1783.
Vilar, Miguel, painter from 1727 to 1743.
Vilar, Pedro, worked in the ovens from 1735 to 1750.
Vilar, Ramon, retouched porcelain in 1789.
Vilar y Bordoñan, Cristobal, modeller in 1783.
Vilar y Bordoñan, Mariano, worked at pipe-clay porcelain in 1789.
Vilar Perpiñan, Cristobal, painted from 1739 to 1743.
Vilar Ricart, Cristobal, painter from 1727 to 1735.
Vilar Porcar, Cristobal, painter, 1727.
Vilar Ricart, Joseph, painter from January, 1731, to 1735.
Vilar Porcar, Joaquin, painter from 1727 to 1735.
Vilar Saboret, Joaquin, painter in 1729.
Yguet, Vicente, painted common pottery in 1783.
Zaragoza, Friar, worker in porcelain, 1799.
MARKS AND SIGNATURES OF THE PAINTERS WHO WORKED AT ALCORA.
From 1727 to 1784 no special mark was used at Alcora. In several
instances specimens were signed with the painter's name or initials.
In order to distinguish the qualities or sizes, coloured numbers were
frequently added.
From 1784 the letter A in gold or colours was used to mark the pottery
and porcelain made at Alcora.
The following marks were used after 1784. The a underlined, [A=],
sometimes in blue.
A number and letter, No. 4 A, G 8; No. 3 P. In 1799 the pottery made by
Friar Joseph de Zaragoza was marked M. O. X.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
MADRID.--BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN.
In 1759 King Charles III. came from Naples, having inherited the Spanish
crown on the death of his brother Ferdinand VI. Soon after his arrival
he determined to establish a porcelain manufactory at Madrid in the same
style as one which in 1736 he had founded at Naples. The documents which
exist relating to this manufactory at the archives of the Royal Palace,
Madrid, Alcala, Ministry of Finance, etc., state that before the King
left Naples, he ordered the following letter to be written to the
Secretary of State, Richard Wall, on September 11, 1759: "Likewise the
workmen and utensils used at the royal manufactory of porcelain of Capo
di Monte must be embarked from Naples to Alicant, in the vessels
prepared for that purpose, in order to continue from there the journey
to Madrid. The necessary conveyances are to be provided, and the
expenses to be charged to his Majesty's account."
Charles III. landed at Barcelona on the 17th of October, 1759, and we
find a letter written by order of the King, by the Marquis of Esquilace
to Secretary Wall, in November of the same year, in which he says that
the King had heard of the arrival in Spain of the workmen from Capo di
Monte, and gives orders that money should be supplied to the Director,
Don Juan Thomas Bonicelli. Wall answers that he "will give orders and
help the workmen who are to establish the manufactory, and let them have
every facility to examine different sorts of earths and localities which
may suit them, and that the Director, Bonicelli, should have the money
he might require."
It appears also that 300 gold ducats were given to Giuseppe Gricci,
"modeller," in absence of Bonicelli. The King ordered Wall to be
informed that he understood that a place had been found near Madrid to
establish these works, and that he was anxious to see a plan of the
exact locality. Giuseppe Gricci drew the plan of the spot chosen, and
was paid 100 gold doubloons for works connected with the manufactory.
Bonicelli sends the following list of workmen who had arrived from
Naples to the King.
Cayetano Schepers, chief composer.
Pablo Forni.
Joseph Gricci, principal modeller.
Carlos Gricci.
Esteban Gricci, modeller.
Cayetano Fumo, "
Basilio Fumo, "
Joseph Fumo, "
Carlos Fumo, "
Macedonio Fumo, "
Joseph Santorum, "
Juan Bescia, "
Bautista de Bautista, "
Antonio Morelly, "
Salvador Nofri, "
Phelipe Esplores, "
Ambrosio de Giorgi, "
Pedro Antonio de Giorgi, "
Pablo Frate, "
WORKMEN EMPLOYED IN THE KILNS.
Jenaro Bonincosa.
Nicolas Rocio.
Pasqual Rocco.
Juan Frate.
Baldo de Beneditis.
Vincenzio Frate.
Matheo Mayni.
Giorchino Amable.
Joseph Esclavo.
Antonio Aquaviva Esclavo.
WORKMEN WHO POUNDED THE COLOURS.
Francisco Conte.
Nicolas Conte.
Angelo Lionelli.
Joseph Caramello.
Joachim Pataroti, carver in pietri dure.
WORKMEN EMPLOYED AT THE WHEEL.
Joseph Grossi.
Nicolas Botino.
Juan Remini, gold beater.
Pedro Chevalier, mounter.
PAINTERS.
José de la Torre.
Juan Bautista de la Torre.
Nicolas de la Torre.
Fernando Sorrentini.
Mariano Nani.
Jenaro Boltri.
Nicolas Donadio.
Antonio Provinciale.
Joseph del Coco.
Carlos Remissi.
Francesco Simini.
Xavier Brancacio.
Joseph Esclavo.
Francisco Esclavo.
On the 19th of December, 1759, Don Carlos de Borbon, the King's
architect, presented him with the plans of the porcelain manufactory.
The spot selected was inside the gardens of the Royal Palace of Buen
Retiro. Ponz tells us in his "Viage," Vol. VI. p. 108, that the building
was large and of regular architecture. We know it cost 179,130 reals.
Don Carlos de Borbon was a black slave who had been captured with other
blacks during the reign of Ferdinand VI. The Queen-mother sent them to
Naples, and Charles III. gave them an artistic education.
Don Carlos Antonio became the King's architect. On the 22nd of May,
1760, the building was finished, the money then spent amounted to
upwards of 145,000 reals, and Larruga tells us, in his Memorias, "The
King spent in establishing this manufactory £115,000, with a yearly cost
to keep it up of £20,000."
William Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish Nation during the
years 1760-1761," London, 1763, says, p. 262: "At Madrid is lately set
up a manufacture of porcelain in the gardens of the King's palace at the
Retiro, wrought by artificers brought from Saxony." Documents exist
proving that in 1760-1761, they were already working there. Townsend, in
his "Journey through Spain in 1786 and 1787," London, 1792, says, Vol.
II., p. 278:--
"I tried to obtain admission to the china manufacture, which is likewise
administered on the King's account, but His Majesty's injunctions are so
severe that I could neither get introduced to see it, nor meet with any
one who had ever been able to procure that favour for himself. I was the
less mortified upon this occasion because, from the specimens which I
have seen, both in the palace at Madrid, and in the provinces, it
resembles the manufacture of Sèvres which I had formerly visited in a
tour through France."
In the "Nouveau voyage en Espagne, ou Tableau de l'état actuel de cette
monarchie," Paris, 1789, Vol. I. p. 233, the author tells us, how "Le
monarque actuel à établi dans leur interieur une fabrique de porcelaine,
dont l'entrée est jusquà present interdite à tout le monde. On veut sans
doute que ses essais se perfectionment dans le silence, avant de les
exposer aux yeux des curieux. Ses productions ne peuvent encore se voir
que dans les Palais des Souverains, ou dans quelques Cours d'Italie,
auxquelles il les envoie en presens."
We find in a "Nouveau voyage en Espagne," Paris, 1805, p. 34, in
describing this porcelain manufactory that the author says; "Cet
établissement tres couteux ne travaille que pour le Roi et a son compte;
il en sort des vases d'une beaute et d'un fini qui ne le cedent point à
ceux de Sèvres."
Citoyen Alquier, in 1800, the envoy of the French Republic, was allowed
to visit the manufactory.
We do not know the precise date when porcelain began to be manufactured
at the Retiro. Clarke, writing in 1761, says the works had begun, and in
1764 pupils attended the classes at the Academy of S^{n} Fernando.
Larruga, in his "Memorias," says that as soon as the building was
finished, china was made under the superintendence of Don Cayetano
Schepers; the works, during his superintendence, proved very
unsatisfactory, to his great astonishment, as the same process and
workmen were employed as at Naples. Schepers attributes it to squabbles
between the Spanish and Italian workmen. Sebastian Schepers, from 1783,
a son of Cayetano's, tried various experiments with different clays of
the country.
The porcelain made at Buen Retiro was kept for the first thirty years
for the exclusive use of the royal family, or to be sent as presents to
foreign courts. Nothing was offered for sale until January, 1789, after
Charles III.'s death, 1788, when Charles IV. determined that the china
manufactured at Buen Retiro might be sold. Even in Spain the specimens
of this china are very scarce; it is only at the palaces of Madrid,
Aranjuez, the Escorial and La Granja that an idea can be formed of the
perfection of this manufacture.
The director at that time was Don Domingo Bonicelli, a son of Don Juan
Bonicelli. Don Domingo chose a room within the Retiro, which was
arranged at a cost of £350, in which to exhibit the objects for sale.
Another room was taken in the Calle del Turco, which is mentioned in
"Noticias varias y curiosas de Madrid," Valero Chicarro, 1762-1793,
which we find was closed in 1800, as the "objects manufactured at the
Retiro were simply for ornament, and could only be bought by very rich
persons." Southey in his "Letters from Spain," London, 1797, p. 118,
says, "The old palace of Buen Retiro is converted into a royal porcelain
manufactory; the prices are extravagantly high, but they have arrived at
great excellence in the manufacture. The false taste of the people is
displayed in all the vases I saw there, which though made from Roman
models, are all terminated by porcelain flowers."
Every kind of porcelain was made at Buen Retiro, hard and soft paste,
white china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and modelled in the style of
Capo di Monte. A great many existed imitating the blue jasper ware of
Wedgwood, and they also made flowers, coloured and biscuit, groups, and
single figures, and painted porcelain of different kinds. Great
quantities of tiles for pavements were also made there, which may still
be seen at the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez; they are mentioned in the
accounts which exist at the Ministry of Finance for 1807 and 1808. We
find in these same accounts interesting details of the objects made
monthly. In January, 1808, a large number of figures were made,
including 151 heads for the table centre which was made for the king,
306 objects ornamented with paintings, 2,056 tiles, 577 objects of less
artistic importance, such as dishes, plates, etc. The finest specimens
which exist are in the Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the
Palaces of Madrid and Aranjuez of which the walls are completely covered
with china plaques and looking-glasses, modelled in the most admirable
manner with figures, fruits, and flowers. The room at Aranjuez is
covered with a bold ornamentation of figures in the Japanese style, in
high relief, painted with colours and gold with the most exquisite
details. The figures unite the fine Italian modelling with the Japanese
decoration. The chandelier is in the same style. Upon a vase on the
wainscot to the right of the entrance door is the following inscription:
JOSEPH
GRICC^{I}
DELINEAV^{it}
ET
SCUL^{it}
1763.
This same date is repeated in the angles, and in some shields near the
roof we find,
AÑO
1765;
probably the year the work was terminated. Antonio Conca, in his
"Descrizione Odeporica della Spagna in cui spezialmente si da notizia
delle cose spettanti alle Belle Arti," Parma, 1793, Vol. III., p. 310,
says, "Il Gabineto abbelitto di porcellana della Fabbricca del Retiro ha
meritato le bodi de curiozi viaggiatori." We also find in p. 119, "Un
altro Gabinetto vien chiamato della Cina pel sud principal ornata di bei
putti, di bassi relievi, e di altre opere di porcellana della nuova Real
Fabbricca del Ritiro." Ponz, in his "Viage de España," Madrid, 1782,
describes the room at the Palace of Madrid, saying, "it is covered with
large plaques of porcelain made at Buen Retiro. In some are represented
figures of children copied from models, and between each compartment
looking-glasses are let in." (See woodcut.)
[Illustration: ROOM DECORATED WITH BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN, IN THE PALACE
AT MADRID.]
From the establishment of the manufactory in 1759 by Charles III.
until 1803 the styles adopted at Capo di Monte had been followed. At the
beginning of this century Dn. Bartolomé Sureda went to Paris to learn
the manner in which Sèvres porcelain was made. On his return in 1803 he
was appointed director of the works at Buen Retiro and endeavoured to
imitate the paste and brilliancy of decoration of Sèvres. Two workmen
came over from Paris--Victor Perche, and Vivien.
Among the finest specimens of this period of the manufactory are a
splendid clock and four vases, two mètres high, with porcelain flowers,
which exist in one of the state rooms of the Palace of Madrid. The vases
are placed in the four corners of the room. The clock is ornamented with
large biscuit figures. A large number of vases exist at the royal
Palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, and Escorial, of Retiro china. They are
often finely mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or porcelain flowers.
The blue of the imitations of Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the
biscuit work so fine as the English. Gold is often added to these
specimens.
We find at the archives of the Ministry of Finance interesting details
of a dinner service made in 1798 for Charles IV., and a centre-piece,
which probably is that now in the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez.
When the French made their entry into Madrid in the spring of 1808 they
took possession of the position occupied by the royal manufactory. In
July of the same year it continued in the hands of the French, who
forced open the doors of the laboratory. Porcelain continued, however,
to be made there during the reign of Joseph I.; we find in "Travels
through Spain and part of Portugal," London, 1808, p. 23, that, the
author says, "the gardens of the Buen Retiro are open to the public. In
the neighbourhood of these the royal porcelain manufacture is carried on
in a large white building." Lord Blayney, in his "Narrative of a Journey
through Spain and France in 1810-1814," London, 1814, says that "the
royal manufactures of tapestry and porcelain have declined since the
death of Charles III. and have now entirely ceased."
We find in "Paseos por Madrid," Madrid, 1815-8, p. 87, it stated that
"The English, at the second entry of our troops in Madrid, ruined this
building in order that it should not be used as a fortress by the French
troops."
Richard Ford, in his "Handbook for Travellers in Spain," London, 1845,
says, "Everything was destroyed by the invaders, who turned the
manufactory into a fortification, which surrendered with 200 cannon,
Aug. 14th, 1812, to the Duke of Wellington. Ferdinand VII., on his
restoration, re-created La China, removing the workshops and ware rooms
to the Moneloa."
The South Kensington Museum contains an interesting collection of Buen
Retiro porcelain of different kinds, of which may be named:
No. 344-'66. A vase of biscuit porcelain, two-handled, with frieze of
classic dancing figures and flowers.
Nos. 333, 4-'66. Two small vases for tea, white porcelain, covered with
flowers in relief.
No. 892-'75. A pair of vases painted with young bacchanals in rose
camaïeu, and gilt.
No. 893-'75. A pair of draped female figures, each holding a cornucopia,
standing on an altar-shaped plinth.
No. 894-'75. A clock case, white porcelain, of rock and scroll work,
with flowers and groups of amorini.
No. 332-'76. A group of Ariadne and the panther.
No. 1068-'73. A pair of tall vases, with gilt serpent handles, the necks
fluted with gold, the upper part of the body painted with classic
groups, and with coloured scroll foliage in relief, the lower part
painted with leaves and scrolls on white ground. (See woodcut on next
page.)
[Illustration: BUEN RETIRO VASE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
MARKS USED AT THE PORCELAIN MANUFACTORY OF BUEN RETIRO.
[Illustration]
The usual mark in blue.
[Illustration]
In blue, and sometimes in violet and gold.
[Illustration]
Cayetano or Carlos Fumo. The initials and date are graved in the clay
under the glaze; the fleur-de-lis is pencilled in blue. On a fine group
of children playing with a goat.
[Illustration]
This mark is graved in the clay, under the glaze, on a fine group
modelled by Salvador Nofri.
[Illustration]
Ochogavia? graved in the soft clay on a figure.
[Illustration]
1798, Sorrentini? These marks are pencilled in red on a pink cup and
saucer, with landscapes painted _en grisaille._
[Illustration]
Pedro Antonio Georgi? The initials P. G. are gilt; the M crowned in red;
the V and M graved in the clay; on a cup and saucer buff coloured.
[Illustration]
Provinciale? The letters Po are graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in
blue; on two saucers, beautifully painted with children.
[Illustration]
Probably the initial of the king. On two jardinières; the interlaced C's
graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in blue.
[Illustration]
On two large vases imitating Wedgwood's blue and white jasper, with
white biscuit flowers.
[Illustration]
On a group of biscuit Retiro porcelain of two figures representing
Painting. The same mark appears on a figure of Apollo, about one foot
high. This mark is stamped on the porcelain; the letters are in relief
tinted rose colour.
[Illustration]
At the room decorated with Buen Retiro plaques at Aranjuez. It appears
on a vase in relief, which is placed on the basement to the right on
entering. The date 1765 appears on the ceiling, probably the year when
the work was finished.
[Illustration]
Graven on the clay on a white soft paste bracket painted with coloured
flowers belonging to Count Valencia de D^{n} Juan.
[Illustration]
On a cup at the Museo Arqueologico, Mad., painted with landscapes. The
initials are of Pedro Antonio Giorgi, who painted from 1802 to 1808.
[Illustration]
Engraved on the clay on a plaque of blue biscuit porcelain imitating
Wedgwood jasper ware, representing a mythological subject.
[Illustration]
On a dessert plate representing a vine leaf at the Museo Arqueologico.
The initials appear to be those of Felipe Gricci, a son of the first
modeller José, who came with Charles III. from Naples.
[Illustration]
Fleur-de-lis graven in the clay on a fine group of three figures.
LIST OF DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE ROYAL MANUFACTORY
OF THE BUEN RETIRO FROM ITS FOUNDATION, IN 1759, UNTIL 1808:
DIRECTORS.
Bonicelli, Juan Thomas, principal Director at the establishment of the
manufactory in 1759.
Bonicelli, Domingo. In 1786 he was Director; in 1796 he solicits his
retirement, and died soon after.
Cristobal de Torrijos, appointed Director in 1797, after the death of
Don Domingo Bonicelli.
Sureda, Bartolomé, Director in 1804, and continues in 1808.
PRINCIPAL MODELLERS AND SUPERINTENDENTS, POSSESSING THE SECRETS OF THE
FABRICATION (SECRETISTAS).
Schepers, Cayetano, first Modeller in 1759.
Gricci, Carlos, son of Joseph Gricci, came to Spain, 1759. He appears in
a list of artists employed in 1764: he died 1795.
Gricci, Felipe, 1785. In 1802 he was first Modeller.
Forni, Antonio, second Modeller in 1802.
SCULPTORS.
Agreda, Esteban, born at Logroño, 1759. He obtained several prizes at
the Academy of San Fernando; employed in 1797, and continued to work
there in 1808.
Avila, Ceferino de, employed 1799, and continued there in 1808.
Avila, Juan de, 1771, and continued there in 1808.
Bautista, Bautista de, 1759.
Bautista, Cayetano, 1785.
Bautista, Juan Lopez, employed from 1799 to 1808.
Benedictis, Cayetano, 1785, 1802.
Benincasa, Miguel, 1778, and continues to work in 1808.
Benincasa, Vicente, 1785.
Bergaz, Alonso, 1764.
Bescia, Juan, 1759.
Borbon, Geronimo, 1802
Borbon, Genaro, 1784 and 1808.
Caravielo, Miguel, 1785.
Chaves, Alonso, born at Madrid in 1741. In 1760 was appointed Modeller,
and in 1763 obtained a Second Prize at the Academy, and a First Prize in
1766.
Chaves, Justo, 1785.
Esplores, Felipe, 1759.
Estebe, Antonio, 1778 and 1808.
Flores, Josef, 1785.
Forni, Pablo, 1759.
Francholy, Angel, 1776 to 1808.
Francholy, José, 1804 to 1808.
Francholy, Luis, 1785.
Frate, Carlos, 1785 to 1802.
Frate, Josef, 1785.
Frates, Juan, 1794 to 1808.
Frate, Pablo, from 1759 to 1785.
Frates, Mateo, 1797 to 1808.
Frates, Mateo, born at Madrid in 1788. First Prize of the Academy in
1805; in 1829 was appointed Director of the China establishment at the
Moncloa.
Frates, Francisco, 1764 to 1808.
Fumo, Basilio, in 1759 was Director of the China manufactory; in 1779 he
was appointed a Member of the Academy of San Fernando; died in 1797.
Fumo, Carlos, 1759.
Fumo, Cayetano, 1759.
Fumo, Joseph, 1759; died in 1799.
Fumo, Macedonio, 1759, and continues in 1802.
Fumo, Bernabé, 1802.
Giorgi, Pedro Antonio de, 1759, and continues in 1785.
Giorgi, Carlos, 1785 to 1808.
Giorgi, Ambrosio de, 1759.
Giorgi, Antonio, 1795 to 1808.
Gricchi, Joseph, 1759. In 1766 was appointed Honorary Director of the
Academy of San Fernando; died in 1769.
Gricci, Esteban, 1759.
Guijarro, Dionisio, 1798 to 1808.
Llorente, Manuel, 1764 to 1785.
Morelly, Antonio, 1759 to 1785.
Nofri, Salvador, 1759 to 1785.
Nofri, Justo, 1778 to 1808.
Nofri, or Noferi, Juan, 1802.
Ochogavia, Manuel, 1764. Born in Galicia in 1744; in 1760 won a Second
Prize of Sculpture at the Academy, and in 1763 a First Prize.
Palmerani, Domingo, 1795, 1808.
Palmerani, Angel, 1799 to 1808.
Penaba, Joseph, 1793 to 1808.
Rodriguez, Antonio, 1797 to 1808.
Sancho, Dionisio, 1788. Born at Cienpozuelos in 1762; won a Prize at the
Academy in 1793; was appointed a Member of the Academy, 1796; in 1810 he
went to Mexico, where he died, 1829.
Santorum, Joseph, 1759.
Sorrentini, Fernando, 1785 to 1808.
Sorrentini, Rafael, 1785.
Sorrentini, Francisco, 1802.
Valentin, José, 1779 to 1808.
Valentin, Miguel, 1785.
PAINTERS.
Alonso, Francisco, 1764.
Boltri, Genaro, 1756. Born in Naples in 1730; in 1759 he came to Madrid
with Charles III.'s household, and worked at the Retiro; died in Madrid
in 1788.
Brancasio, Xavier, 1759.
Brancacho, Domingo, 1762 to 1803.
Branga, Ignacio de, 1800, painter of figures; he continues there in
1808.
Camaron, Josef, 1802. Born at Segorbe in 1760; in 1776 he won a prize of
painting at Valencia; he was pensioned to Rome, and appointed Painter in
Ordinary to the King.
Castillo, Fernando del, born at Madrid in 1740. He was appointed Painter
at the manufactory, and worked there until his death in 1777.
Coco, Joseph del, 1759.
Cruz, Mariano de la, 1807, 1808.
Domeu, Carlos, 1785.
Donadio, Nicolas, 1759.
Giorgi, Pedro Antonio, 1802.
Martinez, Antonio, 1764.
Martinez, Pedro, 1796 to 1808.
Nani, Mariano, 1759. His wife received a pension from 1804, probably the
year of his death.
Peshorn, Jorge, 1788, and continues working in 1802.
Provinciale, Antonio, 1759 and 1785.
Quirós, Juan José, 1802.
Rimini, Carlos, 1759.
Romero, Juan Bautista, 1800. Flowers and fruit; appears in lists of
1802.
Rubio, Joseph, 1799 to 1808.
Semini, Francisco, 1759.
Soriano, Joaquin, 1799. Landscape painter in 1800; continues in 1808.
Sorrentini, Josef, 1756, probably from Capo di Monte. In 1802 he asks
for a retiring pension.
Sorrentini, Fernando, 1759.
Sorrentini, Pablo, 1764 to 1808.
Sorrentini, Gabriel, 1769 to 1808.
Sorrentini, Manuel, 1785 to 1802.
Torre, Joseph de la, 1759.
Torre, Nicolas de la, 1759. In 1802 asks for a retiring pension.
Torre, Raphael de la, 1759.
Torre, Juan Bautista de la, 1759 and 1808.
Torre, Josef de la, 1785 and 1802.
Torre, Francisco de la, 1796 to 1808.
Torre, Julian de la, 1802.
Velasquez, Castor, 1807, and continued in 1808. Born in Madrid in 1768
and obtained a prize at the Academy in 1787.
VARIOUS ARTISTS EMPLOYED IN THE MANUFACTORY.
Agreda, Manuel, Sculptor, a brother of Esteban Agreda; he superintended
the making of biscuit china; born at Haro in 1773; won prizes at the
Academy; and was employed at the Manufactory from 1805 to 1808.
Bautista, Juan, employed to make porcelain flowers from 1785 to 1808.
Bautista, Francisco, appears in 1802 as maker of porcelain flowers.
Bautista, Sebastian, appears in 1802 as a maker of porcelain flowers.
Chevalier, Pedro, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1759, and continued to
work at the Manufactory in 1763.
Escalera, Josef, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1781, and continued to work
at the Manufactory in 1808.
Perche, Jaime Victor, French workman brought from Paris to prepare
porcelain, from 1803 to 1809.
Vivien, French workman, brought from Paris to prepare porcelain, from
1803 to 1809.
At the same time that porcelain was made at Retiro and Alcora, other
manufactories of a similar kind were established in Spain; but none of
them could compete with these. The most important was established at
Sargadelos, Galicia, in 1804. One of the finest specimens which have
reached us of this manufactory is a large bas relief representing the
massacres of the Spaniards by the French in Madrid on the 2nd of May,
1808.
GLASS.
Since the South Kensington Museum purchased the largest collection of
old and modern Spanish glass in Europe, the taste for and study of this
branch of industry has increased to a very great extent. It is evident
that this manufacture attained great importance during the three last
centuries, and possibly existed at an earlier period; and that glass
objects made in Spain possess a special and distinct character,
different to those made in other countries. Before the objects at the
Kensington Museum were collected, the existence of this industry in
Spain was comparatively unknown.
The earliest mention of glass works in Spain will be found in Pliny,
who, while explaining the proceedings which were employed in this
industry, says that glass was made in a similar manner in France and
Spain: "Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo harenae
temperantur."--L. XXXVI. cap. 66.
The next allusion to this industry will be found in the works of San
Isidoro. This eminent man lived in the 7th century, and after quoting
the observations of the Roman author, gives us to understand that this
industry existed before his time in Italy, France, and Spain: "Olim
fiebat et in Italia, et per Gallias, et Hispaniam arena alba mollissima
pila mola que terebatur." [Divi. Isid. Hisp. Etymologiarum, I. XVI. cap.
16.] It is evident, therefore, from this passage, that glass was made to
a large extent in the Spanish Peninsula during the Roman period. This is
confirmed by the number of specimens which are constantly found in
ruins. We learn also that the manufacture had ceased to exist in the
seventh century.
Glass vessels of the Roman period found in Spain are similar in form and
manufacture to those which we know were made in France and Italy. This
is not to be wondered at, if we remember that the Romans imposed their
artistic forms on the countries they conquered. It is impossible to
classify the specimens of this industry into determined localities. The
study of the glass paste may, at some future period, give materials for
such a classification.
One special characteristic of Roman glass may be taken into account to
be applied to Spanish glass of a later period. We find ancient specimens
constantly ornamented with a sort of thread or line which runs all over
the vase. These lines are sometimes made of transparent glass, and
sometimes of white opaque glass, termed in Italy _latticinio_ from its
milky whiteness. When the industry of glass making was revived in Europe
during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, classical forms were
copied in this as in other industries; this line ornamentation was
copied on a much smaller scale in Italy than in Spain, where it
constituted the chief and constant characteristic of glass making. It is
an interesting fact that objects of a traditional Moorish form have the
greatest amount of lines of this style of ornamentation. We cannot,
until this subject is more thoroughly investigated, do otherwise than
infer either that the tradition of this industry was preserved in Spain,
or that the Arabs imported this style of decoration from the same
localities from which it had been copied by the Romans centuries before.
The comparison of these different styles of glass making can be carried
out in a most satisfactory manner in London by examining the fine
specimens of glass in the British Museum (Slade collection), and the old
Spanish glass at South Kensington.
We have no specimens of glass of the Visigothic period. If, as is most
probable, glass was used by the Visigoths, they may have imported it
from the East, for the text I have quoted from the works of St. Isidore
seems to prove that this industry had ceased to exist in his time. The
glass paste of different colours must, however, be mentioned, which is
set in gold in the Visigothic crowns found at Guarrazar, near Toledo. It
imitates precious stones, and was very generally used during the
Byzantine period; its occurrence here makes it appear probable that at
any rate the tradition of this industry existed in Spain.
From the 8th to the end of the 15th century, during the Mahomedan
domination, I infer that the industry of glass making became as
important in Spain as that of pottery. No specimens, however, of the
earlier period have reached us, and we must judge of what it was from
the glass vessels in the Kensington Museum, belonging to the Renaissance
period, which preserve their Oriental form, and are of a different style
to that of Venice and other localities in Europe.
A most interesting fact, which confirms this theory, will be found in a
translation made from Hebrew to Arabic of a work which treats of the
virtues of precious stones, _Lapidario_ [MS. Biblioteca del Escorial],
quoted by Rico y Sinobas in "Almanaque de la Industria," 1873. We do not
know exactly when the author Abolais lived, but in the prologue to this
MS. it is mentioned that D^{n}. Alfonso el Sabio found this book at
Toledo, and gave orders to a Jew called Juda Mosca, and a priest, Garci
Perez, to translate it into Spanish. The translation was terminated in
1250. Technical details are given in this volume concerning the
substances which are employed in glass making, and some of the minerals
found in Spain which are used in painting or enamelling it, but as this
work was written to explain the properties of minerals, as they were
understood in the author's time, he does not enter into any interesting
details, or describe the forms of these objects. Another allusion to
glass making in Spain will be found in Al Makkari, the Arabian author of
"Mohamedan Dynasties in Spain," [London, 1840, 2 vols. 4to], who quotes
an Oriental writer of the 13th century, who says, "Almeria was also
famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils, whether
of iron, copper, or glass." (Vol. I. p. 51.)
The tradition of this industry has been undoubtedly preserved at Almeria
until the present day, for in this province, and in the adjoining
villages of the province of Granada, we find that specimens are to be
met with, which possess a marked Oriental form, and are completely free
from the influence of Italian models which existed in other localities.
The most characteristic specimens consist of jars of two, four and eight
handles, bowls with ribs and handles, pilgrim's bottles, etc., of which
interesting examples exist at the South Kensington Museum. Woodcuts of
several of these are given.
All these objects are decorated with a serrated ornamentation of
buttons, trellis-work, and the lines to which I have already alluded
which were placed there after the object was made, in the Roman style.
The paste is generally of a dark green colour, and when we find these
same features in vessels of white clear glass, we may affirm that they
are contemporary imitations made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they are
very seldom to be met with in the provinces of Almeria and Granada, and
are generally found at Toledo and other localities; it is, moreover, a
common condition of Oriental art that its general form complies with a
geometrical tracery, and we never find as in Italian works of art, forms
and capricious ornamentations which interfere with the symmetry of the
general lines, and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole.
[Illustration: GLASS VASE.--SPANISH, 16TH CENTURY.]
I have been unable to find the glass industries of this period mentioned
by any contemporary author, but I owe to the courtesy of S^{r}. Romero
Ortiz some interesting details which have been taken from the archives
of certain villages, which although of a more modern date prove that
this industry existed in these localities. At about 14 miles from the
Puebla de D^{n}. Fadrique, there is a locality called Pinar de la
Vidriera, where traces of ovens and scoriæ exist belonging to an
ancient glass manufactory, which is likewise mentioned in documents of
the municipality as continuing to work in 1620. At Castril de la Peña, a
manufactory yet exists where glass is still made, and which has existed
from time immemorial in the village. The building itself is decorated
with the escutcheon of the family of Hernando de Zafra, one of the
secretaries of Queen Isabel, late in the 15th century, who must have
purchased it with other lands which he possessed there, towards the year
1492. A gallery, one mile long, which exists at the entrance of the town
from whence the sand has been extracted for this manufacture, gives an
idea of the antiquity of this industry in this particular locality. It
has been calculated that about two tons of sand were used at these glass
works every month. At Royo Molino, in the province of Jaen, a very
ancient building still exists, now half in ruins, which has been used
until very lately as a glass factory. At Maria, in the province of
Almeria, several glass manufactories have existed. The oldest, it is
believed, was about two miles from the town, and is called traditionally
"del Campo," but I have not found mention of it in any document. Three
glass ovens existed inside the town: one was established by Vicente
Botia, towards the year 1750, which lasted until 1790. Juan Martinez
established at about this period an industry of a similar kind near the
former one, which continued to work until 1854. The same green glass has
been constantly made in these localities, the same forms have been
copied, the only difference between the older and more modern specimens
consisting in the coarser and heavier quality of the glass.
[Illustration: PILGRIMS' GLASS BOTTLE.--SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.]
In treating of the glass manufactures in Spain, where Italian models
were imitated to a very great extent, we find very few allusions in
contemporary authors of the Middle Ages; it may be because glass vessels
were chiefly used with wooden and pottery utensils by the poorer
classes, and metal utensils of all kinds by those who were able to
afford them. At any rate, it is only towards the end of the Middle Ages
that we meet with information concerning this industry, which continues
uninterrupted until the present day.
Barcelona is one of the towns distinguished for the antiquity and
excellence of its glass. In a municipal edict of 1324, we find a special
prohibition that the glass ovens should not be inside the city, owing to
the danger they might cause to the rest of the population. In 1455,
permission was granted to the _vidrieros_, glassmakers, to form a guild
under the patronage of St. Bernardino, and from this period some of its
members figure as holding municipal charges. Capmany, "Memorias," Vol.
I. p. 134. According to this author, the special Ordinances of this
corporation are not known, but only those which were given by the
municipality in 1659. He adds that the master _vidrieros_ required six
years of apprenticeship and practice to be admitted to work.
From the 15th century several authors praise the glass made at
Barcelona. In a MS. by Jeronimo Paulo, who writes in 1491, a description
in Latin of the most remarkable things at Barcelona, he says, "they also
send to Rome and other places many glass vessels of different sorts and
kinds which may well compete with those of Venice." In the account of
Philip le Bel's journey to Spain on his marriage with Queen Joanna we
find the following mention of the town of Barcelona: "Et sont là faicts
les plus beauls ouvrages de voires (verres) et de cire qui soient faicts
au monde. Le Jordi (19 Janvier, 1503) Monsigneur alla au dehors de la
ville vioir ung jour où on faict voires (verres) de cristallin très
beaus." ["Collection des Voyages," Bruxelles, 1876, Vol. I., p. 257.]
Marineus Siculus, who writes early in the 16th century says, "the best
glass made in Spain is that of Barcelona," and Gaspar Barreiros in his
"Chorographia," [Coimbra, 1569,] tells us, "they made excellent glass at
Barcelona, almost equal to the Venetian." At the beginning of the 17th
century the authors, Jaime Rebullosa, in his "Descripcion del mundo,"
[Barcelona, 1603, 8vo,] and Luis Nuñez in "Hispania," [Antverpiæ, 1607,
8vo, p. 279,] continue to praise the glass made at Barcelona, and from
that period we find its merit and the vast quantity which was exported
constantly alluded to. The fame of Spanish glass must have been
justified, for in the "Viage del Cardinal Infante," by Aedo, printed in
1639, we find it stated that when the Infant Cardinal was at Barcelona,
in 1632, he went with his galleys to Mataró, four leagues from
Barcelona, to see the "glass made there which was so abundantly sold all
over the country." The Spanish translator of "La Piazza universale di
tutte le professioni," [Madrid, 1615,] adds the name of Barcelona to the
Italian author's mention of glass objects made in Venice, saying, "This
industry has reached such a degree of excellence at Murano and Barcelona
that nothing can be compared to it; there is nothing now which cannot be
made of glass and crystal, even cabinets have been made, and castles
with their towers, battlements, artillery, and fortifications." Mendez
Silva in his "Poblacion de España, [Madrid, 1654, p. 243,] repeats the
same idea when he says they made at Barcelona, "fine glass which might
compete with the Venetian." This industry continued in Cataluña to a
great extent in the last century, and was praised by the following
writers. The author of the "Atlante Español," [Vol. IV., Madrid,
1778-1795,] tells us that "they continued to make excellent glass at
Barcelona, in imitation of the Venetian, with which it might compete,"
and that this industry was carried out to a great extent at Mataró,
Cervelló, and Almatret, all three towns of Cataluña; he says that in
this last mentioned town the glass made was "so excellent, and the
number of workmen employed was so large, that an oratory had been built
in order that the workmen should hear mass there."
The constant comparisons which we find between the glass made at
Barcelona with that of Murano suggests two things--that Spanish glass
must have been of a first-rate order, and that the form of the glass
vessels was similar to those made at Venice. It is highly probable that
a great part of the specimens of glass of different kinds which are
classified as Italian in several collections, are really Spanish,
although it is extremely difficult to point out the difference. In this,
as in other branches of industry, the mania for classifying has gone too
far, and comparative studies of a more concrete order are necessary;
until these are made, the principal fact to be borne in mind in
classifying glass vessels is to compare them with objects of a similar
manufacture which have been made until very lately in Cataluña, and of
which an extremely interesting collection exists at the South Kensington
Museum, proceeding from Barcelona, Mataró and Cervelló, (Nos. 149 to
193) which will enable the amateur to see how the industry of
glass-making has continued traditionally to be preserved in that
province. See woodcut opposite representing a glass bottle, also the
central vessel in woodcut on p. 238.
Among the specimens of old Spanish glass we may consider to have
proceeded from Cataluña the following examples, forming part of the
collection acquired in 1873. Bottles, Nos. 249 to 262, cups, Nos. 336 to
339, and tumblers, Nos. 303 to 305, 312 to 314, and 328, '29. Among
these, there are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality.
The most characteristic are the _arruxiadós_, or _borracha_, a vessel
spirally ribbed with several narrow spouts, used by the peasant girls of
the villages to sprinkle rose water in the festival of the patron saint
of the district; the _porrones_, a bottle with a long spout, used by the
peasantry for drinking wine; the _cantaro_, a jug, funnel shaped with
wide mouth, handle and curved spout, and the _pilas de agua bendita_, a
holy water vessel of different shapes.
[Illustration: GLASS BOTTLE.--MODERN SPANISH.]
Very few details have reached us of the famous glass works which existed
at Cadalso, in the province of Toledo; we know, however, that the glass
made there was as excellent as that made at Cataluña, and was compared
in a similar manner to the Venetian. The unknown author of "El
Crotalon," published by the Spanish Bibliophiles, from a rare MS., in
1871, writing in the time of the Emperor Charles V., mentions "the fine
glass made at Cadalso." Marineus Siculus also writes in 1517 in his "De
las Cosas Memorables de España," [Alcala de Henares, 1539, fol., Vol.
I.,] that "Glass was made in several towns of Castile, the most
important of them being Cadalso, which supplied the whole kingdom." It
would appear therefore that this glass manufactory was already
established in that locality in the 16th century, and we frequently meet
with allusions to the excellence of its productions in contemporary
authors. The town itself has continually been called "Cadalso de los
vidrios." Mendez Silva in his "Poblacion general de España," [Madrid,
1645, p. 40] says: "They make in three glass ovens fine glass of
beautiful colours and forms, which can compete with the Venetian." At
the South Kensington Museum, there are two fine specimens of glass made
at Cadalso--No. 1068, '73, a drinking vessel of white glass, the upper
part in form of the Spanish vessel called "bucaro," ribbed and streaked
with colours; the stem pineapple shape, with remains of gilding (this is
represented in the woodcut); and No. 1082, '73, a bowl of plain glass,
the lower part spirally waved, and decorated with scale pattern in gold
and coloured dots. Both these objects proceed from a nunnery in a
village near Cadalso.
[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
Larruga says in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1791, Vol. X., p. 53,] that
"two glass ovens existed at Cadalso, which belonged to the Marchioness
of Villena; they are worked by the inhabitants of this town. One of the
ovens has fallen into disuse from the beginning of the present (18th)
century, and the fame of the glass made there, formerly so renowned for
its clearness and variety of the objects made, has declined. In
examining the state of this industry during the reign of Charles II. we
find how much it had fallen off, for Dn. Antonio de Obando in 1692,
undertook to reestablish it, and to make glass vessels, and window
glasses as had been made there formerly. It appears that 200 dozens of
objects of different kinds were sent out from there yearly." The vase,
No. 333, '73 represented in the woodcut is an example of the coloured
glass of Cadalso.
[Illustration: GLASS VASE.--SPANISH (CADALSO), 17TH CENTURY.]
Glass ovens existed from a very early period in the central provinces
of Spain, which probably imitated from the 16th century the productions
of Cadalso. We know from papers at the Archives of the Convent, of two
of these which paid a yearly rent to the monastery of San Jeronimo de
Guisando, from 1478 to 1480. One of these glass works was situated at
the Venta del Cojo on the borders of Escalona, and the other at the
Venta de los Toros de Guisando.
It is evident that a glass manufactory existed at Toledo, from some
accounts which I have found in the Archives of the Cathedral, in which
Bartolomé Lopez, vidriero, is mentioned in 1546--Pedro Fernandez in
1590, and Tomas Nuñez in 1660; as furnishing glass vessels, principally
lamps for the cathedral. Tomas Nuñez is also paid for "three crosses of
crystalline glass." In a letter written in 1690 to Count Gondomar, the
celebrated ambassador to James I., (Archives of the Palace at Madrid), I
find a glass manufactory mentioned which existed at Cebreros in the
province of Segovia. The writer says, "Your lordship knows we have a
glass oven here; this week we have made the glass called crystalline, of
which I send in a basket sixteen specimens for my lady Dna. Costanza."
Larruga tells us in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1792, Vol. XVI., p. 222,]
"That in 1680 a glass manufactory was established at San Martin de
Valdeiglesias, where glass in the Venetian style was made--the glass was
excellent. This manufactory was under the direction of Diodonet Lambot a
native of Namur. He was succeeded by Santiago Bandoleto, who was by no
means as skilful. Glass ovens were also established at the Torre de
Estevan, Hambroz, under the direction of Guillermo Torcada." At
Recuenco, in the province of Cuenca, glass works existed at the
beginning of the 16th century; but in 1722 Don Fernando Lopez de Aragon
established a manufactory on a large scale. The glass made there was
used by the king and the greater part of the rich people at Madrid. In
1739 two other glass works existed there, which continued their
operations during the rest of the century. In the same province several
glass ovens existed towards the middle of the last century. The
principal ones were established in the villages of Arbetota, Vindel and
Armallones; only coarse specimens were made there, but at an earlier
period their productions had been, Larruga tells us in the nineteenth
volume of his "Memorias," very important. The glass works which we find
mentioned in the "Atlante Español," [Madrid, 1795,] were also of a very
inferior quality; they were established at the end of the last century
at Busot, in the province of Alicante, Hinojares and Carolina, province
of Jaen. The "Correo de España," [Vol. I. Madrid, 1771,] mentions an
important glass manufactory which existed at Andorra near Alcañiz, and
one where glass of an inferior quality was made at Cabra, in the
province of Cordova. Cabanilles, "Historia y descripcion del reino de
Valencia," Barcelona, mentions the existence from a very early period of
glass works at Olleria, a village of the kingdom of Valencia.
The only mention which I have found in which Seville appears as a centre
of this industry, is an interesting allusion to the village of Cala,
which was represented in a festival which was given to Philip II. in
1578, "with a crystal glass in its hand, and several others at its feet,
because a famous glass oven existed there." ["Recibimiento que hizo
Sevilla al Rey Don Phelipe." Por Juan de Mallara, Sevilla, 1570, p. 89.]
In the 17th century, during the reign of Philip IV., the glass made at
Valdemaqueda in the province of Avila was very celebrated. In a royal
schedule, dated 1680, which states the price at which things were sold
at Madrid, "the glass made at Barcelona, Valdemaqueda, and Villafranca"
are mentioned. We find the glass of Valdemaqueda was sold for a higher
price than that made at the other localities.
The principal value of these extracts is to prove that the industry of
glass-making existed in these localities; none of the authors mentions
the principal characteristics by which the vessels made may be
classified. Those made at Almeria and Barcelona are more easily known,
for they have kept until very recently their general character; while at
Cadalso and other localities of the centre of Spain, the tradition of
the Italian models has quite disappeared. In one fact every author
agrees, namely, that the glass made in those provinces closely resembled
the Venetian, and was completely different to the system followed by the
Arabs. It is, therefore, highly probable, as I have already stated, that
a large number of objects of glass of different kinds, which have been
hitherto considered Italian, were made in Spain.
[Illustration: VASE OF GREEN GLASS, WITH BLACK HANDLES AND
RIBS.--SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.]
The following observations may serve as a guide in the difficult task of
classifying this group. The specimens of glass vessels most generally
met with in the neighbourhood of Cadalso are:--
Objects of white transparent glass, sweetmeat dishes ornamented with
ribs, buttons, and reticulated rims with touches of gold.
Objects of clear greenish glass of a paler hue than is made in the
province of Almeria, decorated with blue, or some opaque colour (see
woodcut); in some instances part of the object is decorated with a rough
crackled surface.
Objects of opaque glass with different colours, vases, glasses, cups and
saucers, of thin milk-white texture with blue spots, or imitations in
the Japanese style of different colours. Vases for holding flowers, and
other objects, of dark blue glass, milk-white cups, glass and other
objects ornamented with lines of red or blue of a thicker paste than the
preceding ones.
Although these objects are copied from Venetian models, they are coarser
in every detail, they are heavier and thicker, and the delicate and
elegant ornamentation which we find on Italian specimens is almost
always wanting, we seldom find examples of the beautiful _millefiori_
chalcedony or tortoise-shell paste, and the outline of these objects is
symmetrical and Oriental in style.
* * * * *
The royal glass manufactory at La Granja de San Ildefonso, was founded
on the remains of an important one which had been established some years
before, under the protection of Philip the 5th, at the Nuevo Bastan, in
the province of Madrid.
Towards the years 1712 to 1718, this king commissioned D^{n}. Tomas del
Burgo and D^{n}. Juan B. Pomerague to establish glass-works at the Bastan;
twenty foreign workmen were brought over with this purpose, with their
families, and the necessary implements. These gentlemen did not carry
out the undertaking to the king's satisfaction, and in 1720 his majesty
gave D^{n}. Juan de Goyeneche special privileges that he might "make every
kind of glass manufacture up to the height of twenty inches, and have
these glasses worked and polished, embroidered and covered with metal;
to make looking-glass and similar decorations, and every kind of glass
vessels, and white glass for window-panes, and every sort of glass
vessel of different kinds and forms which have been invented in the
present time, or likely to be invented in this art." In order to carry
this out, the king allowed them to have as many foreign masters and
workmen as they might require, with the sole condition that a fourth
part of the workmen employed should be Spaniards. It was prohibited that
any industry of a similar kind should be established in Spain for thirty
years, or that glass made abroad should be imported into the country.
After a long series of annoyances of every kind, Goyeneche succeeded in
meeting with the king's approbation, but as fuel was very scarce at the
Bastan, he removed the glass works to Villanueva de Alcorcon, in the
province of Cuenca. From the ruins of this glass manufactory, Larruga
says in his "Memorias," [vol. xiii., p. 274], "was founded the splendid
glass manufactory of San Ildefonso."
Ventura Sit, a native of Catalonia, constructed an oven there, which
worked from 1728 to 1736 with great success. Queen Doña Isabel
encouraged Sit, and the king ordered him to make some glasses which
might serve for mirrors. Those he made at first were small, but Sit
began by making them 30 inches long and ended by making them as large as
145 inches. The machine for polishing them was invented by a Catalan
called Pedro Fronvila.
The section of glass vessels of a superior quality began to work in
1771. Glasses, bottles, and objects of all kinds were made there under
the direction of a glass worker called Eder, a Swede, and Sivert, a
Frenchman. Another section where the same quality of glass was made was
directed by Don Segismundo Brun, a native of Hanover, but who had been
brought up from a very early age at La Granja. It was this artist who
invented gilded glass _a feu_. A large number of foreign artists worked
at this manufacture; they impressed their special style on the objects
they made, which were similar to those of the same kind manufactured in
France, England, and Germany.
From the time of Ventura Sit, towards the year 1734, the manufactory of
glass at La Granja belonged to the crown, and continued under the
protection of the Spanish kings, who spared no expense to obtain its
development. Early in the present century this industry began to decay.
Towards 1828 it passed into private hands, and continued to work until
1849. The manufactory is now closed, although there is some talk of
reviving this industry.
[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
The glass objects made at La Granja possess a very marked French style,
which renders them liable to be mistaken for French and German
productions of a similar kind. The greater part of the objects which
were made were of white clear transparent glass, richly cut and
engraved, or ornamented with gold (see woodcut). The cut glass is
generally engraved with inscriptions, views, flowers, and devices, and
until very lately has been made there in a rougher style. Coloured and
enamelled glass has also been made there, but not to so great an
extent. Glass for window panes and mirrors were ordered for the Royal
palaces. Lustres of all kinds of white and coloured glass were also made
there in the Venetian style, richly ornamented with coloured flowers. A
small chandelier of this kind is in the South Kensington Museum (No.
998, '73), the only example I have seen of a lustre of latticinio glass.
In the collection of old Spanish glass at the Museum will be found a
sufficient variety of specimens of this manufacture to give an idea of
the different styles made at La Granja. A fac-simile of one of the
engraved mirrors and a fine cut glass will be found in "Museo Español de
Antiguedades, vol. IX."
Besides glass vessels and objects of a similar kind, painted glass
windows have been made in Spain from a very early time, of which most
important specimens exist at Toledo, Leon, and other Spanish cathedrals.
The proceedings employed in this industry are too well known to require
repetition in this volume. The industry was undoubtedly imported by
foreign workmen from France and the north of Europe, and as was the case
with other industries it took root in the country, and a large number of
Spanish artists followed and took part in this industry.
* * * * *
In order to convey an idea of the height of this industry in Spain, I
give a list of the painters who worked on glass which I have collected
from the following works, to which I refer the student who may wish for
further details on the subject. Cean Bermudez, "Dicc. Hist. de los mas
ilustres Profesores de las Bellas Artes en España. Madrid, 1800."
Villanueva, "Viage á las Iglesias de España." Piferrer, "Recuerdos y
Bellezas. Mallorca." "Documentos Ineditos." Zarco del Valle.
GLASS PAINTERS IN SPAIN.
Years in which
they worked Artists. Residence.
1682. Alcalde, Francisco Burgos.
1504. Aleman, Cristoval Toledo.
1458. Aleman, Pedro Toledo.
1645. Alonso, Francisco Burgos.
1544. Arce, Juan de Burgos.
1581. Arce Burgos.
1613. Argete, Luis de Leon.
1424. Aragan, Maestro Joan Leon.
Arfian, Antonio Sevilla.
Arteaga, Matias Sevilla.
1516. Ayala, Francisco Palencia.
1605. Babel, Jorge Madrid.
1442. Baldovin, Maestro Leon.
1519. Bernal, Juan Sevilla.
1533. Borgoña, Jorge Palencia.
1439. Bonifacio, Pedro Toledo.
1562. Bruges, Carlos Cuenca.
1602. Campo, Diego del Madrid.
1522. Campa, Juan Toledo.
1674. Chilberri, Pierres de Segovia.
1509. Cuesta, Juan de Toledo.
1513. Cordova, Gonzalo de Toledo.
1538. Cotin, Gaspar de Burgos.
1459. Cristoval, El Maestro Toledo.
1566 to } Dangles, Sebastian Mallorca.
1573 }
1676. Danis, Juan Segovia.
1565. Diaz, Diego Escorial.
1418. Dolfin, El Maestro Toledo.
1485. Enrique, Maestro Toledo.
1566. Estaenheyl, Ulrrique Madrid.
1565. Espinosa, Francisco de Escorial.
1565. Espinosa, Hernando de Escorial.
1551. Ferrera, Rodrigo de Leon.
1526. Fernandez, Pedro Sevilla.
1557. Flandes, Arnao de Sevilla.
1494. Fontanet, Gil Barcelona.
1459. Frances, Pedro Toledo.
1571. Galceran, Il Maestro Escorial.
1518. Gelandia, Bernardino de Sevilla.
1608. Guillermo, Maestro Leon.
1571. Guasch, Juan Tarragona.
1674. Herranz, Francisco Segovia.
1520. Holanda, Alberto de Burgos.
1548. Holanda, Geraldo de Cuenca.
1535. Holanda, Nicolas de Burgos.
1509. Jacques, Juan Sevilla.
1427. Juan, Maestro Burgos.
1510. Juan, Hijo de Jacobo Sevilla.
1458. Juanico Toledo.
1428. Loys, Maestro Toledo.
1600. Ludeque, Diego de Madrid.
1569. Menandro, Vicente Sevilla.
1538. Ortega, Alonso de Toledo.
1534. Ortega, Juan de Toledo.
1458. Pablo, Fray Toledo.
1459. Pedro, Maestro Toledo.
1639. Perez, Sebastian Leon.
1559. Pesquera, Sebastian de Sevilla.
1600. Pierres, Antonio Madrid.
---- Resen, Pelegrin ----
1565. Resen, Renerio Madrid.
1500. Rolando, Alberto de Avila.
1500. Rolando, Nicolas de Avila.
1624. Ruiz, Valentin Burgos.
1625. Ruiz, Simon Burgos.
1368-- } Sacoma, Francisco Mallorca.
1369. }
1420 to } Sala, Antonio Mallorca.
1447. }
1542. Salcedo, Diego de Palencia.
1512. Santillana, Diego Palencia.
1498. Santillana, Juan de Burgos.
1392. San Amat, Juan Lerida.
1503. Troya, Vasco de Toledo.
1579. Valerio, Octavio Malaga.
1562. Valdivieso, Diego de Cuenca.
1497. Valdivieso, Juan Burgos.
1538. Vergara, Arnao de Sevilla.
1521. Vergara, Nicolas de Burgos.
1606. Vergara, Nicolas de, El Mozo Toledo.
1574. Vergara, Nicolas de, el Viejo Toledo.
1590. Vegara, Juan de Toledo.
1518. Vivan, Juan Sevilla.
1605. Volui, Gil Leon.
1509. Ximenez, Alexo Toledo.
1458. Ximeno. Toledo.
TEXTILE FABRICS.
The silence of San Isidoro on the subject of textile fabrics in Spain
would lead us to suppose that this industry only became important during
the Arab domination; the Moors probably imported this industry into
Spain from the earliest times of their conquest. A great number of
provinces were famed then for the excellence of their textile fabrics;
the most important of them, according to the testimony of Moorish and
Christian writers, was Almeria. The Cordovese historian, Ash Shakandi,
who wrote at the beginning of the 13th century, says: "Almeria is an
opulent and magnificent city, whose fame has spread far and wide; the
inhabitants are very elegant in their dress. Almeria is the greatest
mart in Andalus, Christians of all nations came to its port to buy and
sell, and they had factories established in it. From thence the
Christian merchants who came to its port travelled to other parts in the
interior of the country, where they loaded their vessels with such goods
as they wanted. Costly silken robes of the brightest colours are
manufactured in Almeria," [Moh. Dyn. in Spain, I. 52]. Almakkari adds,
[p. 51]: "But what made Almeria superior to any other city in the world
was its various manufactures of silks and other articles of dress, such
as the _dibaj_ [silken stuff of many colours], a sort of silken cloth
surpassing in quality and durability anything else manufactured in other
countries; the _tiraz_ or costly stuff on which the names of sultans,
princes, and other wealthy individuals are inscribed, and of which no
less than 800 looms existed at one time; of more inferior articles such
as the _holol_ (striped silks) and brocades, there were 1000 looms, the
same number were continually employed in weaving the stuffs called
_iskalátón_ (scarlet). There were also 1000 for weaving robes called Al
jorjáni (Georgian), and another 1000 for weaving robes called Isbahani,
from Isfahan, and a similar number for Atabi. The manufacture of damask
for curtains and turbans for the women, of gay and dazzling colours,
employed a number of hands equal to that of those engaged in the
manufacture of the above mentioned articles."
An oriental author asserts that Abd-ul-Rahman II. A.D. 825-852 was the
first sultan of his race who introduced into Spain the use of the
_tiraz_ [_ib._ Vol. II. 434]. Another explains that Atabi took the name
of a suburb of Bagdad "where were made the stuffs called _otabi_,
composed of cotton and silk of different colours." [Consult Dozy, 'Dict.
des vêtements.']
Ash Shakandi also mentions Malaga as famous for its textile fabrics; he
says--"Malaga is also famous for its manufactures of silks of all
colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a suit made out of
them will cost many thousands; such are the brocades with beautiful
drawings, and the names of khalifs, amirs, and other wealthy people,
woven in them." [Moham. Dynast. Vol. I. 49.] Further on the same writer
adds, "As at Malaga and Almeria, there are at Murcia several
manufactures of silken cloth called _al washiu thalathat_, [variegated,
of many colours.] It is likewise famous for the fabric of carpets called
_tantili_, which are exported to all countries of the east and west; as
also a sort of mat, of the brightest colours, with which the Murcians
cover the walls of their houses." [_ib._ p. 69.]
Arabic texts are frequently met with which allude to the manufactures of
textile fabrics of Granada, Seville, and other towns, in which their
productions are praised, and there is no doubt that they were very
remarkable; for Christian authors of the middle ages refer to them so
continually. Students who wish for a more extensive idea of this subject
must remember the quotations and information given by Francisque Michel
concerning Spanish stuffs, [Recherches sur le Comm., la Fabric. etc.,
des Etoffes, etc. Paris, 1852.] He tells us--"Nous trouverons tout
d'abord les pailles d'Almérie, ville de la côte meridionale d'Espagne,
qui jouissait d'une réputation proverbiale pour la beauté et la finesse
de ses tissus de soie, vantés dans mille endroits de nos vieilles
chansons de geste, de nos anciens poëmes" [Vol. I. p. 284]. Further on
he continues [Vol. I. p. 286], "à l'époque à laquelle appartiennent les
textes, et même auparavant, la culture et la fabrication de la soie
étaient des plus prospères à Almérie et en général dans le royaume de
Grenade. 'Du royaume de Grenade vient cire, soie, figues, etc.' ... ce
qu'il y a de bien certain, c'est que les étoffes d'Espagne étaient
célèbres dès le 9^{e} siècle. Anastase le Bibliothécaire en parle en
quatre endroits sous le nom de _spaniscum_; et en placant ce tissu à la
suite de _fundatum_ et du _stauracin_ il nous donne suffisamment à
entendre qu'il était de grand prix, et de soie comme eux. Un biographe
de Saint Ansegise, mort en 835, placé de même une couverture d'Espagne,
_stragulum_, _Hispanicum unum_, à la suite de tapis ou teintures.
"Il est malaise de déterminer la matière des étoffes qu'un écrivain
byzantin du 12^{e} siècle nous dit fabriquées en Espagne et aux colonnes
d'Hercule--tout nous permet de croire qu'elles étaient de soie de tout
ou en partie, ou du moins qu'elles étaient comptées parmi les tissus
précieux.... Saragosse produisait aussi des draps d'or--et nous trouvons
au 13^{e} siècle que le géographe Edrisi pouvait dire qu'il y avait dans
le seul territoire de Jaen 3000 villages où l'on élevait des vers de
soie. Nous savons qu'à Seville, sous la domination des Maures, elle
comptait 6000 métiers pour ces étoffes de soie. Les règlements
municipaux dont les royaumes de Grenade et de Seville ont été l'objet
suffisaient pour nous apprendre que l'industrie de la soie fut
florissante durant le moyen âge. Nous signalerons les draps d'or et de
soie que D. Pedro de Luna en 1327 apporta à l'infante Léonore, sœur
d'Alphonse XI., à l'occasion de son mariage, et nous savons qu'un
ministre de Pedro le cruel possédait à Toledo 125 coffres de drap d'or
et de soie."
Edrisi in his "Déscrip. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne," [Leyde, 1866,]
writing in the 12th century, says p. 239: "Almérie était la ville
principale des Musulmans à l'Espagne des moravides. Elle était alors
très industrieuse, et on y comptait entre autres 800 métiers à tisser la
soie, où l'on fabriquait des étoffes connus sous le nom de _holla_, de
_debady_, de _siglaton_, d'_espahani_, de _djordjani_: des rideaux ornés
de fleurs, des étoffes ornés de clous, de petits tapis, des étoffes
connus sous les noms de _attabi_, de _mi djar_."
To complete this historical information, and especially in order to add
details as to the technical character of this manufacture, the Rev.
Daniel Rock's interesting introduction to "Textile Fabrics, a
Descriptive Catalogue, London, 1870," must be consulted; although,
notwithstanding the learned author's remarks, it is extremely difficult,
in my opinion, to classify textile fabrics proceeding from Syria,
Sicily, or the Spanish Arabs, as all, whether imitations or originals,
are similar in manufacture.
M. Michel and Dr. Rock enter into numerous details concerning the
ancient names of stuffs, and in order further to illustrate this subject
I venture to propose a different etymology than the one given by these
writers of the word Samit, Samitum, or Xamet, which, although slightly
different in orthography, is met with everywhere in Europe. My opinion
is that it means stuff made at Damascus, for the word Sham
[Illustration: Arabic writing] is applied to the name of this town as
well as to that of Syria, and the appellative Shami and Shamit
[Illustration: Arabic writing] appears in the lexicon to express what
comes from Damascus or Syria.
The oldest specimen which I know of Spanish Arab textile fabric, is a
woollen fragment of very fine quality embroidered in colours, which is
at the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. It is about 1½ yards
long, by 18 inches wide. In medallions embroidered in silks are
represented seated figures which appear to be a king, a lady, lions,
birds, and quadrupeds. In two borders occurs the following inscription,
repeated in cufic characters: "In the name of God, clement and merciful:
The blessing of God and happiness for the caliph Iman Abdallah Hixem,
favoured of God, prince of believers."
[Illustration: Arabic]
Hixem reigned from A.D. 979 until the first years of the 11th century.
This fragment was found inside a small casket on the altar of a church
in the town of San Esteban de Gormaz, province of Soria, where it was
probably taken as a war trophy: it may be classified as a stuff called
_tiraz_ [Illustration: Arabic], the skirt of a robe. An oriental author
tells us that among the customs which contribute to give splendour to
sovereignty is that of putting the name, or some other sign belonging to
kings on the stuffs of their robes; that these inscriptions are woven
into the material with gold or coloured thread of a different hue to the
ground, and that royal robes were always made of _tiraz._ The caliphs of
Cordova had a place set apart in their palaces where this stuff was
kept: this custom lasted until the 11th century when it disappeared, and
was re-established in the 13th century with the kings of Granada. (Moh.
Dyn. vol. i., pp. 356 and 397; Mus. Esp. de Ant. vol. vi. pp. 464 and
465.)
Another most important object, although less ancient than the former
one, is an Arabian banner which is traditionally believed to have been
taken from the Almohades at the battle of Las Navas, A.D. 1212. This
banner, which is preserved at the monastery of Las Huelgas of Burgos, is
ten feet high by seven feet three inches wide. It is made of a crimson
stuff, covered with an ornamentation woven and embroidered in gold and
colours. In the centre is a large circle, placed within a square, which
is enlarged in parallel bands. The four largest bands, which are also
the last, are covered with inscriptions in blue African characters. The
upper part of this banner is prolonged with several bands, one of which
has inscriptions of a similar kind to those already mentioned; other
borders contain several sentences in small African letters. The lower
part is also prolonged and is terminated by eight points cut in a
semicircle, inside which there are discs with illegible inscriptions.
Three violet coloured lions, similar in form to those which appear on
the arms of Leon, may be seen on three of the sides of the square. In
the large circle in the centre of this banner, appears eight times
repeated the word "The Empire," [Illustration: Arabic]. This inscription
is embroidered or woven in Cufic characters, in a similar style to those
at the Alhambra; it is a strange circumstance that the letters appear on
the wrong side, as if this was the back of the stuff; the word which
seems to be required to complete this sentence, "God," is also wanting.
The large inscriptions in blue of the five bands reproduce Suras of the
Koran, and pious sentences in one of the small ones on the upper part.
S^{r.} Fernandez, who has published an article on this banner in Mus.
Esp. [vol. vi., p. 469], thinks he finds a date which corresponds with
the year A.D. 1140. I am not, however, satisfied with his interpretation
of the inscription contained in the large centre circle, or the date he
gives; for comparing the ornamentation of this specimen with other
textiles, and the designs used in Moorish architecture, it appears to me
that it must be considered as belonging to the 14th century. This may be
easily accounted for by some historical mistake in the tradition
respecting it at the convent of Las Huelgas. It is highly probable that
King Alfonso XI. may have given this banner to the convent, and have
been mistaken for King Alfonso VIII.; the conqueror of the battle of Las
Navas.
The specimens of Spanish moresco stuffs in the Kensington Museum, will
be found numbered 51, 121, 124, 125, 152, 160, 180, 241, 244. (V. Dr.
Rock's Catalogue.)
The artistic industry of silk manufactures which was initiated in Spain
by the Arabs, continued to flourish during the Middle Ages and a great
part of the Renaissance. Malaga and Almeria were important centres, but
later on this industry was chiefly centred at Granada. The silk fabrics
made at Seville, Toledo, Murcia and Valencia were much esteemed. The
Moorish style of ornamentation in embroideries and stuffs must soon have
fallen into disuse. Owing to the materials of similar kinds imported
from Italy, France, Flanders, and other countries, these manufactures
were imitated to a great extent, as may be gathered by the immense
number of specimens which are still to be met with in Spanish churches.
The cathedral of Toledo is quite a museum of objects of this kind, but
all the textiles there are woven in the European manner.
The Moorish style in stuffs was preserved at Granada longer than in any
other town in Spain. In 1502, ten years after its conquest by the
Christians, we find it stated in the "Voyage of Philip le Beau," the
father of the Emperor Charles V.: "Grenade est fort marchande,
principallement de soyes, car les marchans y achattent la pluspart des
soyes que l'on maine en Italie, pour faires les draps de soyes. Le lieu
où on les vendt est nommé le Sacquatin. Auprès de ce lieu est une place
appellée l'Allecasserie, où on vendt les draps de soyes ouvrés à la
Moresque, qui sont moult beaus pour la multitude des couleurs et la
diversité des ouvrages, et en font une grande marchandise." ["Collect.
de Voyages, par M. Gachard, Bruxelles," 1870, i. 205.] Navagiero, who
visited Spain twenty years after, tells us in his "Viaggio fatto in
Spagna" [Vinegia 1563, p. 21]: "One enters a place called Alcaiceria
which is enclosed within two doors, and full of alleys where the Moors
sell silks and embroideries of every kind" [p. 29]: "All sorts of cloths
of silks are made there; the silks made at Granada are much esteemed all
over Spain; they are not so good as those which come from Italy. There
are several looms, but they do not yet know how to work them well; they
make good taffetas, sarcenet, and silk serges. The velvets are not bad,
but those that are made at Valencia are better in quality."
Dr. Rock considers the following specimens in the Kensington Museum to
have been made at Granada: Nos. 26, 27, 60, 65, 73, 128, 161, 166.
Larruga tells us in his "Memorias" [vol. vii. 205], that the silk
manufactures established at Toledo consumed in 1480 about 450,000 pounds
of silk: they decreased about forty years afterwards. In the ordinances
issued from that town in 1494, which were confirmed by the Emperor
Charles V. we find that the following stuffs were made at Toledo:
"Stuffs of gold and silver which are made in the same manner as satin.
"Satins woven with gold.
"Satins brocaded with silk and gold or silver flowers.
"Silver serges with double filigree.
"Silver and gold materials, which are made like _gorgoran_ or serge.
"Silver and gold stuffs which are made like taffetas, spring silver with
silk flowers.
"Embroidered stuffs.
"Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or _berguilla_.
"_Lama_, cloth of silver, shaded with silver watering.
"Plain silk stuffs woven with silver or gold called _restaño_.
"Silk stuffs woven with gold or silver called _relampagos_.
"Serges woven with gold and silver for church vestments.
"Plain filigree serges.
"_Velillo_ of silver.
"Satin woven with gold and silver.
"Brocades of different kinds.
"Church vestments.
"Silver _primaveras_.
"Serges for church vestments."
("Ord. Ant. de Toledo," Tol. 1858, p. 223).
Until the middle of the 17th century, Larruga tells us in vol. vii. p.
208 of his "Memorias," the silk manufacture of Toledo was one of those
most highly esteemed in Spain; from this time it was superseded by the
manufactures of Seville, Granada, Valencia, and others. These cheapened
their productions; but Toledo insisted on keeping to the old Spanish
yard and weight in every kind of stuffs. In 1651 fifty looms belonged to
this manufacture, although most of them were established in the suburbs.
In this year there was a great decrease in the price of the coin, and
the Genoese introduced a large quantity of silk stuffs, so much so that
only twenty looms could be kept working at Toledo. After this, in 1663,
2061 looms existed there.
The silk manufacture of Toledo continued to lose its importance in
consequence of the vast importations of foreign silks, but the
traditions of this industry have never disappeared from the city.
Larruga, who enters into this subject at great length in the seventh and
eighth volumes of his "Memorias," mentions the silk manufacture of D^{n}.
Miguel Gregorio Molero, "who made from the year 1714, under his
direction and that of Christoval de Morales, his father-in-law, a large
quantity of silk fabrics of wide and narrow materials of every kind, and
stuffs woven with silver and gold." It is an interesting fact that the
manufactory of Molero continues to work in the present day, and gold and
silver stuffs are made there for ecclesiastical purposes similar in
design and manufacture to the early established one of 1714; specimens
exist at the South Kensington Museum of the silks made at Toledo by
Molero.
Towards the middle of the 18th century the most important centre of
artistic silks existed at Talavera, where it was established on a very
large scale by King Fernando VI. and supported by the state. It was
founded in 1748 under the superintendence of a Frenchman called Jean
Roulière, who was educated at Lyon, a great mechanician, who entered the
manufactory with a yearly salary of £450, and 4 per cent. of the sale.
Fine church vestments were made there, and the richest stuffs woven
with silver and gold for decorating apartments and furniture, of which a
vast quantity remain in the palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, the Escorial
and La Granja. In 1762 the Spanish government handed over this
manufactory to the firm of Uztariz and Company; it remained in their
hands until 1780, and at this period it continued to be worked for five
years by the state; in 1785 it passed to the superintendence of the
Tribunal of Commerce entitled Cinco Gremios Mayores de Madrid. The
French invasion of 1808 and general decay of the country contributed
towards the extinction of this industry.
In a similar manner to the silk manufactures established at Toledo,
silks of all kinds were made at Seville, Granada, Murcia, and other
provinces, to a very great extent during the 16th and 17th centuries.
This industry continues in the present day, and specimens exist at the
South Kensington Museum, made in 1874, which recall the ancient style of
these stuffs.
EMBROIDERIES.
It is probable that the history of embroidery in Spain followed the same
steps as that of gold and silver stuffs, owing to the great similarity
which exists between these industries, as may be seen by the banner
called de las Navas, which is composed of both these materials.
Ornamentation in the Oriental style must have fallen sooner into disuse
than in woven fabrics owing to the fashion of introducing figures in
ecclesiastical vestments, which much before the Renaissance period
became so general in Europe. The first mention which I find of the
existence of this artistic industry appears in the Ordenanzas de
Sevilla, 1433; it refers to regulating this industry, and preventing
certain frauds, by which we may infer its existence from an earlier
period. Similar dispositions appear in one of the Ordinances of Toledo,
dated 1496, and as sumptuary laws were continually issued we have
constant references to the existence of this industry: [consult
"Sempere, Hist. del Lujo," vol. ii. 8vo]. These legal prohibitions did
not, however, reach church vestments; after the aggrandizement of the
monarchy by the conquest of the New World such enormous sums were spent
on these objects, that notwithstanding the ravages of time, wars,
disturbances of all kinds, and vandalisms and neglect, the cathedrals of
Toledo and Seville, and many other churches, are museums of this style
of art.
The art of embroidery was imported by Italians and Germans early in the
16th century, in the same manner as wood carving, metal work, and other
industries. The comparative study of embroideries of different kinds
which are preserved in churches and museums in other countries confirms
this theory; some have been made in the north and others in the south,
while their historical origin may be traced to Italy. In Spain itself
this comparison may be made, and the Germanic influence is most
apparent. At the cathedral of Burgos there is a fine series of
ecclesiastical vestments which Bishop Alonso de Cartagena gave to the
cathedral on his return from the council of Bâle, 1431-43. Another
series of most important specimens is at Toledo, a present to Cardinal
Mendoza by the German emperor Frederic in 1489. In both these instances
we find that the embroidery is identical with what was made in Spain at
this period, until they changed the Gothic for the Italian Renaissance
style.
I must mention two splendid altar frontals of foreign workmanship which
exist in Spain, one of them is at the chapel of the Disputation of
Barcelona; it represents St. George slaying the dragon. This embroidery
is in high relief, and is so perfect in every detail that it appears to
be chiselled. Another altar frontal of the same style is at the
Colegiata of Manresa, Cataluña; on this one the Crucifixion is
represented, with eighteen other subjects, taken from the Old and New
Testaments. This frontal is signed--_Geri Lapi Rachamatore Me fecit in
Florentia._
Almost all Spanish towns of importance are distinguished for their
embroidery, Toledo, Seville and Valencia are especially so; Ciudad
Rodrigo figures as an important centre of this industry during the 16th
century. We find the sentence, "obra de Ciudad Rodrigo" applied to
embroidery of gold thread, [Acad. de la Historia, MS. C. 122.] Father
Siguenza tells us in his "Hist. de la orden de San Jeronimo" that this
style of embroidery was exclusively Spanish, and probably the remains of
the Moorish influence. The principal localities where embroideries and
artistic work of every kind can be studied are the cathedrals of the
towns we have mentioned, which were great centres of artistic industries
in other times, and the monastery of the Escorial. The collection at the
cathedral of Toledo alone is sufficient to illustrate this subject.
About forty sets of splendid vestments exist at this cathedral which are
embroidered with the most exquisite taste, belonging to the 15th and
16th centuries. Each set generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope,
altar frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces.
The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of saints,
are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MS. The _manga_, or case
which hangs round the processional cross given by Cardinal Ximenez, is
one of the most splendid specimens of this collection. As a fine
specimen of embroidery on a large scale must be mentioned the _dosel_ or
canopy called the tent of Ferdinand and Isabel, also at the cathedral of
Toledo, which is interesting as being the same which was used in the
reception of the English envoys Thomas Salvaige and Richard Nanfan who
were sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage of Prince Henry with
the Infanta D^{na.} Catalina. The ambassadors describe it in the
following manner: "After the tilting was over, the kings returned to the
palace, and took the ambassadors with them, and entered a large room:
and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of rich crimson velvet,
richly embroidered with the arms of Castile and Aragon, and covered
with the device of the king, which is a ... (blank in original), and his
motto, written at length, which is 'Tanto Monta.'" ("Memorials of King
Henry the Seventh," Gairdner, Lon. 1858, p. 348.)
The most remarkable specimen of embroidery which exists in Spain, not so
much on account of its artistic merit as for the enormous value of the
materials employed, is the mantle of the Virgin del Sagrario at Toledo.
It is completely covered with pearls and jewels forming a most effective
ornamentation. This embroidery was made in the beginning of the 17th
century, during the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who presented it to
the church. S^{r.} Parro in his exhaustive volume of "Toledo en la
Mano," [vol. i., p. 574,] describes it in the following manner: "It is
made of twelve yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is
entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre there is a
jewel of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each side
of enamelled gold, emeralds and large rubies; a variety of other jewels
are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part are the
arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on gold and studded with sapphires
and rubies. The centre of this mantle is covered with flowers and
pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of different sizes. Round the
borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the gems which were employed
in this superb work of art, no less than 257 ounces of pearls of
different sizes, 300 ounces of gold thread, 160 ounces of small pieces
of enamelled gold, and eight ounces of emeralds were used."
A fine altar frontal of a similar kind embroidered in corals may be seen
in the same room where this mantle of the Virgin is kept at the
cathedral of Toledo.
We find in Madame de Villars' letters, [p. 39, Paris, 1823,] the
description of a similar embroidery. Writing in 1680 she says, "Ce que
j'ai vu de plus riche, de plus doré, de plus magnifique, est
l'appartement de la reine. Il y a entre autres meubles dans sa chambre,
une tapisserie, dont ce qu'on y voit de fond, est de perles. Ce ne sont
pas des personnages, on ne peut dire que l'or y soit massif, mais il
est employé d'une manière et d'une abondance extraordinaires. Il y a
quelques fleurs: ce sont des bandes de compartimens; mais il faudrait
être plus habile que je ne suis pour représenter les choses, pour vous
faire comprendre la beauté que compose le corail employé dans cet
ouvrage. Ce n'est point une matière assez précieuse pour en vanter la
quantité; mais la couleur et l'or qui paraissent dans cette broderie,
sont assurément ce qu'on aurait peine à décrire."
From the period when these embroideries were made until the middle of
the 18th century, Spanish embroideries lost much of their artistic
character, although the work itself continued equally excellent. During
the whole of the 17th century, a style of embroidery became very general
in Spain, which appears to have been copied from eastern importations by
the Portuguese or the Spanish possessions in America. The specimens most
generally met with in Spain are chiefly bed covers, the ground of which
is either linen or satin, embroidered in chain stitch, with figures and
exotic birds and animals. Their effect is very rich, and the
ornamentation is arranged generally in circles. Specimens exist in
England of this kind of work; for example, a quilt, said to have been
made for an Archbishop of Toledo, lent by Lady Cornelia Guest to the
Special Exhibition of Embroidery held at South Kensington in 1873.
At the Mus. Arq., Madrid, is a fine quilt of this kind embroidered with
maize-coloured silk on linen, with representations of figures and
animals.
Embroideries were made in Spain to cover furniture. Sedan chairs,
coffers, &c., were ornamented in this manner. At the Kensington Museum
there is an interesting example of a trunk with silver lock, covered
with embroidery, which was given towards 1680 by Count Olivares to the
nuns at Loeches. Some fine embroidered tapestries belonging to the same
collection are at the Museo Arqueleogico, Madrid. A varied collection of
ecclesiastical vestments of the kinds described may also be studied at
the museum. (V. Nos. 78, 79, 84, 673, 1194, 1195, 1250, &c., in Dr.
Rock's Catalogue.)
The sumptuary laws, and especially the Decrees issued by Philip IV. in
1622, prohibited any display or ostentation in costume, and embroideries
were confined to ecclesiastical purposes. In the middle of the 18th
century embroideries were introduced in the costumes of men and women
when French fashions were imported into Spain. Although many of them
came from France, they were imitated in Spain to a large extent. A guild
of embroiderers was formed in 1779, who submitted their statutes to the
Tribunal of Commerce. We find that Madrid was the principal centre of
this industry, and that French designs were universally copied, as was
the case in the whole of Europe. The splendid curtains and embroidered
hangings for apartments which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the
Escorial and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens of this industry.
The following list of Spanish embroiderers is taken from Cean's "Dic. de
Prof de las Bellas Artes;" Martinez, "Hist. del Templo Cat. de Burgos;"
Suarez de Figueroa, "Plaza Universal," etc.
Years in which
they worked. Artists. Residence.
1603. Alcala, Fr. Fernando de Escorial.
1526. Alonso, Esteban Toledo.
1688 to } Arroyo, Diego de Burgos.
1715. }
1594. Aspe, Simeon de Burgos.
1646. Ansin, Francisco de Burgos.
1500. Barcelona, Fr. Rafael de Escorial.
1599. Berrio, Francisco de Burgos.
1452. Bilbao, Juan Burgos.
1514. Burgos, Pedro Toledo.
1574 to } Camiña, Alonso Burgos.
1580. }
1580 to } Camiña, Miguel, a son of Alonso Burgos.
1593. }
1580. Castillo, Juan del Madrid.
1571. Cordova, Fr. Francisco Escorial.
1616. Corral, Felipe de Toledo.
1514. Covarrubias, Marcos de Toledo.
1422. Fernandez, Garcia Burgos.
1422. Fernandez, Pedro Burgos.
1645. Garcia de Jalon, Juan Burgos.
1500. Gil, Francisco Madrid.
1688. Gomez, Juan Sevilla.
1514. Hernandez, Alonso Toledo.
1630. Landa, Alonso de Burgos.
1625. Martinez de Manurga, Sebastian Burgos.
1521. Monte, Cornieles de Burgos.
1576. Montserrate, Fr. Lorenzo scorial.
1580 to } Ochandiano, Andrès Burgos.
1593. }
1595. Ortiz de Zarate, Pedro Burgos.
1565. Palenzuela, Francisco de Burgos.
1591. Palenzuela, Jeronimo Burgos.
1500. Perez, Gabriel Madrid.
1580. Perez, Juan Madrid.
1514. Rica, Hernando de la Toledo.
1500. Rosales Toledo.
1500. Rosicler, Luís de Madrid.
1514. Ruiz, Martin Toledo.
1716 to } Ruiz, Antonio Burgos.
1734. }
1585. Rutinez, Diego Escorial.
1563. Salas, Juan de Granada.
1718. Santos Martires, Fr. Esteban de los { Cardeña
{ Burgos.
1561. Sarabia Burgos.
1514. Talavera, Juan de Toledo.
1500. Toledo, Fr. Juan de Escorial.
1752. Transmontana, Fr. F. Javier de Burgos.
1684. Valle, Antonio del Burgos.
1500. Vega, Felicis de Madrid.
1563. Villegas, Nicolas de Granada.
1502. Xaques, el Maestro Toledo.
TAPESTRIES.
The manufacture of tapestry or carpets was introduced into Spain by the
Arabs. The earliest historical information which I have been able to
find relating to this industry occurs in Edrisi, an oriental author of
the beginning of the 12th century, ["Descrip. de l'Afr. et de l'Esp.,
trad. de Dozy el Goeje,"] when speaking of Chinchilla in the province of
Alicante, he says: "On y fabrique des tapis de laine qu'on ne saurait
imiter ailleurs, circonstance qui dépend de la qualité de l'air et des
eaux." In mentioning Cuenca, he says: "Les tapis de laine qu'on y fait
sont d'excellente qualité," p. 237. Although we find very few
descriptive details of this industry, it is undoubtedly the fact that in
a wide zone which comprehends from the kingdom of Valencia until that of
Granada, carpets have been constantly made; for even in the present day
this industry is alive in a number of towns, where not only the old
technical proceedings are continued, but also much of the primitive
character of the designs and colours. In confirmation of this, I find
frequent mention in books and MSS. of the 16th century of carpets of
Letur, made in the kingdom of Murcia, Alcaraz, and Baeza.
The first time I find this industry mentioned by Christian authors is in
Francisque Michel's work on "Étoffes de Soie," vol. i., p. 292; he says:
"A une époque qu'il nous serait difficile de préciser un poète Latin
vantait les teintures précieuses à sujets, et les tapis d'Espagne."
"Tunc preciosa suis surgunt aulaea figuris.
"Ac in se raptis ora tenent animis.
"Tunc operosa suis _Hispana tapetia_ villis.
"Hinc rubras, virides inde ferunt species."
At the cathedral of Gerona an extremely interesting tapestry of the 12th
century may be seen, which may have been made in the locality.
[Illustration: TAPESTRY AT THE CATHEDRAL OF GERONA; REPRESENTING THE
CREATION, &C.--SPANISH, 11TH CENTURY. _To face p. 267._]
This tapestry is about 4½ yards wide by 4 yards high. The composition
represents the Genesis. In the centre is a geometrical figure formed by
two concentric circles. In the lesser circle is a figure of Christ
holding an open book, on which appear the words, _Sanctus Deus_, and on
each side _Rex fortis_, surrounded by the inscription, _Dixit quoque
Deus, Fiat lux, Et facta est lux._ In the larger circle are the words,
_In principio creavit Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia quæ in eis
sunt, et vidit Deus cuncta quæ egerat et erant valde bona._
The space between the two circles is divided by radiating lines into
eight portions, in which are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of
light and darkness: the division of land from water, the creation of
sun, moon, and stars, of birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve.
In the angles outside the larger circle are the four winds, and the
whole is surrounded by a border, imperfect in parts, containing
representations of the months, and apparently of certain scriptural
incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out. The accompanying
engraving, though imperfect and inaccurate in some of its details, gives
a general idea of this work.
Although this tapestry is embroidered with crewels on linen, it appears
advisable to include it in the description of Spanish tapestries, owing
to its similarity and general aspect to other tapestries. It is easy for
students of Spanish works of art of the Middle Ages to fix the period
and style to which this example belongs. Several remarkable
illuminations exist in Spain representing the Apocalypse which were
painted in the X. XI. and XIIth. centuries, which have already been
alluded to in other articles of this work. The figures of the tapestry
of Gerona are disposed in a precisely similar manner to the miniatures
of the 12th century. They are in the same style as the paintings on the
ceiling of the chapel of St. Catalina, at St. Isidoro of Leon, which
were painted at that period. There can be therefore no doubt that they
belong to that period and style. Several MSS. may be mentioned to
further illustrate the subject. An excellent specimen is at the
cathedral of Gerona, those at the National Library, Museo Arqueologico,
and Academia de la Historia, Madrid, Escorial, Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris--and especially the fine MS. at the British Museum (Add. II.
695),--dated A. D. 1109, referred to in the chapter on Arms, page 90.
The illuminations of this volume are extremely similar to the design of
this tapestry. Plate 83, twelve inches by eight, within a circle,
representing Christ holding a book in his hand, may be given as an
example.
I do not find any information of a later date which suggests the
existence of the manufacture of tapestries in Spain during the Middle
Ages. There are constant allusions to the splendid tapestries which were
brought from Flanders, many of which are at the Royal palace of Madrid.
The earliest mention I find is a memorial printed without date, in which
Pedro Gutierrez, tapestry maker of Salamanca, asks Philip II. to protect
this industry. He evidently gained his object, for in the documents
published by S^{r}. Cruzada in his "Tapices de Goya," [Madrid, 1870,] it
appears that in 1578 Queen Doña Ana appointed him to work in her Camara
as tapestry maker to make _reposteros_[B] and Philip II. in 1582
confirms this appointment. Gutierrez worked at this period, at Salamanca
and Madrid. He was succeeded in his charge in 1625 by Antonio Ceron, who
established this industry definitively in the Calle de Santa Isabel at
Madrid. The fine picture by Velasquez, at the Madrid Gallery, "The
Weavers," which represents the interior of the tapestry manufactory,
belongs to this time. We find this industry soon fell into decay. In
1694 a Belgian named Juan Metier tried to revive it, but without
success; the same thing occurred with Nicolas Hernandez, a tapestry
maker of Salamanca, in 1707.
[B] Reposteros is the ancient name given to the hangings which are
placed outside the balconies on state occasions in Spain. Several
splendid examples of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries may still
be seen at the houses of Spanish grandees, of which those belonging to
the Conde de Oñate and Marques de Alcañices at Madrid are the most
remarkable for their artistic design.
The tapestry manufactory of Santa Barbara at Madrid was founded soon
after; it was the most important of all, and continues to produce
excellent work in the present day. It appears that Jacobo Vandergoten of
Antwerp was engaged expressly by the king; he began to work in 1720, and
continued there until his death in 1724. He was succeeded by his sons,
Francisco, Jacobo, Cornelius, and Adrian, who worked in _basse lisse_
looms until 1729, when a Frenchman, Antonio Lenger mounted a _haute
lisse_ one.
On the occasion of the temporary removal of the court to Seville, the
king established a tapestry manufactory there in 1730; Jacobo
Vandergoten was put at the head of it, and the painter, Andres
Procaccini, helped him in the direction of the manufactory. It only
lasted three years, at the end of which the artists returned with their
implements to establish themselves in the old tapestry manufactory of
the Calle de Santa Isabel: and continued to work there until 1744, at
that time they again joined the works at Santa Barbara.
Three of the brothers Vandergoten were already dead in 1774. Cornelius
alone was alive. In the same year the Spanish artists, Antonio Moreno,
Domingo Galan, Tomas del Castillo, and Manuel Sanchez were placed at the
head of these works, under the superintendence of Sanchez, who continued
there until his death in 1786, when he was succeeded by his nephew,
Livinio Stuck. This manufactory was much neglected at the end of the
last century; it was destroyed by the French in 1808, and was
rehabilitated in 1815 under the direction of a son of Stuck. This family
continues to work there in the present day. The carpets made at the
manufactory of S^{ta.} Barbara are of the highest excellence and
artistic order.
Very fine tapestries have been made at this manufactory during the last
century, some after original cartoons of excellent painters and others
reproductions of ancient Flemish ones belonging to the royal
collections. During the years 1721 to 1724 the tapestries representing
pastoral subjects after Teniers were woven there, and a series of
hunting subjects which still exist at the Pardo and palace of Madrid.
The excellent copy of the series of tapestries representing the conquest
of Tunis, after cartoons by William Pannemaker were made partly at
Seville and partly at Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara. The tapestries
representing scenes from the life of Don Quixote, designed by the
painter Procaccini, were also made at the looms of Santa Barbara.
Fine carpets in the Turkish style were made there under the
superintendence of Cornelius Vandergoten, who excelled in this special
industry. Carpets also in the French style of the Gobelin manufactory
were made at the same time. The best specimens of carpets and tapestries
of the manufactory of Santa Barbara, will be found at the palaces of the
Escorial, the Pardo, and Madrid. The series made from cartoons of
Teniers and the Spanish painter Goya are extremely interesting. A
complete collection of photographs of the foreign and Spanish tapestries
at the palace of Madrid will be found in the Art Library of the South
Kensington Museum.
LACE.
It is not easy to give a clear idea of the history of the manufacture of
ancient Spanish lace; the principal reason being that this industry was
carried out by private persons, who never formed themselves into Guilds
or corporations, as was the case during the middle ages and Renaissance
period with those who devoted their time to other arts and industries.
We find in the Royal Ordinances constant references to weavers, silver
and goldsmiths, tailors, etc., but in none do we find the manufacture of
lace mentioned. The most important Ordinances relating to Spanish
industries are those published at Toledo and Seville in the 15th and
16th centuries, and at Granada in the 16th and 17th centuries, and in
none of them do we find lace even alluded to. In the innumerable laws
which appeared from the middle ages until the 18th century for the
object of reforming costumes and checking their excessive luxury no
mention is made of lace; when it is referred to, it is only when
_puntas_ or _entredoses_, edgings or insertions, are mentioned in which
gold and silver are introduced. We never find any allusion in
contemporary writers to the fine heavy thread lace, sometimes called
Point d'Espagne or Point de Venise, the origin of which has been a
source of so much doubt to collectors of the present day.
The only thing which we can do therefore at the present, until this
subject is more fully investigated, is to assert that lace of different
kinds has been made from the very earliest times in Spain, and do our
best to classify the different kinds by the differences which we observe
in those of other localities.
Father Fr. Marcos Antonio de Campos in his "Microcosmia y Gobierno
Universal del Hombre Cristiano," [Barcelona, 1592, p. 225,] says: "I
will not be silent and fail to mention the time lost these last years in
the manufacture of _cadenetas_, a work of thread combined with gold and
silver; this extravagance and excess reached such a point that 100 and
1000 of ducats were spent in this work, which, besides destroying the
eyesight, wasting away the lives, and rendering consumptive the women
who worked it, and preventing them from spending their time with more
advantage to their souls, a few ounces of thread and years of time, were
wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I ask myself, after this fancy
has passed away, will the lady or gentleman find that the chemises that
cost them 50 ducats, or the _basquiña_ (petticoats) that cost them 300,
are worth half their price, which certainly is the case with other
objects in which the material itself is worth more." This quotation is
interesting as proving that lace was made during the 16th century. The
friar, in following the prevalent fashion of preaching against luxury
and extravagance, shows us that this industry must have reached to a
great height in order to be an object of censure.
From the 16th century until the end of the 18th we find this manufacture
continued in Spain, but that foreign lace of different kinds was
likewise imported to a great extent, although we may affirm that black
lace especially was made in Spain during the whole period.
We find lace mentioned by ancient Spanish authors under the following
names: _punta_, _randa_, _cadeneta_, _entredos_, _red_, _deshilado_,
_franja_, _blonda_, and _encaje_, which may be translated as edging, or
points, réseuil, chain stitch, insertion, netting, ravelling, fringe,
blonde, and lace.
M. H. de Cocheris in his introduction to "Patrons de Broderies," Paris,
1872, says that "gold and silver laces were made at Paris and Lyons."
The four books which are reproduced in this volume mention Lyons as
being a great centre of this particular branch of industry. Gold and
silver lace was, however, also made and copied in Spain during the 17th
century. We find in the "Pragmatica y Nueva Orden cerca de los Vestidos
y Trajes, asi de Hombres como de Mugeres," [fol. Madrid 1611, p. 5,]
"May we be allowed to border or edge the said silken materials with
thread lace, which are not to be made of chain stitch, or gold or
silver, and when these laces are mentioned we should understand they are
exclusively for women's use." We also find in an Ordinance of the time
of Philip III., dated 1623, that gold and silver lace was prohibited,
and that "simple edgings, and curls, and fraises for women were enjoined
for women's use." In the "Fenix de Cataluña, compendio de sus Antiguas
Grandezas y Medio para Renovarlas," Barcelona, 1683, by Narciso Feliu,
the author states, p. 75, that "edgings of all sorts of gold, silver,
silk, thread, and aloe, is made there with greater perfection than in
Flanders."
Many interesting details have reached us of the costume of a Spanish
lady in the 17th century. We will copy the description given by Madame
d'Aunoy in her "Voyage d'Espagne," Lyon 1628. "Under the vertingale of
black taffety they wear a dozen or more petticoats, one finer than the
other, of rich stuffs trimmed with lace of gold and silver to the
girdle. They wear at all times a white garment called sabenqua; it is
made of the finest English lace, and four ells in compass. I have seen
some worth 500 or 600 crowns, and so great is their vanity, they would
rather have one of those lace subenquas than a dozen coarse ones, and
either lie in bed till it is washed, or else dress themselves without
any, which they frequently enough do." A number of portraits exist in
the Spanish galleries, especially by Velasquez and Carreño, in which
these extravagant costumes are fully portrayed, but in very few Spanish
portraits of the seventeenth century does thread lace of the kind known
as Point d'Espagne or de Venise ever appear. Mrs. Palliser, in her
interesting "History of Lace," p. 80, quotes a vast number of
descriptions of these gold and silver laces. The celebrated bed at
Versailles, the interior lacings of the carriages, the costumes of the
gentlemen and ladies of court, and wedding dresses, were all trimmed
with this silver and gold lace, either made in Spain, or called Point
d'Espagne.
We copy again Madame d'Aunoy's description of a Spanish bed. "It is of
gold and green damask lined with silver brocade and trimmed with point
of Spain. Her sheets were laced round with an English lace half an ell
deep. The young Princess of Monteleon bade her maids bring in her
wedding clothes. They brought in thirty silver baskets so heavy four
women could only carry one basket: the linen and lace were not inferior
to the rest." Beckford, in describing the apartment of a Spanish lady,
writes: "Her bed was of the richest blue velvet trimmed with point
lace." Aarsens de Sommerdyck in his "Voyage d'Espagne," [Paris, 1665,]
writes, in describing the costume worn by the men: "Leurs collets ou
cravates sont de grandes pointes, qui sans doute coustent beaucoup, bien
qu'elles ne paroissent pas belles. La mode en est presque la mesme qu'en
France, l'ayant prise de la princesse de Carignan quand elle estoit à
Madrid, dont elles les nomment Valonas à la Carignan." In the
interesting "Journal du Voyage d'Espagne," Paris, 1669, l'Abbé Bertaut
tells us that on the 15th of October, 1659, on the occasion of his
embassy to Madrid, the king of Spain sent eight postilions, and forty
post-horses, the saddles and bridles of eight of which were covered with
gold and silver lace.
Notwithstanding the opinion of so competent an authority as Mrs.
Palliser, I doubt the statement, finding no evidence to support it, that
thread lace of a very fine or artistic kind was ever made in Spain, or
exported as an article of commerce during early times. The lace alb,
which is mentioned, to prove this, as existing at Granada, a gift of
Ferdinand and Isabel, is of Flemish lace of the 17th century. The
chasuble, etc., splendid ecclesiastical vestments embroidered on crimson
velvet, were certainly the gift of these kings, and if Cardinal Wiseman
officiated in this vestment, it is probable he may have made a mistake
and not separated the alb from the chasuble, which certainly may be
worth 10,000 crowns. J. Barretti, in his "Journey from London to Genoa,
through Portugal and Spain," London, 1770, describing the fine church of
Las Salesas, lately built, writes, "The nuns showed me in the sacristy
some surplices for the mass priest, that are made of the finest Flanders
lace. Each surplice has cost about 1000 doubloons." In "Tassa de los
Precios a que se han de vender as Mercaderias," Madrid, 1628, we find
that the "puntas or edgings made in Spain are to be sold at the same
price as those imported from Paris." Puntas from Flanders are estimated
in this tariff at a much higher rate than those which were brought from
France; we may calculate they were sold for double the price. The
"Ordenaciones" made at Barcelona to settle commercial tariffs state in
1704: "As experience has shown us that most of the edgings or puntas
made in this principality are sent out of the country, and we do not
find them mentioned in the financial accounts, to the great disadvantage
of the community, it is determined--"
We find reference to lace brought from Flanders, Paris, and Lyon, in the
first volume of "Apendice a la Educacion Popular," [p. 61.] [Madrid,
1775,] the author mentions the large sums of money which were taken out
of the country by the importations of foreign lace, and he adds, [vol.
ii., p. 61,] "Lace is employed to a very considerable extent; all the
fine qualities come from foreign lands, and the greater varieties of the
coarser ones. Spanish matrons, among other branches of their education,
are taught to make lace of different kinds, and many respectable people
live on this industry." Larruga, in his "Memorias," Madrid, 1788,
mentions, vol. ii., p. 149, a manufacture of gold and silver lace which
had been set up lately at Madrid; and in the 17th vol., p. 294, in
mentioning lace made at La Mancha, "the industry of lace has existed at
Almagro from time immemorial. D^{n}. Manuel Fernandez and Dª Rita
Lambert, his wife, natives of Madrid, established in this town in 1766
a manufacture of silk and thread lace." This industry also existed at
Granatula, Manzanares, and other villages of La Mancha. At Zamora "lace
and blonde were made in private houses. The finest kinds are sold to
lace merchants." In Sempere, "Historia del Lujo," [Madrid, 1788, 8vo,]
we find that in the Ordinance issued in 1723, the "introduction of every
sort of edgings or foreign laces was prohibited, the only kinds allowed
were those made in the country."
Cabanillas writes in his "Observaciones sobre la Historia natural del
Reino de Valencia," Madrid, 1797, that at Novelda a third part of the
inhabitants made lace, "more than 2000 among women and children worked
at this industry, and the natives themselves hawked these wares about
the country." Swinburne, in his "Travels in Spain in 1775," also says,
"The women of the hamlets were busy with their bobbins making lace."
Laborde writes that in 1809 the manufacture of blonde was almost
entirely confined to Cataluña. Barcelona is in the present day the great
centre of this industry in Spain; the black and white blondes which are
made chiefly for mantillas are very fine. The white laces made there are
in the style of Lille and Buckinghamshire laces, Brussels and Duchesse
laces, and Chantilly is also made to a large extent. Gold and silver
blondes were revived during the years 1830-40; and it may interest my
readers to know that the late Queen Mercedes, in her wedding trousseaux,
had a garniture de robe, mantilla included, of gold blonde.
Modern torchon laces are still made at Almagro to a very large extent.
Bed linen, even in the poorest houses, is elaborately trimmed with lace
or embroidery. Valances for beds of ravellings, point coupé and lace
work are still constantly found to decorate beds at weddings in the
provinces of Spain.
THE END.
RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BUNGAY.
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* * * * *
These typographical errors were corrected by the etext transcriber:
Guadamecis are made of leather=>Guadameciles are made of leather
The French influence of the last century brought the same hions fasfor
furniture into Spain=>The French influence of the last century brought
the same fashions for furniture into Spain
gilt bronze mounting were very much used.=>gilt bronze mountings were
very much used.
It is of polished iron inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in
workmanhip.=>It is of polished iron inlaid with gold, and most exquisite
in workmanship.
A wooodcut is given opposite.=>A woodcut is given opposite.
Round the lid of of one them is a band=>Round the lid of one them is a
band
there are some which are undoubtedly still made n the locality.=>there
are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality.
same collection are at the Museo Arquelogico, Madrid=>same collection
are at the Museo Arqueleogico, Madrid
the chaper on Arms, page 90=>the chapter on Arms, page 90
Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain,
_Churriguesque=>Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain,
_Churrigueresque
* * * * *
*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Industrial Arts in Spain" ***
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