Title: Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume I
Author: Tuson, Richard, Cooley, Arnold
Language: English
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                          COOLEY’S CYCLOPÆDIA
                                   OF
                           PRACTICAL RECEIPTS
                                  AND
                         COLLATERAL INFORMATION
                                 IN THE
              ARTS, MANUFACTURES, PROFESSIONS, AND TRADES
                               INCLUDING

           Medicine, Pharmacy, Hygiene, and Domestic Economy

                       DESIGNED AS A COMPREHENSIVE

                     SUPPLEMENT TO THE PHARMACOPŒIA

                                  AND

                      GENERAL BOOK OF REFERENCE

             FOR THE MANUFACTURER, TRADESMAN, AMATEUR, AND
                           HEADS OF FAMILIES

                             SIXTH EDITION

                    REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED BY

                    RICHARD V. TUSON, F.I.C., F.C.S.

         PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE;
      FORMERLY LECTURER ON CHEMISTRY AT THE CHARING CROSS HOSPITAL.

                                 VOL. I

                             [Illustration]

                                 LONDON

                J. & A. CHURCHILL, NEW BURLINGTON STREET

                                  1880


              PRINTED BY ADLARD AND SON BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.



                      PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION


Some one has said that “when a book reaches a fifth edition it scarcely
requires a preface.” If such be true of a fifth, it is probably still
truer of a sixth edition, and therefore this issue of ‘Cooley’s
Cyclopædia’ might fairly be sent forth to the public without any prefatory
remarks whatever. It is, however, desirable to point out that the present
edition is larger than the last by about six hundred pages; that much
greater space than hitherto is devoted to Hygiène (including sanitation,
the composition and adulteration of foods) as well as to the Arts,
Pharmacy, Manufacturing Chemistry, and other subjects of importance to
those for whom the work is intended.

The articles on what is commonly termed ‘Household Medicine’ have been
amplified and numerically increased.

Short accounts of the more common diseases, their causes, symptoms, and
treatment, affecting the domesticated animals have been introduced. “Here,
however, it may be useful to repeat the cautions given in other parts of
this volume, as to the impropriety of unnecessarily meddling with the
healing art or neglecting a prompt application” (where and when possible)
“to a duly qualified practitioner in all cases demanding medical or
surgical aid.” These remarks of Mr Cooley are as applicable to cases of
Veterinary as to those of Human Medicine.

Numerous authors have necessarily been consulted; a list of them, and the
titles of their works from which information has been derived, will be
found at the end of the second volume. When extracts have been introduced
_verbatim_ the authority is quoted in the body of the book.

Many of my scientific _confrères_ have rendered me valuable aid in
preparing this edition; but I am particularly indebted to my accomplished
and zealous friend Mr John Gardner for his hearty and constant
co-operation; to Dr Lionel Beale for his kindness in revising the articles
on “Urine,” “Urinary Diseases,” &c., as well as for the use of cuts from
his celebrated works on these subjects; to my friend and former pupil Mr
F. Woodland Toms for revising and rewriting the articles on “Sewage” and
“Water;” and to my assistants Mr James Bayne and Mr Cuthbert Neison for
correcting “proof.”

The laborious task of preparing a sixth edition of ‘Cooley’ having been
accomplished, it is hoped that, due consideration being given to the
magnitude of the work and to the great variety of the subjects treated, it
will be found to be practically free from important errors, and that it
will meet with, at least, the same gratifying reception as that accorded
to its predecessors.

                                                   RICHARD V. TUSON.

  CHEMICAL LABORATORY;
       ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE, LONDON.
              _January, 1880._



                                PREFACE


The design of the present work is briefly, but not completely expressed in
its title-page. Independently of a reliable and comprehensive collection
of formulæ and processes in nearly all the industrial and useful arts, it
contains a description of the leading properties and applications of the
substances referred to, together with ample directions, hints, data, and
allied information, calculated to facilitate the development of the
practical value of the book in the shop, the laboratory, the factory, and
the household. Notices of the substances embraced in the Materia Medica of
our national pharmacopœias, in addition to the whole of their
preparations, and numerous other animal and vegetable substances employed
in medicine, as well as most of those used for food, clothing, and fuel,
with their economic applications, have been included in the work. The
synonymes and references are other additions which will prove invaluable
to the reader. Lastly, there have been appended to all the principal
articles referred to brief, but clear, directions for determining their
purity and commercial value, and for detecting their presence and
proportions in compounds.

The sources from which I have derived the vast mass of materials forming
this volume are such as to render it deserving the utmost confidence. I
have invariably resorted to the best and latest authorities, and have
consulted almost innumerable volumes, both British and foreign, during its
compilation. Secondary channels of information have been scarcely ever
relied on when original authorities were within my reach. A large portion
of the work has been derived from my personal experience and observations
in the departments of applied chemistry and hygiene, and from the
processes of various laboratories and manufactories, many of which I can
the more confidently recommend from having either inspected or witnessed
their employment on an extensive scale. The indiscriminate adoption of
matter, without examination, has been uniformly avoided, and in no
instance has any formula or process been admitted into this work, unless
it rested on some well-known fact of science, had been sanctioned by
usage, or come recommended by some respectable authority. The settlement
of doubtful or disputed points has often occupied me a greater number of
hours, and not unfrequently a greater number of days, than that of the
lines of letter-press which convey the results to the public. In all cases
precedence has been given to the standard formulæ of our national
pharmacopœias, and to those processes which long experience, or
well-conducted experiments, have shown to be the most successful,
profitable, and trustworthy. In general, the sources of information have
been indicated, for the purpose of enabling the reader to form a better
estimation of their value. Whenever this is not the case, in reference to
borrowed formulæ and data, the omission has arisen from the impossibility
of determining to whom the merit is justly due.

I have endeavoured as much as possible, in the present work, to avoid
confusion of the medical weights with those commonly used in trade and
commerce——an attempt which, so far as I am aware, has not been
successfully carried out in any other quarter. For this purpose I
determined to entirely abandon the usual arbitrary signs or characters
employed to represent the divisions of the apothecaries’ pound, and to
distinguish the two weights from each other, by simply printing, in
different type, the plain English names and abbreviations representing
their several denominations. The medical signs for the imperial gallon and
its subdivisions have also been abandoned for their common English names.
It would have afforded me pleasure to have reduced all the quantities to
one uniform standard, had it been practicable, or, in all cases,
advisable.

Under the names of most of the leading diseases that could be profitably
noticed in the present work, such explanations and directions have been
given as accord with the prevailing opinions and practice of the faculty
at the present day. These, when judiciously applied, will prove invaluable
to emigrants, travellers, voyagers, and other parties beyond the reach of
legitimate medical assistance; and, under opposite circumstances, will, in
general, enable those who have the care of the sick the better to second
and carry out the instructions and efforts of the physician for the
benefit of their charge. Here, however, it may be useful to repeat the
cautions given in other parts of this volume, as to the impropriety of
unnecessarily meddling with the healing art, or neglecting a prompt
application to a duly qualified practitioner, in all cases demanding
either medical or surgical aid. It is an indubitable fact that the best
efforts of the inexperienced and uninitiated in the mysteries of medical
science must be always enormously behind those of parties whose whole
lives and study have been devoted to the subject.

The nature of a condensed alphabetical arrangement not permitting
numerous articles to come under distinct heads, or to be referred to under
all their synonymes, the casual reader may often be led to suppose that
this book is most deficient where in reality it is the most copious. In
general I have attempted, as much as possible, to bring together subjects
of a closely allied character, and compounds which are analogous to each
other, either in constitution or the mode of their preparation. Thus, most
of the formulæ for Mixtures, Ointments, Pills, &c., follow in alphabetical
order the general articles under these heads; whilst those for the Oxides,
Salts, &c., follow the names of their respective bases. In like manner, a
notice of a number of preparations will be found included in that of their
principal ingredients. The names under which the leading substances appear
are generally those which are most familiar to well-informed practical
men, and which have commonly reference to either their acknowledged
chemical constitution, or to some long-known and easily recognised
quality. The following extract conveys an important lesson on this
subject, with which I perfectly agree:——“We have been unwilling to make
any unnecessary changes in the nomenclature of substances whose names are
sanctioned by the usage of the present day; for these names have been, for
the most part, rightly assigned by our predecessors, or confirmed by lapse
of time. We are indeed aware that every improvement in the knowledge of
things ought to be embodied in their names; but we must be careful, in
selecting or forming these names, not to make those points appear certain
and established which are as yet doubtful, for it is safer to be in the
rear than advance of natural history.”[1]

[Footnote 1: Preface to the Ph. L., 1851.]

I have exerted myself to the utmost to ensure the accuracy and
completeness of this volume, but I feel conscious that, after all my
efforts for this purpose, some errors have crept into it, that many
subjects which deserve insertion in it have been omitted, and that many
others have been either imperfectly or too briefly noticed. “Yet these
failures, however frequent, may,” I trust, “admit of extenuation and
apology. To have attempted much is always laudable, even where the
enterprise is above the strength that undertakes it. To rest below his aim
is incident to every one whose fancy is active, and whose views are
comprehensive; nor is any man satisfied with himself because he has done
much, but because he conceives little.” When I commenced this work I
resolved to leave nothing within its legitimate limits unexamined or
unelucidated; and I flattered myself with a prospect of the hours which I
should thus “revel away” in a pursuit so congenial to my desires——“the
treasures with which I expected every search into those neglected mines to
reward my labour——and the triumph with which I should display my
acquisitions to mankind.” But these were the dreams of a poet, doomed at
last to wake a “Cyclopædist”. The long task which I had undertaken soon
exhibited its truly onerous character, and daily grew in urgency, until
that which promised to be a pleasure had been transformed into an
exhausting and continuous labour. At first, a sacrifice of the hours of
leisure only seemed necessary to the undertaking——next, those assigned to
professional and business avocations were demanded, and absorbed; but, ere
long, one by one, the hours usually devoted to repose were sucked into the
insatiable vortex, until the bright beams of the rising sun not
unfrequently illumined the lamp-lit study or the gloomy laboratory, and
surprised the author, no longer an enthusiast, at his still-enduring task.
But long ere this I had learned that to carry out my original resolutions
in all their completeness and entirety was impossible, and “that to pursue
perfection was, like the first inhabitants of Arcadia, to chase the sun,
which, when they had reached the hill where he had seemed to rest, was
still at the same distance from them.”[2] All I can further say in
reference to this point is simply to assure the reader that three of the
elements usually deemed essential to give value to a technological
work——viz. zeal, industry, and capital——have not been wanting in the
production of the present one;——the first two depending on the author, and
the other chiefly on the liberality and enterprise of the publisher.

[Footnote 2: Dr Samuel Johnson’s Preface to his English Dictionary.]

As heretofore, I beg to solicit my readers to apprise me of any
inaccuracies or omissions in this volume which may come beneath their
notice. I shall also thankfully receive any hints or suggestions tending
to the improvement of future editions of this work. Such communications,
to be useful, must, however be written on only one side of the paper.
Parties who may thus kindly afford me assistance will, in due course, have
their services publicly acknowledged; and their names and addresses,
unless when otherwise requested, will be published in full.

I have endeavoured to render the present volume as self-explanatory as
possible, and, in general, have appended ample directions to the several
formulæ and processes that seemed to me likely to cause embarrassment to
those inexpert in chemical manipulation; but should any party find it
otherwise, I shall be happy to reply, gratuitously, to any reasonable
questions tending to elucidate the difficulty.

In conclusion, I may add that, having now for nearly a quarter of a
century devoted my attention to the applications of chemistry in most of
the useful arts and manufactures, both British and foreign, and in
sanitation, I am in possession of many valuable processes and formulæ,
hitherto wholly unknown, or but partially developed, with various
improved plans of factories, laboratories, ventilation, &c., which the
limits of this work will not permit me to describe in its pages, but on
which I should be happy to communicate with parties interested in the
same. Persons desirous of establishing any new branch of manufacture, or
of improving an existing one, or of determining the purity or value of
articles of food, wines, liqueurs, medicines, &c., or of obtaining formulæ
or processes which are not contained in this work, may, in like manner,
have their wishes complied with, by enclosing to me samples, or the
requisite information.

                                              ARNOLD J. COOLEY.



        NAMES OF THOSE WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO, OR ASSISTED IN
                    THE REVISION OF, THIS EDITION


    JOHN ATTFIELD, Ph.D., F.I.C., F.C.S., Professor of Practical
        Chemistry to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.

    J. WORTLEY AXE, P.C.V.M.S., Professor of Histology in the Royal
        Veterinary College.

    LLOYD BULLOCK, F.I.C., F.C.S.

    E. L. BARRET, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.

    E. CANTON, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to Charing Cross Hospital.

    SPENCER COBBOLD, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Parasitology and
        Botany in the Royal Veterinary College.

    STEPHEN DARBY, F.C.S.

    DR DE VRIJ, of the Hague.

    JOHN GARDNER, F.I.C., F.C.S.

    WILLIAM HARKNESS, F.I.C., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., Assistant Chemist in
        the Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department, Somerset
        House.

    C. W. HEATON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at the
        Charing Cross Hospital.

    EDMUND NEISON, F.I.C., F.C.S.

    WILLIAM PRITCHARD, Professor of Anatomy in the Royal Veterinary
        College.

    A. E. SANSOM, M.D. Lond., M.R.C.P., Physician to the Royal
        Hospital for Diseases of the Chest.

    J. B. SIMONDS, Principal of, and Professor of Pathology in, the
        Royal Veterinary College.

    JOHN SPILLER, F.I.C., F.C.S.

    JOHN STENHOUSE, LL.D., F.R.S., formerly Lecturer on chemistry in
        St. Bartholomew’s Hospital.



                ABBREVIATIONS, ETC., USED IN THIS WORK


These, for the most part, consist of the first syllable, or the initial
letter or letters of the words they stand for. As _Prep._, preparation;
_Pur._, purity; _Purif._, purification; _Obs._, observations; _Var._,
varieties, &c.——Ph., stands for _pharmacopœia_; B. P., for _British
Pharmacopœia_; Ind. Ph., for _Indian Pharmacopœia_; Cod., for
_Codex._——L., E., D., P., U. S., &c., associated with the last two
abbreviations, are the initial letters of the cities and countries which
produced the respective works; as, London, Edinburgh, Dublin, Paris,
United States, &c. When no dates are given, the last editions of the
pharmacopœias are referred to.

_lb._, _oz._, _dr._, respectively represent the _pound_, _ounce_, and
_drachm_ (1/8 oz.), AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. This is the only weight employed
in the British and last Dublin Pharmacopœias.

lb., oz., dr., and gr., refer to the _pound_, _ounce_, _drachm_, and
_grain_, APOTHECARIES’ or TROY WEIGHT.

The word ‘_drop_’ in all cases indicates a measured drop or minim.

The _names of individuals_ which appear in this work are those to whom the
immediately attached information or formula is usually attributed, or on
whose recommendation or authority it has been selected.

    ′ denotes the _accented vowel_ or _syllable_.

    ′′ that the following consonant coalesces with the preceding
        letter in utterance.

    † that the name or the definition to which it is attached is
        ‘_obsolete_,’

    * that the name or the definition to which it is attached is
        ‘_obsolescent_,’ little used, or objectionable.

    ‡ that the name or the definition to which it is attached is
        ‘_colloquial_,’ or popular, or used only in trade.

    § that the name or the definition to which it is attached is
        ‘_vulgar_,’



            A CYCLOPÆDIA OF PRACTICAL RECEIPTS, PROCESSES, AND
                        COLLATERAL INFORMATION


A——ABBREVIATION

=A-, ab-, abs-.= [L.] In _composition_, from, denoting distance,
departure, separation, or opposition; as in _aberration_, _abstraction_,
_abnormal_, &c.

=A-, an-.= [Gr.] In _composition_, no, not, without, denoting the absence
or loss of some quality or thing; as in _achromatic_, _anhydrous_,
_amorphous_, &c.

=AB′ACA= (kăh). A species of vegetable fibre, of several varieties,
obtained in the Philippine Islands, and remarkable for its brilliancy,
strength, and durability. The finer kinds are woven into muslins, and
other delicate fabrics; the coarser are formed into mats, cordage, and
sail-cloth. It has been recently employed in Paris for the manufacture of
various articles of furniture and dress; including bonnets, tapestry,
carpets, network, hammocks, &c. The fibre, and fabrics made of it, may be
bleached and dyed in a similar manner to flax and linen.

=ABATTOIR=. A public slaughter-house for cattle, &c., usually erected
within the walls or precincts of a continental town or city.

=ABBREVIATION=. One or more of the earlier letters of a word used to
express the whole.

1. Abbreviations in general use:——

  A.B., Bachelor of Arts.
  A.D., In the year of our Lord.
  A.I.C., Associate of the Institute of Chemistry.
  A.I.C.E., Associate of the Institute of Civil Engineers.
  A.M., Master of Arts.——Before noon.
  A.R.A., Associate of the Royal Academy.
  B.A., Bachelor of Arts.
  Bart., Baronet.
  B.C., Before Christ.
  B.D., Bachelor of Divinity.
  B.Sc., Bachelor of Science.
  C.B., Companion of the Bath.
  C.E., Civil Engineer.
  C.S., Civil Service.
  D.C.L., Doctor of Civil Laws.
  D.D., Doctor of Divinity.
  D.G., By the Grace of God.
  Dr., Doctor.——Debtor.
  D.Sc., Doctor of Science.
  D.V., God willing.
  Ed., Editor, or Edition.
  e.g., for example.
  F.C.P., Fellow of the College of Preceptors.
  F.C.S., Fellow of the Chemical Society.
  F.G.S., Fellow of the Geological Society.
  F.I.C., Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry.
  F.L.S., Fellow of the Linnean Society.
  F.R.A.S., Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.
  F.R.C.P., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
  F.R.C.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.
  F.R.G.S., Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.
  F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal Society.
  F.R.S.E., Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
  H.M.S., Her Majesty’s Ship.
  H.R.H., His (or Her) Royal Highness.
  i.e., That is.
  Inst., Instant (the present month).
  I.H.S., Jesus the Saviour of Man.
  K.B., Knight of the Bath.
  K.C.B., Knight Commander of the Bath.
  K.G., Knight of the Garter.
  Knt., Knight.
  K.St.P., Knight of St. Patrick.
  K.T., Knight of the Thistle.
  L.A.C., Licentiate of the Apothecaries’ Company.
  Lat., Latitude.
  L.D., Licentiate in Dentistry.
  LL.D., Doctor of Laws.
  L.M., Licentiate in Midwifery.
  Loc. cit., The part referred to.
  Lon. or Long., Longitude.
  M.A., Master of Arts.
  M.B., Bachelor of Medicine.
  M.C., Master of Surgery.——Master of the Ceremonies.
  M.C.P., Member of the College of Preceptors.
  M.D., Doctor of Medicine.
  M.I.B.A., Member of the Institute of British Architects.
  M.R.C.P., Member of the Royal College of Physicians.
  M.R.C.S., Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
  M.R.C.V.S., Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons.
  M.R.I., Member of the Royal Institution.
  M.R.I.A., Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
  MS., Manuscript.
  MSS., Manuscripts.
  Mus. Doc., Doctor of Music.
  N.B., Mark well.
  Nem. con., Without opposition.
  O.H.M.S., On Her Majesty’s service.
  Op. cit., The work quoted.
  Per cent. (often expressed by the sign %), By the hundred.
  Ph.D., Doctor of Philosophy.
  P.M., Afternoon.
  Prox., The next (month).
  P.S., Postscript.
  Q.C., Queen’s Counsel.
  Qy. (?), Query, Question.
  R.A., Royal Academician——Royal Artillery.
  R.E., Royal Engineers.
  R.H.A., Royal Horse Artillery.
  R.M., Royal Marines.
  R.N., Royal Navy.
  Tr., Translator.
  Ult., The last (month).
  v. or vide, See.
  W.S., Writer to the Signet.
  &, _ampersand_, and.
  &c., et cetera, And so on.

2. Abbreviations used in Prescriptions:——

  _A. aa._, _ana_ (Greek), of each. Equally by weight or measure.
  _Abdom._, _abdomen_, the abdomen, the belly.
  _Abs. febr._, _absente febre_, fever being absent.
  _Ad 2 vic._, _ad secundum vicem_, to the second time; or _ad duas
      vices_, for two times.
  _Ad gr. acid._, _ad gratam aciditatem_, to an agreeable acidity.
  _Ad def. animi_, _ad defectionem animi_, to fainting.
  _Ad del. an._, _ad deliquium animi_, to fainting.
  _Ad libit._, _ad libitum_, at pleasure.
  _Add._, _adde_, or _addantur_, add, or let them be added; _addendus_, to
      be added.
  _Adjac._, _adjacens_, adjacent.
  _Admov._, _admove_, _admoveatur_, _admoveantur_, apply, let it be
      applied, let them be applied.
  _Ads. febre_, _adstante febre_, while the fever is present.
  _Alter. hor._, _alternis horis_, every other hour.
  _Alvo adstr._, _alvo adstrictâ_, when the bowels are confined.
  _Aq. astr._, _aqua astricta_, frozen water.
  _Aq. bull._, _aqua bulliens_, boiling water.
  _Aq. com._, _aqua communis_, common water.
  _Aq. fluv._, _aqua fluviatilis_, river water.
  _Aq. mar._, _aqua marina_, sea water.
  _Aq. niv._, _aqua nivalis_, snow water.
  _Aq. pluv._, _aqua pluviatilis_, or pluvialis, rain water.
  _Aq. ferv._, _aqua fervens_, hot water.
  _Aq. font._, _aqua fontana_, or _aqua fontis_, spring water.
  _Bis ind._, _bis in dies_, twice a day.
  _Bib._, _bibe_, drink.
  _BB._, _Bbds._, _Barbadensis_, Barbadoes, as _aloë Barbadensis_.
  _B.M._, _balneum mariæ_, or _balneum maris_, a warm-water bath.
  _B. P._, or _B. Ph._, British Pharmacopœia.
  _But._, _butyrum_, butter.
  _B.V._, _balneum vaporis_, a vapour bath.
  _Cærul._, _cæruleus_, blue.
  _Cap._, _capiat_, let him (or her) take.
  _Calom._, _calomelas_, calomel, subchloride of mercury.
  _C. C._, _cornu cervi_, hartshorn; it may also signify cucurbitula
      cruenta, the cupping-glass with scarificator.
  _C.C.U._, _cornu cervi ustum_, burnt hartshorn.
  _Cochleat._, _cochleatim_, by spoonfuls.
  _Coch. ampl._, _cochleare amplum_, a large (or table) spoonful; about
      half a fluid ounce.
  _Coch. infant._, _cochleare infantis_, a child’s (or tea) spoonful.
  _Coch. magn._, _cochleare magnum_, a large spoonful.
  _Coch. med._, _cochleare medium_, } a middling or moderate spoonful;
      that is,
  _Coch. mod._, _cochleare modicum_,} a dessert-spoonful——about two fluid
      drachms.
  _Coch. parv._, _cochleare parvum_, a small (or tea) spoonful; it
      contains about one fluid drachm.
  _Col._, _cola_, strain.
  _Col._, _colatus_, strained.
  _Colet._, _coletur_, _colat._, _colatur_, let it be strained;
      _colaturæ_, to the strained liquor.
  _Colent._, _colentur_, let them be strained.
  _Color._, _coloretur_, let it be coloured.
  _Comp._, _compositus_, compounded.
  _Cong._, _congius_, a gallon.
  _Cons._, _conserva_, conserve; also (_imperat. of conservo_) keep.
  _Cont. rem._, or _med._, _continuentur remedia_, or _medicamenta_, let
      the remedies, or the medicines, be continued.
  _Coq._, _coque_, boil; _coquantur_, let them be boiled.
  _Coq. ad med. consumpt._, _coque_ or _coquatur ad medietatis
      consumptionem_, boil, or let it be boiled to the consumption of one
      half.
  _Coq. S. A._, _coque secundum artem_, boil according to art.
  _Coq. in S. A._, _coque in sufficiente quantitate aquæ_, boil in a
      sufficient quantity of water.
  _Cort._, _cortex_, bark.
  _C. v._, _cras vespere_, to-morrow evening.
  _C. m. s._, _cras mane sumendus_, to be taken to-morrow morning.
  _C. n._, _cras nocte_, to-morrow night.
  _Crast._, _crastinus_, for to-morrow.
  _Cuj._, _cujus_, of which.
  _Cujusl._, _cujuslibet_, of any.
  _Cyath. theæ_, _cyatho theæ_, in a cup of tea.
  _Cyath._, _cyathus_, vel, a wine-glass; from an ounce and half...
  _C. vinar._, _cyathus vinarius_; to two ounces and half.
  _Deaur. pil._, _deaurentur pilulæ_, let the pills be gilt.
  _Deb. spiss._, _debitur spissitudo_, due consistence.
  _Dec._, _decanta_, pour off.
  _Decub. hor._, _decubitûs horâ_, at the hour of going to bed, or at
      bedtime.
  _De d. in d._, _de die in diem_, from day to day.
  _Deglut._, _deglutiatur_, let it be swallowed.
  _Dej. alv._, _dejectiones alvi_, stools.
  _Det._, _detur_, let it be given.
  _Dieb. alt._, _diebus alternis_, every other day.
  _Dieb. tert._, _diebus tertiis_, every third day.
  _Dil._, _dilue_, _dilutus_, dilute (thin), diluted.
  _Diluc._, _diluculo_, at break of day.
  _Dim._, _dimidius_, one half.
  _D. in 2 plo._, _deter in duplo_, let it be given in twice the quantity.
  _D. in p. æq._, _dividatur in partes æquales_, let it be divided in
      equal parts.
  _D. P._, _directione propria_, with a proper direction.
  _Donec alv. bis dej._, _donec alvus bis dejecerit_, until the bowels
      have been twice opened.
  _Donec alv. sol. fuer._, _donec alvus soluta fuerit_, until the bowels
      have been loosened.
  _Donec dol. neph. exulav._, _donec dolor nephriticus exulaverit_, until
      the nephritic pain has been removed.
  _D._, _dosis_, a dose.
  _Eburn._, _eburneus_, made of ivory.
  _Ed._, _edulcorata_, edulcorated.
  _Ejusd._, _ejusdem_, of the same.
  _Elect._, _electuarium_, an electuary.
  _Enem._, _enema_, a clyster.
  _Exhib._, _exhibeatur_, let it be administered.
  _Ext. sup. alut. moll._, _extende super alutam mollem_, spread upon soft
      leather.
  _F._, _fac_, make; _fiat_, _fiant_, let it be made, let them be made.
  _F. pil._, _fiant pilulæ_, let pills be made.
  _Fasc._, _fasciculus_, a bundle.
  _Feb. dur._, _febre durante_, during the fever.
  _Fem. intern._, _femoribus internis_, to the inside of the thighs.
  _F. venæs._, _fiat venæsectio_, let venesection be performed.
  _F. H._, _fiat haustus_, let a draught be made.
  _Fict._, _fictilis_, earthen.
  _Fil._, _filtrum_, a filter.
  _Fist. arm._, _fistula armata_, a clyster-pipe and bladder fitted for
      use.
  _Fl._, _fluidus_, fluid.
  _F. L. A._, _fiat lege artis_, let it be made by the rules of art.
  _F. M._, _fiat mistura_, let a mixture be made.
  _F. S. A._, _fiat secundum artem_, let it be made according to art.
  _Gel. quav._, _gelatina quavis_, in any jelly.
  _G. G. G._, _gummi guttæ gambæ_, gamboge.
  _Gr._, _granum_, a grain; _grana_, grains.
  _Gr. vj pond._, _grana sex pondere_, six grains by weight.
  _Gtt._, _gutta_, a drop; _guttæ_, drops.
  _Gtt. quibusd._, _guttis quibusdam_, with some drops.
  _Guttat._, _guttatim_, by drops.
  _Har. pil. sum. iij_, _harum pilularum sumantur tres_, of these pills
      let three be taken.
  _H. D._, or _hor. decub._, _horâ decubitûs_, at bedtime.
  _H. P._, _haustus purgans_, purging draught.
  _H. S._, _horâ somni_, at the hour of going to sleep.
  _Hor. un. spætio_, _horæ unius spatio_, at the expiration of one hour.
  _Hor. interm._, _horis intermediis_, in the intermediate hours.
  _Hor. 11mâ mat._, _horâ undecimâ matutinâ_, at 11 o’clock in the
      morning.
  _Ind._, _indies_, daily.
  _In pulm._, _in pulmento_, in gruel.
  _Ind. Ph._, Indian Pharmacopœia.
  _Inf._, _infunde_, infuse.
  _Inj. enem._, _injiciatur enema_, let a clyster be thrown up.
  _Jul._, _julepus_, _julapium_, a julep.
  _Kal. ppt._, _kali præparatum_, prepared kali (_potassæ carbonas_).
  _Lat. dol._, _lateri dolenti_, to the affected side.
  _M._, _misce_, mix; _mensurâ_, by measure; _manipulus_, a handful;
  _minimum_, a minim.
  _Mane pr._, _mane primo_, early in the morning.
  _Man._, _manipulus_, a handful.
  _Min._, _minimum_, a minim, the 60th part of a drachm measure.
  _M. P._, _massa pilularum_, a pill mass.
  _M.R._, _mistura_, a mixture.
  _Mic. pan._, _mica panis_, crumb of bread.
  _Mitt._, _mitte_, send; _mittantur_, let them be sent.
  _Mitt. sang. ad [oz]xij, mitte sanguinem ad [oz]xij_, take blood to
      twelve ounces.
  _Mod. præscr._, _modo præscripto_, in the manner directed.
  _Mor. dict._, _more dicto_, in the way ordered.
  _Mor. sol._, _more solito_, in the usual way.
  _Ne tr. s. num._, _ne tradas sine nummo_, do not deliver it without the
      money.
  _No._, _numero_, in number.
  _N. M._, _nux moschata_, a nutmeg.
  _O._, _octarius_, a pint.
  _Ol. lini s. i._, _oleum lini sine ligné_, cold-drawn linseed oil.
  _Omn. hor._, _omni horâ_, every hour.
  _Omn. bid._, _omni biduo_, every two days.
  _Omn. bih._, _omni bihorio_, every two hours.
  _O. M._, or _omn. man._, _omni mane_, every morning.
  _O. N._, or _omn. noct._, _omni nocte_, every night.
  _Omn. quadr. hor._, _omni quadrante horæ_, every quarter of an hour.
  _O. O. O._, _oleum olivæ optimum_, best olive oil.
  _Ov._, _ovum_, an egg.
  _Oz._, the ounce avoirdupois.
  _P. æ._, _part. æqual._, _partes æquales_, equal parts.
  _P. d._, _per deliquium_, by deliquescence.
  _Past._, _pastillus_, a pastil, or ball of paste.
  _P._, _pondere_, by weight.
  _Ph. D._, _Pharmacopœia Dubliniensis_.
  _Ph. E._, _Pharmacopœia Edinensis_.
  _Ph. L._, _Pharmacopœia Londinensis_.
  _Ph. U. S._, _Pharmacopœia of the United States_.
  _Part. vic._, _partitis vicibus_, in divided doses.
  _Per. op. emet._, _peractâ operatione emetici_, the operation of the
      emetic being over.
  _Pocul._, _poculum_, a cup.
  _Pocill._, _pocillum_, a small cup.
  _Post sing. sed. liq._, _post singulas sedes liquidas_, after every
      loose stool.
  _Ppt._, _præparata_, prepared.
  _P. r. n._, _pro re nata_, occasionally.
  _P. rat. ætat._, _pro ratione ætatis_, according to the age.
  _Pug._, _pugillus_, a pinch, a gripe between the thumb and the two first
      fingers.
  _Pulv._, _pulvis_, _pulverizatus_, a powder, pulverised.
  _Q. l._, _quantum lubet_, } as much as you
  _Q. p._, _quantum placet_,} please.
  _Q. s._, _quantum sufficiat_, as much as may suffice.
  _Quor._, _quorum_, of which.
  _Q. V._, _quantum vis_, as much as you will.
  _Red. in pulv._, _redactus in pulverem_, reduced to powder.
  _Redig. in pulv._, _redigatur in pulverem_, let it be reduced into
      powder.
  _Reg. umbil._, _regio umbilici_, the umbilical region.
  _Repet._, _repetatur_, or _repetantur_, let it, or them, be repeated.
  _S. A._, _secundum artem_, according to art.
  _Scat._, _scatula_, a box.
  _S. N._, _secundum naturam_, according to nature.
  _Semidr._, _semidrachma_, half a drachm.
  _Semih._, _semihora_, half an hour.
  _Sesunc._, _sesuncia_, half an ounce.
  _Sesquih._, _sesquihora_, an hour and a half.
  _Si n. val._, _si non valeat_, if it does not answer.
  _Si op. sit_, _si opus sit_, if it be necessary.
  _Si vir. perm._, _si vires permittant_, if the strength allow it.
  _Signat._, _signatura_, a label.
  _Sign. n. pr._, _signetur nomine proprio_, let it be written upon, let
      it be signed with the proper name (not the trade name).
  _Sing._, _singulorum_, of each.
  _S. S. S._, _stratum super stratum_, layer upon layer.
  _Ss._, _semi_, a half.
  _St._, _stet_, let it stand; _stent_, let them stand.
  _Sub fin. coct._, _sub finem coctionis_, towards the end of boiling,
      when the boiling is nearly finished.
  _Sum. tal._, _sumat talem_, let the patient take one such as this.
  _Summ._, _summitates_, the summits or tops.
  _Sum._, _sume_, _sumat_, _sumatur_, _sumantur_, take, let him or her
      take, let it be taken, let them be taken.
  _S. V._, _spiritus vini_, spirit of wine.
  _S. V. R._, _spiritus vini rectificatus_, rectified spirit of wine.
  _S. V. T._, _spiritus vini tenuis_, proof spirit.
  _Tabel._, _tabella_, a lozenge.
  _Temp. dext._, _tempori dextro_, to the right temple.
  _T. O._, _tinctura opii_, tincture of opium.
  _T. O. C._, _tinctura opii camphorata_, camphorated tincture of opium.
  _Tra._, _tinctura_, tincture.
  _Ult. præscr._, _ultimo præscriptus_, last prescribed.
  _U. S. Ph._, United States’ Pharmacopœia.
  _V. O. S._, _vitello ovi solutus_, dissolved in the yolk of an egg.
  _Vom. urg._, _vomitione urgente_, the vomiting being troublesome.
  _V. S. B._, _venæsectio brachii_, bleeding from the arm.
  _Zz._, _zingiber_, ginger.

See FORMULA, PRESCRIPTIONS, SYMBOLS, &c.

=ABDO′MEN.= [Eng., Fr., L.] In _anatomy_, the belly, or lower belly; the
great cavity of the body extending from the thorax, or chest, to the
bottom of the pelvis. It contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen,
kidneys, bladder, &c.; and in the female, the uterus, ovaria. &c.

=AB′ERNE′THY MEDICINES.= These originally consisted of a calomel pill, and
subsequently of a mercurial or ‘blue’ pill, to be taken over-night,
followed by an aromatised black draught in the morning. The quantity of
either of the former, for an adult, was about 3 gr. to 3-1/2 gr.,
increased a little in bulk by the addition of some liquorice powder; that
of the latter, from 1 to 1-1/2 fl. oz. As, however, when frequently taken,
these pills sometimes occasioned salivation, which proved prejudicial to
their sale, a little compound extract of colocynth (_Ph. L._, 1836) was
introduced into their composition, by which this objection was obviated.
Ultimately, their composition was settled at 3 gr. of mercurial pill, and
2 gr. of compound extract of colocynth; and these proportions are still
followed as the best by those who prepare and sell them. Persons who
object to black draught, will find a dose of castor oil, or of any other
mild purgative medicine that may be more agreeable to them, equally
efficacious.

The occasional use of these medicines seldom fails to prove highly
beneficial to the plethoric, bilious, and dyspeptic. In ordinary cases of
constipation, headache, &c., arising from deranged stomach or liver,
wherein the administration of mercurials is not contra-indicated, they
will be found of great service. It need scarcely be added that these
medicines are named after Mr Abernethy, the celebrated surgeon, who is
said to have frequently employed them in his practice.

=ABERRA′TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ABERRA′TIO, L. A wandering or deviation
from the usual course, or from the normal condition. In _optics_, the
deviation of the rays of light from the true focus, when inflected by a
lens or speculum. This arises from a difference in the physical nature of
the rays, from the figure of the lenses or specula, or from the nature of
the materials of which the media traversed are composed. See ACHROMATISM,
LENS, &c.

=Aberration of mind.= Mental alienation or wandering; insanity. A term
frequently applied, in familiar language, to a mild form of incipient
insanity or dementia, which is more or less occasional or continued,
trifling or severe, according to circumstances. The studious, nervous,
slothful, and those who are engaged in sedentary occupations and spend
much of their time in ill-ventilated apartments, or who indulge in
irregular or vicious habits, as well as ‘fast livers,’ are the most liable
to this affection. It also frequently arises from disordered physical
health.

_Treat., &c._ Change of scene, out-door exercise, agreeable company,
pleasing and continued mental occupation, and due attention to diet,
clothing, ventilation, &c., with the judicious use of some mild aperient
medicine and tepid bathing, will generally alleviate, and frequently
effect a cure. For the prevention of its accession, or its recurrence,
care should be taken to promote the general health, and also, where
necessary, to elevate the spirits and to divert the mind.

=ABLU′TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ABLU′TIO, L. In a _general sense_,
washing, cleansing, or purification by water.

=Ablution.= In _hygiène_ and the _toilet_, a washing of the whole body, or
any part of it. The value of frequent and copious affusions of pure water
to the surface of the body is well known. During life, the skin is
continually subjected to abrasion, and the processes of reproduction and
decay, by which the cuticle, its exterior portion, is being constantly
thrown off as effete and useless matter, in the shape of very minute
scales or dust. This, mingling with the oily and saline products of the
skin, acquires sufficient adhesiveness to attach itself to the surface of
the body and clothing, as well as to attract the waste particles of the
dress, and the dust and soot floating in the atmosphere. In this way, if
occasional ablutions be not had recourse to, the channels of perspiration
will become choked, and the clothing itself rendered unwholesome and unfit
for use. The consequence of the pores of the skin being obstructed is
impeded transpiration, by which its functions, as a respiratory organ, are
interfered with or suspended. This adhering pellicle of refuse matter also
acts as an irritant, and forms a favorable medium for the absorption, and
the transmission into the body, of effluvia, miasmata, poisonous gases,
and the infectious and contagious matters of disease. “The greater part of
(contagious) poisons are conveyed to us through the external surface of
our bodies; and it is fully proved that poison, already communicated, has
been by cleanliness removed, before it could actually produce any bad
effects. I here allude, in particular, to frequent washing, bathing,
rinsing the mouth, combing and brushing the hair, and often changing the
linen, clothing, and bedding.” (Hufeland.) Such are the immediate effects
of neglected ablution of the skin; the further consequences are of an
equally serious character. The blood being deprived of one of its sources
of oxygen, and one of the outlets for its carbon, the functions of
nutrition become imperfect, and the animal temperature lessened. The
matters which would be thrown out of the system in the form of
perspiration are retained, and must be eliminated by other channels. The
lungs, the kidneys, the liver, and the bowels, are each, in their turn,
overtasked to perform the functions of another organ. The oppressed
viscera suffer from exhaustion, and incipient disease soon follows. Their
particular offices are languidly performed, the equilibrium of health is
disturbed, and skin diseases, or consumption, diarrhœa, dropsy,
liver-complaints, visceral obesity, or some other serious diseases of the
vital organs, ensue. When it is added, that no dirty or imperfectly washed
skin can long continue healthy, and ceasing to be healthy must also cease
to be agreeable and beautiful, the argument in favour of the daily use of
water of good quality to the whole surface of the body, when possible,
will surely be complete. The inculcation of habits of personal cleanliness
cannot be too forcibly emphasized. The fact, however, cannot be
overlooked, that in order to introduce habits of cleanliness amongst the
poorer classes, a plentiful supply of water, combined with cheap baths,
are requisite. Every officer of health should inquire into the amount as
well as the character of the water supply in the district over which he
has supervision. The body should be washed all over every morning with
either cold or lukewarm water and soap. This custom is more necessary for
workmen employed in laborious and dirty occupations than for those who
live sedentary lives; but all people perspire, and from every drop of
perspiration the water evaporates, and leaves a fraction of solid matter
on and around the pores that excrete the perspiration. If this solid
matter be not washed off, it accumulates and may derange the health.
Instances have occurred in which persons suffering from extensive bodily
burns have died, not from the effect of the injury, but from the
destruction of the pores or excreting vessels, with which the skin is
covered. It is well, therefore, to bear in mind that a dirty skin does not
always come from without, but also from within. Cold ablution, that has
been so indiscriminately recommended, is not half so efficacious, nor so
safe, as lukewarm. The German aurists ascribe the presence of the large
amount of deafness in England to our habit of washing the head and ears
each morning with cold water.

=Ablution.= In _medicine_, the washing the body, externally, as by
bathing; or internally, by diluting drinks. In ancient medicine, according
to Galen, internal ablution was accomplished by the use of profuse
libations of milk-whey; an object now aimed at, by the hydropathists, by
the copious administration of pure cold water. To neglect the daily
ablution of an infant is to discard one of the greatest aids to its
healthy development and physical wellbeing. That disregard of this
precaution is a fertile source of most of the skin diseases that affect
infants and children there seems little question about amongst medical
men. Water at a temperature ranging from 80° to 90° F. should always be
used. Mr Chevasse, in his ‘Counsel to a Mother,’ is emphatic in his
advocacy of rain water. He also advises the employment of Castile soap,
and of glycerine soap, should there be any excoriation of the skin. Of
course the same remarks apply to children as to infants, with this
difference, that the ablution is to be performed with water a few degrees
colder; and both infants and children should be rubbed dry with a dry soft
towel. There are doubtless many persons who deem themselves cleanly
washed, if in addition to their hands and arms, neck and face, undergoing
duly daily ablution, they wash their feet once a week. These individuals
cannot reflect that, because of their less exposure to the depurating
influence of the atmosphere, the feet require to be more frequently washed
than either the hands or face. See BATHING, BATHS, HYDROPATHY, &c.

=ABNORM′AL.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ABNOR′MIS, L. In _medicine_ and the
_collateral sciences_, contrary to, or without system or rule; irregular;
deformed; unnatural. In a diseased or unhealthy state.

=ABORTION IN COWS.= Abortion is the expulsion of the contents of the
pregnant womb before the full period of gestation is complete, and occurs
much more frequently in cows than in any other of the lower animals.
Abortion is often induced by shocks and injuries, feeding on ergotised
grasses, but more commonly by causes which are less obvious. Thus, bad
smells, pasturing on flooded meadows, rich and stimulating food, and even
association with other cows while aborting, are among the exciting causes
of this malady. The premonitory signs are an irritable excited state of
the animal, a discharge from the vagina, looseness and fulness of the
external organs of generation, and, occasionally, sudden enlargement of
the udder. These symptoms may continue for several days, and, if noticed
before straining or other signs of calving have appeared, the animal
should be copiously bled and placed in a comfortable loose-box, kept as
quiet as possible, moderately supplied with soft laxative food, and, if
the bowels be costive, with a pound or two of treacle daily. Powerful
purgatives are too irritant, and must, therefore, be studiously avoided.
Two ounces of laudanum, with the same quantity of sweet spirits of nitre,
should be given twice a day until all danger is over. To prevent the
continuance and spread of the evil, place the cow by herself as soon as
she aborts; remove and bury the fœtus beyond the reach of other cows; feed
off the cow, if practicable, but if she be again bulled, it ought not to
be for several weeks, and until the period of heat is passing off; remove
all disagreeable smells, and see that the remainder of the herd are
moderately fed and carefully watched, so that the earliest symptoms of
abortion may be noticed.

=ABRA′SION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ABRA′SIO, L. The rubbing or wearing down
of surfaces by friction. In the _arts_, the reduction or figuration of
materials by the use of an abrasive tool, or grinder, of which the
effective portion is an exact counterpart of the form to be produced.

=Abrasion.= In _numismatics_, the ‘wear and tear,’ or waste of the
substance of coins, in the pocket and circulation. It forms a large item
in the expense of a metallic currency. The means employed to obviate, or
to reduce it, consist in either alloying the metal to render it tougher
and harder, or raising the borders so as to lessen the surface exposed to
friction. In well-formed coin both methods are adopted.

=Abrasion.= In _pathology_ and _surgery_——1. A superficial removal or
injury of the skin by fretting or friction.

_Treat., &c._ When the injured surface is large, or exposed, it should be
protected from dirt and further injury, by applying a piece of lint or
soft linen rag, covered with spermaceti cerate, or some other simple
ointment; over which a piece of strapping, or bandage of any sort, may be
placed to keep it on. In many cases, a piece of common sticking-plaster
will be found quite sufficient.

2. A very superficial ulceration or excoriation of the intestinal or other
mucous membrane. _Treat_. Aperients of castor oil, demulcents, and a
light nutritious diet. See EXCORIATIONS.

=ABRUS PRECATORIUS.= (Ind. Ph.) Indian Liquorice Plant. _Habitat._
Tropical portions of both hemispheres, _Officinal part._ The root (_Abri
Radix_, _Indian Liquorice_). Occurs in pieces of various lengths, from 1/2
to 1 inch in diameter; pale brown externally, yellowish internally;
inodorous, taste sweetish and mucilaginous, much resembling officinal
liquorice root. _Properties and uses._ Similar to those of liquorice, for
which it forms an excellent substitute. _Preparation._ EXTRACT OF ABRUS
(_Extractum Abri_). Prepared as Extractum Glycyrrhizæ.

=ABSCESS.= A formation of matter or pus, resulting from inflammation,
either acute or chronic. The symptoms are pain, swelling, heat, and
redness, a conical projection on the swelling, often with a white point at
the apex. Abscess or suppuration may come on any part of the body. When
the local inflammation does not yield to cold lotions, apply poultices; a
pledget of lint dipped in cold water and kept moist by means of oil-silk;
a slice of bread softened with boiling water or milk, or linseed meal,
make the best poultices. Should the pain be severe add laudanum, and
additionally rub it round the swelling. Or apply common white paint by
laying it on gently with a brush, or else tincture of marigold or arnica
in the same manner. Chronic abscesses in the glands in the neck are
usually scrofulous, and should be opened. Abscesses in the breast should
not be opened too early, or others are formed. Those in the gums may be
cut early, not so if in the tonsils. After opening with a needle or
lancet-point external abscesses, continue to poultice till the hardness
disappears, then dress with spermaceti ointment spread on lint. When the
abscess is of a dangerous nature, lose no time in consulting a medical
practitioner.

_Treatment for horses and cattle._ Mr Finlay Dun prescribes fomentations,
poultices, counter-irritants, the knife, cauterisation, carbolic-acid
dressing, stimulating injections, and the administration of sulphites and
chlorate of potash.

=ABSINTHE.= [Fr.] ABSINTHIUM, L.; WORMWOOD, E.; WERMUTH, G. This article
is met with in commerce in the form of the dried herb with the flowers of
_Artemisia Absinthium_, having a whitish-grey appearance, a soft feel, an
aromatic and unpleasant odour, and an extremely bitter and aromatic
flavour. The plant is indigenous, and grows in thickets, in mountainous
districts, and on waste ground. Its odour is due to its containing an
essential oil; its bitterness is referable to _absinthin_, a
crystallisable principle which may be extracted from the herb by water or
spirit. The name _absinthe_ is also given to an intoxicating liqueur which
is extensively drunk on the Continent, and which unfortunately appears to
be rapidly attracting consumers in this country. The remarks on this
subject by Blyth in his admirable ‘Dictionary of Hygiène’ are so pregnant
with important facts that they will be here produced _verbatim et
literatim_. “An analysis recently made at the _Conservatoire des Arts_
shows that absinthe now contains a large quantity of antimony, a poison
which cannot fail to add largely to the irritant effects necessarily
produced on the alimentary canal and liver by constant doses of a
concentrated alcoholic liquid. And we have recently received the results
of some experiments made by M. Magnan, of Paris. By means of successive
distillations he has been able to isolate various products——(1) a blue
oil; (2) a yellowish oil; (3) an oxygenated substance. There was besides a
yellowish residue left in the glass. These various substances were tried
on animals; ten grammes of the yellow sediment given to a small dog
produced no effect; thirty centigrammes of the blue oil produced from
eight to ten epileptiform attacks. The oxygenated product proved, however,
the most powerful toxic agent. Fifteen centigrammes of it, injected into
the veins of a large dog, caused the most violent epileptic attacks, which
followed in rapid succession, and ended in death. There was an
extraordinary rise of temperature, from 39° to 42° Centigrade, and the
_post mortem_ showed various apoplectic centres. Dr Decaisne regards the
terrible evil of this almost universal absinthe-drinking as the greatest
national calamity that has ever befallen France, and has made an eloquent
appeal to the Government to strike at once a decisive blow at the trade in
this liqueur. Originally the only important ingredient in its composition
besides alcohol was the essential oil of absinthium or wormwood; and
though this without doubt added something to the mischievous effects of
the liqueur, it would be impossible to trace to it, or to the other
comparatively trivial ingredients, the more serious of the special results
which are now observed to occur to victims of absinthe, though the
habitual drinking even in small doses of _good_ absinthe is believed by Dr
Decaisne, sooner or later, to produce disorders in the animal economy. Now
various deleterious substances are added, the most important of these
being antimony. As at present constituted, therefore, and especially when
drunk in the disastrous excess now common in Paris, and taken, as it
frequently is, on an empty stomach, absinthe forms a chronic poison of
almost unequalled virulence, both as an irritant to the stomach and
bowels, and also as a destroyer of the nervous system. The effect of
absinthe is to produce a superabundant activity of the brain, a cerebral
excitement, which at first is agreeable; intoxication comes on rapidly;
the head swims, and the effect produced is nearly the same as that of
poisoning by a narcotic, which certainly does not occur with an equal dose
of brandy. With the absinthe-drinker, as with the opium-eater, the
excitement the spirit produces diminishes daily in intensity. Each day he
is obliged to augment the dose in order to bring himself up to the right
pitch. The diseases brought on by the excessive drinking of ardent spirits
are produced with greater rapidity by the use of absinthe.” The amount of
absinthe consumed in London has during the last few years been enormously
on the increase. See LIQUEURS.

=ABSINTHIN.= C_{16}H_{22}O_{5}. The bitter principle of wormwood
(_Artemisia absinthium_). A hard crystalline solid, having an intensely
bitter taste; slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol, less so
in ether. Its physiological effects resemble those of extract of wormwood.
_Dose._ 1/2 gr. to 2 gr., or more; in dyspepsia; as a stomachic, to
promote the appetite, &c.; as a substitute for quinine in intermittents;
and in worms.

=ABSINTH′IUM.= [L.] See ABSINTHE.

=ABSOLUTE.= _Syns._ ABSOLUTUS, L.; ABSOLU, Fr.; UNDEBINGT, G. In
_chemistry_, pure, unmixed; as _absolute alcohol_, pure spirit of wine,
_i.e._ free from water.

=ABSORBED′= (-sorbd′). _Syn._ CHILLED; ABSORBÉ, Fr. In _painting_, a term
among French connoisseurs, to represent that state of a picture in which
the oil has sunk into the canvas or ground, leaving the colours ‘flat,’
and the touches indistinct. The remedy consists in rubbing the surface of
the picture, previously well cleaned, with a soft sponge dipped in a
little drying oil, and after some days varnishing it; when it should be
kept in a warm room until perfectly dry.

=ABSORB′ENT.= _Syn._ ABSORB′ENS, L.; ABSORBANT, Fr.; ABSORBIREND, Ger.
Imbibing; that imbibes or sucks up; variously applied in science and art.
(See _below_.)

=Absorbent Ground.= In _painting_, a picture-ground prepared wholly or
chiefly in distemper or water colour, in order that the redundant oil in
the colours subsequently applied may be immediately ‘absorbed,’ by which
expedition is permitted, and brilliancy imparted to them.

=Absorbent Surfaces.= In the _arts_, these are usually rendered
non-absorbent, preliminary to their being bronzed, gilded, painted, or
varnished, by giving them one, or more, coats of thin size, so as to
destroy their porosity; care being taken to allow each coat to become
thoroughly dry before the application of the next one; and also, finally,
to remove any unabsorbed excess of size from the surface, by means of a
sponge dipped in warm water. This applies to ALABASTER, PAPER, WOOD,
PLASTER CASTS, &c.; and to WALLS and CEILINGS which are not exposed to the
weather, and which there is not time to prepare with drying oil. See
BRONZING, MAPS, VARNISHING, &c.

Absorption and consequent adherence in porous moulds, as those of plaster,
are usually prevented by thoroughly saturating the pores of the mould with
melted tallow, or a mixture of tallow and bees’ wax; or for delicate
objects or the electrotype, with white wax. The ‘dry moulds’ are either
heated before the application of these substances, or they are boiled in
them; any portion that may finally remain unabsorbed, being carefully
removed with cotton-wool or a soft rag. Another method is to wash the
moulds over two or three times with drying oil, or to boil them in it;
after which they must be exposed to the air for some days, to dry and
harden. Before being used for plaster, composition, &c., the surface of
these prepared moulds require to be slightly moistened with sweet oil.

_Plaster moulds_ are generally prepared for sulphur, wax, and gutta percha
casts, by simply placing them (upright) with the back immersed in a little
water, contained in any shallow vessel, as a saucer or plate; and letting
them remain there until moisture begins to appear on the surface. The
materials to be cast, or moulded, should then be used at the lowest
possible temperature, to prevent the formation of air-bubbles.

The adherence of wax or mixtures containing it, and of gutta percha, is
best prevented by moistening the surface of the mould (whether of plaster,
metal, or gutta percha), immediately before use, with soft soap reduced to
the consistence of thin cream with water. See CASTS, MOULDS, ELECTROTYPE,
&c.

=ABSORB′ENTS.= In _anatomy_ and _physiology_, two distinct sets of small,
delicate, transparent vessels, which imbibe or suck up fluid substances,
and convey them to the blood. They are termed lacteals or lymphatics; the
former take up the chyme from the alimentary canal, the latter pervade
almost every part of the body in which they absorb lymph.

=Absorbents.= In _botany_ and _vegetable physiology_, the origins of the
different vessels constituting the vascular tissue, as they are found in
the root, where they imbibe or suck up the nutritive fluids from the soil.
See PLANTS and VEGETABLES.

=Absorbents.= In _agriculture_ and _chemistry_, substances which possess
the power of withdrawing moisture from the atmosphere; as soils,
argillaceous earths, &c. Also (but less frequently) substances which
neutralise acids; as chalk, lime, and magnesia. Absorbents differ from
‘deliquescent salts’; the latter attract moisture and dissolve in it;
whilst the former merely suck it into their pores, as a sponge does water.
See ABSORPTION.

=Absorbents.= _Syn._ ABSORBEN′TIA, L. In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_,
substances which remove acidity from the stomach and bowels. Of these the
principal are——magnesia, carbonate and bicarbonate of magnesia, prepared
chalk, and the carbonates and bicarbonates of potash, soda, and ammonia.
The first four are popularly called earthy absorbents; and the others,
alkaline absorbents. See ANTACIDS.

The following absorbent mixtures are taken from Dr Kirby’s valuable work,
‘Selected Remedies’:

1. Infusion of rhubarb, 1-1/2 oz.; compound spirit of ammonia, 1-1/2 dr.;
compound infusion of gentian to 6 oz. Two tablespoonfuls to be taken 3
times a day.

2. Bicarbonate of potash, 1-1/2 dr.; syrup, 2 drs.; compound spirit
ammonia, 1-1/2 dr.; compound infusion of gentian to 6 oz. Two
tablespoonfuls to be taken 3 times a day.

3. Bicarbonate of soda, 1-1/2 dr.; spirits of chloroform, 1-1/2 dr.;
infusion of calumba to 6 oz. Two tablespoonfuls to be taken 3 times a day.

=ABSORP′TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ABSORP′TIO, L.; EINSAUGUNG, Ger. The act
or the power of absorbing, in various applications. (See _below_.)

=Absorption.= In _agriculture_, the power possessed by soils of absorbing
moisture from the atmosphere. The more a soil is divided by labour and
vegetation, the greater is its absorbent power, and, consequently, its
fertility. Indeed, the latter chiefly depends on its capacity for imbibing
moisture, and may be illustrated by reference to recent and disintegrated
lava. (Leslie.) The finely divided state, most penetrable by the delicate
fibres of plants, appears to derive its superior power of acting on
atmospheric vapour from the augmentation of its surface and the
multiplication of its points of contact. (Ure.) This method of increasing
the fertility of a soil is well known to scientific farmers, and seldom
neglected by them. (Loudon.) That soil must be regarded as the most
fertile which possesses this power in the greatest degree. Garden-mould
has the highest absorbent power of any mineral substance. (Leslie.)

_Process of ascertaining_ the ABSORBENT POWER OF SOILS, _and other
substances._ Thoroughly dry the article by the suitable application of a
heat not exceeding 212° Fahr., continued for several hours, and transfer
it, while still warm, into a clean dry phial furnished with a perfectly
tight ground-glass stopper. When cold, quickly and cautiously introduce
it, along with a delicate hygrometer, into a large wide-mouthed glass
bottle, the atmosphere of which has been previously rendered as damp as
possible, by suspending a piece of moistened rag or filtering paper in it.
It must now be kept closed for some hours, when the hygrometer will
indicate the degree of dryness of the enclosed air, and, consequently, the
absorbent power of the substance examined.

_Obs._ Experiments of this nature are only relatively correct, and must be
performed under exactly similar circumstances, to furnish reliable
comparative results. The whole process, in each case, must be as similar
as careful manipulation can possibly make them. With this reserve, they
will be found invaluable to the agriculturist.

=Absorption.= In _chemistry_ the passage of gases and vapours into liquid
and solid substances. Thus, water absorbs the oxygen of the air, lime
absorbs water, charcoal absorbs ammoniacal and other gases.

=Absorption.= In _medicine_ and _toxicology_, see MEDICINES and POISONS.

=Absorption.= In _perfumery_, see ENFLEURAGE.

=Absorption.= In _physics_, see HEAT, LIGHT, REFRIGERATION, &c.

=Absorption.= In _physiology_ (animal and vegetable), the function of
sucking, or taking up, of appropriate substances, by the ‘absorbent
vessels.’ It is one of the chief vital functions, the primary object of
which is to convey to the circulatory organs the proper supply of the
materials necessary for the support and growth of the body; and
subsequently, to remove and convey to these organs its effete and useless
portions, in order to their ultimate elimination from the system.

=Absorption.= In _surgery_, the natural process by which tumours and their
contents, morbid growths, and, sometimes, even healthy glands, &c., are
gradually taken up and disappear, by the action of the ‘absorbents.’

=Absorption= (of Surfaces, Moulds, &c). See ABSORBENT SURFACES.

=ABSTERG′ENTS.= _Syn._ ABSTERGEN′TIA, L. In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_,
substances which cleanse or clear away foulness from the surface of the
body or sores; as soap, lotions, &c. See DETERGENT, which has a nearly
similar meaning, and is in more general use.

=AC′ARI= (-rī). [L.; prim. Gr.] _Syn._ ACAR′IDANS; ACAR′IDES (dēz);
ACARID′IÆ. (-e-ē). In _entomology_, a division of arachnidans, including
the _mite_ and _tick_. All the species are either microscopic or extremely
minute, and possess such tenacity of life as to resist for some time the
action of boiling water, and to live with comparative impunity in alcohol.
Leuwenhoek had one that lived eleven weeks glued on its back to the point
of a needle, without food. The following are well known——ACARUS
AUTUMNA′LIS, the _harvest-bug_ or _wheal-worm_; A. DOMES′TICUS, the
_domestic tick_; A. DYSENTE′RIÆ, the _dysentery-tick_; A. FARI′NÆ, the
_meal mite_ (fig. _a_); A. RI′′CINUS (rĭc-), the _dog-tick_; A. SAC′CHARI,
the _sugar-mite_ (fig. _b_); A. SI′′RO, the _cheese-mite_ (fig. _c_); A.
SCABIE′I, the _itch-insect_ (fig. _d_).

The irritation of the skin, caused by these vermin, may be relieved by a
lotion of equal parts of sal volatile and water; and they may be destroyed
by tobacco water, or a lotion or ointment of stavesacre. See ITCH, MANGE,
PARASITES, PEDICULI, SCAB, &c.

=Acarus Farinæ=, or _meal-mite_ (fig. _a_). This insect is found only in
damaged flour, and is more frequently met with in the flour of the
_leguminosæ_ (beans, peas) than in that of the _gramineæ_ (wheat, rye,
oat).

Now and then a single acarus may occasionally be found in good flour, but
even one should be regarded with suspicion, and the flour should
afterwards be frequently examined to see if they are increasing.

[Illustration: FIG. _a._ Mag. 250 diams.]

=Acarus Sacchari=, or _sugar-mite_ (fig. _b_).

[Illustration: FIG. _b._ Mag. 260 diams.]

Most of the brown sugars of commerce are infested by this pest, which is
of a size sufficiently large to be visible to the naked eye. The following
method of proceeding will lead to its detection:

Dissolve 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls of sugar in a large wineglass of tepid water,
and let the solution remain for an hour or so, at the expiration of which
time the acari may be found, some on the surface of the liquid, some
attaching themselves to the sides of the glass, and some at the bottom,
mixed up with the copious and dark sediment, made up of fragments of cane,
woody fibre, grit, dirt, and starch granules, which usually subside on
dissolving even a small quantity of sugar in hot water. When first hatched
this acarus is hardly visible.

Acari of all sizes——that is, in all stages of growth——may be met with in
most samples of sugar.

Dr Hassall, in seventy-two samples of sugar which he examined, found
sixty-nine containing them.

[Illustration: FIG. _c._]

=Acarus Siro=, the _cheese-mite_ (fig. _c_). The dry and powdery parts of
decayed cheese, which by careful watching may very frequently be seen in
movement, consist almost wholly of this insect and their eggs in different
stages of development. The cheese-mite can hardly be seen without the aid
of the microscope. They are very tenacious of life, even when kept without
food. Mr Blyth says that under these circumstances “it is no uncommon
sight to see them killing and devouring each other; and that cheese is
rapidly destroyed by them; they crumble it into minute pieces, and emit a
liquid substance which causes the decayed parts to spread speedily.” They
may be destroyed by being exposed to a strong heat, or by putting the
cheese for a short time in whisky.

[Illustration: FIG. _d._]

=Acarus Scabiei=, the _itch-insect_ (fig. _d_). The parasitic character of
the disease known as the itch was first demonstrated by Dr Bononio, who
on turning out the contents of one of the little bladders that show
themselves between the fingers of those affected with the complaint, and
placing the fluid under the microscope, discovered a minute animal, very
nimble in its movements, covered with short hairs, having a short head, a
pair of strong mandibles or cutting-jaws, and eight legs, terminating in
remarkable appendages, each provided with a sucker and setæ.

It has no eyes; but when disturbed it quickly draws in its head and feet,
and then somewhat resembles the tortoise in appearance, its march being
precisely the same. It usually lays sixteen eggs, which are carefully
deposited in furrows under the skin, and ranged in pairs; these are
hatched in about ten days.

“To find the itch-insect,” says Mr Jabez Hogg, “the operator must
carefully examine the parts surrounding each pustule; he will then see a
red line or spot communicating with it; this part, and not the pustule,
must be probed with a fine-pointed instrument. The operator must not be
disappointed by repeated failures.”

=ACCIDENT′AL COLOURS.= See COLOURS (Complementary).

=ACCIDENTS.= _Black eye._ Bathe the eye frequently with a soft piece of
linen rag dipped in a lotion composed of one part of tincture of arnica
and seven parts of water.

_Burns and Scalds._ Refer to BURNS and SCALDS.

_Charcoal_, _combustion of_, _poisoning by._ Refer to CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE.

_Choking, or suffocation from substances sticking in the throat._ Refer to
CHOKING.

_Cut Finger._ Refer to CUTS.

_Precautions against Fires._ Refer to FIRES.

_Precautions against Lightning._ To take refuge under a tree during a
thunderstorm accompanied by lightning is to expose oneself to a double
danger——firstly, because by keeping the clothes dry these are prevented
becoming the non-conductors they would be if damp; and secondly, because
the tree, serving as a point of attraction for the lightning, conducts it
to the ground, and in doing so frequently rends the trunks or branches,
and kills any person or animal who happens to be close to, or in contact
with, it at the time.

Never, therefore, if overtaken by a storm of thunder and lightning fly to
the dangerous cover of a tree, pillar, hay-rick, wall, or hedge, but seek
shelter in the nearest dwelling; or if this is not at hand, get to a part
of the road or field where there is no object to attract the lightning,
and there remain till the storm has expended itself. Also avoid
particularly the proximity of iron gates, palisades, bronze statues, bell
wires, iron railings, and such like. When in the house, do not sit or
stand near the windows, doors, or walls, but place yourself in the middle
of the room, unless there should be a lamp or chandelier hanging from the
ceiling. Franklin recommends persons to keep away from the neighbourhood
of fireplaces.

_Treatment of persons struck by lightning._ In case of any person being
struck by lightning, immediately strip the body and throw bucketsful of
cold water over it for ten or fifteen minutes; continued frictions and
inhalations of the lungs must also be employed, and electricity should be
tried if it be possible.

=Accidents by Poison.= The means to be adopted in cases where poison is
taken, if the poison be known, are embodied in the antidotes, which will
be found given in this volume under the respective poisons.

Under all circumstances, however, medical aid should be sought as
expeditiously as possible, since many of the antidotes themselves being of
a dangerous, if not poisonous, character, should only be administered
under medical supervision. Pending the arrival of the doctor, no time
should be lost in giving an emetic, consisting of a teaspoonful of flour
of mustard in half a pint of warm water, supplemented by copious draughts
of warm water, and tickling the throat with the finger if necessary.

_Fish poisoning._ It is a not unfrequent occurrence to find fish when
eaten giving rise to a species of poisoning of a more or less violent
form, such as a sense of weight at the stomach, accompanied with nausea,
vertigo, headache, heat about the head and eyes, pains in the stomach,
thirst, and often an eruption of the skin resembling nettle-rash. These
symptoms may be sometimes due to the nature of the fish itself; sometimes
to its being in a state unfit to be taken as food, as, for instance, when
it is in a stale or decomposing condition; and occasionally to the
peculiarity of constitution of those who partake of it, even if in a
perfectly fresh condition. Whenever any of the symptoms above described
follow from eating fish, an emetic of mustard and water (a teaspoonful of
mustard in half a pint of water) should be administered. If subsequently a
rash should appear, it would be well to take a dose of brisk purgative
medicine, and, if necessary, a few doses of carbonate of soda 3 or 4 times
during the day.

_Poisonous Mushrooms._ The same treatment should be followed as for fish.
With some people the edible mushroom acts as a poison.

_Sinks._ See that these be securely trapped, and in the event of any
unpleasant smell from them, pour down some disinfectant, such as chloride
of lime, carbolic acid, or Condy’s fluid. The foul emanations from a sink
ought to be regarded as of a most dangerous and pestilential nature.

=Accidents to Children.= Many, if not most, of the casualties to which
children are exposed are given above, together with the best course to be
pursued in the event of their being overtaken by any of them. There are,
however, a few forms of disaster which seem more especially peculiar to
children. Of these we may select——

_Swallowing a piece of broken glass._ In this case avoid giving
purgatives, but give solid farinaceous food, so as to envelope the glass
and enable it to pass through the bowels without causing injury by coming
in contact with them.

_Swallowing a coin._ Give a dose or two of castor oil, and examine the
stools until the coin is perceived.

_A small coin sticking in the windpipe._ Seize the child by the legs,
letting his head hang downwards, then administer several brisk blows on
the back with the palm of the hand, when very frequently the coin will be
coughed out of the mouth and on to the floor. If this plan do not succeed,
send immediately for medical aid.

=ACCLI′MATE=, or =ACCLI′MATISE=. In _botany_ and _zoology_, to inure a
plant or animal to a climate to which it is not indigenous. When so inured
it is said to be ACCLIMATED. In _medicine_, to habituate the body to a
foreign climate, so that it may not be peculiarly liable to its endemic
diseases; or to become so habituated. Thus, a person who has resided
several years at New Orleans without an attack of yellow fever, or having
had an attack has satisfactorily recovered, is said to be ACCLI′MATISED.

=ACCOM′PANIMENTS.= In _cookery_ and _housekeeping_, see TRIMMINGS.

=ACCUMULA′TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ACCUMULA′TIO, L. In _medicine_, a term
applied when the effects of the first dose of any substance still continue
when the second is administered (accumulation of action); or when several
doses of insoluble substances remain inactive in the system until their
energy is developed by chemical influence (accumulation of doses). See
MEDICINES, POISONS, &c.

=ACEPH′ALANS.= _Syn._ ACEPH′ALA, CUV. In _malacology_, a class of aquatic
mollusca, having no apparent head, but a mouth between the folds of their
mantle. Several of them, as the oyster, cockle, mussel, scallop, &c., are
consumed for food.

=ACERB′ITY.= _Syn._ ACERB′ITAS, L.; ACERBITÉ, Fr.; HERBIGKEIT, Ger. In
_chemistry_, &c., sourness, with bitterness and astringency, or harshness.
See CIDER, FRUIT, WINE, &c.

=ACERBO’S ANTI-RHEUMATIC AND ANTI-CATARRH OIL.= For various horse
diseases. Gum euphorbium, 10 parts; absolute alcohol, 10 parts; olive oil,
80 parts. Digest in a warm-water bath for 24 hours, then boil until all
the spirit has evaporated, and, when cold, strain through cotton. (Hager.)

=ACER′IDES.= Plasters that do not contain wax.

=ACES′CENT.= _Syns._ ACES′CENS, L.; ACESCENT, AIGRELET, Fr.; SÄURLICH,
Ger. In _chemistry_, &c., growing sour; slightly tart or acid; having a
tendency to sourness, or to run into the acetic fermentation, as _wine_,
_beer_, _malt-wort_, &c. Hence, ACES′CENCE or ACES′CENCY (_acescen′tia_,
L.; _acescense_, _aigreur_, Fr.; _säurlichkeit_, Ger.), the tendency to
become slightly acid, or the quality of being so. See ACETIFICATION,
MALT-LIQUORS, WINE, WORT, &c.

=ACETA′′RIOUS= (-tāre′-e-ŭs). Used for salads (as plants); relating to
salads (which see).

=AC′ETATE= (ăs′-). _Syn._ ACE′TAS, L.; ACETATE, Fr.; ESSIGSÄURE SALZE,
Ger. In _chemistry_, a salt consisting of C_{2}H_{3}O_{2} (sometimes
called the acid-radical of the acetates) with hydrogen, a metal, or a
compound basic radical; _e.g._,

  Hydrogen acetate (acetic acid) HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}
  Potassium acetate              KC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}
  Lead (plumbic) acetate         Pb(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}
  Ammonium acetate               NH_{4}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}
  Salts of acetic acid           (HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2})
      with the alkaloids are likewise termed acetates; _e.g._,
  Morphia acetate                C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3} . C_{2}H_{4}O_{2}

_Prep._ That of the commercial acetates, and of many others, is noticed
under the respective metals. In general, they may all be formed by direct
solution of the carbonate, hydrate or oxide of the metal whose acetate it
is desired to form, in dilute acetic acid; or from a solution of an
acetate and of another salt of the metal, by double decomposition. In
either case, the resulting solution must be carefully evaporated by a
gentle heat, and, where possible, crystallised.

_Prop., &c._ All the neutral acetates, except those of molybdenum and
tungsten, are more or less soluble in water, several so much so as to be
uncrystallizable; many dissolve in alcohol; they suffer decomposition at a
dull red heat, and by distillation, at that temperature, yield acetone and
water, or acetone and acetic acid, and leave a carbonaceous residuum; at a
full red-heat, those of potassium, sodium, barium, strontium, calcium, and
magnesium, are converted into carbonates, whilst the other metallic
acetates leave behind the pure metal, or its oxide. The aqueous solutions
of the alkaline acetates soon turn mouldy and suffer decomposition. No
more of them should, therefore, be dissolved at once than is required for
immediate use.

_Char., tests, &c._ The acetates are known——1. By evolving fumes of acetic
acid, recognisable by its peculiar and characteristic odour, on the
addition of strong sulphuric acid:——2. By evolving the vapour of acetic
ether (known by its peculiar and agreeable odour) when heated with a
mixture of about equal parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and alcohol.

=AC′ETATED= (ăs′-). In _chemistry_ and _pharmacy_, combined or impregnated
with acetic acid or vinegar.

=ACE′TIC.= _Syn._ ACE′TICUS, L.; ACÉTIQUE, Fr. Of or relating to vinegar;
made with acetic acid, as perfumes, &c. (See _below_.)

=ACETIC ACID.= HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}. _Syn._ PYROLIG′NEOUS ACID (_pure_); ACID
OF VINEGAR; ACIDUM ACE′TICUM, L.; ACIDE ACETIQUE, Fr.; ACIDO ACETICO, It.;
ESSIGSÄURE, Ger.; AZYNZUUR, Dut.; EISEL, Sax. When free from water it
crystallises on cooling, and is distinguished as——ACETIC HYDRATE,
HY′DRATED ACETIC ACID, MONOHY′DRATED A. A., GLA′CIAL A. A., MONOHYDRATED
A. A., ACE′TUM GLACIA′LE, ACIDUM ACE′TICUM G., L., &c. the sour principle
of vinegar.

_Var._ Commercial acetic acid is found under the form of the pure acid of
the chemist and pharmaceutist (glacial and dilute), and of vinegar, of
which there are several varieties, which are noticed under their
respective heads.

_Sources._ Fermented liquors; the vinegars of commerce; alcoholic liquors;
wood, from which it is obtained, as pyroligneous acid, by distillation;
the commercial acetates of soda, potassa, lime, lead, copper, &c. The pure
acetic acid of the chemist and of commerce is almost wholly obtained from
the acetates, either by the action of a strong acid, which seizes on the
base, setting the acid free; or, by dry distillation, in which the high
degree of heat employed separates the acetic acid from the base in the
form of vapour. It is also obtained by the oxidation of alcohol.

_Prep._ The following are the principal processes at present adopted to
obtain pure acetic acid:——

1. From the _Acetates_ in the moist way:——

_a._ From ACETATE OF SODA:——

1. Commercial acetate of soda (_i.e._, the ‘pure acetate’ of the
pyroligneous acid works), in crystals, is put into the body of a stout
copper still, and a deep cavity being made in the centre of the mass,
about 35% of sulphuric acid of a sp. gr. of not less than 1·84 is poured
in; the walls of the cavity are then thrown in upon the acid, and the
whole briskly agitated, for a very short time, with a large wooden
spatula; the head of the still is next luted on, and the distillation
conducted at a gentle heat, the receiver being changed as soon as the
distillate begins to acquire a slight empyreumatic odour. The product,
when the process is well managed, is an almost colourless acid of the sp.
gr. of fully 1·05, containing about 40% of glacial acid, or between 34%
and 35% of anhydrous acid. Any trace of colour or empyreuma is removed by
agitation with some well-washed and recently ignited vegetable charcoal,
or with a very small quantity of recently ignited purified animal
charcoal, and subsequently passing it through a prepared calico
bag-filter; or by allowing it to stand, for about a fortnight, in barrels
containing some beech-wood chips; after which it is ready for sale, either
as the ordinary acetic acid or pure pyroligneous acid of commerce, or (on
dilution, &c.) as vinegar.

2. The acid of sp. gr. 1·05 (obtained as above) is distilled with fused
chloride of calcium, the distillate being run into a refrigerator; the
crystals that form are drained at a temperature below 40° or 45° Fahr.,
and after removal to a warmer temperature, where they liquefy, and
agitation with a little peroxide of lead, are submitted to a second
distillation, as before; and this is repeated until the whole of the acid
crystallises at 51° Fahr. The product is the glacial acetic acid of
commerce.

_Obs._ The above are the processes usually adopted, on the large scale, in
this country.

3. (M. Mollerat’s process——without distillation.) Pure commercial acetate
of soda, in coarse powder, is placed in a hard glazed stoneware or glass
pan or receiver set in a cool situation, and 35% or 36% of concentrated
sulphuric acid, of the sp. gr. 1·843, added, in such a manner that the
acid may flow under the powder, and little heat be generated by the
operation; the whole is then allowed to remain in contact (covered) for
some hours, when crystalline grains of sulphate of soda are found covering
the bottom and sides of the vessel, and hydrated acetic acid, partly
liquid and partly in crystals, the upper portion. The temperature being
now slightly raised to a point just sufficient to cause the liquefaction
of the crystals of acetic acid (_i.e._, to from 62° to 65° Fahr.), the
fluid is poured off, and a very small quantity of pure acetate of lime
added to it gradually, until it ceases to yield any trace of free
sulphuric acid on evaporation. After sufficient repose it is carefully
decanted for use. An excellent commercial strong acetic acid is thus
obtained, without distillation, owing to the insolubility of sulphate of
soda in acetic acid; and from which glacial acid may be procured by
refrigeration. If, however, the process be badly managed, or the
proportions of the ingredients be not carefully observed, the product will
be contaminated with either a little sulphuric acid or saline matter. It
is also important to the success of this process that it be performed in a
cool apartment, and in well-cooled vessels. Perfectly pure acetic acid may
easily be obtained by rectification from this acid. The above plan of
superseding a troublesome distillation is one of the greatest improvements
yet introduced into the manufacture of acetic acid.

4. (Liebig’s process.) Pure acetate of soda, thoroughly dried and finely
powdered, 3 parts, is placed in a capacious retort, and pure concentrated
sulphuric acid, 9·7 parts, poured over it through the tubulature. One
eighth of the acetic acid passes over by the heat developed by the
reaction of the ingredients. The heat of a sand bath is next applied and
continued until the contents of the retort become quite liquid. The
distillate, carefully rectified, yields two parts of pure acid, containing
only 20 per cent. of water. On exposing the latter portion which comes
over in a closed vessel to a temperature below 40° Fahr., crystals of
hydrated acetic acid are deposited. The weaker, or liquid portion, being
poured off, the crystals are again melted and re-crystallised by cooling.
The crystals of the last operation, separated from the liquid, and
carefully drained in a cool and closed vessel, are perfectly pure hydrated
acetic acid.

_Obs._ The above is an excellent process for obtaining a chemically pure
acid. The excess of sulphuric acid left from the process may be recovered
by distillation; or the whole residuum may be employed in a second
distillation with fresh acetate.

[Illustration: (_C._) A Liebig’s Condenser. (The other _reference letters_
are self-explanatory.)]

Although a retort is recommended by Liebig for the distillation, and is
usually adopted, on the small scale, for the purpose, a flask closed by a
cork perforated by two tubes, as exhibited by the _engr._, will be found
more convenient and safe; as the product is then less likely to be
contaminated by the ‘spirting’ of the ingredients over the brim of the
vessel. The heat of a diffused gas-flame may also be often advantageously
substituted for a sand bath.

_b._ From ACETATE OF POTASH:——

1. Acetate of potash (fused and powdered) is placed in a still, or other
suitable vessel, and 50% of the strongest sulphuric acid (‘oil of vitriol’
of fully 1·84 sp. gr.) being added, the mixture is distilled to dryness,
as before. The product is 50 to 51% of the weight of the acetate employed,
with a sp. gr. of about 1·0735 to 1·074, containing about 66% of anhydrous
acetic acid, or nearly 80% of ordinary glacial acid. By rectification from
a little dried acetate of lead a perfectly pure acid of almost any
strength may be obtained. The ingredients are nearly in equiv.
proportions.

_c._ From ACETATE OF LEAD:——

1. (Ure.) Take of dried acetate of lead, 4 parts; strongest oil of
vitriol, 1 part. Distil slowly to dryness. Nearly equal to the last.

2. (Liebig.) Acetate of lead, 3 parts; sulphuric acid, 8 parts; as before.

3. (Dollfuss’ Concentrated Acetic Acid.) Take of dried acetate of lead, 12
oz.; sulphuric acid, 6 oz.; distil 7 ounces.

_d._ From ACETATE OF LIME:——

1. (Christl.) Raw acetate or pyrolignate of lime (prepared by Völckel’s
process), 100 parts, is mixed with hydrochloric acid (20° Baumé, or sp.
gr. 1·1515), 120 parts; and after 12 hours, distilled in a copper vessel,
with a gradually applied heat. The product is 100 parts or lbs. of acetic
acid of 8° Baumé (sp. gr. 1·0556), containing about 47% of hydrated acid,
only slightly coloured and empyreumatic, fit for various manufacturing
purposes. The advantage of this process is the low price of hydrochloric
acid, and the product not being contaminated with sulphuric or sulphurous
acid.

_Obs._ It will be found that pyrolignate of lime generally contains 60% to
70% of neutral acetate; but should it contain either more or less, a
proportionate quantity must be employed. When the proper proportions are
used the distillate gives only a scarcely perceptible turbid cloud when
tested with nitrate of silver. If the hydrochloric acid used has the sp.
gr. 1·16, a less quantity being employed, the product will have the sp.
gr. of 1·058 to 1·061, and will then contain from 48 to 51% of the
monohydrate, or 41 or 42% of anhydrous acetic acid. The resin sometimes
found floating on the mixed ingredients should be carefully removed, by
skimming, before distillation.

As acid of the above strength is rarely required, and as the distillation
is more easily conducted when the ingredients are less concentrated, a
little water may be conveniently added either before or towards the end of
the distillation. Hence the following proportions have been recommended:——

2. (Völckel.) Acetate of lime (as last), 100 parts; hydrochloric acid (sp.
gr. 1·16), 90 to 95 parts; water, 25 parts; mix, and proceed as before.
Prod. 96 to 98 parts of an excellent acid, well adapted to trading
purposes, having a sp. gr. about 1·050, and containing nearly 40% of
hydrated acetic acid. It has been correctly remarked, that the acetic acid
produced with hydrochloric acid is always of better quality than that
produced with sulphuric acid; being not only less coloured, but also
entirely free from sulphurous acid. The distillation uniformly proceeds
with ease and regularity, and the whole of the acetic acid passes over
between 212° and 248° Fahr.; by which the danger of contamination with
other products, resulting from a high degree of heat, is obviated.

3. An Acetic acid sufficiently strong and pure for many ordinary purposes
may be obtained without distillation, by pouring strong sulphuric acid, 60
parts, diluted with water, 5 parts, on well-dried acetate of lime, 100
parts; digesting, with occasional agitation in a close vessel, decanting
the clear liquid, and straining the remainder.

[Illustration:

  _A_, Furnace.
  _B B B B_, Glass receivers.
  _C_, Stoneware retort.
  _D_, Bottle containing vinegar.
  _E E E E_, Basins containing water.
  _F F F F_, Supports for basins.
  _G_, Welter safety-tube.
  _H_, Supply-pipe of cold water.
  _I I I I_, Cocks to supply water to the basins.
  _J_, Water main.
  _L_, Adapter connecting retort and globes.]

II. _From_ the _Acetates_ by _dry distillation_ with a _sulphate_:——

_a._ From ACETATE OF LEAD:——

1. Acetate of lead (dried), 5 parts; and sulphate of iron (gently
calcined), 2 parts; are separately powdered; and after thorough mixture,
carefully distilled, by the heat of a sand bath, into a well-cooled
receiver. An economical process for a strong acid, under certain
circumstances; but one now seldom adopted.

2. (Bardollier’s Strong Acetous acid.) Dried acetate of lead, 10 oz.;
calcined green vitriol, 12 oz.; as the last.

_b._ From the ACETATES OF COPPER:——By substituting acetate or diacetate of
copper, in equiv. proportions, or better with excess of the sulphate.
Seldom used.

_c._ From ACETATE OF POTASH, as the last.

III. From the _Acetates per se_:——

_a._ From ACETATE OF COPPER:——AROMATIC V.†; SPIRIT OF VERDIGRIS†; SPIRITUS
VEN′ERIS†, L.; ESPRIT DE VENUS, Fr.; ACIDUM ACE′TICUM, (Ph. L. 1787.)
_Process._ Carefully dry crystallised verdigris (diacetate of copper) by a
very gentle heat, and introduce it into a large stoneware retort (see
_engr._), the bottom of which has been previously coated with a mixture of
clay and horse-dung, to render it more capable of standing the fire. Next
place it in a suitable furnace, and connect it, by an adapter, with 3 or 4
double tubulated globes, the last of which must be furnished with a
vertical tubulature, to which a double Welter’s safety-tube should be
adapted; the other end being immersed in a basin half-filled with
distilled vinegar or water, while the funnel portion communicates with the
atmosphere. Then place each globe in a basin of water, kept cool by a
stream constantly passing through it; and cover the upper portion with
cloths kept continually wet with cold water. After 15 or 20 hours, fire
may be applied, and must be so regulated that the drops follow each other
with considerable rapidity from the end of the adapter, whilst the bubbles
of air cause no inconvenience at the other end of the apparatus. If
otherwise, the fire must be damped a little. The operation should be
continued, and the fire gradually increased, until vapour ceases to come
over, known by the globes gradually cooling, notwithstanding the heat of
the furnace. The operation being concluded, the whole may be allowed to
cool, and the acid collected preparatory to rectification. This may be
effected in a similarly arranged apparatus, except that it must be wholly
of glass; and the retort should not be much more than half-filled. The
operation must now be very carefully conducted, and discontinued before
barely the whole of the acid has distilled over; as the last portion is
apt to injure the flavour and colour of the rest. The first portions which
come over are very weak, and should be kept separate, until the sp. gr.
reaches to about 1·372, when the receiver should be changed, and the
product collected in separate portions, as noticed below.

_Obs._ Good diacetate of copper yields, by careful management, at a
temperature of 400° to 560° Fahr., fully one half its weight of a
greenish-coloured acid, of the sp. gr. of about 1·061, containing above
50% of hydrated acetic acid, or 43% of anhydrous acid. 20 lbs. of the
ordinary acetate yields 9-3/4 lbs. of this rough acid, leaving a residuum
of about 6-1/2 lbs. of metallic copper mixed with a little charcoal, in
the retort; the remainder (nearly 2/10ths of the acid in the acetate)
being decomposed by the heat, and lost. This 9-3/4 lbs. of crude acid
yields by rectification, and dividing the products, 1/2 lb. of acid of the
sp. gr. 1·023; 3 lbs. of the sp. gr. 1·042; and 6 lbs. of the sp. gr.
1·065; exclusive of a little acetone which comes over with it. In the
first distillation, the strongest acid is found in the third receiver, and
the weakest in the first. The acid obtained in this way is always
accompanied with a little fragrant pyro-acetic spirit; which renders it
preferable for aromatic vinegar and perfumery. It dissolves camphor,
resins, and essential oils with facility. This is one of the oldest
methods of obtaining glacial acetic acid, and the product is still
preferred for some purposes. It is the RADICAL VINEGAR of the alchemists,
and it is that which is preferred by the perfumers. Well-dried acetate of
lead, or of iron, as well as several other acetates, may be substituted
for acetate of copper in the above process; but are less economical and
convenient. In all cases, great care must be taken to avoid over-firing,
as thereby the quantity obtained is lessened, and the quality injured. The
residuum of the distillation is pyrophoric and frequently inflames
spontaneously, on exposure to the air. Due caution must be therefore
observed regarding it.

IV. _From Wood_, by _dry distillation_. See PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. The
preparation of the purified acid, by converting it into an acetate, and
subsequent distillation with a strong acid, is noticed _above._

[Illustration]

V. _From Alcohol._ (ALCOHOL VINEGAR, GERMAN ACETIC ACID.) In a bell-glass,
or an oblong glass case, perforated shelves are arranged, a few inches
apart, one above another, on which are placed a number of small flat
dishes of porcelain, earthenware, or wood. These dishes are filled with
spirit of wine or dilute alcohol; and over each is suspended a watch-glass
or capsule containing a portion of platinum-black; the whole being
arranged so that the platinum-black and the surface of the alcohol are not
more than 1-1/2 to 2 inches apart. Strips of porous paper are next so hung
in the case, that their bottom edges are immersed in the spirit, to
promote evaporation; and lastly, the apparatus, loosely covered, is set in
a light place at a temperature of from 70° to 90° Fahr.——the sunshine,
when convenient. In a short time the temperature of the platinum rises,
and the formation of acetic acid begins; and the condensed vapour trickles
down the sides of the glass and collects at the bottom of the case, whence
it is removed once or twice a day. (See _engr._) The product of a case of
twelve cubic feet content, with 7 or 8 oz. of platinum-powder, is capable
of producing daily, if well managed, nearly 1·31 lb. of hydrated acetic
acid from 1 lb. of absolute alcohol; 25 lbs. of platinum-powder and 300
lbs. of alcohol will, in like manner, furnish a daily supply of nearly 350
lbs. of pure acid, and of other strengths in proportion. Theoretically,
the product should be 130 parts of the hydrated acid for every 100 parts
of alcohol consumed; but this is never quite obtained in practice, owing
to a small portion of the alcohol mixing with the newly formed acid, and
escaping decomposition; and from another small portion of both the
alcohol, and of the newly formed aldehyd, being carried off by the air
that permeates the apparatus. The platinum-powder does not waste, and the
most inferior spirit may generally be employed.

_Rationale._ In this process, the alcohol (as in other cases of
acetification) is first converted into aldehyd; and this, as rapidly as
formed, absorbs oxygen and passes into hydrated acetic acid. The
simultaneous formation of aldehyd during the oxygenation of that already
formed, may be detected by its odour.

_Obs._ During the mutual action of the platinum-black and the vapour of
alcohol, the temperature increases, and continues to do so until all the
oxygen contained in the air enclosed in the case is consumed, when the
acetification stops. On opening the case for a short time, to admit of a
fresh supply of air, the operation recommences, thus showing its
dependence on the oxygen of the atmosphere. For this transmutation, 100
grains of alcohol require 71 grains (equal to 200 cubic inches) of oxygen,
or about 1000 cubic inches of atmospheric air. To render the process
continuous and rapid, a fresh supply of air must, therefore, be constantly
provided. This may be effected by either having a loosely covered opening
at the top of the case, and several much smaller ones near its lower part;
or (and preferably) by means of two small glass tubes passing through the
lid or cover, one of which terminates just below the point of insertion,
whilst the other divides into branches which reach to within a short
distance from the bottom, as shown in the _engraving_. In this way a very
slow current of fresh air will always be kept up in the apparatus.

[Illustration]

In practice, we find, that by loosely spreading the platinum-black on
pieces of platinum-gauze, and supporting these on small tripods or bars of
glass or porcelain (or even wood), the watch-glasses and their troublesome
suspension may be dispensed with; as also may be the strip of porous
paper, provided a temperature of not less than 90° Fahr. be maintained in
the case or acetifier, which may easily be done by the application of
artificial heat in the absence of sunshine. On the large scale, a case of
wood with a glass roof, or even a well-seasoned cask or vat may be
employed, in which case the temperature of the apparatus must be kept up
either by means of steam-pipes or flues, or by the supply of warm air. On
the small scale, a hand bell-glass placed on a dish, with a single
watch-glass or piece of platinum-gauze, and a single capsule containing
alcohol, may be used, provided the bell-glass be supported on three very
small wedges, to admit of a supply of air. A modification of this is
sometimes employed, in which the alcohol is supplied, in drops, to the
platinum-black, by means of a long, tubular funnel passing through the
mouth of the bell-glass, and having its lower extremity drawn to a very
fine point, as shown in the _engr._ To ensure success, the platinum-black
should be either fresh-prepared, or recently washed and very gently
heated, before placing it in the acetifier. Spongy platinum, though
ordered by many chemical compilers, does not answer well for this process.

By the above elegant and economical process, perfectly pure acetic acid of
considerable strength may be produced from even impure alcohol; but it is
impossible in this way to obtain a concentrated acid without a subsequent
operation, because the action of platinum-black on absolute alcohol, or
even on strong alcohol, is so violent that the platinum soon begins to
glow, and inflammation ensues. Unfortunately the revenue laws of this
country, until lately, stood in the way of the adoption of this beautiful
process, unless duty-paid alcohol or methylated spirit be employed; but
there is no statute that prevents an individual employing pure spirit, of
any strength, on the small scale, for private consumption. In Germany, and
in the United States of America, vinegar is manufactured on this plan, and
from the low price of crude alcohol there, it will no doubt prove
ultimately to be the cheapest source of both pure acetic acid and culinary
vinegars.

VI. _Miscellaneous Formulæ_:——

1. An excellent acetic acid, of considerable strength, may be made by
soaking fresh-burnt and perfectly dry charcoal in common vinegar, and then
subjecting it to distillation. The water comes over first, and on
increasing the heat, the acid follows. Vinegar-bottoms and waste vinegar
may be used.

2. By exposing vinegar, or dilute acetic acid, to the air in very cold
weather, or to freezing mixtures, the water separates in the form of ice,
and the strong acetic acid may be obtained by draining it into suitable
glass vessels, observing to do so at a temperature sufficiently low to
keep the water solid. Said to answer well in cold climates.

3. Acetic acid containing 20% of water may be deprived of a good deal of
its superfluous water by standing over dry sulphate of soda. (Liebig.) It
may then be used either with or without distillation.

4. Acetic acid, of ordinary strength, may be concentrated to any degree,
by rectification once, or oftener, from dry acetate of potash or soda,
rejecting the first and last portions. The same acetate may be used
repeatedly. The temperature need not exceed 400°, and must not rise above
570° Fahr.

ACETIC ACID. (B. P.) _Syn._ ACIDUM ACETICUM. Water mixed with 33% of
hydrated acetic acid. Prepared by distilling acetate of soda with
sulphuric acid. Colourless sour liquid. Sp. gr. 1·044.

_Prop._ Pure hydrated acetic acid is a thin, colourless liquid above 62
Fahr.; at 50° to 55° it crystallises in large, brilliant, colourless,
transparent needles and plates, and even at 60° if a crystal of the acid
be dropped in; at 40° it is a solid crystalline mass. Sp. gr.——liquid,
1·063 (Mollerat) to 1·0635 (Mohr);[3]——crystallised, 1·135 at 55° Fahr.
(Ure). Odour, intensely pungent when concentrated, but grateful, fragrant,
and refreshing, when diffused; taste, intensely sour and acrid, becoming
agreeable and refreshing, on sufficient dilution with water; volatile;
inflammable, burning with a white flame; vapour of boiling acid highly
combustible; dissolves camphor, resins, gum resins, volatile oils,
gelatin, gliadin, coagulated albumen, and fibrin (as muscle or the
crassamentum of the blood); it coagulates casein, but not liquid albumen
(as the serum of the blood and white of egg): miscible with alcohol,
ether, and water in all proportions; boils at 248° Fahr.;[4] and is
decomposed at a red heat. Its salts are called ACETATES (which _see_).

[Footnote 3: 1·064——H. M. Witt (Ure’s ‘_Dict., of Arts, M. & M._,’ 5th
ed.); 1·063 to 1·065——Muspratt (‘_Chemistry, Theor. & Prac._,’ p. 2);
1·06296——Pereira (4th ed.); 1·0629——Brande; 1·062——Ure; 1·057——Berzelius
(‘_Jahr. ber._,’ xvi, 192):——variations evidently arising from difference
of purity in the acid examined, or from difference of temperature. The sp.
gr. 1·080, with other numbers given by Prof. Lehmann (‘_Chemistry_,’ Day’s
Transl.), is probably a misprint.]

[Footnote 4: This is the boiling-point given by the best authorities, and
confirmed by Gerhardt (‘_Chimie Organique_,’ i, 718). Ure made it 230°(an
error corrected in 5th ed.), Lehmann says 243·140, and others give it at
235°, 240°, &c. An acid of about 80% (sp. gr. 1·073 to 1·0743), its
maximum density, boils at 219° to 220° Fahr.]

_Char., Tests, &c._——1. Free acetic acid reddens litmus paper, like the
other acids; and may be readily recognised by its odour and
volatility:——2. Sesquichloride of iron being added, and the acid then
nearly saturated with ammonia, the fluid acquires a deep dark-red colour.

_Estim._ See ACETIMETRY. Organic mixtures that cannot be thus tested, or
from which the acid cannot be obtained by simple distillation, may be
neutralised, if acid, with carbonate of lime, boiled for a few minutes,
cooled, filtered, the lime precipitated with dilute sulphuric acid, and
the whole submitted to distillation, when the acid contents of the
distillate may be estimated as above.

_Pur._ By heat, it escapes (entirely) in vapour; nothing is precipitated
on the addition of either hydrosulphuric acid, nitrate of silver, or
chloride of barium. Sometimes it is contaminated with sulphurous acid,
which may be recognised by putting a fluid drachm of the acid, mixed with
an ounce of distilled water and half a drachm of pure hydrochloric acid,
also a few pieces of granulated zinc, into a flask. While effervescence
continues suspend a slip of white blotting-paper, moistened with solution
of sub-acetate of lead, in the upper part of the flask above the liquid,
for about five minutes. The paper should not be discoloured, and thus
indicate the absence of sulphurous acid.

_Adult._ The acetic acid of the shops is chiefly adulterated with water.
Sulphurous acid and lead are accidental contaminations; that of the latter
often reaches 2%, making the acid poisonous.

_Phys. eff., &c._ In its concentrated state it is a corrosive and an acrid
poison. Taken internally, it acts by dissolving the animal tissues, and by
thus destroying the organisation causes death, like the other acids. In
the dilute form it acts as a stimulant, rubefacient, alterative,
refrigerant, and escharotic.

_Uses._ Acetic acid is much employed by the chemist and pharmaceutist, in
the manufacture of various preparations, and in analysis; by the perfumer,
in the composition of several of his most refreshing and agreeable scents;
and in medicine, as an antiseptic, stimulant, rubefacient, alterative,
refrigerant, and escharotic. Acetic acid (B. P.) applied by means of a
piece of rag tied to the end of a small stick, is a nearly certain cure
for ring-worm and scaldhead——one or two applications generally effecting a
cure, and the severe smarting it causes is only of short duration; as a
caustic, it removes warts and corns; a piece of lint or blotting-paper
wetted with it and applied to the skin (evaporation being prevented),
forms a useful extemporaneous blister. It was once employed as a
disinfectant; but is now only used as a fumigation, to disguise the
unpleasant smell of the sickroom and crowded assemblies. It is a popular
refreshing scent in faintings, asphyxia, and nervous headache; and is a
valuable rubefacient, astringent, and local stimulant. It is also used as
a rubefacient and caustic in veterinary practice.

In the _arts_, the commercial acid (pure pyroligneous acid) is used by the
engraver to etch his plates; as an antiseptic in pickling and preserving
animal and vegetable substances used as food, and anatomical preparations;
in dyeing and calico printing, and in the manufacture of medicated
vinegars and other pharmaceutical preparations.

In the dilute state, its properties and applications are similar to those
of ordinary vinegar, and are noticed under that head.

_Poisoning_ from acetic acid is rare. When concentrated, it is capable, by
its corrosive and solvent action, of perforating the coats of the stomach
and digestive canal; and it colours the mucus of these organs by the
chemical action it exerts upon the blood. Vinegar in an excessive quantity
acts in a similar way, but in a slighter degree. The _treatment_ and
_antidotes_ are similar to those directed in cases of poisoning by the
other acids. See POISONS.

_Duty, Excise, &c._ See VINEGAR.

_Gen. commentary._ Acetic acid, on the large scale, is principally
prepared from acetate of soda, which yields by a comparatively
inexpensive, and not a difficult operation, an acid sufficiently strong
and pure for commercial purposes, without the necessity of rectification.
In this process shallow vessels of wood or of copper formed without rivets
or solder (except silver solder) in those parts exposed to the action of
the acid, are generally employed for the purpose of the distillation. A
coil of drawn copper pipe, heated by steam having a pressure of 30 to 40
lbs. to the inch, traverses the bottom of the apparatus, to impart the
necessary heat. The refrigerator consists of well-cooled earthenware,
Berlin ware, or glass vessels; and the adopter pipe is also of the same
materials. Another common form, which is even still more convenient, is a
stout copper still, furnished with a cast-iron jacket to hold
high-pressure steam, the usual refrigeratory being employed. In a few
instances the space between the still and jacket is filled with sand, oil,
tallow, or fusible metal; in which case the apparatus is set in brickwork,
and heated by a naked fire. Stills of earthenware are also frequently
employed; and even worms and condensers of silver, or silvered copper, are
sometimes used, and with advantage. With a leaden worm the product is
always contaminated with a little of that metal; the efforts of the
manufacturer to the contrary, by the exclusion of air, and by rejecting
the first and last portions of the distillate, only lessening and not
preventing this evil. A lute (if any) composed of linseed meal and water,
with or without a little powdered plaster of paris, may be employed; but
flat bands and short tubes of well-seasoned vulcanised india rubber are
infinitely more convenient and efficacious. The ingredients being placed
in the still, and well but hastily stirred together with a wooden spatula,
the head is luted on, and the distillation soon afterwards commenced. The
chief care now should be to increase the heat gradually as the
distillation proceeds; and when a steam-heat is not used, to carefully
avoid over-firing, particularly towards the close of the operation. A
little acetic ether is added by some manufacturers. In this way 4 lbs. of
acid of the sp. gr. 1·050, is obtained for every 3 lbs. of acetate of soda
employed. Should rectification be had recourse to, the addition of about 2
or 3% of bichromate of potash, peroxide of manganese, or red oxide of
lead, will remove empyreuma, if present. The first of these substances is
the most effective; the power of the others being in the order in which
they are printed. In distilling the weaker acids and vinegars, it is found
useful to add from 25 to 30% of chloride of sodium, which, by raising the
boiling-point of the liquid, allows the acid the more freely to pass over
(Stein); but this addition proves disadvantageous when any sulphuric acid
is present, in which case sulphate of soda may be employed instead. If
this addition be not made, the whole of the acid cannot be obtained
without distillation to dryness, and the generation of empyreuma.

On the small scale, glass retorts are usually directed to be used, but
glass alembics or flasks are more convenient and safe, as already noticed.
In the preparation of the pure acid, care should be taken that the acetate
of soda does not contain common salt, as the carbonate of soda prepared by
calcination, and frequently used to form the acetate, is generally
contaminated with it, and yields up its hydrochloric acid or chlorine
during the process of distillation, thus vitiating the product. In all the
methods given the product becomes more concentrated in proportion to the
dryness of the acetate and the strength of the oil of vitriol or muriatic
acid employed. By using the one dry, and the other concentrated, glacial
acid may always be obtained by collecting separately the last two fifths
that come over, and submitting this to refrigeration.

According to Melsens, pure GLACIAL ACETIC ACID is most advantageously
obtained by distilling pure and dry acetate of potash with an excess of
strong and moderately pure acetic acid, rejecting that which first passes
over.

Acetate of soda may be safely dried at a temperature of 400° to 450°,
provided care be taken to avoid ignition from contact with sparks. A less
heat is, however, quite sufficient to drive off the whole of its water of
crystallisation. It is known to be dry by its assuming the appearance of a
smooth oily liquid whilst hot. If, whilst heated, it emits fumes, it is
suffering decomposition. The same applies to the other commercial
acetates. Crystallised acetate of soda loses about 2/5ths of its weight by
thorough drying.

When acetate of soda and sulphuric acid are the ingredients employed in
the production of acetic acid, sulphate of soda is formed, which, in the
large way, the chemist returns to the manufacturer of acetate of soda (_i.
e._ to the pyroligneous acid maker), who employs it in the decomposition
of fresh acetate or pyrolignite of lime. In this way the same soda-salt is
employed over and over again, acting merely as the vehicle for the
separation of the crude acetic acid in the solid form, and its easy and
cheap transportation from one point to another. This ingenious method of
mutual assistance resulting from the application of chemical science to
provide for the wants of everyday life, offers some explanation of the
extraordinarily low price at which acetic acid may now be purchased.

The acetic acid of commerce (pure pyroligneous acid) is almost wholly
obtained from the acetates of soda and lime. The principal supply of crude
acetate (pyrolignite) of soda is from America, Norway, and Sweden; but
much is also obtained from our home manufactories. See ACETIFICATION,
ACETIMETRY, FERMENTATION, PYROLIGNEOUS ACID, SODIUM, (Acetate of),
VINEGAR, &c.

More recently, acetic acid has been obtained by decomposing with
hydrochloric acid the double salt of chloride of calcium and acetate of
lime, mentioned by Fritzsche (‘Ann. de Poggend,’ xxviii, 123). For this
purpose, solutions of acetate of lime and chloride of calcium are mixed
and evaporated, the combined salts readily crystallising in large needles.
These are freed from the mother-liquor and distilled with common muriatic
acid.

The acid furnished by this method requires redistillation, and is,
moreover, contaminated with some of the fatty products always present in
the crude pyrolignite.

=Anhydrous Acetic Acid.= _Syn._ ACETIC ANHYDRIDE. Acetic acid deprived of
the elements of water.

    Acetic Acid.     Water.   Acetic Anhydride.
  2C_{2}H_{4}O_{2} - H_{2}O = C_{4}H_{6}O_{3}.

=Aromat′ic Acetic Acid.= _Syn._ AROMATIC VINEGAR; A. SPIRIT OF V.; ACIDUM
ACE′TICUM AROMAT′ICUM, L.——_Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. 1839.) Dried rosemary and
origanum, of each 1 oz.; lavender flowers, 1/2 oz.; bruised cloves, 1/2
dr.; acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·068), 1-1/2 pint; macerate for 7 days,
express, and filter. A fragrant and refreshing perfume. Omitted in Ph. E.
1841 and P. B. 1867.

2. (Ph. E. 1817.) As the last, but using distilled vinegar instead of the
strong acid of the Pharmacopœia. Inferior.

3. (P. Cod. 1839) Camphor, 2 oz.; oil of lavender, 10 gr.; oil of
cinnamon, 20 gr.; oil of cloves, 30 gr.; concentrated acetic acid, 1 pint.
Very fragrant and refreshing.

4. (Ph. Bor. 1847; Cod. Med. Hamb. 1845.) Oil of cloves, 1 dr.; oils of
lavender and citron, of each 2 scrup.; oils of bergamot and thyme, of each
1 scrup.; oil of cinnamon, 10 drops; strongest acetic acid, 1 oz.; mix.
Limpid; yellow-brown; highly fragrant and refreshing. See ACETIC ACID
(Camphorated), and VINEGAR (Aromatic).

=Beaufoy’s Acetic Acid.= A superior commercial acetic acid (_i. e._
purified pyroligneous acid), having a sp. gr. of about 1·044; or
containing about 28% of real acetic acid, or 32 to 33% of the hydrated
acid. Same strength, &c., as ACETIC ACID P. B.

=Cam′phorated Acetic Acid.= _Syn._ CAMPHORATED VINEGAR; ACIDUM ACE′TICUM
CAMPHORA′TUM, L.——_Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. 1841.) Camphor, 1/2 oz.; pulverise it
by means of a few drops of spirit of wine, and then dissolve it in acetic
acid (Ph. E.), 6-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Ph. D. 1850.) Camphor, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr.; pulverise,
and dissolve in strong acetic acid (acid. acet. fort. Ph. D.), 10 fl. oz.

_Obs._ This preparation is intended as a substitute for the aromatic
acetic acid of the shops and previous pharmacopœias. It is also useful as
an embrocation, in rheumatism and neuralgia; as an extemporaneous vesicant
and counter-irritant; and as a fumigation in fevers, &c.

=Dilute′ Acetic Acid.= _Syn._ ACIDUM ACETICUM DILU′TUM, L. Acetic acid, 1
pint; distilled water, 7 pints; mix, Sp. gr. 1·006. One fluid ounce
corresponds to 16 grains of anhydrous acid (3·63 per cent.).

=Glacial Acetic Acid.= _Syn._ ACIDUM ACETICUM GLACIALE. Acetate of soda,
20 oz., is liquefied by a gentle heat, stirred till it becomes
pulverulent, and then further heated until it fuses; it is at once removed
from the fire, and, when cool, the mass is broken up, placed in a 3-pint
stoppered retort connected with a Liebig’s condenser, and then treated
with sulphuric acid, 8 fl. oz. When the distillation slackens heat is to
be applied, and the process continued until 6 fl. oz. of acetic acid have
passed over. If a little of the product strikes a blue colour when mixed
with a solution of iodate of potassium containing mucilage of starch, the
whole product must be agitated with perfectly dry black oxide of
manganese, 1/4 oz., and redistilled. Sp. gr. 1·065; contains 85% of
anhydrous acid.

=ACETIC ANHYDRIDE.= See ANHYDROUS ACETIC ACID.

=ACETICA.= [L.] Medicated vinegars.

=ACETIDUX, Dr DELFER’S.= Made by Döllinger, of Berlin. For the radical and
painless removal of warts, corns, hard skin, &c. A solution of 5 grms. of
chromic acid in 15 grms. of water. (Schädler.)

=ACETIFICATION.= _Syn._ ACETIFACIO, L.; ACETIFICATION, Fr.; ESSIGMACHEN,
EINSAÜERN, Ger. In _chemistry_, the act or process of converting into
vinegar; also the state of undergoing such conversion.

Acetic acid is produced either by the partial dehydrogenation and
subsequent oxidation of bodies containing its elements, or by their
destructive distillation. The first is effected——by their exposure, in a
finely divided state, to the action of air or atmospheric oxygen, as in
the quick process of making vinegar; or——by submitting them, in
combination with ferments, to contact with a free supply of atmospheric
air, as in the old field process of making vinegar; or——by exposure to the
direct action of chemical or mechanical oxidizing agents, as condensed air
(platinum-black process), chromic and nitric acid, &c. In general, it is
alcohol more or less dilute, particularly as it exists in fermented
liquors, which is thus converted into acetic acid. In the second process
(destructive distillation), wood is the substance usually employed, and
heat is the agent which develops the acid.

The conversion of alcohol into acetic acid is not immediate and direct.
The atmospheric oxygen first oxidises two atoms of its hydrogen, aldehyd
and water being formed; and this aldehyd uniting with one atom of oxygen
produces one molecule of ACETIC ACID. The changes are represented in the
following equations:——

         Alcohol.  Oxygen.  Aldehyd.    Water.
  =1.=  C_{2}H_{6}O + O = C_{2}H_{4}O + H_{2}O

          Aldehyd.  Oxygen.  Acetic Acid.
  =2.=  C_{2}H_{4}O + O = HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}

After the first formation of aldehyd, the two processes, unless
artificially checked, go on simultaneously, as long as any undecomposed
alcohol is present.

The conversion of alcohol into acetic acid, although greatly accelerated
by the presence of nitrogenised organic matter (according to Mulder, of a
fungus——the _Mycoderma Vini_ or Vinegar Plant), is rather a case of
eremacausis (slow combustion) than of fermentation. Acetification effects
combination, as shown by the foregoing equations, whereas fermentation
resolves complex bodies into simpler ones, _e.g._ sugar into alcohol and
carbonic anhydride. Moreover, the presence of ferments is not essential to
the change, since pure alcohol becomes acetified when exposed to the
oxidising agents already named.

Another remarkable distinction between acetification and fermentation is,
that the former requires the continued presence of atmospheric oxygen;
whilst the vinous fermentation after being once established, proceeds
perfectly without it.

During the oxidation of the alcohol of vegetable solutions, some of the
other organic matters present also suffer change. A white gelatinous mass
(_mother of vinegar_)[5] is commonly deposited; but this is a secondary
result of the process, and not, as formerly supposed, one essential to it.
In ordinary cases acetification occurs only at or near the surface of the
liquid; which accounts for the length of time required for the operation
under the old process of ‘fielding,’ and the shorter time in which it is
accomplished by the improved process of Mr Ham. It proceeds favorably at
temperatures ranging from 60° to 90° Fahr.; and most rapidly at 95° Fahr.
(Liebig). In the ‘quick process’ of making vinegar a temperature of 90° to
92° is generally aimed at; but it often rises to 100°, or even to 105°,
Fahr. As the temperature falls acetification proceeds more slowly, and at
46 to 50° Fahr. it ceases altogether (Liebig).

[Footnote 5: It has generally been asserted that this substance contains
vibriones, and other low forms of organised life; but Mulder describes it,
under the name _mycoderma aceti_, as a plant of the order ‘fungi.’ It is
formed at the expense of the constituents of the vinegar, and often causes
whole vats of it to pass into water.]

Aldehyd (see _above_) is an exceedingly volatile substance, and easily
dissipated by a slight heat. It is, therefore, of the highest importance
to duly regulate the temperature, as well as the supply of air, during
acetification. In the ‘quick process’ of making vinegar the loss from this
cause is always considerable, and often very great. This loss may be
diminished by passing the heated air, as it escapes from the acetifier,
through a porcelain or silvered copper worm or refrigerator, set in a
chamber containing water of a temperature not higher than 40° to 45°
Fahr.; the connection being made at the _lower_ end of the worm, whilst
the upper end is open to the air. On the small scale, as in the
platinum-black process, the loss may be almost entirely prevented by
causing the upper air tube to pass through a vessel containing ice or a
freezing mixture; or by uniting it with the lower end of a Liebig’s
condenser.

In liquors undergoing the vinous fermentation, a portion of the newly
formed alcohol is invariably acetified whenever the temperature rises
above 51° Fahr.; and at a higher temperature, this proceeds with a
rapidity often highly injurious to the quality of the liquor. In this way
there is frequently a useless loss of the alcohol, which is rendered more
apparent by the incipient, and sometimes the actual, souring of the
liquor.

=ACETIM′ETRY=. _Syn._ ACETOM′ETRY; ACÉTOMÉTRIE, Fr.; ACETIME′TRIA, &c., L.
The art or process of determining the quantity of pure acetic acid in
vinegar, or in any other liquid. The plans generally adopted for this
purpose are——

I. From the saturating power of the acid, as in the common methods of
acidimetry:——

1. The molecular weight of commercially pure bicarbonate of potash, in
crystals, being 100, whilst that of absolute acetic acid is 60, it is
evident that every ten grains of the bicarbonate will exactly equal 6
grains of the acid. To apply this practically, we have only to exactly
neutralise 100 gr. of the vinegar or solution under examination with the
bicarbonate, observing the usual precautions; then, as 10 is to 6, so is
the number of grains used, to the per-centage strength required. In this,
as in other like cases, it is convenient to form a test-solution with the
bicarbonate, by dissolving it in sufficient water to fill the 100
divisions of any simple form of ‘acidimeter,’ as _a_, _b_, or _c_; when
the quantity of the solution, and, consequently, of the salt used, may be
read off at once from the graduated portion of the tube. Still greater
accuracy may be obtained by dissolving the bicarbonate in exactly 1000 gr.
of distilled water contained in a ‘Schuster’s alkalimeter,’ previously
very carefully weighed; in which case each grain of the test-solution will
indicate 1/10th of a grain, or 0·1% of absolute acetic acid, whilst every
10 grains will be equal to 1 grain, or 1%.

[Illustration]

The test-solution may also be prepared from bicarbonate of soda, or from
the carbonates of soda or potash, care being taken that the quantity of
the salt dissolved be in proportion to its molecular weight.

2. (Brande.) A small piece of white marble, clean and dry, is weighed, and
then suspended by a silk thread in a weighed sample (say 100 or 1000 grs.)
of the vinegar or acid under examination; the action being promoted by
occasionally stirring the liquid with a glass rod, until the whole of the
acid is saturated, as shown by no further action on the marble being
observable on close inspection. The marble is then withdrawn, washed in
distilled water, dried and weighed. The loss in weight which it has
sustained will be nearly equal to the acetic acid present, or strictly, as
50 (marble) to 60 (absolute acetic acid). The only precautions required
are, to avoid striking the piece of marble with the rod whilst stirring
the solution, or causing loss of substance in it after its withdrawal; and
to allow ample time for the action of the acid on it. If the sample
consists of strong acid, it should be diluted with twice or thrice its
weight of water before suspending the marble in it.

3. (Ure.) 100 grains of the sample under examination is slightly reddened
with tincture of litmus, and ammonia of the sp. gr. 0·992 is added drop by
drop (from an acetimeter holding 1000 water-gr. measure, divided into 100
divisions) until precise neutralisation is effected, indicated by the blue
colour of the litmus being restored. The number of the divisions of the
acetimeter used, multiplied by 60, and the first two right-hand figures of
the product cut off as decimals, gives a number which represents the exact
quantity of absolute acetic acid in the sample. In practice, it is found
more convenient to keep the test-ammonia ready tinged with litmus.

The mode of estimating the per-centage of acetic acid in beers, when
finding their original gravities, is a slight modification of the above. A
test-solution of ammonia is prepared of such a strength that a given bulk
of it will exactly neutralise one per cent. of absolute acetic acid in an
equal bulk of beer, so that, if 100 fluid grains of the solution are
sufficient to neutralise the acid in 1000 fluid grains of beer, such beer
contains one tenth per cent. of acid. A solution of ammonia, diluted with
distilled water until it has the sp. gr. ·9986 at 60°, is of the exact
strength required.

An acetimeter holding 1000 grains, and graduated downwards to 100 equal
divisions, is filled to 0 of the scale with the test-ammonia, which is
then added, drop by drop, to 1000 measured grains of the beer, until
neutralisation takes place. Every division of the acetimeter
(corresponding to ten fluid grains), so emptied, indicates ·01 per cent.
of acetic acid in the beer. The progress of the neutralisation is tested
from time to time with a slip of reddened litmus paper, which should be
suffered to become faintly blue before ceasing to add the ammonia. By this
method the exact per-centage of absolute acetic acid in any sample may be
accurately determined. The only precaution necessary is to be certain that
the ‘test-ammonia’ has the required sp. gr. (·9986). Test-solutions may
also be prepared with pure potash or pure soda.

II. From the specific gravity of the liquid after it has been neutralised
with hydrate of lime:——

Common hydrate of lime (freshly slaked lime), in powder, is added
gradually to the sample under examination, until it is saturated, when the
sp. gr. of the resulting clear solution of acetate of lime is taken by
Taylor’s ACETIMETER. This instrument is so adjusted and graduated as to
float at the mark on the stem called ‘proof,’ in a solution containing 5%
of absolute acetic acid (No. 24 vinegar). For vinegars stronger than proof
small weights are provided, each of which indicates an additional 5 per
cent. To ascertain the per-centage of real acid, 5% must therefore be
added to the acetimeter number. Thus, without being loaded, the
instrument, floating at the ‘proof mark,’ indicates a vinegar of 5%; with
one weight, a vinegar of 10%; with two weights, 15%, and so on. According
to this system of notation, each 5% is called a ‘vinegar.’ An acid of 10%
is said to contain two vinegars; one of 15%, three vinegars, &c. It is
also common to speak of the degrees of the acetimeter as proof or
over-proof. Thus, No. 24 vinegar is said to be proof; one of 5 acetimeter
degrees, 5 over-proof; one of 10 degrees, 10 over-proof, &c. For malt and
wine vinegars, which contain gluten and mucilage, this method is not
strictly accurate, as a portion of these substances escapes precipitation
by the lime, and consequently alters the specific gravity. A small weight
marked ‘M’ is generally supplied with the acetimeters for trying such
vinegars.

III. From the specific gravity:——

The sp. gr. of the sample (carefully determined by any of the usual
methods) is sought in one of the following Tables, when the corresponding
per-centage content of acetic acid is at once seen.

This method furnishes reliable results only with pure, or nearly pure
solutions which do not contain much above 50% of glacial acid, or which
have a sp. gr. not higher than 1·062. It is also more to be depended on
for weak solutions than strong ones. By carefully diluting a strong acid
with an equal weight, or twice or thrice its weight of water, and allowing
the mixture to again acquire its normal temperature, the sp. gr. may be
taken as a guide in all cases in which great accuracy is not required.
When such dilution is made it only becomes necessary to multiply the
indication furnished in the Tables by 2, 3, or 4, as the case may be. As,
however, authorities are not agreed as to the precise sp. gr. of the
monohydrate or glacial acid, and of its solutions, extreme accuracy must
not be expected by this method.

        TABLE I.——_Adapted to the Specific Gravities of common
        vinegar_. By Messrs J. and P. TAYLOR.

                                                              per
  sp. gr.                                                    cent.
  1·0085  contains of anhydrous  or real acetic acid             5
  1·0170       ”                         ”                      10
  1·0257       ”                         ”                      15
  1·0320       ”                         ”                      20
  1·0470       ”                         ”                      30
  1·0580       ”                         ”                      40

        TABLE II.——_Exhibiting the quantity of_ ABSOLUTE _or_
        GLACIAL ACETIC ACID (HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}), _in acetic acid
        of successive strengths_. By Mr COOLEY.

  +---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+
  |Absolute |       |Absolute |       |Absolute |       |Absolute |       |
  |  Acetic |Sp. Gr.|  Acetic |Sp. Gr.|  Acetic |Sp. Gr.|  Acetic |Sp. Gr.|
  |  Acid,  |       |  Acid,  |       |  Acid,  |       |  Acid,  |       |
  |per cent.|       |per cent.|       |per cent.|       |per cent.|       |
  +---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+
  | _Pure   |       |         |       |         |       |         |       |
  |  acid_, |       |   75    |1·0731 |   49    |1·0593 |   23    |1·0320 |
  | or 100  |1·0630 |   74    |1·0732 |   48    |1·0582 |   22    |1·0311 |
  |   99    |1·0648 |   73    |1·0728 |   47    |1·0568 |   21    |1·0292 |
  |   98    |1·0663 |   72    |1·0721 |   46    |1·0557 |   20    |1·0275 |
  |   97    |1·0677 |   71    |1·0718 |   45    |1·0553 |   19    |1·0264 |
  |   96    |1·0685 |   70    |1·0713 |   44    |1·0544 |   18    |1·0253 |
  |   95    |1·0696 |   69    |1·0711 |   43    |1·0535 |   17    |1·0241 |
  |   94    |1·0704 |   68    |1·0708 |   42    |1·0525 |   16    |1·0229 |
  |   93    |1·0708 |   67    |1·0702 |   41    |1·0518 |   15    |1·0218 |
  |   92    |1·0715 |   66    |1·0701 |   40    |1·0513 |   14    |1·0200 |
  |   91    |1·0721 |   65    |1·0693 |   39    |1·0502 |   13    |1·0173 |
  |   90    |1·0726 |   64    |1·0692 |   38    |1·0492 |   12    |1·0172 |
  |   89    |1·0729 |   63    |1·0685 |   37    |1·0482 |   11    |1·0161 |
  |   88    |1·0730 |   62    |1·0679 |   36    |1·0473 |   10    |1·0150 |
  |   87    |1·0731 |   61    |1·0675 |   35    |1·0460 |   09    |1·0131 |
  |   86    |1·0732 |   60    |1·0672 |   34    |1·0449 |   08    |1·0121 |
  |   85    |1·0733 |   59    |1·0665 |   33    |1·0439 |   07    |1·0102 |
  |   84    |1·0734 |   58    |1·0662 |   32    |1·0425 |   06    |1·0085 |
  |   83    |1·07343|   57    |1·0653 |   31    |1·0413 |   05    |1·0071 |
  |   82    |1·0735 |   56    |1·0645 |   30    |1·0402 |   04    |1·0057 |
  |   81    |1·0738 |   55    |1·0641 |   29    |1·0392 |   03    |1·0042 |
  |   80    |1·0743 |   54    |1·0632 |   28    |1·0380 |   02    |1·0025 |
  |   79    |1·0742 |   53    |1·0628 |   27    |1·0364 |   01    |1·0012 |
  |   78    |1·0740 |   52    |1·0616 |   26    |1·0352 | _Pure   |1·0000 |
  |   77    |1·0739 |   51    |1·0610 |   25    |1·0341 | water._ |       |
  |   76    |1·0736 |   50    |1·0602 |   24    |1·0330 |         |       |
  +---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+

_Concluding remarks_. Before applying the above processes, account should
be taken of any mineral acid which may be present in the sample, such
being not unfrequently added to vinegar to impart artificial strength; and
in those depending on the sp. gr., gum, gluten, &c., must also be allowed
for. The methods depending on the saturating power of the acid will be
found appropriate to acetic acid of all strengths, when unadulterated with
the mineral acid. The method based on the sp. gr. is also very convenient,
and is sufficiently accurate for distilled vinegars and for pure acids of
moderate strength.

It is found that the decimal fraction of the sp. gr. of pure or nearly
pure vinegar is doubled by its conversion into acetate of lime. Thus,
1·0085 in vinegar becomes 1·0170 when converted into a solution of acetate
of lime. In malt vinegar, however, 0·005 may be deducted from the sp. gr.
for mucilage and gluten. The quantity of foreign matter present in vinegar
may therefore be approximatively ascertained, by deducting the decimal of
the sp. gr. of the solution of acetate of lime from double that of the
decimal part of the sp. gr. of the vinegar. Thus:——the sp. gr. of a sample
of vinegar being 1·014, and after saturation with hydrate of calcium
1·023, the sp. gr. of the pure vinegar would be 1·009, and that due to
foreign matter ·005. For——

  ·028 - ·023 = ·005

and——

  1·014 - ·005 = 1·009

The reason why proof-vinegar is called, in commerce, No. 24, is that 1 fl.
oz. of it requires exactly 24 gr. of pure anhydrous carbonate of soda to
neutralise it. Weaker vinegars are represented in the same ‘notation’ by
the Nos. 22, 20, 18, &c., according to their respective strengths
estimated by their saturating power.

=ACETINE.= An essence for the removal of corns. Concentrated vinegar (1·04
sp. gr.) slightly tinged with fuchsine, 15 grms. (Hager.)

=ACETINE, HOCHSTETTER’S.= Prepared by J. C. F. Witte, Berlin. A remedy for
corns, warts, and hard skin. Diluted vinegar, coloured with blue carmine,
16 grms. (Schälder.)

=ACETOLATS.= [Fr.] _Syn._ ESPRITS ACÉTIQUES. In _French pharmacy_,
medicated vinegars obtained by distillation.

=ACETOLES.= [Fr.] In _French pharmacy_, medicated vinegars obtained by
maceration.

=ACETOUS FERMENTATION.= See ACETIFICATION.

=ACETUM.= [L.] Vinegar.

=ACETYL.= _Syn._ ACETYLE. A name originally given to a hypothetical body,
having the formula C_{2}H_{3}, and regarded by Berzelius as the radical of
the acetates and their congeners. The acetyl of Gerhardt (C_{2}H_{3}O)
is, however, according to that chemist, the true radical of the acetates.
Williamson, in order to remove the confusion of terms occasioned by the
application of the same name to compounds of different composition,
proposed the title of othyl for the radical C_{2}H_{3}O.

=ACHAR.= See PICKLES.

=ACEIILE′INE= (-kĭl-). A peculiar bitter principle obtained from achillé a
millefolium (Linn.), or yarrow.

=A′CHOR=, (-kŏr). [Gr.] See SCALD-HEAD.

=ACHROMAT′IC= (ăk-ro-). _Syn._ ACHROMATIQUE, Fr. In _optics_, devoid of
colour; bodies that transmit light without decomposition, and
consequently, without the formation of coloured rings or fringes; applied
to compound lenses, prisms, &c., and to instruments fitted with them.

=ACRO′MATISM.= _Syn._ ACHROMATISME, Fr. In _optics_, the state of being
achromatic; the absence of coloured fringes in the images of objects seen
through a lens or prism.

Light is not homogeneous, but decomposable by refraction, absorption, or
reflection, into coloured rays of unequal refrangibility. A ray of white
light, in passing through a glass prism, is entirely separated into the
coloured rays forming the ‘prismatic spectrum,’ and when it passes through
a lens, an analogous resolution into coloured rays still occurs, though
not so readily observed, and that to an extent often incompatible with
distinct vision. Now, if a convex lens be regarded as a number of prisms
united by their bases round a common centre, and a concave lens, as a
similar number of prisms with their apices in contact, the action of
lenticular and prismatic glasses on light will be reduced to a common
principle. A beam of light thrown on a simple converging lens not only
suffers refraction at the spherical surface (SPHERICAL ABERRATION), but
the different coloured rays of which it is composed, from the causes
mentioned, being unequally bent or refracted, diverge from their original
course (CHROMATIC ABERRATION), forming as many foci on the axis of the
lens as there are colours, and fall separately, instead of together, on
the eye or object which receives them. Hence arise the coloured fringes or
halos that surround objects viewed through ordinary glasses, and which
form the great impediments to the construction of perfect lenses. This
effect, like the refractive power and focal distance, varies in degree in
different diaphanous substances.

The correction of the chromatic aberration of lenses is commonly effected
by combining two, or more, made of materials possessing different
‘dispersive’ powers. Thus, the spectrum formed by flint glass is longer
than that formed by crown glass, for the same deviation. When the two are
combined, so as to form a compound lens, the one tends to correct the
‘dispersion’ of the other. On this principle ACHROMATIC GLASSES are
generally formed in this country. A convex lens of crown glass is combined
with a weaker concave lens of flint glass, the latter counteracting the
dispersion of the former, without materially interfering with its
refractive power. The resulting combination is not absolutely achromatic,
but is sufficiently so for all ordinary purposes. According to Dr Blair, a
compound lens perfectly achromatic for the intermediate, as well as for
the extreme rays, may be made by confining certain fluids, as hydrochloric
acid, between two lenses of crown glass. In order to produce nearly
perfect achromatism in the object-glasses of telescopes, microscopes,
cameras, &c., a concave lens of flint glass is commonly placed between two
convex lenses of crown or plate glass, the adjacent surfaces being
cemented with the purest Canada balsam, to prevent the loss of light by
reflection from so many surfaces.

_Obs._ The production of perfect achromatism in lenses is a subject not
less fraught with difficulty than with practical importance to the
astronomer, the mariner, the microscopist, and the photographer; and it
has hence engaged the attention of the leading mathematicians and artists
of Europe up to the present time. All the larger object-glasses lately
manufactured are said to consist of only two lenses; the resulting
achromatism proving sufficiently exact for all useful purposes. Those of
recent production have come chiefly from the workshops of Dollond, of
London, and the opticians of Bavaria and Switzerland. The achromatism of
prisms depends upon the same principles, and it is effected in the same
way as that of lenses.

=ACIC′ULAR.= Needle-shaped; slender or sharp pointed; spicular; in
_botany_, applied to leaves, and in _chemistry_, to crystals. The last are
also sometimes termed ACIC′ULÆ.

=ACID=, _Syn._ ACIDUM, L.; ACIDE, Fr.; ACIDO, Ital.; SÄURE, G. In familiar
language, any substance possessing a sour taste. In _chemistry_,
substances are said to be acid, or to have an acid reaction, when they are
capable of turning blue litmus red. In _chemistry_, also, the term acid is
applied to a very large class of compounds containing hydrogen (hydrogen
salts), and in which one or more atoms of that element may be replaced by
an equivalent quantity of a metal or other basic radical; _e.g._——

1. The one atom of hydrogen in hydrochloric acid (HCl) may be replaced by
sodium, producing the salt sodium chloride (NaCl).

2. The one atom of hydrogen in nitric acid (HNO_{3}) may be replaced by
silver, producing the salt silver nitrate (AgNO_{3}).

3. One atom of hydrogen in acetic acid (HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2})[6] may be
replaced by the basic radical ammonium (NH_{4}), producing the salt
ammonium acetate (NH_{4}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}).

[Footnote 6: Symbols indicating the number of atoms of replaceable
hydrogen occupy the foremost position in the formulæ of acids, as shown in
the text.]

Acids which, like those mentioned in the foregoing examples, contain one
atom of replaceable hydrogen are called monobasic; those which contain two
such atoms (_e.g._ sulphuric acid, H_{2}SO_{4}; tartaric acid,
H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O_{6}),[7] dibasic; those which contain three such atoms
(_e.g._ phosphoric acid, H_{3}PO_{4}; citric acid,
H_{3}C_{6}H_{5}O_{7}),[7] tribasic; and so on with acids of higher
basicity. Acids of greater basicity than unity are frequently termed
polybasic.

[Footnote 7: See footnote, p. 26.]

Besides containing replaceable or basic hydrogen, acids are further
characterised by the property of combining with alkaloids to form salts;
_e.g._——

   Sulphuric Acid.        Quinia.
  H_{2}SO_{4} + 2C_{24}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2} =

            Quinia Sulphate.
  (C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2})_{2} . H_{2}SO_{4}

    Acetic Acid.          Morphia.
  HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2} + C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3} =

            Morphia Acetate.
  C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3} . HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}

=Dibasic Acids.= See ACID.

=Fatty Acids.= Acids separable from fats or oils; _e.g._ stearic acid,
oleic acid, butyric acid, &c.

=Inorganic Acids.= Same as MINERAL ACIDS (which _see_).

=Mineral Acids.= Acids chiefly or wholly derived from the mineral kingdom.
In _medicine_, sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, are commonly so
called.

=Monobasic Acids.= See ACID.

=Organic Acids.= Acids formed by, or derived from organic substances;
_e.g._ acetic acid, tartaric acid, uric acid, &c.

=Polybasic Acids.= See ACID.

=Pyro-acids.= Acids resulting from the decomposition by heat of other
acids, _e.g._ gallic acid, when heated, yields pyro-gallic acid.

=Tribasic Acids.= See ACID.

=ACIDIFICA′TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ACIDIFICA′TIO, L. In _chemistry_, the
act, process, or state of acidifying, or of making, becoming, or
impregnated with acid.

=ACIDIM′ETER.= _Syn._ ACIDOM′ETER; ACIDIME′TRUM, &c., L.; ACIDIMÈTRE, Fr.
An instrument or apparatus employed in acidimetry.

The ordinary acidimeters of the chemist are small tubes, constructed to
hold exactly 1000 grains of distilled water, at 60° Fahr., within the
limits of their scale, which is accurately graduated into 100 divisions.
They are used to contain the alkaline solutions (TEST-LIQUORS, NORMAL or
STANDARD SOLUTIONS) employed in the following processes.

Beaumé’s Acidimeter, and others of the same class, are HYDROMETERS, and
are described under that ‘head.’

=ACIDIM′ETRY.= _Syn._ ACIDOM′ETRY; ACIDIME′TRIA, &c., L.; ACIDIMÉTRIE, Fr.
The estimation of the strength or quantity of acid, in a free state,
contained in any liquid. It is the reverse of ‘alkalimetry.’ Acidimetrical
assays are understood to refer to the relative strengths of the same acids
(_i. e._, the quantity of real acid of the same kind contained in the
solutions examined), and not to the comparative strengths of acids of
different composition or names.

_Acidimetrical processes._ These are founded chiefly on the capacity of
the acids to saturate the bases; and, in some of the liquid acids, on the
specific gravity.

_a._ VOLUMETRICALLY:——

1. The sample of the acid to be examined (100 gr., or any convenient
aliquot part thereof) is placed in a suitable glass vessel, and if it be
one of the stronger acids, diluted with six or eight times its weight of
water, or if solid (as oxalic, or citric acid), dissolved in a like
quantity. This liquid is then exactly neutralised with an alkali.

This point is usually determined, by the addition of a small quantity of
litmus solution, which turns just blue when the solution is neutralised,
but when a carbonate is used for the alkaline solution, the acid must be
boiled a short time after each addition to expel the carbonic acid. The
quantity of the alkaline solution consumed for this purpose represents an
equivalent quantity of acid, and thus gives us the acid content of the
sample under examination. The common practice is to dissolve one
equivalent of the alkaline test in grains or grammes in water, and to make
up the solution to exactly 1000 parts by measure (_i. e._, 1000
‘water-grains’ or grammes), so as to accurately fill the 100 divisions of
an acidimeter; when the quantity, in grains or grammes, of the sample
tested, bears the same proportion to the equivalent number of the acid
under examination, that the number of acidimeter divisions of the
test-liquor consumed bear to the per-centage of acid sought.
Thus:——suppose 50 gr. of a sample of sulphuric acid take 25 acidimeter
divisions (300 parts or water-grains measure) of the test-liquid to
neutralise it, what is its content of real acid?

The equivalent of sulphuric acid is 49 (half its atomic weight); so, by
the rule of proportion,

  50 : 49 :: 25 : 24-1/2

It therefore contains 24-1/2 parts of real sulphuric acid, in 50.

If the 1000 parts or grain-measures, instead of the number of the
acidimeter divisions, be taken for the calculation, it will, of course, be
necessary to point off the first right-hand figure of the result as a
decimal. Thus; repeating the above example——

  50 : 49 :: 250 : 24·5

Or, since the equivalent of the test-liquid is 100, it will bear the same
proportion to the equiv. of the acid examined as the number of the
acidimeter divisions of the test-liquid consumed in neutralising 100 gr.,
do to the per-centage sought. Thus:——50 gr. of hydrochloric acid take 45
acidimeter divisions to effect neutralisation, what is its real
strength?——The equiv. of hydrochloric acid is 36·5: therefore——

  100 : 36·5 :: 45 : 16·425%

and, since only 50 gr. (instead of 100 gr.) were examined——

  16·425 × 2 = 32·85%

Some operators prefer employing 100 gr. instead of the equivalent weights
of the given tests in making their test-solutions, in which case each gr.
or 1000th part represents 1/10th, and each acidimeter degree 1 gr. of the
alkali or carbonate employed; when a similar proportion will obtain to
that first above given.

In technical analysis it is more convenient if the number of acidimeter
divisions of the ‘test-liquid’ consumed express the per-centage strength
of the acid, without further calculation. For this purpose the number of
grains of the acid taken for the assay should correspond to the equivalent
number of such acid (see _Table_ I, below); or to some convenient aliquot
part of it, as the 1/2, 1/4, 1/5, or 1/10th; the per-centage answer, in
the last case, being doubled, quadrupled, &c., according to the aliquot
part taken. The reason of this is obvious.

For the test-solutions, ammonia, and the dry and crystallised carbonates
and bicarbonates of potash and soda, are used, and are made by dissolving
in water their constituents except ammonia, of which 1000 grains, or one
litre, of solution of specific gravity 0·992 contains exactly one
equivalent.

53 grains (or grammes) of pure anhydrous carbonate of soda, prepared by
gradually heating to redness the crystallised salt, constitute one
equivalent (half the atomic weight), and 69 grains (or grammes) of pure
dry carbonate of potash. Of the crystallised salt 143 grains of carbonate
of soda will be required, and 84 grains (grammes) of the crystallised
bicarbonate of soda, and 100 of the crystallised bicarbonate of potash.
Occasionally solutions containing in one thousand parts, 50 of pure
carbonate of lime or chalk, or 28 of pure caustic lime, are used.

Besides these, a process known as Kiefer’s is practised, and an ammoniacal
solution of oxide of copper is employed as the ‘test-liquor,’ and the
‘point of neutralisation’ is known by the turbidity observed as soon as
the free acid present is completely saturated.

The normal solution or test-liquor is prepared by adding to an aqueous
solution of sulphate of copper, pure ammonia water, until the precipitate,
which at first forms, is just redissolved, carefully avoiding excess. Or
better, by adding a rather strong solution of sulphate of copper, to a
quantity of a rather strong solution of ammonia containing exactly 17 gr.,
or one equiv. of pure ammonia, as long as the precipitate which forms is
redissolved on agitation; the resulting liquid being afterwards diluted
with pure distilled water, until it accurately measures 1000 water-grains,
or fills 100 divisions of an acidimeter, at 60° Fahr. In either case, the
strength of the resulting ‘test-solution’ must be carefully determined by
means of standard sulphuric acid, and adjusted, if necessary.

This method answers well with all the stronger acids (excepting oxalic
acid), even when dilute; and it has the advantage of not being affected by
the presence of a neutral metallic salt with an acid reaction, as sulphate
of copper, or of zinc.

Besides this process a solution of lime in sugar may be used, as proposed
by M. Peligot, and made as follows:——

Pure caustic lime is carefully slaked by sprinkling with water, and 50
grains (or grammes), made up by water to a milky solution, and 100 grains
of pure sugar candy dissolved in 1000 grains of water, are added, and the
whole well shaken. It is allowed to settle in a closed bottle, and the
clear solution poured off and diluted, until 1000 grains neutralise
exactly 100 grains of pure hydrochloric acid of sp. gr. 1·1812. Of course
it only answers with acids whose calcium salts are readily soluble in
water.

_b._ GRAVERMETRICALLY:——

The test-liquors or standard solutions of the above methods are made up so
as to _weigh_ exactly 1000 grains, instead of to ‘measure’ 100 acidimeter
divisions. Every grain of the test-liquor thus represents 1/10th gr. of
alkali; and every 10 gr., 1 gr. of alkali; or respectively, 1/10th per
cent. and 1 per cent. The vessel used for containing the solutions is
carefully weighed whilst empty, and 1000 gr. being placed in the opposite
scale, the test-solution, containing exactly one equivalent of base, is
poured in, and the whole made up with distilled water (if necessary) so as
to restore the balance to an equilibrium. After the process of
neutralisation, the acidimeter, with its contents, is again placed in the
scales; its previous weight still remaining there. The number of grains
required to restore the equilibrium of the balance (_i.e._, the loss of
weight), gives the exact weight of the test-liquor consumed. In all other
respects the process is the same as in the ‘volumetrical method’ already
described.

Another method for estimating the strength of the sample of acid is by
weighing the amount of carbonic acid expelled during saturation. (Method
of Fresenius and Will.) This depends on the weight of gaseous carbonic
acid which a given weight of the acid-sample under examination is capable
of expelling from pure bicarbonate of soda (or of potash), which is
estimated by the loss of weight in the acidimeter, or apparatus, after the
gas, rendered perfectly dry by passing through sulphuric acid, has escaped
into the air.

        TABLE I.——_Weights of the respective acids equivalent
        to the given weight of the principal bases, hydrogen
        being taken as unity._

                                                      {51 Acetic acid (anhydrous).
                                                      {60   ”     ”   (crystallised or glacial).
                                                      {99 Arsenious acid (dry).
                                                      {35 Boracic acid (anhydrous).
  17 gr. of pure ammonia.[8]            }             {62   ”     ”   (crystallised).
  31   ”    anhydrous soda.[9]          }             {22 Carbonic acid (dry).
  40   ”    hydrate of soda.[9]         }             {67 Citric acid (crystallised).
  53   ”    dry carbonate of soda.[10]  }             {85 Gallic acid (dried at 212°).
  143  ”    crystallised carbonate of   }             {94   ”     ”   (crystallised).
               soda.[11]                }             {127-1/2 Hydriodic acid (dry or gaseous).
  84   ”    crystallised bicarbonate    }             {27 Hydrocyanic acid (anhydrous).
               of soda.                 }             {36-1/2 Hydrochloric acid (dry or gaseous).
  47   ”    anhydrous potassa.[9]       }             {109         ”       ”   (liquid, sp. gr. 1·162).
  56   ”    hydrate of potassa.[9]      } are         {166-1/2 Iodic acid.
  69   ”    dry carbonate of potassa.[10]} exactly    {54 Nitric acid (anhydrous).
  100  ”    crystallised bicarbonate    } neutralised {63   ”     ”   (liquid, _monohydrated_, sp. gr.
               of potassa.              }        by   {                       1·517 to 1·521).
  50   ”   {pure chalk.                 }             {67-1/2 ”   ”   (liquid, _sesquihydrated_, sp. gr.
           {pure marble.                }             {                       1·5033 to 1·504).
  28   ”    pure caustic lime.          }             {72   ”     ”   (liquid, _binhydrated_, sp. gr.
  37   ”    hydrate of lime (fresh).    }             {                       1·486).
  44   ”    dry carbonic acid (when     }             {90   ”     ”   (liquid, sp. gr 1·42).
               the bicarbonate of       }             {36 Oxalic acid (anhydrous).
               potassa or soda is       }             {63   ”     ”   (crystallised).
               used for testing in      }             {72 Phosphoric acid (anhydrous).
               the process of Fresenius }             {81   ”         ”   (glacial).
               and Will).               }             {50 Succinic acid (dry or anhydrous crystals).
  22   ”    dry carbonic acid (when     }             {59   ”       ”   (ordinary crystals).
               a dry carbonate is       }             {40 Sulphuric acid (anhydrous).
               used).                   }             {49     ”     ”    (liquid, _monohydrated_, sp.
                                                      {                     gr. 1·8485).
                                                      {75 Tartaric acid (crystallised).
                                                      {212 Tannic acid (carefully dried).

[Footnote 8: 1000 water-grains measure of pure liquor of ammonia, sp. gr.
0·992, contains exactly 17 gr., or 1 equiv. of pure gaseous ammonia. A
standard liquor of this strength may be most conveniently prepared by
cautious dilution of a stronger solution, until a hydrostatic bead,
corresponding to the sp. gr., floats indifferently in the middle of the
new solution, at 60° Fahr. By keeping two hydrostatic beads in the
solution——the one made barely to float, and the other barely to sink——we
shall always be able to detect any change of strength or temperature which
it may suffer; since the “loss of a single hundredth part of a grain of
ammonia per cent., or the difference of a single degree of heat, will
cause the beads to” vary their positions. To preserve its integrity it
must be kept in a well-stoppered bottle. (See below.)]

[Footnote 9: These substances, as well as ‘test-solutions’ containing
them, must be perfectly free from carbonic acid, and must be carefully
preserved to prevent the absorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere.
Mohr states that a dilute solution of either of them is best preserved in
a flask or bottle well closed with a cork fitted with a small bulb tube
(resembling a chloride of calcium tube), filled with a finely triturated
mixture of sulphate of soda and caustic lime, and bearing a very thin open
tube in the exit aperture. Fresenius, and most other foreign chemists,
prefer ‘test-solutions’ of pure soda. With test-solutions containing
caustic alkalies, exact neutralisation of an acid is not only more easily
effected, but more readily perceived, particularly when either solution is
tinted with litmus.]

[Footnote 10: Prepared by gradually heating the pure crystallised
carbonate to redness. From being uniform in composition, and easily
procured or prepared, they are much employed; preference being usually
given to the soda-salt.]

[Footnote 11: The crystals must be free from attached water, but not the
least effloresced.]

_Oper._ A determined amount of the acid under examination is accurately
weighed into the flask _A_ (see _engr._); and if it be a concentrated
acid, or a solid, it is mixed with or dissolved in 6 or 8 times its weight
of water. The little glass tube (_e_) is then nearly filled to the brim
with pure bicarbonate of soda, in powder, and a fine silken thread is tied
round the neck of the tube, by means of which it can be lowered down into
the flask (_A_), so as to remain perpendicularly suspended when the cork
is placed in the latter; the cord being held between the cork and the
mouth of the flask. The flask (_B_) is next about half filled with oil of
vitriol, and the tubes being arranged in their places, as represented in
the _engr._; and time having been allowed for the mixture of acid and
water to cool completely, after the increase of heat caused by mixing, the
whole apparatus is very accurately weighed. The cork in the flask (_A_) is
then slightly loosened, so as to allow the little tube containing the
bicarbonate of soda to fall into the acid, and is again instantly fixed
AIR-TIGHT in its place. The evolution of carbonic acid now commences, and
continues until the acid in the flask (_A_) is neutralised. When this
takes place, which is easily seen by no bubbles being emitted on shaking
the apparatus, the flask (_A_) is put into hot water (120° to 130°
Fahr.), and kept there, with occasional agitation, until the renewed
evolution of gas has completely ceased. The little wax stopper is then
taken off the tube (_a_), the apparatus taken out of the hot water, wiped
dry, and suction applied, by means of a perforated cork, or a small
india-rubber tube, and the mouth, to the end of the tube (_d_), until the
sucked air no longer tastes of carbonic acid. The whole is then allowed to
become quite cold, when it is replaced in the balance (the other scale
still containing the original weights), and weights added to restore the
equilibrium.

[Illustration:

  (_A_) A wide-mouthed flask, capable of holding 2-1/2 to 8 oz.,
      containing sample for trial (_f_).
  (_B_) Ditto, capable of holding 1-1/2 to 2 oz., partly filled with
      oil of vitriol (_g_).
  (_a_, _c_, _d_) Tubes fitting air-tight in the flasks by means of
      the corks (_i_) and (_j_).
  (_b_) Piece of wax fitting air-tight on the end of _a_.
  (_e_) Small tube capable of holding about 1 drachm of powdered
      bicarbonate of soda or potash.
  (_h_) Open end of the tube (_d_).
  (_k_) Silk cord fastened to the tube (_e_).]

The loss of weight represents the exact quantity of dry carbonic
anhydride, or anhydrous carbonic acid gas, that has been expelled from the
bicarbonate of soda, by the action of the acid in the sample examined.

The quantity of real acid it contained is then deduced by the following
calculation:——One equivalent of gaseous carbonic anhydride, or anhydrous
carbonic acid (= 44) bears the same proportion to one equivalent of the
acid in question, as the amount of the carbonic anhydride expelled does to
the amount of the acid sought. Thus, suppose a dilute sulphuric acid
expels 3 gr. of carbonic anhydride, the arrangement is——

  44 : 49 :: 3 : 3·349

Consequently the sample operated on contained 3·5 (nearly) grains of true
sulphuric acid.

Instead of the above calculation, we may multiply the weights of the
respective acids required to expel 1 gr. of carbonic acid (as exhibited in
the following table) by the number of gr. of dry carbonic acid evolved
during the above operation. The product represents the per-centage
strength, when 100 gr. of the acid have been examined. When only 50, 25,
20, or 10 gr. have been tested, this product must, of course, be doubled,
quadrupled, &c., as the case may be.

        TABLE II.

                                                Multipliers.
  Acetic acid (anhydrous)                          1·159
    ”      ”  (hydrated or glacial)                1·364
  Citric acid (crystallised)                       1·523
  Hydrochloric acid (dry or gaseous)                ·829
    ”            ” (sp. gr. 1·16)                  2·478
  Nitric acid (anhydrous)                          1·227
    ”     ” (sp. gr. 1·5)                          1·523
    ”     ” (sp. gr. 1·42)                         2·045
  Oxalic acid (crystallised)                       1·432
  Sulphuric acid (anhydrous)                        ·909
    ”        ”  (sp. gr. 1·8485)                   1·114
  Tartaric acid (anhydrous)                        1·500
    ”        ”  (crystallised)                     1·705

Even this easy calculation may be avoided, in technical analysis, by
simply taking for the assay such a weight of the respective acids as is
capable of disengaging exactly 10 gr. of dry carbonic acid from the
bicarbonate. In this case, the loss of weight in grains, from the
operation, multiplied by 10, at once indicates the exact per-centage
strength sought. The proper weight of any acid to be taken to give
per-centage results is found by simply dividing ten times the equiv. of
that acid by 44. For, taking sulphuric acid as an example,

  as—— 44: 49 :: 10 : 11·1318

or 11·13 nearly.

On this principle are obtained the weights to be taken, as given in——

        TABLE III.

                                        Grains.
  Acetic acid (anhydrous)                11·59
    ”      ” (hydrated or glacial)       13·64
  Citric acid (crystallised)             15·23
  Hydrochloric acid (dry or gaseous)      8·29
    ”            ”  (sp. gr. 1·16)       24·78
  Nitric acid (anhydrous)                12·27
    ”      ” (sp. gr. 1·5)               15·23
    ”      ” (sp. gr. 1·42)              20·45
  Oxalic acid (crystallised)             14·32
  Sulphuric acid (anhydrous)              9·09
    ”         ”  (sp. gr. 1·845)         11·14
  Tartaric acid (anhydrous)              15·00
    ”        ” (crystallised)            17·05

2. A convenient modification of the preceding method of acidimetry
consists in using the common apparatus figured in the margin and employing
fused chloride of calcium to dry the evolved carbonic acid gas, instead of
concentrated sulphuric acid. The mode of conducting the process and
obtaining the results is precisely the same as in that last explained, and
need not, therefore, be repeated. In this case, however, suction must be
applied to the small tube (_g_), instead of (_d_) in the accompanying
engraving.

_Obs._ These methods, though apparently complicated, are not difficult to
perform, when once well understood. The application of heat after the
completion of the operation is indispensable, as, if it were neglected,
from 0·3 to 0·4 of a gr. of carbonic acid would be retained in the liquid.
The bicarbonate of soda must be pure, and perfectly free from any neutral
carbonate or sesquicarbonate of soda. To ensure this, the bicarbonate of
commerce is reduced to a uniform powder, put into a glass jar, and covered
with its own weight of cold distilled or rain water, and allowed to stand
for twenty-four hours, with frequent stirring. It is then placed upon a
funnel, the tube of which is stopped with loose cotton, so as to allow the
lye to drain off. It is next washed several times with small quantities of
cold distilled or rain water, and after being dried by pressure between
some sheets of blotting-paper, without the aid of heat, is kept for use in
a well-closed glass bottle. Before use, it may be tested to ascertain its
purity. If pure, it neither reddens turmeric paper, nor gives a brick-red
precipitate with a solution of bichloride of mercury. Pure bicarbonate of
potassa may be used instead of bicarbonate of soda; but in either case it
is always proper to use an excess, so as to leave some undecomposed
carbonate after the operation has ended. The presence of a little sodium
chloride or sulphate in the bicarbonate will not interfere in the least,
but the absence of every trace of neutral carbonate is a _sine quâ non_.

[Illustration:

  (_a_) Wide-mouthed flask, containing the sample for examination,
      hermetically stopped by the cork (_e_) and supporting the
      tubes (_b_) and (_c_).
  (_b_) Bulbous tube, containing fragments of fused chloride of
      calcium, terminating in a capillary tube (_g_).
  (_c_) Bent tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of the flask (_a_).
  (_d_) Small tube containing bicarbonate of soda.
  (_e_) Cork fitting bottle (_a_), and the tubes (_b_) and (_c_),
      hermetically.
  (_f_) Silken thread, suspending the small tube (_d_).]

The two above methods of estimating the amount of acid are only superior
to the generally used methods first described, when the presence of
colouring matter interferes with the reaction of the litmus used to show
the point of neutralisation.

_Observations._ When great accuracy is required in conducting the
neutralisation of the solution in estimating volumetrically with litmus as
an indicator, it is proper to prepare and keep standard solutions of
sulphuric acid and oxalic acid, with which occasionally to try the
alkaline test-liquor. The only difficulty in the process is to avoid
over-saturation of the acid-sample. Great care must be taken not to exceed
the precise point of neutralisation of the acid. After adding each portion
of the test-liquor, the solution should be well stirred up, and as soon as
the effervescence becomes languid the greatest caution must be observed in
adding more. The proper point is arrived at when the liquor ceases to
redden litmus, and does not alter the colour of turmeric paper; if it
turns the latter brown, too much of the test-liquid has been added, and
the operation becomes useless. Towards the end of the experiment, when
great precision is required, a gentle heat may be applied, in order to
expel the free carbonic acid in the liquor; but otherwise this is
unnecessary. The peculiar soapy odour gradually acquired by the liquor as
it nears saturation will materially assist the operator when testing
vinegars, and some of the other vegetable acids. A good method is to tint
either the acid-sample or the test-liquid with a few drops of litmus, as
noticed under ACETIMETRY; when the reddish shade will gradually deepen
into ‘purple,’ or the purple into ‘red,’ as the point of saturation is
approached; and the blue colour will be perfectly restored as soon as this
point is reached. Dr Ure recommends keeping the ammonia-test ready tinged
with litmus, and the same applies to other test-liquors.

In commerce, the strength of acids is frequently reckoned with reference
to a standard, termed 100 acidimetric degrees. This is taken from the
circumstance that 91 gr. of commercial oil of vitriol, of a sp. gr. of
1·845, exactly saturate 100 gr. of dried carbonate of soda. An acid
requiring only 35, 50, or any other number of grains of the carbonate to
saturate it, is in like manner termed of so many degrees strong; the
number of grains representing in each case an equal number of degrees.
This method originated with the French chemists, and though only
conventional, and principally confined to commercial purposes, is
especially adapted to practical men but little conversant with chemistry,
yet very ready in retaining or calculating anything on the centesimal
scale, from its similarity to monetary language and reckoning.

=ACID′ITY.= _Syn._ ACID′ITAS, L.; ACIDITÉ, Fr.; SÄURE, Ger. In
_chemistry_, the state of being acid. In _physiology_, &c., the impression
given to the organs of taste by tart or acid substances. Sourness. See
FERMENTATION, MALT-LIQUORS, WINES, &c.

=Gas′tric Acidity.= Acidity of the stomach; a common and well-known
symptom of weak or disordered digestion.

_Treat., &c._ Small doses of absorbents or antacids, three or four times
daily, to which some tonic bitter, as calumba, cascarilla, chamomile,
gentian, or orange-peel, may be added. Stomachic stimulants, as capsicum,
ginger, mustard, or wine, &c., taken with, or after, meals, are also
useful. The diet should be light and nutritious; and acescent vegetables,
over-ripe fruit, and weak new beer or other liquors avoided as much as
possible. The bowels should be kept regular, but not open, by the
occasional use of mild aperients, as rhubarb, aloes, castor oil, senna, or
mercurial pill, or compounds containing them. Excessive looseness or
diarrhœa may be checked by a few doses of carbonate of soda,
chalk-mixture, or astringents.

In INFANCY this affection is usually accompanied by restlessness,
continual crying, drawing up of the legs forcibly towards the body,
hiccups, vomiting, diarrhœa, sour eructations, griping pains, green
stools, and debility; often followed, when the irritation is considerable,
by convulsions. The treatment consists in relieving the bowels of all
offending matter by a few doses of rhubarb-and-magnesia. The looseness or
diarrhœa may be checked by a few small doses of carbonate of soda or chalk
mixture; or better, in an infant which is fed by lime-water (1 or 2 fl.
oz.) mixed with as much milk. Two or three drops of caraway, cinnamon,
dill, or peppermint water, on sugar (not with the food) will tend to
promote the expulsion, and prevent the undue generation of gases. The
flatulence usually disappears with the acidity. The occasional
administration of 1 to 3 gr. of quicksilver-with-chalk (‘grey powder’),
will frequently remove the complaint, and prevent its recurrence, when all
other means fail. The diet of both nurse and infant should be carefully
regulated.

See ANTACIDS, DYSPEPSIA, &c.

_Treatment for Horses._ Alkalies, their carbonates and bicarbonates;
alterative doses of aloes with alkalies; chalk, carbonate of magnesia;
mineral acids; bismuth, arsenic, nux vomica, or strychnia.

=ACIDS, EFFECTS OF, ON VEGETATION.= This subject has been ably
investigated of recent years by Dr Angus Smith and Mr Rothwell, and the
practical importance of their labours is shown by the circumstance that an
Act of Parliament passed in 1875 renders it penal for the proprietors of
alkali works to condense not less than 95 per cent. of the hydrochloric
acid evolved in the process of manufacturing ‘soda,’ also to allow air,
smoke, or chimney gases to escape into the atmosphere containing more than
one fifth of a grain of hydrochloric acid per cubic foot. Every owner of
an alkali work is likewise required to ‘use the best practical means of
preventing the discharge into the atmosphere of all other noxious gases
arising from such work, or of rendering such gases harmless when
discharged.’

The injurious effects of acids on vegetation are indicated chiefly by the
shrivelled-up appearance which the leaves of herbage, trees, &c., exhibit
in the vicinity of chemical works in which the condensation of noxious
gases (hydrochloric acid, sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid, sulphuretted
hydrogen, nitric acid, and oxides of nitrogen and chlorine) is not
effectually carried out. According to Mr Rothwell, ‘in fields exposed to
acid vapours handfuls of dead grass may be pulled up in the spring,
smelling strongly of the vapour, and that trees, under similar influences,
become bark-bound.’

The following is a list of trees arranged in the order of their
susceptibility. (Rothwell.)

_Forest Trees._ Larch, spruce fir, Scotch fir, black Italian poplar,
Lombardy poplar, ash, oak, elm, birch, alder, sycamore.

_Fruit Trees._ Damson, greengage, Halewood plum, Jacob plum, pears,
apples, cherries.

_Shrubs, Evergreens, and Wild Plants._ British laurels, Portugal laurels,
_Aucuba_ _Japonica_, Barberry evergreen, hazel, guelder rose, sloe thorn,
hawthorn, raspberries, gooseberries, blackberries, gorse, hollies.

_Farm Crops._ Potatoes, mangel, white clover and rhubarb, red clover,
trefoil, rye-grass, wheat, oats, barley, common turnips, swedes.

_Second list of Plants affected by Noxious Vapours, mixing the classes
according to the effects produced on each._

I. Fern——only in the summer.

Scotch firs, spruce, and larches——a little in winter.

Clover (white and red), trefoil, rye-grass, poplars, hawthorn,
potatoes——receive damage in winter to roots.

II. Wheat receives some damage in winter.

Oats in May, when in the grass state, soon receive damage.

Barley, mangel, common turnips, rhubarb.

III. Laurels (British and Portugal), aucubas, yews, holly, gorse——receive
damage in winter, but more in summer.

Old grass meadows and pastures receive much damage in winter.

IV. Ashes, oaks, hazels, horse-chestnuts, walnuts, Spanish chestnuts, sloe
thorn.

V. Swedish turnip and cabbages, damson, other fruit trees, beech, elm,
birch, alder, sycamores.

=ACIDULÆ.= [L. pl.] In _medicine_, mineral waters rich in carbonic acid.

=ACIDULATED=. _Syn_. ACIDULATUS, L.; ACIDULÉ, Fr. Blended or flavoured
with an acid; made slightly sour. See KALI (Acidulated), DROPS, LOZENGES,
&c. In _chemistry_, the addition of an acid to a neutral or alkaline
liquid until it reddens blue litmus paper.

=ACIDUM.= [L.] An acid.

=ACNE.= [_Syn._ PIMPLED FACE.] There are two forms of this affection. 1st.
In young persons of both sexes; generally in phlegmatic habits. The
disease shows itself by hard pimples, with a small black spot on the apex,
unaccompanied with redness or inflammation at first, but after a while
they become red and inflamed, and sometimes suppurate, with a greasy look
of the skin between them. In this form of acne the black spots should be
picked out with a needle or a small pair of tweezers. A long piece of
thick matter, like a worm, is extracted; but is no worm. Afterwards wash
the face with water in which a small piece of Quillar bark has been
steeped, or with bitter almond emulsion, or borax, one drachm, water 4 oz.
When there is no inflammation, use Eau de Cologne, or a few drops of oil
of rosemary dissolved in spirit of wine, taking a small dose of magnesia
in the morning, or milk of sulphur daily. When the pimples are very
sluggish the cautious application of tincture of iodine, or of ointment of
nitrate of mercury, will be found serviceable.

2nd. Arises from intemperance. In this case a gradual change of habits is
essential. The use of soap should be avoided, and recourse had to warm
fomentations of slippery elm, or thin oat gruel. The following should be
applied to the pimples:——Cold cream, 1 oz., Goulard’s extract 20 drops,
mixed together; or lemon juice diluted, or solution of borax in water. The
internal administration of the mineral acids combined with bitter tonics,
or small doses of iodide of potassium, will be found effectual.

_Treatment._ Fomentations, poultices, chloride of zinc solution
externally; sulphur and alteratives internally.

=ACOLOGY=. _Syn._ In _medicine_, the doctrine of, or a discourse on,
remedies or the materia medica.

=ACONITE.= (-nite). _Syn._ ACON′ITUM, L.; ACONIT, Fr.: AKONITUM, EISENHUT,
STURMHUT, Ger. Monkshood; wolfsbane. In _botany_, a genus of exogenous
plants. _Nat. ord._, Ranunculaceæ; _Sex. syst._, Polyandria Trigynia. They
are characterised by showy purple or yellow helmet-shaped flowers growing
in panicles, deeply cut leaves, and perennial (usually) tap-shaped or
tapering roots. The whole plant is highly poisonous, the roots being more
poisonous than the leaves. In _medicine_ and _materia medica_, the plant
Aconitum Napellus (which _see_).

_Symptoms._ Numbness and tingling in the mouth and throat, which are
parched; followed by giddiness, dimness of sight, and (sometimes)
delirium, but seldom complete coma; there is numbness and tingling of the
limbs, a loss of power in the legs, (in some cases) frothing at the mouth,
severe abdominal pains, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhœa; tremors or
twitchings of the voluntary muscles, (sometimes) convulsions (in animals,
but not in man); sharp cries; pupil (generally) dilated, very rarely
contracted; pulse fitful and sinking; skin cold and livid; difficulty of
breathing; general prostration; loss of sensation or feeling,
insensibility, general trembling, fainting, and sudden death. The eyes are
often glaring; and, in some cases, the patient is completely paralysed,
yet retains consciousness to the last. The case generally proves fatal in
from 1 to 8 hours. If it last beyond this period there is hope of
recovery. (Fleming.)

_Antidotes._ Ammonia, or brandy, with artificial respiration if necessary:
cold affusion and friction, with warm towels to the back and limbs. See
ALKALOIDS.

=ACONITE LEAVES= (B. Ph.). _Syn._ ACONITI FOLIA, L. The fresh leaves and
flowering tops of _aconitum napellus_, Linn., gathered when about one
third of the flowers are expanded, from plants cultivated in Britain.

_Char._ Leaves smooth, palmate, divided into five deeply cut wedge-shaped
segments; excizing slowly, when chewed, a sensation of tingling. Flowers
numerous, irregular, deep blue, in dense racemes.

_Prep._ Extractum aconiti.

=ACONITE ROOT.= (B. Ph.). _Syn._ ACONITI RADIX, L. The dried root of
_aconitum napellus_. Imported from Germany, or cultivated in Britain, and
collected in the winter or early spring before the leaves have appeared.

_Prep._ Aconitia, the active principle; Linimentum Aconiti, 1 ounce to 1
fluid ounce; Tinctura Aconiti, 54-1/2 grains to 1 fluid ounce.

_Char._ Usually from one to three inches long, not thicker than the finger
at the crown, tapering, blackish-brown, internally whitish. A _minute_
portion, cautiously chewed, causes prolonged tingling and numbness.

=ACONITI FOLIA.= See ACONITE LEAVES.

=ACONITI RADIX.= See ACONITE ROOT.

=ACONITIA.= C_{30}H_{47}O_{7}N. (B. P.) _Syn._ ACONITIA, L. An alkaloid
obtained from aconite.

  Take of
    Aconite root, in coarse powder, 14 pounds.
    Rectified spirit      }
    Distilled water       }    of each
    Solution or ammonia   }  a sufficiency.
    Pure ether            }
    Diluted sulphuric acid}

Pour upon the aconite root three gallons of the spirit, mix them well, and
heat until ebullition commences; then cool and macerate for four days.
Transfer the whole to a displacement apparatus, and percolate, adding more
spirit, when requisite, until the root is exhausted. Distil off the
greater part of the spirit from the tincture, and evaporate the remainder
over a water bath until the whole of the alcohol has been dissipated. Mix
the residual extract thoroughly with twice its weight of boiling distilled
water, and when it has cooled to the temperature of the atmosphere, filter
through paper. To the filtered liquid add solution of ammonia in slight
excess, and heat them gently over a water bath. Separate the precipitate
on a filter, and dry it. Reduce this to coarse powder, and macerate it in
successive portions of the pure ether with frequent agitation. Decant the
several products, mix and distil off the ether until the extract is dry.
Dissolve the dry extract in warm distilled water acidulated with the
sulphuric acid; and, when the solution is cold, precipitate it by the
cautious addition of solution of ammonia diluted with four times its bulk
of distilled water. Wash the precipitate on a filter with a small quantity
of cold distilled water, and dry it by slight pressure between folds of
filtering paper.

_Characters and Tests._ A white, usually amorphous, solid, soluble in 150
parts of cold, and 50 of hot water, and much more soluble in alcohol and
in ether; strongly alkaline to reddened litmus, neutralising acids, and
precipitated from them by the caustic alkalies, but not by carbonate of
ammonia or the bicarbonates of soda or potash. It melts with heat, and
burns with a smoky flame, leaving no residue when burned with free access
of air. When rubbed on the skin it causes a tingling sensation, followed
by prolonged numbness. It is a very active poison.

=ACONITIA, CRYSTALLISED.= C_{27}H_{40}NO_{10}. Exhaust the root of wild
aconite, carefully picked and powdered, with very strong alcohol, to which
1 per cent. of tartaric acid has been added. Distil at a gentle heat, and
sheltered from the air, to recover the alcohol. Treat the extract with
water to separate all the fatty and resinous matters. The solution which
contains the aconite in the state of acid tartrate is first shaken with
ether to remove colouring matters, and then the alkaloid is set free by
the addition of alkaline bicarbonate, until the cessation of
effervescence. A fresh treatment with ether of this alkaline solution
removes the alkaloid, which crystallizes upon the concentration of the
ethereal liquid, with an addition of petroleum spirit. The crystals are
colourless tables, rhombic or hexagonal, according to the modifications
produced principally in the acute angles. Crystallized aconitia is soluble
in alcohol, ether, benzine, and chloroform; insoluble in petroleum oils
and glycerine.

ACONITIA NITRATE, CRYSTALLISED. Crystallised aconitine q. s.; nitric acid,
sp. gr. 1·442, q. s. Saturate the nitric acid with the aconitine and
evaporate. Voluminous crystals are easily obtained (from ‘Formulæ for New
Medicaments adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society’).——‘Pharm.
Journal.’ Owing to the decomposition which this alkaloid undergoes in the
animal organism, as well as to its liability to decompose during the
process of evaporation, and exposure to the air, it often becomes
extremely difficult, if not impossible, to obtain it in a separate state
in conducting a _post-mortem_ examination. The physiological effects seem
to furnish the most prominent and characteristic evidence of its presence
in such cases, or at any rate these may serve as a valuable guide to the
toxicologist.

Uncrystallised aconitia is sometimes contaminated with delphinia, as well
as with aconella, another constituent of aconite root. For the dissection
of these see ALKALOIDS. One fiftieth of a grain of aconitia is stated to
have killed a dog.

_Antidotes._ See ACONITE.

=ACONITIC ACID.= (Identical with _Pyrocitric Acid_.) An acid extracted by
Peschier from _aconitum napellus_, and by Bracconnot from _equisetum
fluviatile_. It exists in these plants chiefly in the form of aconitate of
calcium.

_Properties._ A white, colourless, semi-crystalline mass.

=ACONITINA.= See ACONITIA.

=ACONITINE.= See ACONITIA.

=ACONI′TUM.= [L.] Aconite. The pharmacopœial name of _aconitum
napellus_(see _below_).

=Aconitum Ferox.= (Ind. P.) _Habitat_. Temperate and sub-Alpine Himalaya,
at 10,000 to 14,000 feet elevation, from Gurhwal to Sikkim.

_Officinal part._ The dried root (_Aconiti ferocis Radix_), in common with
those of other Himalayan species, viz., _aconitum napellus_, _a.
palmatum_, and _a. luridum_, constitutes the drug well known in the
bazaars of Upper India under the Hindostani name of _Bish_ or _Bikh_.

It occurs in the form of tuberous roots of a more or less conical form,
from two to three inches in length, and from half an inch to one inch in
thickness at their upper end. They have usually a shrunken appearance, and
are covered with a dark shrivelled bark; fracture shining and resinous;
sometimes waxy, varying in colour from pale to deep brown. Some specimens
are white and spongy; and these, it is asserted, are superior in activity
to the more compact kinds. Inodorous; taste at first slightly bitter,
leaving a peculiar sense of numbness on the tongue and fauces. Active
principle, aconitia.

_Medical Properties and Uses._ Similar to those of _aconitum napellus_ of
Europe. _Preparations._ This root may be advantageously used for the
manufacture of aconitia, the proportion of this alkaloid being much larger
than in the European drug; and also for the preparation of Linimentum
Aconiti. From its greater activity, however, it is unsuited for the
preparation of this tincture, which is intended for external use.

=Aconitum Hetorophyllum.= (Ind. P.) _Habitat_. Western temperate Himalaya,
at 8000 to 13,000 feet elevation; from Indus to Kumaon. _Officinal part._
The dried root (_Aconiti heterophylli Radix_). Ovoid tuberous roots,
tapering downwards to a point, from one to one and a half inches or more
in length, and from three eighths to half an inch in thickness. The
surface, which is covered with a thin greyish epidermis, is slightly
wrinkled longitudinally, and marked here and there with root scars. It is
inodorous, and of a bitter taste, devoid of acridity. Does not contain
aconitia. It may be readily distinguished from other roots sold in the
bazaars under the same vernacular name (Atis) by its characteristic
bitterness. _Properties._ Tonic and antiperiodic. It may be administered
internally with safety, as it contains no poisonous principle.
_Therapeutic uses_. In convalescence after debilitating diseases, and in
intermittent and other paroxysmal fevers, it has been found an efficient
remedy. _Doses._ Tonic, 5 to 10 grains thrice daily; antiperiodic, 20 to
30 grains of the powdered root every three or four hours, irrespective of
the presence of pyrexia.

=Aconitum Napell′us.= [Linn.] _Syn._ ACONI′TUM, Ph. L., E., & D.;
ACONITNAPÈL, CHAPERON DE MOINE, Fr.; EISENHUT, BLAUERSTURMHUT, Ger. Early
blue wolfsbane, or deadly aconite. _Hab._ Various parts of Europe; grows
wild in England, flowering in June and July. The fresh and dried leaves
(ACONITI FO′′LIUM), Ph. L. & E. The root (ACONITI RA′DIX), Ph. L. & D.
This is the species of aconite ordered in the pharmacopœias, and commonly
used in medicine. When chewed it imparts a sensation of acrimony, followed
by a pungent heat of the lips, gums, palate, and fauces, which is
succeeded by a general tremor and chilliness. The juice applied to a wound
or the unsound skin affects the whole nervous system. Even by remaining
long in the hand, or on the bosom, it produces unpleasant symptoms. Fatal
cases of poisoning, by eating the root in mistake for horseradish, have
been common of late years. The two roots may be, however, easily
distinguished from one another; when scraped aconite emits an earthy, and
horseradish its well-known pungent odour. Moreover, the shape of the roots
is very different. In the accompanying figure _a_ represents aconite root,
and _b_ horseradish root.

[Illustration]

The leaves should be gathered as soon as the flowers appear. The root
should be taken up in autumn. When the whole plant is employed, it should
be gathered as soon as the flowers begin to open. The strength (richness
in aconitia) varies considerably with the time of the year. 1 oz. of the
fresh root contains 1/4 to 3/4 gr. of aconitia; 1 lb. of the dried English
root contains from 12 to 36 gr. (Herapath). The leaves possess the
greatest activity just before flowering; the root, after it. The root is
at all times fully six times as strong as the leaves or herb. The wild
plant contains much more aconitia than that which is cultivated. The herb,
and all its preparations, lose their efficacy if long kept. The powder,
more particularly, cannot be relied on. Mr Holmes says it is difficult to
find in a commercial sample of aconite root one root in a dozen, which
upon fracture appears sound and in good condition.

_Properties, Antidotes, &c._ See ACONITE.

_Tests, &c._ See ACONITE.

_Uses, &c._ In small doses aconite is narcotic, powerfully diaphoretic,
and sometimes diuretic; in larger ones, the symptoms are similar to those
produced by aconitia. It acts as a powerful sedative on the heart’s
action, and destroys sensibility without disturbing the mental faculties.
It has been given in chronic rheumatism, gout, paralysis, scirrhus,
scrofula, cancers, venereal nodes, epilepsy, amaurosis, intermittents,
&c.; but its exhibition requires the greatest possible caution. As a
topical benumber it has been used with great advantage in painful
affections depending on increased sensibility of the nerves. Externally it
“is most valuable for the cure of neuralgic and rheumatic pains. In
neuralgia, no remedy, I believe, will be found equal to it. One
application of the tincture produces some amelioration; and after a few
times’ use, it frequently happens that the patient is cured. In some
cases, the benefit appears almost magical. In others, however, it entirely
fails to give permanent relief.” “I do not think that in any (case) it
proves injurious.” “When it succeeds, it gives more or less relief at the
first application. When the disease depends on inflammation, aconite will
be found, I think, an unavailing remedy.” “In rheumatic pains,
unaccompanied with local swelling or redness, aconite is frequently of
very great service.” (Pereira, iii, 691.) _Dose_, of the powder, 1 to 2
gr., gradually increased to 6 or 8. Dr Stocrk was the first who gave
wolfsbane internally, about the year 1762. It has since been successfully
employed in Germany in cases of chronic rheumatism, gout, &c., some of
which were of long standing and had resisted every other remedy. In
England it has been less extensively used.

=Aconitum Panicula′tum.= Panicled wolfsbane; a species formerly ordered in
the Ph. L.; and, with _a. napellus_, also in the Ph. U. S. It is less
active than the officinal species.

=A′CORN.= _Syn._ GLANS. QUER′CUS, L. The seed or fruit of the oak. In the
early ages of the world, acorns probably formed one of the principal
articles of the food of man. (Ovid, _Met._, i, 106; Virgil, _Georg._, i,
8; &c.) In modern times, during periods of scarcity, they have been
consumed as food on the Continent. Besides starch, they contain a peculiar
species of sugar, which crystallises in prisms, and is unfermentable; they
also contain tannic and gallic acids. Mannite and dulcose are the
substances which it most nearly resembles. (M. Dessaignes.) During the
autumn, acorns are said to be sometimes poisonous to cattle and sheep.
Supposed cases of so-called acorn poisoning are best treated by
withdrawing the supply of acorns, or removing the animals from the
pastures on which the acorns fall, and by the administration of aperients,
alkalies, and stimulants.

=AC′ORUS CAL′AMUS.= See SWEET FLAG.

=ACOTYLE′DONS= (-ko-te-lē′-). _Syn._ ACOTYLE′DONES (dŏn-ēz; L., prim.
Gr.), Jussieu; ACOTYLÉDONS, Fr.; OHNE SAMENLAPPEN, Ger. In _botany_,
plants whose seeds are not furnished with distinct cotyledons or
seed-lobes. _Acotyledonous plants_ form one of the two great divisions of
the vegetable kingdom, according to the natural system. They are
remarkable by increasing chiefly in length, by additions to their end; and
not by addition to the outside, as in Exogens; nor to the inside, as in
Endogens. They are also termed ASEX′UAL and FLOWERLESS PLANTS, and answer
to the CRYPTOGAMIA of the Linnean system. See ACROGENS, CELLULARES,
THALLOGENS, &c.

=ACOUS′TICS= (-kow′-). The science of audition and sound; that branch of
physics which treats of their cause, nature, and phenomena. The doctrine
of the production and transmission of sound is termed DIACOUS′TICS; that
of reflected sound CATACOUS′TICS.

=Acoustics.= In _medicine_, remedies employed to relieve deafness. See
DEAFNESS and DROPS, ACOUSTIC.

=ACQUETTA.= [IT., _Little Water._] _Syn._ AQUA TOFFANA; A. TOFFANIA;
ACQUETTA DI NAPOLI DELLA TOFFANA, IT. A celebrated poison, prepared by an
Italian woman named Toffano, or Tophana, and in great request in Rome
about the middle of the 17th century. The composition of this poison has
been a matter of frequent controversy. Pope Alexander VII, in his
proclamation, described it as “aquafortis distilled into arsenic.” This
would produce a concentrated solution of arsenic acid. The Emperor Charles
VI, who was governor of Naples during Toffano’s trial, declared to his
physician, Garelli, that it was arsenic (arsenious acid) dissolved in
_aqua cymbalariá_. According to Gerarde this cymbalarià was an aquatic
species of pennywort, highly poisonous. The only objection to the latter
statement is the smallness of the dose, regard being had to the
comparative insolubility of arsenious acid; but if the woman Toffano
prepared two poisons, as is probable from history——one, a single dose of
which was fatal, and another, of which the dose required repetition, and
which was more gradual in its activity——the discrepancy will be at once
removed.

=AC′RID.= _Syn._ AC′ER, AC′RIS, L.; ACRE (âcre), Fr.; BEISSEND, SCHARF,
Ger. In _chemistry_ and _medicine_, sharp, pungent, acrimonious. Acrid
substances are such as excite a sensation of pungency and heat when
tasted, and which irritate and inflame the skin; as mustard, turpentine,
cantharides, &c.

=ACRIDITY.= _Syn._ ACRETÉ, Fr.; ACRITUDO, L. The quality of being acrid.

=AC′RIMONY.= _Syn._ ACRIMO′NIA, L.; ACRIMONIÉ, ACRETÉ, Fr.; SCHARFE, Ger.
In _medicine_ and _chemistry_, the quality or property of inflaming,
irritating, corroding, dissolving, or destroying other bodies.

=ACROGENS.= _Syn._ ACROGENÆ, L.; ACROGÈNES, Fr. In _botany_, acotyledonous
or cryptogamic plants, in which stems and leaves, or an organisation
approaching leaves, are distinguishable; which have stomates or breathing
spores on their surface, are propagated by spores, and increase by the
growth of the stem at the point only. Ferns and club-mosses are examples
of this class of plants.

=ACROLEIN.= _Syn._ ACRYLIC ALCOHOL. This substance occurs amongst the
products of decomposition when glycerine or any of its compounds is
subjected to ordinary distillation. It derives its name from its violently
irritant effect upon the mucous membranes of the eyes and respiratory
organs. It is best prepared by the process of Redtenbacher (see ‘Leibig’s
Ann.,’ xlvii, 114), by distilling in a capacious retort, a mixture of
glycerine with phosphoric anhydride, or with hydric-potassic sulphate (the
acid sulphate or bisulphate of potash); the vapours must be condensed in a
properly cooled receiver, which is luted on to the retort and provided
with a tube opening into a chimney having a good draught. The distilled
liquid separates into two layers, the upper one consisting of acrolein,
and the lower one of an aqueous solution of the same substance mixed with
a quantity of acrylic acid. This distillate, after digestion with finely
powdered litharge, with the object of neutralising the acid, must be
rectified by the heat of a water bath: the acrolein so obtained must be
submitted to a second rectification from calcic chloride. All these
operations must be conducted in vessels filled with carbonic anhydride
(carbonic acid) because acrolein becomes rapidly oxidized when exposed to
the air.

Acrolein is a clear colourless liquid, lighter than water, boiling at
about 125° F. It has great refracting power and a burning taste; when pure
it is neutral to test paper.

=AC′ROSPIRE= (-spire). _Syn._ ACROSPI′RA, L.; PLUMULE, Fr.; BLATTKEIM,
Ger. The shoot or sprout of a seed, when it begins to grow; the part of a
germinating seed termed the plume, or plumula.

When the growth of a seed begins to be developed, the germ, from which the
stem originates, shoots forth under the form of a delicate curved fibre,
which, gradually bursting its covering, makes its appearance at the end of
the seed. The fibrils of the radicle first sprout forth from the tip of
the grain; a white elevation appears, that soon divides into three or more
radicles, which rapidly grow larger, and are succeeded by the plumula,
which peeps forth at the same point, in the form of a pale green leaflet,
which, twisting thence beneath the husk to the other end of the seed,
ultimately bursts its prison-house, and becomes a perfect leaf. See
GERMINATION and MALTING.

=ACTINIC RAYS.= See ACTINISM.

=ACTINISM.= _Syn._ ACTINIC RAYS; CHEMICAL RAYS. A term given to a supposed
principle accompanying the heat and light of the sunbeam. Actinic rays
chiefly exist beyond the violet extremity of the solar spectrum, and are
characterised by the power of exciting chemical change, _e.g._, the
decomposition of certain silver salts (in photography); the combination of
a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, &c. The so-called vital functions of
animals and plants are also greatly influenced by the actinic or chemical
rays.

=ACTINOGRAPH.= An instrument for registering the intensity of the chemical
influence (_actinism_) of the sun’s rays.

=ACT, TOWNS IMPROVEMENT CLAUSES, 1847= (10 & 11 Vict., c. 34), The
following provisions of this Act are incorporated in the Public Health
Act, 1875, and refer exclusively to urban districts:——

1. With respect to naming the streets and numbering the houses.

2. With respect to improving the line of the streets and removing the
obstructions.

3. With respect to ruinous or dangerous buildings.

4. With respect to precautions during the construction and repair of
sewers, streets, and houses.

5. With respect to the regulation of slaughter houses.

Notices for alterations under the 69th, 70th, and 71st sections,
directions under the 73rd section, and orders under the 74th section of
the said Towns Improvement Clauses Act, may, at the option of the urban
authority, be served on owners instead of occupiers, or on owners as well
as occupiers, and the cost of works done under any of these sections may,
when notices have been so served on owners, be recovered from owners
instead of occupiers; and when such cost is recovered from occupiers, so
much thereof may be deducted from the rent of the premises where the work
is done as is allowed in the case of private rates under the Act.

=AC′TUAL.= Real, effectual, absolute; as opposed to that which is merely
virtual or potential. In _surgery_, a red-hot iron, or any other heated
body, used as a cautery, is termed the ACTUAL CAUTERY; whilst a caustic or
escharotic so employed is called the POTENTIAL CAUTERY.

=ACTUAL CAUTERY.= See ACTUAL.

=ACUTE′.= _Syn._ ACUT′US, L.; AIGU, Fr.; HEFTIG, HITZIG, SPITZIG, Ger.
Sharp, pointed, sensitive. Applied to the senses, as acute hearing,
eyesight, &c. In _pathology_, diseases exhibiting violent symptoms, and
whose course is short, are said to be acute diseases.

=ADAPTER.= In _chemistry_, a tube placed between two vessels (commonly a
retort and receiver) for the purpose of uniting them or increasing the
distance between them, so as to facilitate the condensation of vapour in
distillation. (See _figure._)

[Illustration]

=ADDER’S TONGUE.= _Syn._ COMMON ADDER’S TONGUE; OPHIOGLOS′SUM VULGA′TUM,
Linn. A perennial plant, of the natural order Filices (DC.), growing wild
in England. It is found in our woods and pastures, and flowers in May and
June. It was once used to form a celebrated traumatic or vulnerary
ointment and is still highly esteemed among rustic herbalists.

=ADEPS.= _Syn._ LARD. See ADEPS PRÆPARATUS, FAT, and LARD.

=ADEPS BENZOATUS.= _Syn._ BENZOATED LARD.

=ADEPS PRÆPARATUS.= _Syn._ AXUNGE; PREPARED LARD.

=ADHE′SION= (-hē-zhün). _Syn._ ADHÆ′SIO, L.; ADHESION, Fr.; ANHÄNGUNG,
ARXLEBUNG, Ger. The act or state of sticking or being united.

=Adhesion.= In _physics_, the force with which bodies remain attached to
each other when brought into contact; _e.g._, ink adheres to paper, paint
adheres to wood, &c. It differs from ‘cohesion’ in representing the force
with which different bodies cling together; whereas cohesion is the force
which unites the particles of a homogeneous body with each other, _e.g._,
particles of iron cohere and form a mass of iron; particles of water
cohere and form a mass of water, &c.

=Adhesion.= In _pathology_, the morbid union, from inflammation, of parts
normally contiguous but not adherent.

=Adhesion.= In _surgery_, the reunion of divided parts, by the adhesive
inflammation; as when incised wounds heal by what is termed the ‘first
intention.’

=ADHE′SIVE.= _Syn._ ADHÆSI′VUS, L.; ADHÉSIF, Fr.; ADHÄSIVE, VERWACHSEND,
Ger. In _pharmacy_, &c., having the quality or property of sticking or
adhering. Hence adhe′siveness.

=AD′IPOCERE= (-sēre). _Syn._ GRAVE-WAX‡; ADIPOCE′′RA, L.; ADIPOCIRE, Fr.;
FETEWACHS, Ger. A substance resembling a mixture of fat and wax, resulting
from the decomposition of the flesh of animals in moist situations, or
under water. It is chiefly margarate of ammonium. Lavoisier proposed to
produce this substance artificially, for the purposes of the arts.
Attempts have since been made to convert the dead bodies of cattle
(carrion) into adipocere, for the purposes of the candle-maker and the
soap-boiler, but without success. Besides, dead animal matter can be
worked up more profitably than in making artificial adipocere.

Hatchettine or rock-fat is sometimes called ‘adipocere’; and bog-butter is
a substance nearly similar to it.

=AD′JECTIVE.= _Syn._ ADJECTI′VUS, L.; ADJECTIF, Fr. In _dyeing_, depending
on another, or on something else; applied to those colours which require a
base or mordant to render them permanent. See DYEING.

=AD′JUVANT.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AD′JUVANS, L.; AIDANT, &c., Fr. Assistant;
helping. (As a substantive——) In _prescriptions_, see PRESCRIBING (Art
of).

=ADULTERATION.= Strictly speaking, this term ought only to be applied to
the practice of adding substances to articles of commerce, food or drink,
for the purposes of deception or gain, but a wider interpretation is
frequently placed on the word than the definition given by magistrates and
analysts, these latter often regarding accidental impurity, or even, in
some instances, actual substitution as acts of adulteration.

The following definition of an adulterated substance has been adopted by
the Society of Public Analysts——

A substance shall be deemed to be adulterated——

A. _In the ease of food or drink:_

1. If it contain any ingredient which may render such article injurious to
the health of a consumer.

2. If it contain any substance that sensibly increases its weight, bulk,
or strength, or gives it a fictitious value, unless the amount of such
substance present be due to circumstances necessarily appertaining to its
collection or manufacture, or be necessary for its preservation, or unless
the presence thereof be acknowledged at the time of sale.

3. If any important constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted or
omitted, unless acknowledgment of such abstraction or omission be made at
the time of sale.

4. If it be an imitation of or sold under the name of another article.

B. _In the case of drugs:_

1. If when retailed for medical purposes under a name recognised in the
‘British Pharmacopœia’ it be not equal in strength and purity to the
standard laid down in that work.

2. If when sold under a name not recognised in the ‘British Pharmacopœia’
it differs materially from the standard laid down in approved works on
materia medica, or the professed standard under which it is sold.

_Limits._ The following shall be deemed limits for the respective articles
referred to:

_Milk_ shall contain not less than 9·0 per cent., by weight, of milk
solids, not fat, and not less than 2·5 per cent. of butter fat.

_Skim Milk_ shall contain not less than 9·0 per cent. by weight, of milk
solids not butter fat.

_Butter_ shall contain not less than 80 per cent. of butter fat.

_Tea_ shall not contain more than 8·0 per cent. of mineral matter,
calculated on the tea dried at 100° C., of which at least 3·0 per cent.
shall be soluble in water, and the tea as sold shall yield at least 30 per
cent. of extract.

_Cocoa_ shall contain at least 20 per cent. of cocoa fat.

_Vinegar_ shall contain not less than 3 per cent. of acetic acid.

The practice of fraudulent adulteration has been indulged in for
centuries. In every civilised state there have been enactments against it.
The Romans had their inspectors of meat and corn. In England an Act to
prohibit adulteration was passed as early as 1267, and penalties against
it were in force in 1581, 1604, 1836, 1851. In 1822, Accum published a
work having the sensational title of ‘Death in the Pot,’ and in 1855
appeared Dr Hassall’s book, ‘Food and its Adulterations.’ The information
conveyed in these works, added to the revelations of the ‘Lancet’ Sanitary
Commission, and the contributions to scientific literature on the subject
of food by Letheby, Pavy, Parkes, Blyth, and others, together with the
published evidence given before the House of Commons Commission appointed
to carry out an inquiry into the subject, roused public attention to such
a degree as to lead to the passing by the legislature of the Adulteration
Acts.

The sophistications may be divided into several distinct classes:

1. To give weight or volume, such as water added to butter, plaster of
paris to flour, &c.; red earths to annatto, sand to tea-leaves, &c.; water
to milk, &c.; all these, therefore, are substitutions of worthless or very
cheap articles which take the place of the real.

2. To give a colour which either makes the article more pleasing to the
eye, or else disguises an inferior one, _e.g._, Prussian blue, black lead,
&c., to green teas; annatto to cheese, &c.; arsenite of copper to
sweetmeats, &c.

3. Substitutions of a cheaper form of the article, or the same substance
from which the strength has been extracted put in the place of the real,
_e.g._, tea mixed with spent leaves, &c.

4. A very small class where the adulteration is really added with no
fraudulent intent, but to enhance the quality of the goods sold——alum to
bread in small quantities.

The following, according to Blyth (‘Dic. of Hygiène’), is a list of
articles most commonly adulterated, with the names of the substances used
in their sophistication:——

  ACONITIA with other alkaloids, _e.g._, delphinia, aconella, &c.
  ALE, common salt, _Cocculus indicus_, grains of paradise, quassia,
      and other bitters, sulphate of iron, alum, &c.
  ALLSPICE, mustard husks.
  ANCHOVIES, other fish, and colouring matters, _e.g._, Armenian
      bole, Venetian red, &c.
  ANNATTO, all sorts of starch, soap, red ferruginous earths,
      carbonate and sulphate of lime, salts, &c.
  ARROWROOT, various other fecula, such as sago, tapioca, potato,
      and others.
  BALSAM OF COPAIBA, turpentine and fixed oils.
  BEEF (POTTED), Armenian bole.
  BISMUTH, carbonate of lead, sometimes arsenic (this latter is an
      impurity not intentional).
  BLOATERS (POTTED), Armenian bole.
  BRANDY, water, burnt sugar, &c.
  BREAD, potatoes (mashed), alum, inferior flour, &c., &c.
  BUTTER, water, salt, colouring matter, lard, tallow, and other
      fats.
  CAJUPUT OIL, copper, camphor dissolved in oil of rosemary, and
      coloured with copper as a substitute.
  CALAMINE, coloured sulphate of baryta.
  CALOMEL, sulphate of baryta, chalk, white precipitate, white lead,
      pipe-clay, &c., &c.
  CALUMBA, tinged bryony root, root of _Frasera Walteri_, and
      others.
  CAMBOGE, starch, &c.
  CAMPHOR, a substitution of Borneo camphor has been made.
  CANTHARIDES, golden beetle, artificially coloured glass, &c.
  CARBONATE OF LEAD, sulphate of baryta, sulphate of lead, chalk,
      &c., &c.
  CARMINE (COCHINEAL), sulphate of baryta, bone black, &c.
  CASSIA (SENNA), leaves of _Solenostemma argel_, and other foreign
      leaves.
  CASTOR OIL, other oils, often small quantities of croton oil.
  CAYENNE, ground rice, vermilion, Venetian red, turmeric.
  CHAMPAGNE, gooseberry and other wines as substitutes, different
      colouring matters, &c.
  CHEESE, annatto, bole (Armenian), and other colouring matters.
  CHICORY, colouring matters, such as ferruginous earths, and burnt
      sugar, Venetian red, &c., and different flours, such as wheat,
      rye, beans, &c., and sometimes sawdust.
  CIDER, lead (as an impurity, not intentional).
  CIGARS, substitutions of hay and other rubbish, inferior tobacco,
      leaves sometimes darkened by some brown vegetable dye.
  CINNAMON, cassia, clove stalks, and different flowers.
  CLARET, brandy, and substitution of inferior wines.
  CLOVES, clove stalks.
  COCOA AND CHOCOLATE, cheaper kinds of arrow-root, such as _Tous
      les mois_ and East Indian, animal matter, corn, sago, tapioca,
      &c.
  COFFEE, chicory, roasted wheat, rye flowers, and colouring
      matters, such as burnt sugar, &c.
  COD-LIVER OIL, other oils mixed with it.
  COLOCYNTH (COMPOUND EXTRACT OF), the extract is not unfrequently
      made with the pulp and seeds.
  CONFECTIONERY, injurious colouring matters, such as arsenite of
      copper, chromate of lead, &c.
  CONFECTION, AROMATIC (AROMATIC CHALK POWDER), expensive
      ingredients omitted, turmeric substituted for saffron, &c.,
      &c.
  COPAL, gum dammar, resin, &c.
  CURRY-POWDER, red lead, ground rice, salt.
  CUSPARIA BARK, the bark of _Strychnos Nux Vomica_ is said to have
      been substituted.
  CUSTARD AND EGG POWDER, turmeric, chrome yellow, and different
      flours.
  ELATERIUM, starch, flour, chalk, &c.
  EPSOM SALTS, chloride magnesium, chalk, &c.
  ETHER, alcohol.
  FLOUR, other and inferior flours, as the flour from rice, bean,
      Indian corn, potato, &c., sulphate of lime, alum.
  GELATINE, salt and sugar.
  GIN, water, sugar, capsicum, flavouring matters of different
      kinds, turpentine, alum, tartar.
  GINGER, turmeric, and husks of mustard, flour from wheat, sago,
      &c.
  GUAIACUM RESIN, other resins.
  HONEY, flour, cane sugar, &c.
  HOPS, _Cocculus indicus_, grains of paradise, &c., &c.
  IODIDE OF POTASSIUM, water, carbonate of potash, chlorides of soda
      and potash, iodate of potash, iodine, &c.
  IODINE, water, plumbago, charcoal, black oxide of manganese, &c.
  IPECAQUANHA, other roots, extraneous woody fibre; when in powder,
      chalk, flour, &c., have been added.
  ISINGLASS, gelatine.
  JALAP, raspings of guaiacum, false jalap root, &c.
  LARD, carbonate of soda, salt, potato, flour, and lime.
  LEMON JUICE, a mixture of sugar and water, acidulated with
      sulphuric acid, has been substituted.
  LIQUORICE, rice, chalk, gelatine, and different flours.
  MAGNESIA, MAGNESIA SULPHATE, lime, carbonate of magnesia.
  MAGNESIA, CARBONATE, lime, sulphate, &c., &c.
  MARMALADE, apple, or turnip pulp.
  MERCURY, lead, tin, zinc, bismuth, &c.
  MERCURY GREEN IODIDE OF, red iodide of
  MERCURY RED OXIDE OF, brick-dust, red lead, &c.
  MERCURY AMMONIATED (WHITE PRECIPITATE), chalk, carbonate of lead,
      plaster of Paris, &c., &c.
  MILK, water.
  MUSTARD, turmeric, wheat flour.
  MYRRH, gum bdellium, and other gum resins.
  OATMEAL, barley flour, rubble.
  OPIUM, stones, sand, clay, vegetable extracts, sugar, treacle,
      water, &c.
  PAREIRA ROOT, different roots substituted.
  PEPPER, linseed meal, different flours, mustard husks, &c.
  PICKLES, salts of copper, acetate of copper.
  PORTER AND STOUT, sugar, treacle, water and salt.
  POTASH, carbonate, sulphate, and chloride of potash, lime, iron,
      and alumina.
  POTASH, ACETATE OF, sulphates, and chlorides of potash.
  POTASH, CARBONATE OF, sulphates, and chlorides of potash.
  POTASH, BICARBONATE OF, carbonate of potash.
  POTASH, CITRATE OF, sulphates of potash.
  POTASH, CHLORATE OF, chloride of potassium.
  POTASH, TARTRATE OF, tartrate of lime.
  POTASH, NITRATE OF, sulphate or chloride of potassium.
  PRESERVES, salts of copper.
  QUININE, sulphate of lime, chalk, magnesia, cane-sugar, sulphate
      of cinchonine, &c.
  RHUBARB, turmeric, and inferior varieties substituted for Turkey.
  RUM, water, cayenne, burnt sugar.
  SAGO, potato flour.
  SAUCE, treacle, salt, cochineal, Armenian bole, and other
      colouring matters.
  SCAMMONY, chalk, starch, guaiacum, jalap, dextrin, &c.
  SENEGA, guiseng, gillenia.
  SENNA, leaves of _cynanchum argel._
  SHERRY, sulphates of potash, soda, brandy, burnt sugar, &c.
  SNUFF, carbonate of ammonia, glass, sand, colouring matter, &c.
  SODA, BICARBONATE, carbonate and sulphate of soda.
  SODA, CARBONATE, sulphate of soda.
  SODA, PHOSPHATE OF, phosphate of lime.
  SPICES, colouring materials, substitutions, and different flours.
  SQUILLS (POWDERED), wheat flour.
  SUGAR (MOIST), sand, flour, &c.
  SULPHUR, sulphurous acid (as an impurity).
  SULPHURIC ACID, lead, water, arsenic, hydrochloric acid, &c.
  TAPIOCA, mixing inferior starches with the pure tapioca.
  TEA, sand, iron filings, exhausted tea leaves, foreign leaves; and
      in green teas, black lead, Prussian blue, China clay.
  TOBACCO, inferior tobacco, water.
  TURMERIC, yellow ochre, carbonate of soda, or potash.
  UVA URSI (BEARBERRY LEAVES), leaves of red whortleberry, and
      others.
  VINEGAR, sulphuric acid, and metallic impurities.
  WINES, water, jerupiga, bitartrate of potash, substitution of
      inferior wines, brandy, spirits, and various other matters.
  ZINC, OXIDE OF, chalk, carbonate of magnesia.

“The Sale of Food and Drugs Act” has now supplemented several Acts which
were passed during the present century for the prevention of adulteration.
An Act prohibiting the mixture of injurious ingredients with intoxicating
liquors remains unrepealed, as do also one or two statutes relating to
trade frauds as for example the Adulteration of Seeds Act, 1809. These
latter have not been incorporated in “the Sale of Food and Drugs” Act.

=Æ= (ē). [L.] For words sometimes written with this initial diphthong, and
not found below, look under =E=.

=ÆGI′RINON= (-jī′-). [Gr.] See OINTMENT.

=ÆGYPTI′ACUM=† (-jĭp-tī′-). [Lat.] _Syn._ UNGUEN′TUM ÆGYPTIACUM, L. Oxymel
or liniment of verdigris. The name originated with Hippocrates, who is
said to have learned its composition in Egypt.

=ÆOL′IPILE= (-pĭle). A hollow ball of metal, having a slender neck with a
very small orifice, contrived to exhibit the conversion of water into
steam by the action of heat, and to account for the natural production of
winds. It was known to the ancients, is mentioned by Vitruvius, and was
studied by Descartes and others. It has been used in _surgery_ to produce
eschars, in the same cases as moxas; the effect of the steam being limited
by means of a piece of perforated pasteboard. When filled with alcohol,
and the jet of vapour inflamed, it is sometimes employed as a blowpipe. M.
Soyer used an apparatus of this kind to supply the heat in his portable
furnace. The liquid, however, which he employed was camphine.

=A′ER=, (ā′-ĕr). [L. prim. Gr.] Air.

=A′ERATED= (ā′-ĕr-rāte-ĕd). In _chemistry_, &c., impregnated with carbonic
acid. See ALKALI, LEMONADE, WATERS, MINERAL.

=AE′′RIAL= (ā-ēre′-e-ăl). Belonging to the air or atmosphere; produced by,
consisting of, depending on, or partaking of the nature of the air.

AERIFICA′TION (ā-ĕr-e-). _Syn._ AËRIFICA′TIO, L.; AÉRIFICATION,
GAZÉIFICATION, Fr. In _chemistry_, the conversion of a body into gas.

=A′ERIFORM= (ā′-ĕr-). _Syn._ AËRIFORM′IS, L.; AÉRIFORME, GAZÉIFORME, Fr.
LUFTFORMIG, &c., Ger. In _chemistry_, air-like, gaseous.

=AEROL′OGY.= _Syn._ AËROLO′GIA, L.; AÉROLOGIE, Fr., Ger. In _physics_, a
discourse or treatise of the air. In _physiology_ and _hygiène_, the
doctrine of the air, more especially with regard to its salubrity and
action on organised beings.

=AEROM′ETER.= _Syn._ AËROME′TRUM, L.; AÉROMÈTRE, Fr. An instrument used in
aërometry.

=AEROM′ETRY=. _Syn._ AËROME′TRIA, L.; AÉROMÉTRIE, Fr.; LUFTMESSKUNST, &c.,
Ger. In _chemistry_ and _physics_, the art of measuring gases, and of
determining their densities.

=AERONAUT′ICS.= _Syn._ AÉRONAUTIQUE, Fr. The art of sailing in, or of
navigating the air. See BALLOONS.

=AEROPHO′BIA.= [L.] _Syn._ AÉROPHOBIE, Fr. In _pathology_, a dread of air
(wind); a common symptom in hydrophobia, and occasionally present in
hysteria and phrenitis.

=AEROSTAT′ICS.= _Syn._ AÉROSTAT′ICA, L.; AÉROSTATIQUE, Fr. That branch of
pneumatics which treats of air, and other elastic fluids, in a state of
rest.

=AEROSTA′TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AËROSTA′TIO, L. The art of weighing the
air; aërial suspension and navigation. See BALLOONS.

=ÆRU′GO= (ē-). [L.] The rust of brass, bronze, or copper; verdigris.

=ÆSCULIN.= C_{21}H_{24}O_{13}. A crystalline fluorescent substance
existing in the bark of the horse-chestnut (_æsculus hippocastanum_) and
of other trees of the genera _Æsculus_ and _Paria_. In the above-named
sources Æsculin is associated with another fluorescent body called Pariin.

=Æ′′THER.= See ETHER.

=ÆITHE′′REA= (-thēré-). [L. pl.] Ethers.

=ÆSTHET′ICS= (ēz-). _Syn._ ÆSTHET′ICA, L. Medicines or agents which affect
sensation. See ANÆSTHETICS and HYPERÆSTHETICS.

=ÆTHIOPS.= See ETHIOPS.

=AFFEC′TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AFFEC′TIO, L. In _pathology_, a term
nearly synonymous with disease.

=AFFINITY.= _Syn._ CHEMICAL AFFINITY; AFFINITAS, L.; AFFINITÉ, Fr.;
VERWANDTSCHAFT, Ger. If oil and water be shaken together they produce no
change upon one another, as is proved by their separating into two layers
with their properties unaltered, when the mixture is allowed to remain at
rest for a short time. Such bodies are said, in chemical language, to have
no affinity for one another. If iodine and metallic mercury be rubbed
together in a mortar they will unite in definite proportions by weight,
and form a combination possessing properties totally distinct from those
of its constituents. Thus, iodine is a greyish, metallic-looking solid,
convertible into a violet vapour by heat, perceptibly soluble in water,
and capable of producing a blue compound with starch. Mercury is a
metallic, silvery-looking liquid. The product of their union (biniodide of
mercury) is a scarlet powder, destitute of metallic lustre, convertible
into vapour by heat, without the production of violet fumes, insoluble in
water, and incapable of developing a blue colour with starch. Again, the
greenish-yellow and intensely poisonous gas, chlorine, unites in definite
proportions by weight with the soft, wax-like, and highly poisonous metal
sodium to produce the white crystalline solid chloride of sodium (common
salt), a compound which, except in very large quantities, is not only not
poisonous, but actually beneficial to health.

Such combinations are called chemical compounds, and the force which binds
their constituents together is distinguished from all other attractive
forces by the term affinity or chemical affinity. Bodies united by
affinity are also said to have united chemically.

Affinity is in most cases exerted between different substances, in which
respect it resembles adhesion; but bodies united by adhesion, _e.g._ ink
to paper, paint to wood, &c., unlike those united by affinity, suffer no
change of properties.

Affinity is exerted at immeasurable distances, therefore substances to be
submitted to its influence must be brought into (apparently) actual
contact. This condition is frequently fulfilled by the vaporisation,
fusion, or solution of one or more of the bodies to be submitted to its
action.

In many instances substances which have no affinity for one another at
ordinary temperatures manifest this power when heated.

Whenever chemical union takes place, heat is invariably evolved;
conversely, the decomposition of a chemical compound is always accompanied
by an apparent loss of heat or reduction of temperature.

Finally, the most striking phenomena characteristic of, and accompanying,
chemical affinity are, development of heat, change of properties, and
union in definite or constant proportions by weight.

=AFFUSION.= In _chemistry_, the washing of a precipitate, &c., for the
purpose of removing soluble matters. In _medicine_, affusion is of three
kinds:——

1. _Lotions_, which consist in washing a part of the body with a sponge or
rag soaked in a liquid.

2. _Aspersions_, which consist in throwing a liquid drop by drop, like
rain, upon the body.

3. _Shower baths_, which consist in allowing a number of small streams of
water to fall from a height upon the surface of the body. If the water
fall from a considerable height, affusion is then termed _douche_ by the
French.

=AFT′ER-DAMP.= _Syn._ CHOKE-DAMP. Carbonic acid gas resulting from
explosion of air and fire-damp (light carbonetted hydrogen) in coal mines.

=AFT′ER-PAINS.= Those following childbirth. The only remedy is patience;
they may, however, be frequently alleviated by small doses of morphia or
liquor opii sedativus. Heated cloths and warm fomentations are sometimes
useful, particularly if assisted by moderate but sufficient pressure on
the abdomen, by means of a broad bandage. They seldom follow with severity
the first birth.

_Treatment for Animals._ Remove clots from parts, raise the hind-quarters.
Give clysters of linseed tea, lukewarm, and laudanum or belladonna
extract. Syringe out parts with Condy’s fluid considerably diluted. Give
internally belladonna, opium, or chloroform. Draw away milk.

=AFT′ER-WASH= (wŏsh). In the art of the distiller, the liquor in the still
after the spirit has been drawn over.

=AG′ARIC.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AGAR′ICUM, AGAR′ICUS, L.; BLÄTTERSCHWAMM,
PILZ, SCHWAMM, Ger. In _botany_, a genus of fungi, of numerous species,
embracing the mushrooms and champignons. Of these plants, some are edible;
others poisonous. The term is also commonly applied to the boletus found
on oaks (TOUCHWOOD), and on larches (MALE AGARIC). See MUSHROOMS.

=Fly-agaric.= _Syn._ FLY MUSH′ROOM; AGAR′ICUS MUSCA′′RIA, Linn.; AMANI′TA
M. One of the most narcotic and poisonous of our fungi, producing, in
small doses, intoxication and a pleasing species of delirium; for which
purpose it is commonly employed in Kamschatka. (Hooker.) It possesses the
singular property of imparting an intoxicating quality to the urine, which
continues for a long time after taking it. This secretion is, therefore,
commonly saved by the natives during a scarcity of the fungus. “Thus, with
a few amanitæ, a party of drunkards may keep up their debauch for a week;”
and the intoxication so produced is capable of “being propagated through
five or six individuals.” (Langsdorff.) Water in which it has been boiled
is poisonous; but the boiled fungus itself is inert. The liquid from it is
used as a fly-poison; whence the name mushroom is derived. It may be known
by its rich orange-red colour in autumn.

=AG′ATE= (-āte, -ĕt‡). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ACHA′TES (-kā′-tēz), L. A
semi-pellucid uncrystallised species of quartz, remarkable for its
hardness, variety of colour, and susceptibility of receiving a high
polish. It is an aggregate of various siliceous minerals, of which
chalcedony appears generally to be the base. Carnelian, jasper, amethyst,
and other similar minerals, often enter into its composition. The colours
are often delicately arranged in stripes, bands, or clouds. Those which
take an angular form, as the Scotch pebble, are called FORTIFICATION
AGATES. It is the least valuable of the precious stones, and is chiefly
made into rings, seals, beads, burnishers, &c., on account of its
hardness. Its powder is used for cleansing and polishing iron, brass, &c.,
and to sharpen edge-tools.

=AGEING LIQUOR.= Dissolve 3 lbs. of chlorate of potash in 4 galls. of
boiling water. Add 20 lbs. of powdered white arsenic to 20 lbs. of
solution of caustic soda at 60° Tw., and boil until the arsenic is
completely dissolved. Add the latter solution to the former, with
stirring, until the mixture stands at 28° Tw.

=AG′NAIL.= See WHITLOW.

=AGRYPNOT′ICS= (-grĭp-). _Syn._ ANTHYPNOT′ICS (-hĭp-); AGRYPNOT′ICA,
ANTHYPNOT′ICA, L. In _medicine_ and _pharmacology_, agents or substances
which prevent sleep; as tea, coffee, digitalis, vinegar, &c.

=A′GUE= (-gŭ). Ague may be defined as febrile phenomena occurring in
paroxysms, and observing a certain regular succession, characterised by
chill, abnormal heat, and unnatural cutaneous discharge, which prove to be
a temporary crisis and usher in a remission. These phenomena are developed
in an uninterrupted series or succession more or less regular, which pass
into each other by insensible stages. Ague is paludal fever, and has
always been observed to prevail in marshy moist districts, and in low,
swampy humid countries, in which seasons of considerable heat occur.

The neighbourhood of marshes, or of a district which has been at some
recent time under water; the banks of extensive lakes, and the shores of
rivers and seas where the water flows sluggishly, and in some places
stagnates; shallow rivers; extensive level tracts of forest land, where
moisture is always present; and the surface of the land constantly covered
with excavation from the ground,——these are the terrestrial physical
conditions, in which marsh and littoral fevers are almost universally to
be found, although it must be admitted that there are some marshy
districts in which the disease does not show itself.

In these latter localities the effects of the miasmatic poison, show
themselves in cholera or typhus. No precise knowledge of the nature and
source of this subtle poison which, in default of a better name we call
_malaria_, has yet been acquired; indeed it has yet to be proved that
_malaria_ has a distinct existence. Science has as yet been unable to
discover the presence of any poisonous principle in the air of ague on
other regions.

Ague may exist without any alteration of structure being set up; but in
the milder forms of this fever a greater number of organs and tissues are
morbidly altered than perhaps in any other form of disease. The parts so
affected are the liver, spleen, lungs, heart, brain, and the serous and
mucous membranes of the body generally. Within certain limits, the
specific action of the malarial poison may be said to be in the inverse
ratio of the intensity of the fever which attends its action. The
affections of the liver and spleen also vary greatly according to the
locality in which the patient is attacked; for instance, whilst in some
parts of India the spleen is the organ principally involved, in other
districts of the same continent it is the liver. In England, under proper
medical treatment, the patient usually recovers without any manifest
derangement either of structure or impairment of function of any organ or
tissue. The liver may, however, become affected if the patient suffering
from the disease has been neglected for any length of time.

Notwithstanding the opinions of Finke and Professor Colin, there appears
to be considerable ground for the supposition that ague may be caused by
drinking marsh and surface water. In an interesting paper on the ‘Indian
Annals’ for 1856, Mr Bettington, of the Madras Civil Service, says:——“It
is notorious that the water produces fever and affections of the spleen.”
In confirmation of this assertion, he brings forward what seems to be some
remarkably strong evidence. He cites cases of villages placed under the
same conditions as to marsh-air in some of which fevers were prevalent,
whilst in others they were absent; and he found on inquiry that whilst the
latter villages were supplied with pure water, the inhabitants of the
former had to drink marsh or mullah water, full of vegetable _débris_. In
one village there were two sources of supply——a spring and a tank, the
first fed by surface, and the other by marsh water. Those only who partook
of the tank water were attacked by fever. Again, in Tulliwaree the fever
was so universal that scarcely any inhabitant escaped it. In this village
Mr Bettington caused a well to be dug, and the result was that the fever
disappeared. Similar cases have occurred in this country. Twenty years ago
Mr Blower, of Bedford, directed the attention of medical men to a case
that occurred in a village, in which ague had nearly disappeared when a
well was dug; and to another instance which occurred in the village of
Houghton. In this parish almost the only family which escaped ague was
that of a farmer; the members of this family partook of well water; whilst
those who did not escape the disease drank ditch water.

In the ‘Indian Annals’ for 1867 is a paper by Dr Moore, confirming the
opinion that ague may be produced by the causes already stated, and M.
Commaille (‘Rec. de Mêm. de Med. Mil.,’ Nov., 1868) states that in
Marseilles, paroxysmal fevers, formerly unknown, have made their
appearance, since the water supply to that city has been drawn from the
Marseilles Canal.

In his report for 1870 Dr Townsend, the Sanitary Commissioner for the
central provinces of India, states that the natives of India hold an
opinion that the use of river and tank water during rainy seasons (when
the water always contains an increased quantity of vegetable matter) will
almost always cause ague. Boudin (‘Traité de Géographie et de Statistiques
Médicale,’ 1857, t. i, p. 142), records an extraordinary case. Eight
hundred soldiers, in good health, embarked in three vessels to pass from
Bona, in Algiers, to Marseilles, in the year 1834. They all arrived at
Marseilles the same day. In two vessels there were 680 men, without a
single sick one amongst them. In the third vessel, the Argo, there had
been 120 soldiers; 13 died during the short passage, and of the 107
survivors no less than 98 were disembarked suffering from all forms of
paludal fevers. We may presume that the diagnosis was correct, since
Boudin himself examined the men. When the vessels started the crew of the
Argo had not a single sick man aboard. The crew and soldiers of all the
boats were exposed to the same atmospheric conditions. The influence of
air must, therefore, be excluded. There is no mention of food, but it has
never been suggested that food has ever been concerned in the production
of malarious fever. It was a very different matter, however, with the
water supply. In two of the vessels the water was good, whilst the Argo
had been supplied with marsh water, which was offensive to the smell, as
well as unpalatable. This latter was supplied to the soldiers, whilst the
crew drank uncontaminated water. Amongst those who deny that marsh water
is the cause of ague must be quoted Professor Colin. The professor, who is
regarded as an authority on intermittent fever, in his work De l’Ingestion
des Eaux Marécageuse comme cause de la Dysenterie et des Fièvres
intermittentes,’ instances numerous cases in Algiers and Italy in which
impure marsh water gives rise to indigestion, diarrhœa, and dysentery, but
in no case to intermittent fever; and he states that in all his
observations he has never met with an instance of ague having such an
origin. Without contesting the case of the Argo, he views it with
considerable suspicion, and doubts whether Boudin is correct in his
details. Finke also states that, in Hungary and Holland, marsh-water is
daily drank without causing any ill-effects. The inhalation of the fumes
of oxide of zinc appears to produce in workers of this metal a variety of
ague termed by Shackrah “brass ague,” and by Dr Greenhow, “brass-founder’s
ague.” The symptoms of the malady are tightness and oppression of the
chest; with indefinite nervous sensations, followed by shivering, an
indistinct hot stage, and profuse perspiration. These attacks, however,
are not periodical.

It is open to doubt whether the malarious poison exists in the form of a
gas, for the observations of microscopists go to show the extreme
minuteness of the germs of disease, which are probably not more than
1/70000th of an inch in size, and it is regarded as probable that the real
cause of ague is the entry into the circulation of some low forms of
spores of fungi, or of some minute animalcules. Ague is always to be met
with in places where fungi grow, and is always associated with what
Pettenkofer calls “the ground air”——that is, the air contained in the
interstices of the soil, no inconsiderable volume of which is drawn into
every house which has a fire on the floor which rests on the earth. That
animalcules (?) may exist in the blood is evidenced by the discovery of Dr
Lewis, who found hair-like worms in the circulation; and whilst
considering this point, we must bear in mind that the remedial agents
employed to check ague, quinine, arsenic, &c., are drugs capable of
destroying animal life, and it is not impossible that they may exercise a
beneficial effect in destroying the spores or animalcules to which the
disease may be due.

The best means to be employed to combat malarial fevers in any district
are thorough and efficient drainage (and it must be remembered that
drainage purifies both the ground-air and the ground water) and a supply
of wholesome water free from decomposing vegetable matter.

That the adoption of the above means cannot fail to succeed is
incontestably proved by the fact, that during the last 200 years, ague in
England has diminished to a wonderful extent, in short, as good drainage
and a pure water supply have prevailed, there has been a proportionate
diminution of paludal poisoning.

During the protectorate of Cromwell great mortality prevailed in London,
from the ravages of ague; at that time London was as swampy as the fens of
Lincolnshire. See FEVER (Intermittent).

=Ague-cake.= The popular name of a tumour felt under the false ribs on the
left side, formed by enlargement and induration of the spleen, following
protracted ague; also, sometimes, of indurations of the liver following
ague.

=Ague-drop.= See DROPS.

=Ague-salt= (sŏlt). Disulphate of quinine.

=Ague-tree.= Sassafras.

=Ague-weed.= The herb thorough-wort (‘Eupato′′rium perfolia′tum,’ Linn.).

=AIG′REMORE= (ĕg′r-mor). [Fr.] Pulverised charcoal in the state it is used
to make gunpowder.

[Illustration: Attelettes from Soyer.]

=AIGUILLETTE= (ATTELETTE). [Fr.] In _cookery_, a term applied to several
small dishes, from the articles of which they consist being mounted on
silver needles, or skewers, with ornamental handles or tops. (See _engr._)
They form one of the varieties of the ‘hors-d’œuvres’ of Soyer; and are
commonly served on a napkin. The skewers should be about four inches long,
and of the thickness of an ordinary packing needle. The person eating what
is served on them takes the head of the skewer between the thumb and
fingers of the left hand, and picks it off with his fork. Those noticed by
Soyer are——

=Aiguillettes à l’Éperlan= (_smelts_);

=Aiguillettes aux Huitres= (_oysters_);

=Aiguillettes de Filets de Sole= (_soles_);

=Aiguillettes de Homard= (_lobsters_);

=Aiguillettes de Langue de Bœuf= (_ox-tongue_);

=Aiguillettes de Ris de Veau= (_sweetbread of veal_);

=Aiguillettes de Volaille à la Jolie Fille= (_fowl_);——

all of which are prepared in a nearly similar manner, merely varying the
sauces, &c., to suit the article and palate. See ATTELETTES,
HORS-D’ŒUVRES, &c.

=AHORNZUCKER= (genuine American maple sugar). For coughs, hoarseness, and
all affections of the throat and chest caused by cold. The raw maple sugar
as imported. (Hager.)

=AILANTHUS.= The inner bark of the _ailanthus glandulosa_, a common tree
growing in northern China, said by Dr Dudgeon to have proved very
successful in dysentery.

The _ailanthus glandulosa_ is also well known throughout the United
States. Professor Hétet, of Toulon, tried the effect of the powdered bark,
leaves, and various preparations of the bark or drugs, with the result of
their administration being attended with purgative effect——and the
discharge of worms.

The powdered bark has been given in small cases of tape-worm in the human
subject, with marked success. The dose of the powder found sufficient for
the expulsion of the tapeworm was from seven or eight to thirty grains.

=AIL′MENT.= Pain, indisposition; disease. Its use is generally restricted
to the non-acute, and milder forms of disease.

=AIR.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ Aer, L. (from αηρ Gr.); LUFT, Ger.; ATMOSPHERIC
AIR; THE ATMOSPHERE. This name was formerly given to any aëriform body;
thus, by the old chemists ammoniacal gas was called alkaline air;
oxygen,——dephlogisticated, vital, or empyreal air; carbonic anhydride
(carbonic acid), fixed air; hydrogen, inflammable air; heavy carbonetted
hydrogen, olefiant gas, heavy inflammable air; nitrogen,——mephitic,
phlogisticated, or nitrous air. At the present time the term air is
usually restricted to the gaseous envelope surrounding the solid and
liquid parts of our globe.

=Air, Atmospheric= (or simply, The Air). The air chiefly consists of a
mechanical mixture of four volumes of nitrogen and one volume of oxygen,
or more accurately——

             By volume.   By weight.
  Nitrogen      79·1        76·8
  Oxygen        20·9        23·2
               —————       —————
               100         100[12]

[Footnote 12: At a meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences, held on the
31st of December, 1877, it was announced that M. Cailletet had succeeded
in liquefying atmospheric air.]

We may premise our description of the functions of the constituents of the
atmosphere by the following quotation from Mr Blyth’s ‘Dictionary of
Hygiène and Public Health’:——“One of the most important properties of air
is its power of penetration and its universality. Air is, indeed, present
everywhere; there is scarcely a solid, however compact it may appear to
be, which does not contain pores, and these pores filled with air. The
soil contains no small quantity; indeed, if it were not so the numberless
insects, worms, &c., which burrow in its interstices would cease to exist.
The most compact mortar and walls are penetrated with it, and water of
natural origin contains a large quantity of air in solution. The
atmosphere is supposed to extend to a very great height, from 200 to 300
miles; it used to be considered only five (forty-five) miles high, but
observations on shooting stars, &c., show that this opinion is erroneous.
Owing to the force of gravity, the air is much denser near the earth, and
gets more attenuated layer by layer as you ascend. If, then, the
atmosphere were possessed of colour, it would be very dark just round the
globe, and the tint would gradually fade into space. The air is by no
means wholly gaseous; it contains, indeed, an immense amount of life, and
small particles derived from the whole creation. In the air may be found
animalcules, spores, seeds, pollen cells of all kind, vibriones, elements
of contagion, eggs of insects, &c., and a few fungi, besides formless
dust, sandy, and other particles of local origin; for example, no one can
ride in a railway carriage without being accompanied with dust, a great
portion of which is attracted by a magnet, and is, indeed, minute
particles of iron derived from the rails. The purest air has some dust in
it. There probably never fell a beam of light from the sun since the world
was made which did not show, were there eyes to see it, myriads of motes;
these, however, generally speaking, are quite innocuous to man——some,
indeed, may possibly be beneficial. Another most important property of air
is its mobility; on the calmest day and in the quietest room there are
constant currents of air which rapidly dilute any noxious odours of
gases.”

The chief functions of the oxygen are to maintain respiration and support
combustion, while the office of the nitrogen is to dilute the oxygen and
control its energy.

Besides nitrogen and oxygen, aqueous vapour, carbonic anhydride, ammonia,
and nitric acid are met with in the atmosphere, the last especially during
and shortly after thunder storms.

Although, doubtless owing to local conditions, trifling variations may
occur in the proportion of oxygen present in the atmosphere, this
variation is so trifling that the difference of the amount in air from
places separated by very long distances will be found in the second
decimal place only; thus, whilst a portion of air taken during a balloon
ascent by Mr Green gave on analysis 20·88 per cent. by vol., Dr Frankland
found in air collected by himself on the summit of Mont Blanc 20·96 per
cent. by vol. A still nearer approximation in uniformity in the amount of
oxygen present in atmospheric air is exhibited in the following table,
which gives the results of 95 analyses by Regnault on air obtained from
nine different localities:——

  100 from Paris gave in 100
      parts, by vol. of oxygen    20·913 to 20·999
  9   from Lyons and around
      gave in 100 parts, by vol.
      of oxygen                   20·918 to 20·966
  30  from Berlin gave in 100
      parts, by vol. of oxygen    20·908 to 20·998
  10  from Madrid gave in 100
      parts, by vol. of oxygen    20·916 to 20·982
  23  from Geneva and Switzerland
      gave in 100 parts,
      by vol. of oxygen           20·909 to 20·993
  15  from Toulon and Mediterranean
      gave in 100
      parts, by vol. of oxygen    20·912 to 20·982
  5   from Atlantic Ocean gave
      in 100 parts, by vol. of
      oxygen                      20·918 to 20·965
  1   from Ecuador gave in 100
      parts, by vol. of oxygen              20·960
  2   from Pichincha gave in
      100 parts, by vol. of
      oxygen                      20·949 to 20·981
                                  ------    ------
  Mean of all foregoing           20·949    20·988
    ”  of the Paris specimens     20·96

Vapour of water is essential to the respiration of animals and plants, in
order that the organs concerned in this operation may be kept in a soft
and moist condition.

Carbonic anhydride is evolved during combustion, putrefaction, and
fermentation; it is also a product of the respiration of animals, and
highly poisonous to them, even when diluted with large proportions of air.
This gas is, however, greedily absorbed by plants, which decompose it;
they assimilate the carbon and return the oxygen to the atmosphere, ready
to be again consumed in supporting the life of the animal world.

Dr Angus Smith has defined a very pure air to be one that contains with
20·99 per cent. of oxygen 0·30 of carbonic acid (anhydride).

This latter varies in amount in the atmosphere of cities, as will be seen
upon inspection of the subjoined table, extracted from Dr Smith’s work
‘Air and Rain’:——

                                                                Per cent.
  Air of Madrid, outside the walls, mean of 12 analyses, by Luna  ·045
  Mean of 12 analyses, within the walls of Madrid, by Luna        ·051
  Mean of 14 analyses, by Angus Smith, in Manchester suburbs      ·369
  In Manchester streets                                           ·403
  Usual weather                                                   ·0403
  During fogs                                                     ·0679

De Saussure’s analyses show that there is more carbonic acid on the
mountains than in the plains, as might be inferred from the comparative
absence of vegetation in elevated positions. Dr Pietra Santa states that
the air of hills or mountains, at the height of 2300 feet, is lighter than
common air, contains a smaller proportion of oxygen, and is impregnated
with a largely increased amount of aqueous vapour. It also contains a
large quantity of ozone. He considers such a climate peculiarly soothing
to persons suffering from chest diseases.

Dr Angus Smith’s analysis of the air from the mountainous districts of
Scotland confirms the above statement of Dr Pietra Santa’s. The heaths and
mountains of that country are remarkably healthy localities, and the air
from them gave on analysis 20·94 per cent. by vol. of oxygen, and only
·033 of carbonic acid.

Ammonia is derived from the putrefaction of animal and vegetable
substances. It is from atmospheric ammoniacal compounds that plants obtain
much of the nitrogen which is essential to the formation of many parts of
their structure.

Nitric acid, like ammonia, is absorbed, and its nitrogen assimilated, by
plants.

In addition to the gases and vapours already enumerated, as well as others
which exist in minute quantity, or which are of only occasional
occurrence, Pasteur and other investigators have discovered in the air
living germs which are capable of exciting putrefaction and fermentation,
and which are competent, in some instances, to engender disease when they
are injected into the blood of animals. In fact, the spread of infectious
diseases, _e.g._, smallpox, typhus fever, cattle plague, &c., is
attributed to the presence in the atmosphere of the germs of such
maladies. These germs are believed to be living beings, which develope and
multiply at the expense of the tissues of the larger animals into whose
systems they have found entrance.

=Air, Vitiated.= As has been stated in the previous article, the air
consists chiefly of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen. In all open places it
has a similar composition, as might be concluded from the constant
mingling which takes place by the agency of currents continually in
movement, although sometimes to an inconsiderable extent only. Dr Angus
Smith regards air as very pure when it contains not less than 20·99 per
cent. by volume of oxygen, and 0·030 of carbonic anhydride (acid).
According as the proportion of the former gas diminishes and that of the
latter increases beyond certain limits in the air by which we are
surrounded, it becomes more or less deteriorated and unfit to be breathed,
particularly as the increased amount of carbonic acid is, in crowded
dwellings, assembly rooms, theatres, and confined inhabited spaces,
associated with deleterious and putrescent exhalations from the person.

        _The following tables exhibit the amount of carbonic
        acid in close places in London._

                                                            Per-centage
                     =I.=                                    by volume.
  Chancery Court, closed doors, 7 feet from the ground,
      March 3                                                  ·193
  Same, 3 feet from ground                                     ·203
  Chancery Court, doors wide open, 4 feet from ground,
      11·40, March 5                                           ·0507
  Same, 12·40 p.m., 5 feet from ground                         ·045
  Strand Theatre, gallery, 10 p.m.                             ·101
  Surrey Theatre, boxes, March 7, 10·30 p.m.                   ·218
  Olympic, 11·30 p.m.                                          ·0817
  Same, 11·55 p.m.                                             ·1014
  Victoria Theatre, boxes, March 24, 10 p.m.                   ·126
  Haymarket Theatre, dress circle, March 18, 11·30 p.m.        ·0757
  Queen’s Ward, St. Thomas’s Hospital, 3·25 p.m.               ·052
  Edward’s Ward, St. Thomas’s Hospital, 3·30 p.m.              ·052
  Victoria Theatre, boxes, April 4.                            ·076
  Effingham, 10·30 p.m., April 9, Whitechapel                  ·126
  Pavilion, 10·11 p.m., April 9, Whitechapel                   ·152
  City of London Theatre, pit, 11·15 p.m., April 16            ·252
  Standard Theatre, pit, 11 p.m., April 16                     ·320

Dr Angus Smith states that out of 339 specimens of air obtained from
various mines he found 35 normal or nearly so, 81 decidedly impure, and
212 exceedingly bad; he also adds that owing to the frequent firing of
charges of gunpowder within the mines, and from other causes, the
atmosphere is further contaminated with sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphate,
carbonate, sulphide, sulphocyanide of potassium, and nitrate of potassium,
carbon, sulphur, carbonate of ammonia, organic matter, sand, and
sulphurous and arsenious acids.

The air of large cities, which are the seats of manufacturing industry, is
always more or less charged with the exhalations given off by chemical and
other works. The sulphuric-acid works contribute sulphuric, sulphurous,
nitrous, and arsenious acids; copper works, in which pyrites is employed,
give off large quantities of sulphurous acid, mixed with arsenic and a
little copper; manure works, in many cases, send out compounds of
fluorine, besides sulphuric acid; glass works, sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids; and alkali works, hydrochloric acid (although in small quantities),
which very frequently contains arsenic. Of ammonia, Angus Smith remarks:
“It is one measure of the ‘sewage’ of the air; it is the result of
decomposition. It is not, in these small quantities, hurtful, so far as we
know. The ammonia is in no case free, but combined probably with
hydrosulphuric, hydrochloric, and sulphuric acid in towns. In country
places it is, at all events partly, united to carbonic acid.

        II. _London Air.——Carbonic Acid, Metropolitan Railway,
        November, 1869._

  +--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+
  |        |                            |            |Carbonic | Oxygen, |
  | Date.  |          Place.            |Time of Day.|  Acid,  |per cent.|
  |        |                            |            |per cent.|         |
  +--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+
  | 1869.  |Tunnel between Gower Street |            |         |         |
  |Nov. 12.|and King’s Cross Stations;  |  10 a.m.   |  ·150   |  20·60  |
  |        |specimen taken at the open  |            |         |         |
  |        |window, first-class         |            |         |         |
  |        |carriage.                   |            |         |         |
  |        |                            |            |         |         |
  | ”   12.|Tunnel between Gower Street |            |         |         |
  |        |and King’s Cross Stations;  | 7·30 p.m.  |  ·078   |  20·79  |
  |        |specimen taken at the open  |            |         |         |
  |        |window, first-class         |            |         |         |
  |        |carriage.                   |            |         |         |
  |        |                            |            |         |         |
  | ”   12.|Tunnel Praed Street;        |            |         |         |
  |        |specimen taken at the open  | 10·30 a.m. |   ...   |  20·71  |
  |        |window, first-class         |            |         |         |
  |        |carriage.                   |            |         |         |
  |        |                            |            |         |         |
  | ”   15.|Specimen taken during       |            |         |         |
  |        |journey between Gower Street| 10·15 a.m. |  ·338   |  20·66  |
  |        |and King’s Cross,           |            |         |         |
  |        |first-class carriage, window|            |         |         |
  |        |open.                       |            |         |         |
  |        |                            |            |         |         |
  | ”   15.|Same                        |   3 p.m.   |  ·155   |  20·70  |
  |        |                            |            |         |         |
  | ”   15.|Same                        |  11 p.m.   |  ·150   |  20·74  |
  |        |                            |            |         |         |
  +--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+
  |        |Average                     |            |  ·1452  |  20·70  |
  +--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+
                                                          ANGUS SMITH.

        _The Air of Mines_ (_Metalliferous_).

  +-------------+---------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
  |Name of Mine,|Description of place,|Thermo-|Number |Oxygen,|Carbonic|
  |and depth    |where taken and time |meter, |of Men | per   | Acid,  |
  |from surface,|when taken.          |Fahr.  |working| cent. |  per   |
  |in fathoms.  |                     |       |in it. |       |  cent. |
  +-------------+---------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
  |             |                     |       |       |       |        |
  |    Hurst    |End, 300 ft. beyond  |  ...  |   2   |  ...  |  1·99  |
  |             |a rise, 9 ft. high,  |       |       |       |        |
  |             |7 ft. wide.          |       |       |       |        |
  |             |                     |       |       |       |        |
  |   Old Gang  |End of level         |  ...  |   2   | 20·58 |   ·48  |
  |             |                     |       |       |       |        |
  |     ”       |End of level         |  ...  |   2   |  ...  |   ·28  |
  |             |                     |       |       |       |        |
  |     ”       |(_a_) Rise 7 ft.     |  ...  |   2   | 20·25 |   ·39  |
  |             |high, 132 ft. from   |       |       |       |        |
  |             |current.             |       |       |       |        |
  |             |                     |       |       |       |        |
  | Grassington |(_b_) End of cross   |  ...  |   2   | 20·94 |   ·06  |
  |             |cut, 480 ft. from    |       |       |       |        |
  |             |rise.                |       |       |       |        |
  |             |                     |       |       |       |        |
  |     ”       |End, 480 ft. from    |  ...  |   2   | 19·53 |  1·59  |
  |             |rise.                |       |       |       |        |
  |             |                     |       |       |       |        |
  |     ”       |Rise 60 ft. high in  |  ...  |   2   | 19·52 |  1·72  |
  |             |shale.               |       |       |       |        |
  |             |                     |       |       |       |        |
  |     ”       |End, 60 ft. from     |  ...  |   2   | 20·47 |  1·06  |
  |             |rise.                |       |       |       |        |
  |             |                     |       |       |       |        |
  |     ”       |(_c_)End, 840 ft.    |  ...  |   2   | 20·08 |   ·94  |
  |             |from rise.           |       |       |       |        |
  +-------------+---------------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+
  (_a_) Air machine.
  (_b_) Unusual amount of dust.
  (_c_) Crystals were chiefly hexagons.
                                                  ANGUS SMITH.

The following table, showing the amount of ammonia present in rain
collected at the different places named, is from Dr Smith’s work, ‘Air and
Rain.’

          COMPARATIVE.                           AMMONIA.

  That of Valentia (Ireland) taken as 1 or 100.

  Ireland, Valentia                                 ·1
  Scotland, sea-coast, country places, west        2·69
  Scotland, inland, country places, west           2·96
  Scotland, sea-coast, country places, average     4·10
  Scotland, sea-coast, country places, east        5·51
  England, inland, country places, east            5·94
  England, sea-coast, country places, west        10·55
  German specimens                                10·61
  London, 1869                                    19·17
  Scotland, towns (Glasgow not included)          21·22
  St. Helen’s                                     25·33
  Runcorn                                         25·72
  England, towns                                  28·67
  Liverpool                                       29·89
  Manchester, 1869                                35·33
  Manchester, 1869 and 1870, average              35·94
  Manchester, 1870                                36·54
  Glasgow                                         50·55

The effects resulting from breathing an impure atmosphere are necessarily
dependent upon the extent of the pollution and other conditions. When the
contamination is moderate the first effect is headache, accompanied with
lassitude, and a general paleness of the face and skin, owing to a
diminution of the red corpuscles of the blood or to their imperfect
aëration; the pulse becomes lowered, and at the same time the breathing is
accelerated. When in addition to breathing such air from day to day is
superadded the misfortune of an insufficiency of food, scrofula and
consumption very often follow. Dr Guy has demonstrated the great mortality
that is caused by consumption in those trades in which workmen pursue
their calling in hot, close, gas-lit rooms, in comparison with those who
pass most of their time in the open air. The amount of air required by
each person in a room is no less than 2100 feet per hour; when the
ventilation does not supply this amount of fresh air, the apartment smells
stuffy, the furniture becomes coated with a film of organic matter, unless
constantly cleaned, and the carbonic acid becomes increased beyond its
normal quantity.

Dr Parkes has shown that bronchitis and consumption are more frequently
than not contracted by those who live in an atmosphere of foul air. In the
years 1834 to 1847 the proportion of deaths in the ill-ventilated prison
of Leopoldstadt in Vienna was 86 per 1000, out of which number 51·4 per
1000 was due to phthisis or consumption; while in the well-ventilated
House of Correction in the same city the deaths were 14 per 1000, of which
7·9 were from phthisis; hence 43·5 cases per 1000 of the deaths were
clearly traceable to foul air and nothing else.

Mr Noel Hartley, in his valuable little manual, ‘Water, Air, and
Disinfectants,’ says: “During the outbreak of cattle plague in 1866, in
sheds containing twenty to thirty cows——which the owners kept closed to
such an extent that all chinks in the doors and windows were stuffed with
straw and matting, under an ignorant belief that thus the plague could be
kept out——very frequently the entire stock died in two or three days after
the first appearance of disease; while in other cases where animals were
housed in a well-cleaned and tidily-kept shed, with a plentiful supply of
fresh air, not only did some of them escape the disease altogether, but
the deaths were reduced to one third of the number of beasts attacked.”

The large supply of fresh air necessary in hospitals for contagious
diseases is fully recognised by medical men, and more especially so in
America. Wounds carefully protected from contact with impure air do not
suppurate, and organic fluids do not putrefy. On the other hand, in a bad
atmosphere sores become unhealthy, and are difficult to heal, erysipelas
and hospital gangrene frequently set in, while the best prevention and the
best means of cure for such afflictions is the greatest possible exposure
to fresh air.

Vitiated air, as a consequence of over-crowding, aids the spread of
measles, scarlet fever, and the much to be dreaded smallpox; it brings on
ophthalmia, a troublesome inflammation of the eyes, and is not
unfrequently the cause of the ricketty and scrofulous condition of
children. Although exposure to cold does cause such affections as
bronchitis, pneumonia, cold in the head, sore throat, and other affections
of the respiratory organs, it is more frequently the case that they are
the result of a sudden change of temperature, such as experienced in
coming out of a crowded assembly in a close, badly-ventilated building,
than by actually cold weather. This is decidedly and strikingly shown by
the fact which Dr de Chaumont has quoted, that the British Army when in
the Crimea, when lodged in tents during extremely rigorous weather,
experienced a wonderful condition of health, such a thing as a cold being
an unknown complaint; but when some of the men were placed in huts which
were much warmer, and into which there was a smaller circulation of fresh
air, the sick rate increased, and coughs and colds began to put in an
appearance. Persons who during summer and winter sleep with their windows
more or less open cannot endure a night spent in the chamber with the
chimney closed and the window shut. A less refreshing sleep occupies the
night, and a somewhat feverish sensation is felt next morning.

If in cold weather the window be opened only one inch at the top, the
difference in the air in the bedroom is something quite beyond
comprehension to those who have not paid attention to these things. See
VENTILATION.

=Air, Analysis of.= Priestley’s discovery of oxygen gas in 1774 prepared
the way for the knowledge of the real composition of air, which was
discovered about the same time by Scheele and Lavoisier. Scheele’s method
of operating was by exposing some atmospheric air to a solution of
sulphide of potassium. Lavoisier effected the same object by the
combustion of iron wire and phosphorus, and subsequently by heating
mercury on a flask filled with air for some time, just below its boiling
point.

These, however, were but elementary methods, which, however creditable to
the ingenuity of the great founders of modern chemistry, not only failed
in accuracy, but took no account of the presence and amount of two most
important constituents in the atmosphere, viz. carbonic anhydride (acid)
and ammonia.

_Determination of Aqueous Vapour._ To effect this an aspirator must be
used (see ASPIRATOR). This instrument is easily made, and is not
expensive. The accompanying figure will illustrate the arrangement
generally adopted: _a_ is an aspirator made of galvanised iron or sheet
zinc. It holds from 50 to 200 litres (from 11 to 44 gallons). By this
means a known volume of air is drawn through the tubes marked _b_, _c_,
_d_, _e_, which may be filled with pumice-stone moistened with strong
sulphuric acid; but if the carbonic acid is to be estimated as well, _b_
and _c_ are filled with moist hydrate of lime (potash used to be employed,
but hydrate of lime is to be preferred, as the potash absorbs oxygen), and
_d_ and _e_ as above. Each of the tubes is accurately weighed previously
to connecting them with the apparatus.

[Illustration]

It is imperative to have each of the tubes connected by perfectly
air-tight joints. The gain of weight in _d_ and _e_ gives the water in _b_
and _c_ the carbonic acid.

_Determination of Carbonic Acid._ A better and perhaps more exact means of
determining the carbonic acid is that invented by PETTENKOFER. It may be
briefly described as follows:——Baryta water of definite strength is
prepared and accurately standardised by a standard solution of oxalic
acid. A portion of this baryta water is then made to act upon a definite
quantity of air. It will absorb the whole of the carbonic acid in that
air.

The alkalinity of the liquid will in consequence be diminished; it will
take less of the oxalic-acid solution than before, which shows so much
less caustic baryta, and from which the carbonic acid absorbed may be
easily calculated.

_The actual Analysis._ Two kinds of baryta water may be used, the one
containing 7 grammes to the litre, the other three times that strength; 1
c. c. of the stronger = 3 m. grms. of carbonic acid; 1 c. c. of the weaker
= 1 m. grm. The baryta water is best kept in the bottle represented below.

[Illustration]

The bottle (_a_) contains the baryta water. It has an accurately-fitting
double-perforated stoppered caoutchouc. The left-hand tube is connected
with the tube (_b_) containing pumice-stone moistened with potash, while
the right-hand one is a syphon. When required for use the stop-cock (_f_)
is opened, and suction applied by a glass tube to F. The syphon is thus
filled and the stop-cock closed. If a pipette is required to be filled its
nozzle is inserted at F, the stop-cock compressed, and the fluid
immediately rises into the pipette.

The air entering the bottle as the fluid decreases in _a_ is, of course,
thoroughly deprived of its carbonic acid by the tubes at _b_.

The first thing to be done is to standardise the baryta solution by a
solution of oxalic acid, containing 2·8636 grammes of crystallised oxalic
acid to the litre.

Thirty c. c. of baryta solution are run into a small flask, and the oxalic
acid run in from a Mohr’s burette with float, the vanishing-point of the
alkaline reaction being ascertained by delicate turmeric paper. As soon as
a drop placed on turmeric paper does not give a brown ring the end is
attained.

The actual analysis is performed by filling a bottle of known capacity,
with the aid of a pair of bellows, with the air to be analysed, then
distributing over its sides 45 c. c. of the baryta water it is left for
half an hour. The turbid water is poured into a cylinder, closely secured,
and allowed to deposit; then take out 30 c. c. by a pipette of the clear
fluid, run in the solution of oxalic acid, multiply the volume used by
1·5, and deduct the produce from the c. c. of oxalic acid used for 45 c.
c. of the fresh baryta water. A different method has been suggested by Dr
Angus Smith, viz. to measure the carbonic anhydride by the turbidities of
the baryta water; this is, in fact, a colorimetric test. For rough
approximative results Dr Smith’s process will be found a very useful and
convenient one. It depends upon the fact that the amount of carbonic acid
in a given quantity of air will not produce a precipitate in a given
quantity of lime or baryta water unless the carbonic acid is in excess.
The following is one of his tables:——Columns 1 and 2 give the rates of
carbonic acid in the quantity of air which will produce no precipitate in
half an ounce of lime water. Column 3 is the same as column 2; but 14·16
c. c. (half an ounce) is added to give the corresponding size of the
bottle, and column 4 gives the size of the bottle in ounces.

        To be used when the point of observation is “no
        precipitate.” Half an ounce of baryta water contains
        about ·08 gramme of baryta.

        Air at 0° C. and 760 millims. Bar.

  Carbonic Acid  Volume of   Size of bottle  Size of bottle
   in the Air,  Air in cubic    in cubic       in ounces
    per cent.   centimètres.  centimètres.    Avoirdupois.

      ·03           185           199            7·06
      ·04           139           154            5·42
      ·05           111           125            4·44
      ·06            93           107            3·78
      ·07            79            93            3·31
      ·08            70            84            2·96
      ·09            62            76            2·69
      ·10            56            70            2·46
      ·11            51            65            2·29
      ·12            46            60            2·14
      ·13            43            57            2·01
      ·14            40            54            1·90
      ·15            37            51            1·81
      ·20            28            42            1·48
      ·25            22            36            1·29
      ·30            19            33            1·16
      ·40            14            28            1·04
      ·50            11            25             ·89
      ·60             9            23             ·89
      ·70             8            22             ·78
      ·80             6            20             ·72
     1·00             5·5          19·7           ·70

Mr Wanklyn’s process for the determination of carbonic acid in the
atmosphere is as follows:——A solution of carbonate of soda is first made
as follows: 4·47 grammes of gently-ignited carbonate of soda are dissolved
in one litre of water, giving a solution of such a strength that 1 c. c.
contains exactly 1 c. c. of carbonic acid (= 1·97 milligrammes of CO_{2});
a large quantity of baryta water (strength about 0·1 per cent.) is
prepared.

If now 100 c. c. of clear baryta water be treated with 1 c. c. of
carbonate of soda, just described, a certain degree of turbidity is
produced.

If 2 c. c. of the solution be taken another degree of turbidity is
produced, and so on. If, then, a bottle capable of holding 2000 c. c. of
air, together with 100 c. c. of baryta water, be filled with the sample of
air to be tested, there will be a certain depth of turbidity produced by
shaking it up. Having got the air to expend itself on 100 c. c. of baryta
water the degree is to be found by comparison with another 100 c. c. of
baryta water, in which a like turbidity has been induced by means of the
standard solution of carbonate.

Every c. c. of soda solution counts for a c. c. of carbonic acid in two
litres of air. A consumption of 1 c. c. will correspond to ·05 volumes of
carbonic acid per cent. Good air should accordingly not take more than 1
c. c. of soda solution, air which takes already 2 c. c. being already bad.

In order practically to carry out this method of estimating carbonic acid
the following apparatus is required:——Several bottles capable of holding
2·210 c. c., and well stoppered (failing bottles of exactly the right
capacity Winchester quart bottles will answer); a small pair of bellows;
several colourless glass cylinders marked at 100 c. c. capacity——the
Nesslerising cylinders will answer for this purpose——a graduated pipette
or burette to deliver tenths of a c. c. of solution, the standard solution
of carbonate of soda, and the baryta water, which may be of moderate
strength.

The testing is managed thus: Winchester quart bottles having been made
clean are rinsed with distilled water, and allowed to drain a little. They
are then closed with their stoppers, and are ready for use. The operator
having provided himself with two or three of these bottles and a small
pair of bellows enters the room the air of which is to be tested. The
stopper is then removed from one of the bottles, and some air of the room
blown through with the bellows, and then the stopper is replaced, and the
bottle carried away to be tested.

The testing is done by pouring into the bottle 100 c. c. of clear baryta
water, shaking up for two or three minutes, and then pouring out into a
cylinder of colourless glass, and observing the depth of the turbidity in
various lights and against various backgrounds. The turbidity is to be
exactly imitated by means of the standard solution of carbonate of soda.
In order to imitate the turbidity produced by a Winchester quart full of
good air only 1 c. c. of this solution of carbonate of soda is required.

If 2 c. c. or more than 2 are required, the air is bad and the ventilation
is defective.

In place of the first c. c. of solution of carbonate of soda the carbonic
acid naturally present in a Winchester quart of good average air may be
used, and a little practice and intelligence will suggest the necessary
precautions.

_Estimation of the Oxygen._——To determine this Angus Smith has recourse to
the endiometer. Five or six of Bunsen’s endiometers were used at once and
the mixed gases were exploded by means of a powerful battery and a
Ruhumkorff’s coil. In his ‘Inorganic Chemistry,’ Miller thus explains the
principle upon which the action of the endiometer is based: “By means of
the endiometer various gaseous mixtures may be analysed with great
exactness. Many different forms of this instrument are in use. One of the
most convenient is Hoffmann’s. It consists of a stout syphon tube. (See
next figure.) Into the sides of the tube, near the sealed end, two
platinum wires (_a_, _b_) are fixed for the purpose of transmitting an
electric spark through the cavity of the tube. The sealed limb is
accurately graduated to tenths of a c. c. or other suitable divisions.
Suppose it be desired to ascertain the proportion of oxygen in atmospheric
air. The instrument is first filled with mercury, after which a small
quantity of air is introduced; the bulk of the air is accurately measured,
taking care that the liquid metal stands at the same level in both tubes,
which is easily effected by adding mercury, or by drawing off the mercury
if needed, through the caoutchouc tube, which is fixed upon the small
inlet tube just above the bend, and which is closed by means of a screw
tap (_c_).

[Illustration]

A quantity of pure hydrogen, about equal in bulk to the air, is next
introduced, and the bulk of the mixture is then accurately measured. The
open extremity of the tube is now closed with a cork, below which a column
of atmospheric air is safely included. This portion of air acts as a
spring, which gradually checks the explosive force, when the combination
is effected by passing a spark across the tube by means of the platinum
wires. The mixture is then exploded by the electric spark. The remaining
gas now occupies a smaller volume, owing to the condensation of the steam
which has been formed. Mercury is, therefore, again poured in the open
limb until it stands at the same level in both tubes, and the volume of
the gas is measured a third time. One third of the reduction of the bulk
experienced by the gas will represent the entire volume of oxygen which
the mixture contained. Liebig’s method is as follows. It is based upon the
fact that an alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid absorbs oxygen:

1. A strong measuring tube holding 30 c. c., and divided into one fifth or
one tenth c. c., is filled to two thirds with the air intended for
analysis. The remaining part of the tube is filled with mercury, and the
tube is inverted over that fluid in a tall cylinder widened at the top.

2. The volume of air confined is measured——a quantity of solution of
potash of 1·4 sp. grf. (1 part of dry hydrate of potash to 2 parts of
water), amounting from 1/40th to 1/50th of the volume of the air, is then
introduced into the measuring tube by means of a pipette with the point
bent upwards (see _drawing_), and spread over the entire inner surface of
the tube by shaking the latter. When no further diminution of volume takes
place the decrease is read off. The carbonic acid is thus removed.

[Illustration]

3. A solution of pyrogallic acid containing 1 gramme of the acid in 5 or 6
c. c. of water is introduced into the same measuring tube by means of
another pipette similar to the above. The mixed fluid (the pyrogallic acid
and the solution of potash) is spread over the inner surface of the tube
by shaking the latter, and when no further diminution of volume is
observed the residuary nitrogen is measured.

4. The solution of pyrogallic acid mixing with the solution of potash of
course dilutes it, causing thus an error from the diminution of its
tension; but this error is so trifling that it has no appreciable
influence upon the results. It may, moreover, be readily corrected by
introducing into the tube, after the absorption of the oxygen, a small
piece of hydrate of potash, corresponding to the amount of water in the
solution of the pyrogallic acid.

There is another slight error on account of a portion of the fluid
adhering to the inner surface of the tube, so that the volume of the gas
is never read off with absolute accuracy.

In conducting these endiometric experiments the necessary corrections for
temperature and barometric pressure must, of course, be made.

_Estimation of the Nitrogen._ The amount of this gas is usually determined
by deducting the aqueous vapours, oxygen and carbonic acid, from the
volume of air examined.

_Determination of Ammonia and Organic Matter._ These are best determined
by drawing a known volume of air through absolutely pure water. To obtain
this latter it is best to redistil distilled water, to reject the first
portions, then to add an alkaline solution of permanganate of potash, and
to discard any portions of the distillate which give the slightest
reaction with the Nessler test. The water through which the air is drawn
must be kept cool, and afterwards submitted to the proper tests, which
will be found under AMMONIA and WATER ANALYSIS. Mr Blyth says, “Solid
bodies such as vibrionic germs, dust, fungi, &c., may be obtained by using
an aspirator, and drawing the air either through a drop of glycerine or
water. Organic matter may also be obtained by suspending glass vessels
filled with ice water, over or in the places to be investigated, and
submitted to the microscope. High powers, such as immersion lenses, are
requisite for the investigation of germs,” &c.

Of these germs Dr Angus Smith says:——“They may probably be divided into
many kinds——the useful and the deleterious, those which promote health and
those which bring disease. The idea of any of them bringing health is not
founded on anything positive, but we can scarcely imagine these numberless
forms to be all useless. The idea that they bring disease is, I think, one
well confirmed.” See a paper by the same author “On the Air and Rain of
Manchester.” ‘Memoirs of the Literary and Scientific Society of
Manchester,’ vol. x. See AIR, VITIATED.

=AIR-GAS.= Air deprived of its carbonic acid and moisture, and then
impregnated with the vapours of very volatile fluid hydrocarbons, such as
benzine and benzoline, can be used as an illuminating agent. It is
requisite, however, to use burners with wide openings, and to apply a low
pressure, because if the current be too rapid the flame becomes too much
cooled, and is readily extinguished. Apparatus for preparing air-gas have
been devised and constructed by Marcus, Mille, Methei, and others.

[Illustration]

=AIR-PUMP.= An instrument designed for the removal of air from closed
vessels. The simplest form of air-pump is the exhausting syringe, which
consists of a cylinder fitted with a stop-cock, and having a valve at the
bottom opening inwards. Another valve opening outwards is attached to a
piston working inside the cylinder, and by screwing the instrument on to a
vessel, and alternately elevating and depressing the piston, all except a
very small quantity of residual and comparatively inelastic air is pumped
out of the vessel (Figs. _a_ and _b_). The accompanying figures show
relative positions of the valve during (_a_) the elevation, and (_b_) the
depression of the piston. In the usual and more convenient form of
air-pump, a brass tube passes from the bottom of the syringe and
terminates in the centre of a disk of brass or glass ground accurately;
the vessel from which the air is to be exhausted has its edge very
accurately ground, and is mounted upon the plate as shown in the subjoined
figure.

[Illustration]

=Air-pump, Bunsen’s Water.= (See figure on page 53.)

This consists of a wide glass tube, _a_, into which another tube, _b_,
_b′_, _b′′_, passes air-tight. _c_ is an india-rubber tube connecting a
with the water supply, _d_ is a clamp to stop the flow of water through
_c_. _e_ is another clamp to regulate the flow, _f_ is a reservoir to
prevent any water which may accidentally come over from getting into _j_.
_g_ is a plug to let out any water from _f_. _h_ is a screw for connecting
a air-tight to a piece of tubing, which should pass 32 feet, if possible,
below the level of _a_. _i_ is a piece of strong india-rubber tubing to
connect the pump with the vessel to be exhausted. The water rushes in at
_c_ and down _h_, carrying bubbles of air with it till the exhaustion is
complete. The figure illustrates a common application of this pump to the
rapid filtration of liquids which ordinarily pass through paper with
difficulty. _a_ is represented as being about half full of water. _k_ is a
funnel fixed air-tight in the india-rubber stopper of the bell-jar _j_.
_l_ is a small cone of platinum foil to prevent the paper filter which
fits into it from being broken. _m_ is a plate of ground glass, _n_ is a
beaker to receive the filtrate.

[Illustration: Bunsen’s water-air-pump.]

=Air-pump, Sprengel’s.= This apparatus depends on the principle of
converting the space to be exhausted into a torricellian vacuum.

In the subjoined figure, _c_, _d_ is a glass tube longer than a barometer,
open at both ends, and connected by means of india-rubber tubing with a
funnel, A, filled with mercury and supported by a stand. Mercury is
allowed to fall in this tube at a rate regulated by a clamp at C; the
lower end of the tube, _c_, _d_, fits in the flask B, which has a spout at
the side a little higher than the lower end of _c_, _d_; the upper part
has a branch at _x_ to which a receiver R can be tightly fixed. When the
clamp at C is opened, the first portions of mercury which run out close
the tube and prevent air from entering below. As the mercury is allowed to
run down the exhaustion begins, and the whole length of the tube from _x_
to _d_ is fitted with cylinders of air and mercury, having a downward
motion. Air and mercury escape through the spout of the bulb B, which is
above the basin H, where the mercury is collected. It is poured back from
time to time into the funnel A, to be repassed through the tube until the
exhaustion is complete.

[Illustration: Sprengel’s air-pump.]

=AIRY’S (Dr.) NATURE’S MEDICAL TREATMENT= is the title of a pamphlet which
recommends four secret remedies against 166 diseases:

_a._ The Pain Expeller, a mixture of about 35 parts of tincture of
capsicum, 20 parts of diluted spirit, and 20 parts of spirit of ammonia.

_b._ Sarsaparillian, a fluid extract of sarsaparilla and China root,
containing 1 per cent. of iodide of potassium.

_c._ Pills composed of powdered iron, jalap resin, jalap powder, and marsh
mallow powder, made into a mass with some bitter extract. Each pill weighs
0·1 gramme.

_d._ Calming Pastilles are thick, hard tablets, composed of sugar, with
oil of anise, and coloured with liquorice juice. (Hager.)

=AKUSTICON= (an ear essence). A proved remedy for every kind of ear
disease, by Pserhofer. This may be imitated by dissolving in common
glycerine one fifth of its weight of fir tar, filtering, and adding a few
drops of cajeput oil dissolved in spirit (Hager.)

=AL-.= [Ar.] An inseparable article equivalent to the English _the_. It is
found in many chemical and other words derived from the Arabic; as
alchemy, alcohol, alembic, almanac, &c.

=AL′ABASTER.= _Syn._ ALBÂTRE, Fr.; =Alabas′ter=, =Alabastri′tes=,
=Alabas′trum=, L. A soft, white species of calcareous and of gypseous
stone, used by sculptors. There are several varieties, all of which may be
ranged under two heads:——

1. CALCA′′REOUS ALABASTER; ORIENT′AL, A.; CALC-SIN′TER. A sub-variety of
carbonate of calcium, formed by the deposition of calcareous particles in
the caverns of limestone rocks. It has a foliated, fibrous, or granular
structure, and a pure, soft, rich, semi-translucent whiteness, generally
agreeably variegated with undulating zones or stripes of various shades of
yellow, red, or brown. This variety is that most esteemed by sculptors,
and for the manufacture of alabaster ornaments. The ancients used it for
ointment and perfume boxes. At the baths of San Filippo (Tuscany), the
process of its formation may be examined by the observer. The natural
spring of boiling water holds carbonate of lime in solution by means of
sulphuretted hydrogen, which, escaping into the air, leaves the lime as a
precipitate, which is gradually deposited in a concrete form. (M. Alex.
Brogniart.)

2. GYP′SEOUS OR COMMON ALABASTER; GYPSUM. A natural hydrated sulphate of
calcium, containing a little carbonate of calcium. That from the quarries
of the Paris basin contains about 12% of the latter substance. When
calcined or roasted, and powdered, it forms the substance known under the
name of PLASTER OF PARIS. The more compact, fine-grained specimens of this
variety are, like the preceding one, sculptured into almost numberless
articles of ornament and utility, such as vases, clock-stands, statuettes,
&c. The inferior kinds only are manufactured into the ‘plaster of Paris’
of the shops. The best specimens are obtained from the lower beds of the
gypsum quarries, and are white, and granular, not unlike Carrara marble.
It takes a high polish; but from its softness and liability to become
discoloured, articles formed of it require more careful treatment than
even those of ‘calcareous alabaster.’

Alabaster is wrought, turned, and fashioned, in a nearly similar manner to
the softer varieties of marble. The tools resemble those employed for the
like operations in ivory and brass. Machinery is now often applied to this
purpose.

Alabaster is polished, first with pumice-stone, and then with a paste or
pap made of whiting, soap, and milk or water; and lastly, with dry
flannel. A better method, however, is to rub it first with dried
shave-grass (equisetum), and afterwards with finely powdered and sifted
slaked lime formed into a paste with water. The surface is then ‘finished
off’ by friction with finely powdered talc or French chalk, until a satiny
lustre is produced, or with putty powder, in a similar way to marble.

Alabaster is engraved with tools resembling those employed for other soft
minerals. It is etched by covering every part of the surface, except that
to be acted on, with a solution of white wax in oil of turpentine (1 to
4), thickened with a little finely powdered white lead, and subsequent
immersion in water acidulated with acetic acid or hydrochloric acid, for
the calcareous variety; and in spring water, for 20 to 50 hours (according
to the effect desired), for the gypseous variety. The varnish is washed
off with oil of turpentine, and the etched parts carefully brushed over
with finely powdered gypsum.

Alabaster is joined and repaired by means of white of egg, or rice glue,
thickened with finely powdered quicklime; or by a paste of newly baked and
finely powdered gypsum, mixed up with the least possible quantity of
water.

Calcareous alabaster is usually cleaned with a brush and warm
soap-and-water, or with tepid water to which a few grains of carbonate of
soda or of ammonia have been added; followed in either case by rinsing in
clean water. If much discoloured, thoroughly cover the article with a
paste of freshly slaked lime and water, and let it remain twenty-four
hours; then wash off the paste with soap and water, rubbing hard the
stains.

Delicate objects in gypseous alabaster can only be safely cleaned with
benzol, or with pure oil of turpentine. If necessary, the surface must be
repolished. Grease spots may be removed from either variety with a little
benzol or oil of turpentine.

Alabaster is occasionally stained or coloured, and, for the calcareous
variety, in a similar way to marble, except that heat is not employed; and
for the gypseous variety, in the manner noticed under PLASTER OF PARIS.
The gypseous variety is also bronzed and hardened in a similar way to that
adopted for casts in the latter substance.

_Obs._ Gypseous alabaster is dissolved by water; and the beauty of both
varieties is almost irrecoverably destroyed by grease, coloured oils,
varnishes, smoke, &c. It is, therefore, unfitted for garden ornaments, or
other objects exposed to the rain or weather, unless it be painted or
bronzed; and is even then very perishable. Contact with acids, alkalies,
and ammoniacal and sulphurous fumes, also injure, and, if prolonged,
destroy it. Even an uncorked phial of smelling-salts placed on a
mantel-piece beside an alabaster vase will soon destroy its beauty. Thus,
all delicate objects in alabaster should be protected by a glass shade.

=Alabaster, Orient′al= (Factitious). Figures, basso relievos, &c., of
considerable hardness and beauty, may be formed by imitating the process
adopted at the baths of San Filippo, before referred to.

_Proc., &c._ Moulds of sulphur are placed either vertically or obliquely
in an open tub or cistern, having a freely perforated bottom. Surmounting
the whole are two or more pieces of wood in the form of a cross or star.
The sulphurous calcareous water, falling on this cross, is scattered into
spray or streamlets, and losing the gaseous portion which holds the lime
in solution, deposits it in the form of oriental alabaster on the surface
of the moulds. In from 1 to 4 months, according to the nature of the
article, a sufficiently thick deposit is obtained. The object is then
removed from the mould, and trimmed and polished. It is found that the
more vertical the position of the mould, the finer is the grain of the
resulting deposit. The water of the Spring of San Filippo may be exactly
and easily imitated by the chemist; and the whole process offers a new and
valuable ornamental art for the amusement and profit of the ingenious and
enterprising.

=Alabaster, Shand’s Chinese.= Carbonate of lime. (Chandler.)

=Alabaster Tablets, John Swine’s Chinese.= Carbonate of lime. (Chandler.)

=ALAMODE′= (ăl-ăh-mōdé). [Fr., _à la mode_.] According to the prevailing
mode or fashion. In _cookery_, applied to several dishes, but more
particularly to one of beef (alamode beef), commonly shortened by the
lower class of Londoners into “alamode.” See BEEF, STEWING, &c.

=ALAN′TINE.= [Eng., Fr., Ger.] _Syn._ ALANTI′NA, L. A substance identical
with inulin, found in the roots of garden angelica (‘angelica
archangelica,’ Linn.).

=ALBA′TA.= [L., Eng.] A name given to several alloys resembling silver.
See ALLOYS, GERMAN SILVER, &c.

=ALBION= (Parisian). “Will preserve the skin white and free from
wrinkles.” An aromatic water with chloride of lead and calomel suspended
in it. (Landerer.)

=ALBOLITH.= A cement powder prepared by W. Riemann, Breslau. Made with
calcined magnesia (obtained from magnesite) and chloride of magnesium. It
is recommended for painting walls, stairs, and wooden articles. (Hager.)

=ALBU′MEN.= [Eng., L.] _Syn._ ALBUMIN; ALBUMINE, Fr.; EIWEISS, EIWEISTOFF,
Ger. Literally, the white of egg; a peculiar nitrogenous substance which
enters largely into the composition of animal bodies. It abounds in the
blood, muscles, bones, coagulable lymph, vitreous and crystalline humour
of the eye, fluid of dropsy, &c. The white of egg consists of nearly pure
albumen dissolved in water.

A substance identical with albumen is found in many vegetables. It enters
largely into the composition of all the emulsive seeds. According to
Seguin, it exists in considerable quantity in all those vegetables and
fruits that afford a vinous liquor without the addition of yeast.

_Prep._ The white of egg and the serum of blood, when strained through
muslin, furnish albumen, in solution, in a sufficiently pure state for all
the ordinary purposes of the arts. Pure solid albumen may be prepared as
follows:——

1. Agitate strained white of egg with 10 or 12 times its bulk of alcohol,
collect the precipitated flocculi on a muslin filter, and suffer it to dry
at a temperature not exceeding 120° Fahr.

2. Add a little water to white of egg, mix, filter, exactly neutralise
with acetic acid, and then largely dilute with pure cold water; the
precipitate which falls may be collected on a filter and washed. Strained
serum of blood may be used instead of white of egg, in both the above
forms.

_Comp._, _&c._ The following is the composition of albumen according to
Lieberkühn:——

  Carbon    53·3
  Hydrogen   7·1
  Nitrogen  15·7
  Oxygen    22·1
  Sulphur    1·8
            ----
           100·0

Chatin found iodine in the white of egg; it also contains chloride,
sulphate, phosphate, and carbonate of sodium, phosphate of calcium, and
traces of potassium in it; but, unlike the sulphur, none of these
substances form a constituent part of pure albumen, though probably always
present in white of egg.

_Prop._ Pure solid albumen (unaltered by heat) is nearly colourless,
inodorous, and tasteless; scarcely soluble in water, but readily so in
water, containing an exceedingly small quantity of caustic soda or potash,
and in a strong solution of nitrate of potassium. When dried by a gentle
heat it shrinks into a translucent horny mass; and when exposed to a
sufficient temperature, yields the usual ammoniacal odour and products of
animal matter. Its solution (as white of egg) is solidified or coagulated
by a heat of from 145° to 165° Fahr., forming a white, opaque mass; when
very dilute, on boiling (only) it separates in fine light flocks. When
thus coagulated, it is insoluble in water at a less temperature than 302°
Fahr. (Wöhler and Vögel), unless alkalised. Ordinary solutions of albumen
give precipitates with sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric, and metaphosphoric
acids, with tannin and astringent solutions, and with most of the metallic
salts; but are not affected by either acetic acid or tribasic (common)
phosphoric acid. Alcohol, in quantity, also precipitates albumen. Strong
oil of vitriol turns it black in the cold, but on applying a gentle heat,
a gorgeous, red-coloured liquid is produced. Strong hydrochloric acid
gives a deep violet-blue solution. White of egg or serum exposed in a thin
stratum to the air, dries up into a pale, yellow, gum-like substance, and
in this state may be kept for any length of time, retaining its property
of redissolving when immersed in slightly warm water.

_Tests._——1. Both heat and alcohol (or strong spirit) coagulate it:——2. A
solution of perchloride of mercury dropped into a fluid containing
albumen occasions a white precipitate:——3. Subacetate of lead acts in the
same way. Either of the last two will render turbid a solution containing
only the 1-2000th part of fresh white of egg, or the 1-10,000th part of
dry albumen:——4. Tannin and tincture of galls give yellow, pitchy
precipitates:——5. If dry caustic potash or soda be triturated with either
liquid or solid albumen, ammoniacal fumes are evolved, and the mixture on
calcination yields ferrocyanide of potassium:——6. Its coagulability by
heat, and its incoagulability by acetic acid, distinguish it from casein.

_Uses, &c._, Independently of its value as an alimentary substance,
albumen is largely employed in photography as a glaze or varnish, for
fixing colours in calico printing, as a cement, &c., and more particularly
as a clarifier for wines, syrups, vegetable solutions, and other liquids.
Its efficacy for the last purpose depends on its entangling the impurities
in its meshes during coagulation, and either rising to the surface with
them as a ‘scum,’ or sinking with them as a precipitate. In France it is
prepared on an extensive scale, at the abattoirs, by being spread in thin
layers to dry; the source of supply being of course the stream of the
blood of the slaughtered animals. When the liquid operated on does not
spontaneously coagulate albumen, it is necessary to apply heat to it. In
cases of poisoning by the mineral acids, corrosive sublimate, nitrate of
silver, sulphate of copper, bichloride of tin, or sugar of lead, the white
of egg (or indeed the yolk as well) is one of the best antidotes that can
be administered.

=Albumen, Flake.= _Syn._ ALBUMEN IN POWDER, SOLID A., SOLUBLE A.,
PLANTER’S A. _Prep._ Expose strained white of egg or serum of bullock’s
blood, in a thin stratum, to a current of dry air, until it concretes into
a solid transparent substance, resembling horn. In this state it may be
kept any length of time, or it may be further dried until brittle, and
then reduced to coarse powder.

_Use._ It is extensively employed as a ‘clarifier’ in the sugar
plantations of the West Indies, and elsewhere. It is prepared for use by
soaking and stirring it with cold water until it is dissolved, when it is
whisked to a froth in the usual way, and agitated with the liquid to be
clarified.

=Albumen, Iodised.= 1. To the white of every egg employed add 7-1/2 grains
of iodide of potassium dissolved in an equal weight of distilled water.
Beat the mixture to a froth, let it stand until insoluble matters have
settled, pour the clear portion into a wide-mouthed bottle, and keep in a
cool place. 2. Dissolve 50 grains of iodide of potassium and 10 grains of
bromide of ammonium in 2-1/2 oz. of distilled water, and add 120 minims of
strong liquor ammoniæ. Add this solution to 10 oz. of albumen, let the
mixture stand to settle, and filter. This preparation is said to keep good
for a long time.

=Albumen, Solution of (B. P.).= Take of white of one egg; distilled water,
four fluid ounces. Mix by trituration in a mortar, and filter through
clean tow, first moistened with distilled water. This solution must be
recently prepared.

=Albumen, Vegetable.= This substance, long considered to be a distinct
proximate principle peculiar to the vegetable kingdom, has been shown, by
recent researches, to be identical with animal albumen. It is particularly
abundant in carrots, turnips, cabbages, green stems of peas, and
oleaginous seeds.

=ALBU′MEN.= In _botany_, the solid, fleshy, or horny substance found in
many seeds, between the integuments and the embryo. It is the part that
furnishes the flour of the ‘cereals,’ the flesh of the ‘cocoa-nut,’ and
the great mass of the seeds of coffee and other vegetables. However
poisonous the plants which produce it may be, this substance is never
deleterious.

=ALBUMENISED PAPER.= A French paper highly glazed, having a fine surface,
and made by Rive; a German paper having a more uniform texture, and made
by Saxe; also a paper by Towgood, are recommended for the preparation of
albumenised paper. Positive paper may be albumenised as follows:——Add 15
grains of finely pulverised common salt to the white of every egg used,
and whisk until the mixture is entirely converted into a white froth.
Allow this froth to stand in a glazed earthenware pan which must be rather
larger than the sheets of paper to be albumenised, for about twelve hours.
At the end of this pour the clear portion of the liquid into a flat
porcelain tray. Mark the inferior side of the paper, slightly damp it,
lift it by its ends, and float it carefully on the prepared albumen,
keeping its inferior and dry side uppermost. Then raise the paper at each
end, and if any air bubbles are seen remove them with a card or brush and
replace the paper in the bath. Remove the paper from the bath and suspend
it at the corners by clips. Albumenised paper should be kept dry by
enclosing it in tin or zinc cases.

=ALBUMENOIDS.= A term applied to albumen, fibrin, casein, and similar
bodies.

=ALBU′MENOUS.= _Syn._ ALBUMINO′SUS, L.; ALBUMINÉ, ABUMINEUX, Fr.;
EIWEISSTOFFHALTIG, Ger. Formed of, containing, or having the properties of
albumen.

=Albuminous Plants=. In _botany_, all plants whose seeds contain albumen
in a separate state; as in the cereals, palms, &c.

=Albuminous Principles _or_ Substances.= Albumen, casein, fibrin, gluten,
&c.

=ALBURN′UM.= [L.] _Syn._ ALBURN*; SAPWOOD. In _botany_, the white and
softer parts of the wood of exogenous plants, lying between the inner bark
and the heartwood. It consists of empty or nearly empty tubes or cells,
which gradually acquire solidity by the deposition of resins, tannin, and
other products of vegetation, and in time becomes wood. It is through the
alburnum that the ascending sap chiefly flows.

=ALCARAZ′ZA.= [Sp.] A species of porous earthenware, or a vessel formed of
it, made in Spain from a light, sandy marl, and but slightly fired. Their
value as ‘coolers’ arises from the copious evaporation of the water, which
gradually transudes. A similar ware and articles are made in France, under
the name of HYGROCERA′MEN; and in England, under the names of POROUS WARE,
WATER COOLERS, WINE COOLERS, BUTTER COOLERS, &c. The following are forms
said to be used in our potteries:——

_Prep._ 1. Take of sandy marl, 2 parts; brine, q. s.; make a dough, and
then knead in of common salt, in fine powder, 1 part. Bake the pieces
slowly, and lightly.

2. Good clay, 2 parts; fine siliceous sand, 3 parts; brine, q. s.; common
salt, 1 to 2 parts; as before.

3. Powdered clay, 2 parts; powdered charcoal, 3 parts (by weight); water
q. s. to form a stiff dough. The kilning must be so arranged that the heat
is applied gradually, and the vessels exposed to a current of hot air; and
it must be continued until all the charcoal is burnt out, carefully
avoiding over-firing.

=AL′CHEMY= (-kĭm-). _Syn._ AL′CHYMY (-kĭm-); HERMETIC ART*; ALCHEM′IA,
ALCHYM′IA, L.; ALCHIMIE, Fr.; ALCHEMIE, Ger.; ALCHIMIA, It. The romantic
forerunner of the modern science of chemistry. An imaginative art or
science, having for its objects the discovery of a substance
(PHILOSOPHER’S STONE) capable of transmuting the baser metals into gold——a
panacea, or universal remedy (ELIXER VITÆ), by which disease and death
were to be avoided by its possessor——an alkahest, or universal solvent——a
universal ferment; and other like absurdities. A mixed metal formerly used
for utensils was also called by this name.

=AL′COHOL.= C_{2}H_{6}O. [Eng., L.; B. P.] _Syn._ AL′KOHOL, Eng., L.;
ALCOÖL, ALCOHOL, Fr.; ALKOHOL, HÖCHST RECTIFIEIRTER WEIN-GEIST., Ger.;
ALCOÖLE, It. A term commonly applied to one kind of spirit——that obtained
by the distillation of any fermented saccharine liquid, and forming the
characteristic principle of wines, beers, spirits, and other intoxicating
liquors.

_Etym._ Kohol, a Hebrew-Syriac word, is the name given to a preparation of
powdered antimony used by Oriental ladies to paint their eyebrows. In
course of time this term was applied to other fine powders, and ultimately
to highly rectified spirits.

_Hist., &c._ Although the art of distillation was probably known at a
comparatively early age of the world, the preparation of pure rectified
spirit is a discovery of modern times. It was not until the 13th century
that Raymond Lully first showed the way to concentrate spirit by means of
carbonate of potash; after which date pure concentrated spirit gradually
rose into note as an article of trade and commerce in Europe. In the 16th
century its distillation was in common practice in these countries.
(Burns.) By means of chloride of calcium, Dr Black obtained alcohol of sp.
gr. 0·800 (about A.D. 1760); and Richter afterwards procured it of a sp.
gr. so low as 0·796 at 60° Fahr. (Crell’s ‘Annals,’ 1796.) Lavoisier first
demonstrated the composition of alcohol (about 1780). Its analysis was
subsequently perfected by M. Saussure, jun., and confirmed by MM. Dumas
and Boullay, and Gay-Lussac; and by many others since.

_Nat. Hist._ Alcohol is peculiar to the organic kingdom, being exclusively
produced, in the natural way, by the process of fermentation.

_Sources, &c._ Dilute alcohol may be procured, by the ordinary process of
distillation, from all fermented liquors. When drawn from wine (as in
France), it constitutes BRANDY; when from the refuse juice of the
sugar-cane, it is called RUM; when from malt, grain, or molasses (as in
England), it is called MALT, RAW-GRAIN or MOLASSES SPIRIT; and when from
rice or palm-wine, ARRACK. Brandy, rum, Hollands, and whisky, contain only
about half their volume of alcohol; and gin much less. When distilled from
any of these spirituous liquors, the alcohol contains, besides water,
variable quantities of essential oils, ethers, and other flavouring
matters, which, by one or more redistillations with charcoal or lime, it
for the most part loses, and then becomes commercial spirit of wine. By a
further rectification from chloride of calcium, lime, carbonate of potash,
or any other substance having a strong affinity for water, the water is
retained, and a strong spirit passes over containing not more than 10 per
cent. of water. By repeating the process, and using the proper
precautions, it may be obtained almost entirely free from water, and is
then called absolute or anhydrous alcohol.

_Preparation I._ Of _Absolute Alcohol_:——

_a._ Alcohol (highly rectified spirit), of 85% (sp. gr. ·835 to ·822), is
mixed, in a tubulated retort, with about half its weight of fresh-burnt
quick-lime, in coarse powder; and the whole, after securely stopping the
neck with a cork, and agitation, is allowed to repose for several days.
The alcohol is then carefully distilled off, drop by drop, by the heat of
a water bath, until the weight of the distillate nearly equals that of the
‘anhydrous alcohol’ in the spirit operated on. The sp. gr. of the product
should be ·795 or ·796; but by carefully repeating the process with the
distillate and a fresh quantity of lime, and prolonging the last digestion
with the latter for several weeks, absolute alcohol of the sp. gr. ·79381
at 60° Fahr. may be easily obtained.

_b._ (Drinkwater; Fownes.) The strongest rectified spirit of wine is
digested in a stoppered bottle for several days, with about half its
weight of anhydrous carbonate of potash, in powder, frequent agitation
being had recourse to; the alcohol, after repose, is then decanted, and
treated with sufficient fresh-burnt quick-lime to absorb the whole of the
spirit. After 48 hours’ digestion, the spirit, when distilled, will have
the sp. gr. ·793 at 60° Fahr.

_c._ (Liebig; Ure.) Alcohol of about 90% is saturated with fused chloride
of calcium, in powder, and after repose for a few hours in a stoppered
bottle, is submitted to distillation as before. The product should nearly
equal the quantity of dry alcohol in the sample. Ure recommends equal
weights of the spirit and chloride to be taken; and the process to be
stopped as soon as about half the volume of the spirit employed has passed
over, or the distillate acquires a higher sp. gr. than ·791 at 68°, or
·796 at 60° Fahr.

_d._ (B. P. 1867.) Take of rectified spirit, 1 pint; carbonate of potash,
1-1/2 ounce; slaked lime, 10 ounces. Put the carbonate of potash and
spirit into a stoppered bottle and allow them to remain in contact for two
days, frequently shaking the bottle. Expose the slaked lime to a red heat
in a covered crucible for half an hour, then remove it from the fire, and,
when it has cooled, immediately put the lime into a flask or retort, and
add to it the spirit from which the denser aqueous solution of carbonate
of potash, which will have formed a distinct stratum at the bottom of the
bottle, has been carefully and completely separated. Attach a condenser to
the apparatus, and allow it to remain without any external application of
heat for twenty-four hours; then applying a gentle heat, let the spirit
distil until that which has passed over shall measure 1-1/2 fluid ounce;
reject this, and continue the distillation into a fresh receiver until
nothing more passes at a temperature of 200° Fahr.

_e._ (Poggendorff.) Saturate alcohol with caustic potash, then add half
its volume of water, and distil at a low temperature.

II. Of _Hydrated_ or _Commercial Alcohol_:——

_a._ (ALCOHOL, Ph. L. 1836.) Take of rectified spirit (sp. gr. 0·838), 1
gal.; chloride of calcium, 1 lb.; proceed as above, and distil 7 pints and
5 fl. oz. Sp. gr. of product 0·815. It contains about 7% of water, by
weight, and 5% by volume.

_b._ (ALCOHOL, Ph. D. 1826.) Rectified spirit, 1 gal.; pearl-ashes (dried
and still hot), 3-1/2 lbs.; mix, digest in a covered vessel, with frequent
agitation, for seven days; then decant the clear portion, and add to it of
chloride of calcium, 1 lb.; agitate to effect solution, and distil off the
spirit until the mixture in the retort begins to thicken. Sp. gr. of
product 0·810. It contains about 5% of water, by weight.

_c._ (Without distillation.) Rectified spirit is agitated, in a closed
vessel, with anhydrous carbonate of potash (prepared by heating the salt
to redness, and still slightly warm), until the powder sinks to the bottom
undissolved; the carbonate is then added in considerable excess, and the
agitation repeated at short intervals for some hours or even days; lastly,
after sufficient repose, the clear upper portion is decanted.——_Obs._ If a
clean spirit, and pure carbonate of potash (or at least one perfectly free
from caustic potash or any other impurity soluble in strong spirit), be
used, an alcohol sufficiently pure and free from water for many common
purposes may be thus obtained; otherwise the product contains a little
potassa, &c., which can only be removed by distillation. For some
purposes, however, this would not be objectionable. Sp. gr. about ·812.

[Illustration:

  _A_, A bottle with two necks, the upper furnished with a
      ground-glass stopper.
  _B_, Loop of cord to hang the apparatus up by.
  _C_, Bladder, containing spirit, filled by means of the bottle
      _A_.
  _D_, Neck of bladder accurately secured to the under neck of the
      bottle _A_.]

III. (Soëmmering.——VARNISH-MAKER’S ALCOHOL.) The bladder of an ox or calf,
thoroughly cleansed from fat, and washed and dried, is nearly filled with
rectified spirit, and then securely fastened and suspended in any dry
situation, at a temperature of about 122° Fahr. In from six to twelve
hours, when the heat is properly maintained, the spirit is generally
sufficiently concentrated, and in a little time longer is rendered nearly
free from water (anhydrous), or of the strength of 96 to 98%.——_Obs._ The
same bladder will serve for more than one hundred operations. If not kept
very nearly full, a portion of the spirit escapes through the empty part.
To prevent this accident, a bottle with a double neck, of the shape
represented in the _engr._, may be employed; by which means the bladder
may be kept constantly full during the process. After the first or second
time of using, the bladder gives alcohol sufficiently pure for all
ordinary purposes. Before hanging the apparatus up, it is better to
enclose it in a coarse potato-netting, to prevent any accident arising
from the strain on the neck of the bladder. Soëmmering recommends both the
inside and outside of the dry bladder to be smeared over 2 or 3 times
with a strong solution of isinglass; but this is not necessary to the
success of the process.

IV. _Rectified Spirit._ (B. P. 1867.) _Spiritus Rectificatus._ Alcohol
with 16 per cent. of water; obtained by the distilling of fermented
saccharine fluids. Sp. gr. 0·838.

V. _Proof Spirit._ (B. P. 1867.) _Spiritus Tenuior._ Take of rectified
spirit, 5 pints; distilled water, 3 pints. Mix. Sp. gr. of product 0·920.

_Prop. of Alcohol._ Light, transparent, colourless; highly volatile and
inflammable, burning with a pale blue and smokeless flame; very mobile;
odour, agreeable; taste, strong and pungent; miscible in all proportions
with water, with the evolution of heat, and temporary expansion, but
ultimate condensation of the mixture, some hours elapsing before the union
is complete, and the normal temperature restored. The mixture has a higher
sp. gr. than the mean of its constituents; and this is greatest when 54
vols. of alcohol are mixed with 49·77 vols. of water, the resulting
compound measuring only 100 volumes. It absorbs water from moist air;
dissolves resins, essential oils, camphor, bitumen, soaps, sugar, carbonic
and boracic acid, iodine and the iodides, lime, ammonia, soda, potash, the
alkaloids, wax and spermaceti (when boiling), all the deliquescent salts
(except carbonate of potassa), and various other substances. It curdles
milk, coagulates albumen, and (in quantity) separates both starch and gum
from their mucilages. It boils, in the air, at 173° Fahr., when in the
anhydrous state. When diluted with water its boiling point rises in
proportion to the amount of water added. It boils, in vacuo, at 56° Fahr.
Every volume of boiling alcohol yields 488·3 vols. of vapour at 212° Fahr.
Its sp. gr. is 0·793811 at 60° Fahr., that of its vapour being 1·6133. It
has never been frozen; when cooled to -166° Fahr., it acquired the
consistence of castor oil, but did not solidify. It contracts by cold;
between -15° and +99° Fahr., this occurs with great regularity, at the
rate of ·00047 part of its volume for every degree of the thermometer. Its
evaporation, like that of ether, produces intense cold. The products of
its combustion are carbonic anhydride and water. It acts as a powerful
antiseptic on organic substances immersed in it, and is in consequence
extensively employed in the preservation of anatomical preparations. With
the acids it forms ethers.

_Phys. eff._ Alcohol is a narcotico-acrid poison. In small doses it
occasions excitement and intoxication; in larger ones, delirium,
somnolency, coma, apoplexy, and death. It acts as a violent nervous
stimulant, and, by abstracting water from the soft tissues of the stomach
and primæ viæ, destroys their organisation. It is alike poisonous to all
animals;——2 drs. will kill a dog. All strong spirits act in the same way,
the effect being proportionate to the state of concentration and the
quantity taken. On plants it acts as a rapid and fatal poison.

_Ant., &c._ Copious internal use of tepid water, with cold affusions to
the head and spine, and injection of cold water into the ears. In the
absence of vomiting, a strong emetic should be given, or the stomach-pump
used. Ammonia may be used as a stimulant, and, added to water just in
sufficient quantity to flavour it, is one of the best antidotes. The head
should be kept elevated, and bleeding had recourse to, if cerebral
congestion threatens.

_Tests in cases of death._ 1. The odour of the contents of the stomach and
ejected matters, and their ready inflammability. 2. The spirit may be
separated by digestion with water, filtration, the addition of carbonate
of potash, and distillation.

_Comp., &c._ Its per-centage composition is——

              Dumas and    Brande and    Ure. sp.
               Boullay.       Ure.       gr. 0·812.
  Carbon        52·37        52·18         47·85
  Hydrogen      13·01        13·04         12·24
  Oxygen        34·61        34·78         39·91
               -------     --------      --------
                99·99       100·00        100·00

This nearly represents 2 equivalents of carbon, 3 eq. of hydrogen, and 1
of oxygen. The atom of alcohol is now regarded as a multiple of these
numbers, and formed by the breaking up of one atom of grape sugar
(C_{13}H_{28}O_{11}) into 4 eq. of alcohol, 8 eq. of carbonic acid, and 4
eq. of water. It was formerly regarded as a compound of 1 eq. of olefiant
gas, and 1 eq. of water; but it is now generally viewed as HYDRATE OF THE
OXIDE OF ETHYLE (C_{2}H_{5}.HO), or a compound of ethylene and water
(C_{2}H_{4}.H_{2}O). Grape sugar alone yields alcohol; cane sugar, before
it undergoes the vinous fermentation, being first converted into this
substance by contact with the ferment.

_Purity._ The presence of water is shown by the specific gravity (see
ALCOHOLOMETRY); the absence of other foreign matter by the following
tests:——

1. Its colour and transparency is not affected by the addition of a little
colourless oil of vitriol (Liebig), or by a solution of nitrate of silver,
and subsequent exposure for some time to solar light (Vögel), unless
either essential oil or organic matter be present, when it assumes a
reddish tinge. 2. It should be neutral to test-papers, colourless, leave
no residue on evaporation, and be miscible, in all proportions, with water
and with ether. 3. Its boiling point should never be less than 170° Fahr.;
a lower temperature suggests the presence of wood spirits, or acetone, or
one of the ethers. To detect wood spirit (wood naphtha) see Nessler’s
Test. For the reverse of this adulteration——the evasion of the duty by the
introduction of spirit, under the disguise of naphtha, turpentine,
&c.——see those articles.

4. The presence of water in alcohol may be detected, not only by the sp.
gr., but also by white anhydrous sulphate of copper burning blue when
dropped into it. 5. Potassium placed on alcohol does not take fire, unless
a considerable per-centage of water be present.

_Tests, &c._ 1. It may generally be recognised by its volatility,
inflammability, odour, taste, miscibility with water, power of dissolving
camphor and resins, and other qualities already described. 2. If a few
fibres of asbestos be ‘moistened’ with a saturated solution of bichromate
of potash in oil of vitriol, and exposed to the smallest possible portion
of hot alcohol vapour, it is almost instantly turned green, owing to the
formation of oxide of chromium. In practice, the asbestos may be inserted
in the neck of a retort, or even of a bulbed glass-tube containing a few
drops of the suspected solution, when the effect occurs as soon as
distillation commences. Ether and pyroxylic spirit produce a nearly
similar result; but the ‘first’ of these is distinguished from alcohol by
its not being miscible with water in all proportions; and the ‘other’ by
Nessler’s Test; whilst both may be readily distinguished by their peculiar
and characteristic odour. 3. Dissolve 3 pts. crystallised carbonate of
soda in 10 pts. water. To this solution add 1 pt. of liquid to be tested,
and heat to about 160° Fahr. Lastly, add iodine in small pieces, till it
has entirely dissolved, and the liquid has become colourless. If alcohol
be present, iodoform will make its appearance on cooling, and sink to the
bottom in the form of a yellow powder. As a similar result is obtained
with wood spirit, this must be proved to be absent before applying this
test.

The only reliable method of proving that a sample is ethylic alcohol is
the production of ether, by acting on the suspected liquid with sulphuric
acid. See ETHER.

_Uses._ In the _arts_, alcohol is used by the varnish-maker to dissolve
resins; by the perfumer, to extract the odour of plants, and dissolve
essential oils, soaps, and other similar substances; by the pharmaceutist,
to prepare tinctures and other valuable medicinals; by the
instrument-maker, to fill the bulbs of thermometers required to measure
extreme degrees of cold; by the photographer, in the preparation of
collodion; by the chemist, in analysis, and in the manufacture of numerous
preparations; by the anatomist and naturalist, as an antiseptic; and by
the physician, for various purposes and applications as a remedy. It is
also frequently burnt in lamps, and in parts of the world where it is
inexpensive, it is employed in the manufacture of vinegar. Its uses, when
dilute, as in the ‘spirituous liquors’ of commerce, are well known. In
medicine, it is employed both concentrated (‘alcohol,’ ‘rectified spirit’)
and dilute (‘proof spirit,’ ‘brandy,’ ‘gin,’ &c.), as a caustic, irritant,
stimulant, tonic, &c. It has also been used in a multitude of other cases,
and has been applied to an almost infinite variety of other purposes.

[Illustration]

_Gen. commentary._ The selection of any one of the processes given above
for the preparation of alcohol must greatly depend on the convenience or
position of the operator. Chloride of calcium, and quick-lime, from their
powerful affinity for water, and easy application, are the hygrometric
substances most generally employed; but the processes involving the use of
the other substances and methods already noticed, have all of them
advantages under particular circumstances. Gay-Lussac has recommended the
use of caustic baryta instead of lime; and others have employed dry
alumina, as an absorbent of the water prior to distillation. Common proof
spirit may be concentrated until its sp. gr. falls to about 0·825, by
simple distillation in a water bath; at which sp. gr. it contains only
about 11% of water, by weight, and is then nearly as volatile as pure
alcohol.

A convenient apparatus for the preparation of alcohol, on the small
scale, is that figured in the _engr._, and which will be self-explanatory
to every one competent to use it. The tank (_i_) should be supplied with
ice-cold water; and the receiver (_g_) should be covered with cloths kept
continually wet with water of the same temperature. The capsule or basin
(_c_) is a water bath heated by the little gas furnace (_d_). On the large
scale, for commercial alcohol, a copper still, fitted with a glass
refrigeratory and receiver, is commonly employed.

By surrounding the capital of a still, or other like apparatus, by a water
bath kept at the proper temperature, the alcoholic richness or content of
the product may be regulated to the greatest nicety, for any desired
strength.

The different statements of chemical authors as to the boiling point,
specific gravity, &c., of alcohol, already noticed, may be referred to
their having either experimented with samples which have not been
absolutely anhydrous, or to their not having made the proper corrections
for temperature, and for the different materials of which their vessels
and instruments were composed——some probably having been made of glass,
and others of brass or some other metal. In some instances the differences
are more apparent than real, as in the _Tables_ by Tralles and Lowitz; in
the former of which water, at its lowest sp. gr., is taken as the
standard. Until recently, the only known source of alcohol was the
fermentation of saccharine solutions. Its production by synthesis, though
often attempted, is, however, erroneously said to have always failed. It
had long been employed as an occasional source of bicarburetted hydrogen
(olefiant gas) at a high temperature; but M. Berthelot succeeded in
reproducing it, from bicarburetted hydrogen, by agitating the latter, in a
closed vessel, with sulphuric acid and metallic mercury (‘Journ. de Chimie
Med.,’ 1855, p. 175); and Henry Flennel, nearly thirty years before M.
Berthelot’s discovery, found that pure olefiant gas is absorbed by
agitation with concentrated sulphuric acid, with the formation of
sulphovinic acid, and that by subsequent dilution with water, and
distillation, alcohol passes over into the receiver.

=ALCOHOLATE.= _Syn._ ALCOHATE; ALCOHOLAS, L. A salt in which alcohol
appears to replace the water of crystallisation, as is the case with
certain chlorides, nitrates, &c. Some of them may be formed by simple
solution and crystallisation of the salt in alcohol. (Graham.) They are
all very unstable, being readily decomposed by water.

=ALCOHOLIC.= _Syn._ ALCOHOLICUS, L.; ALCOHOLIQUE, &c., Fr.; ALKOHOLISCH,
Ger. Pertaining to, containing, of the nature of, or made with, alcohol.

=ALCOHOLICA.= [L.] _Syn._ ALCOÖLIQUES, Fr.; WEINGEIST-VERBINDUNGEN, Ger.
In _pharmacy_, liquids containing, or preparations made with, alcohol, as
a characteristic ingredient.

=ALCOHOLISATION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ALCOHOLISATIO, L.; ALCOÖLISATION,
&c., Fr.; ALKOHOLISERUNG, Ger. In _chem._ and _pharm._, the development of
the characteristic properties of alcohol in a liquid, or the use of it
either as an addition or a menstruum; also the act or process of obtaining
alcohol from spirit by rectification.

[Illustration]

=ALCOHOLOM′ETER= (-lŏm′-). _Syn._ ALCOHOL′METER (hŏl′-; -hŏm′-‡);
ALCOHOLOMÉTRUM, L.; ALCOÖLOMÈTRE, ALCOÖMÈTRE, ALCOHOLMÈTRE, &c., Fr. An
instrument or apparatus used in alcoholometry. Alcoholometers are simply
‘hydrometers’ adapted to the densities of alcohol, either concentrated or
dilute. Some of these, as BAUMÉ’S, CARTER’S, &c., merely indicate the
number of degrees corresponding to the state of concentration of the
liquid. Others, of a like construction, as those of RICHTER (_a_), TRALLES
(_b_), and GAY-LUSSAC (_c_), have their stems so graduated as at once to
indicate the proportion per cent. of alcohol present, either by weight, or
by volume, at some standard temperature. (See _engr._) A third class, as
those of the Abbé BROSSARD-VIDAL, FIELD, &c. are essentially thermometers,
with scales which indicate the boiling points of spirits of different
strengths, instead of the common thermometric degrees; whilst to a fourth
class belong the alcoholometer of M. SILBERMANN, which is based upon the
known rate of expansion of alcoholic liquors by heat, expressed in
alcoholometric degrees; and that of M. GEISSLER, which depends on the
measurement of the tension of the vapour of the liquid, as indicated by
the height to which it raises a small column of mercury. In SYKE’S
HYDROMETER, used by officers of the Revenue, the scale of the instrument
is enormously extended by the use of movable weights, with each of which
it becomes, in fact, a separate instrument, adapted to a certain range of
specific gravities.

A very convenient alcoholometer for ordinary purposes (_d_) has been
lately produced by some of the instrument makers. It is of the usual form,
but its stem on one side exhibits the per-centage richness of the sample
in alcohol by volume; and on the other, the per-centage by weight. Thus,
both results may be obtained at one trial. This instrument is sometimes
called RICHTER’S ALCOHOLOMETER, in England. A further improvement, still
more recently introduced, is a similar ‘double-scale’ instrument, showing
the degrees of Sykes on one side, and carrying a small spirit-thermometer
in the bulb, to which a scale is fixed ranging from 35° to 82° Fahr.

=ALCOHOLOM′ETRY.= _Syn._ ALCOHOL′METRY (-hŏl′-; -hŏm′-‡); SPIRIT TESTING‡;
ALCOHOLME′TRIA, L.; ALCOÖLOMÉTRIE, ALCOÖMÉTRIE, &c., Fr. In _chemistry_,
the art or process of ascertaining the richness of spirits in alcohol. In
_commerce_, the determination of the quantity of spirit of a certain
strength, taken as a standard, present in any given sample of spirituous
or fermented liquors. In England, this standard is called “proof spirit.”

_Hist., &c._ The great importance of being able accurately to determine
the strength of spirits in the United Kingdom, on account of the high
duties levied on them, has induced the Government authorities, at various
times, to investigate the subject. In 1790, the matter was referred to Sir
C. Blagden, then Secretary to the Royal Society, who instituted an
extensive series of experiments to determine the real specific gravities
of different mixtures of alcohol and water. The results of his labours and
researches were put forward, with ‘Gilpin’s Tables,’ in 1794, but no
practical measures appear to have been taken in consequence. In 1832 a
committee of the Royal Society, at the request of the Lords of the
Treasury, examined into the accuracy of the Tables, and the construction
and application of the instrument (SYKE’S HYDROMETER) now used by the
Revenue officers, on which they reported favorably, and declared that they
were sufficiently perfect for all practical and scientific purposes. The
errors introduced into calculations of the strength of spirits by these
tables were found to be quite unimportant in practice, and did not, in any
one instance, amount to unity in the fourth place of decimals. This method
adapts the specific gravity as the test of the strength of spirits, and is
founded on the fact that alcohol is considerably lighter than water, and
that (with proper corrections for condensation and temperature) the sp.
gr. regularly increases, or decreases, according to the relative
proportions in which the two are mixed.

Several other methods of alcoholometry have been proposed, founded
upon——the variations in temperature of the vapour of alcohol of different
strengths——the heat involved by its admixture with water——its dilatation
by heat——the tension of its vapour——the insolubility of carbonate of
potash in alcohol——its volatility, boiling point, &c. &c., the more
important and useful of which are noticed further on. The method adopted
by the Boards of Inland Revenue and Customs is, however, the one which is
almost exclusively employed in trade and commerce in Great Britain, not
only on account of its simplicity and correctness, but for the purpose of
the results exactly coinciding with the results obtained by the Revenue
officers.

        METHODS OF ALCOHOLOMETRY.

1. _Methods based_ on the _specific gravity_, or _per-centage strength_,
by VOLUME:——

[Illustration]

_a._ With SYKES’ HYDROMETER. _Revenue system._ The _engraving_ below
represents Sykes’ hydrometer, as made by Mr Bate, under the directions of
the Commissioners of Inland Revenue and Customs. It consists of a
spherical ball or float, with an upper and lower stem, and is made of
brass, which (in the more expensive instruments) is usually coated with
gold, to prevent corrosion from damp, and the acidity so generally present
in spirituous liquors. The upper stem (A) is about four inches long, and
is divided into ten parts, each of which contains five subdivisions. There
are nine movable weights of the form _b_, of different sizes, numbered
respectively 10, 20, 30, &c., to 90, each of which represents so many of
the principal divisions of the stem, as its number indicates. In use, one
of these weights is slipped on to the lower stems; and thus, by means of
them, the instrument acquires a range of above 500 divisions, or degrees,
extending from the Revenue ‘standard alcohol’ (sp. gr. ·825) to water. It
is so formed as to give the sp. gr. with almost perfect accuracy, at 62°
Fahr. When loaded with the weight 60 it sinks in proof spirit to the line
marked (P) on the narrow edge of the stem at 51° Fahr.; and, by further
placing the square weight or cap (also supplied with the instr.) on the
top of the upper stem, it floats exactly at the same point in distilled
water. This weight or cap is found to weigh 43·66 grs., which is
practically 1-12th of the total observed weight of the instrument, and its
poise 60, and hence shows the difference between the gravity of proof
spirit and water, as explained hereafter. The whole is fitted up in a neat
mahogany case, accompanied with a thermometer, and a book of tables
containing corrections for temperature, &c.——_Process._ A glass tube of
the form of fig. _B_ is filled to about the mark (_a_) with the sample for
examination; the thermometer is then placed in the liquor, and stirred
about for two or three minutes (observing not to breathe upon the glass,
nor hold it in the hand), and the temperature noted. The hydrometer is
next immersed in a similar manner, and gently pressed down in the liquor
to the 0 on the stem with the finger; it having been previously loaded
with any one of the nine weights that will cause it to float with the
surface of the spirit at some point on the graduated part of the scale.
The indication at the point cut by the surface of the liquor, as seen from
below, added to the number of the weight with which the float is loaded,
gives a number which must be sought in the hook of Tables, which is always
sold with the instrument. In this book, at the page headed “Temperature as
observed by the Thermometer,” and against the part of the column
appropriated to the given indication (weight), will be found the strength
per cent., expressed in degrees over or under proof, by VOLUME, in whole
numbers or decimal parts. In reading off the indication, to ensure
accuracy, it is necessary to allow for the convexity of the liquor at the
part where it immediately rests against the stem.

_Obs._ In an instrument requiring so much care and skill in its
manufacture the purchaser should be careful to procure a perfect one. A
very slight blow, friction from continual wiping with a rough cloth, and
other apparently trivial causes, tend to injure so delicate an instrument.
The shape of the weights occasionally vary; some being intended to be
attached to the hydrometer at the bottom of the spindle, and others to
rest on its top. The first plan is, perhaps, the best, as it tends to make
the instrument float with greater steadiness in the liquor; but, at the
same time, it renders its adjustment by the maker a matter of greater
difficulty.

In employing this instrument, the Revenue officers are instructed to take
the nearest degree above the surface of the mercury, when it stands
between any two degrees of the thermometer; and the division on the scale
of the hydrometer next below the surface of the liquid, when it cuts the
stem between any two lines; thus giving the difference in favour of the
trader in both cases.

By means of the _Table_ at page 64 the hydrometer indication, or the
degrees over or under proof, of the Revenue system, may be converted into
‘real specific gravities,’ by mere inspection; and the corresponding
‘per-centage richness’ in alcohol of any sample may be found, either by
WEIGHT or VOLUME.

The specific gravities in this table are such as, on being referred to
Gilpin’s Tables, will give the expressions of proof strength answering to
the whole indications of the Revenue hydrometer. Intermediate values at
fifths of indications may be had by taking proportional differences
between the nearest tabular numbers. Thus, to find the specific gravity
that should stand opposite to Indication 70·6, we first obtain the
difference between the densities standing in a line with Indications 70
and 71 respectively, and then say, as 1 : 0·6 :: ·00192. 00·115, and
·94135 + ·00115 = ·94250, the specific gravity required.

_b._ With GLASS ALCOHOLOMETERS. That of Tralles, and most others of a like
description (as made in England), gave the per-centage strength, by
VOLUME, with tolerable accuracy, at the standard temperature of 60° Fahr.
Gay-Lussac’s ALCOÖMETRE, which closely resembles that of Tralles, is
adjusted for the temperature of 59° Fahr. (15° Cent.). All of these, to
give at once accurate results, must, of course, be employed at the ‘normal
temperature’ of the instrument. As, however, in practice, the experiment
cannot be conveniently performed at any ‘fixed’ temperature but only at
that of the atmosphere, it is obvious that certain corrections are
constantly required in order to obtain results of any value. Perfect
accuracy requires that table for every variation of the thermometer,
founded on actual experiments, should accompany each instrument; as,
without them, tedious and difficult calculations are necessary, which, in
the hurry of the cellar and laboratory, or by persons inexpert at figures,
are not easily performed. A series of such Tables were prepared by
Gay-Lussac, and, with his instrument, are those which are almost
exclusively used in France. For rough purposes, in the absence of Tables
or nicer calculations, it may be useful to know that, for commercial
spirits, at ordinary temperatures, a variation of——

                              By VOLUME,
  5° Fahr. is equal }  1·00%     of Alcohol; }  1·794% of Proof
         to (about) }            or (about)  }     spirit.
  1°   ”     ”         0·20%         ”          0·359%  ”
  5° Cent.   ”         1·80%         ”          3·229%  ”
  1°   ”     ”         0·36%         ”          0·646%  ”

                              By WEIGHT,
  5° Fahr. is equal }  0·80%     of Alcohol; }  1·62%   ”
         to (about) }            or (about)  }
  1°   ”     ”          ·16%         ”           ·32%   ”
  5° Cent.   ”         1·43%         ”          2·9%    ”
  1°   ”     ”          ·28%         ”           ·58%   ”

        TABLE I.——_Showing the Densities and Values of Spirits
        at 60° Fahr., corresponding to every Indication of
        Sykes’ Hydrometer._

  +-----------+---------+----------+--------------------+
  |           |         |          |    Per Cents. of   |
  |  Sykes’   |         |          |  Absolute Alcohol. |
  |Hydrometer |Strength | Specific +----------+---------+
  |Indication.|per cent.| Gravity. |   By     |   By    |
  |           |         |          | Measure. | Weight. |
  +-----------+---------+----------+----------+---------+
  |           |   O.P.  |          |          |         |
  |     0     |   67·0  |  ·81520  |   95·28  |  92·78  |
  |     1     |   66·1  |  ·81715  |   94·78  |  92·08  |
  |     2     |   65·3  |  ·81889  |   94·31  |  91·42  |
  |     3     |   64·5  |  ·82061  |   93·84  |  90·78  |
  |     4     |   63·6  |  ·82251  |   93·33  |  90·07  |
  |     5     |   62·7  |  ·82441  |   92·80  |  89·36  |
  |     6     |   61·8  |  ·82622  |   92·29  |  88·67  |
  |     7     |   60·9  |  ·82800  |   91·77  |  87·99  |
  |     8     |   60·0  |  ·82978  |   91·25  |  87·30  |
  |     9     |   59·1  |  ·83151  |   90·74  |  86·63  |
  |    10     |   58·2  |  ·83323  |   90·23  |  85·96  |
  |    11     |   57·3  |  ·83494  |   89·72  |  85·30  |
  |    12     |   56·4  |  ·83661  |   89·21  |  84·65  |
  |    13     |   55·5  |  ·83827  |   88·70  |  84·00  |
  |    14     |   54·6  |  ·83993  |   88·17  |  83·33  |
  |    15     |   53·7  |  ·84153  |   87·67  |  82·70  |
  |    16     |   52·7  |  ·84331  |   87·10  |  81·99  |
  |    17     |   51·7  |  ·84509  |   86·51  |  81·26  |
  |    18     |   50·7  |  ·84680  |   85·95  |  80·58  |
  |    19     |   49·7  |  ·84851  |   85·39  |  79·89  |
  |    20     |   48·7  |  ·85022  |   84·81  |  79·19  |
  |    21     |   47·6  |  ·85205  |   84·19  |  78·44  |
  |    22     |   46·6  |  ·85372  |   83·61  |  77·74  |
  |    23     |   45·6  |  ·85537  |   83·04  |  77·07  |
  |    24     |   44·6  |  ·85700  |   82·47  |  76·39  |
  |    25     |   43·5  |  ·85878  |   81·85  |  75·66  |
  |    26     |   42·4  |  ·86055  |   81·21  |  74·92  |
  |    27     |   41·3  |  ·86229  |   80·59  |  74·19  |
  |    28     |   40·2  |  ·86402  |   79·97  |  73·47  |
  |    29     |   39·1  |  ·86574  |   79·34  |  72·75  |
  |    30     |   38·0  |  ·86745  |   78·71  |  72·03  |
  |    31     |   36·9  |  ·86915  |   78·08  |  71·32  |
  |    32     |   35·7  |  ·87099  |   77·40  |  70·54  |
  |    33     |   34·5  |  ·87282  |   76·71  |  69·77  |
  |    34     |   33·4  |  ·87450  |   76·08  |  69·06  |
  |    35     |   32·2  |  ·87627  |   75·41  |  68·32  |
  |    36     |   31·0  |  ·87809  |   74·72  |  67·55  |
  |    37     |   29·8  |  ·87988  |   74·03  |  66·79  |
  |    38     |   28·5  |  ·88179  |   73·29  |  65·98  |
  |    39     |   27·3  |  ·88355  |   72·60  |  65·23  |
  |    40     |   26·0  |  ·88544  |   71·86  |  64·43  |
  |    41     |   24·8  |  ·88716  |   71·17  |  63·68  |
  |    42     |   23·5  |  ·88901  |   70·43  |  62·89  |
  |    43     |   22·2  |  ·89086  |   69·69  |  62·10  |
  |    44     |   20·9  |  ·89268  |   68·95  |  61·32  |
  |    45     |   19·6  |  ·89451  |   68·21  |  60·53  |
  |    46     |   18·3  |  ·89629  |   67·47  |  59·76  |
  |    47     |   16·9  |  ·89822  |   66·67  |  58·92  |
  |    48     |   15·6  |  ·89997  |   65·93  |  58·15  |
  |    49     |   14·2  |  ·90182  |   65·14  |  57·34  |
  |    50     |   12·8  |  ·90367  |   64·34  |  56·52  |
  |    51     |   11·4  |  ·90551  |   63·54  |  55·70  |
  |    52     |   10·0  |  ·90732  |   62·74  |  54·89  |
  |    53     |    8·6  |  ·90913  |   61·94  |  54·09  |
  |    54     |    7·1  |  ·91107  |   61·09  |  53·23  |
  |    55     |    5·6  |  ·91299  |   60·24  |  52·38  |
  |    56     |    4·2  |  ·91479  |   59·43  |  51·57  |
  |    57     |    2·7  |  ·91666  |   58·58  |  50·73  |
  |    58     |    1·3  |  ·91839  |   57·78  |  49·94  |
  |           |   U.P.  |          |          |         |
  |    59     |    0·3  |  ·92037  |   56·86  |  49·04  |
  |    60     |    1·9  |  ·92228  |   55·96  |  48·17  |
  |    61     |    3·4  |  ·92408  |   55·10  |  47·33  |
  |    62     |    5·0  |  ·92597  |   54·19  |  46·46  |
  |    63     |    6·7  |  ·92798  |   53·22  |  45·53  |
  |    64     |    8·3  |  ·92984  |   52·30  |  44·65  |
  |    65     |   10·0  |  ·93176  |   51·36  |  43·76  |
  |    66     |   11·7  |  ·93367  |   50·39  |  42·84  |
  |    67     |   13·5  |  ·93586  |   49·34  |  41·86  |
  |    68     |   15·3  |  ·93758  |   48·31  |  40·90  |
  |    69     |   17·1  |  ·93949  |   47·29  |  39·96  |
  |    70     |   18·9  |  ·94135  |   46·29  |  39·04  |
  |    71     |   20·8  |  ·94327  |   45·20  |  38·04  |
  |    72     |   22·7  |  ·94518  |   44·09  |  37·03  |
  |    73     |   24·7  |  ·94709  |   42·96  |  36·01  |
  |    74     |   26·7  |  ·94899  |   41·82  |  34·98  |
  |    75     |   28·8  |  ·95092  |   40·63  |  33·92  |
  |    76     |   31·0  |  ·95288  |   39·40  |  32·82  |
  |    77     |   33·2  |  ·95484  |   38·10  |  31·68  |
  |    78     |   35·6  |  ·95677  |   36·76  |  30·50  |
  |    79     |   38·1  |  ·95877  |   35·32  |  29·24  |
  |    80     |   40·6  |  ·96068  |   33·90  |  28·01  |
  |    81     |   43·3  |  ·96259  |   32·41  |  26·73  |
  |    82     |   46·1  |  ·96457  |   30·77  |  25·32  |
  |    83     |   49·1  |  ·96651  |   29·08  |  23·88  |
  |    84     |   52·2  |  ·96846  |   27·31  |  22·38  |
  |    85     |   55·5  |  ·97049  |   25·39  |  20·77  |
  |    86     |   59·0  |  ·97254  |   23·41  |  19·11  |
  |    87     |   62·5  |  ·97458  |   21·39  |  17·42  |
  |    88     |   66·0  |  ·97660  |   19·41  |  15·78  |
  |    89     |   69·4  |  ·97857  |   17·46  |  14·16  |
  |    90     |   72·8  |  ·98057  |   15·51  |  12·56  |
  |    91     |   76·1  |  ·98261  |   13·58  |  10·97  |
  |    92     |   79·2  |  ·98452  |   11·85  |   9·56  |
  |    93     |   82·3  |  ·98657  |   10·04  |   8·08  |
  |    94     |   85·2  |  ·98866  |    8·28  |   6·65  |
  |    95     |   88·0  |  ·99047  |    6·83  |   5·48  |
  |    96     |   90·7  |  ·99251  |    5·25  |   4·20  |
  |    97     |   93·3  |  ·99448  |    3·80  |   3·03  |
  |    98     |   95·9  |  ·99658  |    2·31  |   1·84  |
  |    99     |   98·2  |  ·99851  |    ·997  |   ·793  |
  |   100     |   ...   | 1·00000  |    ...   |   ...   |
  +-----------+---------+----------+----------+---------+

This Table {above} has been copied, by permission, from Loftus’s ‘Inland
Revenue Officer’s Manual,’ and its correctness verified by W. H. Johnston,
Esq., Surveying General Examiner.

        TABLE II.——_Table for finding the Specific Gravity of
        any Spirit at 60° Fahr., when the Specific Gravity at
        any other Temperature is given._

                      Water taken as 1000.
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+
  |                 |Correction|                 |Correction|
  |Specific gravity.| for each |Specific gravity.| for each |
  |                 | degree.  |                 | degree.  |
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+
  |   810 to 820    |  ± ·475  |   910 to 920    |  ± ·434  |
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+
  |   820 ”  830    |  ± ·473  |   920 ”  930    |  ± ·424  |
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+
  |   830 ”  840    |  ± ·472  |   930 ”  940    |  ± ·406  |
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+
  |   840 ”  850    |  ± ·471  |   940 ”  950    |  ± ·381  |
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+
  |   850 ”  860    |  ± ·471  |   950 ”  960    |  ± ·340  |
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+
  |   860 ”  870    |  ± ·466  |   960 ”  970    |  ± ·269  |
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+
  |   870 ”  880    |  ± ·460  |   970 ”  980    |  ± ·165  |
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+
  |   880 ”  890    |  ± ·456  |   980 ”  990    |  ± ·090  |
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+
  |   890 ”  900    |  ± ·450  |   990 ”  1000   |  ± ·084  |
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+
  |   900 ”  910    |  ± ·442  |                 |          |
  +-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+

Thus, by making the proper ADDITION to the apparent strength per cent.,
when the observed temperature is BELOW the normal temperature of the
instrument, or a corresponding SUBTRACTION, when it is ABOVE it, the
strength of the sample may be determined sufficiently near for all
practical purposes.

The following Table, taken from Loftus’s ‘Inland Revenue Officer’s
Manual,’ will be found of great value in making these corrections, and has
the merit of being easily applied.

An example will show how this Table is to be used.

_Example._——If a quantity of spirit is of the sp. gr. 894 at 73°, what
will be its sp. gr. at 60°?

Here the sp. gr. being between 890 and 900, we must add ·450 for each
degree of temperature between 73° and 60°. The sp. gr. at 60° would,
therefore, be 894 + (·450 × 13) = 899·85. When the temperature is below
60°, the correction for each degree must be subtracted. When, however,
very accurate results are desired, and the necessary Tables are not
accessible, the sample for trial must be brought to the normal temperature
of the instrument, in the manner explained under HYDROMETRY.

_c._ From the SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The temperature having been taken by a
thermometer, and the specific gravity ascertained by any of the usual
methods, but preferably by means of an accurate glass hydrometer, it
merely becomes necessary to refer to Table I, where, against the number
expressing the specific gravity, the alcoholic content per cent., by
volume, of the sample examined, will be found for 60° Fahr., subject to
the corrections just referred to, when the temperature is either above or
below this point.

If the precise specific gravity sought cannot be found in the _Table_, the
difference between it and the next greater specific gravity must be taken
for the numerator of a fraction, having for its denominator the difference
between the greater and the next less specific gravity in the table. This
fraction, added to the per-centage of alcohol in the fourth column of the
table, opposite the greater sp. gr., will give the true per-centage
sought. Thus, the sp. gr. ·96051 is not in the table, and the next greater
number is ·96068; the former must, therefore, be deducted from the latter,
and the difference (17) put as the numerator of the fraction, having for
its denominator 191, the difference between ·96068 and ·95877. The
fraction (17/191) ·089, so found, added to the per-centage strength
opposite ·96068 in the third column, gives 33·989 as the true per-centage
of alcohol in the given sample.

The per-centage by volume may be converted into per-centage by weight, by
multiplying the former by ·793811, the sp. gr. of absolute alcohol, and
dividing the product by the sp. gr. of the sample. The quotient is the
number of pounds of alcohol in 100 pounds of the given spirit.
Thus:——Suppose 1000 grains by measure of alcohol to weigh 950·92 grains,
and to contain (see Table I) 40·63 per cent. by volume of absolute
alcohol, what per cent. by weight does the sample contain?

·793811 × 40·63 = 32·25254093, and this product divided by ·95092 =
33·917, the true per-centage by weight of absolute alcohol in the sample.

2. Method based on the specific gravity, or per-centage strength by
WEIGHT:——

The specific gravity is ascertained and the Table used in precisely the
same manner as in the “method by volume,” already described.

The per-centage by weight may be converted into per-centage by volume, by
multiplying the former by the sp. gr. of the sample, and dividing the
product by the sp. gr. of absolute alcohol. This is merely the reverse of
the operation described above.

_Obs._ The preceding methods of alcoholometry, as well as all others
depending on the sp. gr. refer to UNSWEETENED SPIRITS only; and are
inapplicable to those holding sugar in solution, or any other organic
matter capable of altering the sp. gr. For sweetened spirits, fermented
worts, wine, beer, &c., one or other of the following processes must be
adopted:——

3. Other methods, adapted to either SWEETENED or UNSWEETENED SPIRITS,
Tinctures, Fermented Liquors, &c.——

_a._ By DISTILLATION as originally proposed by M. Gay-Lussac. 300 parts of
the liquor under examination (measured in a graduated glass tube) are
placed in a retort or small still, and a quantity exactly equal to one
third (_i.e._, 100 parts), carefully drawn over; a graduated glass
tube[13] being used as a receiver, and the operation stopped as soon as
the distillate reaches the hundredth degree. The ‘alcoholic strength’ of
the distilled liquor is then ascertained by any of the usual methods, and
the result divided by three, when the per-centage of alcohol in the
original liquor is at once obtained. If, from want of attention, more than
100 parts should be distilled over, the number which expresses the
relation of the volume of the distilled product to the original bulk of
the liquor tested, must be employed as the divisor. Thus, if 106 parts of
liquor have distilled over (instead of 100), containing 33% of alcohol,
the 300 must be divided by 106, which gives 2·83, and the 33% by this
2·83, which gives 11·66%, the true proportion of alcohol in the original
liquor. The strength at ‘proof’ may be calculated from this in the usual
way.

[Footnote 13: Mulder, in his ‘Chemistry of Wine’ recommends this receiver
to be shaped like a bottle, with its neck, or tubular part, bent at right
angles above the line of its scale; and that it should be set in the
centre of a glass jar kept filled with very cold water.]

To ensure accurate results, the acidity (if any) of the liquor must be
neutralised with carbonate of sodium, prior to distillation. It is also
advisable to add 8% or 10% of common salt to the liquor in the retort or
still; this, by raising the boiling point, causes the whole of the spirit
to pass over into the receiver before the distillate has reached the
required measure. This applies more particularly to weak liquors. With
those of greater strength (as the stronger wines), it is better to distil
over 150 parts, and divide the result by 2 instead of 3. To liquors
stronger than 25% by volume of alcohol, or above 52% to 54% under proof,
add about an equal volume of water to the liquor in the still, and draw
over a quantity equal to that of the sample tested; when the alcoholic
strength of the distillate gives, without calculation, the true strength
sought. To liquors stronger than 48% to 50% (14 to 12 u. p.), add thrice
their bulk of water, and do not stop the process until the volume of the
distillate is double that of the sample tested, when the per-centage
obtained must also be doubled. In each case a proportionate quantity of
salt is employed.

REVENUE METHOD. The following is the method adopted in the Inland Revenue
and Customs Laboratories for the estimation of the per-centage of alcohol
in wines, liqueurs, &c. A measure flask is filled up to a mark on its
neck, with the wine, which is then carefully transferred to a distilling
flask or retort, the traces of wine remaining in the former vessel being
rinsed out with small quantities of distilled water, and the rinsings
added to the wine in the latter vessel. About two thirds of the contents
of the retort are then distilled over into the clean measure flask, and
made up to the original bulk with distilled water, at the same temperature
as the sample was previous to distillation. The strength is then taken by
Sykes’ hydrometer, and this (if u. p.) deducted from 100, gives the
per-centage of proof spirit in the wine. Thus:——

Strength of distillate = 74·6 u. p. = 25·4 per cent. proof spirit.

_b._ From the TEMPERATURE of the VAPOUR, as originally proposed by
Gröning. The bulb of a thermometer is thrust through a cork into the head
of the still, or other vessel employed, and the temperature of the vapour
in which it is immersed being noted, is sought in the following table:——

        TABLE III.——_Showing the Alcoholic Content, by_
        VOLUME_, of Boiling Spirits, and of their Vapour, from
        the Temperature of the latter, as observed by a
        Thermometer._ By GRÖNING.

  +---------------+-------------------+-------------------+----------------+-------------------+------------------+
  |Temperature of | Alcoholic content | Alcoholic content | Temperature of | Alcoholic content | Alcoholic content|
  |  the Vapour.  | of the Distillate |  of the Boiling   |   the Vapour.  | of the Distillate |  of the Boiling  |
  |     Fahr.     |    per cent.      |  Liquid per cent. |     Fahr.      |    per cent.      |  Liquid per cent.|
  +---------------+-------------------+-------------------+----------------+-------------------+------------------+
  |     170·0     |      93           |        92         |     189·8      |      71           |        20        |
  |     171·8     |      92           |        90         |     192·0      |      68           |        18        |
  |     172·0     |      91           |        85         |     194·0      |      66           |        15        |
  |     172·8     |      90-1/2       |        80         |     196·4      |      61           |        12        |
  |     174·0     |      90           |        75         |     198·6      |      55           |        10        |
  |     174·6     |      89           |        70         |     201·0      |      50           |         7        |
  |     176·0     |      87           |        65         |     203·0      |      42           |         5        |
  |     178·3     |      85           |        50         |     205·4      |      36           |         3        |
  |     180·8     |      82           |        40         |     207·7      |      28           |         2        |
  |     183·0     |      80           |        35         |     210·0      |      13           |         1        |
  |     185·0     |      78           |        30         |     212·0      |       0           |         0        |
  |     187·4     |      76           |        25         |                |                   |                  |
  +---------------+-------------------+-------------------+----------------+-------------------+------------------+

This method is admirably adapted to the purposes of the distiller and
rectifier, as it furnishes a ready means of approximately determining the
strength of the spirit passing over, at every part of the process of
distillation, as well as that of the wash left in the still.

_c._ From the BOILING POINT, as originally proposed by M. l’Abbé
Brossard-Vidal. This method is founded on the fact, that the boiling
points of mixtures of alcohol and water, unlike water alone, are scarcely
disturbed by the addition of saline, saccharine, or extractive matter
within certain limits. It hence offers a ready means of determining the
proportion of alcohol present in spirits, wines, fermented liquors, &c.,
with sufficient accuracy for all ordinary purposes. In applying it, a
thermometer, with a large bulb and a narrow bore, and a movable scale
graduated from 180° to 212° Fahr., is usually employed. Before using it as
an alcoholometer, it is set, with its bulb immersed, in a small metallic
boiler (brass or copper) containing distilled water, which is then raised
to the boiling-point, and the 212° of the scale accurately adjusted on a
level with the surface of the mercury, should it vary from that point.
This is necessary on account of variations of atmospheric pressure causing
corresponding variations of the boiling-points of liquids. It is then
ready for several hours’ operations, and, generally, for an entire
business day, without further adjustment. The little boiler is next filled
with the liquor to be examined, and the lamp again lighted. The
temperature as shown by the scale of the instrument at the commencement of
full ebullition being ascertained, may be sought in one of the following
_Tables_, against which the alcoholic content of the liquor will be found
(nearly).

        TABLE IV.——_Exhibiting the_ BOILING POINTS _of Mixtures
        of Alcohol and Water of the given strengths._ By
        GRÖNING.

  ---------------+------------+----------------+------------
                 | Alcohol    |                | Alcohol
  Boiling point. | per cent.  | Boiling point. | per cent.
      Fahr.      | by volume. |    Fahr.       | by volume.
  ---------------+------------+----------------+------------
     205·34      |    5       |  179·96        |  55
     199·22      |   10       |  179·42        |  60
     195·8       |   15       |  178·7         |  65
     192·38      |   20       |  177·62        |  70
     189·50      |   25       |  176·54        |  75
     187·16      |   30       |  175·46        |  80
     185·        |   35       |  174·92        |  85
     183·38      |   40       |  174·2         |  90
     182·12      |   45       |  173·14        |  95
     181·58      |   50       |  172·          | 100
  ---------------+------------+----------------+------------

        TABLE V.——_Showing the_ BOILING POINTS _of ‘under
        proof’ spirit._ By Dr URE.

  ----------------+-------------+---------------
  Boiling points. | Per-centage | Corresponding
       Fahr.      |  strength.  |    Sp. Gr.
  ----------------+-------------+---------------
      178·5       |   Proof.    |    ·9200
      179·75      |   10· U.P.  |    ·9321
      180·4       |   20·  ”    |    ·9420
      182·1       |   30·  ”    |    ·9516
      183·4       |   40·  ”    |    ·9600
      185·6       |   50·  ”    |    ·9665
      189·        |   60·  ”    |    ·9729
      191·8       |   70·  ”    |    ·9786
      196·4       |   80·  ”    |    ·9850
      202·        |   90·  ”    |    ·9920
  ----------------+-------------+---------------

_Obs._ This method does not answer well with spiritous liquor above
‘proof,’ owing to the variations of their boiling point being so slight as
not to be easily observed with accuracy; but with liquors under ‘proof,’
and particularly with wines, beer, and other fermented liquors, due care
being observed, it gives results closely approximating to those obtained
by distillation, and sufficiently accurate for all ordinary purposes. In
testing strong alcoholic solutions it is, therefore, proper to dilute them
with twice their bulk of water; and commercial spirits, with an equal bulk
of water; the results obtained being doubled or tripled as the case may
be.

[Illustration]

_d._ From the EXPANSION of the LIQUID when heated: Silbermann’s
DILATATOMETER. The expansion of alcohol between 0° and 212° Fahr. is
triple that of water; and between 77° and 122° Fahr. it is much greater.
Between -14° and -98° Fahr. the rate of expansion is about the ·00047th
part in volume for every degree of Fahrenheit’s scale. The measurement of
this expansion has been proposed as a new and ready method of
alcoholometry, adapted to nearly all spirituous and fermented liquors.
Silbermann’s instrument, which is based on it (see _engr._), simply
consists of a flat brass or ivory plate (_A_), on which are fixed a
mercurial thermometer (_D_) graduated from 22° to 50° Cent. (= 77° to 122°
Fahr.); and the DILATATOMETER (_B_), which is a glass pipette open at both
ends. A valve of cork, or vulcanised india rubber, closes the tapering end
(_c_); this valve is attached to a movable rod (_C_) which is fastened to
the supporting-plate, and connected with a spring (_f_) and a handle
(_g_) bearing a four-threaded screw, by which the lower orifice of the
pipette can be opened or closed at will. In use, the pipette is filled
with the liquor under examination, to a little above the zero point (0) on
the scale. This is effected by suction, by means of a little piston of
leather (_i_), which fits tightly in the long and wider limb of the
pipette; the valve (_d_) being previously opened by turning the knob
(_h_). The proper quantity of liquor being introduced, and the lower end
closed, the piston is moved up and down two or three times, for the
purpose of drawing the air-bubbles and absorbed air out of the liquid, the
presence of which would vitiate the results of the trial. To allow the
piston to be withdrawn without any shock, or the danger of dividing the
column abruptly, the rod attached to it is made hollow throughout. In
using it the operator applies the ball of his forefinger to the top of the
piston-rod (_E_), in order to create a vacuum as he raises it; and then
withdraws it, to readmit the air when he thrusts it down or removes it
from the tube. The excess of liquid (if any) in the pipette is then run
off until its upper surface is exactly level with the zero (0) of the
scale, at 25° C., to which it is raised by immersion in a water bath of
that temperature, as observed by the thermometer; which is done by very
cautiously turning the rod which depresses the valve. The whole apparatus
is now again immersed in the water bath; and, held by the upper portion of
the plate, kept in gentle motion with the hand, until the temperature
rises to exactly 50° C., when the coefficient of expansion is obtained,
and hence also the proportion of alcohol——the scale of the instrument
being so graduated, from actual experiments previously made upon mixtures
of known composition, as to give, at once, the per-centage of alcohol by
VOLUME (nearly).[14]

[Footnote 14: ‘Comptes Rendus,’ xvii, 418.]

[Illustration]

_e._ From the TENSION of the VAPOUR:——Geissler’s ALCOHOLOMETER. This
method, for which we are indebted to M. Geissler, of Bonn, depends on the
measurement of the tension or elastic force of the vapour of the liquid,
as indicated by the height to which it raises a small column of mercury.
The spirit, wine, or other liquor, of which it is desired to ascertain the
strength, is put into the little flask (_a_), which, when completely
filled, is screwed on to the curved glass-tube which contains the
mercurial column (which is inverted for the purpose), and is closed by the
stop-cock (_b_). The instrument (see _engr._) is then placed erect, and
the flask and lower part of the tube immersed in a water bath, as in the
previous method. The number, on the graduated scale of the instrument
corresponding to the height of the mercury, at the boiling point of the
liquor under examination, gives the per-centage of alcohol by VOLUME
(nearly).

This method furnishes approximative results with great facility and
expedition; and, with proper care, these do not vary more than 1/3 to 1/2
of 1%, from those obtained by distillation. We find, that by having the
diameter of the part of the tube at which the surface of the mercury is
acted on by the vapour a little larger than that of the longer limb, and
by previously abstracting the air from the sample, as in Silbermann’s
method, or even by agitation and exposure in an open vessel, the two may
be made to correspond almost exactly.

_f._ From the DIFFERENCE between the sp. gr. BEFORE and AFTER
ebullitiom:——Taberié’s method and ŒNOMETER. The sp. gr. of the sample is
first accurately determined by any of the usual methods. It is next
carefully evaporated, in an open vessel, to one half its volume. The
residuum, when cold, is made up with pure water to exactly its original
measure at its original temperature, and the sp. gr. again ascertained.
The difference between the two being due to the spirit originally present,
furnishes the means of calculating a new sp. gr., from which the
per-centage richness of the sample may be obtained by mere inspection of
the Tables. The observed sp. gr. is the true one, whenever the liquor,
after ebullition and restoration to its original volume, has the same sp.
gr. as water (_i. e._, 1·000), at 60° Fahr. Taberié employs a peculiar
instrument, which he calls an œnometer; but its use is not essential to
his method of alcoholometry. The results are, of course, only
approximative, though sufficient for all ordinary purposes. Prof. Mulder,
however, says that he prefers it to any of the previous methods; and that
the results, with care, are almost as accurate as those obtained by
distillation.

_g._ By means of CARBONATE OF POTASH:——

_g. a._ (Brande’s Method.) The liquor for trial is poured into a long,
narrow glass tube (graduated centesimally), until the vessel is
half-filled, and, after the solution of about 12% or 15% of a strong
solution of subacetate of lead, or a little finely powdered litharge, is
agitated until the colour is entirely, or nearly removed. Anhydrous
carbonate of potash, in powder, is next added, until it sinks undissolved,
even after prolonged agitation of the liquid. The whole is now allowed to
repose for a short time, when the alcohol is seen floating on the top of
the aqueous portion of the liquid in a well-marked stratum. Its quantity,
read off by means of the graduations of the tube, and doubled, gives the
per-centage richness of the sample in alcohol, by volume.

This process answers well with cordials, wines, and the stronger ales; but
with very weak liquors it is not to be relied on. The whole operation may
be performed in two to five minutes, and (with these exceptions) furnishes
very reliable approximative results. In most cases the decolouring part of
the process may be omitted. The alcohol thus separated has a sp. gr. of
from ·8061 to ·8118, and contains 3% or 4% of water; but for ordinary
purposes it may be regarded as pure alcohol.

4. Alcoholometry of MINUTE QUANTITIES of liquid. When only a few drops, or
a quantity too small for the application of the preceding methods, can be
obtained, an organic analysis may be had recourse to, and the quantity of
absolute alcohol calculated from that of the resulting carbonic anhydride
and water; care being previously taken to free the sample from other
volatile bodies, if it contains any of them.

_Gen. commentary._ The duties on spirits in England are charged on the
number of proof gallons they contain, which is ascertained by gauging or
weighing the spirit, and then trying its strength by Sykes’ hydrometer.
The per-centage of proof spirit multiplied by the number of gallons gives
the net amount of proof spirit to be charged.

‘PROOF STRENGTH’ is an arbitrary standard, adopted for the purpose of
facilitating calculations, for which it is well suited; although pure
alcohol would, for this purpose, be more simple. As defined by Act of
Parliament, 58 Geo. III, c. 28, “proof spirit” is such “as shall, at the
temperature of 51° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, weigh exactly twelve
thirteenth parts of an equal measure of distilled water.”

Taking, therefore, water at 51° Fahr. as unity, the sp. gr. of “proof
spirit” at 51° Fahr. is 12/13 of 1·000 or ·92308. When such spirit is
raised to the temperature of 60° Fahr., its density is ·91984.

Spirit at “proof” contains very nearly equal weights of absolute alcohol
and water; the exact proportions according to recent experiments are:——

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                  |           By VOLUME.                  |            |
   By WEIGHT.     |---------------------------------------| Sp. gr. at |
                  |   Bulk before   | Bulk after admixture| 60° Fahr.  |
                  |   admixture.    | and condensation.   |            |
  ----------------+-----------------+----------------------------------|
  Alcohol.  Water.| Alcohol.  Water.|                                  |
  100·00 + 103·08 |  100·00 + 81·80 |    175·23            }  ·91984   |
   49·24 +  50·76 |   57·06 + 46·68 |    100·00            }           |
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------

The standard alcohol of the Revenue authorities, and that on which
Gilpin’s Tables are founded, is a spirit of the sp. gr. ·825 at 60° Fahr.,
which is said to contain, by weight, 89% of pure alcohol of ·796; and
92·6% of alcohol, by volume, which corresponds to about 62·5 o. p.

It is of great importance to the spirit dealer to be able to estimate
correctly the number of ‘proof gallons’ in any quantity of his
commodities, or in the whole or any portion of his stock, as disagreeable
errors frequently result from ignorance on this point. Calculations of
this kind are extremely simple. Thus, when we find, by the hydrometer,
that a given sample of spirit is 10 per cent. over-proof, it means, that
100 gallons of such spirit contain as much alcohol as 110 gallons of proof
spirit.

In over-proof spirit, the per-centage o. p. always represents the quantity
of water which the given spirit requires to reduce it to proof. By adding
this per-centage over-proof to 100, we obtain a number which, multiplied
by any number of gallons, and divided by 100, gives the exact number of
proof gallons which is contained in any quantity of the spirit referred
to. Thus:——A puncheon of rum gauged at 91 galls., and shown by the
hydrometer to be 21 o. p., contains——

  21 o. p. of sample added to 100    121
  No. of gallons of rum               91
                                  ——————
                                   11011

  No. of gal. of proof-spirit = 11011 / 100 = 110·11

In like manner when a spirit is said to be 11 u. p., or under-proof, it
means that 100 gal. of such spirit contains 11 gal. of water, and 89 gal.
of ‘proof spirit.’ By deducting the per-centage under-proof from 100, we
not only obtain the number of proof gal. contained in 100 gal. of such
spirit, but, as in the last case, a factor which multiplied by any number
of gal., and divided by 100, gives the exact number of ‘proof gallons’
contained in any quantity of the given strength. Thus:——An ullage brandy
piece containing 45 gal. of spirit at 10 u. p., would have the proof value
of——

  Per cent. u. p. of sample 10, }
    subtracted from 100         } 90
  No. of gall                     45
                                 ———
                                4050

  Quantity of proof spirit = 4050 / 100 = 40·50

Or exactly 40-1/2 gallons.

The strength of absolute alcohol (sp. gr. ·7938) is estimated at 75-1/4%
over-proof. It therefore contains 175-1/4% of ‘proof spirit,’ whilst
proof spirit (sp. gr. ·91984) contains 57·06% of ‘absolute alcohol,’ both
being by measure or volume. Thus——

  (meas. of alc. × 175-1/4) / 100   = equiv. meas. of pf. spt.

And——

  (meas. of pf. spt. × 57·06) / 100  = equiv. meas. of abs. alc.

From which we derive the ‘constant multipliers’ 1·7525 (or roughly 1-3/4),
and ·5706, applicable to any number of volumes or gallons. For——

  meas. of alc. × 1·7525 = equiv. meas. of pf. spt.

and——

  meas. of pt. spt. × ·5706 = equiv. meas. of alc.

To ascertain what quantity of a spirit at any given strength is equiv. to
or contains 100 lbs. of absolute alcohol, we have only to divide the
constant number 2207·7 by the proof value per cent. of such spirit.[15]
Thus——for a spirit 12 u. p.——this would be

[Footnote 15: This number is obtained thus:——

  100 /·79381 = 12·6 (nearly),

  12·6 × 175·25 = 2207·7.

]

  100 - 12 = 88% of proof spirit;

and——

  2207·7 / 88 = 25·1 gal. (nearly).

That is, 25-1/10 gal. of such spirit would contain 100 lbs. of absolute
alcohol.

By removing the decimal point one place to the _right_, we have the equiv.
measure of 1000 lbs. By removing it one, two, or three places to the
_left_, we have it respectively for 10 lbs., 1 lb., and 1/10 lb.; from
which the equiv. for all other weights may be easily obtained.

By reversing the above operation, the measure of alcohol corresponding to
any given weight of spirit, at any strength, may also be easily found.

The weight of 1 gal. of absolute alcohol being 7·938 lbs.; that of 1 gal.
of proof spirit, 9·2 lbs,; and that of the ‘alcohol’ in 1 gal. of proof
spirit, 4·53 lbs.; the weight of any number of gallons or volumes of
either, and their equivalents, may be easily found. Thus:——

  gallons of alc. × 7·938 = lbs. weight of alc.
    ”     pf. sp. × 9·2   = lbs. w. of pf. spt.

and——

  gallons of alc. × 16·121 = lbs. weight of pf. spt.
     ”   pf. spt. ×  4·53  = content in lbs. weight of alc.

In these cases a knowledge of the first four rules of decimal fractions is
necessary, or, at least, advantageous; as the Excise officers carry their
calculations to two figures of decimals, or 1/100ths. Their plan is to
reject the third decimal figure when less than 5; but to carry 1 to the
next figure on the left hand, when it exceeds 5. Thus, 5·432 is set down
as only 5·43; but 5·437 is written 5·44. In the delicate chemical
processes of the laboratory, even greater accuracy is observed.

Formerly, spirit was said to be 1 to 3, 1 to 4, &c., over-proof, by which
it was meant that 1 gal. of water added to 3 or 4 gals. of such spirit
would reduce it to ‘proof.’ On the other hand, 1 in 5, or 1 in 8,
under-proof, meant that the 5 or 8 gals., as the case might be, contained
1 gal. of water, and the remainder represented the quantity of ‘proof
spirit.’ This method of calculation has now long given way to the
‘centigrade system,’ which not only admits of greater accuracy, but is
quite as simple. It should be adopted by every spirit-dealer in England,
from being that which is employed by the Revenue officers, whose ‘surveys’
it is absolutely necessary that the trader should understand, in order
that his own estimation of his stock and his business calculations should
correspond with theirs.

Several other methods of alcoholometry, besides those already noticed,
have been adopted at various times, but the majority of them possess so
little accuracy as to be quite inapplicable to the purposes of trade, and
of the laboratory. Thus, the strength was at one time estimated by what
was called the ‘proof.’ A little of the spirit was poured upon a small
quantity of gunpowder, contained in a spoon or saucer, so as just to
moisten it, and was then inflamed. If at the end of the combustion the
gunpowder took fire, the spirit was held to be ‘above proof,’ if it only
languidly fizzed away, or slowly burnt, the spirit was said to be ‘proof,’
but if the gunpowder failed to ignite, the spirit was esteemed ‘below
proof.’ Hence arose the terms ‘proof’ and ‘proof spirit,’ which have since
been adopted by Act of Parliament. Another method was that of dropping oil
into the spirit; if the oil floated, the spirit was considered to be
‘under proof,’ if it sunk, it was rated as ‘proof’ or ‘over-proof.’ The
‘gunpowder test’ is quite fallacious; for, if a certain quantity of a
spirit is capable of firing the gunpowder, a little excess of a spirit 20%
or 25% stronger will often fail to do so, so much water being formed as to
prevent the ignition. The ‘PREUVE D’HOLLAND’ test, of the French, or the
‘BEAD,’ is still frequently employed by persons unacquainted with the use
of the hydrometer. It consists in shaking the spirit in a phial, and
observing the size, number, and duration of the bubbles or beads, as they
are called. The larger and more numerous these are, and the more rapidly
they break and disappear, the stronger the spirit is presumed to be. This
method is unreliable, as the presence of sugar or acid, even in minute
quantities, will sometimes give to a weak sample the appearance of one
many degrees stronger. LOVI’S BEADS are also often employed to ascertain
approximately the strength of spirit, when a hydrometer is not at hand.

The insufficiency of most of the methods of alcoholometry here referred
to, throws us back on the Revenue System (Sykes’ hydrometer), or on the
specific gravity for unsweetened spirits. For sweetened spirits, as
cordials, wines, beers, &c., there are none of the tests which give such
accurate results as the distillation test, previously described as the
Revenue Method.

The spirituous liquors of commerce being sold by measure, and not by
weight, the methods of alcoholometry which give the results, per cent., by
volume, are those we have chiefly explained. In the laboratory, the method
by weight is that most generally employed in delicate processes and in
analyses. By weight, the per-centage of alcohol remains the same for all
temperatures, for the same sample; whilst by volume, the per-centage
varies with the temperature of the liquid. This variation explains the
cause of many of the sudden apparent decreases and increases, which occur
in large stocks of spirits. Persons purchasing spirits during very warm
weather, and paying for them according to their apparent quantity and
strength, lose considerably by selling the same spirit when the weather
becomes colder, without being conscious of such loss from the hydrometer.
The reason of this is obvious, for, whilst the relative proportions of the
alcohol to the water continue the same, the sp. gr. and the volume alter
with the temperature; the latter being increased by warmth, and decreased
by cold, in exact opposition to the former. Accuracy requires, in all
cases, that a spirituous liquor should be tested for its strength at the
temperature at which it was measured; and measured at the same temperature
at which its strength was determined.

A consideration of these facts has led some of the great houses to
introduce the system of weighing their spirits, instead of measuring them,
the weight of an imperial gallon at 60° Fahr. being taken as the standard
gallon. This is the method adopted by the Inland Revenue, at all
distilleries, for assessing the duty, and will be readily understood by
the following example:——

                             Cwts. qrs. lbs.

  Gross weight of full cask =  13   2   27
  Tare                      =  2    2    5
                              ------------
  Net weight of spirit      =  11   0   22

or 1254 lbs. Let us suppose the hydrometer indication to be 43·0, the
weight per imperial gallon would be 8·903 lbs. (see Table VI), and 1254 ÷
8·903 = 140 gallons.

        TABLE VI.——_Table for determining the Weight per Gallon
        of Spirits by Sykes’ Hydrometer._

    A = Indication on Sykes’ Hydrometer.
    B = Weight per Gallon.

    A      B       A      B       A      B       A      B       A      B
   0     8·145      8   8·509      6   8·878      4   9·264      2   9·667
     2   8·157   21     8·512      8   8·881      6   9·267      4   9·671
     4   8·161      2   8·516   42     8·885      8   9·271      6   9·674
     6   8·164      4   8·519      2   8·889   63     9·275      8   9·678
     8   8·168      6   8·523      4   8·892      2   9·279   84     9·682
   1     8·171      8   8·526      6   8·896      4   9·283      2   9·686
     2   8·174   22     8·530      8   8·899      6   9·286      4   9·690
     4   8·178      2   8·533   43     8·903      8   9·290      6   9·694
     6   8·181      4   8·537      2   8·907   64     9·294      8   9·698
     8   8·185      6   8·540      4   8·911      2   9·298   85     9·702
   2     8·188      8   8·544      6   8·914      4   9·302      2   9·706
     2   8·191   23     8·547      8   8·918      6   9·305      4   9·710
     4   8·195      2   8·551   44     8·922      8   9·309      6   9·714
     6   8·198      4   8·554      2   8·926   65     9·313      8   9·718
     8   8·202      6   8·558      4   8·929      2   9·317   86     9·722
   3     8·205      8   8·561      6   8·933      4   9·321      2   9·726
     2   8·208   24     8·565      8   8·936      6   9·324      4   9·730
     4   8·212      2   8·568   45     8·940      8   9·328      6   9·733
     6   8·215      4   8·572      2   8·944   66     9·332      8   9·737
     8   8·219      6   8·575      4   8·947      2   9·336   87     9·741
   4     8·222      8   8·579      6   8·951      4   9·340      2   9·745
     2   8·225   25     8·582      8   8·954      6   9·344      4   9·749
     4   8·229      2   8·586   46     8·958      8   9·348      6   9·753
     6   8·232      4   8·589      2   8·962   67     9·352      8   9·757
     8   8·236      6   8·593      4   8·965      2   9·356   88     9·761
   5     8·239      8   8·596      6   8·969      4   9·360      2   9·765
     2   8·242   26     8·600      8   8·972      6   9·363      4   9·769
     4   8·245      2   8·603   47     8·976      8   9·367      6   9·773
     6   8·249      4   8·607      2   8·980   68     9·371      8   9·777
     8   8·252      6   8·610      4   8·984      2   9·375   89     9·781
   6     8·255      8   8·614      6   8·987      4   9·379      2   9·785
     2   8·258   27     8·617      8   8·991      6   9·382      4   9·789
     4   8·262      2   8·620   48     8·995      8   9·386      6   9·792
     6   8·265      4   8·624      2   8·999   69     9·390      8   9·796
     8   8·269      6   8·628      4   9·002      2   9·394   90     9·800
   7     8·272      8   8·631      6   9·006      4   9·398      2   9·804
     2   8·275   28     8·635      8   9·009      6   9·401      4   9·808
     4   8·279      2   8·639   49     9·013      8   9·405      6   9·812
     6   8·282      4   8·642      2   9·017   70     9·409      8   9·816
     8   8·286      6   8·646      4   9·021      2   9·413   91     9·820
   8     8·289      8   8·649      6   9·024      4   9·417      2   9·824
     2   8·292   29     8·653      8   9·028      6   9·420      4   9·828
     4   8·296      2   8·656   50     9·032      8   9·424      6   9·832
     6   8·299      4   8·660      2   9·036   71     9·428      8   9·836
     8   8·303      6   8·663      4   9·039      2   9·432   92     9·840
   9     8·306      8   8·667      6   9·043      4   9·436      2   9·844
     2   8·309   30     8·670      8   9·046      6   9·440      4   9·848
     4   8·313      2   8·674   51     9·050      8   9·444      6   9·852
     6   8·316      4   8·677      2   9·054   72     9·448      8   9·856
     8   8·320      6   8·681      4   9·058      2   9·452   93     9·860
  10     8·323      8   8·684      6   9·061      4   9·456      2   9·864
     2   8·326   31     8·688      8   9·065      6   9·459      4   9·868
     4   8·330      2   8·692   52     9·069      8   9·463      6   9·872
     6   8·333      4   8·695      2   9·073   73     9·467      8   9·876
     8   8·337      6   8·699      4   9·076      2   9·471   94     9·880
  11     8·340      8   8·702      6   9·080      4   9·475      2   9·884
     2   8·343   32     8·706      8   9·083      6   9·479      4   9·888
     4   8·347      2   8·709   53     9·087      8   9·483      6   9·892
     6   8·350      4   8·713      2   9·091   74     9·487      8   9·896
     8   8·354      6   8·716      4   9·095      2   9·491   95     9·900
  12     8·357      8   8·720      6   9·098      4   9·495      2   9·904
     2   8·361   33     8·723      8   9·102      6   9·498      4   9·908
     4   8·364      2   8·727   54     9·106      8   9·502      6   9·913
     6   8·368      4   8·730      2   9·110   75     9·506      8   9·917
     8   8·371      6   8·734      4   9·114      2   9·510   96     9·921
  13     8·375      8   8·737      6   9·117      4   9·514      2   9·925
     2   8·378   34     8·741      8   9·121      6   9·517      4   9·929
     4   8·382      2   8·745   55     9·125      8   9·521      6   9·934
     6   8·385      4   8·748      2   9·129   76     9·525      8   9·938
     8   8·389      6   8·752      4   9·132      2   9·529   97     9·942
  14     8·392      8   8·755      6   9·136      4   9·533      2   9·946
     2   8·395   35     8·759      8   9·139      6   9·537      4   9·950
     4   8·399      2   8·763   56     9·143      8   9·541      6   9·955
     6   8·402      4   8·766      2   9·147   77     9·545      8   9·959
     8   8·406      6   8·770      4   9·151      2   9·549   98     9·963
  15     8·409      8   8·773      6   9·154      4   9·553      2   9·967
     2   8·412   36     8·777      8   9·158      6   9·557      4   9·972
     4   8·416      2   8·781   57     9·162      8   9·561      6   9·976
     6   8·419      4   8·784      2   9·166   78     9·565      8   9·981
     8   8·423      6   8·788      4   9·170      2   9·569   99     9·985
  16     8·426      8   8·791      6   9·173      4   9·573      2   9·989
     2   8·429   37     8·795      8   9·177      6   9·576      4   9·994
     4   8·433      2   8·799   58     9·181      8   9·580      6   9·998
     6   8·436      4   8·802      2   9·185   79     9·584      8  10·003
     8   8·440      6   8·806      4   9·189      2   9·588   100   10·007
  17     8·443      8   8·809      6   9·192      4   9·592
     2   8·446   38     8·813      8   9·196      6   9·596
     4   8·450      2   8·817   59     9·200      8   9·600
     6   8·453      4   8·820      2   9·204   80     9·604
     8   8·457      6   8·824      4   9·207      2   9·608
  18     8·460      8   8·827      6   9·211      4   9·612
     2   8·464   39     8·831      8   9·214      6   9·615
     4   8·467      2   8·835   60     9·218      8   9·619
     6   8·471      4   8·838      2   9·222   81     9·623
     8   8·474      6   8·842      4   9·226      2   9·627
  19     8·478      8   8·845      6   9·229      4   9·631
     2   8·481   40     8·849      8   9·233      6   9·635
     4   8·485      2   8·853   61     9·237      8   9·639
     6   8·488      4   8·856      2   9·241   82     9·643
     8   8·492      6   8·860      4   9·245      2   9·647
  20     8·495      8   8·863      6   9·248      4   9·651
     2   8·498   41     8·867      8   9·252      6   9·655
     4   8·502      2   8·871   62     9·256      8   9·659
     6   8·505      4   8·874      2   9·260   83     9·663

⁂ For further information in connection with _Alchoholometry_ see ALCOHOL,
BEER, BREWING, DISTILLATION, EBULLIOSCOPE, HYDROMETER, HYDROMETRY,
LIQUEURS, MALT-LIQUORS, ORGANIC SUBSTANCES, SACCHARINE, SPECIFIC GRAVITY,
SPIRIT, SUGAR, SYRUPS, TINCTURES, WINE, WORT, &c. &c.

=ALCOHOL; EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLISM.= Without entering into the controversy as
to whether the moderate consumption of alcohol, or its total disuse, is
the more conducive to personal health and comfort——whether, as Dr Anstie
and others have asserted it acts, when prudently taken, as a food——or
whether, as other medical authorities contend, even its moderate use is a
disturbing factor in the human economy——there need be no qualification of
the assertion, that when the drinking of spirituous liquids of any kind is
indulged in to excess, the habit, if persisted in, must sooner or later
terminate in impaired health, serious disease, and premature death.

A powerful array of facts could be brought in support of this statement.
For instance, in NELSON’S statistics we find it mentioned that——

  A temperate person’s   | An intemperate person’s
  chance of living is——  | chance of living is——
                         |
  At  20 = 44·2 years.   | At 20 = 15·6 years.
   ”  30 = 36·5   ”      | ”  30 = 13·8   ”
   ”  40 = 28·8   ”      | ”  40 = 11·6   ”
   ”  50 = 21·25  ”      | ”  50 = 10·8   ”
   ”  60 = 14·285 ”      | ”  60 = 8·9    ”

The average duration of life after the commencement of habits of
intemperance is——

  Among mechanics, working and labouring men  18 years.
    ”   traders, dealers, and merchants       17   ”
    ”   professional men and gentlemen        15   ”
    ”   females                               14   ”

Again, Dr Dickinson, writing “on the morbid effects of alcohol in persons
who trade in liquor,” gave the results of an examination of 149 traders in
liquor, as compared with 149 persons of various trades. The general
results were diseases of the liver much more common in those who dealt in
alcoholic drinks. In the lungs tubercle affected sixty-one persons of the
alcoholic, forty-four of the non-alcoholic.

Tubercle in the brain, liver, kidneys, spleen, bowels, mesenteric glands,
and peritoneum were twice as common in the alcoholic as in the
non-alcoholic. The verdict, therefore, is unavoidable that alcohol (in
excess) engenders tubercle in the brain, inflammations, atrophy,
hæmorrhages; in the heart and vessels atheroma, hypertrophy, and other
affections, were all more common in the alcoholic than in the
non-alcoholic series. The evidence in kidney disease did not appear so
conclusive, but some forms of kidney disease appear to be increased. The
author sums up thus:——“Alcohol causes fatty infiltration and fibroid
encroachment; it engenders tubercle, encourages suppuration, and retards
healing; it produces untimely atheroma, invites hæmorrhage, and
anticipates age. The most constant fatty change, replacement by oil of the
material of epithelial cells and muscular fibres, though probably nearly
universal, is most noticeable in the liver, the heart, and the kidney.”

Alcohol also seems to be the cause of special diseases, besides those more
common and generally known ones, delirium tremens, alcoholism, &c. Of
these we may mention one recorded by M. GALEZOWSKI, a peculiar affection
of the eyes, which the doctor found very prevalent during the siege of
Paris in 1870-1. In the five months of the siege fifty patients were
affected by it, whilst during the twelve months preceding the siege only
nineteen were to be found. Dr GALOWSKI ascribed the malady to the habit of
taking alcoholic drinks in the morning fasting. A peculiar kind of palsy
has also been referred to alcoholic poisoning.

The following table, compiled by Dr Joseph Williams, lends support to the
fact that an indulgence in alcohol is either the cause of insanity, or
that it tends to its increase:

                                     Proportion
                           Total     caused by
                        admission.  intemperance.

  Charenton                 855         134
  Bicêtre and Salpêtrière  2012         414
  Bordeaux                  156          20
  Turin, 1830-31            158          17
    ”    1831-36            390          76
  Gard                      209           4
  United States             551         146
  Palermo                   189           9
  Caen                       60          16
  Dundee                     14           4
  M. Parchappe              167          46
  M. Batten                 288          54
                           ————         ———
                           5019         940

Commenting on these figures, Mr Walter Blyth remarks, “There may be
another explanation of the fact that many mad people have been great
drinkers. A large proportion of those subject to insanity are driven by
their morbid minds to drink; so that it may be that insanity causes drink,
and not drink causes insanity.”

Many medical writers who are no advocates for the total abandonment of
alcohol limit its consumption, in healthy people, to one or two fluid
ounces a day, in the form of wine, beer, or spirits and water; two fluid
ounces is, we believe, the quantity apportioned daily to every able-bodied
seaman in the Royal Navy. Any slight habitual departure from this
standard——even when the evidences of excess are not perceptible to
others——all authority, historical, pathological, and physiological (unless
it be given as a medicine), shows to be injurious. The researches of
Anstie, Parkes, and Count Wollowicz, appear to prove that any quantity of
alcohol exceeding an ounce and a half taken by an adult showed itself in
the urine, a circumstance which these writers look upon as tending to show
that the system has taken more alcohol than can be used in the body
itself. In slight doses the action of alcohol is to produce a sedative
effect upon the nerves, to redden slightly the lining membrane of the
stomach, and to stimulate the secretion of the gastric juice.

Thus, in small doses alcohol may, and doubtless does, promote appetite. In
excess, however, all these effects are turned to evil, and then ensue an
inflammatory condition of the stomach, compression of the gland ducts from
thickening of the tissue around them, excessive mucous secretion, and
great loss of appetite. When carried into the circulation it greatly
increases the force of the heart’s action, and at the same time paralyses,
as it were, the restraining nervous supply to the arteries and small
vessels, so that they can no longer oppose themselves to the
blood-current, but dilate. This action in a small degree, occurring in
persons of a weak and languid circulation, is no doubt beneficial; on the
other hand, when in excess, it is most dangerous, and is a cause of the
greater part of the diseases of the heart and great vessels.

“There appears to be a slight fall of temperature with moderate doses of
alcohol, a very decided fall with excessive doses; the muscular and
nervous systems are transitorily stimulated, and may do more work when
small doses are given in cases of fatigue, but in other cases there is a
marked torpor of the nervous and a want of co-ordination of the muscular
system.”——BLYTH.

Notwithstanding the researches of Percy, Strauch, Masing, Lallemand,
Duroy, Parkes, Dupré, Anstie, Thudichum, and others, there is still a
considerable divergence of opinion as to how alcohol is eliminated from
the body. By some of the authorities just named it is affirmed to be
eliminated as aldehyd, by others as carbonic acid; as to the latter, the
experiments of Dr E. Smith show that the carbonic acid is decreased when
brandy and gin are drunk, and increased by rum.

The only probable supposition, which facts support, tends to show that the
alcohol is turned into acetic acid in the body, some of which unites with
potash and other bases, and some is destroyed. All are pretty well agreed
that in the form of spirits alcohol as a food is valueless, but that in
the form of beer and wine it is possessed of a slight dietetic power,
naturally varying with the amount and nature of the different substances
held in solution in these beverages.

The imports of spirits into this country, in the seven years from 1850 to
1857, amounted to 70,740,980 gallons; whilst the imports in the seven
years following, viz. from 1857 to 1864, were 78,016,071 gallons, showing
an increase of 7,305,091 gallons. The population has, however, increased
in the time, and a deduction on that account, as well as correction on one
or two other heads, are required; still, that there is an increase is
indisputable.

As respects France, a considerable increase in the consumption of spirits
has taken place of late years, as the following table by M. Husson will
illustrate:

        _The Mean Consumption of Spirits for each Inhabitant._

                        Litres.        Litres.

  From 1825 to 1830    8·96 yearly.  ·024 daily.
   ”   1831  ” 1835    8·74   ”      ·023   ”
   ”   1836  ” 1840   10·15   ”      ·026   ”
   ”   1841  ” 1845   11·14   ”      ·031   ”
   ”   1846  ” 1850   11·03   ”      ·030   ”
   ”   1851  ” 1854   14·25   ”      ·039   ”

In the United States, during the period from 1807 to 1828, the average was
27 litres for every inhabitant, which is even greater than the highest of
the two sets of figures just quoted.

The demoralisation of the French army during the late Franco-Prussian war
has been also unanimously ascribed to the excessive consumption of
spirituous liquids.

The following results of an inquiry instituted in 1870 by the
Massachusetts Board of Health into the comparative sobriety of different
nations are gathered from an able paper which appeared in the ‘Medical
Times and Gazette’ of April 15th, 1872, by Dr Druitt, in which he dissects
and summarises the results in question. Dr Druitt writes:

“Highest in the scale of temperance come the Turks and Arabs; next the
Iberians, Levantines, Greeks, and Latin races; lower down the Japanese,
Scandinavians, Belgians, and the Irish Celt; lowest of all the so-called
Anglo-Saxon of either continent.”

Professor Levi contributes to our knowledge on this subject by giving the
following statistics:——In 1860 the committals for drunkenness in England
and Wales were 88,000, and in 1870 134,000, an increase of 50 per cent.

In Manchester the increase from 1860 to 1870 was 375 per cent., or
computed according to the increase of population 35·3 per cent. In London
drunkenness is in the proportion of 5·43 per 1000, in Leeds 7·40, in
Manchester 31·13, and in Liverpool 42·82. It must, however, be remembered
that these figures are based on mere committals, which greatly depend on
the activity of the police, and the noisy or quiet character of the
drunkard.

We quote the following from Dr Blyth’s work on ‘Hygiene,’ without,
however, attempting either to endorse or controvert what he says on the
subject.

“_Whether is Alcohol necessary or not._ All experience, both at home and
abroad, shows by facts that cannot be disputed that a person can do quite
as hard work without alcohol as with it; and probably as the limits
between moderation and excess are easily passed, and as the generality of
mankind, even without intending it, err on the latter side, the result is
that a comparison between total abstainers and even temperate men
generally terminates in favour of the former. It would appear that total
abstainers live longer, are better citizens, and can do more work than the
rest of mankind. The figures of the “United Kingdom Temperance and General
Provident Institution” go far to prove the above. This insurance society
is divided into two sections. One section consists of abstainers, the
other of persons selected as not known to be intemperate. The claims for
five years anticipated in the temperance section were £100,446, but the
actual claims were only £72,676. In the general section of the anticipated
claims were £196,352; the actual claims no less than £330,297. In war the
march of 2000 miles in his War of Independence by Cornwallis and his
troops (1783), the Maroon war of Jamaica, the 400 miles’ march of an
English army across the Desert from Komer, on the Red Sea, a march of 1000
miles in the Kaffir war, experiences at sieges, in action, in hot,
temperate, and cold climates, where abstinence was either forced through
circumstances or followed, shows to every unprejudiced mind that soldiers
endure more fatigue, are healthier, and fight better, without stimulants
than with them; and this fact is endorsed by every commander of the
present day.

The excess and abuse of spirits, as before remarked, lost the French their
military prestige in the Franco-German war. In very hot and very cold
climates the Indian observers and the Arctic explorers all unite in
condemning its (that is, the use of alcohol) use in the slightest excess,
or even in moderate doses. It does not warm the body in cold climates, and
the reaction that follows the exciting of the circulation is followed by a
dangerous depression; whilst in hot it combines with the climate, and
quickly produces disease.”

=ALCOHOLIC DRINKS, EFFECTS OF.= In addition to the serious injury to
health caused by an excessive or imprudent indulgence in spirituous
stimulants (see previous article), even a moderate and not injudicious use
of them may often be attended with very disagreeable consequences——a more
or less mild or modified form of poisoning, in fact——if the beverages
themselves are, as very frequently happens, contaminated, either
accidentally or intentionally, with certain objectionable ingredients.
These ingredients are described under the articles BEER, WINES, and the
various SPIRITS, such as GIN, BRANDY, ABSINTHE, &c. Of spirit drinking it
may be observed, that this dangerous practice is intensified by what is to
be feared is the too prevalent custom of taking them undiluted, or “neat,”
as it is termed. There is no doubt that they constitute the very worst
form of alcoholic drinks, and shorten the lives of those who indulge in
them to excess more summarily than any other intoxicating potion. The
greatest and most ineradicable drunkards are almost always found to be
spirit drinkers.

Liebig remarked that less bread was consumed in families where beer was
drunk, and there seems to be little doubt that the different species of
beer, including porter and ale, when pure and free from adulteration,
act, although in a small degree, as food. Probably there are some who will
agree with, whilst others will dissent from, Benjamin Franklin, who said
“there was more sustenance in a penny loaf than in a gallon of beer.” The
starchy extractive matters of the beer no doubt perform the same function
in the animal economy that sugar does. It is well known that those who
drink freely of beer mostly become corpulent, as witness the portly forms
of draymen. The hop contained in the beer has doubtless tonic and
stomachic qualities. We can speak with less certainty about the free acids
contained in malt fluids. It is very certain that some people cannot drink
a glass of beer without experiencing rheumatic pains in the joints, which
effect is generally ascribed to the acidity of the beer; but which is
really supposed to be due to the decreased elimination of urea and
pulmonary carbonic acid from the system caused by the alcohol of the beer.

The heavy low-priced beers occasion drunkenness of a peculiarly violent
and savage kind, a fact which strongly favours the inference that this
form of intoxication is due to some toxic agent, used as an adulterant. Of
wines, the clarets and subacid wines are undoubtedly antiscorbutic in
properties, and light wines as beverages are preferable to the stronger.
Port, sherry, beer, stout, and ale are almost universally condemned in
cases where there is a tendency to gout. The light clarets and Rhine wines
are far more desirable beverages when this is the case, and the German
wines are said to be valuable drinks in many lithic affections. It seems
probable that the ethers and the vegetable salts, together with the sugar
contained in wines, perform the most important part in the human economy.

It has been proposed to introduce the red subacid wines as drinks for our
sailors, because of their antiscorbutic qualities. Some of the alcoholic
drinks prepared in India frequently cause temporary madness.

=ALCOHOLISM.= ALCOHOL; EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLISM.

=AL′COHOLS.= In _chemistry_, a term applied to compounds possessing a
composition, formulæ, and chemical properties similar to those of ordinary
alcohol. They form a series presenting an unmistakable symmetry, and
differ from one another by well-marked gradations, as shown below:——

  Methyl-alcohol (_wood spirit_).      CH_{4}O
  Ethyl-alcohol (_ordinary alcohol_)   C_{2}H_{6}O
  Amyl-alcohol (_füsel-oil_)           C_{5}H_{12}O
  Capryl-alcohol                       C_{8}H_{18}O
  Cetyl-alcohol                        C_{16}H_{34}O
  &c., &c.

=Alcohols.= In _commerce_, pure spirits of a greater strength than about
58 o. p. (sp. gr. 8335), or containing more than about 85% by WEIGHT, or
90% by VOLUME, of pure alcohol, are commonly so called.

=Alcohols.= In _perfumery_, rectified spirit of wine, or commercial
alcohol, holding essential oils or other odorous matters in solution.

=Alcohols.= In _Fr. pharmacy_, alcoholic tinctures and essences.

=ALCOOLATIFS= (alcoölatifs). [F.] _Syn_. ALCOHOLATI′VA, L. In _Fr.
pharmacy_, alcoholic solutions of liniments, embrocations, &c., whether
made by distillation, maceration, or solution.

=ALCOOLATS= (alcoölats). [Fr.] In _Fr. pharmacy_, spirits; applied by
Béral, Henry and Guibourt, and others, to medicated distilled spirits.

=ALCOOLATURES= (alcoölatures). [Fr.] _Syn._ ALCOHOLATU′′RA, L. In. _Fr.
pharmacy_, alcoholic tinctures, elixirs, &c. M. Béral confines the term to
vegetable juices preserved by alcohol.

=ALCOOLES= (alcooölés). [Fr.] Tinctures; the ‘teintures alcoholiques’ of
the Fr. Codex.

=ALCOOLIQUES= (alcoöliques). [Fr.] _Syn._ ALCOHOL′ICA, L. In _Fr.
pharmacy_, alcoholic or spirituous solutions. (Béral.)

=AL′CORNINE= (-nĭn). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ALCOR′NOCINE (-sĭn); ALCOR′NEUM,
ALCORNI′NA, L. A crystallisable substance, apparently intermediate between
fat and wax, discovered by Biltz, in alcornoco bark.

=ALCORNO′CO.= _Syn._ A.-BARK; ALCORNOQUE, Fr.; ALKORNOC, A.-RIND, Ger. The
bark of an unknown tree of South America. It is astringent and bitter, and
has been highly extolled as a specific in phthisis; but appears to possess
little medicinal virtue. The bark of the young branches of the cork tree
(_quercus suber_), used in tanning, is also sometimes called
alcornoco-bark; but possesses none of the characters of the former
article.

=AL′DECAY.= The galls on the leaves of _myrobalanus chebula_ (Gaertn.), a
forest-tree of Bengal. Equal to the best oak-galls.

=AL′DEHYD= (-hīd). [_al_-(cohol)-_dehyd_ (rogenatus).] C_{2}H_{4}O. Syn.
HYDRATED OXIDE OF ACETYLE; HYDRATE OF OTHYLE*; HYDROXIDE OF O.* Literally,
dehydrogenated alcohol. In _chemistry_, a peculiar ethereal liquid, first
obtained in a pure form by Liebig, from alcohol. It is produced under
various circumstances, particularly during the destructive distillation of
certain organic matters, and in several processes of oxidation. The
following are the most convenient methods of preparing it:——

_Prep._ 1. (Liebig.) Sulphuric acid, 3 parts; is diluted with water, 2
parts; and as soon as the mixture has cooled, alcohol of 80%, 2 parts, is
added; and, subsequently, peroxide of manganese (in fine powder), 3 parts.
The whole, after agitation, is then distilled at a very gentle heat, from
a spacious retort into a receiver surrounded with ice, the connection
between the two being perfectly air-tight. The process is continued until
frothing commences, or the distillate becomes acid which generally occurs
when about one third (3 parts) has passed over. The distillate is next
agitated in a retort, with about its own weight of fused chloride of
calcium, in powder; after which about one half only is drawn over at a
very gentle heat (85° to 90° Fahr.), by means of a water bath. This
rectification is repeated in a precisely similar way. The last distillate
is ANHYDROUS ALDEHYD only slightly contaminated with foreign matters.

2. (Liebig.) Aldehyd-ammonia, 2 parts, is dissolved in an equal weight of
distilled water; and, after being placed in a retort, sulphuric acid, 2 or
3 parts, previously diluted with rather more than its own weight of
distilled water, and allowed to cool, is added. The whole is now
distilled, by means of a water bath, into a receiver surrounded with ice,
or (preferably) a freezing-mixture, the temperature of the bath at first
being very low, and the operation being stopped as soon, or rather before
the water begins to boil. The distillate is then placed in a retort
connected with a well-cooled receiver, as before; and after all the joints
are made perfectly tight, powdered fused chloride of calcium, in weight
equal to that of the liquid in the retort, is added through the
tubulature. The heat produced by the hydration of the chloride causes the
distillation to commence, after which it is carried on, by means of a
water bath, at a temperature ranging from 80° to 82° Fahr. This
rectification being very carefully repeated, the last distillate is PURE
ANHYDROUS ALDEHYD.

_Prop., &c._ Limpid, colourless, ethereal, neutral, inflammable; mixes in
all proportions with alcohol, ether, and water; odour peculiar,
penetrating, and, when strong, exceedingly suffocating, the vapour, in
quantity, producing spasmodic contraction of the thorax; boils at 72°
Fahr. (70°——Ure, 5th ed.); sp. gr. ·790 at 60°, and ·800 at 32° Fahr.; sp.
gr. of vapour, 1·532; by exposure to air it is gradually converted into
acetic acid, and speedily so under the influence of platinum-black; heated
with caustic potash, a brown substance resembling resin (ALDEHYD-RESIN) is
formed; gently heated with protoxide of silver, or its solutions, metallic
silver is deposited on the inner surface of the vessel, in a uniform and
brilliant film, whilst ALDEHYDATE OF SILVER remains in solution; heated
with hydrocyanic acid it yields ALANINE. By age, even in close vessels, it
passes into one or more isomeric compounds (ELALDEHYDE; METALDEHYDE), with
change of properties. Aldehyde for experiments should, therefore, be
always recently prepared; and it must be kept in a well-stopped bottle, in
a very cold place, and preferably in ice.

_Obs._ Aldehyd is important for its assumed position in the acetyl-series,
and the part which it plays in the process of acetification, &c. The word
is now also commonly employed, by chemists, as a generic term for any
organic substance which, by assimilating two atoms of hydrogen, yields, or
would yield, a compound having the composition or properties of an
alcohol; or which, by taking up one atom of oxygen, yields an acid. Many
of the essential oils (as those of almonds, cinnamon, and cumin) are
composed principally of bodies which may thus be called aldehyds. One of
the most valuable properties of these substances, is their strong tendency
to combine with the bisulphites of ammonium, potassium, and sodium; and by
which they may be separated from complex mixtures.

=AL′DEHYD-AMMO′NIA= (-hĭd-). An ammonia-compound of aldehyd, discovered by
Döbereiner and Liebig.

_Prep._ (Liebig.) Aldehyd (of process No. 1, above) is mixed with an equal
volume of ether,[16] in a flask surrounded with ice, or (what is better) a
freezing-mixture; and is then saturated with dry gaseous ammonia. The
crystals which soon form, after being washed with ether, and dried by
means of bibulous paper and a short exposure to the air, are pure aldehyd
ammonia.

[Footnote 16: Some authorities recommend the use of twice this quantity of
ether.]

_Prop., &c._ It smells like a mixture of turpentine and ammonia; melts at
165° to 170°; volatilises, unchanged, at 212° Fahr.; decomposed by
exposure to the air; very soluble in water; soluble in alcohol, and more
or less so in most other menstrua, except ether; acids decompose it. With
sulphuretted hydrogen it forms thialdine.——_Use._ Chiefly to make pure
aldehyd (which _see_).

=AL′DER= (awl′-). _Syn._ AL′DER-TREE; AL′NUS (ăl-), L.; A. GLUTINO′SA
(Gaertn.); BETU′LA ALNUS, Linn.; AUNE, AULNE, Fr.; ERLE, Ger. A well-known
English tree, chiefly growing in moist grounds near rivers. Its wood is
used for hurdles, for various articles of turnery and furniture, and when
converted into charcoal, for making gunpowder; it possesses considerable
durability under water; but is otherwise of little value. Bark and leaves
very astringent, and reputed vulnerary; decoction used as a gargle in sore
throat, and, in double the dose of cinchona, as a febrifuge in agues; bark
and sap used in dyeing and tanning. The following belong to different nat.
orders and genera to the preceding:——

=Alder, Black.= _Syn._ WIN′TER-BERRY; PRI′NOS VERTICILLA′TUS, Linn. A tree
growing in the United States of America. Bark febrifuge, tonic, and
astringent; berries tonic and emetic. (Bigelow.) It has been much
recommended in dropsies, diarrhœa, intermittents, &c. _Dose_ (of the dried
bark), 1/2 to 1 dr., 3 or 4 times a day.

=Alder-tree, Black.= _Syn._ BERRY-BEARING ALDER-TREE; RHAM′NUS FRAN′GULA,
Linn. A large shrub found in the woods and thickets of England, &c. Wood,
BLACK DOG′WOOD; bark, bitter, emetic, purgative; used to dye yellow;
root-bark, a drastic purgative; berries, purgative, emetic; unripe berries
yield SAP-GREEN; charcoal of the wood esteemed the best for gunpowder.

=ALE.= _Syn._ BARLEY WINE*; AILE, Fr.; WEISS-BIER, Ger.; AEL, EALE, Sax.;
CEREVIS′IA ALBA, C. LUPULA′TA, A′LA*, AL′LA*, L. Pale-coloured beer,
prepared from lightly dried malt, by the ordinary process of brewing. The
ale of the modern brewer is manufactured in several varieties, which are
determined by the wants of the consumer, and the particular market for
which it is intended. Thus, the finer kinds of Burton, East India,
Bavarian, and other like ales, having undergone a thorough fermentation,
contain only a small quantity of undecomposed sugar and gum, varying from
1 to 5 per cent. Some of these are highly ‘hopped,’ or ‘bittered,’ the
further to promote their preservation during transit and change of
temperature. Mild or sweet ales, on the contrary, are less attenuated by
lengthened fermentation, and abound in saccharine and gummy matter. They
are, therefore, more nutritious, though less intoxicating, than those
previously referred to.

In brewing the finer kinds of ale, pale malt and the best East Kent hops
of the current season’s growth, are always employed; and when it is
desired to produce a liquor possessing little colour, very great attention
is paid to their selection. With the same object, the boiling is conducted
with more than the usual precautions, and the fermentation is carried on
at a somewhat lower temperature than that commonly allowed for other
varieties of beer. For ordinary ale, intended for immediate use, the malt
may be all pale; but, if the liquor be brewed for keeping, and in warm
weather, when a slight colour is not objectionable, one fifth, or even one
fourth of ‘amber malt’ may be advantageously employed. From 4-1/2 lbs. to
6 lbs. of hops is the quantity commonly used to the quarter of malt, for
‘ordinary ales,’ and 7 lbs. to 10 lbs. for ‘keeping ales.’ The
proportions, however, must greatly depend on the intended quality and
description of the brewing, and the period that will be allowed for its
maturation.

The stronger varieties of ale usually contain from 6 to 8% of ‘absolute
alcohol,’ ordinary strong ale, 4-1/2 to 6%; mild ale, 3 to 4%; and table
ale, 1% to 1-1/2%; (each by volume); together with some undecomposed
saccharine, gummy, and extractive matter, the bitter and narcotic
principles of the hop, some acetic acid formed by the oxidation of the
alcohol, and very small and variable quantities of mineral and saline
matter. For the adulterants of ale, see PORTER. See BEER, BREWING,
FERMENTATION, MALT-LIQUORS, &c.

=Ale, Dev′onshire White.= A liquor once generally drunk, and still in
demand, in the neighbourhood of Kingsbridge and Modbury, Devon.

_Prep._ Ordinary ale-wort (preferably pale) sufficient to produce 1
barrel, is slowly boiled with about 3 handfuls of hops, and 12 to 14 lbs.
of crushed groats, until the whole of the soluble matter of the latter is
extracted. The resulting liquor, after being run through a coarse
strainer, and become lukewarm, is fermented with 2 or 3 pints of yeast;
and, as soon as the fermentation is at its height, is either closely
bunged up for ‘draught,’ or is at once put into strong stoneware bottles,
which are then well corked and wired.

_Obs._ White ale is said to be very feeding, though apt to prove laxative
to those unaccustomed to its use. It is drunk in a state of effervescence
or lively fermentation; the glass or cup containing it being kept in
constant motion, when removed from the mouth, until the whole is consumed,
in order that the thicker portion may not subside to the bottom.

=Ales, Med′icated.= _Syn._ BRYT′OLES; BRUTOLÉS, Fr.; CEREVIS′IÆ MEDICA′TÆ,
L. In _pharmacy_, ale prepared by macerating medicinal substances in it,
either at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, or when heated;
infusions and decoctions, in which ale or beer is employed as the
menstruum. The old dispensatories enumerate several medicated ales; such
as CEREVISIA OXYDOR′CICA, for the eyes; C. ANTI-ARTHRIT′ICA, for the gout;
C. CEPHAL′ICA, for the head; C. EPILEP′TICA, against epilepsy; &c.
Preparations of this kind are now seldom ordered by the faculty, and their
use is chiefly confined to the practice of empirics, and to domestic
medicine. Bark, rue, savine, antiscorbutic plants, aromatic bitters, and
stomachics, are the substances most commonly administered in this way. Ale
in which wormwood, gentian, orange-peel, and the like, have been steeped,
taken warm early in the morning, is much esteemed as a restorative tonic
by drunkards and dyspeptics. See BEER, PURL, &c.

=ALE′BERRY.= A beverage made by boiling ale with spice, sugar, and
bread-sops; the last commonly toasted. A domestic remedy for a cold.

=ALE′GILL= (_g_ hard). Ale or beer flavoured or medicated by infusing the
leaves of ground ivy in it; pectoral, stomachic, and nervine.

=ALE′WIFE.= The _clupea serrata_, an American species of herring. Its
proper name is a′loof, although the established pronunciation and common
orthography is ale-wife.

[Illustration]

=ALEM′BIC.= _Syn._ MOORS′HEAD†; ALEM′BICUS, L.; ALAMBIC, Fr.;
DESTILLIRKOLBEN, Ger. An old form of distillatory vessel usually made of
glass or earthenware, but sometimes of metal. The body (_a_) which holds
the liquid for distillation is called the CU′CURBIT; the upper part (_b_)
the HEAD or CAP′ITOL; (_c_) is the RECEIVER. It is still employed in the
laboratory, in the distillation of articles that are apt to spurt over
into the neck of the common retort, and thus vitiate the product.

=ALEUROM′ETER.= _Syn._ ALEUROMÈTRE, Fr. An instrument for determining the
quantity and quality of gluten in wheat-flour, invented by M. Boland. It
essentially consists of a hollow copper cylinder, about 6 inches long, and
3/4 of an inch internal diameter. This tube has two principal parts; the
one, about 2 inches long, is closed at the lower end, forming a kind of
cup, into which the gluten is placed; it screws into the remainder of the
cylinder. The cup being charged with a sample of gluten, and the upper
part of the cylinder being screwed on, it is exposed in an oven, or
(preferably) in an oil bath, to a temperature of 350 to 380° Fahr.[17]
From the length of the tube the gluten occupies in swelling, as measured
by a graduated scale, its quality is determined. The ‘crude gluten’ of
good wheat-flour augments to four or five times its original volume, when
thus treated; but that from bad flour does not swell, becomes viscid and
semi-fluid, and generally gives off a disagreeable odour; whilst that of
good flour merely suggests the smell of hot and highly baked bread.

[Footnote 17: Mr Mitchell recommends the heat to be 420°; whilst Dr
Masprett gives 284° Fahr. as the proper temperature; but of these the
first is too high, and the other too low. About 210 gr. are also ordered
to be taken for examination; but the exact quantity is immaterial. (See
Mitchell’s ‘Falsification of Food.’)]

=AL′GA.= (-gă). [L.] Sea-weed. A common name of grass-wrack (‘zostera
marina’——Linn.), though not one of the algæ.

=AL′GÆ.= (ăl′-jē). [L. pl.] _Syn._ AL′GALS; ALGÆ (DC.), AL′GALES (Lindl.),
L.; ALGUES, VARECH, Fr.; ALGE, MEERGRASS, SEEGRASS, Ger. Sea-weeds. In
_botany_, an order of Thallogens living in water or very moist places,
nourished throughout their whole surface by the medium in which they live,
having no distinct axis of vegetation, and propagated by zoöspores,
coloured spores, or tetraspores. Linnæus defines them——“plants, the roots,
leaves, and stems of which are all in one.” The algæ consist either of
simple vesicles lying in mucus, or of articulated filaments, or of lobed
fronds formed of uniform cellular tissue. Those that vegetate in salt
water are popularly called SEA-WEEDS (fu′ci, L.) and LA′VER (ulvæ, L.);
those found in fresh water CONFER′VÆ. One of their divisions (the
_Zoöspermeæ_) comprehends the lowest known forms of vegetable life, being
merely adhering cells, emitting, at maturity, seeds or sporules having a
distinct animal motion. In _Oscillatorias_, the whole plant twists and
writhes spontaneously; and _Zymenas_ actually copulate like animals. Some
of the Algæ possess great beauty. In the lower grades the colour is green;
in the higher, red or purple.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ None of the Algæ are poisonous. Several are nutritious,
emollient, and demulcent, from containing mucilage (carrageenin), starch,
sugar (mannite), and a little albumen; and are hence used as esculents.
The ash from the dried weed varies in different varieties from 9% to fully
25%; and contains variable quantities of potassa, soda, lime, magnesia,
iron, manganese, and silica, with sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid,
chlorine, and a little iodine and bromine. (Schweitzer; Forchhammer;
Gödechens.) Sea-weeds, their charcoal, and their ashes, have been long
regarded as alterative and resolvent; and anti-phthisic virtues have been
attributed to them by Laennec and others. They were formerly much given in
scrofulous affections and glandular enlargements; but their use is now
almost superseded by that of iodine and its preparations. Dr Stenhouse has
proposed some of the algæ as furnishing an economical source of mannite.
The sea algæ are used for manure; their ashes form KELP.

The following table, showing the results of several analyses of different
kinds of algæ, and illustrating the very large amount of nitrogen
contained in them, is from Mr Walter Blyth’s excellent dictionary of
‘Hygiene and Public Health.’

  -----------------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------
                               |        |           | Per cent. |   Protein
          Kinds of Algæ.       | Water. |Dry matter.|Nitrogen in|contained in
                               |        |           |dry matter.|dry matter.
  -----------------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------
  _Chondrus crispus_,          |  17·92 |   82·08   |   1·534   |   9·587
    bleached, from Bewlay      |        |           |           |
    Evans.                     |        |           |           |
  _Chondrus crispus_,          |  21·47 |   78·53   |   2·142   |  13·387
    unbleached, Ballycastle.   |        |           |           |
  _Gigastina mamillosa_,       |  21·55 |   78·45   |   2·198   |  13·737
    Ballycastle.               |        |           |           |
  _Chondrus crispus_,          |  19·79 |   80·21   |   1·485   |   9·281
    bleached, second           |        |           |           |
    experiment.                |        |           |           |
  _Chondrus crispus_,          |  19·96 |   80·04   |   2·510   |  15·687
    unbleached second          |        |           |           |
    experiment.                |        |           |           |
  _Laminaria digitata_, or     |  21·38 |   78·62   |   1·588   |   9·925
    dulse tangle.              |        |           |           |
  _Rhodomenia palmata._        |  16·56 |   83·44   |   3·465   |  21·656
  _Porphyra laciniata._        |  17·41 |   82·59   |   4·650   |  29·062
  _Iridæa edulis._             |  19·61 |   80·39   |   3·088   |  19·300
  _Alaria esculenta._          |  17·91 |   80·09   |   2·424   |  15·150
  -----------------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------

From the above, we learn the important fact that the sea-weeds found on
our coasts are amongst the most nutritious of vegetable substances, and
that they, when dry, are even richer in nitrogenous matter than either
oatmeal or Indian corn in the same state. The following are the chief
varieties of algæ which are used as food by the dwellers on our coasts as
well as on the continent:——PORPHYRA LACINIATA and VULGARIS, called _laver_
in England, _stoke_ in Ireland, and _slouk_ in Scotland. CHONDRUS CRISPUS,
called _carrageen_ or _Irish moss_, and also _pearl-moss_, and _sea-moss._
LAMINARIA DIGITATA, known as the _sea-girdle_ in England, _tangle_ in
Scotland, and _red-ware_ in the Orkneys; and LAMINARIA SACCHARINA, ALARIA
ESCULENTA, or _bladder-lock_, called also _henware_, and _honey-ware_ by
the Scotch. ULVA LATISSIMA or GREEN LAVER——RHODOMENIA PALMATA or _dulse_
of Scotland. Under the name of “marine sauce” the LAVER was esteemed a
luxury in London, where it may now occasionally be met with in the shops
of provision merchants. The employment of the CHONDRUS CRISPUS or
_Carrageen_ in the form of an aliment for consumptive and weakly persons,
would seem from the analysis of it given above to be fully justified. In
preparing the algæ for food, they must be soaked in water to remove the
saline matter, and where they are possessed of a bitter flavour this may
be removed by adding a little carbonate of soda to the water. They should
then be stewed in water or milk till they are tender. The best flavourings
are pepper and vinegar. See JELLY.

=ALGARO′BA.= _Syn._ CA′′ROB-TREE, ST. JOHN’S BREAD; CERATO′NIA SIL′IQUA,
Linn. A leguminous tree of southern Europe, Palestine, and part of Africa.
Pods (ALGAROBA BEANS), used for food, and to improve the voice; they
contain a sweetish, nutritious powder, and are supposed to have been the
‘locusts’ on which St. John fed in the wilderness; their decoction has
been used as a pectoral in asthma and coughs.

=Algaroba or Algarovil′la.= The astringent pods of prosopis pallida, p.
siliquastrum, and Inga Marthæ (South American trees), bruised and more or
less agglutinated by the extractive exudation of the seed and husks. They
are used in tanning, for which purpose they have been strongly
recommended; indeed that of Chili, and of Santa Martha (New Carthagena),
is said to possess “four times the power of good oak bark” (Ure); and in
dyeing are only inferior to oak-galls.

=ALGONTINE.= A mouth and tooth wash. An aqueous solution of nitrate of
potassium, aromatised with oil of peppermint, tincture of myrrh, and
tincture of cinnamon.

=ALGOPHON= (Bernhard, Salzburg). For pains in decayed teeth. A solution of
ethereal oil of mustard (2 grms.) in spirit of cochlearia (30 grms.),
coloured green by saffron and litmus. (Wittstein.)

=AL′IMENT.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ALIMEN′TUM, L.; NAHRUNG, SPEISE, Ger. Food;
nutriment; anything which nourishes or supports life.

=ALIMENT′ARY= _Syn._ ALIMENTA′′RIUS, L.; ALIMENTAIRE, Fr.; ZUR NAHRUNG
GEHÖRIG, Ger. Pertaining to food or aliment; nutrimental; nourishing.

=Alimentary Canal′.= _Syn._ ALIMENTARY DUCT; CANA′LIS ALIMENTA′′RIUS, L.
In _anatomy_, the cavity in the bodies of animals into which the food is
taken for the purpose of being digested; the whole passage or conduit
extending from the mouth to the anus. In some of the lower animals this is
a simple cavity, with only one opening; when the same aperture which
admits the food also gives egress to the excrementitious matter. In others
it is a true canal, with both a mouth and an outlet. Another step, and we
find this canal is divided into a stomach and intestines. In the higher
grades, a mouth, pharynx, and œsophagus precede the stomach. Birds have
one or two sacculi or crops added to the œsophagus. The stomach of the
ruminants consists of four sacs or parts, each of which may be regarded as
a separate stomach; that of the bottle-nose whale contains no less than
seven of such sacs. The part below the stomach, forming the intestines, is
also variously subdivided, complicated, and connected. In man, these
subdivisions are termed——DUODENUM, JEJU′NUM, IL′EUM, CÆ′CUM, CO′LON, and
REC′TUM; the lower end or orifice of the last being called the A′NUS. The
existence of an alimentary canal is said to be the only true
characteristic of an animal. Plants have no common receptacle for their
food, nor canal for carrying away effete matter; but every animal, however
low in the scale of being, possesses an internal cavity which serves it as
a stomach.

=Alimentary Sub′stances.= _Syn._ ALIMENTS; MATE′′RIA ALIMENTA′′RIA, L.
Substances employed as food.

=ALIMENTA′TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ALIMENTA′TIO, L.; NAHRHAFTIGKEIT, Ger.
The act, process, power, or state of nourishing, or being nourished.

=AL′IZARI.= [Tur., ali-zari.] The commercial name of madder in the Levant.

=ALIZARIN.= C_{10}H_{6}O_{3} . 2H_{2}O. _Syn._ LAZARIC ACID. A red
colouring matter obtained from madder.

_Prep._ 1. Exhaust madder with boiling water, and precipitate the
decoction by sulphuric acid. Wash the precipitate, and, while yet moist,
boil it with a concentrated solution of hydrate of aluminum in
hydrochloric acid, and mix the solution with hydrochloric acid; red flakes
of impure alizarin deposit. Dissolve this precipitate in alcohol or in
dilute ammonia, and treat the solution with hydrate of aluminum. Boil the
aluminum compound thus formed with carbonate of sodium, and, after freeing
it from resinous impurities by digestion with ether, decompose it with hot
hydrochloric acid. Wash the alizarin thus separated, dry it by simple
exposure to air, and purify it by repeated crystallisation out of alcohol.

2. Sublime on a paper an alcoholic extract of madder. This method yields
the purest alizarin.

_Props._ Red prisms; sublimes at 419° F.; odourless, tasteless, and
neutral to test-paper; sparingly soluble in water, even at the boiling
temperature; soluble in alcohol and ether; not decomposed by hydrochloric
acid; dissolved, without decomposition, by strong sulphuric acid; soluble
in solutions of the alkalies and their carbonates; acids precipitate
alizarin from its alkaline solutions in orange-coloured flakes; alumina
decolorises an alcoholic solution of alizarin, forming a red lake.

=ALIZARIN, ARTIFICIAL.= C_{14}H_{8}O_{4}. This colour was first obtained
by Graebe and Liebermann in 1869 from anthrachinon, an oxidation product
of anthracen, this latter being a substance which is formed during the
destructive distillation of coal-tar. These chemists converted anthracen
into antichinon by means of nitric acid.

The crude anthracen is previously purified by treatment with benzoline
(petroleum spirit), aided by heat, and by being subjected to the action of
the centrifugal machine to fusion, and to sublimation.

According to the original method of preparing alizarin, the anthrachinon
was first converted into a dibromide of anthrachinon by treatment with
bromine, and this bromated compound, by further treatment either with
caustic potash or soda at a temperature of 180° to 200° C., converted into
alizarin-potassium (or alizarin-sodium if caustic soda has been used),
from which the alizarin is set free by means of hydrochloric acid.

Alizarin is now procured from anthrachinon by treatment at a temperature
of 260° C., with concentrated sulphuric acid of 1·84 sp. gr., the
anthrachinon being converted into a sulpho-acid; this acid is next
neutralised with carbonate of lime, the fluid decanted from the deposited
sulphate of lime, and carbonate of potash added to it, with the object of
throwing down all the lime. The clear liquid is then evaporated to
dryness, the resulting saline mass is converted into alizarin-potassium by
heating it with caustic potash. From the alizarin-potassium thus obtained
the alizarin is set free by the aid of hydrochloric acid.

In another method the preparation of anthrachinon is avoided, and
anthracen employed directly, by first converting it, by means of sulphuric
acid and heat, into anthracen sulphonic-acid. After having been diluted
with water, the solution of this acid is treated with oxidising agents
(peroxides of manganese, lead, chromic acid, nitric acid), and the acid
fluid is afterwards neutralised with carbonate of lime. When peroxide of
manganese has been used, the manganese is also precipitated as oxide. The
oxidised sulpho-acid having been previously converted into a potassium
salt, the latter being heated with caustic potash, alizarin is obtained.
The details of these two processes will be found set forth in the terms of
the patent taken out by Messrs Caro, Graebe and Liebermann, further on.

The following method of preparing alizarin from anthracene paranaphthalene
and their homologues is by Girard. The material used is that which distils
between 290° and 360°; it is purified by distillation and pressure, the
portion which passes over, between 300° and 305°, being collected
separately. This mixture is treated with potassium chlorate and
hydrochloric acid, whereby it is converted into tetra-chlorinated
products. These are oxidised either by nitric acid in the water bath, or
by a metallic oxide (red or brown oxide of lead), and sulphuric or acetic
acid. In the first place a mixture of dichloranthraquinine and chloride of
chloroxyanthranyl are obtained. These substances are treated in presence
of a metallic oxide (oxide of zinc, oxide of copper, or litharge), with an
alcoholic solution of sodium acetate. The metallic oxide removes the last
atom of chlorine from the sodium chloroxyanthranilate, and converts it,
like the dichloranthraquinine, into alizarin. The purification is effected
by means of benzine, petroleum, &c., which dissolve out the foreign
matters, and by successive precipitation from the alkaline solutions by
mineral acids. The foreign matters may also be separated by means of a
little alum, when it is necessary to work with neutral potash or soda
salts.

Another method for the preparation of alizarin has been patented by Dale
and Schorlemmer. It is as follows: 1 part of anthracen is boiled with 4 to
10 parts of strong sulphuric acid, then diluted with water, and the
solution neutralised with carbonate of calcium, barium, potassium, or
sodium. The resulting sulphates having been removed by nitration or
crystallisation, the solution is heated to between 180° and 260° with
caustic potash or soda, to which a quantity of potassium nitrate or
chlorate has been added, about equal in weight to the anthracen, as long
as a blue-violet colour is thereby produced. From this product the
alizarin is separated in the usual way by precipitation with an acid.
Several other patents have been taken out for the preparation of
artificial alizarin.

The specification of Messrs Caro, Graebe, and Liebermann, and dated June
25th, 1869, was the first which was taken out in England. We quote it here
because it enters more fully into detail than any of the others.

“Our invention is carried into effect by means of either of the two
processes which we will proceed to describe.

“In the one process we proceed as follows——We take about one part by
weight of anthraquinone and about three parts by weight of sulphuric acid
of about specific gravity of 1·488, and introduce the same into a retort,
which may be made of glass, or porcelain, or of any other material not
easily acted upon by sulphuric acid, and the contents are then to be
heated up to about 260° Centigrade, and the temperature is maintained
until the mixture is found no longer to contain any appreciable quantity
of unaltered anthraquinone. The completion of this operation may be
ascertained or tested by withdrawing a small portion of the product from
time to time, and continuing the operation at the high temperature until
such product upon being diluted with water is found to form a
substantially perfect solution, thereby indicating that the anthraquinone
has become either entirely or in greater part converted into the desired
product. The products thus obtained are then allowed to cool, and are
diluted with water; carbonate of lime is then added in order to neutralise
and remove the excess of sulphuric acid contained in the solution; the
mixture is then filtered, and to the filtrate carbonate of potash, or
carbonate of soda, by preference in solution, is to be added until
carbonate of lime is no longer precipitated; the mixture is then filtered,
and the clear solution is evaporated to dryness, by which means the potash
or soda salts of the sulpho-acids of anthraquinone are obtained, and which
are to be treated in the following manner:——We take about one part by
weight of this product, and from two to three parts by weight of solid
caustic, soda, or potash; water may be added or not, but by preference we
add as much water as is necessary to dissolve the alkali after admixture;
we heat the whole in a suitable vessel, and the heating operation is
continued at a temperature of from about 180° to 260° Centigrade, for
about one hour, or until a portion of the mixture is found upon
withdrawing and testing it to give a solution in water, which being
acidulated with an acid, for example, sulphuric acid, will give a copious
precipitate of the colouring matters. The heating operation having been
found to have been continued for a sufficient time, the resulting products
are then dissolved in water, and we either filter or decant the solution
of the same, from which we precipitate the colouring matters or artificial
alizarin, by means of a mineral or organic acid, such, for example, as
sulphuric or acetic acid. The precipitated colouring matters thus obtained
are collected in a filter or otherwise, and after having been washed may
be employed for the purpose of dyeing and printing, either in the same way
as preparations of madder are now used or otherwise.

“In carrying out our other process we proceed as follows:——We take about
one part by weight of anthracene and about four parts by weight of
sulphuric acid of specific gravity of about 1·848, and the mixture being
contained in a suitable vessel, is heated to a temperature of about 100°
Centigrade, and which temperature is to be maintained for the space of
about three hours; the temperature is then to be raised to about 150°
Centigrade, which temperature is to be maintained for about one hour, or
until a small portion of the product when submitted to the two subsequent
processes hereinafter described is found to produce the desired colouring
matters; we then allow the result obtained by this operation to cool, and
dilute it with water, by preference in the proportion of about three times
its weight. To the solution thus obtained we add for every part of
anthracene by weight which had been employed in the previous operations,
from about two to three parts by weight of peroxide of manganese,
preferring to employ an excess, and we boil the whole strongly for some
time, and in order fully to ensure the desired degree of oxidation the
mixture may be subsequently concentrated, and by preference be evaporated
to dryness, and the heat be continued until a small portion of the
oxidised product, when submitted to the subsequent processes hereinafter
described will produce the desired colouring matters. We then neutralise
and remove the sulphuric acid contained in this mixture, and at the same
time precipitate any oxides of manganese that may be held in solution, by
adding an excess of caustic lime, which we use by preference in the form
of milk of lime, and we add the same until the mixture has an alkaline
reaction. We then filter, and add to the filtrate carbonate of potash or
soda, until there is no further precipitation of carbonate of lime. The
solution is then filtered and evaporated to dryness, and we thus obtain
the potash or soda salts of what we call the sulpho-acids of
anthraquinone.

“In effecting the conversion of the oxidised products thus obtained into
colouring matters, or into what we call artificial alizarin, we proceed as
follows:——We take one part by weight of this product, and from two to
three parts by weight of solid caustic soda or potash, and water may be
added or not, but by preference we add as much water as may be necessary
to dissolve the alkali. After admixture we heat the whole in a suitable
vessel, and continue the heating operation at a temperature of about 180°
to about 260° Centigrade for about one hour, or until a portion of the
mixture is found to give a solution in water, which upon acidulation with
an acid, for example, sulphuric acid, is found to give a copious
precipitate of the colouring matters. The heating operation having been
found to have been continued for a sufficient time, we then dissolve the
product in water, and either filter or decant the solution of the same,
from which we precipitate the colouring matters or artificial alizarin by
means of a mineral or organic acid, such, for example, as sulphuric or
acetic acid. The precipitated colouring matters thus obtained are
collected on a filter or otherwise, and after having been washed may be
employed for the purpose of dyeing and printing, either in the same way as
preparations of madder are now used or otherwise.

“Instead of acting upon anthracen by means of sulphuric acid of the
density before mentioned, fuming sulphuric acid may be employed, but we
prefer to use the ordinary kind before described.

“In order to effect the process of oxidation, before referred to, other
oxidising agents may be used in the place of the oxide of manganese,
before mentioned, such, for example, as perioxide of lead, or chromic,
nitric, or other acids capable of effecting the desired oxidation may be
employed.”

Mr W. H. Perkin’s patent is similar in principle to that of Messrs Caro,
Graebe, and Liebermann, and is dated only one day later.

The following is an outline of a patent taken out in France in May, 1869,
by MM. Brœnner and Gutzkon, for the manufacture of artificial alizarin.
One part of anthracen is heated with two parts of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·3
to 1·5. The anthraquinone thus produced is washed and dissolved at a
moderate heat in sulphuric acid. Mercuric nitrate is now added, which
converts the anthraquinone into alizarin, The mass thus formed is
dissolved in an excess of alkali, which precipitates the oxide of mercury,
and retains the colouring matters in solution. The alkaline liquor is
decanted and neutralised with sulphuric acid, and the precipitate thus
formed is washed and collected. If not quite pure the treatment with
alkali must be repeated. (The complete specification of this patent is
published in the ‘Moniteur Scientifique,’ vol. xi, p. 865.)

In England a large quantity of artificial alizarin is manufactured by the
process of Mr Perkin, and is used as a substitute for madder and madder
extract, in Turkey red dyeing and topical styles. The largest makers of
artificial alizarin on the continent are Messrs Gessert Frères, of
Ebelfort, Messrs Maister, Lucius and Co., of Hæchst, near Frankfort, and
the Badische Anilin und Soda Fabric, Mannheim.

The following recipes for printing with artificial alizarin are extracted
from Mr Crookes’ ‘Practical Handbook of Dyeing and Calico Printing’:

        REDS.

  5 lbs. alizarin paste (10 per cent.);
  16 lbs. thickening;
  1 lb. acetate of alumina, at 15° Tw.;
  1/2 lb. acetate of lime, at 25° Tw.

        PINKS.

The above diluted with 2 or 3 parts of thickening.

For double printing, when deep red is printed on first, the goods must be
steamed one hour before the second printing takes place. After the second
printing the goods are again steamed for one hour, and aged for
twenty-four hours; they are then passed through one of the following
baths, at from 120 to 140 F., remaining in the bath not longer than 1 to
1-1/2 minute:——

  250 gals. water;
  60 lbs. chalk;
  3 lbs. tin crystals.

  Or, 250 gals. water;
  40 lbs. chalk;
  10 lbs. arseniate of soda.

The goods are then washed, and cleaned as follows:——

Take, for 10 pieces of fifty yards each,——

  1st. Soaping at 120° F., 3 lbs. soap;
  1/4 lb. tin crystals.
  2nd. Soaping at 160° F., 3 lbs. soap;
  3rd. Soaping at 175° F., 3 lbs. soap.
  Wash between each soaping.

        RED FOR MOSAICS.

  8 lbs. alizarin paste (10 per cent.);
  10 quarts thickening;
  9-1/2 oz. nitrate of alumina, at 23° Tw.;
  19 oz. acetate of alumina, at 15° Tw.;
  13 oz. acetate of lime, at 25° Tw.

  Or, 10 lbs. alizarin paste (10 per cent.);
  10 quarts thickening;
  13 oz. nitrate of alumina, at 23° Tw.;
  19 oz. acetate of alumina, at 15° Tw.;
  16 oz. acetate of lime, at 25° Tw.

        ANOTHER RED WITHOUT OIL.

  8-1/2 lbs. alizarin paste (10 per cent.);
  9-1/2 lbs. acetic acid, at 12° Tw.;
  3-1/2 lbs. wheat flour;
  5  pints water.

Boil well and stir till cold; then add——

  1 lb. acetate of lime, at 29° Tw.;
  2 lbs. nitrate of alumina, at 23° Tw.;
  3 lbs. hyposulphite of lime, at 13° Tw.

        PURPLE.

  3 lbs. alizarin paste (10 per cent.);
  10 quarts purple thickening;
  6  oz. pyrolignite of lime, at 18° Tw.;
  12 oz. acetate of lime, at 25° Tw.

The printed goods are steamed for an hour or two, and then aged from
twenty-four to thirty-six hours. They are then padded in the chalk and
arseniate of soda bath; after which they are washed and soaped in a single
soap-bath without tin crystals; and, if needful, cleaned in a weak
solution of bleaching powder.

        THICKENING FOR REDS.

  12 lbs. wheat starch;
  40 quarts water;
  4 quarts acetic acid, 9^{9} Tw.;
  1-1/4 lbs. gum tragacanth;
  2 lbs. olive oil.

Boil well together, and stir till cold.

        THICKENING FOR PURPLE.

  10 lbs. starch;
  27 quarts water;
  3 quarts acetic acid;
  1-1/8 lbs. gum tragacanth;
  2 lbs. olive oil.

Boil well together, and stir till cold.

The mordants in the above recipes are prepared as fellows:

        ACETATE OF ALUMINA.

Stir 30 lbs. of hydrate of alumina into six quarts of acetic acid, warm,
filter, and reduce to the specific gravity required.

The hydrate of alumina is prepared by dissolving 72 lbs. of alum in 100
gals. of water, and 62 lbs. soda in 100 gals. of water. The two solutions
are mixed, this precipitate is washed eight times by decantation,
collected on a filter and pressed. It must be dissolved on the filter
before it gets dry.

  NITRATE OF ALUMINA.
  2 lbs. nitrate of lead;
  2 lbs. alum;
  2 quarts water.

Dissolve and filter off the liquid from the precipitate, and dilute to
proper standard.

The reds are turned more yellow by nitrate than by acetate of alumina, and
when the former is used more acetate of lime is taken in addition.

        ACETATE OF LIME.

A solution of acetate of lime at 25° Tw. contains 25 per cent. of acetate
of lime; generally 1/10th of the weight of alizarin paste is required; but
with a fresh quantity of alizarin it is safer to ascertain, on a small
scale, the amount needed.

        BROWN.

  13-1/4 lbs. alizarin paste (15 per cent.);
  9 quarts thickening;
  2 lbs. nitrate of alumina, at 29° Tw.;
  15 oz. acetate of alumina, at 19° Tw.;
  15 oz. red prussiate potash, dissolved in
      water;
  1 lb. 1 oz. acetate of lime, at 29° Tw.

To obtain a yellower shade, for every quart of mixed colour, 1 oz. bark
liquor, at 30° Tw., may be added.

Old spoiled red colours may be advantageously used for browns by adding
per quart, 3/4 oz. to 1 oz. red prussiate, dissolved in water.

=ALKALI.= _Syn._ ALKALI, Fr.; LANGENSALZ, Ger. This word has been used in
various senses, but is now usually applied to four substances only, viz.
the hydrates of potassium, sodium, lithium, and ammonium (the latter being
supposed to exist in the aqueous solution of ammonia). In a more general
sense it is applied to the hydrates of barium, strontium, and calcium,
which, for the sake of distinction, are called the alkaline earths. The
following properties are characteristic of the alkalies:——(1) They are
soluble in water, the alkalies proper more so than the alkaline earths.
(2) They change the hue of many vegetable colouring matters; thus, they
turn reddened litmus blue, yellow turmeric brown, and syrup of violets and
infusion of red cabbage green. (3) They neutralise the strongest acids.
(4) They precipitate most of the heavy metals from solutions of their
salts as hydrates or oxides. (5) They saponify the fixed oils and fats.
(6) They exert a caustic or corrosive action on animal and vegetable
substances.

=ALKALI ACTS.= The principal alkali Act is the 26 and 27 Vict., c. 24,
amended by 37 and 38 Vict., c. 43, the amended Act having come into
operation in 1875.

Every alkali work must be carried on so as to ensure the condensation of
not less than 95% of muriatic acid evolved therein; and it must be so
condensed that in each cubic foot of air, smoke, or chimney gases,
escaping from the works into the atmosphere, there is not contained more
than one fifth part of a grain of muriatic acid. Penalty for first
conviction, £50; for second and other offences, £100, or less (26 and 27
Vict., c. 124, s. 4; 37 and 38 Vict., c. 43, s. 4).

The owner of every alkali work is also bound “to use the best practicable
means of preventing the discharge into the atmosphere of all other noxious
gases arising from such work; or of rendering such gases harmless when
discharged.”

The noxious gases are defined to be sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid
(except that arising from the combustion of coals), nitric acid, or other
noxious oxides of nitrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen and chlorine (37 and 38
Vict., c. 43, ss. 5 and 8).

The owner is liable for any offence against the Alkali Acts, unless he
prove that the offence was committed by some agent, servant, or workman,
and without his knowledge, in which case the agent, &c., is liable (26 and
27 Vict., c. 124, s. 5).

Every alkali work must be registered; penalty for neglect £5 per day
(ibid., s. 6).

Powers are given to owners to make special rules for the guidance of their
workmen (ibid. s. 13).

=ALKALIM′ETRY.= _Syn._ ALKALIME′TRIA, L.; ALCALIMÉTRIE, Fr. In
_chemistry_, the estimation of the strength of the commercial alkalies;
the art or process of determining the quantity or proportion of pure
caustic alkali, or of its carbonate, in any given sample or simple
solution. It is the reverse of ‘acidimetry,’ and it should be understood
that it does not apply to alkalies occurring under any other form or
condition than those just mentioned. Alkalimetric assays are now also
frequently and conveniently extended to the estimation of the alkaline
earths and their carbonates, as hereafter noticed.

_Alkalimetrical processes._ These, like those of ‘acidimetry,’ are for
the most part founded on——the capacity of the bases to saturate acids——the
estimation of the quantity of dry carbonic acid liberated from a given
weight of an alkaline carbonate under the influence of a stronger acid;
and, in the case of the pure alkalies, the sp. gr. of their solutions.
From any one of these results the exact amount of alkali, or of alkaline
carbonate, present in a sample, is easily found or calculated. These
processes are, indeed, precisely similar to those described under
ACIDIMETRY; but here the unknown quantity sought is the alkali, instead of
the acid.

_Assay._ The SAMPLE is drawn from as near the centre of the cask
containing the alkali as possible, and at once placed in a wide-mouthed
bottle, which is then closely corked up and numbered. Before proceeding to
the assay, the contents of the bottle are thrown on a piece of dry paper,
the lumps crushed small, and the whole reduced to coarse powder as rapidly
as possible. The number of grains required for the trial are then at once
weighed, placed in a phial or small glass tube, and agitated with about
1/2 oz. of hot water. After a short time allowed for repose, the clear
liquid is poured off into a beaker-glass or other vessel in which the
trial is to be made. This process is repeated with a second and a third
quantity of water, or until nothing soluble remains, shown by the last
washings not affecting the colour of turmeric paper. The greatest care
must here be taken not to waste the smallest portion of the liquid, which
would render the results inaccurate.

To the solution in the beaker-glass a little solution of litmus is added,
unless the acid is tinted with it when it is unnecessary. The solution is
now heated until near its boiling point, and a piece of white paper or
porcelain put behind it, to better show up the changes of colour. The
alkaline solution is now treated with the standard test-acid, which is
poured carefully from an alkalimeter or Mohr’s burette, until the
solution, after turning a purple red, suddenly assumes a pink colour.
Neutralisation being thus effected, the operator allows the sides of the
alkalimeter or burette to drain, and then either ‘reads off’ the number of
divisions which have been consumed, or (if using the test-acid by weight)
determines the quantity by again weighing the alkalimeter. The common
practice is to allow two drops (= 1/5th of an alkalimetrical division by
VOLUME, or 2 gr. by WEIGHT) for over-saturation, which is, therefore,
deducted from the ‘observed quantity’ of the test-liquor employed.

In testing solutions of the PURE or CAUSTIC ALKALIES, the colour, on
neutralisation, suddenly changes from blue to pink or red, without any
intermediate vinous or purple colour being produced.

The quantity of test-acid used gives the absolute or per-centage
composition of the sample examined, according to the constitution of the
test-acid used.

_Standard Acids._ The various test-acids in use as described below, each
being used by different operators as they think best.

The most convenient test-acid, or normal solution, both for commercial and
chemical assays, is perhaps dilute sulphuric acid, which, when intended to
be used VOLUMETRICALLY, has the sp. gr. 1·032 at 60° Fahr., and contains
in 100 alkalimetrical divisions 1000 water-grains measure, or 1 litre,
exactly 49 gr. (or grammes) of sulphuric acid; and when intended to be
used GRAVIMETRICALLY, or by weight, has the sp. gr. 1·033, and contains in
1000 gr. (or grammes) weight exactly 49 gr. (grammes) of sulphuric acid;
and, in both cases, consequently corresponds to 1 equiv. of every other
base. These dilute acids are easily prepared by mixing 1 part of the
concentrated acid with 11 or 12 parts of distilled water; the precise
quantity depending on the strength of the acid employed, and must be so
arranged that 1000 grains shall exactly neutralise 1000 grains of water
containing 53 grains of pure anhydrous sodium carbonate.

This acid (as well as all those hereafter mentioned) may be kept faintly
tinged with litmus, which is often more convenient than tinging the
alkaline solution at the time of making the assay.

It will at once be seen that every alkalimeter division of the first of
the above acids, and every 10 gr. of the second, represent the 1/100th
part, or 1% of alkali whenever the equivalent weight[18] of the latter is
taken for the assay. Every 1-10th part of an alkalimeter-division (or
every drop), and every grain weight (when a Schüster’s alkalimeter is
employed) then respectively represents the 1/10 of 1%; and the result
sought is obtained without the necessity of any calculation.

[Footnote 18: See Table II, at the end of this article.]

This is obvious——for if the equivalent of a pure alkali or of
its carbonate (_i. e._ one of 100%) requires an equiv. (100
alkalimeter-divisions, or 1000 gr.) of test-acid to saturate it, an alkali
or alkaline carbonate of 75%, 50%, or 25%, will respectively require only
75, 50, or 25 divisions, or 750, 500, or 250 gr.; and so of other
strengths in proportion. The only precaution necessary is always to take
the standard weight for the assay answering to the equiv. of the
denomination of the per-centage result sought. Thus, in testing a
carbonate of potash, we may either wish to determine its per-centage
richness in ‘dry carbonate,’ or in ‘pure potassa,’ the latter being
usually the case. To obtain the first, we must take 69 gr. for the assay;
and to obtain the second, 47 gr. With _CAUSTIC ALKALIES_, or mixtures
containing them, the weight, in grains, taken for the assay, must always
correspond to the equiv. of the pure base. See Table II, at the end of
this article.

In _commercial assays_, when 100 gr. (or some aliquot part thereof) are
taken for trial, the per-centage result is obtained from the number of
alkalimeter-divisions, or the number of grains, of the test-acid consumed,
by the common Rule of Proportion. Thus:——A crude sample of potash having
taken 90 alkalimeter-divisions of test-acid to neutralise it, would
contain——

  100 : 47 :: 90 : 42·30%

or nearly 42-1/3 per cent. of pure potassa. If only 50, 25, or 20 gr. are
tested, the result must, of course, be double, quadruple, &c., as the case
may be. Or the third term of the proportion may be multiplied by the
denominator of the fraction representing the aliquot part. This, in the
case of 50 gr. (repeating the above example), would be——

  10 : 47 :: 45 × 2 : 42·30%

as before; but even these easy calculations may be simplified, as is shown
below.

One of the advantages, and not the least, attending the use of test-acids
corresponding to equivalents, is, that by means of the simple Rule of
Three, the per-centage quantity of alkali may be found whether 100 or any
other number of grains have been submitted to trial. For——The weight of
the sample tested (in grains) bears the same relation to the equivalent
weight of the alkali under examination, that the number of
alkalimeter-divisions or of the grains of test-acid consumed do to the
per-centage of alkali sought. Thus, with a sample of 33 gr. of pearlash
taking 35 alkalimeter-divisions or 350 grains (every 10 gr. being = 1%) of
test-acid for neutralisation, this would be——

  33 : 47 :: 35 : 49·85%

or nearly 50 per cent. of pure potassa. By substituting the equiv. of the
dry carbonate of potash (69), for that of pure potassa used above, the
quantity of that article corresponding to the same weight of the pure
alkali may be at once found. Repeating the last example this will be——

  33 : 69 :: 35 : 73·18%

or nearly 73-1/4 per cent. The same applies to all the alkaline bases and
their carbonates.

For commercial purposes, there is used, amongst others, an empirical
solution, as a test-acid for potassa, soda, and ammonia, to save the
necessity of calculation.

This is dilute sulphuric acid having a sp. gr. of about 1·071; 100
alkalimeter-divisions (1000 water-grains measure) exactly saturate 100 gr.
of pure potassa, or 113 gr. of anhydrous carbonate of soda. The number of
measures consumed, read off by mere inspection from the scale of the
alkalimeter, gives the exact per-centage of alkali in the sample examined,
for POTASH; and by multiplying it by ·66, that for SODA also. By employing
·362 as the multiplier, it gives the like result for AMMONIA. In fact,
occasionally, in order to save the necessity of any calculation, two
‘test-acids’ are frequently employed——the one for potash and the other for
soda.

These are made by diluting sulphuric acid to a sp. gr. of near 1·071 and
1·086 respectively; 1000 grains, by measure, of the first neutralising
exactly 100 grains of pure potassa, or 113 of pure anhydrous soda
carbonate, and the latter neutralising exactly 100 grains of pure soda, or
171 gr. of pure anhydrous sodium carbonate.

There is another system of preparing standard acids by means of a
Faraday’s alkalimeter. A strong acid is prepared by diluting sulphuric
acid to a sp. gr. of 1·1268 at 60°, and 455·7 grains exactly neutralise
100 of anhydrous carbonate of soda.

The glass tube here referred to, and known as Faraday’s ALKALIMETER, is
graduated centesimally, in the usual manner; but opposite the numbers
22·1, 48·62, 54·43, and 65, are cut the words ‘soda,’ ‘potassa,’
‘carbonate of soda,’ and ‘carbonate of potassa,’ to indicate the quantity
of the test-acid to be employed for each of these substances. (See
_engr._) It is used by pouring the test-liquor into it until it reaches
the line marked against the alkali, or carbonate, under examination, the
remaining divisions being filled up with pure water, and the whole well
mixed by placing the thumb on the orifice of the tube and shaking it well.
The measure of the resulting dilute acid must then be very carefully
observed, and more water added, if required, to bring it up to the zero
(0) or 1000 gr. on the scale; careful agitation being again employed as
before. The test-acid thus prepared is then added, with the usual
precautions, to the sample until exact neutralisation is effected. The
quantity consumed for this purpose, read off from the graduated scale,
expresses the exact per-centage of the pure ALKALI, or of its CARBONATE,
as the case may be, contained in the sample examined, provided 100 gr.
have been taken for the assay.

[Illustration]

Another method sometimes used is that of M. Mohr, and practised as
follows:——The alkaline solution, slightly coloured blue with litmus, is
strongly super-saturated with a standard acid (sulphuric or oxalic) of
known strength, supplied from an alkalimeter in the usual manner; the last
traces of carbonic anhydride being removed by boiling, shaking, blowing
into the flask, and, finally, sucking out the air. A standard solution of
caustic soda (of a strength exactly corresponding to that of the test-acid
already used) is now cautiously added, drop by drop, until the colour,
rendered yellowish-red by the acid, just appears of a light blue. The
difference between the quantity of the solution of the test-alkali and of
the test-acid consumed, expresses the exact quantity of acid neutralised
by the alkali, and hence also its strength.

Besides the above methods, the alkaline carbonates are analysed, by the
loss of carbonic anhydride (carbonic acid) they suffer, by being
decomposed by a strong acid. The best method in use is that of MM.
Fresenius and Will, and depends on the same principle, and is performed in
a similar manner and in a similar apparatus to that described under
ACIDIMETRY; the only difference being that here the uses of the small tube
(_e_) is dispensed with, and that the alkali is tested under the form of
carbonate, instead of bicarbonate.

_Oper._ The smaller flask (_B_) is about half filled with concentrated
sulphuric acid, and the sample of alkali, in solution (under the form of
carbonate), being placed in the larger flask (_A_), water is added until
it is about one third full. The tubes are then fitted into the apparatus
quite air-tight; the end of the tube (_b_) is fastened with a piece of
wax, and the whole is very carefully weighed. The apparatus is now removed
from the scales, and a perforated cork, or a small piece of india-rubber
tube, being temporarily applied to the end of the tube (_h_), a few
bubbles of air are sucked out of the flask (_B_) by means of the lips; the
consequence of which is, that on removing the mouth the acid in (_B_)
ascends to a certain height in the tube (_c_). If in a short time this
little column of liquid maintains its height in the tube, it is a proof
that the apparatus is perfectly air-tight, and as it should be. Suction is
now again cautiously applied to the tube (_h_) and a little of the acid in
(_B_) made to flow over into the flask (_A_), the quantity being
proportionate to the vacuum produced by suction, and capable of being
regulated at will. No sooner does the acid come into contact with the
carbonate in the flask (_A_) than the evolution of carbonic acid
commences, and this, from the construction of the apparatus, having to
pass through the concentrated sulphuric acid, is rendered quite dry before
it can escape by the tube (_d_) into the atmosphere. Whenever the
effervescence flags, a little more acid is sucked over, until the whole of
the carbonate is decomposed; after which an additional quantity is made to
pass into (_A_), so as to raise the temperature considerably, for the
purpose of expelling all the gas absorbed by the fluid during the
operation. As soon as this is effected, the wax is removed from the
aperture (_b_), and suction applied to (_h_), until all the carbonic acid
in the apparatus is replaced by atmospheric air. The whole is now allowed
to cool, and (together with the piece of wax removed) is again accurately
weighed. The loss of weight gives the exact amount of dry carbonic
anhydride, or anhydrous carbonic acid, which was contained in the
specimen, from which the weight of PURE ALKALI is readily estimated, as
every 22 gr. of dry carbonic acid gas evolved represents exactly 31 gr. of
pure SODA, 47 gr. of pure POTASSA, &c. &c.; these numbers being the
equivalents of the respective substances from which the per-centage
strength may be found by the rule of proportion, as before explained.

Thus, in the case of a 100-gr. sample of carbonate of soda which has lost
15-1/4 gr. of carbonic acid, by the assay, this would be——

  22 : 31 :: 15-1/4 : 21·48%

or nearly 21-1/2 per cent. of pure soda. If 53, the equiv. of anhydrous
carbonate of soda, be taken, instead of 31 (the eq. of pure soda), the
answer would have been, in the terms of that substance, 36·748%, or nearly
36-3/4 per cent. When an aliquot part of 100 gr. has been taken for the
assay, either the result, or the third term of the proportion, must, of
course, he multiplied by the denominator and divided by the numerator of
the fraction representing such aliquot part.

By multiplying the weight of carbonic anhydride lost, by the numbers
opposite the names of the respective alkalies and their carbonates in the
second column of the following _Table_ the equivalent per-centage value of
the carbonates examined may be obtained in terms corresponding to the
various denominations named therein, when 100 gr., or any aliquot part of
100 gr., have been tested; the result, in the latter case, being, of
course, multiplied as before.

By taking certain standard weights for the assay, the quantity of carbonic
acid evolved may be made to furnish the per-centage strength or value of
the specimen in the terms of either the pure or carbonated alkalies,
whether in their anhydrous or hydrated state. The numbers in the second
column of the following _Table_ represent the quantity in grains and
decimal parts of each of the substances named in the first column,
equivalent to one grain of carbonic anhydride. These numbers, as already
mentioned, may be employed as factors for converting any numbers
representing grains of that acid into the equivalents of these substances,
true to 4 places of decimals; and further, they furnish us with the data
for determining the exact number of grains which must be tested, so that
the loss of weight in carbonic anhydride shall at once give us the
per-centage richness of the sample in the terms of the denomination for
which it is taken. The numbers in the third column of the _Table_, formed
by simply moving the decimal point of the numbers in the second column one
figure further to the right, indicate the weights to be taken for the
assay, so that the loss of weight, reckoned in tenths of a grain, exactly
represents the per-centage strength in the terms sought. The weights
corresponding to the numbers in the fifth column give the same results,
provided the loss of weight is reckoned in quarter-grains; those in the
sixth column effect the same when the loss of weight is reckoned in
half-grains; whilst those in the last column require that the gas
eliminated should be counted in grains, and are simply the numbers in the
second column of the _Table_ multiplied by 100, or reproduced by moving
the decimal point two figures to the right.

        TABLE I.——_Multipliers and Standard Weights for the
        Principal Alkalies and their Carbonates._ (COOLEY.)

KEY:

    A - Factors or Multipliers for converting the weight of carbonic
        acid expelled into real strengths.
    B - Quantity (in grains) to be taken, so that the per-centage
        value of the sample tested shall be shown in the terms of
        any of the denominations given, by the weight of the evolved
        Carbonic Acid reckoned——
    C - in tenths of a grain.
    D - Whole numbers and decimals.
    E - Nearest common numbers.
    F - in quarter-grains.
    G - in half-grains.
    H - in grains.

  -----------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------+
                         |       |                    B                      |
                         |       |--------------------^----------------------+
           NAMES, &c     |       |      C        |         |        |        |
                         |       |------^--------|         |        |        |
                         |   A   |   D  |   E    |    F    |    G   |   H    |
  -----------------------+-------+------+--------+---------+--------+--------+
  AMMONIA                |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (pure, gaseous)        | ·77273| 7·727| 7-3/4  | 19-1/3  | 38-5/8 | 77-3/0 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Carbonate of ammonia   |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (neutral, anhydrous)   |1·77273|17·727|17-3/4  | 44-5/16 | 88-5/8 |177-1/4 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Carbonate of ammonia   |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (neutral,              |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  crystallised)          |1·9773 |19·773|19-3/4  | 49-7/16 | 98-7/8 |197-3/4 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Sesquicarbonate of     |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  ammonia (translucent)  |2·6818 |26·818|26-13/16| 67-1/10 |134-1/10|268-1/5 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Bicarbonate of ammonia |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (crystallised)         |3·5909 |35·909|35-9/10 | 89-13/16|179-5/8 |359-1/10|
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  POTASSA (anhydrous)    |2·1364 |21·364|21-1/2  | 53-1/2  |107     |213-3/8 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Hydrate of potassa     |2·54546|25·455|25-5/11 | 63-5/8  |127-1/4 |254-1/2 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Carbonate of potassa   |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (anhydrous)            |3·1364 |31·364|31-3/8  | 78-1/2  |157     |313-1/2 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Carbonate of potassa   |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (granulated)           |3·7727 |37·727|37-1/2  | 94-3/10 |188-5/8 |377-1/4 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Carbonate of potassa   |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (crystallised)         |3·9545 |39·545|39-5/8  | 99      |198     |395-1/2 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Bicarbonate of potassa |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (crystallised)         |4·5454 |45·454|45-1/2  |113-3/4  |227-1/2 |454-1/2 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  SODA (anhydrous)       |1·4091 |14·09 |14-1/10 | 35-1/4  | 70-1/2 |141     |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Hydrate of soda        |1·8182 |18·182|18-1/5  | 45-1/2  | 91     |182     |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Carbonate of soda      |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (anhydrous)            |2·4091 |24·091|24-1/10 | 60-1/4  |120-1/2 |241     |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Carbonate of soda      |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (crystallised)         |6·5    |65·   |65      |162-1/2  |325     |650     |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Sesquicarbonate of soda|       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (dry; theoretical)     |2·9091 |29·091|29-1/10 | 72-1/2  |145     |290     |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Sesquicarbonate of     |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  soda (Ph. L., 1836)    |3·7273 |37·273|37-1/4  | 93-1/4  |186-1/2 |373     |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Sesquicarbonate of     |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  soda (average          |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  commercial)            |3·7954 |37·954|38      | 94-7/8  |189-3/4 |379-1/2 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  Bicarbonate of soda    |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  (crystallised)         |3·8182 |38·182|38-1/5  | 95-1/2  |191     |382     |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  LITHIA (pure,          |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  anhydrous)             | ·6818 | 6·818| 6-13/16| 17-1/20 | 34-1/10| 68-1/5 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  BARYTA (pure,          |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  caustic)               |3·4773 |34·773|34-4/5  | 86-7/8  |173-7/8 |347-3/4 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  LIME (pure, caustic)   |1·2727 |12·727|12-3/4  | 31-3/4  | 63-5/8 |127-1/4 |
                         |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  MAGNESIA (pure,        |       |      |        |         |        |        |
  anhydrous)             | ·90909| 9·091| 9-1/11 | 22-3/4  | 45-1/2 | 91     |
  -----------------------+-------+------+--------+---------+--------+--------+

In this ingenious method of alkalimetry it is absolutely necessary that
the whole of the alkali in the specimen tested should be in the state of
neutral carbonate. If a sample of potash contains any caustic alkali (as
the potashes and pearlash of commerce generally do), Fresenius and Will
direct it, previously to being tested, to be triturated with its own
weight of pure quartzose sand, and about one third of its weight of
carbonate of ammonia; and the resulting mixture, placed in a small iron
capsule, or a porcelain crucible, to be moistened with water, and exposed
to a gentle heat until it becomes quite dry, and all the ammonia is
expelled. If the sample contains any bicarbonate or sesquicarbonate, it
must be heated to dull redness before being placed in the apparatus and
tested. In the case of crude soda (particularly soda ash), the proportion
of carbonate of ammonia should be equal to at least one half the quantity
operated on. With both alkalies, if the sample contains sulphides,
sulphites, or hyposulphites, the same method is to be followed, except
that solution of ammonia, instead of water, is to be employed for
moistening the powder. To remedy the error which would arise from the
apparent amount of carbonic anhydride liberated during the assay, being
swelled by the disengagement of ‘sulphuretted hydrogen’ or sulphurous acid
from these substances, a small quantity of neutral (_i. e._ yellow)
chromate of potash may be added to the alkaline solution in the flask
(_A_); by which they will be converted into sulphates, sulphur, and water,
which will remain in the apparatus, the carbonic acid only being evolved.
“As most sorts of soda of commerce contain one or other of the substances
(just) named, and as it is far more simple to add at once some chromate of
potassa to the soda solution, than to test the latter for either of the
three salts, it is always advisable to make it a rule, in the examination
of SODA, to add some chromate of potassa.” (Fresenius.)

If the sodium or other carbonate under analysis contains much chloride,
the addition of more sulphuric acid than necessary must be avoided, and
the carbonic anhydride expelled by gently heating over a warm bath, and
not by the addition of excess of acid.

[Illustration]

To obviate the difficulties, and to give greater precision and delicacy to
volumetrical assays, the instrument known as Mohr’s ALKALIMETER, or Mohr’s
BURETTE, and which is figured in the margin, may be employed. By means of
it the test-acid in the graduated tube (_a_) may be added to the alkaline
solution in (_f_), in any quantity at a time, however minute, by merely
pressing the handles of the clamp (_d_) with the thumb and finger. The
terminal tube (_e_) has its lower orifice very small, and it is connected
with the burette by means of a small piece of vulcanised india-rubber
tube, on which the clamp (_d_) acts. (See _engr._) The inner cylindrical
part of the arm (_b_) is lined with cork, to prevent injury to the glass
burette, and to hold it the more firmly.

Generally the alkali in the specimen examined may be in either the caustic
or carbonated state, or it may consist of any mixture of caustic alkali,
or carbonates; but it is absolutely necessary for accurate results, that
it should be free from sulphides, sulphites, and hyposulphites, as
sulphuric acid acts upon these substances as well as on carbonates. The
presence of chlorides does not interfere with the accuracy of the assay,
unless a higher degree of heat is employed than that necessary for the
expulsion of the absorbed carbonic acid. The SODA-ASH of commerce
generally contains all these substances besides common salt, sulphate of
soda, and insoluble matter, which do not interfere. Rough samples of
POT-ASHES and PEARL-ASH also generally contain some sulphides, though not
a large quantity. Various plans have been proposed to avoid this source of
error. The best is that of MM. Fresenius and Will, given above, in which
the value of the carbonates is estimated by their yield of carbonic
anhydride.

The difference between an assay of a sample of the unprepared alkali and
of another which has been treated as above, indicates the quantity of
impurities contained in them under the forms just referred to. The
presence of these substances in the commercial alkalies may be detected by
the following tests:——

_Sulphides._ The addition of sulphuric acid causes the evolution of an
odour like that of rotten eggs. The sample in solution yields a black
precipitate with acetate of lead. But the most delicate test is the
splendid violet-blue colour with nitro-prusside of sodium.

_Sulphites and Hyposulphites._ A solution of the alkali, insufficient for
saturation, being added to sulphuric acid tinged reddish yellow with
bichromate of potash, occasions a greenish tinge (owing to the formation
of oxide of chromium), when these are present. Hydrochloric acid added to
a clear solution, after some time, causes a turbidity and odour of
sulphurous anhydride.

_Chlorides_ yield a copious curdy precipitate with nitrate of silver,
soluble in ammonia, and reprecipitated by excess of nitric acid.

The amount of pure caustic alkali in a sample of alkali is best determined
by Fresenius’s method, as follows:——The total amount of pure alkali, both
caustic and carbonated, expressed in per-cents. of carbonate of soda or
carbonate of potassa, is ascertained by any of the usual methods. The
apparent quantity of alkali per cent. is then determined, without previous
treatment of the sample with carbonate of ammonia, by the method of Will
and Fresenius (p. 86). The difference between the results indicates the
per-centage of dry caustic alkali present; or if the volumetric method be
in use, it can be often fairly estimated by adding the first portions of
the test-acid very gradually to the sample, carefully observing the
effect. When the effervescence at length commences the weight or measure
of the test-liquor expended shows the quantity of pure caustic alkali
under treatment (nearly). The result depends upon the fact, that little or
no carbonic-acid gas is expelled from the liquid on the addition of the
test-acid, until the caustic portion is very nearly neutralised.

The quantity of WATER or MOISTURE, per cent., present in an alkaline
carbonate, is indicated by the loss of weight which 100 gr. suffer on
gentle ignition in a loosely-covered iron dish or platinum crucible. So
also with samples containing caustic alkali, except that here the water of
hydration (= 1 equiv. = 9) is not expelled from the ‘caustic’ portion, and
must therefore be determined by calculation.

Other matters deserving the serious attention of the operator are——hitting
the exact point of neutralisation, and——preparing the test-acids of the
proper strength. The method of effecting the former correctly has been
already referred to in this article, and is also fully noticed under
ACETIMETRY and ACIDIMETRY.

_Test-acids_ may be very simply prepared by gradually diluting
concentrated sulphuric acid with water until it is reduced to the proper
strength; the dilution being made in a glass vessel containing a
‘hydrostatic bead’ exactly corresponding to the desired specific gravity
of the dilute acid. When the proper point is reached, and the mixture has
again acquired the normal temperature of 60° Fahr., the bead rises from
the bottom of the vessel, and floats about indifferently in the middle of
the liquid. The sp. gr. may then he carefully ascertained by means of an
hydrometer or a specific gravity bottle; after which the strength must be
accurately determined by means of a standard solution of either pure
anhydrous carbonate of soda or pure caustic soda. An acid of any given
strength or saturating power may also be prepared in the following
manner:——49 parts of commercial sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), sp. gr.
1·825, contain nearly 40 parts or 1 equiv. of anhydrous sulphuric acid; if
we, therefore, wish to prepare a dilute acid containing in every 1000
grains weight, or measure, exactly 1 equiv. of hydrated sulphuric acid, we
have only to make 49 gr. of such acid up to 100 gr. weight or measure with
pure water. After it has recovered the proper temperature, its sp. gr., or
rather its saturating power, must be carefully tried, and, if necessary,
readjusted. As, however, it very often happens that the oil of vitriol
employed is not so strong as that above referred to, it is better first to
test its strength with pure anhydrous carbonate of soda, and to calculate
the quantity required by the Rule of Proportion. Every 53 gr. of the dry
carbonate are equal to 40 gr. of ‘dry sulphuric acid.’ Suppose we find the
oil of vitriol to contain only 72% of hydrated acid, then——

  100 : 40 :: 72 : 55·55

or, instead of only 40 gr., fully 55-1/4 gr. will be required, which are
to be made up with water to 1000 gr., as before. Finally, the diluted acid
must be very carefully re-tested, and if found correct, at once put into a
well-stoppered bottle, and labelled, for use. Too much care cannot be
taken to ensure the test-liquid, whether for alkalies or acids, being of
the proper strength, of which the specific gravity alone is an
insufficient proof. In practice, so small a quantity only of test-acid as
that referred to above is, of course, seldom made; but as any larger
quantities are mere multiples of the smaller one, the necessary
proportions to be employed are easily calculated. The common plan is to
prepare one or more gallons or quantities of 10 lbs. each, and to preserve
the liquid in stoppered green glass ‘Winchester-quart bottles,’ so that it
may be always ready for use.

Although, as may be inferred from the text, sulphuric acid is generally
used as the standard acid, yet oxalic acid in pure crystals is recommended
by M. Mohr, and answers admirably, and is prepared and used exactly in the
same manner.

        TABLE II.——_Alkalimetrical Equivalents._

                                            Grains.
                                       { 17 AMMONIA (pure or gaseous).
                                       { 43-1/2 Carbonate of ammonia
                                       {                 (neutral, hydrated).
                                       { 59 Sesquicarbonate of ammonia
                                       {     (Ph. L.; translucent, hydrated).
                                       { 79   Bicarbonate of ammonia
                                       {                      (crystallised).
                                       { 47   POTASSA (anhydrous).
                                       { 56   Hydrate of potassa (pure
                                       {                    caustic potassa).
                                       { 69   Carbonate of potassa
                                       {                         (anhydrous).
                                       { 83      ”           ”   (granulated,
                                       {                         commercial).
                                       { 87      ”           ”
                                       {                      (crystallised).
                                       {100 Bicarbonate of potassa
                                       {                      (crystallised).
  Grains                               { 31 SODA (anhydrous).
    22 Carbonic anhydride   }          { 40 Hydrate of soda (pure caustic
           (dry).           }          {                               soda).
    63 Oxalic acid          }          { 53 Carbonate of soda (anhydrous).
           (crystallised).  }          {143     ”          ”  (crystallised).
    49 Sulphuric acid       }    are   { 84 Bicarbonate of soda
           (liquid,         }equivalent{                      (crystallised).
           monohydrated,    }   to     { 83-1/2 Sesquicarbonate of soda
           sp. gr. 1·8485). }          {                (average commercial).
    75 Tartaric acid        }          { 84 Bicarbonate of soda (crystals,
           (crystallised).  }          {                 or cryst. powder,
  1000 Dilute sulphuric acid}          {                 free from moisture).
           (sp. gr. 1·033). }          {                ============
                            }          {
  Water——gr. measure.       }          { 15 LITHIA.
  1000 Dilute sulphuric     }          { 24 Hydrate of lithia.
      acid (sp. gr. 1·032). }          { 37 Carbonate of lithia.
                                       {                ============
                                       { 76-1/2 BARYTA (pure, caustic).
                                       { 85-1/2 Hydrate of baryta.
                                       { 98-1/2 Carbonate of baryta.
                                       { 28 LIME (pure, caustic;
                                       {                 _i. e._ quick-lime).
                                       { 37 Hydrate of lime (slaked lime).
                                       { 50 Carbonate of lime
                                       {                     (chalk; marble).
                                       { 20 MAGNESIA (pure, calcined).
                                       { 42 Carbonate of magnesia (dry,
                                       {                            neutral).
                                       { 48-1/2  ”          ”     (ordinary
                                       {                          commercial).
                                       { 52 STRONIA (pure, caustic).
                                       { 61 Hydrate of strontia.
                                       { 74 Carbonate of strontia.

=ALKALOID.= _Syn._ VEGETABLE ALKALI, ORGANIC BASE; ALKALOÏDES (_pl._,
-IDES, or -IDÆ), L.; ALCALOÏDE, ALCALI ORGANIQUE, Fr. In _chemistry_, a
name commonly given to any proximate principle of vegetable origin
possessing alkaline or basic properties, however feeble. In its most
extended sense the term embraces all organic bases, whether obtained from
the animal or vegetable kingdom, or produced artificially. The alkaloids
form a numerous and important class of bodies. They exist in nature nearly
always in the form of salts, the acid being often, like themselves,
peculiar to the plant, or class of plants, in which they are found; whilst
the medicinal activity of the latter, in most cases, almost entirely
depends on their presence.

_Prep._ The following general methods of procuring the alkaloids will be
found applicable to such as full directions are not given for under their
respective heads:——

1. (When the base is insoluble in water, non-volatile, and existing in the
plant in an insoluble form.) The bruised plant is boiled or macerated in
water acidulated with hydrochloric or acetic acid, and the liquor, after
filtration, is neutralised with an alkali (ammonia, potassa, lime, or
magnesia); the resulting precipitate is purified by re-solution in dilute
acid, digestion with a little animal charcoal, and subsequent
crystallisation, or re-precipitation with an alkali; or the first
precipitate is purified by dissolving it once, or, if necessary, several
times, in boiling alcohol, which yields the pure alkaloid either on
cooling or by evaporation.

2. (When the base is insoluble in water, and non-volatile, but existing in
the plant as a soluble salt.) The bruised or sliced plant is boiled or
macerated in water, and the filtered liquor precipitated and otherwise
treated as before.

3. (When the base is soluble in water, and non-volatile.) An infusion made
with very dilute acid, hydrochloric or acetic, is concentrated by a gentle
heat; and the residual liquor treated with potassa (or concentrated
solution of ammonia) and ether conjointly; after repose, the ethereal
solution is decanted and evaporated. For those alkaloids which are
insoluble in ether (as morphia and cinchonia), the previous process may be
adopted.

4. (When the base is both soluble in water and volatile.) The vegetable,
in a bruised or divided state, or its extract, is alkalised with potassa
and distilled; the distillate is neutralised with dilute oxalic or
sulphuric acid, and carefully evaporated to dryness; the residuum is next
digested in alcohol, and the resulting tincture agitated with potassa and
ether, the former being in quantity just sufficient to seize on all the
acid; lastly, the ethereal solution thus formed, on careful evaporation,
leaves the alkaloid nearly pure. It may be further purified by cautious
distillation.

As some of the alkaloids are soluble in excess of the alkaline
precipitant, over-saturation should be carefully avoided; or the
precipitant may be used under the form of carbonate or bicarbonate. When
lime and magnesia are employed, they are boiled for a few minutes with the
solution.

_Props._ Alcoholic or aqueous solutions of the alkaloids generally exhibit
an alkaline reaction with vegetable colours. Like the alkalies, also, they
combine with acids to form salts which, when dissolved in water, are
capable of producing the ordinary phenomena of saline double
decomposition. Their taste is usually intensely bitter.

The majority of the natural alkaloids contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and oxygen, and are, at ordinary temperatures, solid, and not volatile
without decomposition. Some natural alkaloids contain carbon, hydrogen,
and nitrogen only; these are, for the most part, liquid at ordinary
temperatures, and can be distilled without decomposition. The greater
number of the artificial alkalies are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
nitrogen; some, however, contain oxygen in addition. Alkaloids have also
been obtained artificially, in which nitrogen is replaced by phosphorus,
arsenic, antimony, or bismuth. Most of the alkaloids, as they are obtained
in the free state, correspond in function to ammonia, NH_{3}, rather than
to the fixed alkalies; that is to say, they form salts by direct union
with acids, without elimination of water or any other substance. In order
to make them strictly comparable to the fixed alkalies, they require, like
ammonia, the addition of water (H_{2}O) to their formulæ; they may then be
considered as hydrates of compound radicles analogous to ammonium.

_Physiological action._ The alkaloids generally possess great medicinal
power; some of them act with terrific energy, and are the most violent
poisons with which we are acquainted. Perfectly pure aconitia is about 200
times more poisonous than arsenic, and at least 50 times more poisonous
than ordinary medicinal prussic acid. The greater number act on animals in
the same way as the plants which produce them, provided they are given in
proportionately small doses. Many of them, when judiciously administered,
are most valuable medicines.

_Pois., Ant., &c._ Some of the alkaloids act as narcotic or stupefying
poisons; others are classed with the narcotico-acrid poisons, or those
which produce both narcotism and irritation of the parts they touch. The
general symptoms produced by opium and its preparations may be taken as an
example of the former; those from aconite and strychnia, of the latter. In
large doses of the greater number, narcotism predominates; in smaller
ones, irritation; they are rarely coexistent.——_Treatm._ No common
antidote to the effects of this class of substances has yet been
discovered. The only safe treatment, of at all general application, is to
immediately clear the stomach by means of a strong and quick-acting emetic
(as sulphate of zinc), or the stomach-pump, and to administer copious and
continued draughts of astringent vegetable solutions (as of tannin,
nut-galls, oak-bark, or what is always at hand——very strong tea or
coffee). These may be followed by or combined with a smart purge of castor
oil, as soon as the stomach is thoroughly cleared of the poison. M.
Bouchardat strongly recommends a solution of iodine, 3 gr., and iodide of
potassium, 6 gr., in pure water, 16 fl. oz., in cases of poisoning by
OPIUM, ACONITE, COLCHICUM, DEADLY NIGHTSHADE, HEMLOCK, NUX VOMICA, &c., or
by the alkaloids obtained from them——ACONITINE, ATROPIA, COLCHICINA,
CONIA, MORPHIA, STRYCHNIA, &c., or their salts; but _not_ where foxglove
or digitalin has been taken. The stomach having been well emptied by an
emetic, the solution is to be given by wine-glassfuls for some time; the
vomiting being still encouraged during the early part of the
administration of the antidote. In the case of narcotics (as opium,
morphia, &c.), this is to be followed by the free use of a strong infusion
of coffee. According to Dr Garrod, purified animal charcoal is an
‘excellent antidote’ to many of the alkaloids, including those above
enumerated, when taken in poisonous doses; as it not merely absorbs them,
but, for the most part, renders them inert. To be serviceable it should be
recently prepared and fresh-burnt; and should be given in doses of about
an ounce at a time, diffused in warm or tepid water, and frequently
repeated. The vomiting which follows its use, owing to the warm water,
proves advantageous; but after a sufficient time may be lessened by
employing less water, or cooler or even cold water. Drowsiness, if
present, may be combated by the subsequent use of strong coffee or tea, as
before. We have seen this plan succeed in several cases.——_Lesions._
These, like the symptoms, vary. In some cases there are redness and
inflammation of the stomach and intestines, and turgescence of the vessels
of the lungs and brain; in others, these appearances are either slight or
wholly wanting. Wherever there has been much cerebral disturbance, traces
of congestion are usually discernible.

_Detec., Tests, &c._ The identification of the pure alkaloids is extremely
simple; but their detection, when combined with organic and colouring
matters, is a task of considerable difficulty. One or other of the
following plans may be adopted for this purpose:——

1. (Merck.) The matter under examination is digested, for several hours,
with concentrated acetic acid, added in sufficient quantity to produce a
strongly acid reaction; the fluid portion is then strained from the
insoluble matter, and the latter being washed with water acidulated with
acetic acid, the mixed liquors are gently evaporated to dryness in a water
bath; the residuum of the evaporation is boiled first with rectified
spirit, and next with rectified spirit acidulated with acetic acid; the
mixed liquors are again evaporated, the residuum redissolved or diluted
with distilled water, and carbonate of soda or potassa added to feebly
alkaline reaction, and the whole, after evaporation to the consistence of
a syrup, set aside to repose for 24 hours; it is now again diluted with
water, filtered, and the insoluble portion washed with cold distilled
water, and digested with concentrated acetic acid; this last solution is
diluted with distilled water, and decoloured with pure blood-charcoal (if
it be necessary); the fluid, either at once, or after cautious
evaporation, may then be tested for the alkaloids, in the usual manner.
The charcoal previously used should also be tested in the way described
below. This method answers admirably with all the NON-VOLATILE ALKALOIDS,
and may be applied to the stomach and viscera, and their contents, and to
food, &c., in cases of poisoning.

2. (Stas.) The suspected matter, in a finely divided state, is digested,
at 160° to 165° Fahr., with twice or thrice its weight of strong alcohol
acidulated (according to the quantity) with 1/2 dr. to 2 or 3 dr., or
more, of pure oxalic or tartaric acid. After a sufficient time, and when
the whole has become quite cold, it is thrown on a filter, and the
undissolved portion, after being squeezed dry, is washed with strong
alcohol. The mixed and filtered alcoholic liquids are then evaporated at a
temperature not exceeding 95° Fahr., and, if no insoluble matter
separates, the evaporation is continued nearly to dryness;[19] but if
fatty or other insoluble matter separates during the process of
concentration, the concentrated fluid is passed through a moistened
filter, and the filtrate evaporated nearly to dryness, as before. The
residuum is next digested with absolute alcohol, in the cold, the
insoluble portion, after filtration, washed with alcohol, and the mixed
filtrates again evaporated in the air, or in vacuo. The acid residue is
now dissolved in a little distilled water, and bicarbonate of soda added
as long as effervescence ensues. To this mixture 4 or 5 times its volume
of ether is added, and after lengthened agitation (the bottle or tube
being held in a cold wet cloth), the whole is allowed to repose for a
short time. A little of the supernatant ether is now removed to a small
glass capsule or watch-glass, and allowed to evaporate spontaneously.[19]
When this leaves oily streaks upon the glass, which gradually collect into
a small drop, which emits, when gently heated, a disagreeable, pungent,
and stifling odour, the presence of a LIQUID VOLATILE BASE or ALKALOID is
inferred; whilst a solid residue or a turbid fluid with small solid
particles floating in it, indicates a NON-VOLATILE SOLID BASE.[20] In
either case the blue colour of reddened litmus is permanently restored by
the residuum. If no residuum is left on the capsule, some solution of pure
soda or potassa is added to the liquid, the whole well agitated for
several minutes, and the ether (after repose) decanted; an operation which
is repeated with fresh ether a second, third, and even a fourth time. The
base, or bases (if any are present), will now be found in the mixed
ethereal solution, which is, therefore, tested as before. The presence of
an alkaloid being detected, the mixed ethereal solutions are allowed to
evaporate spontaneously, care being taken, if a volatile alkaloid be
present, to neutralise the liquid with an acid before the final
evaporation. The last residuum is then tested for the particular alkaloid
present, as before.[21]

[Footnote 19: The evaporation, according to Stas, should be conducted
under a bell-glass over sulphuric acid, with or without rarefaction of the
air; or in a tubular retort through which a current of air is made to
pass.]

[Footnote 20: A merely disagreeable animal odour, without pungency, is
here disregarded.]

[Footnote 21: ‘Bulletin de l’Académie de Méd. Belgique,’ ix, 304; ‘Jahrb.
f. prakt. Pharm,’ xxiv, 313; &c.]

This method, according to Stas, answers well for all the ALKALOIDS which
are soluble in ether; including——ACONITIA, ANILINE, ATROPIA, BRUCIA,
CODEIA, COLCHICINA, CONIA, DELPHIA, EMETINA, HYOSCYAMINE, MORPHIA (?),
NICOTIA, PETININE, PICOLINE, SOLANINE, STRYCHNIA, VERATRIA, &c. By means
of it Stas found nicotia in the heart-blood of a poisoned dog. With such
alkaloids as are, however, only very sparingly soluble in ether (as
morphia for instance), the result must, necessarily, be doubtful. To
detect these, as well as all the alkaloids which are insoluble in ether,
it is, therefore, necessary, as directed by Otto, to add to the alkaline
fluid left by the decantation of the ether, sufficient solution of soda to
dissolve the morphia, &c. (if any has separated), and after the expulsion
of the last traces of the ether by a gentle heat, to add a concentrated
solution of hydrochlorate of ammonia, and to allow the mixture to repose
for some time in the open air. When MORPHIA is present, it separates under
the form of small crystals.[22] Or the alkaline liquor may be diluted with
distilled water, and treated with charcoal, and this with alcohol, in the
manner noticed under method 4 (_below_).

[Footnote 22: Otto’s ‘How to Detect Poisons.’]

4. (Graham and Hoffmann——slightly modified.) 2 or 3 oz. of purified animal
charcoal are digested in about 1/2 gal. of the (neutral or only slightly
acid) aqueous fluid under examination, with frequent agitation, for 10 to
12 hours, or longer. The liquid is then filtered, and the charcoal left on
the filter is washed twice with cold distilled water. The charcoal
is then boiled for 1/2 an hour with about 1/2 a pint of rectified spirit
of 80 or 90%; the ebullition being conducted in a flask having a very long
tube, open at both ends, fitted air-tight through the cork, to prevent
loss of the alcohol by evaporation. The spirit, which now contains the
alkaloid (if any was present in the original liquor), is next filtered
whilst hot, and the filtrate is submitted to distillation until the whole
of the alcohol is removed. A small quantity (commonly a few drops) of
solutions of potassa is then added to the residual aqueous liquor,
followed by 1 to 2 fl. oz. of pure ether, after which the whole is well
agitated for several minutes, and allowed to repose for a short time.
Lastly, the supernatant ether is decanted, and allowed to evaporate
spontaneously, when the residuum (if any) left in the capsule may be
tested by reagents, as before.

This method was devised for the detection of STRYCHNIA and NUX VOMICA in
malt-liquors; but it is equally applicable to the detection of ANY
ALKALOID which is soluble in ether. The CHARCOAL TEST may also be employed
to detect alkaloids which are insoluble in ether; but then the base must
be sought in the aqueous residuum obtained by the evaporation of the
alcohol.[23]

[Footnote 23: ‘Journ. of the Chem. Soc.,’ v, 173.]

The presence of the alkaloids and their salts, in clear solutions, may be
thus determined:——

I. (Fresenius).——1. The solution is rendered very slightly alkaline with
dilute solution of potassa or soda, added drop by drop:——

    a. No precipitate is formed; total absence of the alkaloids.
        (See 4, _below_.)

    b. A precipitate is formed:——solution of potassa or soda is
        added, drop by drop, until the liquid exhibits a strong
        alkaline reaction:——

      α. The precipitate redissolves; absence of Brucia, Cinchonia,
          Narcotina, Quina, Strychnia, and Veratria; probable
          presence of MORPHIA.

      β. Precipitate does not redissolve, or not completely;
          probable presence of one or more of the first six of the
          above-named alkaloids:——the fluid is filtered from the
          precipitate, mixed with either bicarbonate of soda or of
          potassa, gently boiled nearly to dryness, and treated with
          water. If it dissolves completely; absence of morphia; an
          insoluble residue indicates MORPHIA.

2. The precipitate 1. _b._ β. is washed with cold distilled water,
dissolved in a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid, neutralised with a
saturated solution of bicarbonate of soda, and allowed to repose a few
hours:[24]——

[Footnote 24: Before setting the glass aside the liquor should be well
mixed, and the glass stirrer vigorously rubbed against the sides of the
vessel.]

    _a_. No precipitate; absence of Cinchonia, Narcotina, and
        Quina:——the solution is gently evaporated nearly to dryness,
        and treated with cold water:——if it dissolves completely,
        pass on to 4; if there is an insoluble residue, it may
        contain Brucia, Strychnia, or Veratria. (See 3.)

    _b._ A precipitate:——the filtered fluid is treated as directed
        at 2 _a_.; the precipitate is washed with cold distilled
        water, dissolved in a little hydrochloric acid, ammonia is
        added in excess, and subsequently a sufficient quantity of
        ether, agitation being had recourse to:——

      α. The precipitate formed by the ammonia redissolves
          completely in the ether, and the clear fluid separates
          into two layers; absence of Cinchonia; probable presence
          of QUINA or NARCOTINA.

      β. The precipitate produced by the ammonia does not redissolve
          in the ether, or not completely; probable presence of
          CINCHONIA, and perhaps also of Quina or Narcotina. The
          filtered liquid may be tested for these alkaloids as at
          _a_.

3. The insoluble residuum after the evaporation of the solution 2. _a._,
or of the filtrate 2. _b._, is now dried in a water bath, and digested
with absolute alcohol:——

    _a._ It dissolves completely; absence of strychnia; probable
        presence of BRUCIA, QUINA (?), or VERATRIA:——the alcoholic
        solution is evaporated to dryness, and, if quina has been
        already detected, the residue is divided into two portions,
        one of which is tested for Brucia, the other for Veratria.

    _b._ It does not dissolve, or not completely; probable presence
        of STRYCHNIA, and perhaps also of Brucia and Veratria:——the
        filtered fluid is divided into two portions, and tested
        separately as at _a_.

4. The original liquid 1. _a_. may contain Salicine, a proximate vegetable
principle closely allied to the alkaloids:——a portion is boiled with
hydrochloric acid for some time; the formation of a precipitate shows the
presence of SALICIN. (See 2, _below_.)[25]

[Footnote 25: For further information on this subject, see the admirable
‘System of Qual. Chem. Anal.,’ by Dr C. R. Fresenius. Churchill.]

II. (Larocque and Thibierge.) Terchloride of gold is recommended, by these
writers, as a more decisive test for the alkaloids than the ‘double
chloride of gold and sodium’ commonly employed for this purpose. The
following are the colours of the precipitates which it produces with the
aqueous solution of their salts:——BRUCIA, milk-brown, passing into
coffee-brown, and lastly chocolate-brown:——CINCHONIA, sulphur
yellow:——MORPHIA, yellow, then bluish, and lastly violet; in this last
state the gold is reduced, and the precipitate is insoluble in water,
alcohol, the caustic alkalies, and sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric
acid; it forms with aqua regia a solution which is precipitated by
protosulphate of iron:——QUINA, buff-coloured:——STRYCHNIA,
canary-yellow:——VERATRIA, pale greenish-yellow. All these precipitates,
with the exception mentioned, are very soluble in alcohol, insoluble in
ether, and only slightly soluble in water. Those with morphia and brucia
are sufficiently marked to prevent these alkalies from being mistaken for
each other; and those with brucia and strychnia are, in like manner,
easily distinguishable.

III.——Mr Wanklyn discriminates the different alkaloids from the estimation
of the ammonia they evolve. His process is as follows:——A small flask with
a lateral tube, and connected with a Liebig’s condenser, is charged with
about 25 c. c. of an alkaline solution of permanganate potash made by
dissolving 200 grammes of caustic potash and 8 grammes of crystallised
permanganate of potash in 1 litre of water. A minute quantity of the
alkaloid carefully and accurately weighed is now introduced, and the
mixture slowly distilled. The most satisfactory results are obtained by
treating from 1 to 5 milligrammes of the alkaloid in this way, but
quantities so small as 1/10th of a milligram will in skilled hands give
accurate results. The ammonia is formed in the distillate by Nesslerising
it, as described under WATER ANALYSIS. For all practical purposes the
poisonous alkaloids may be divided into four classes:

(a) Those which yield from 5 to 2 per cent. of ammonia.

(b) Those which yield from 2 to 3 per cent. of ammonia.

(c) Those which yield from 3 to 5 per cent. of ammonia.

(d) Those which yield a larger quantity than 5 per cent., _e.g._

                              I.

                                           NH_{3}
                                          per cent.

  SOLANINE yields half its nitrogen as
    Ammonia                                 0·98

                              II.

  MORPHIA yields half its nitrogen as
    Ammonia                                 2·98

  CODEINE, ditto, ditto                     2·87

  PAPAVERINE, ditto, ditto                  2·50

  VERATRIA, ditto, ditto                    2·87

                             III.

  ATROPIA yields all its nitrogen as
    Ammonia                                 5·73

  NARCOTINE, ditto, ditto                   4·11

  STRYCHNIA yields half its nitrogen as
    Ammonia                                 5·09

  BRUCINE, ditto, ditto                     4·32

  ACONITE, ditto, ditto                     3·50

  CONEINE, ditto, ditto                     4·60

                              IV.

  NICOTINE yields half its nitrogen as
    Ammonia                                10·49

IV. Dr Guy, as well as others, have made researches, having for their
object the determination of the exact temperature at which the poisonous
alkaloids melt and sublime. A very minute speck of the substance is placed
on a porcelain plate or copper disc, and a square or oval of
microscope-covering glass is placed over it, supported by a thin ring of
glass or any other convenient substance.

Heat is then applied to the plate or copper, and the temperature, as
indicated by a thermometer at which the substance fuses or volatilises, is
carefully noted.

  CANTHARIDINE sublimes as a white                 Fahr.  Cent.
       vapour without change of form or colour.    212°   100°

                                    Sublime.         Melt.
                                  /----------\   /----------\
               Sublime, melt and   Fahr. Cent.    Fahr. Cent.
  MORPHINE  } yield carbonaceous { 330°  165°     340°  171°
  STRYCHNINE} residue.           { 345°  174°     430°  224°

                                     Melt.        Sublime.
                                 /----------\   /----------\
                                  Fahr. Cent.    Fahr. Cent.
  ACONITINE }                    { 140°   60°     400°  204°
  ATROPINE  } Melt, change       { 150°   66°     280°  138°
  VERATRINE } colour, sublime,   { 200°   93°     360°  182°
  BRUCINE   } and                { 240°  116°     400°  204°
  DIGITALIN } deposit carbon.    { 310°  154°     310°  154°
  PICROTOXIN}                    { 320°  160°     320°  160°
  SOLANINE  }                    { 420°  215°     420°  216°

_Selmi’s method of extracting poisonous alkaloids in forensic
investigations._ The alcoholic extract of the viscera, acidified and
filtered, is evaporated at 65° C., the residue taken up with water,
filtered to separate fatty matters, and decoloured by means of basic
acetate of lead, leaving the solution in contact with the air for 24
hours. It is then filtered, the lead precipitated by means of sulphuretted
hydrogen, and the solution after concentration repeatedly extracted with
ether. The ethereal solution is then saturated with dry carbonic
anhydride, which generally causes a precipitate of minute drops adhering
to the sides of the vessel, and containing some of the alkaloids. The
ethereal solution is then poured into a clean vessel, mixed with about
half its volume of water, and a current of carbonic anhydride passed for
about twenty minutes, which may cause the precipitation of other alkaloids
not precipitated by dry carbonic anhydride. Usually the whole of the
alkaloids present in the ether are thrown down by these means, but if not,
the solution is dehydrated by agitation with Barium oxide, and then a
solution of tartaric acid in ether added to the clear liquid, taking great
care not to employ excess of acid. This throws down any alkaloid that may
remain. In order to extract any alkaloids that may still remain in the
viscera, they are mixed with Barium hydrate and a little water, and then
agitated with purified amylic alcohol; the alkaloids may subsequently be
extracted from the alcohol by agitation with very dilute sulphuric acid.

A knowledge of the different solubilities of the alkaloids will be found
an important auxiliary in their analysis. The following is a summary of
the relative solubility of the most important of them. The figures denote
the number of parts of the liquid required for their solution:——

_Absolute alcohol._——Strychnine insoluble; brucine soluble.

_Amylic alcohol._——Solanine (1061); digitalin sparingly soluble; morphine
(133); strychnine (122); veratrine, brucine, atropine, aconitine, and
picrotoxin, freely soluble.

_Benzol._——All the poisonous alkaloids, except solanine, are soluble in
benzol.

_Chloroform._——Solanine (50,000); morphine (6550); strychnine (8); the
rest freely soluble.

_Ether._——Solanine (9000); morphine (7725); strychnine (1400); aconitine
(777); brucine (440); veratrine (108); atropine, picrotoxin,[26] and
digitalin, very soluble.

[Footnote 26: Digitalin and picrotoxin, although not alkaloids, are
inserted in the above list, because they have a general similarity in
chemical properties to them; and for the convenience of the toxicologist.]

_Water_ (_cold_).——Strychnine (8333); veratrine (7860); morphine (4166);
aconitine (1783); solanine (1750); brucine (900); atropine (414);
picrotoxin (150); digitalin very soluble.

The principal Alkaloids and their Salts, in the state of powder, or with
‘conia’ and ‘nicotia,’ in the state of an oily looking liquid, may be thus
distinguished:——

1. _a._ The powder is treated with nitric acid:——It is coloured red;
probable presence of Brucia, Delphia, Morphia, or commercial Strychnia. If
the reddened acid becomes violet on the addition of ‘protochloride of
tin,’ it is BRUCIA; if it becomes black and carbonaceous, it is DELPHIA.
If the powder is fusible without decomposition, and strongly decomposes
iodic acid, it is MORPHIA; if it is not fusible without decomposition, and
does not decompose iodic acid, it is STRYCHNIA.

_b._ If instead of a red, the powder strikes a green colour with nitric
acid, it is SOLANIA; if it is insoluble in ‘ether,’ and not reddened by
‘nitric acid,’ it is EMETIA; if soluble in ether, not reddened by ‘nitric
acid,’ but melts and volatilises when heated, it is ATROPIA; if it is thus
affected by ether or nitric acid, but does not volatilise, it is VERATRIA.
(See 2, _below_.)

2. _a._ The powder, or (with ‘conia and nicotia’) concentrated liquor, is
treated with a drop or two of concentrated sulphuric acid:——A red colour
is produced; probable presence of Brucia, Nicotina, Salicine, or Veratria.
If the reddened mixture has at first a roseate hue, turning deep red on
the addition of nitric acid, it is BRUCIA; if the original substance
moistened with solution of potassa evolves the odour of tobacco, it
contains NICOTINE; if the red colour produced by the acid is permanent and
of an intense blood-hue, and the powder agglutinates into lumps like
resin, it is SALICINE; if the colour is at first yellowish, changing to
blood-red, and ultimately to crimson and violet, it is VERATRIA.

_b._ If instead of the substance being ‘reddened’ by strong sulphuric
acid, no particular action ensues in the cold, it contains either Conia or
Strychnia; if a small fragment of bichromate of potassa being now dropped
in, produces a rich violet colour, it is STRYCHNIA; if the original matter
on being heated, or treated with solution of potassa, evolves a
penetrating, disagreeable odour, somewhat analogous to that from
‘hemlock,’ or to a mixture of those from tobacco and mice, it is CONIA.

“_Reactions with ceroso-ceric oxide._ This oxide exhibits characteristic
colours with several alkaloids, especially with STRYCHNINE. When strong
sulphuric acid is poured upon strychnine, and then a small quantity of
ceroso-ceric oxide added, a fine blue colour is produced, similar to that
which strychnine exhibits with potassium bichromate, but much more
permanent. The blue colour gradually changes to cherry-red, and then
remains unaltered for several days. This reaction is capable of detecting
one part of strychnine in a million parts of liquid. BRUCINE similarly
treated acquires an orange-colour, gradually changing to yellow; MORPHINE,
olive-brown, finally brown; NARCOTINE, brown cherry red, finally wine-red;
CODEINE, olive-green, finally brown; QUININE, pale-yellow; CINCHONINE and
THEINE remain colourless; VERATRINE becomes reddish-brown; ATROPINE, dingy
yellowish-brown; SOLANINE, yellow at first, finally brownish; EMETINE,
brown; COLCHICINE, first green, then dirty brown; ANILINE, after a long
time, acquires a blue colour extending from the edges inwards; CONINE
becomes light-yellow. PIPERINE colours the sulphuric acid blood-red, and
is turned dark-brown, almost black by the cerium oxide” (Sonnenschein).

“_Reactions with picric acid._ This acid is a very good precipitant for
alkaloids, affording a very delicate test for many of them, and may
perhaps also serve for separating them one from another. The precipitation
takes place even in solutions containing a large excess of sulphuric
acid, and is sometimes complete. _Precipitated_ are, BRUCINE, STRYCHNINE,
VERATRINE, QUINIDINE, CINCHONINE, and most of the opium alkaloids; _not
precipitated_, MORPHINE, ATROPINE (English), PSEUDO-MORPHINE, CAFFEINE,
and all glucosides” (Hager).

The presence of one or more of the alkaloids being shown by any of the
preceding methods, a portion of the original clear solution or powder, or
of the precipitates or filtrates above referred to, must be treated with
their characteristic tests, as given under the individual notices of these
articles, so as to set at rest all doubt as to their identity. No single
test must ever be relied on as a positive proof. The presence of Brucia,
Morphia and Strychnia may be determined in substances which after being
mixed with the salts of these alkaloids have undergone the acetous,
vinous, or putrefactive fermentation, as shown by Orfila, MM. Larocque and
Thibierge, and many other eminent chemists and toxicologists, and
confirmed, in numerous cases, by our own experiments. Opium and morphia
may thus be readily detected in beer, wine, soup, and milk. A paper by
Professor DRAGENDORF in the ‘American Chemist’ for April, 1876, may be
consulted with advantage.

_Concluding Remarks._ It is a singular fact that none of the organic bases
found in plants have yet been formed artificially, although several
analogous substances have been thus produced. Closely allied to the
alkaloids there also exists an extensive series of neutral proximate
principles, which differ from those substances chiefly in the absence of
basic properties, and in most of them being destitute of nitrogen. They
are usually bitter, and, like the alkaloids, generally represent the
active properties of the plants in which they are found; whilst some of
them possess considerable medicinal energy. Of this kind are asparagin,
elaterin, gentianin, picrotoxin, salicin, &c. These two classes of bodies,
though actually distinct, are frequently confounded. See ALKALI, ORGANIC
BASES, POISONS, PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES, VEGETABLES, NOMENCLATURE, &c.; also
the individual alkaloids under their respective heads.

=ALKALOIDS OF ACONITE=. The nature of the active principle of aconite root
does not appear to have been satisfactorily determined. Messrs Groves,
Wright, and Williams contend that the _Aconitum napellus_ yields an active
crystalline alkaloid, which they distinguish as _Aconitine_, and to which
they assign the formula C_{33}H_{43}NO_{12}; they add that additionally
the root contains more or less of another active alkaloid, which they term
_Pseudaconitine_, and which is represented by the formula
C_{36}H_{49}NO_{11}; they also assert that the extract of the roots
contains varying quantities of certain decomposition products resulting
from the saponification of the above bases by the acids, which are
produced by the breaking up of part of the aconitine. The name of these
decomposition products is _Aconine_ and _Pseudaconine_. Of _Aconitum
ferox_ they report that it yields a comparatively large quantity of
_Pseudaconitine_ and a small quantity of _Aconitine_. They further affirm
that the so-called aconitine of commerce is a mixture of true aconitine
and pseudaconitine with variable quantities of their alteration products,
aconine and pseudaconine, and of certain amorphous unnamed alkaloids.

Messrs Paul and Kingzett contest the accuracy of these deductions, and
dispute the correctness of the formula given to aconitine. Dr Paul doubts
whether the alkaloid to which the active properties of the root are
ascribed has ever yet been obtained in an isolated condition. He thinks it
probable that the substance obtained from aconite root was to a great
extent a salt of an acid, like aconitic acid. For further information the
reader is referred to the ‘Pharmaceutical Year Book’ for 1873, 1874, 1875,
1876, and 1877.

=AL′KANET.= _Syn._ ANCHU′SA, L.; ORCANETTE, Fr.; ORKANET, Ger.;
OR′CHANET*, DYER’S AL′KANET, D. BU′GLOSS*. The _anchu′sa tincto′′ria_
(Willd.; _lithosper′mum tincto′′rium_——Linn.), a deciduous herbaceous
plant, with a perennial, dark blood-red root. _Hab._ Asia Minor, Greece,
Hungary, &c. It is also largely cultivated in the neighbourhood of
Montpellier. The dried root (ALKANET ROOT; RADIX ANCHUSÆ, R. A. TINCTORIÆ)
is chiefly imported from the Levant. It contains a beautiful blood-red
colour, which it freely gives out to oils, fats, wax, spirits, essences,
and similar substances, by simply infusing it in them, and is consequently
much employed to colour these articles. Wax tinged with it, and applied on
warm marble, stains it of a rich flesh-colour, which sinks deep into the
stone, and possesses considerable durability. Its spirituous tincture also
imparts a deep red to marble.

_Prop._, _&c._ The colouring matter of alkanet was regarded by Pelletier
as a fatty acid (ANCHUSIC ACID); but it has since been shown to be a
species of resin (ANCHUSINE, PSEUDO-ALKANNINE, P.-ALKANIUM). According to
Dr John, good alkanet root contains 5-1/2 per cent. of this substance.
Anchusine melts at 140° Fahr.; is scarcely soluble in water, to which it
only imparts a dirty red colour, but is very soluble in alcohol, oils, and
acetic acid. Alkalies turn it blue. It is found wholly in the root-bark.
In selecting this article, the smaller roots should therefore be chosen,
as they possess more bark than the larger ones, in proportion to their
weight. Exposure to ammoniacal fumes, or even handling it much with the
fingers, changes its red to a crimson or purplish hue.

_Uses_, _&c._ It is much employed by druggists and perfumers to colour
oils, lip-salves, plasters, pomatums, &c.; by varnish-makers, to tinge
their varnishes and lacquers; by statuaries to stain marble; by
dairy-farmers, to colour cheese; by wine-merchants and bottlers (in the
form of tincture), to stain beforehand the corks of their port-wine
bottles, in order to imitate the effects of age, and as colouring and
flavouring for factitious port wine; and by dyers, and others. A species
of crimson rouge was formerly prepared from it (hence its name).

=ALLANTO′IC ACID.= See ALLANTOIN.

=ALLAN′TOIN.= C_{8}H_{6}O_{6}N_{4}. _Syn._ ALLANTO′IC ACID*, AMNIOT′IC A.†
AM′NIC A.†; ALLANTOÏ′NA, L. A substance discovered by Vauquelin and Buniva
in what they imagined to be the liquor amnii of the cow, and hence named
by them amniotic acid. It was afterwards shown by Dzondi and Lassaigne to
exist in the fluid of the allantoïs, and not of the amnios. It has since
been produced artificially by Wöhler and Liebig.

_Prep._ 1. The allantoïc fluid of the fœtal calf is evaporated to 1-4th or
1-5th of its volume, and then set aside for some time. The crystals thus
obtained are purified by re-solution, digestion with animal charcoal, and
re-crystallisation.

2. (Wöhler and Liebig.) Uric acid, 1 part; is dissolved in water, 20
parts; and freshly precipitated and well-washed binoxide of lead is added
to the solution until the colour ceases to change; the liquid is next
filtered while hot, evaporated until a pellicle forms on the surface, and
then set aside to crystallise; the crystals being purified as before.

_Prop., &c._ Small, but very brilliant prismatic, transparent, colourless
crystals; tasteless; neutral; soluble in 160 parts of cold water, and in
much less at 212°; nitric acid converts it into ALLANTURIC ACID; oil of
vitriol resolves it into ammonia, carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide; hot
concentrated solutions of the caustic alkalies change it into ammonia and
oxalic acid.

=ALLANTOX′ICUM.= [L.] _Syn._ ALLANTOX′ICUM, L. (prim., Gr.). The poison
developed, during putrefaction, in sausages made of blood, liver, &c. “It
often proves speedily fatal.” (Kraus.)

=ALLGEMEINE FLUSSTINCTUR= (Sulzberger, Salzungen). For the relief of a
number of diseases, among which are cholera and sea-sickness. Aloes, 1
part; spirit of wine, 2 parts. (Spau.)

=ALLIA′CEOUS= (-sh′us). _Syn._ ALLIA′CEUS, L.; ALLIACÉ, AILIACÉ, Fr.;
KNOBLAUCHARTIG, &c., Ger. Garlick-like; an epithet applied to substances
having the odour or properties of garlic or onions.

=Alliaceous Plants.= Chives, garlic, leeks, onions, rocambole, shallots,
&c.

=ALLIGA′TION.= _Syn._ ALLIGA′TIO, L. In _commercial arithmetic_, a rule
for ascertaining the price or value of mixtures, and for determining the
proportions of the ingredients that must be taken to produce mixtures of
any given price, value, or strength. The first is called ALLIGATION
ME′DIAL; the second, ALLIGATION ALTERN′ATE. Its principles and
applications are explained under MIXTURES (Arithmetic of).

=ALLOP′ATHY.= _Syn._ ALLOPA′THIA, L. (from ἁλλος, _other_, _different_,
and παθος, _affection_ or _disease_, Gr.); ALLOPATHIE, Fr. In _medicine_,
the method of curing disease by the use of remedies which tend to produce
a condition of the system, either differing from, opposed to, or
incompatible with the condition believed to be essential to the disease it
is sought to cure. It is commonly employed to distinguish the ordinary
system of medical practice from homœopathy (which see). Hence (an)
ALLOP′ATHIST, and the corresponding adjective ALLOPATH′IC
(_allopath′icus_, L.).

=ALLOT′ROPY.= _Syn._ ALLOT′ROPISM; ALLOTRO′PIA, ALLOTROPIS′MUS, L.
Literally, a difference in character; another form of the same substance.
In _chemistry_, a term invented, by Berzelius, to express the state or
condition, or the change of character, assumed by certain substances at
different temperatures, or under different treatment, whilst their nature
and composition continue the same. It more particularly relates to colour,
hardness, solubility, texture, &c. Boron, carbon, silicon, iron, sulphur,
and phosphorus, afford striking examples of the changes here referred to.

=ALLOX′ANTIN.= C_{8}H_{4}N_{4}O_{7}.3H_{2}O. A crystallisable substance,
first obtained by Dr Prout from uric acid.

_Prep._ 1. Uric acid, 1 part; is boiled in water, 32 parts; dilute nitric
acid being added until solution is complete; the resulting liquid is
evaporated to 2/3rds its volume, and then set aside for 10 or 12 hours;
the crystals, which are deposited, are purified by re-solution and
crystallisation.

2. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed, in a full stream, through a
moderately strong aqueous solution of alloxan, in the cold. The
alloxantin, which is deposited as a crystalline mass, is purified by
draining, cautious washing with cold water, re-solution in boiling water,
and re-crystallisation. The impure mother-liquor from which crystals of
alloxan have separated, if diluted with water, may be used for this
purpose.

_Prop., &c._ Crystals, small colourless, transparent, four-sided, oblique
rhombic prisms; scarcely soluble in cold water; solution reddens litmus;
with baryta water it gives a characteristic violet-coloured precipitate,
which disappears on heating; and with nitrate of silver a black
precipitate of that metal; the crystals are reddened by ammoniacal
vapours.

=ALLOY′.= _Syn._ ALLIAGE, Fr.; LEGIRUNG, VERMISCHUNG DURCH SCHMELZEN, Ger.
In _coinage_, a compound of the precious metals with another, or others,
of less value; also the least valuable metal, or metals, in such
compounds. In _chemistry_ and _metallurgy_, combinations of the metals
with each other usually obtained by fusion. When mercury is one of
the component metals, the compound is termed an AMALGAM.

_Prep., &c._ No General rules can be given for this purpose. Alloys of
metals differing greatly in fusibility, are commonly made by adding the
more fusible one, either in the melted state, or in small portions at a
time, to the other melted, or heated to the lowest possible temperature at
which a perfect union will take place between them. The mixture is usually
affected under a flux, or some material that will promote liquefaction,
and prevent volatilisation and unnecessary exposure to the air. Thus, in
melting lead and tin together, for solder, resin, or tallow is thrown upon
the surface; in tinning copper, the surface is rubbed with sal ammoniac;
and in combining some metals, powdered charcoal is used for the same
purpose. Quicksilver combines with many metals in the cold, forming
AMALGAMS.

_Comp._ The following _Table_ exhibits the composition of the more
important compounds of this class:——

        _Table of the principal Alloys._[27]

  NAMES.                      COMBINING METALS.

  ALBATA                      See German Silver.
  AMALGAMS                    Mercury and other metals.
  BATH-METAL                  Copper and zinc.
  BELL-METAL                  Copper and tin.
  BRASS                       Copper and zinc.
  BRITANNIA METAL             Tin with antimony, copper, and bismuth.
  BRONZE                      Tin and copper.
  BRONZE ALUMINIUM            Copper and aluminium.
  CANNON-METAL                Tin and copper.
  DUTCH GOLD                  Copper and zinc.
  FUSIBLE METAL               Bismuth, lead, and tin.
  GERMAN SILVER               Copper, nickel, and zinc, with,
                                  sometimes, a little iron and tin.
  GOLD (_standard_)           Gold with copper.
  GOLD (_old standard_)       Gold with copper and silver.
  GUN-METAL                   See Cannon-metal.
  MOSAIC GOLD                 Copper and zinc.
  OR-MOLU                     Copper and zinc.
  PEWTER (_common_)           Tin and lead.
  PEWTER (_best_)             Tin with antimony, bismuth and copper.
  POT-METAL, COCK-METAL       Copper and lead, with,
                                  sometimes, a little zinc.
  QUEEN’S METAL               Tin with antimony, bismuth, and copper.
  SHOT-METAL                  Lead with a little arsenic.
  SILVER (_standard_)         Silver and copper.
  SOLDER                      Tin and lead.
  SPECULUM-METAL              Tin and copper, and arsenic.
  STEREOTYPE-METAL            Lead, antimony, and bismuth.
  TOMBAC, RED TOMBAC          Copper and zinc.
  TUTANIA                     See Britannia metal.
  TYPE-METAL                  Lead and antimony.
  WHITE COPPER (_Packfong_;   Copper and arsenic.
      _Whitetombac_)

[Footnote 27: For the proportions of the component metals, refer to the
alloys under their respective heads.]

_Prop., &c._ Alloys generally possess characteristics unshared by their
component metals. Thus, copper and zinc form brass, which has a different
density, hardness, and colour to either of its constituents. Whether the
metals tend to unite in atomic proportions, or in any definite ratio, is
still undetermined. The evidence afforded by the natural alloys of gold
and silver, and by the phenomena accompanying the cooling of several
alloys from the state of fusion, goes far to prove that such is the case.
(Rudberg.) The subject is, however, one of considerable difficulty, as
metals and metallic compounds are generally soluble in each other, and
unite by a simple fusion and contact. That they do not combine
indifferently with each other, but exercise a species of elective affinity
not dissimilar to other bodies, is clearly shown by the homogeneity and
superior quality of many alloys in which the constituent metals are in
atomic proportions. The variation of the specific gravity and
melting-points of alloys from the mean of those of their component metals,
also affords strong evidence of a chemical change having taken place.
Thus, alloys generally melt at lower temperatures than those required for
their separate metals. They also usually possess more tenacity and
hardness than the mean of their constituents.

Matthiessen found that when weights are suspend to spirals of hard-drawn
wire made of copper, silver, gold, or platinum, they become nearly
straightened when stretched by a moderate weight; but wires of equal
dimensions composed of copper-tin (12% of tin), silver-platinum (36% of
platinum), and gold-copper (84% of copper), scarcely undergo any permanent
change in form when subjected to tension by the same weight.

The same chemist gives the following approximative results upon the
tenacity of certain metals and wires hard drawn through the same gauge
(No. 23):

Breaking strain for:

                                           lbs.
  Copper                                  25-30
  Tin                               under     7
  Lead                                ”       7
  Tin-lead (20% lead)               about     7
  Tin-copper (12% copper)             ”       7
  Copper-tin (12% tin)                ”   80-90
  Gold                                    20-25
  Gold-copper (8·4% copper)               70-75
  Silver                                  45-50
  Platinum                                45-50
  Silver-platinum (30% platinum)          75-80

On the other hand, their malleability, ductility, and power of resisting
oxygen is generally diminished. The alloy formed of two brittle metals is
always brittle; that of a brittle and a ductile metal, generally so; and
even two ductile metals sometimes unite to form a brittle compound. The
alloys formed of metals having different fusing-points are usually
malleable whilst cold, and brittle whilst hot. The action of the air on
alloys is generally less than on their simple metals, unless the former
are heated. A mixture of 1 part of tin and 3 parts of lead is scarcely
acted on at common temperatures; but at a red heat it readily takes fire,
and continues to burn for some time like a piece of bad turf. In like
manner, a mixture of tin and zinc, when strongly heated, decomposes both
moist air and steam with almost fearful rapidity.

The specific gravity of alloys is never the arithmetical mean of that of
their constituents, as commonly taught; and in many cases considerable
condensation or expansion occurs. When there is a strong affinity between
two metals, the density of their alloy is generally greater than the
calculated mean; and _vice versâ_, as may be seen in the following
Table:——

              _Alloys having a density_——

  Greater than the mean of        Less than the mean
    their constituents:——       of their constituents:——

    Copper and bismuth,             Gold and copper,
       ”       palladium,               ”    iridium,
       ”       tin,                     ”    iron,
       ”       zinc,                    ”    lead,
    Gold and antimony,                  ”    nickel,
       ”       bismuth,                 ”    silver,
       ”       cobalt,              Iron and antimony,
       ”       tin,                     ”    bismuth,
       ”       zinc,                    ”    lead,
    Lead and antimony,              Nickel and arsenic,
    Palladium and bismuth,          Silver and copper,
    Platinum and molybdenum,        Tin and antimony,
    Silver and antimony,                ”   lead,
       ”       bismuth,                 ”   palladium,
       ”       lead,                Zinc and antimony.
       ”       tin,
       ”       zinc.

“Every alloy,” says Dr Ure, “is, in reference to the arts and
manufactures, a new metal, on account of its chemical and physical
properties. A vast field here remains to be explored. Not above sixty
alloys have been studied by chemists, out of many hundreds which may be
made, and of these very few have yet been practically employed. Very
slight modifications often constitute very valuable improvements upon
metallic bodies.” See ANALYSIS, ASSAYING, BRASS, BRONZE, ELECTROTYPE,
GERMAN SILVER, GOLD, METALS, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, &c.

=ALL′SPICE.= See PIMENTO.

=ALLU′′VIAL.= (-l’ōōv′-yăl). _Syn._ ALLU′′VIOUS*; ALLU′′VIUS, L.;
D′ALLUVION, Fr. In _geology_, applied to partial deposits of mud, sand,
gravel, &c., left by rivers and floods upon land not permanently submerged
beneath water; in _agriculture_, applied to soils so formed or deposited.

=ALLU′′VIUM.= [L., Eng.] _Syn._ ALLUVION, Fr.; ANFLÖSSUNG, ANSCHWEMMUNG,
Ger. In _geol._ and _agr._, alluvial deposit or soil. See SOILS, &c.

=AL′LYL= (-lĭl). C_{3}H_{5}. In _chemistry_, the radical of the essential
oils containing sulphur, as those of assafœtida, garlic, horseradish,
mustard, onions, &c., which are either sulphides or sulphocyanides of
allyl. Its probable existence was first shown by Captain Reynolds, who
succeeded in producing several of its derivatives. It has since been
obtained, in a separate state, by the action of sodium upon iodide of
allyl. It is an oily substance with a high boiling point.

=Allyl, Sulphide of=, (C_{3}H_{5})_{2}S; obtained (artificially) by acting
on sulphocyanide of allyl with sulphide of potassium. See OIL OF GARLICK.

=Allyl, Sulphocy′anide of=, C_{3}H_{5}CNS; obtained by submitting iodide
of allyl to the action of sulphocyanide of potassium; or by gently heating
a mixed alcoholic solution of sulphide of allyl and bichloride of mercury,
with sulphocyanide of potassium. See OIL OF MUSTARD (VOLATILE).

=AL′MOND= (ah′-mŭnd). _Syn._ AMYG′DALA (also -US, -UM*), L.; AMANDE, Fr.;
MANDEL, Ger., Dut., Dan., Swed. The ‘almond-tree’ (_amyg′dalus
commu′nis_——Linn.; Ph. L., E., and D.; _Amandier_——Fr.), a tree of the
nat. ord. Rosaceæ, indigenous to Persia, Syria, and the north of Africa;
but also extensively cultivated in southern Europe. The almond-tree is
about the size of the peach-tree, which it much resembles in appearance.
It is incapable of ripening its fruit in this country, and is, therefore,
only grown here for the sake of its beautiful vernal flowers. There are
several varieties, of which the most important are the sweet and the
bitter, so named from the flavour of the seed or kernel. These, for the
most part, resemble each other in appearance. De Candolle (‘Prodromus,’
ii, 530) gives five varieties of this species:——A. AMA′′RA
(_bitter-almond_); A. DUL′CIS (_sweet-a._); A. FRAGILIS (_tender-shelled
a._); A. MACROCAR′PA (_large-fruited a._, _pista′chio a._, _sultana a._);
A. PERSICO′ÏDES (_peach a._).

=Almond, Per′sian.= The peach.

=AL′MONDS=. _Syn._ AMYG′DALÆ, L.; AMANDES, Fr.; MANDELN, Ger. The seed or
kernels of the almond-tree. They are met with in commerce both in the
shell (AMYG′DALÆ CUM PUTAM′INE, -ĭn-e, L.), and shelled (AMYGDALÆ, L.). In
the retail shops, most commonly in the latter form. Those rancid, broken,
or worm-eaten should be rejected.

=Almonds, Bitt′er.= _Syn._ AMYG′DALÆ AMA′′RÆ, L.; AMYGDALA AMARA, Ph. E.;
AMANDES AMÈRES, Fr.; BITTERE MANDELN, Ger. A variety imported from
Mogadore, chiefly characterised by possessing the bitter flavour, and when
rubbed with water, the odour of peach-kernels. They are also smaller and
thicker than the sweet almond.

_Uses, &c._ Bitter almonds are used to relieve the flavour of sweet
almonds, to clear muddy water, and to flavour confectionery, liqueurs, &c.
By pressure, they yield their bland oil (OIL OF ALMONDS; O′LEUM AMYG′DALÆ,
L.); the resulting cake (BITTER-A. CAKE; PLACEN′TA A. AMARÆ, L.) is
distilled for the volatile oil (ESSENTIAL OIL OF A.; O. A. A., L.), and is
afterwards again pressed into cakes (A.-CAKE), and used to fatten pigs,
and for other purposes. Bitter almonds are now seldom employed in
medicines, although it is said that they have cured ‘intermittents’ when
bark had failed (Bergius), and that their emulsion has been found useful
in pulmonary and dyspeptic affections, hooping-cough, and asthma; and
externally as a lotion in acne. (Thomson.) In large quantities they are
poisonous, and even in the smallest quantities have been known to produce
nettle-rash (_urticaria_) and other unpleasant symptoms. They have long
been in repute as an antidote to intoxication. The ancient bacchanals
chewed them at their orgies, to lessen the effects of wine, and to enable
them to take it in larger quantities with impunity.

=Almonds, Blanched′= (blăncht′-). _Syn._ AMYG′DALÆ DECORTICA′TÆ, L.
Almonds from which the husk or seed-coat has been removed. This is
effected by soaking them for a short time in warm water, until the skin
can be easily removed by pressure between the thumb and forefinger. They
are then peeled, rinsed in cold water, drained, and dried. When intended
for the table, the last is effected by wiping them with a soft towel; but
when they are intended to be powdered, or kept, they are dried by a very
gentle heat in a stove, or in the sun.

=Almonds, Burnt′.= _Syn._ ROASTED ALMONDS; ALMOND COFFEE. Used to colour
and flavour liqueurs and confectionery; and formerly, as a substitute for
coffee.

=Almonds, Guia′na.= (g_h_e-ā_h_′-nă; _g_ hard). Brazil-nuts.

=Al′monds, In′dian.= The fruit of _terminalia catappa_ (Linn.). They are
oleaginous, and nutritious; and are used as a substitute for almonds.

=Almonds, Ja′va= (jā_h_′-). The nuts or kernels of _canarium commune_
(Linn.). They are eaten, made into bread, and pressed for their oil.

=Almonds, Sweet′.= _Syn._ ALMONDS; AMYG′DALÆ, L.; A. DULCES, Ph. D.;
AMYGDALA, A. JORDAN′ICA, Ph. L.; A. DULCIS, Ph. E., & Ph. L. 1836;
AMANDES, AMANDES DOUCES, Fr.; SÜSSE MANDELN, Ger. These are the well-known
dessert or table fruit of the name, and are the kind always referred to
when ‘almonds’ (simply) are spoken of or ordered.

_Comm. var._——1. JOR′DAN ALMONDS, which are the finest, and are imported
from Malaga. Of these there are two kinds; the one, above an inch in
length, flat, and with a clear brown cuticle, sweet, mucilaginous, and
rather tough; the other, more plump, and pointed at one end, brittle, but
equally sweet with the former.——2. VALEN′TIA A. (which come next in
quality) are about 3/8ths of an inch broad, not quite an inch long, round
at one end, and obtusely pointed at the other, flat, of a dingy brown
colour, with a dusty cuticle.——3. BAR′BARY and ITAL′IAN A., which resemble
the latter, but are generally smaller and less flattened.——4. A variety,
of medium quality, imported in baskets from Spain.

_Uses, &c._ Sweet almonds are nutritive, emollient, and demulcent; but
frequently disagree with weak stomachs. The husk is apt to occasion
indigestion and nausea. Owing to a peculiar idiosyncrasy of some habits,
dyspepsia, diarrhœa, œdematous swelling of the face, and urticaria
(_nettle-rash_), sometimes, though seldom, follow the use of unblanched
almonds. Blanched almonds do not produce these inconveniences, and,
therefore, should be preferred for the table. In _medicine_, almonds are
employed chiefly under the form of emulsion, confection, &c., and to
suspend oily substances in water. Their uses for dietetical purposes are
well known. Preparations of them are also employed as cosmetics. The cake
left after expressing the oil (ALMOND-CAKE) is used for washing the skin,
which it is said to render beautifully soft and clear. See ALMOND PASTE,
&c.

=AL′NIGHT=† (awl′-). A cake of wax with a wick in the midst. The
forerunner of, and a rude form of the modern dumpy night-lights called
MORTARS.

=AL′OE= (ăl′-o). _Syn._ AL′OË (-o-ē), L., Fr. (or ALOÈS), Ger., Ital.,
Sp., Belg., Dan., Dut., Swed. The aloe-tree. In _botany_, a genus of
plants of the nat. ord. Liliaceæ (DC). The species, of which there are
several, are succulent plants or small trees with endogenous stems, and
stiff, fleshy, hard, pointed leaves, abounding in a purgative principle
(ALOES), which is obtained from them by either evaporating the expressed
juice or the decoction. They are all natives of warm climates, and most of
them are indigenous to southern Africa.

_Hist._ [Hebrew: a-ènx], _aehleem_ (aloe-trees), were known to the sacred
historians; and both the plant and the inspissated juice are described by
Dioscorides[28] and Pliny.[29]

[Footnote 28: Lib. iii, c. xxv.]

[Footnote 29: ‘Hist. Nat.,’ lib. xxvii, c. v.]

_Uses, &c._ In Africa, the leaves of the Guinea aloe are made into ropes,
fishing-lines, bow-strings, stockings, hammocks, &c. The leaves of another
species are used to catch and hold rain-water. The expressed juice and
decoction are also used by the natives as a distaff. (Vide _infrà_.)
Comparative trials, made in Paris, of the strength of cordage and cables
formed of hemp, and of the aloe from Algiers, are said to have shown the
great superiority of the latter. Fabroni obtained a fine violet colour
from the recent juice of the aloe, which has been proposed as a dye for
silk.[30]

[Footnote 30: ‘Annales de Chimie,’ xxv, 305.]

=American Aloe.= The _agave Americana_ (Linn.) is a plant unconnected with
the preceding, and belonging to the nat. ord. Bromeliaceæ. It is found in
all parts of tropical America, and is largely cultivated on the shores of
the Mediterranean; and less frequently, as an exotic plant in this
country. It grows to the height of about 20 feet, and takes many years to
produce its gigantic and magnificent pyramid of flowers; shortly after
which it perishes, exhausted, as it were, by its efforts in bestowing its
rare beauty on the floral world. The vulgar belief is that it blossoms
only once in a century; but, as stated by the late Mr Loudon, it flowers
sooner or later according to the culture bestowed on it. Its sap yields a
kind of honey (AGAVE HONEY), and by fermentation an intoxicating liquor
(PULQUE); desiccated juice, mixed with wood ashes, is used as soap, and
lathers either with sea or fresh water; leaf-fibre, used as hemp to make
thread and twine.

=AL′OE-RESIN.= _Syn._ RESI′NA AL′OËS, L. The resinous matter deposited by
a decoction of aloes as it cools.

_Prep._ (Ph. L. 1746.) Boil aloes, 1 part, in water, 8 parts, and allow
the decoction, strained whilst hot, to repose until the next day; then
wash the deposited RESIN, and dry it by a gentle heat. It is probably a
mixture of aloine and oxidised extractive.

=AL′OES= (-ōze). _Syn._ BITT′ER ALOES‡; AL′OË (-o-ē), L.; ALOÈS, SUC
D’ALOÈS, Fr.; ALOE, GLAUSINDE ALOE, Ger.[31] The inspissated juice or
extract of several species of aloe.

[Footnote 31: Also see ALOE, (above).]

_Comp., Prep., &c._ Aloes is a complex resinous substance containing a
body called aloin, which is its active or purgative principle. It is
completely soluble in boiling water, and in alcohol or rectified spirit.
The decoction deposits an impure resin or resinoid on cooling.

_Phys. eff., Uses, &c._ Aloes is a warm stimulating purgative, in doses of
3 to 10 gr.; whilst even 1 or 2 gr. seldom fail to produce one motion
without pain or inconvenience. It is considered highly serviceable in
hypochondriacal, hysterical, and dyspeptic affections, particularly in
phlegmatic habits, and in cases arising from deficiency of bile. As an
emmenagogue, and a vermifuge, few medicines are more valuable. It acts on
the large intestines, and principally on the rectum; and, therefore,
should be administered with caution, or only in small doses, where there
is a tendency to prolapsus or piles, and in cases where uterine stimulants
(as in pregnancy, &c.) would be improper. “It is remarkable with regard to
it, that it operates almost to as good a purpose in a small as in a large
dose; and one or two grains will produce one considerable dejection, and
twenty grains will do no more, except it be that in the last dose (case)
the operation will be attended with griping, &c. It is one of the best
cures for habitual costiveness.” (Cullen.) Many of the effects complained
of arise from its slow solubility in the primæ viæ, and may be obviated by
administering it in a liquid form, or in a solid form combined with soap,
which renders it freely soluble in the juices of the stomach.

Aloes is more frequently taken than, perhaps, any known purgative. It
enters into the composition of a majority of the aperient medicines
prescribed by the faculty, and forms the principal ingredient of nearly
all the advertised purgative, antibilious, and universal pills of the
nostrum-mongers. The fact of aloetic pills not acting until about 8 to 10
hours after being swallowed——so that if taken on retiring to rest at night
they do not generally disturb the patient before the usual time of rising
in the morning——has contributed more than anything else to make such
remedies popular with parties whose habits or business avocations would be
otherwise interfered with.

Aloes is also extensively used in veterinary practice. It is the most
valuable and reliable purgative for the horse of the whole materia medica;
but is less to be depended on for cattle, sheep, and hogs. Barbadoes aloes
is the best for this purpose. Cape aloes are, however, often employed,
when 1-4th more must be given.——_Dose_ (of the former), for a HORSE, 4 to
8 dr.;[32]——CATTLE, 3 to 6 dr. (followed by a purging drench);——HOGS, 5 to
15 gr.;——SHEEP, 15 to 30 gr.;[33]——DOGS (small ones), 10 to 30 gr.,
(middle-sized) 20 to 44, or even 60 gr., (large) 3/4 to 1 dr., or even 2
dr.

[Footnote 32: Aloes takes from 18 to 30, or even 36 hours, to operate on a
horse.]

[Footnote 33: Aloes, however large the dose, often fails to purge sheep.
In very large quantities it is poisonous to them.]

Aloes is also used in dyeing; and as a colouring matter in stains,
lacquers, and varnishes. Aloes, and several of its preparations, are
likewise extensively employed to adulterate porter.

_Var._ These, arranged in the order of their reputed medicinal value,
are——Socotrine, Hepatic, Barbadoes, Cape, &c.; and alphabetically, as
given below:——

=Aloes, Barba′does.= _Syn._ ALOES IN GOURDS; AL′OË BARBADEN′SIS, L., Ph.
L. & E. Imported from Barbadoes and Jamaica, usually in gourds; sometimes
in boxes. The best is the inspissated juice of the cut leaf of _aloë
vulga′′ris_; an inferior quality is prepared from the decoction.——_Char.,
&c._ Opaque, lustreless, of a liver colour, a little tending to black,
with a bitter nauseous taste, and a very disagreeable odour, especially
when breathed on; powder a dull olive-yellow. It is the ‘hepatic’ aloes of
most continental writers, and said to be the Αλοη of Dioscorides. It is
more active than the other varieties of aloes; but is also more apt to
occasion hæmorrhoids, and to gripe, than any of them.

=Aloes, Cab′alline= (-līne.) _Syn._ FŒT′ID ALOES, HORSE A.; ALOË
CABALLI′NA, A. GUINIEN′SIS, L.; ALOÈS CABALLIN, Fr. From _aloë In′dica_
(O’Shaughnessy); or from _aloë spica′ta_ by long and careful boiling.
(Lindley.) Used only by farriers. Scarcely known in English commerce.

=Aloes, Cape.= _Syn._ ALOË CAPEN′SIS, A. LU′CIDA (_Geiger_), L. Imported
from the Cape of Good Hope, and obtained from _aloë spica′ta_, and other
Cape species. Odour stronger and even more disagreeable than that of
Barbadoes aloes; colour deep greenish-brown; appearance shining and
resinous; fracture generally glassy; powder a lively greenish-yellow;
almost completely soluble in boiling water, decoction paler than that of
other kinds. It is weaker than Barbadoes or even hepatic aloes, and is
more apt to gripe, &c., than the latter. A finer kind, known as
‘_Bethelsdorp aloes_,’ imported from Algoa Bay, is more of a liver colour,
and softer than the preceding, and hence often called CAPE HEPATIC-ALOES.

=Aloes, Hepat′ic.= _Syn._ BOMBAY’ ALOES*, EAST-INDIA A.*, LIVER-COLOURED
SOCOTRINE A.*; ALOË HEPAT′ICA, Ph. L. & D.; A. IN′DICA, Ph. E. Imported
from Bombay and Madras. It is usually said to be obtained from “uncertain
species of aloes;” but it is almost certain that it is “the juice of the
Socotrine aloes plant which has been solidified without the aid of
artificial heat.”[34]——_Char., &c._ “Opaque, of a liver colour, bitter
taste, and an unpleasant odour.” (Ph. L.) It is less odorous, darker
coloured, and more opaque than Socotrine aloes; its powder has also a
duller colour, and weak spirit leaves much undissolved matter. Its
decoction on cooling frequently deposits a yellow powder. The finer and
brighter varieties of hepatic aloes are commonly sold for ‘Socotrines,’
and their medicinal virtues are nearly similar. (See _below._)

[Footnote 34: Pereira, ‘Elem. Mat. Med. and Therap.,’ vol. ii, 188, 4th
Ed.; ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ vol. xi.]

=Aloes, In′dian= (various);——1. Deep brown or black, very opaque, and less
soluble than ordinary aloes. Scarcely known in commerce.——2. Several
varieties ranging in character from ‘Cape aloes’ to ‘hepatics,’ and
occasionally to ‘Barbadoes,’ obtained from several species.

=Aloes, Mo′cha= (-kăh). _Syn._ ALOË DE MOCHÂ, L. Imported from Muscat. An
inferior kind of Indian aloes. (Christison.) It is obtained from the same
plant as produces genuine hepatic aloes. (Lindley.) It holds an
intermediate position between ‘Cape’ and ‘hepatics,’ but contains much
impurity; the latter often amounting to upwards of 25%. Some specimens
are, however, of excellent quality. When melted and ‘doctored,’ it is sold
for Barbadoes, hepatic, and even Socotrine aloes.

=Aloes, Soc′otrine= (-trĭn; sŭk′-‡). _Syn._ SOC′OTORINE ALOES, SMYR′NA A.,
TUR′KEY A.; ALOË SOCOTRI′NA, Ph. L.; ALOË, Ph. L. 1836; A. SOCOTRI′NA, Ph.
E. “The juice of the cut leaf of uncertain species hardened by the air.”
(Ph. L.) Genuine Socotrine aloes is generally supposed to be obtained from
_aloë spica′ta_; but is referred by De Candolle to a distinct species, A.
SOCOTRI′NA; and by Martius, also to _a. purpuras′cens_. Formerly this
variety was brought from the Island of Socotra or Zocotora (hence the
name), by way of Smyrna and Malta; but it is now chiefly obtained from
Bombay and Madras.——_Char., &c._ Colour garnet red to golden red; smell
peculiar and aromatic, not unlike a decaying russet apple, especially when
fresh-broken, or breathed on, or warmed; taste permanently and intensely
bitter; fracture conchoidal; softens in the hand, and becomes adhesive,
yet retains considerable brittleness; powder bright golden-yellow colour;
central portions of the lumps often soft, especially when first imported.
“It is brittle, bitter, of a reddish-brown colour, and an aromatic odour.
Light permeates thin recently broken laminæ.” (Ph. L.) “In thin pieces,
translucent and garnet red; almost entirely soluble in spirit of the
strength of sherry. Very rare.” (Ph. E.)

Socotrine aloes are always preferred for medicinal purposes, and are the
only variety used in perfumery, varnishes, and other nice purposes in the
arts.

=Aloes, Strained.= _Syn._ MELTED ALOES; ALOË COLA′TA, L. _Proc._ 1. The
aloes are melted in a copper pan, by the heat of steam or a water bath,
and are then pressed through a strong hair or wire sieve, and allowed to
cool.

2. As above, but with the addition of about twice its weight of water; the
decoction being strained and evaporated.

_Obs._ Mocha, Indian, and other common aloes, treated in this way and
coloured, are frequently sold for melted or strained ‘Socotrines’ and
‘hepatics.’ The colouring matter usually employed is the precipitated
carbonate of iron (sesquioxide), or Venetian red, in very fine powder,
with, sometimes, a little annatto. This fraud is not readily detected by
mere inspection, by those unaccustomed to these matters; and hence the
impunity with which it is perpetrated.

The object in melting aloes is to deprive it of the foreign matters, as
sand, leaves, pieces of wood, &c., which the commoner kinds generally
contain in large quantities. The action of the heat drives off much of
their nauseous smell, at the same time that it deepens their colour, and
renders their appearance more translucent and resinous, to the disguise of
their original nature. The operation, on the large scale, is usually
carried on at night, in consequence of the horribly nauseous fumes
evolved, which may be smelt at a great distance, and contaminate the
clothes of those engaged in it for a long time afterwards.

=AL′OES HEMP.= A plant growing in Peru, the East and West Indies, and
Mexico (_A. Americana_, _A. vivapara_, _A. fœtida, &c._), where the leaf
is cultivated for its fibre, which is generally of a yellowish-white
colour, and used for rope-making.

=AL′OES WOOD.= _Syn._ AL′OE-WOOD; EAGLEWOOD; AGAL′LOCHUM (-kŭm), LIG′NUM
AL′OËS, L. AGAL′LOCHI, L. A. VE′′RI, L. AQ′UILÆ, L. ASPAL′ATHI, L.;
AGALLOCHE, BOIS D’ALOÈS, Fr.; ALOEHOLZ, Ger.; CALAM′BAC, CALAM′BOUC, Ind.;
XYLO-AL′OËS†. A name applied to the wood of _alöex′ylon agal′lochum_
(Lam.), a leguminous tree of Cochin China; and, though apparently less
correctly, to that of _aquila′′ria agallochum_ and _a. ova′ta_ (Lour.),
trees of tropical Asia, belonging to a different nat. order. Both are
highly fragrant and aromatic; used in fumigations and pastilles, and
occasionally by cabinet makers and inlayers. The essential oil of the
wood, dissolved in spirit, was regarded by Hoffmann as one of the best
cordials and invigorants known. The same has also been said of a tincture
of its resin.

The same name and synonyms are popularly applied to the resin of the above
woods (ALOES-WOOD RESIN), of which there are two varieties:——the one,
light and porous, and filled with a highly fragrant resinous substance;
the other, denser and less resinous. It is an oily concretion in the
centre of the tree, the result of disease, which gradually hardens, and,
in time, kills it. It is highly fragrant, and is said to be nervine,
cephalic, cardiac, and stimulant. The powder is regarded as tonic and
astringent. Of all perfumes this is said to be the one most esteemed by
oriental nations.

=ALOE′TIC.= _Syn._ ALOËT′ICUS, L.; ALOÉTIQUE, Fr. Of or belonging to
aloes. In _medicine_, _pharmacy_, &c., applied to any preparation
containing aloes as a characteristic ingredient; made or obtained from
aloes. Substantively, an aloetic medicine.

=AL′OIN= (-o-ĭn). C_{17}H_{18}O_{7}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AL′ÖIN; ALOÏ′NA,
L. The Messrs T. & H. Smith, of Edinburgh, have applied this name to a
crystalline substance, which they assert to be the pure cathartic
principle of aloes. Their process is to evaporate to the consistence of a
syrup, in vacuo, a solution obtained by exhausting a mixture of aloes and
sand, with cold water, and then to set it aside for a few days. The
resulting dark crystalline mass is purified by pressure between folds of
bibulous paper, and repeated crystallisation from hot water. Barbadoes
aloes are commonly used for the purpose; but soft or semi-liquid Socotrine
aloes, or the unevaporated Socotrine-aloes juice, is probably its best
source. Tilden gives the following process for the preparation of
aloin:——The aloes crushed small is to be dissolved in nine or ten times
its weight of boiling water acidified with sulphuric acid. After cooling
and standing for a few hours, the clear liquid is decanted from the resin,
and evaporated. The concentrated solution deposits a mass of yellow
crystals, which can be purified by washing, pressure, and
recrystallisation from hot spirit. After several recrystallisations the
aloin is obtained in the form of beautiful yellow needles, which are
pretty soluble in water and in alcohol, but soluble with difficulty in
ether.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 gr.

=ALOPE′CIA= (-sh′ă). [L.] _Syn._ AL′OPECY, FOX′-EVIL; ALOPÉCIE, Fr.;
FUCHSRAUDE, Ger. In _pathology_, baldness from disease, often extending to
the beard and eyebrows; as distinguished from ‘calvities,’ or ordinary
baldness arising from attenuation of the scalp or defective nutrition. See
BALDNESS.

=ALPAC′A.= A species of Llama, popularly known as the PERUVIAN SHEEP, an
animal intermediate between the camel and sheep, having long silky hair,
nearly as fine as that of the Cashmere goat. It was introduced to the
British manufacturers in 1834, when only 5700 lbs. of it was imported; but
it soon became an important article of commerce, the quantity imported
having gradually risen to above 2-1/4 millions of lbs. in 1853; whilst
the price has risen from about 9d. to 2s. 7d. the lb., in the same time.
The name is also given to fabrics woven from the wool of this animal; and
to others in fine wool, made in imitation of them. The gigantic factory,
&c., erected at Saltaire, Yorkshire, in 1852, for this manufacture, covers
about 12 acres of land. See LLAMA.

=ALPENKRAUTER-BRUST-TEIG= (Grablowitz, Gras). Pectoral cakes of Alpine
herbs. Gum arabic, 100 parts; sugar, 200 parts; extract liquorice, 1 part;
saffron, 1/8th part. Each box contains 48 lozenge-shaped yellowish cakes.
Made into a mass with decoction of marsh mallow. (Hager.)

=ALPENKRAUTER GESUNDHEIT’S LIQUEUR= (Rudolph Bohl). Medicinal liqueur of
Alpine herbs. A bottle containing 350 grammes of a liqueur which is an
extract of star anise, cassia, frangula bark, centaury, chicory, gentian,
and a little aloes. (Hager.)

=ALPENKRAUTER-MAGENBITTER= (Hauber). Stomachic bitters of Alpine herbs. A
brown liqueur of bitter, spirituous, and slightly aromatic flavour,
containing in 100 parts: oil of anise, 0·5; oil of cloves, 0·5; aloes,
1·5; alcohol, 40; water, 50. 157 grammes in each bottle. (Wittstein.)

=ALPHA-ORSELL′IC ACID.= See ORSELLIC ACID.

=ALPINE ROSE SOAP, SWISS.= A preservative against syphilitic infection (G.
A. Sarpe, Zurich). A glass cylinder corked and sealed, about 2 inches
long, and containing a hard brownish-grey mass weighing 12 grammes,
prepared thus:——Ammonia, 1 part; sublimate, 3 parts; tannin, 2 parts;
chloride of lime, 24 parts; Castile soap, 190 parts; oil of cloves, 1
part; spirit of wine, q. s. (Hager.)

=AL′QUIFOU= (-ke-fōō). _Syn._ BLACK LEAD-ORE, POTTER’S ORE. A native
sulphide of lead used by potters to give a green glaze to coarse wares.

=ALSTONIA SCHOLARIS.= (Ind. Ph.) _Habitat._ Common in forests throughout
India.——_Officinal part._ The bark (_Alstoniæ cortex_). It occurs in
thick, irregular, more or less contorted pieces, easily broken. It
consists of a rough greyish epidermis, investing a buff or pale
cinnamon-coloured bark; internally, still lighter in colour,
and of a spongy texture, having a very bitter taste, but devoid
of odour.——_Properties._ Astringent, tonic, anthelmintic,
antiperiodic——_Therapeutic uses._ In chronic diarrhœa and the advanced
stages of dysentery; also as a tonic in debility after fevers, and other
exhausting diseases.——_Dose._ 3 to 5 grains, either alone or combined, in
bowel affections, with small doses of ipecacuanha and extract of
gentian.——_Preparations._ TINCTURE OF ALSTONIA (_Tinctura Alstoniæ_). Take
of alstonia bark, bruised, 2-1/2 ounces; proof spirit, 1 pint. Macerate
for seven days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation; filter, and
add sufficient proof spirit to make 1 pint. Or prepare by percolation, as
Tincture of Calumba.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fluid drachms.

=Alstonia, Infusion of.= (_Infusum Alstoniæ._) Take of alstonia bark,
bruised, 1/2 an ounce; boiling water, 10 fluid ounces. Infuse in a covered
vessel for an hour and strain.——_Dose._ From 1 to 2 fluid ounces twice or
thrice daily. A good serviceable tonic.

=AL′TERATIVE= (awl′-tĕr-ă-tĭv). _Syn._ AL′TERANT*; AL′TERANS (ăl′-), L.;
ALTÉRANT, ALTÉRATIF, Fr. In _medicine_, having power to alter; applied to
substances and agents which occasion a change in the habit or
constitution, and thus re-establish the healthy functions of the body, or
any part of it, without producing any sensible evacuation or other obvious
effect.

=ALTERATIVE EXTRACT=, or =GOLDEN MEDICAL DISCOVERY= (Dr Pierce, Buffalo),
for the cure of all severe, acute, chronic, or long-standing coughs,
inflammations, hoarseness, scrofulous, and syphilitic diseases. A clear
light-brown fluid, 220 grms., composed of 15 grms. purified honey, 1 grm.
extract of lettuce, 2 grms. laudanum, 100 grms. of proof spirit tasting of
fusel oil and wood spirit, and 105 grms. water. (Hager.)

=AL′TERATIVES= (-tĭvz). _Syn._ ALTERAN′TIA, L.; ALTÉRATIFS, &c., Fr.
Alterative medicines or agents. The preparations of mercury and iodine,
when properly administered, are the most useful members of this class; and
are those which are now the most generally employed.

=ALTHE′IN= (ăl-thē′-ĭn). _Syn._ ALTHÆ′INA, L. The name given by Braconnot
to a substance identical with asparagin, which he discovered in the
‘marsh-mallow’ (_althæ′a officina′lis_, Linn.).

=ALTHOFF WATER= (aqua mirabilis), for torpid ulcers. Wine vinegar, 750
parts; sulphate of copper, 100 parts; potash, 25 parts; ammonia, 30 parts;
salt of sorrel, 8 parts; French brandy, 375 parts. Digest for a few days
in a glass vessel and distil to dryness from a glass retort. (Wittstein.)

=AL′UDEL= (-ū-). In _chemistry_, a pear-shaped glass or earthen pot open
at both ends, formerly much used for connecting other vessels in the
process of sublimation. A number of them joined together are still
employed for the distillation of quicksilver, in Spain.

=AL′UM= K_{2}SO_{4}.Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}.24Aq. _Syn._ POT′ASH-ALUM,
SUL′PHATE OF ALUMINUM AND POTASSIUM, COMMON ALUM; ALU′MEN, A. POTAS′SICUM,
L.; ALUN, SULFATE D’ALUMINE ET DE POTASSE, Fr.; ALAUN, Ger.; ALUME, Ital.

The principal alum-works in England, until recently, were those of Lord
Glasgow, at Hurlett and Campsie, near Glasgow, and those of Lords Dundas
and Mulgrave, at Whitby, Yorkshire (est. 1600); but those of Mr Spence, at
Manchester, and at Goole (Yorkshire), and of Mr Pochin, at Manchester, are
now among the largest, if they be not actually the largest in the world.
There are also extensive alum-works at and near Newcastle-on-Tyne; but
none of importance, that we know of, in any other part of these realms.

_Nat. hist._ Alum is found native in some places (NATIVE ALUM), either
effloresced on the surface of bituminous alum-schist (Göttwigg, Austria);
or united with the soil in the neighbourhood of volcanoes (Solfatara,
Naples); when it may be obtained by simple lixiviation and evaporation, a
little potash being commonly added to convert the excess of sulphate of
alumina present into alum. It is also found in certain mineral waters
(East Indies).

_Sources._ The alum of commerce is usually obtained from schistose pyritic
clays, commonly termed alum-ores, aluminous shale, a.-schist, &c.; and
from alum-rock, a.-stone, or alunite. At La Tolfa, Civita Vecchia, where
the best Roman-alum is produced, the source is stratified alum-stone. On
the Continent, and in Great Britain, it is generally pyritaceous clays,
volcanic aluminous ores, aluminous shale, or alum-slate. These minerals
contain sulphide of iron, alumina, bitumen or carbon, and frequently a
salt of potassium. Of late years large quantities of alum have been
prepared on the banks of the Tyne from aluminous clay.

_Prep._ The manufacture of alum is technically said to be conducted
according to the natural process when prepared from alum-schist or
alum-ore; and according to the artificial process when made by acting on
clay with sulphuric acid, and adding a potassium salt to the resulting
lixivium. The manufacture of alum and of sulphate of alumina from such
materials as contain only alumina, to which consequently sulphuric acid
and alkaline salts have to be added, has come largely into practice in
England. The materials employed are, in addition to clay, cryolite or
Greenland spar, a fluoride of aluminum and soda; bauxite, a hydrate of
alumina, of more or less purity; and slag. The following are the details
of these processes:——

_a._ From ALUM-ORE, ALUMINOUS SCHIST, or SHALE, &c.:——

[Illustration]

1. The mineral (alum-ore, a.-schist, &c.) is placed in heaps, and
moistened from time to time with water, when it becomes gradually hot, and
falls into a pulverulent state. This decomposition commonly occurs either
wholly, or partially, on the floor of the mine. If the ore does not
possess this property on mere exposure to air and moisture, it is broken
into pieces and laid upon a bed of brushwood and small coal, to the depth
of about four feet, when the pile is fired and fresh lumps of the
alum-mineral thrown on, until the mass becomes of considerable height and
size. The combustion, as soon as established, is conducted with a
smothered fire, until the calcination is complete; care being taken to
prevent fusion, or the disengagement of either sulphurous or sulphuric
acid, from contact between the ignited stones and the carbonaceous
fuel.[35] To promote these ends the pile, at the proper time, is ‘mantled’
(as the workmen call it) or covered with a layer of already calcined and
exhausted ore, in order to protect it from high winds and heavy rains; as
also to moderate the heat, and let it proceed gradually, so that the
sulphur present may not be lost or wasted by volatilisation. The roasting
is finally checked by a thicker ‘mantling,’ and the whole allowed to cool.
By this time the pile has usually lost about one half its bulk, and become
open and porous in the interior, so that the air can circulate freely
through the mass; the latter, in dry weather, as the heap cools, being
usually promoted by sprinkling a little water on it, which, by carrying
down some of the saline matter, renders the interior still more open to
the atmosphere. The whole, when cold, or nearly cold, is, if necessary,
still further exposed to the action of air and moisture. The time required
to calcine the heap properly, including that taken by the burned ore to
cool, varies, according to its size and the state of the weather, from
three to nine, or even twelve months. The residuum of the calcination is
next placed in large stone or brick cisterns, and edulcorated with water,
until all the soluble portion is dissolved out; the solution is then
concentrated in another stone cistern, so made that the flame and heated
air of its reverberatory furnace sweep the whole surface of the liquor.
(See _engr._) The evaporation is continued until it just barely reaches
the point at which crystals are deposited on cooling; when it is run off
into coolers. After the sulphate of iron, always present, has been
deposited in crystals, the mother-liquor, containing the sulphate of
aluminum, is run into other cisterns, and a saturated solution of chloride
of potassium, or of sulphate of potassium, or (sometimes) impure sulphate
or carbonate of ammonium, or a mixture of them,[36] is added until a cloud
or milkiness ceases to be produced on addition of more.[37] It is next
allowed to settle and get thoroughly cold, and the supernatant
‘mother-liquor’ being drawn off with a pump or syphon, the precipitate,
which is alum in the form of minute crystals (technically termed ‘flour’),
is well drained, and subsequently washed by stirring it up with a little
very cold water, which is then drained off, and the operation repeated a
second time with fresh water. A saturated solution of the pulverulent alum
(‘flour’) is next formed in a leaden boiler, and the clear portion is run
or pumped off, while boiling hot, into crystallising vessels, called
roaching casks (see _engr._), the staves of which are lined with lead, and
nicely adjusted to each other. After the lapse of a week or ten days, the
hoops and staves of these ‘casks’ are removed, when a thick crust of
crystallised alum is found, which exactly corresponds in form and size to
the interior of the cask. A few holes are then made in the sides of this
mass, near the bottom, to allow the contained mother-liquor to drain off,
after which the whole is broken up and packed in casks for sale. Sometimes
the alum thus obtained, or the lower portion of it, is washed with a
little very cold water, and, if discoloured, or small or slimy, is
purified by a second crystallisation.

[Footnote 35: The generality of alum-minerals require roasting; and their
own bituminous matter is, in many cases, sufficient to produce the heat
required, which need not necessarily exceed 600 to 650° Fahr., provided it
be continued for a sufficient period. It is only when they are less
bituminous or carbonaceous that slack or saw-dust, &c., is employed.]

[Footnote 36: For pure POTASH-ALUM a salt of potash only must be employed.
When ammonia (usually in the form of gas-liquor or gas-sulphate) is used
as the precipitant, the product is AMMONIA-ALUM. The ordinary alums of
commerce are now generally mixtures of the two.]

[Footnote 37: The respective quantities required to produce 100 parts of
alum from the sulphate of alumina liquor are——

  Chloride of potassium    15·7
  Sulphate of     ”        18·4
      ”       ammonium     13·9

In practice, the exact quantity required may be found by a previous trial
of a little of the aluminous liquor; but the indications mentioned in the
text will always show the operator when a sufficient dose is added.]

[Illustration]

2. As ammonia-alum (Spence’s process; see _below_), but using a
potash-salt as the precipitant, either wholly or in part, instead of
ammonia; and, in the latter case, supplementing the deficiency of potash
with ammonia, as there explained.

_b._ From ALUMINOUS CLAY and OIL OF VITRIOL:——

1. Clay, free or nearly free from carbonate of lime and oxide of iron, is
chosen for this purpose. It is moderately calcined (in lumps) in a
reverberatory furnace, until it becomes friable; great care being taken
that the heat be not sufficient to indurate it, which would destroy its
subsequent solubility. It is next reduced to powder, sifted, and mixed
with about 45% of its weight of sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1·45), the
operation being conducted in a large stone or brick basin arched over with
brickwork. Heat is then applied, the flame and hot air of a reverberatory
furnace being made to sweep over the surface of the liquor. The heat and
agitation are continued for 2 or 3 days, when the mass is raked out and
set aside in a warm place for a few weeks (6 to 8), to allow the acid the
more perfectly to combine with the clay. At the end of this time the
newly-formed sulphate of alumina is washed out, the solution evaporated
until of a sp. gr. of about 1·38 (1·24 for ‘ammonia-alum’), and the salt
of potash added. The remaining operations resemble those above described.
Good alum may be produced by this process at about two thirds the cost of
rock or mine alum.

2. (Process of Mr Pochin.) Fine China clay is heated in a furnace, and
mixed with a suitable proportion of sulphuric acid; the latter being
considerably diluted with water, in order to moderate its action, which
would otherwise be far too violent. The mixture is then passed into
cisterns furnished with movable sides, where, in a few minutes, it heats
violently and boils. The thick liquid gradually becomes thicker, until it
is converted into a solid porous mass; the pores being produced by the
bubbles of steam which are driven through it, owing to the heat resulting
from the reaction of the ingredients on each other. This porous mass
(ALUM-CAKE; CONCENTRATED ALUM) appears perfectly dry, although retaining a
large amount of combined water. It also contains all the silica of the
original clay, but in such a state of fine division, that the whole
appears homogeneous; whilst it imparts a dryness to the touch which can
scarcely be given to pure sulphate of alumina. From this substance a
solution of pure sulphate of alumina is easily obtainable by lixiviation,
and allowing the resulting solution to deposit its silica before using it,
but for many purposes the presence of the finely divided silica is not
objectionable. The sulphate of alumina solution so obtained is adapted to
all the purposes in dyeing for which alum is now employed; the sulphate of
potash or of ammonia in the latter being an unnecessary constituent, and
one merely added to facilitate the purification and subsequent
crystallisation of the salt. To obtain ALUM from the porous alum-cake, the
proper proportion of acid having been used in its preparation, or
subsequently added, it is only necessary to precipitate its concentrated
solution with a strong solution of a salt of potash, or of ammonia, or a
mixture of them, and to otherwise proceed as before.

_Ratio._ In the above process the sulphide of iron of the shale or schist
is converted by atmospheric oxygen into sulphate of iron and sulphuric
acid; the sulphuric acid decomposes the clay, setting silica free, and
producing sulphate of aluminum. The sulphate of iron is mostly got rid of
by concentrating the solution of the mixed sulphates, and the
mother-liquors are converted into alum by the addition of the salt of
potassium. When chloride of potassium is used, it yields chloride of iron
and sulphate of potassium, the latter combining with the sulphate of
aluminum, and the former remaining behind in the mother-liquor. See ALUMS
(in Chemistry).

_Comp._ Potassium alum has the formula
K_{2}SO_{4}.Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}.24Aq.

_c._ From CRYOLITE.

1. (Thomson’s method.) Decomposition of cryolite by ignition with
carbonate of lime. From the ignited mass the aluminate of soda is obtained
by lixiviation with water, and into the solution carbonic acid gas is
passed, when there result precipitated hydrated gelatinous alumina and
carbonate of soda, which remains in solution. If it be desired to obtain
the alumina as an earthy compact precipitate, bicarbonate of soda is used
instead of carbonic acid. While the clear liquor is boiled down for the
purpose of obtaining carbonate of soda, the precipitated alumina is
dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid; this solution is evaporated for the
purpose of obtaining sulphate of alumina (the so-called concentrated
alum), or the solution after having been treated with a potassa or an
ammonia salt is converted into alum.

2. (Sauerwein’s method.) Decomposition of cryolite by caustic lime by the
wet way. Very finely ground cryolite is boiled with water and lime, the
purer the better, and as free from iron as possible, in a leaden pan. The
result is the formation of a solution of aluminate of soda, and insoluble
fluoride of calcium (lime). When the fluoride of calcium has deposited,
the clear liquid is decanted, and the sediment washed, the first
wash-water being added to the decanted liquor, and the second and third
wash-waters being used instead of pure water at a subsequent operation. In
order to separate the alumina from the solution of aluminate of soda,
there is added to the liquid while being continuously stirred very finely
pulverised cryolite in excess, the result of the decomposition being
alumina and fluoride of sodium, (soda). When no more caustic soda can be
detected in the liquid, it is left to stand for the purpose of becoming
clear. The clarified solution of fluoride of sodium is then drawn off, and
the alumina treated as above described. The solution of fluoride of sodium
having been boiled with caustic lime yields a caustic soda solution, which
having been decanted from the sediment of fluoride of calcium is
evaporated to dryness. Recently the fluoride of calcium occurring as a
by-product has been used in glass-making.

3. The decomposition of cryolite by sulphuric acid yields sulphate of soda
convertible into carbonate by Leblanc’s process, and sulphate of alumina
free from iron. This method of decomposing cryolite is, however, by no
means to be recommended, as owing to the liberation of hydrofluoric acid,
peculiarly constructed apparatus are required, whilst the sulphate of soda
has to be converted into carbonate.

_d._ From Bauxite. This mineral, occurring in some parts of Southern
France, in Calabria, near Belfast, and in other parts of Europe, consists
essentially (viz. 60 per cent.) of hydrate of alumina, more or less pure.
In order to prepare alums and sulphate of alumina from it, the mineral is
first disintegrated by being ignited with carbonate of soda, or with a
mixture of sulphate of soda and charcoal; in each case the lixiviation of
the ignited mass yields aluminate of soda, from which, by the processes
already described under “Cryolite,” alum, or sulphate of alumina, and soda
are prepared.

_e._ From blast-furnace slag. Lürmann recommends the slag to be decomposed
by means of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid. From the resulting solution of
chloride of aluminum the alumina is precipitated by carbonate of lime, any
dissolved silica being precipitated at the same time. The alumina is
dissolved in sulphuric acid, leaving the silica.

[Illustration]

_Prop._ Alum crystallises in regular octahedrons, often with truncated
edges and angles; (see _engr._); and sometimes in cubes, but only when
there is a deficiency of acid in its composition, with the alkali in
slight excess of the proper quantity. (Löwel.)[38] It is slightly
efflorescent in dry air: soluble in 18 parts of cold water, and in rather
less than its own weight of boiling water; tastes sweet, acidulous, and
very astringent; is styptic; and reddens litmus. When heated it melts,
loses its water of crystallisation, and becomes white and spongy (DRIED
ALUM); a strong heat, short of whiteness, decomposes it, with the
evolution of oxygen and a mixture of sulphuric and sulphurous anhydride;
calcined with carbonaceous matter it suffers decomposition, and furnishes
a pyrophoric residuum (HOMBERG’S PYRO′PHORUS). Ignited with alkaline
chlorides, hydrochloric acid is liberated; which also occurs when their
concentrated solutions are boiled together. Ammonia precipitates pure
hydrate of aluminum from potassium alum; but only a subsulphate from the
simple sulphate of alumina. Sp. gr. 1·724; but, when containing ammonia,
often so low as 1·710.

[Footnote 38: The ordinary alum, of commerce, consisting of large
crystalline masses, which do not present any regular geometrical form; but
by immersion in water for a few days, octahedral and rectangular forms are
developed on its surface. (Daniell.)]

_Tests, &c._ It is easily recognised by its crystalline form, its taste,
and by its complete solubility in water. Its aqueous solution gives a
white gelatinous precipitate soluble in excess; a platinum wire moistened
with the solution imparts a violet colour to the blowpipe flame; and
chloride of barium gives a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid.

_Pur._ When pure, its solution is not darkened by tincture of galls,
sulphuretted hydrogen or ferrocyanide of potassium; neither does it give
any precipitate with solution of nitrate of silver. Heated with caustic
potassa, or quick-lime, it does not evolve fumes of ammonia.

_Adult., &c._ The principal impurity, and one which renders alum unfit for
the use of the dyer, is iron. This may be readily detected by the blue
precipitate it gives with ferrocyanide of potassium, or the black
precipitate with sulphide of ammonium, which are very delicate tests.[39]
Lime, another very injurious contamination, may be detected by
precipitating the alumina and iron (if any) with ammonia, and then adding
oxalate of ammonia to the boiled and filtered liquid. The liquid filtered
from the last precipitate (oxalate of lime) may still contain magnesia,
which may be detected by the white precipitate caused on the addition of
an alkaline phosphate. Common alum frequently contains ammonia, from
urine, or the crude sulphate of the gas-works, having been employed in its
manufacture. Powdered alum is frequently adulterated with common salt, in
which case it gives a white curdy precipitate with nitrate of silver,
turning black by exposure to the light.

[Footnote 39: Good English alum contains less than 0·1% of iron. The best
Roman or Italian alums seldom contain more than ·005% of iron-alum,
notwithstanding their exterior colour.]

_Phys. eff. &c._ In small quantities alum acts as an astringent; in larger
doses as an irritant. It acts chemically on the animal tissues and fluids,
is absorbed, and has been discovered in the liver, spleen, and urine
(Orfila), the last often becoming acid (Kraus). Externally, it is
astringent. The almost general use of alum by the English bakers is one of
the most fertile sources of dyspepsia and liver and bowel complaints in
adults; and of debility and rickets in children. Bad teeth and their early
decay is another consequence of the daily use of alum in our food. The
bone matter (phosphate of lime) of bread, instead of being assimilated by
the system, is either wholly, or in part, converted into a salt of
alumina, which is useless and incapable of appropriation. When alum has
been taken in poisonous doses an emetic should be given, followed by warm
diluents and demulcents, containing a little carbonate of soda; and
subsequently by a purgative.

_Uses, &c._ The applications of alum in the arts and manufactures are
numerous and important. It is used to harden tallow and fats; to render
wood and paper incombustible; to remove greasiness from printers’ blocks
and rollers; to prepare a paper for whitening silver and silvering brass
in the cold; to help the separation of the butter from milk; to purify
turbid water; to dress skins; to fix and brighten the colours in dyeing;
to make lake and pyrophorus, &c., &c. It is also extensively used for
clarifying liquors, and for many other purposes connected with the arts
and everyday life. In _medicine_, alum is used as a tonic and astringent,
in doses of 5 to 20 gr.; as a gargle (1 dr. to 1/2 pint of water); and as
a collyrium and injection (10 to 15 gr. to 6 oz. of water). In lead colic,
1/2 to 1 dr. of alum (dissolved in gum-water), every 3 or 4 hours, is said
to be infallible. Powdered alum is frequently applied with the tips of the
fingers, in cases of sore throat and ulcerations of the mouth, &c. A
teaspoonful of it is said to be one of the very best emetics in croup. (Dr
Meigs.) Alkalies, alkaline carbonates, lime, magnesia, acetate of lead,
astringent vegetables, &c., are incompatible with it.

_Gen. commentary._ In addition to the particulars of its manufacture given
above, we may add, that the plan of getting rid of the ferric salts there
referred to has to some considerable extent been successfully replaced by
that of precipitating the alum, instead of the sulphate of iron, by adding
alkaline matter to the lixivium. The crystalline precipitate is purified
by draining, re-solution, and re-crystallisation; whilst the sulphate of
iron and Epsom-salts contained in the mother liquor are obtained by
subsequent evaporation and crystallisation; after which a fresh crop of
alum may be got from it, by the use of an alkaline precipitant, as before.

In estimating the strength of his solution the alum-maker takes as a
standard a measure or sp. gr. bottle capable of holding exactly 80
pennyweights of distilled water. The excess of the weight of liquor, in
pennyweights, over 80, or that of water, is called so many ‘pennyweights
strong.’ Thus one of 90 pennyweights (90 dwt.) is said to be ‘10 dwt.
strong,’ or simply, ‘one of 90 dwt.’ These numbers correspond to 2-1/2
degrees of Twaddle’s hydrometer, and may easily be found by dividing
Twaddle’s degrees by 2·5 or 2-1/2; or by multiplying them by 4, and
pointing off the right-hand figure of the product for a decimal. The
result is in alum-makers’ pennyweights.

By a patent now expired (Weisman’s, 1839) the ferric salts are
precipitated by the addition of a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium
(prussiate of potash); after which the supernatant clear liquor, which is
now a solution of nearly pure sulphate of alumina, is decanted, and
evaporated for future operations, until it either forms, on cooling, a
concrete mass, which is moulded into bricks or lumps, for the convenience
of ‘packing,’ or until it is sufficiently concentrated to be converted
into ALUM by the addition of a salt of potash or of ammonia in the usual
manner. The product, in each case, is perfectly free from iron. By a like
addition of the ferrocyanide to a solution of ordinary sulphate of
aluminia or alum, the dyer may himself easily render them free from
iron, or iron-alum; when, as mordants for even the most delicate colours,
they are equal to the very best Roman alum.

Another process has been patented (Barlow & Gore, 1851) for the
manufacture of alum from the ash or residue of the combustion of
Boghead-coal, which, though hitherto regarded as almost valueless,
actually contains about 30% of alumina. It has not, however, been found a
convenient material for the purpose.

By the latest and most approved processes the least possible quantity of
boiling water or liquor is employed for making the solutions, so that they
may crystallise without evaporation, and thus economise fuel; and the
mother-liquors of previous operations are constantly employed for this
purpose, when possible. Nor is anything which is convertible to use, from
the drainage of the heaps, to the liquor and slime of the roaching casks,
allowed to be wasted.

By whatever process, or from whatever materials alum is obtained, it is
absolutely necessary for the successful and economical conduct of its
manufacture, that the precise composition of the mineral or minerals
employed should be exactly known. This can only be determined by actual
analysis, which should be extended to several parts of the same bed, and
particularly to the upper and lower strata, which frequently differ in
composition from each other, and thus require different treatment, or may
be most advantageously employed in combinations with each other. The
necessity of this will be seen by reference to the composition of the
following minerals, of which the top contains a larger proportion of
iron-pyrites than the bottom, and the two require to be mixed, to equally
diffuse the sulphuric acid generated by the calcination, &c., to which
they are subjected.

The following is the per-centage composition of certain alum shales:——

  +------------------+-------------------+
  |                  | Whitby, Yorkshire.|
  |                  | (_Richardson._)   |
  |                  +--------+----------+
  |                  |  Top   | Bottom   |
  |                  |  rock. | rock.    |
  +------------------+--------+----------+
  |Sulphide of iron  |   4·20 |   8·50   |
  |  (_pyrites_)     |        |          |
  |Silica            |  52·25 |  15·16   |
  |Protoxide of iron |   8·49 |   6·11   |
  |Alumina           |  18·75 |  18·30   |
  |Lime              |   1·25 |   2·15   |
  |Magnesia          |    ·91 |    ·90   |
  |Oxide of manganese| traces | traces   |
  |Sulphuric acid    |   1·37 |   2·50   |
  |  (SO_{3})        |        |          |
  |Potassa           |    ·13 | traces   |
  |Soda              |    ·20 | traces   |
  |Chlorine          | traces | traces   |
  |Coal              |   4·97 |   8·29   |
  |Water             |   2·88 |    ·00   |
  |Loss              |   4·60 |   (?)    |
  |                  |        |          |
  +------------------+--------+----------+
  |                  | 100·   | 100·     |
  +------------------+--------+----------+

  +---------------------+------------------------------+
  |                     |   Campsie, near Glasgow.     |
  |                     |        (_Ronalds._)          |
  +---------------------+---------+----------+---------+
  |                     | Top     |   Top    | Bottom  |
  |                     | rock.   |   rock.  | rock.   |
  |---------------------+---------+----------+---------+
  |Sulphide of iron     | 40·52   |   38·48  |  9·63(?)|
  |  (_pyrites_)        |         |          |         |
  |Silica               | 15·40   |   15·41  | 20·47(?)|
  |Protoxide of iron    |  ...    |    ...   |  2·18   |
  |Alumina              | 11·35   |   11·64  | 18·91(?)|
  |Lime                 |  1·40   |    2·22  |   ·40   |
  |Magnesia             |   ·50   |     ·32  |  2·17   |
  |Oxide of manganese   |   ·15   |    ...   |   ·55   |
  |Sulphuric acid       |  ...    |    ...   |   ·05   |
  |Potassa              |   ·90   |    ...   |  1·26   |
  |Soda                 |  ...    |    ...   |   ·21   |
  |Carbon or            | 27·65(?)|  28·80   |  (?)    |
  |  bituminous matter  |         |          |         |
  |Coal                 |  ...    |    ...   |  8·51   |
  |Water                |  ...    |    ...   |  8·54   |
  |Loss                 |  2·13(?)|   3·13   |  1·59(?)|
  +---------------------+---------+----------+---------+
  |                     | 100·    | 100·     | 100·    |
  +---------------------+---------+----------+---------+

Alum-rock, or alum-stone, is a species of impure alunite, and is not of
very common occurrence. That of Tolfa, near Civita Vecchia, according to
Klaproth, consists of——

  Silica                   56·5
  Alumina                  19·
  Sulphuric acid (SO_{3})  16·5
  Potassa                   4·
  Water                     3·
  Loss                      1·
                         ——————
                          100·

which exhibits an excess of about 3% of sulphuric acid, and about 14% of
alumina, more than are requisite to form alum with the 4% of potassa;
proportions which, therefore, require to be supplemented with a potassium
salt during the process of manufacture. The alum-stone of Mont d’Or
contains, according to Cordier, 1·4% of oxide of iron.

The presence of lime in alum-ore is most prejudicial, owing to its
affinity for sulphuric acid being greater than that of either alumina or
iron. Ores containing it in any quantity are, therefore, unfitted for the
manufacture of alum. Magnesia is also prejudicial; but in this case the
sulphate of magnesia left in the mother-liquors is not wholly valueless,
as it may be crystallised and sold as ‘Epsom-salt,’——a thing which is
actually done in some English alum-works.

The potash-salt employed by the alum-makers is either the sulphate or the
chloride——chiefly the latter; its sources being the waste liquor of
soap-works, saltpetre refineries, and glass-houses. Wood-ashes, although
rich in potash, do not answer well unless freed by lixiviation from the
large amount of carbonate of lime which is always present in them.

The ammonia-salt used in making alum is generally the crude sulphate
prepared from the ammoniacal liquor of gas-works, or that from the
manufacture of sal-ammoniac by the destructive distillation of animal
matter. Both these liquors may be used without previous conversion into
sulphate of ammonia whenever there is an excess of sulphuric acid in the
aluminous solution.

Soda-salts are seldom, if ever, used as precipitants in the manufacture of
alum, on account of the easy solubility of the resulting SODA-ALUM——a
property which unfits them for this purpose. See ALUMS, AMMONIA, DYEING,
MORDANTS, POTASH, SULPHURIC ACID, &c. (also _below_).

=Alum, Ammonia.= (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4} . Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} . 24 Aq. _Syn_.
(ALUMEN; ALUM; B. P.), ALU′MEN AMMONIA′TUM, L.; ALUN D’AMMONIAQUE, A.
AMMONIACAL, Fr. This is an alum in which the sulphate of potassium is
replaced by an equivalent of sulphate of ammonium. It is prepared by
adding crude sulphate of ammonium to solution of sulphate of aluminum; or
gas-liquor, putrid urine, &c., to the acid-sulphate.

Much of the common alum, especially that prepared on the Continent,
contains both potassium and ammonium; and recently enormous works for its
manufacture have been established in England. As an astringent, and as a
source of alumina in dyeing, it resembles potash-alum (_i. e._ ordinary
alum). It may, however, be readily distinguished from the latter by the
fumes of ammonia which are evolved when it is moistened and triturated, or
heated, with caustic potassa or quick-lime; and by the residuum of its
exposure to a white heat being pure alumina. See ALUM (_antè_).

=Alum, Basic.= A variety of alum found native at Tolfa. On calcination and
subsequent lixiviation it yields ordinary alum. A like substance falls as
a white powder, when newly precipitated alumina is boiled in a solution of
alum.

=Alum, Baumé’s.= Alum-white. See WHITE PIGMENTS.

=Alum, Dried; Alum, Burnt.= _Syn_. ALU′MEN US′TUM, A. EXSICCA′TUM (B. P.);
ALUN SEC, Fr.; GEBRANNTER ALAUN, Ger.; ALUME CALCINATO, Ital. Alum
deprived of its water of crystallisation by heat.

_Prep._ Take of alum, 4 oz. Heat the alum in a porcelain dish or other
suitable vessel, till it liquefies, then raise and continue the heat, not
allowing it to exceed 400°, till aqueous vapour ceases to be disengaged,
and the salt has lost 47 per cent. of its weight. Reduce the residue to
powder, and preserve it in a well-stopped bottle.

_Prop., &c._ Similar to those of common alum, but it is rather more
astringent, and is less soluble. When moistened, or placed in contact with
water, it resumes its water of crystallisation with evolution of
heat.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.; in colic (especially painters’ colic),
hæmoptysis, &c. It is chiefly used as an escharotic, to destroy ‘proud
flesh,’ &c. It must be kept in a stoppered bottle.

=Alum, Chrome.= See ALUMS (in Chemistry).

=Alum, I′ron= (-ŭrn). _Syn_. ALU′MEN FER′RICUM, SUL′PHAS FER′RI ET
POTAS′SÆ, FER′RI PEROX′IDI POTASSIO-SUL′PHAS, &c., L.

_Comp._ K_{2}SO_{4} . Fe_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}.24Aq.

_Prep._ Take of peroxide of iron, 9 lbs.; sulphuric acid 14 lbs.;
dissolve, dilute the mixture with water, q. s., and add of potassium
sulphate, 10 lbs.; evaporate, and crystallise.

_Prop., &c._ Crystals, beautiful octahedrons of a pinkish or pale violet
colour. It is strongly recommended, by Dr Tyler Smith, as a chalybeate
tonic, and has been used by him, at St. Mary’s Hospital with marked
success. It has also been used as a mordant, in dyeing black.——_Dose_, 1/2
gr. to 5 gr.

=Alum, Ro′man.= _Syn_. RED ALUM*, ROACH A., ROCHE A., ROCK A.*; ALU′MEN
ROMA′NUM, A. RU′BRUM, A. RU′PEUM, &c., L.; ALUN ROMAIN, A. DE ROCHE, Fr.;
ALUME DI ROCCA, It. In small fragments, covered with a reddish powder
(ALUMEN RUBRUM VE′′RUM); originally imported from Civita Vecchia, where it
occurs native. It is much esteemed by dyers from being nearly free from
iron-alum. That now sold for it in England is ordinary alum coloured with
Venetian red, Armenian bole, or rose-pink (ALUMEN RUBRUM SPU′′RIUM). This
is done by shaking the fragments in a sieve over a vessel of hot water,
and then stirring them up with the colour, until the surface is uniformly
tinged with it. In genuine roach-alum the colour not only covers the
surface, but also partially pervades the substance of the crystals. The
name was formerly also applied to a pure white variety of alum, prepared
at Tolfa; but it is now, in English commerce, exclusively given to common
alum artificially coloured.

=Alum, Saccharated.= Alum, 6 oz., white lead 6 drms., sulphate of zinc 3
drms., sugar 1-1/2 oz. Mix the ingredients reduced to powder into a paste,
with vinegar and white of egg. Used in eye waters and cosmetic washes.

=Alum, So′da.= _Syn_. SULPHAS ALUMINÆ ET SODÆ, L. _Comp._ Na_{2}SO_{4} .
Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} . 24Aq. An alum in which the potassium sulphate of
common alum is replaced by a like salt of sodium. It does not occur in
commerce. (Vide _suprà_ et _infrà_.)

=ALUM-EARTH.= Alumina.

=ALUM MOR′DANTS.= In _dyeing_, mordants having for their basis either
common alum or the acetate or sulphate of aluminum. See ALUMS and
MORDANTS.

=AL′UM-ROOT.= _Syn._ AMER′ICAN SAN′ICLE; HEU′CHERA (Ph. U. S.), L. The
root of _heuchera America′na_ (Linn.), a plant of North America. It is
powerfully styptic and astringent; and is used chiefly as an external
application in cancer.

=ALUM-WHITE.= See WHITE PIGMENTS.

=AL′UMS.= _Syn._ ALU′MINA (pl. of _alu′men_), L. In _chemistry_, a term
applied to a series or group of salts having potassium alum for their
type, which they resemble in crystalline form and constitution.

It is found that the aluminum of common alum may be replaced by any other
metal having a like nature, without affecting the leading characteristics
of the salt; and further, that in the newly formed compound, as in
potassium-alum, the second sulphate may also be replaced under the like
conditions. All the alums crystallise in octahedrons or cubes, and they
all contain the same number of molecules of water. The alums of commerce
(or alums proper) all contain aluminum sulphate and an alkaline sulphate.

_Prep._ All the alums may be made by mixing together solutions of the
respective sulphates in equivalent proportions, when crystals may be
obtained by evaporation in the usual manner. The presence of sulphuric
acid, in slight excess, assists their crystallisation.

=AL′UMED= (al′ŭmd). Mixed or impregnated with alum. In _dyeing_, mordanted
with alum.

=ALU′MEN= (-l′ōō-). [L.] Alum; the pharmacopœial name of alum. (See
_above_.)

=ALUMINIUM.= _Syn._ ALUMINUM (which _see_).

=ALUMINOUS.= In _mineralogy_, of, resembling, or containing aluminum. In
_chemistry_, containing or obtained from alum.

=ALUMINUM.= [Eng., Fr., L.] _Syn._ ALUMINIUM, Eng., Fr., L.; ALUMIUM, Ger.
A metallic radical or element very abundantly distributed, united with
silica. Discovered by M. Wöhler, who succeeded in obtaining it as a grey
metallic powder (A.D. 1827); and later (1845), under the form of globules
exhibiting the leading characteristics of the metal. In 1854, M. Dumas
announced to the ‘Academy of Sciences,’ that M. St. Clair Deville had
procured pure aluminum from clay, and exhibited several specimens of
considerable size and beauty. The result was a general impression that it
might be easily obtained in any quantity, and ultimately at a reasonable
price; expectations which have been only partly, though to a great extent
fulfilled, owing to the expense and trouble of the process,
notwithstanding recent improvements.

_Prep._ (M. Deville; A.D. 1854-59.)——A quantity of chloride of aluminum,
varying from 200 to 300 grammes (say from 6 to 10 oz.), is introduced into
a wide glass or porcelain tube, between two plugs of asbestos to retain it
in position, and a current of hydrogen (thoroughly dried by passing first
through concentrated sulphuric acid, and then through a tube containing
fused chloride of calcium) passed over it; a gentle heat being at the same
time applied to the part of the tube containing the chloride, to drive off
any free hydrochloric acid which might have been formed by the action of
the air upon it. A small porcelain boat, containing sodium, is now
introduced at the other extremity of the glass tube, which is then again
closed; and when the sodium is fused, the chloride is sufficiently heated
to cause its vapour to come into free contact with it. A powerful reaction
ensues, with the evolution of much heat, and this continues as long as any
undecomposed sodium remains to act on the passing vapour. The mass in the
boat, which is now a mixture of the double chloride of aluminum and
sodium, in which small globules of the newly reduced metal are suspended,
is allowed to cool in the hydrogen; after which it is treated with water,
to remove the soluble double chloride. The residuum, consisting of small
globules of aluminum, is, lastly, reduced to a solid button or mass, by
fusion, at a strong heat, under a layer of the fused double chloride of
aluminum and sodium.

On a large scale two cast-iron cylinders are employed, instead of the
glass or porcelain tube just referred to; the anterior one of which
contains the chloride of aluminum, and the posterior one a tray holding
the sodium, of which 10 or 12 lbs. are commonly operated on at once. These
cylinders are united by means of a smaller intermediate one, filled with
clean scraps of iron, which serve to separate iron, free hydrochloric
acid, and chloride of sulphur, from the vapour of the chloride of
aluminum, as it passes through them. During the passage of the vapour of
the chloride this smaller cylinder, or tube, is kept heated to from 400°
to 600° Fahr.; but the two other cylinders are only very gently heated,
since the chloride is volatilised at a comparatively low temperature, and
the reaction between it and the fused sodium, when once commenced, usually
generates sufficient heat for the completion of the process.

Occasionally a mixture of the double chloride of aluminum and sodium, 40
parts; chloride of sodium 20 parts; fluor spar, 20 parts; each separately
dried, powdered, and then blended together; sodium, in small pieces, 7-1/2
to 8 parts, are used instead of the last.

It is likewise made from a mixture of cryolite and fused chloride of
potassium, of each, in powder, 5 parts; sodium, 2 parts; a cast-iron
crucible being employed; the resulting minute globules being collected and
fused to a button under a layer of the double chloride of aluminum and
sodium.

_Prop., &c._ Aluminum, when quite pure, closely approaches silver in
appearance, except in being rather less white and lustrous than that
metal. Ordinary specimens, called pure, have a slight bluish tint or
tin-white colour, with a perfect lustre, but far inferior to that of pure
silver. Sp. gr. 2·56, which by hammering may be raised to 2·67. It is both
ductile and malleable; fuses at a temperature between the melting-points
of zinc and silver; is not affected by either damp or dry air, or by
oxygen at ordinary temperatures, or by water whether cold or boiling; even
steam, at a red heat, is only slowly decomposed by it. It is not acted on
by nitric acid, however concentrated, unless boiling, and then very
slowly; nor by dilute sulphuric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and the
sulphides, or even the fused hydrates of the alkalies. It is, however,
readily dissolved by hydrochloric acid, with the evolution of hydrogen,
even in the cold; and by a concentrated mixture of nitric and sulphuric
acid. It is feebly magnetic, conducts electricity about eight times better
than iron, and is more electro-negative than zinc. Commercial specimens,
owing to the presence of iron and silicon, and often zinc, usually slowly
tarnish in damp air, and possess the other properties described above in a
somewhat diminished degree.

In a finely divided state, particularly in the state of powder or minute
scales in which it was originally obtained, when heated to redness, it
catches fire and burns with great rapidity in the air, and in oxygen gas
with intense brilliancy, the product in each case being alumina.

Aluminum unites with the other metals, forming ALLOYS, of which some
promise to be of great value in the arts. An alloy of 100 parts of
aluminum with 5 parts of silver may be worked like the pure metal, but is
harder and susceptible of a finer polish, whilst its property of not being
affected by sulphuretted hydrogen and acids remains unimpaired; even 3% of
silver is said to be sufficient to impart to it the full brilliance and
colour of pure silver. An alloy containing 10% of gold is softer and
scarcely so malleable as the pure metal. With 8% of iron, or 10% of
copper, it still remains tough and malleable; but a larger proportion of
either of these metals renders it brittle.

The presence of 2 or 3% of zinc destroys its ductility and malleability,
and also impairs its colour and lustre; whilst less than even 1/4% of
bismuth renders it brittle in a high degree. Small quantities of aluminum
added to other metals change their properties in a very remarkable manner.
Thus, copper alloyed with 10%; of aluminum has the colour and brilliancy
of gold, is harder than bronze, very malleable, and may be worked at high
temperatures easier than the best varieties of iron; and with 20% is quite
white, and closely resembles silver. With more than 12% of aluminum the
alloy is harder, but brittle. The alloy formed of 100 parts of silver with
5 parts of aluminum is as hard as the silver of our coinage, whilst the
other properties of the latter metal remain unaltered.

_Uses._ The valuable properties of aluminum adapt it to numerous
applications in the arts and everyday life. Hitherto these have been very
limited, owing to its comparatively high price; which, notwithstanding it
has fallen considerably, is still sufficient to prevent its general or
even extensive application. The ‘eagles’ of the French army have been made
of it, as well as certain articles of jewelry, plate, &c., as brooches,
bracelets, chains, spoons, and other ornamental and useful objects. Owing
to its low sp. gr., it has been used as a suitable material for the minute
decimal weights of chemists, for military helmets, trumpets, &c. A few
cornet-à-pistons, for which its lightness and sonorousness admirably adapt
it, have actually been made of it. Its power of resisting oxygen,
sulphuretted hydrogen, moisture, &c., would render it invaluable as a
coating to metals, particularly iron and lead, to protect them from rust
or corrosion, did not its price intervene. As an internal coating for
water-pipes, cisterns, &c., no other substance, except gold and platinum,
is so well adapted. In _chemistry_, capsules, tubes, &c., either made of
or coated with it, may be often advantageously substituted for those of
platinum.

In addition to what has been said above, it may be observed that, in
preparing aluminum, the chief care should be to avoid accidents or failure
by the employment of too high a temperature, and to avoid the product
being contaminated with other metals or with carbon. To ensure the purity
of the metal is a matter of the greatest difficulty, owing to the facility
with which foreign matters are taken up, during the process, from the
materials of which the apparatus is composed; and from the substances from
which it is prepared being seldom absolutely pure. Indeed, it is not too
much to assert that chemically pure aluminum has not yet been obtained;
and that even a very close approximation to it is of very rare occurrence.
Whenever a copper boat is used to hold the sodium, the product is always
contaminated with copper. Chloride of aluminum always contains some of the
chlorides of iron and silicon, both of which are volatile, and probably
takes up a further portion from the porcelain or earthenware used to form
the apparatus. Sodium also is seldom uncontaminated with carbon or some
compound of it; in which case, and likewise when it is not carefully freed
from the naphtha in which it has been preserved, the product always
contains carbon. The crucible, whether of porcelain or iron, in which the
final fusion is made, also contributes to contaminate the metal. Hence the
inferior whiteness and brilliancy of commercial specimens of aluminum; a
metal which, in its absolutely pure state, may be reasonably inferred to
be as superior in the above respects to silver as silver is to tin.
Commercial aluminum contains from 88 to 94 per cent. only of pure
aluminum, and from 1 to 4 per cent. of iron, 1/2 to 3 per cent. of
silicon, and from 1 to 6 per cent. of copper.

Aluminum salts are generally colourless, soluble, and crystallise with
difficulty, and are distinguished as follows:——

_Tests._——1. Ammonia and the alkaline carbonates throw down a bulky white
precipitate (hydrate of aluminum) from solutions of its salts, which is
insoluble in excess of the precipitant.——2. Pure potassa and soda throw
down white gelatinous precipitates, freely soluble in excess of the
precipitant; from which the hydrate of aluminum is reprecipitated by
chloride of ammonium, even in the cold:——3. Phosphate of ammonium gives a
white precipitate——4. Iodide of potassium produces a white precipitate,
passing into a permanent yellow:——5. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives no
precipitate:——6. Sulphydrate of ammonium precipitates alumina from these
solutions:——7. Bisulphate of potassium, added to concentrated solutions,
gives a precipitate of octahedral crystals of alum:——8. At a red heat its
salts part with some of their acid; at a white heat, most of it, if not
all:——9. Aluminum compounds, ignited on charcoal before the blowpipe, and
afterwards moistened with a solution of nitrate of cobalt and again
strongly ignited, give an unfused mass, which, on cooling, appears blue by
day, and violet by candlelight; a test, however, which is inapplicable to
fusible compounds of aluminum, and such as are not free, or nearly free,
from other oxides.

=Aluminum, Acetate of.= _Syn._ ACETATE OF ALUMINA. _Prep._ Pure hydrate of
aluminum is digested, to saturation, in strong acetic acid, in the cold;
and the resulting solution, after being filtered or decanted, is either
evaporated by a very gentle heat to a gelatinous, semi-solid consistence
(its usual form), or is preserved in the liquid state. By spontaneous
evaporation it may be obtained in long, transparent crystals.

_Red liquor._ From alum, in powder, 4 parts; warm water, q. s. to
dissolve; acetate of lead, in powder, 3 parts; the solution and mixture
being effected by lengthened agitation in a tub or other wooden vessels,
and the clear liquid, after repose for a sufficient time, decanted or
drawn off from the sediment.

From alum, 2 parts; (dissolved in) warm water, q. s.; solution of
pyrolignite of lime (20° Baumé), 3 parts; as before, but allowing a longer
time for the subsidence of the precipitate, and taking more care in the
decantation than when acetate of lead is employed.

By decomposing a solution of crude sulphate of alumina with neutral or
monobasic acetate of lead.

_Prop._ Its characteristic property is the feeble affinity existing
between its acid and base, which, when it is used as a mordant, is
counterbalanced by that of the fibres of the cloth or yarn to which it is
applied. In other respects it resembles the other simple salts of alumina.

_Uses, &c._ In _dyeing_ and _calico printing_, as a mordant. In
_medicine_, properly diluted, in chronic diarrhœa; and, mixed with syrup
of poppies, in slight cases of hæmoptysis (spitting of blood). It has been
employed by M. Gannal as an injection to preserve animal bodies, which it
will do for years.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr. daily, in divided portions, taken
in thin mucilage or syrup, or in barley-water; as an injection, 10 to 20
gr., to water, 4 to 6 fl. oz., in gonorrhœa, leucorrhœa, &c.

=Aluminum, Chloride of.= Al_{2}Cl_{6}. _Syn._ SESQUICHLO′′RIDE OF
ALUMINUM; ALUMIN′II CHLORI′DI, &c., L. _Prep._ A thick paste made of dry
precipitated alumina, lampblack, and oil, is strongly heated in a covered
crucible until all the organic matter is carbonised. The residuum is
transferred to a porcelain tube fixed across a furnace, one end of which
is connected with another tube containing dry chloride of calcium, and the
other end with a small tubulated receiver. The porcelain tube is then
heated to redness, whilst chlorine, dried by passing through the
chloride-of-calcium tube, is transmitted through the apparatus. In one or
two hours, or as soon as the tube is choked, the whole is allowed to cool,
and the newly-formed SESQUICHLORIDE collected and preserved in mineral
naphtha for use.

On the large scale:——Chlorine, dried as before, is passed over a mixture
of pure clay, lamp-black, and coal-tar, contained in an iron retort,
similar to that used in the manufacture of coal-gas (previously ignited by
means of a suitable furnace), and connected with a cool chamber accurately
lined with tiles of earthenware. The vapours of the SESQUICHLORIDE
condense in this chamber, as a yellowish crystalline mass, which is
collected and preserved as before.

_Prop., &c._ It is volatile at a dull red heat; excessively greedy of
moisture; and very soluble, with decomposition, hydrochloric acid and
alumina being formed. Once dissolved, it cannot be again recovered. Its
chief use is in the preparation of aluminum.

_Obs._ Although alumina, like magnesia, is freely soluble in hydrochloric
acid, the sesquichloride of aluminum contained in this solution cannot be
obtained in the anhydrous state, or even the solid form, by its
evaporation; the chloride suffering decomposition, with the formation of
hydrochloric acid, which is volatilised, and alumina, which is left
behind.

=Aluminum, Ni′trate of.= Al_{2}(NO_{3})_{6}. _Syn._ NITRATE OF ALUMINA;
ALU′MINÆ NI′TRAS, L. _Prep._ Similar to that of the acetate and citrate.
Its concentrated acid solution deposits rhombic crystals, containing 18
equiv. of water.

=Aluminum, Oxide of= (Al_{2}O_{3}), and =Hydrate of= (Al_{2}(HO)_{6}).
_Syn._ ALUMINA.

_Prep._ Aluminum is precipitated as a hydrate from solutions of aluminum
salts on the addition of an alkali or alkaline carbonate; and this
precipitate, after being thoroughly washed and dried, on ignition loses
its water and becomes anhydrous. The following are the best formulæ for
the purpose:——

Alum is dissolved in about 20 times its weight of distilled water, and the
solution is dropped slowly into pure solution of ammonia, until the latter
is nearly but not entirely saturated, when the whole is set aside for some
time. The clear supernatant liquid is then decanted, and the precipitate
is carefully and thoroughly washed three or four times with tepid
distilled water; after which it is collected on a filter, again well
washed with water, and, lastly, pressed and dried between bibulous paper,
either without heat, or at a temperature not higher than 120° Fahr. The
product is pure hydrate of ammonium, and is converted into anhydrous
alumina by exposure to a white heat in a covered crucible. The residuum,
after ignition, is pure ANHY′DROUS ALUMINA, or SESQUIOX′IDE OF ALUMIN′UM.

A solution of alum is slowly added to a solution of carbonate of ammonia,
avoiding excess; and the resulting precipitate, after being washed and
pressed, is dried at a heat of from 120° to 180° Fahr.

_Prop., &c._ A soft white powder. The hydrate is freely soluble in the
acids and in solution of caustic potassa and soda (from which it is
precipitable by sal ammoniac); when anhydrous (as after ignition), it is
scarcely acted on by acids, and when perfectly indurated, or crystallised,
it is wholly insoluble; but on ignition with alkalies, alkaline
ALU′MINATES are formed, and the alumina is then readily dissolved by
acids, forming salts, which are mostly colourless, non-volatile, and
soluble; they have a very astringent and somewhat sweetish taste, redden
litmus paper, and lose their acids by ignition. Its most remarkable, or
rather useful property, is its strong affinity for the fibres of organic
bodies, as cotton, flax, silk, wool, &c., which are capable of taking it
from its salts; and also for organic colouring matters. Hence its great
use in dyeing, and in bleaching liquids and the preparation of lakes.
Hydrate of aluminum agitated or digested with liquids containing vegetable
colouring matter, combines with the latter, and either entirely, or to a
great extent, removes it from the solution.

Moist precipitated alumina, dried at a heat between 70° and 80°, contains
above 58% of water; dried at 212° Fahr., about 32% of water.

_Estim._ Aluminum is weighed as oxide, after ignition. The solubility of
the moist or recently precipitated hydrate in solution of ammonia enable
us to separate it from the ALKALINE EARTHS which, when present, are thrown
down with it.

_Uses, &c._ The moist hydrate is used in several processes in the arts. It
is the base of cobalt-blue, the lake-pigments, &c. In _medicine_, it is
employed as an antacid and astringent, in acidity of the stomach, cholera,
diarrhœa, and dysentery; in which it is said to be superior to the other
absorbent remedies. (Ficinus.) It has also been highly recommended in the
vomiting and diarrhœa of infancy. (Durr; Neumann; Weese; &c.)——_Dose._
Children 3 to 10 gr.; adults, 5 or 6 to 20 or even 30 gr., three to six
times daily, suspended in water, by mucilage or simple syrup.

=Aluminum, Sil′icate of.= Al_{2}(SiO_{2})_{3}. _Syn._ SIL′ICATE OF
ALUMINA. A substance which, in its hydrous form, is the chief and
characteristic ingredient of common clay; and which also occurs, in
combination, in several other important and abundant minerals.

=Aluminum, Sul′phate of.= Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}. _Syn._ SESQUISUL′PHATE OF
ALUMINA, NEUTRAL S. OF A., ALU′MINÆ SUL′PHAS, A. SESQUISUL′PHAS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Saturate dilute sulphuric acid with hydrate of aluminum, gently
evaporate, and crystallise.

2. (Crude, commercial.) By mixing clay and oil of vitriol, in the way
described under ALUM. The product is the ‘CONCENTRATED ALUM’ of the dyers.

_Prop._ Its crystals are needles and thin pearly plates; soluble in 2
parts of water; taste astringent, and somewhat sweetish; reaction acid; a
full red heat expels its acid, leaving a residuum of pure alumina; with
the sulphates of potassium, sodium, and ammonium, it forms alum.

_Uses, &c._ In the _arts_, chiefly as a substitute for alum; the sulphate
of potassium in the latter, being found to be an unnecessary and costly
ingredient, only useful to purify the salt from iron, by forming a
compound of easy crystallisation; an object that may be effected with
greater certainty by cheaper methods. In _medicine_, as a wash for foul
and ill-conditioned ulcers; and as an astringent and antiseptic injection.
M. Gannal has successfully employed a solution of this salt to preserve
animal bodies, by throwing it into the arteries. Even an enema of 1 quart
of it, or an injection of a like quantity into the œsophagus, will suffice
to preserve a body for several weeks. The mineral called AL′UNITE or
ALU′MINITE, found near Newhaven (Sussex), is a native subsulphate or basic
sulphate (DISUL′PHATE) of alumina.

=Aluminum, Sulphide of.= Al_{2}S_{3}. _Syn._ SUL′PHIDE OF ALUMINIUM, &c. A
substance best obtained by passing the vapour of bisulphide of carbon over
pure alumina, at a bright red heat. It is instantly decomposed by water,
with the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. See ALUMINUM (_above_).

=Aluminum Tann′ate.= _Syn._ TANNATE OF ALUMINA, Eng.; ALU′MINÆ TANN′AS, L.
_Prep._ Take of pure hydrate of aluminum (dried at 90° Fahr.), 1 part;
tannic acid (dried at 212°), 2 parts; triturate them together for some
time, adding just sufficient water to bring them to the consistence of a
syrup, and carefully evaporate to dryness at a heat not higher than 120°
Fahr.; lastly, reduce the residuum to powder.

_Uses, &c._ A combination of certain constitution, which is said to have
been found very useful in obstinate vomiting and diarrhœa, in dysentery,
and particularly in hæmoptysis, hæmorrhage, &c.——_Dose_, 3 to 12 or 15 gr.

=Aluminium Bronze.= See BRONZE ALUMINIUM.

=AL′VINE= (-vĭn). _Syn._ ALVI′NUS, L.: ALVIN, Fr. Of or from the belly or
intestines; relating to the intestinal secretions.

=AMABELE.= Consists of crushed millets. See MILLET.

=AM′ADOU= (-ăh-dōō). _Syn._ GERMAN TINDER, TOUCH′WOOD, PYROTECH′NIC
SPONGE, SPUNK‡§, SURGEON’S AG′ARIC, A. OF THE OAK, &c.; AGAR′ICUS
QUER′CÛS, A. QUER′NUS, A. CHIRURGO′′RUM, FUN′GUS QUER′CÛS, &c., L.;
AMADOU, AGARIC AMADOUVIER, Fr.; ZUNDERSCHWAMM. Ger. A soft, spongy,
combustible substance, being the prepared flesh of _bole′tus
fomenta′′rius_ (Linn.), an indigenous species of fungus found on the oak,
birch, and a few other trees (REAL AMADOU or OAK-AGARIC); for which _b.
ignia′′rius_ (Linn.), a like fungus, found on the willow, cherry, plum,
and other trees, is frequently substituted.

_Collec., Prep., &c._ The outer bark of the fungus (collected in Aug. or
Sept.) having been removed with a knife, the inner spongy substance is
carefully separated from the woody portion lying below, and after being
cut into slices, is well beaten with a mallet until sufficiently soft and
pliable. Sometimes it is first boiled in water, in order to separate the
epidermis and porous parts, and to free it from soluble matter; after
which it is beaten as before. In this state it is used in _surgery_, &c.
To complete its manufacture for TINDER, it is soaked once, or oftener, in
a strong solution of saltpetre (RED AMADOU; BROWN A.); or in a thin paste
made of gunpowder and water, which is thoroughly forced into the pores
(BLACK A.); after which it is dried, and well rubbed to free it from loose
matter. The first is the more cleanly; the last the more combustible.

_Uses, &c._ A light brown or reddish-brown substance. In _surgery_,
_pharmacy_, &c., it is used to stop local bleeding, to spread plasters on,
as a compress, and for other like purposes. When covered with
resin-plaster it forms an excellent article for the protection of abraded
surfaces. A small piece thus prepared, of a circular shape, having a round
hole cut in the middle, the size of the apex of the corn, is one of the
very best corn-plasters known; as from its great softness it at once
protects the part from pressure, and removes the cause. As a material for
shoe-socks it is superior to all other substances. The amadou for surgical
purposes must not contain nitre.

=AMAL′GAM.= [Eng., Ger.] _Syn._ AMAL′GAMA, L.; AMALGAME, Fr. In
_chemistry_ and _metallurgy_, an alloy containing quicksilver; more
particularly one in which that metal plays a conspicuous part. Medallists
improperly apply this term to all soft alloys.

Mercury unites with many of the metals by mere contact; and with some of
them, as gold, silver, tin, and lead, in certain proportions, without
losing its fluidity. In a few cases, as with potassium, this union is
attended with considerable violence, and with the production of light and
heat.

_Prep._ Most of these compounds may be formed by agitating or rubbing the
mercury with the other metal, or metals, in the state of filings or small
fragments, either with or without heat; or with the easily fusible metals,
by adding it to them in the melted state; care been taken, in both cases,
that the heat be not sufficient to volatilise the mercury.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Some amalgams are solid, and not unfrequently
crystalline; others are fluid. Of the latter several crystallise after a
time, becoming solid; being, probably, merely solutions of the solid
amalgams in excess of mercury. The amalgams of gold, silver, tin, zinc,
&c., are extensively employed in gilding, silvering and dentistry, and in
other useful arts and manufactures.

=Amalgam, Ammonium.= An unstable compound produced when a globule of
mercury is placed in a small cavity formed in a piece of sal ammoniac, and
the negative pole of a powerful galvanic battery is brought into contact
with the metal, and the positive pole, with the ammoniacal salt. In a few
seconds the new compound (ammonium amalgam) of the consistence of butter
is formed. On withdrawing the influence of the battery, the whole returns
to its former condition. By putting an amalgam of sodium into the
moistened cavity of the sal ammoniac, similar results are obtained. The
phenomena attending the formation of this new substance have been urged as
evidence of the existence of the theoretical basic radicle AMMONIUM.

=Amalgam, Elec′trical.= _Prep._ 1. Take zinc and grain-tin, of each, 1
_oz._; melt them in an iron ladle, remove it from the fire, and add of
mercury (hot), 3 _oz._; stir the whole well together with an iron rod,
pour it into a well-chalked wooden box, and agitate it violently until
cold; or, instead of this, it may be briskly stirred until cold, and then
powdered. It should be preserved in a corked glass bottle.

2. (La Baumé.) Zinc, 2 _oz._; grain-tin, 1 _oz._; bees’ wax, 1/2 _oz._;
melt, add of mercury, 6 _oz._, and otherwise proceed as before. Preferred
by some to all other mixtures.

3. Zinc, 2 _oz._; mercury, 5 _oz._

_Use._ To cover the cushions of electrical machines. A little of the
powder is poured on a piece of paper, crushed smooth with a flat knife,
and then spread thinly on the surface of the cushion or rubber, previously
slightly smeared with tallow; or the powder may be rubbed down with a
little tallow, prior to the application of it.

=Amalgam, Gild′ing.= _Syn._ AMALGAM OF GOLD.

_Prep._ Take of grain-gold, 1 part; mercury, 8 parts; put them into a
small iron saucepan, or ladle, and apply a gentle heat, using a smooth
piece of iron as a stirrer; when the solution or combination is complete,
pour it out on a clean plate or smooth stone slab.

_Use._ To gild brass, copper, &c., in the common process of wash or
fire-gilding. A less proportion of gold than the above is used when a thin
and cheap gilding is required; as by increasing the quantity of the
mercury the same weight of the precious metal may be extended over a much
larger surface.

=Amalgam, Sil′vering.=——_a._ For METALS. _Syn._ AMALGAM OF SILVER.
_Prep._, _Uses_, &c. As the last, but substituting silver for gold.

_b._ For GLASS. _Prep._ 1. Lead, tin, and bismuth, of each, 1 _oz._; bees’
wax or resin 1/4 _oz._; melt, skim off the dross, cool to the lowest point
at which the mixture will remain liquid, and add of quicksilver 10 _oz._;
mix well with an iron rod.

2. Lead and tin, of each, 1 _oz._; bismuth, 2 _oz._; quicksilver, 4 _oz._;
as the last.

_Uses, &c._ For silvering the insides of hollow glass vessels, globes,
convex mirrors, &c. The glass being thoroughly cleaned and dried, is
carefully warmed, and the amalgam, rendered fluid by a gentle heat, is
poured in, and the vessel turned round and round, so as to bring the metal
into contact with every part which it is desired to cover. At a certain
temperature it will be found to readily adhere to the glass. The excess is
then poured out, and the vessel set aside to cool.

=Amalgams, Tooth.= See DENTISTRY and TOOTH-CEMENTS.

=Amalgam, Var′nisher’s.= _Prep._ Melt grain-tin, 4 _oz._, with bismuth, 1
_oz._; add quicksilver, 1 _oz._, and stir till cold; then grind it very
fine with white-of-egg or with varnish, and apply the mixture to the
figure or surface with a soft brush. It is used in several of the
ornamental trades.

=Amalgamating Salts.= Boil a solution of pernitrate of mercury with excess
of equal parts of powdered persulphate and perchloride of mercury, and
decant the liquid portion of the result for use. Chiefly used for
amalgamating the zinc plates of galvanic batteries, also as a substitute
for mercury in gilding by the amalgam process.

=AMAL′GAMATED.= _Syn._ AMALGAMA′TUS, L.; AMALGAMÉ, Fr. Compounded or
blended with quicksilver; formed into an amalgam.

=AMALGAMA′TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AMALGAMA′TIO, L.; VERQUICKEN, Ger. The
act or process by which an amalgam is formed; hence loosely, the mixing or
blending of different things. In the art of the refiner, the operation of
separating gold and silver from their ores by means of mercury.

=AM′ANDINE= (-dēne). _Prep._ 1. (Transparent.)——_a._ Fine new white or
pale honey, 4 _oz._; white soft-soap (prepared from lard and potassa), 2
_oz._; mix thoroughly in a marble mortar, adding 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls (if
necessary) of solution of potassa, until a perfectly homogeneous paste or
cream is produced; then rub in, by degrees, and very gradually, of oil of
almonds, 7 _lbs._ (or q. s.), previously mixed with essential oil of
almonds, 1 _oz._; essence (oil) of bergamot, 3/4 _oz._; oil of cloves, 1/2
_oz._; and balsam of Peru, 3 _dr._ The product, which should have a rich,
transparent, jelly-like appearance and behaviour, is, lastly, put into
pots for use or sale.

_b._ (G. W. S. Piesse.) Simple syrup, 4 oz.; white soft-soap (see
_above_), 1 oz.; oil of almonds, 7 _lbs._ (previously scented with——);
essential oil of almonds and bergamot, of each 1 _oz._; oil of cloves, 1/2
_oz._; the whole being mixed, &c., as before. Both the above are of very
fine quality. Glycerin, in the proportion of about 1/2 _oz._ to each _lb._
of the products, added with the soap, improves their softening quality.

2. (Opaque.)——_a._ From white potash-soap and gum-mucilage (thick), of
each 3 _oz._; new white honey, 6 _oz._; and the yelks of 5 large eggs;
well mixed together, and afterwards intimately blended first, with oil of
almonds (scented as before, or at will), 2 _lbs._; and afterwards, with
thick pistachio-milk (made of the fresh-peeled nuts and rose-water), 5
_fl. oz._

_b._ From almond-paste, honey, white potash-soap, and glycerin, of each. 1
_oz._; yelk of 1 egg; oil of almonds, 1/2 pint (holding in solution——);
essential oil of almonds, 1 _dr._; balsam of Peru, 1/2 _dr._

_Uses, &c._ To whiten and soften the skin, and to prevent it chapping. A
small portion, about half the size of a filbert, with a few drops of warm
water, produces a very white and rich lather, with which the hands and
face are lightly rubbed, and the skin, in a short time, gently wiped with
a small napkin, whilst the water on it is still milky.

The manufacture of AMANDINE is a matter of some difficulty and labour. The
details essential to success are given under EMULSINES. It is sometimes
coloured, which is done by infusing or dissolving in the oil, before using
it, a little——spinach-leaves, for GREEN; and palm-oil, or annatto, for
YELLOW and ORANGE. A beautiful SCARLET or CRIMSON tinge may be given to it
by a little liquid rouge or carmine (ammoniacal), added just before
removing it from the mortar. See EMULSINES, OLIVINE, PASTE, &c.

=AMANI′TA MUSCA′′RIA.= The fly-agaric or fly-mushroom. See AGARIC.

=AMANITINE.= _Syn._ AMANITINA, L. The name given by Letellier to the
poisonous principle of _amani′ta muscaria_, and some other species of
fungi. It is brown, uncrystallisable, and soluble.

=AMARA.= [L.] In _medicine_ and _pharmacology_, the bitter tonics.

=AMARANTH.= _Syn._ AMARANTH′US, L.; AMARANTE, Fr. The flower
love-lies-bleeding (_amaranthus caudatus_——Linn.). In _poetry_, an
imaginary flower that never fades. (Milton.) In _chromatics_, a colour
inclining to purple.

=AMARYTH′RINE.= A bitter principle found, in certain lichens, associated
with erythrine (which _see_).

=AMASI.= This, the native name given by the natives of Central Africa to
sour milk, which they prepare by adding to the new milk, a small quantity
of milk previously allowed to become sour. The milk thus acidified is
considered by them far more wholesome than new milk.

=AMAUROSIS.= _Syn._ GUTTA SERENA, SUFFUSIO NIGRA. A diminution or total
loss of sight, arising from paralysis of the retina or optic nerve.

=AM′BER.= _Syn._ ELEC′TRON, Gr.; ELEC′TRUM, SUC′CINUM (Ph. D.), L.; AMBRE,
SUCCIN, Fr.; BERNSTEIN, Ger.; LYNX-STONE†, LA′PIS LYN′CIS†, L. A
well-known yellowish, semi-transparent, fossil resin, of which trinkets
and the mouth-pieces of pipes are commonly made.

_Nat. hist., &c._ Amber is found in detached pieces on the sea-coast, and
is dug up in diluvial soils. That of commerce comes chiefly from the
southern coasts of the Baltic, where it is cast ashore between Königsberg
and Memel; and from Ducal Prussia, Saxony, Poland, Sicily, and Maryland
(U.S.), where it is dug out of beds or mines. It has also been found on
the shores of Norfolk, and small pieces are occasionally dug up in the
gravel pits round London. It is probably an antediluvian resin; and when
found on the coast, is supposed to be disengaged, by the action of the
sea, from neighbouring beds of lignite or fossil coal. Much diversity of
opinion for a long time prevailed amongst naturalists and chemists as to
the origin of amber, some referring it to the vegetable, others to the
mineral, and some even to the animal kingdom; its natural history and
analysis affording something in favour of each. The vegetable origin of
amber has, however, been recently shown by various facts, and is now
generally admitted. According to Sir David Brewster, its optical
properties are those of an indurated vegetable juice. (‘Ed. Phil. Journ.,’
ii.) Insects and fragments of vegetables are frequently found imbedded in
it; and this in a manner which could only have occurred when the resin was
a viscid fluid. Microscopical researches have led to the conclusion that
it is the production of some species of pine, closely allied to the pinus
balsamea. (‘Entom. Trans.,’ i & ii.)

_Manuf._ Amber is WORKED in a lathe, POLISHED with whiting and water or
rottenstone-and-oil, and FINISHED OFF by friction with flannel. During the
operation the pieces often become hot and electrical, and fly into
fragments; to avoid which they are kept as cool as possible, and only
worked for a short period at a time. The workmen are said to often suffer
considerably from electrical excitement. Amber is JOINED and MENDED by
smearing the surface of the pieces with linseed or boiled oil, and then
strongly pressing them together, at the same time holding them over a
charcoal fire, or heating them in any other convenient way in which they
will not be exposed to injury. The commoner varieties are HARDENED and
rendered CLEARER, either by boiling them in rape oil for about 24 hours,
or by surrounding the pieces with clean sand in an iron pot, and exposing
them to a gradually increasing heat for 30 or 40 hours. During this
process small fragments are kept in the sand at the side of the pot, for
the purpose of occasional examination, lest the heat be raised too high,
or be too long continued.

_Prop., &c._ Hard; brittle; tasteless; glossy; generally translucent, but
sometimes opaque, and occasionally, though rarely, transparent; colour
generally yellow or orange, but sometimes yellowish-white; becomes
negatively electric by friction; smells agreeably when rubbed or heated;
fracture conchoidal and vitreous or resinous; soluble in the pure
alkalies, and, without decomposition, in oil of vitriol, which then
becomes purple; insoluble in the essential and fixed oils without long
digestion and heat; soluble in chloroform; melts at about 550° Fahr.;
burns with a yellow flame, emitting at the same time a peculiar fragrant
odour, and leaving a light and shiny coal. By dry distillation it yields
inflammable gases, a small quantity of water, a little acetic acid, a
volatile oil (OIL OF AMBER; O′LEUM SUC′CINI, L.) at first pale, afterwards
brown, thick, and empyreumatic, and an acid (SUCCIN′IC ACID; ACIDUM
SUCCIN′ICUM, L.); with residual charcoal 12 to 13%. Sp. gr. 1·065 to 1·09,
but usually about 1·070. It cannot be fused without undergoing more or
less chemical change.

_Ident._ Amber may be known from mellite and copal, both of which articles
are occasionally substituted for it, by the following characteristics:——1.
MELLITE is infusible by heat, and burns white:——2. A piece of COPAL,
heated on the point of a knife, catches fire, and runs into drops, which
flatten as they fall:——3. AMBER burns with spitting and frothing, and when
its liquefied particles drop, they rebound from the plane on which they
fall (M. Haüy):——4. Neither mellite nor copal yields succinic acid by
distillation; nor the agreeable odour of amber when burnt; nor do they
become so readily electric by friction.

_Uses._ It is chiefly made into mouth-pieces for pipes, beads for
necklaces, and other ornaments and trinkets. It is also used as the basis
of several excellent varnishes. In _medicine_, it was formerly given in
chronic coughs, hysteria, &c.——_Dose_ (of the powder), 10 to 60 gr.

_Remarks._ The finer sorts of amber fetch very high prices. A piece 1
_lb._ in weight is said to be worth from 10£ to 15£. 5000 dollars a few
years since were offered in Prussia for a piece weighing 13 _lbs._, and
which, it was stated by the Armenian merchants, would fetch from 30,000 to
40,000 dollars in Constantinople. It is more valued in the East than in
England; and chiefly on account of the Turks and other Orientals believing
it to be incapable of transmitting infection. In the royal cabinet,
Berlin, there is a piece weighing 18 _lbs._, supposed to be the largest
ever found. The coarser kinds alone are employed in medicine, chemistry,
&c.

=Amber, Ac′id of=* (ăs′-). Succinic acid.

=Amber, Bal′sam of.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM SUC′CINI, L. The thick matter left
in the retort after the rectification of oil of amber; and which it
resembles in its properties.

=Amber, Facti′′tious= (-tĭsh′-). _Syn._ SUC′CINUM FACTI′′TIUM, L. Mellite,
copal, and anime, have each been substituted for amber, especially for
small fragments of it. Recently an imitation has been produced by acting
on gutta percha with sulphur, at a high temperature, which, either alone
or in combination with copal, is said to have been extensively passed off
for genuine amber.

=Amber, Liq′uid=†. See LIQUID-AMBAR.

=Amber, Oil of.= See OILS.

=Amber, Re′sin of.= See PYRÉTINE.

=Amber, Salt of.= Succinic Acid.

=Amber, Sol′uble.= _Prep._ Fragments of amber are cautiously heated in an
iron pot, and as soon as it becomes semi-liquid, an equal weight of pale
boiled linseed-oil, previously made hot, is very gradually stirred in, and
the whole thoroughly blended. Used as a cement for glass and earthenware,
and thinned with oil of turpentine to make varnishes. It will keep any
length of time if preserved from the air.

=AMBER-CAM′PHOR.= See PYRÉTINE (Crystalline).

=AM′BER DRINK=†. Amber-coloured malt liquor.

=AM′BER-SEED.= Musk-seed (which _see_).

=AM′BER-TREE.= The popular name of a species of anthospermum, an evergreen
shrub, of which the leaves, when bruised, emit an agreeable odour.

=AM′BERGRIS= (-grĭs; grēse‡). _Syn._ GREY AMBER*; AMBRAGRI′′SEA
(grĭzh′-e-ă), L.; AMBREGRIS, Fr.; AMBRA, AMBAR, Ger. An odorous, solid
substance, found floating on the sea in tropical climates, and in the
cæcum of the cachalot or spermaceti whale (physeter macrocephalus). It has
been supposed by some to be a morbid secretion of the liver or intestines,
analogous to biliary calculi; but according to Mr Beale, it consists of
the mere indurated fæces of the animal, perhaps (as suggested by Brande
and Pereira) somewhat altered by disease. “Some of the semifluid fæces,
dried with the proper precautions, had all the properties of ambergris.”
(Beale.) It is occasionally found in masses weighing from 60 to 225 _lbs._

_Prop., &c._ Solid, opaque, ash-coloured, streaked or variegated, fatty,
inflammable; remarkably light; highly odorous,[40] particularly when
warmed, cut, or handled——the odour being peculiar and not easily described
or imitated, of a very diffusive and penetrating character, and
perceptible in minute quantities; rugged on the surface; does not
effervesce with acids; melts at 140° to 150° Fahr. into a yellowish
resin-like mass; at 212° flies off as a white vapour; very soluble in
alcohol, ether, and the volatile and fixed oils. It appears to be a
non-saponifiable fat, analogous to cholesterine. Sp. gr. 0·780 to
0·926.[41]

[Footnote 40: It has a “pleasant musk-like odour, which is supposed to be
derived from the squid (‘sepia moschata’) on which the animal feeds,” the
“horny beaks” of which “are often found imbedded in the masses.”
(Pereira.) It has a smell resembling that of dried cow-dung.” (Redwood,
‘Gray’s Supplement,’ 1857, p. 606.)]

[Footnote 41: Sp. gr ·780 to ·896——Brande; ·908 to ·920——Pereira.]

_Pur._ From the high price of genuine ambergris it is very frequently, if
not nearly always, adulterated. When quite pure and of the best quality,
it is——1. Nearly wholly soluble in hot alcohol and ether, and yields about
85% of ambreine:——2. It almost wholly volatilises at a moderate heat, and
when burnt leaves no notable quantity of ashes; a little of it exposed in
a silver spoon melts without bubble or scum; and on the heated point of a
knife it is rapidly and entirely dissipated:——3. It is easily punctured
with a heated needle, and on withdrawing it, not only should the odour be
immediately evolved, but the needle should come out clean, without
anything adhering to it (Normandy):——4. The Chinese are said to try its
genuineness by scraping it fine upon the top of boiling tea. “It should
dissolve (melt) and diffuse itself generally.” Black or white is bad. The
smooth and uniform is generally factitious.[42]

[Footnote 42: Ure’s ‘Dict. of A., M. & M.,’ 5th Ed., i, 128.]

_Uses, &c._ It is highly prized for its odour, which is found greatly to
improve and exalt that of other substances; hence its extensive use in
perfumery. In _medicine_ it was formerly given as an aphrodisiac, in doses
of 3 to 10 gr. “A grain or two, when rubbed down with sugar, and added to
a hogshead of claret, is very perceptible in the wine, and gives it a
flavour, by some considered as an improvement.” (Brande.)

=Ambergris Facti′′tious.= An article of this kind, met with in the shops,
is thus made:——Orris-powder, spermaceti, and gum-benzoin, of each, 1
_lb._; asphaltum, 3 or 4 _oz._; ambergris, 6 _oz._; grain-musk, 3 _dr._;
oil of cloves, 1 _dr._; oil of rhodium, 1/2 _dr._; liquor of ammonia, 1
_fl. oz._; beaten to a smooth hard mass with mucilage, and made into lumps
whilst soft. This fraud is readily detected.

=AM′BREINE= (-bre-ĭn). _Syn._ AMBREI′NA, L.; AMBREINE, Fr.; AMBARSTOFF,
Ger. The fatty, odorous principle of ambergris.

_Prep._ Digest ambergris in hot alcohol (sp. gr. 0·827) until the latter
will dissolve no more, then filter. The AMBREINE will be deposited as the
solution cools, in an irregular crystalline mass, which may be purified by
recrystallisation in alcohol.

_Prop., &c._ Melts at about 90°; volatilises at 212° to 220° Fahr.; nitric
acid converts it into AMBREIC ACID. It closely resembles
cholesterine.——_Prod._ 85%.

=AMBRETTE′= (-brĕt′). [Fr.] Musk-seed.

=AMBROSIA, RING’S VEGETABLE= (Tubbs, Peterborg, U.S.). A liquid with a
sediment, containing 1 per cent. of lead. (Chandler.)

=AMEISEN BALSAM.= Von Dr Livingstone (Ahnelt, Charlottenburg). Balsam of
ants. Castor oil, 72 grms.; balsam of Peru, 2 grms.; bergamot, 5 drops.
(Hager.)

=AMERICAN PILLS= (A. H. Boldt, Lexington). For full-blooded, corpulent
persons, and for those of sedentary habits, for irregular menstruation,
and against contagious diseases. Made of scammony, rhubarb, and soap.
(Schädler.)

=AMERICAN MEDICINES, Dr SAMPSON’S= (New York). Two kinds of pills of
coca:——No. 1. 85 pills composed of coca extract and coca powder, and each
pill containing about 0·006 grm. of a morphia salt. No. 2. 50 pills, also
of coca, and each containing 0·05 grm. of powdered iron. Both kinds are
rolled in lycopodium. (Hager.)

=AMERICAN PILLS FOR ASTHMA.= Gilded pills made of gum ammoniacum.

=AMERICAN SCHAMPOO-FLUID FOR PROMOTING THE GROWTH OF THE HAIR.= Spirit of
wine and rum, with some carbonate of ammonia and potash.

=AMERICAN DROPS FOR TOOTHACHE= (Majewsky, Warsaw) have been found of
various composition. Some which profess to have taken a prize at the
Vienna Exhibition were composed of French brandy, containing common salt,
and coloured with cochineal. The first was a spirituous solution of an
ethereal oil with some oil of cloves, coloured rather reddish; No. 2 was a
similar solution with some oil of peppermint and tincture of rhatany; and
No. 3 was merely a diluted solution of No. 2. (Hager.)

=AMERICAN UNIVERSAL BLOOD-PURIFYING HERB TEA= (Dr Kuhr), for women’s
diseases, hysteria, nervous debility, epilepsy, stomachic complaints,
asthma, hæmorrhoids, gout, rheumatism, worms, and much besides. White
horehound, marsh mallow, liquorice wood, and sassafras, of each, 10 parts;
anise, coriander and fennel, of each, 5 parts; red poppy petals, 4 parts;
lavender flowers, 2 parts; senna, peppermint, millefoil flowers, and
valerian root, of each, 1 part. (Kuhr and Selle.)

=AM′ETHYST= (-thĭst). _Syn._ PURPLE ROCK-CRYSTAL; AMÉTHYSTE, Fr.;
AMETHYS′TUS, L. A beautiful sub-species of quartz or rock crystal, of a
violet-blue colour of varying intensity, in great request for cutting into
seals, brooches, and other like articles of ornament. It was known and
prized in the earliest ages of antiquity. Among the ancients, cups and
vases were made out of this mineral; and it was an opinion of the Greeks
and Persians, that an amethyst bound on the navel would counteract the
effects of wine, and that wine drank out of an amethystine vessel would
not intoxicate. See GEMS.

=Amethyst.= In _chromation_, _dyeing_, &c., a rich variety of deep violet
colour. Hence, AMETHYST′INE (ĭn), &c.

=Amethyst, Orient′al.= A rich violet-blue variety of transparent,
crystallised corundum.

=AM′IANTH= (-e-ănth). _Syn._ AMIANTH′US, AMIAN′TUS, L.; AMIANTE, Fr. The
whiter and more delicate varieties of asbestos, particularly those which
possess a satiny lustre.

=AM′IDIN= (-e-dĭn). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AM′YDINE; AMIDI′NA, L. A substance
noticed by Saussure in starch-paste, when long kept. According to
Caventou, it is formed at once by the action of boiling water on starch.
It forms the interior substance of the starch-grains, and its properties
are intermediate between those of starch and gum. It is, indeed, the
soluble part of starch, of which a perfect solution can only be obtained
by prolonged ebullition in a large quantity of water.

=AMID′OGEN.= NH_{2}. Literally, the generator of amides; in _chemistry_,
the name given by Kane to an hypothetical body, composed of two atoms of
hydrogen and one of nitrogen. It forms AMIDES by combining with other
bodies.

=Amidogen Ba′ses.= In _chemistry_, ‘amines’ in which only one equiv. of
hydrogen is replaced by an organic radical; and hence called PRIMARY
MON′AMINES.

=AMMONIA.= NH_{3}. _Syn._ AMMONIA GAS, AMMONIACAL GAS, ANHYDROUS AMMONIA,
TERHYDRIDE OF NITROGEN; AMMONIAQUE, Fr.; AMMONIAK, Ger. At the present day
the ammonia of commerce is chiefly prepared from the ammoniacal liquor of
the gas-works and the manufactories of ivory black, animal charcoal, &c.
Lant or stale urine is also an important source of ammonia. In these
places a large quantity of crude ammoniacal liquor is produced; to which
either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid is added, by which it is converted
into a salt, which may be obtained nearly pure by evaporation, and one or
more crystallisations, and, in the case of the hydrochlorate and
carbonate, subsequent sublimation. Other sources and processes have been
sought out and occasionally adopted for the preparation of the principal
salts of ammonia (its sulphate, carbonate, and hydrochlorate); some of
which have been patented, but few of them have got into general use, or
have been carried out on the large scale. For many years the manufacture
of ammonia and its compounds has incessantly engaged the attention of
European chemists.

Many unsuccessful attempts have been made to directly convert the nitrogen
of the atmosphere into ammonia. Of these we may mention one which
consisted in passing a mixture of nitrogen, carbonic oxide and steam over
red-hot hydrate of lime, whereby ammonia and carbonic acid are formed. A
plan for the indirect application of atmospheric nitrogen in the
preparation of ammonia was suggested by Margueritte, in which it was
proposed that cyanide of barium should be prepared, and its nitrogen
converted into ammonia by the aid of a current of superheated steam at
600° C. According to the description of this process in a patent, not,
however, in practice, native carbonate of baryta is calcined with about
30% of coal-tar, for the purpose of rendering the mass porous as well as
more readily converted into caustic baryta at a lower temperature. The
carbonaceous mass is, after cooling, placed in a retort, and kept at a
temperature of 300° C., while air and aqueous vapour are forced in, the
result being the formation of ammonia in considerable quantity, and
carbonate of baryta, which is again used.

Ammonia is evolved from ball soda while cooling; during the formation of
cyanogen and cyanide of potassium in blast furnaces; and the formation of
sal-ammoniac in the process of iron smelting.

Ammonia, in a state of combination, is found, in variable quantities,
among the saline product of volcanoes, in sea and rain water, in
bituminous coal, in urine, in guano, and in the atmosphere, especially
that of large towns. The minute stellated crystals sometimes found on
dirty windows in London, and other populous cities, consist of sulphate of
ammonia. It is also found in clayey and peaty soils, and in minute
quantity in good air and water. (Brande; Fownes; Letheby.) In the free
state it exists in the juices of some plants, and in the living blood of
animals, and it is freely developed during the decomposition of azotised
vegetable substances, and during the putrefaction of animal matter.

[Illustration]

_Prep._ A mixture of fresh hydrate of lime with an equal weight of sal
ammoniac (both dry and in fine powder) is introduced into a glass flask or
retort, the beak of which communicates with one end of a U-shaped tube
filled with small fragments of recently burnt quick-lime, and from which
extends another glass tube, about 18 inches long, having its further end
bent up ready to be placed under a gas-jar, on the shelf of a mercurial
pneumatic trough. (See _engr._) The joints being all made air-tight by
collars of india rubber, heat is applied by means of a spirit-lamp, and as
soon as the air contained in the apparatus is expelled, the gas is
collected for use. It cannot be dried by means of chloride of calcium.
Powdered quick-lime may be substituted for the hydrate in the above
process; in which case the evolved gas is anhydrous, but a much greater
heat is then required for its liberation.

_Comp._ Ammonia is a compound of 3 volumes of hydrogen, and 1 vol. of
nitrogen, condensed into two volumes; and by weight of 82·35 parts of
nitrogen, 17·65 parts of hydrogen, or, in other words, of one atomic
weight of nitrogen and three of hydrogen, having the formula NH_{3}.

_Prop._ Gaseous, colourless, invisible; highly pungent, acrid, irritating
and alkaline; irrespirable, unless very largely diluted with air;
extinguishes combustion; burns slowly in oxygen; sp. gr. 0·589; 100 cub.
inches weigh 18·26 gr. Under a pressure of 6·5 atmospheres, at 50° Fahr.,
it forms a transparent, colourless liquid of the sp. gr. 0·731; at 60°
Fahr. this liquid expanded into 1009 times its volume of ammoniacal gas;
at -40° Fahr., and the ordinary atmospheric pressure, it forms a subtle
colourless liquid, which at -103° Fahr. freezes into a white, translucent,
crystalline substance. (Faraday.) It is highly basic; all its salts are
either volatilised or decomposed at, or under, a red heat——those with a
volatile acid sublime unchanged——those with a fixed acid lose their
ammonia. It is decomposed into its elements by transmission through a
red-hot tube; and when in contact with metallic oxides or spongy platinum,
at the same temperature, the newly evolved hydrogen unites with the oxygen
of the oxide or of the atmosphere, forming water. Water at 50° Fahr.
absorbs 670 times its volume of this gas, and the solution has the sp. gr.
0·875. Its concentrated aqueous solution boils at 130°, and freezes at
-40° Fahr.

_Tests, &c._ Ammonia is recognised by——1. Its pungent odour:——2. By
turning vegetable blues green, and vegetable yellows brown; but which soon
regain their previous colours, especially on the application of heat:——3.
By producing dense white fumes when brought in contact with those of
hydrochloric acid:——4. By the Nessler test (see WATER, QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF):——5. If a saturated solution of arsenious acid is
mixed with a solution of nitrate of silver (strength 2%) a trace of
ammonia causes the formation of try-argentic arsenite:——6. Böttger says a
very delicate test for ammonia is afforded by an aqueous solution of
carbolic acid. On adding to a liquid containing the smallest quantity of
ammonia, or an ammoniacal salt, a few drops of this solution, and then a
small quantity of a filtered solution of chloride of lime, the liquid
becomes green, especially when warmed.

_Phys. eff., &c._ Inhaled, undiluted with air, it is an irritant poison,
producing spasms of the glottis, convulsions, and death; even when diluted
it acts as a powerful acrid, and local irritant; applied to the skin it
causes vesication. The use of the pungent odour of common ‘smelling
salts,’ in syncope, headache, &c., is well known. Largely diluted with
air, it has been recently highly extolled in chronic hoarseness, asthma,
&c.; and as an antidote to the fumes of bromine, chlorine, and hydrocyanic
acid. (Smee.)

_Ant., &c._ The vapour of acetic acid or common vinegar, freely inhaled.
It may be produced by sprinkling a little on a piece of hot iron, as a
heated shovel. If bronchial inflammation follows, it must be treated by
purgatives and a low diet; and, if severe, and the patient be plethoric or
robust, by venesection or cupping.

_Uses._ Ammonia is employed in numerous processes in _chemistry_ and the
_arts_; but chiefly in the form of ‘liquor of ammonia,’ ‘spirits of
hartshorn,’ &c., and in combination, under the form of salts. In its pure
or gaseous state it possesses little practical interest.

=Ammonia, Solution of.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF AMMONIA, LIQUOR AMMONIÆ,
AMMONIUM HYDRATE, AMMONIA, Eng.; AMMONIAQUE LIQUIDE, DISSOLUTION
D’AMMONIAQUE, ESPRIT DE SAL AMMONIAC, Fr.; ATZENDER AMMONIUM-LIQUOR,
SALMIAK-GEIST, Ger.; LIQUORE DI AMMONIACO, Ital. Ammonia gas readily
dissolves in water, one volume of water absorbing about 670 volumes of
ammonia, much heat being liberated, and the solution increases greatly in
volume.

This solution is regarded in two very different lights; firstly and most
generally as simply a solution of gaseous ammonia, a view rendered most
probable by its general physical and by many chemical reactions; by a few,
however, it is looked upon as a solution of ammonium hydrate.

[Illustration]

Prepared by distilling, in a tubular retort, equal parts of sal ammoniac,
hydrated lime, or slaked lime and water, and passing the gas evolved
through a set of Wolff’s bottles partially filled with water, as in the
figure above.

[Illustration:

  _A_, Cylindrical Iron Retort.
  _B_, Furnace for ditto.
  _C C C C_, Stoneware Receivers.
  _D D D D_, Connecting Pipes.
  _E F_, Waste Pipe and Receiver.
  _G_, Safety Tube. ]

Commercially this article is prepared on the large scale, from a mixture
of about equal parts of fresh-slaked lime and sal-ammoniac or sulphate of
ammonia, which is heated in an iron cylinder or retort connected with a
set of ‘refrigerators,’ the latter consisting of a row of stoneware
bottles with double necks, containing water, and kept very cold. The
general arrangement of the apparatus used in this manufacture is exhibited
above, and with the accompanying references, will be easily understood.
The ‘condensers,’ when in use, are surrounded with cloths (not shown in
the _engr._) kept wet with very cold water, whilst constant current of
cold air is commonly made to pass over them. The pipe (_D_) leading from
the retort is also several feet long, and is advantageously passed through
a wooden screen in order that the radiated heat of the retort and
brickwork of the furnace may be intercepted as much as possible.

Two different methods of proceeding are adopted in this process. In the
one the dry pulverulent ingredients are mixed together, and the resulting
gas distilled over into the water placed in the receivers. In the other
the lime is made into a ‘pap’ with water, and the ammonia-salt, in coarse
powder, being added, the whole is rapidly blended together, before closing
the retort, and applying heat. In either case a proportionate quantity of
water is put into the condensers, and the operation is nearly similar; but
the latter method requires the least heat, and so far as the receivers and
refrigerators are concerned, is, perhaps, the one most easily managed. It
is that which is always, and necessarily followed, when sulphate of
ammonia is employed.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Highly pungent, caustic, and alkaline; lighter than
water, and presenting in a liquid form most of the characteristics of pure
ammonia. When strongest has a sp. gr. of ·875, and contains about 39 per
cent. of ammonia, but the usual strong ammonia of commerce has a sp. gr.
of but ·88. The liquor ammonia fortior, B. P., has a sp. gr. of about
·893, and contains 32·5 per cent. of ammonia, while the liquor ammoniæ B.
P. has a sp. gr. of about ·940, and contains about 10 per cent. of
ammonia. As a medicine it is antacid, diaphoretic, rubefacient, stimulant,
and counter-irritant; and is used in various affections in which these
remedies are indicated. As a vesicant it is superior to cantharides, and
as a caustic it is used with advantage in the bites of rabid animals,
especially those of serpents and insects. Its vapour is a common nasal
stimulant in faintings, epilepsy, &c. In its concentrated form it is a
corrosive poison.——_Dose_, 5 to 25 drops, in cold water, or milk and
water. It enters into the composition of several valuable external
remedies, and is in constant employment in the _chemical laboratory_, both
as a reagent and for the preparation of other compounds.

_Ant., &c._ When the fumes have been inhaled, the patient should be
exposed to a current of fresh air; and when the liquid has been swallowed,
vinegar or lemon-juice mixed with water may be administered; followed by
an emetic, or, on its failure, by the stomach-pump.

_Estim._ The quantity of gaseous ammonia in pure water of ammonia is
easily determined from the specific gravity of the liquid, or from its
saturating power. When impure or mixed with other substances, a given
weight of the sample is placed in a small retort, the end of which is made
to dip into a vessel containing dilute hydrochloric acid. A strong
solution of caustic potassa is then poured into the retort, and heat
applied by means of a small spirit lamp. When _all_ the ammonia is
distilled over, the acid solution is evaporated to dryness, by the heat of
a water bath, and the residuum (chloride of ammonium) weighed. Each grain
of the chloride thus found represents ·31804 gr. of pure ammonia; 53·5
parts of the former being equivalent to 17 of the latter. If the article
for examination be a solid substance (as a salt), it may be dissolved in
water, or in dilute acid, before being put into the retort.

In accurate experiments in the laboratory, ammonia is usually WEIGHED
either as chloride of ammonium (see _above_), or as ammonio-bichloride of
platinum (NH_{4}Cl, PtCl_{2}); every gr. of the latter representing ·07614
gr. of pure ammonia. Sometimes, though rarely, the quantity of ammonia is
determined from the volume of nitrogen eliminated from it, of which 14 gr.
represent 17 gr. of ammonia.

_Concluding remarks, Patents, &c._ Whatever form or process may be adopted
for the preparation of liquid ammonia, it is absolutely necessary to keep
the receivers as cool as possible, by means of snow, ice, or a current of
very cold water, for the purpose of promoting the absorption of the gas,
and to prevent its loss. On the small scale, the glass receivers or
bottles may be most conveniently surrounded with ice, or a freezing
mixture, and two, or more of them, should be furnished with safety-tubes,
to prevent accidents. On the large scale, a capacious oblong retort,
usually of iron (but sometimes, though seldom, of lead), with a large
opening or tubulature conveniently situated for inserting the ‘charges,’
and withdrawing the residuum of the distillation, is employed. The
tubulature, or opening, is closed by means of a large and accurately
ground iron stopper, or with a door secured by screws, as the case might
be. The stopper is well greased before insertion, and is removed by means
of a powerful lever. Should it become so firmly fixed that it cannot be
displaced in the usual manner, a cloth moistened with cold water, and
carefully wrapped round it, without touching the neck of the retort, will
generally cause it to contract sufficiently to enable the operator to
remove it with facility. Sometimes a large iron kettle, with a moveable
and accurately fitting lid secured in its place like that of a ‘Papin’s
digester,’ and having a large and long tubulature in its centre, is
employed instead of a retort, over which it has the advantage of exposing
a larger opening for the removal of the residuum of the process. In either
case the distillatory vessel is imbedded in sand supported by fire-brick,
and is not exposed directly to the heat of the furnace. Before commencing
the distillation the joints are all well luted, to avoid leakage. An
excellent plan is to pass the gas, as it leaves the retort, through a
silver or pewter ‘worm’ or ‘refrigerator’ set in a tub supplied with a
stream of very cold water; by which it will be sufficiently cooled before
it reaches the ‘receivers’ to obviate the necessity of any further
attention to them than keeping the cloths wrapped round them constantly
moistened with cold water. The lower end of the ‘worm’ should be
connected, by means of a balloon-shaped ‘adopter,’ with the ‘still,’ and
the upper end with the first ‘receiver,’ the use of the balloon being to
intercept any volatilised ammonia-salt that might be accidentally driven
over by the heat being too high, or too suddenly raised.

The heat should be gradually applied, and very gradually raised, to
prevent any of the sal ammoniac or sulphate being volatilised
undecomposed; and even towards the end of the process it should not even
approach redness.

The lime is best ‘slaked’ and ‘papped’ with about 4 parts of water; as a
lower heat is then required to expel the gas, and it passes over more
easily and fully than when less water is employed. This is absolutely
necessary when the sulphate is the ammonia-salt used; as otherwise the
residuum of ‘sulphate of lime’ would become so hard that it could not be
easily removed from the retort.

The gas being wholly expelled from the retort, or other distillatory
vessel, it is disconnected from the receivers, and (when sal ammoniac has
been employed) the heat is raised sufficiently high to fuse the residual
chloride of calcium, which is then at once baled or poured out. Glass
retorts often suffer fracture at this point; but if they escape now, it
generally happens that they are broken when heat is applied for a second
operation. Hence, according to Prof. Muspratt, it is rare to find a
retort, even when carefully handled, that will stand two operations.

When crude sulphate of ammonia is employed it is advisable to have only a
little water in the first receiver, which is placed there merely to purify
the gas which passes through it, and to retain any traces of volatile
empyreumatic or oily matter which may be carried over with it.

Pure solution of ammonia is most easily obtained from ‘sal ammoniac,’ but
crystallised sulphate of ammonia, often crude, is more commonly employed,
on account of its lower price.

The preparation of pure solution of ammonia admits of no other
improvements than such as merely affect the form of the apparatus employed
to produce it; and hence, unlike the ammonia-salts of commerce, has been
little meddled with by inventors and patentees. Among the plans having for
their object the production of an ammoniacal solution, more or less
concentrated, fitted for many of the purposes of the arts, and for the
preparation of salts, but not for chemical and medical use, besides those
of Reece, Spence, Crane and Jullien, &c., already noticed, may be
mentioned——

1. That of Watson (Patent dated 1838) in which gas-liquor mixed with a
proper quantity of fresh-slaked lime is distilled from a spacious retort
or still into a receiver containing cold water, until much steam passes
over with the gas, when the strong alkaline liquor forming the distillate,
and called the first portion, is drawn off. The distillation is then
continued, when a weaker and impurer solution is obtained, called the
second portion. The first portion is then reintroduced into a retort or
still with a small quantity of fresh lime, and the distillation repeated.
The product the patentee calls the first portion of the second
distillation. The latter is a strong ammoniacal liquor sufficient for all
the purposes of scouring, cleaning, conversion into commercial
ammonia-salts, &c. It may be further purified by a third distillation; the
second portion of each operation being transferred again to the still with
the next fresh charge of gas-liquor.

2. A modification of Coffey’s still,[43] patented by Mr W. E. Newton
(1841), under the name of the ‘AMMONIA STILL,’ is now extensively and
successfully employed in this manufacture. By its use ammonia may be
obtained from ‘gas-liquor,’ ‘bone-spirit,’ or any other ammoniacal liquor
or solution, and even from solutions of the salts of ammonia, of almost
any density, and of considerable purity; and this by a process which is
continuous and inexpensive. The body of the apparatus is formed of wood,
the chambers are lined with lead, and the diaphragms are of perforated
sheet iron. The management of the apparatus varies with the form in which
it is desired to obtain the product. When the ammonia is required to leave
the upper chamber of the rectifier in the form of gas, either pure or
impure, the steam which ascends, and the current of ‘ammoniacal liquor’
which descends, are regulated in such relative proportions that the latter
remains at or near the atmospheric temperature during its passage through
some of the upper chambers, becoming successively hotter as it descends,
until at length it enters into ebullition; in which state it passes
through the lower chambers, either to make its escape, or to enter a
cistern provided to receive it. If, on the contrary, the ammonia is
required to leave the upper chamber in combination with the vapour of
water, the supply of steam entering below must be in such proportion to
that of the ammoniacal liquor supplied from above, that the latter may be
at or near the boiling temperature in the upper part of the apparatus.
Crude liquor and ammonia-salts, before being thus submitted to
distillation, are, of course, first treated with a proper quantity of
quick-lime——in the one case to remove most of the impurities, and in the
other to set the ammonia free by seizing on its acid.[44]

[Footnote 43: An _engr._ and description of this still, as employed for
spirit, is given under DISTILLATION (which _see_).]

[Footnote 44: For a full description of the “AMMONIA-STILL,” _see_
Newton’s ‘Patent Journ.,’ ‘Pharm Journ.,’ xiii, 64; &c.]

The water or solution contained in the first bottle or the first receiver
is found to be the strongest, provided it has been kept well cooled; and
that in the others, of progressively decreasing strength. By mixing the
contents of one bottle with another a solution of almost any strength may
be made. It is also easy to prepare liquor of ammonia of any required
strength, or to ascertain the strength of that in the receivers, by
observing the expansion of the liquid. Water, when fully saturated with
ammonia, expands from 3 volumes to 5 vols.; and in less, but corresponding
proportion, according to the quantity absorbed. All that is necessary in
practice is, that each receiver be furnished with a gauge-pipe by which
the degree of expansion may be noted. On the small scale, graduated glass
receivers may be used.

3. Mallet’s Apparatus. This, which is employed in many of the large gas
works, is shown in vertical section in the accompanying woodcut. Steam is
forced into large receptacles, which are filled with gas water, by which
means the carbonate of ammonia is volatilised. When lime, as is sometimes
the case, is added, ammonia gas is evolved, and this being conveyed into
weak sulphuric acid, sulphate of ammonia is the result.

[Illustration]

The apparatus consists of two cylindrical boiler-plate vessels, A and B. A
is heated directly by the fire, and has a leaden tube, _c_, which dips
into the liquid contained in B, this vessel being so placed as to catch
the waste heat from the fire. _b_ and _e_ are man-holes; _a_ and _a′_ are
stirrers. By means of the tube _d_ the fluid from B can be run off into A.
Gas-water is poured into both vessels, and lime added; ammonia is
liberated, whilst carbonate of lime and sulphide of calcium are formed,
and these latter remain in the vessels after the volatilisation of the
ammonia. The vessel D is also filled with ammoniacal water, and when the
operation is in action this water, already warmed, is run by the aid of
the tube _h_ from D into B. E is a gas-water tank, from which D is filled
by means of _g_. The ammonia set free in A is, with the steam, conveyed by
the pipe _c_ into B, thence through _c′_ into the wash-vessel C, and
thence again through _c″_ into the first condenser, D. The partially
condensed vapour now passes into the condensing vessel F, the worm of
which is surrounded by cold water. The dilute ammonia is collected in G,
and forced by means of the pump (R) into C, from whence it is occasionally
removed by means of a syphon into either A or B. The non-condensed
ammoniacal gas is carried from G through a series of Wolfe’s bottles, the
first bottle (H) containing olive oil, with the object of retaining any
hydrocarbons that may be present in the gas; the bottle J contains caustic
soda-ley, in order to purify the ammonia and retain impurities; the bottle
K is half filled with distilled water. The ammoniacal gas having passed
through K, is conveyed to the large wooden tank (lined with lead) L,
filled with diluted sulphuric acid, if it is intended to prepare sulphate
of ammonia, or with water, if solution of ammonia be required. The vessel
L is placed in a tank of water; _i_ is a small pipe for introducing acid,
while the tube leading to M serves to carry off any unabsorbed ammonia, M
being likewise filled with acid.

4. By means of Rose’s apparatus, the ammoniacal gas-liquor mixed with one
third of slaked lime is heated in a boiler to a temperature of from 96° to
100°, the ammoniacal gas evolved being passed into hydrochloric acid, and
thence through charcoal into vessels containing from 120 to 150 litres of
water, which is converted into liquid ammonia of a sp. gr. 0·920.

5. In Lunge’s apparatus the gas-water is heated in a boiler, and the
liberated ammoniacal gas passed into sulphuric acid.

Solution of ammonia is now seldom made by the druggist, or on the small
scale, the large manufacturing chemists supplying it at a very low rate,
and of very superior quality. In the shops it is kept of two or three
strengths.

The estimation of the strength of ammonia solutions in commerce is known
as ammonimetry, and depends upon their specific gravities. The per-centage
richness of solutions of ammonia, or of its carbonates, may be most
accurately determined, by ALKALIMETRY. For all the ordinary purposes of
commerce, and of the laboratory, the strength of pure solutions of ammonia
may, however, be inferred, with sufficient correctness, from their
density; and to this the term AMMONIOMETRY is usually restricted.

The specific gravity of the sample being found either by the
hydrometer[45] or specific gravity bottle, in the usual manner, its
per-centage strength may be seen by inspection of the following _Table_
and the _Table_ on p. 127.

[Footnote 45: An hydrometer specially weighted and graduated for this
purpose is called an AMMONIM′ETER, AMMONIOM′ETER, or AMMO′NIA-ME′TER
(AMMONIM′ETRUM, AMMONIOM′ETRUM, &c., L.)]

        TABLE I.——_Showing the per-centage of_ PURE AMMONIA,
        _and of_ AMMONIA-WATER _of_ ·9000, _in Water of
        Ammonia, of the given specific gravities, at_ 60° Fahr.
        By Dr URE.

  ------------+------------+----------------+------------
  Sp. Gr. by  |  Water of  |  Pure          |  Water,
  experiment. |  Ammonia   |  Ammonia, per  |  per cent.
              |  of 900,   |  cent.         |
              |   per cent.|                |
  ------------+------------+----------------+------------
  ·9000       |   100      |    26·500      |  73·500
  ·9045       |    95      |    25·175      |  74·825
  ·9090       |    90      |    23·850      |  76·150
  ·9133       |    85      |    22·525      |  77·475
  ·9177       |    80      |    21·200      |  78·800
  ·9227       |    75      |    19·875      |  80·125
  ·9275       |    70      |    18·550      |  81·450
  ·9320       |    65      |    17·225      |  82·775
  ·9363       |    60      |    15·900      |  84·100
  ·9410       |    55      |    14·575      |  85·425
  ·9455       |    50      |    13·250      |  86·750
  ·9510       |    45      |    11·925      |  88·075
  ·9564       |    40      |    10·600      |  89·400
  ·9614       |    35      |     9·275      |  90·725
  ·9662       |    30      |     7·950      |  92·050
  ·9716       |    25      |     6·625      |  93·375
  ·9768       |    20      |     5·300      |  94·700
  ·9828       |    15      |     3·975      |  96·025
  ·9887       |    10      |     2·650      |  97·350
  ·9945       |     5      |     1·325      |  98·675
  ------------+------------+----------------+------------

⁂ Strengths corresponding to sp. gr. which are not in the above _Tables_
may be found by the ‘method of differences’ explained under ALCOHOLOMETRY.

⁂ The sp. gr. of any sample of liquid ammonia, expressed in three
integers, deducted from ·998, and the remainder divided by 4, gives a
number which represents the per-centage strength, nearly. (Ure.) This rule
may be sometimes conveniently employed for rough calculations, in the
absence of _Tables_.

=Ammonia, Carbonates of.= (B. P.) _Syn._ AMMONIÆ CARBONAS. See AMMONIUM,
SESQUICARBONATE OF.

        TABLE II.——_Exhibiting the relations between the_
        SPECIFIC GRAVITY _of Solution of Ammonia and the_
        PER-CENTAGE STRENGTH, _for every variation of ·00125
        sp. gr., from ·87500 to 1·00000, at_ 62° Fahr. Abridged
        from the larger _Table_ of Mr J. J. GRIFFIN.

  ----------+------------+----------+------------+----------+------------
  Sp. Gr. of|Pure Ammonia|Sp. Gr. of|Pure Ammonia|Sp. Gr. of|Pure Ammonia
  the Liquid| per cent., |the Liquid| per cent.  |the Liquid| per cent.,
   Ammonia. |by Weight.  | Ammonia. |by weight.  | Ammonia. |by weight.
  ----------+------------+----------+------------+----------+------------
   ·87500   |  34·694    | ·91750   |  21·837    | ·96000   |  10·119
   ·87625   |  34·298    | ·91875   |  21·477    | ·96125   |   9·790
   ·87750   |  33·903    | ·92000   |  21·118    | ·96250   |   9·462
   ·87875   |  33·509    | ·92125   |  20·760    | ·96375   |   9·135
   ·88000   |  33·117    | ·92250   |  20·403    | ·96500   |   8·808
   ·88125   |  32·725    | ·92375   |  20·046    | ·96625   |   8·483
   ·88250   |  32·335    | ·92500   |  19·691    | ·96750   |   8·158
   ·88375   |  31·946    | ·92625   |  19·337    | ·96875   |   7·834
   ·88500   |  31·558    | ·92750   |  18·983    | ·97000   |   7·511
   ·88625   |  31·172    | ·92875   |  18·631    | ·97125   |   7·189
   ·88750   |  30·785    | ·93000   |  18·280    | ·97250   |   6·867
   ·88875   |  30·400    | ·93125   |  17·929    | ·97375   |   6·547
   ·89000   |  30·016    | ·93250   |  17·579    | ·97500   |   6·227
   ·89125   |  29·633    | ·93375   |  17·231    | ·97625   |   5·908
   ·89250   |  29·252    | ·93500   |  16·883    | ·97750   |   5·590
   ·89375   |  28·871    | ·93625   |  16·536    | ·97875   |   5·273
   ·89500   |  28·492    | ·93750   |  16·190    | ·98000   |   4·956
   ·89625   |  28·133    | ·93875   |  15·846    | ·98125   |   4·641
   ·89750   |  27·736    | ·94000   |  15·502    | ·98250   |   4·326
   ·89875   |  27·359    | ·94125   |  15·158    | ·98375   |   4·011
   ·90000   |  26·984    | ·94250   |  14·816    | ·98500   |   3·698
   ·90125   |  26·610    | ·94375   |  14·475    | ·98625   |   3·386
   ·90250   |  26·237    | ·94500   |  14·135    | ·98750   |   3·074
   ·90375   |  25·865    | ·94625   |  13·795    | ·98875   |   2·763
   ·90500   |  25·493    | ·94750   |  13·456    | ·99000   |   2·453
   ·90625   |  25·123    | ·94875   |  13·119    | ·99125   |   2·144
   ·90750   |  24·754    | ·95000   |  12·782    | ·99250   |   1·835
   ·90875   |  24·386    | ·95125   |  12·446    | ·99375   |   1·527
   ·91000   |  24·019    | ·95250   |  12·111    | ·99500   |   1·220
   ·91125   |  23·653    | ·95375   |  11·777    | ·99625   |    ·914
   ·91250   |  23·288    | ·95500   |  11·444    | ·99760   |    ·609
   ·91375   |  22·924    | ·95625   |  11·111    | ·99875   |    ·304
   ·91500   |  22·561    | ·95750   |  10·780    |1·00000   | { 0
   ·91625   |  22·198    | ·95875   |  10·449    |          | {or Water.
  ----------+------------+----------+------------+----------+------------

  ⁂ The specific gravity of mixtures of pure solution of
  ammonia and pure water is precisely the mean of the specific
  gravities of their constituents. (Davy; Dalton; Christison.) In
  all solutions of ammonia, a quantity of anhydrous ammonia,
  weighing 212-1/2 gr., displaces exactly 300 gr. of water, and
  reduces the sp. gr. of the liquid to the extent of ·00125.
  (Griffin.) The strongest solution of ammonia which it is
  possible to prepare at 62° Fahr. has the sp. gr. ·87500, and
  contains 34·694% of pure ammonia, by weight, or 21,251 gr. per
  gallon. (Griffin.)[46]

[Footnote 46: Mr Griffin, in his ‘System of Ammonimetry,’ calls every
212-1/2 gr. of anhydrous ammonia a TEST-ATOM; and every 7 water gr.
measure, a SEPTEM. Thus, a gallon of water (= 10 _lbs_) contains 100,000
septems. The degrees of his AMMONIA-METER range from 1 to 100, and
indicate the number of test-atoms of ammonia in one _gal_. of the liquid.]

=AMMONIUM.= The name given to a group of atoms, which play the part of a
compound basic, radical, or metallic element. This substance, whose
formula is NH_{4} or (NH_{4})_{2}, has never been isolated, although
capable of forming most stable salts with the various acid radicals.
Several attempts have been made, however, to obtain this compound radical,
or group of elements, in a free state, and with more or less success, but
on account of its great instability it invariably decomposes when set free
into ammonia and hydrogen.

Ammonium salts are some of the most important chemical agents, and are
usually recognised as follows, ammonia solution, however, usually acting
in exactly the same manner as a solution of ammonium hydrate:——By
imparting a deep blue tint to solutions of salts of copper. By exhalation
of ammoniacal gas (recognised by its odour), when triturated or mixed and
heated with caustic potassa, soda, or lime. Added to a solution of
bichloride of platinum, they produce a heavy yellow, crystalline
precipitate, consisting of minute octahedrons easily discernible under
the microscope. With protonitrate of mercury, a black precipitate. With
bichloride of mercury, a heavy, white precipitate. With a concentrated
solution of tartaric acid, a crystalline, white precipitate, nearly
similar to that given with salts of potassa. They are nearly all soluble
in water, volatile, and crystallisable.

Except the carbonate, they are almost invariably estimated by conversion
into ammonia, and estimation by volumetric analyses, as in alkalimetry. In
the laboratory, however, for exact purposes, they are converted into the
double chloride of ammonium and platinum.

=Ammonium Salts:——=

=Ammonium, Acetate of.= NH_{4}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}. _Syn._ AMMO′′NIÆ ACE′TAS,
L.; ACETATE D’AMMONIAQUE, Fr.; ESSIGSÄURES AMMONIAK, Ger. _Prep._ 1. Take
of acetate of lime or of potassa and sal ammoniac, equal parts; mix and
distil at a gentle heat. The oily liquid (BINACETATE OF AMMONIUM,
HNH_{4}(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}), in the receiver forms a radiated
crystalline mass on cooling. Dry gaseous ammonia passed into this salt,
melted by a gentle heat, transforms it into the solid and inodorous
neutral acetate, NH_{4}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}.

2. Strong acetic acid is saturated with ammonia or carbonate of ammonium,
and the solution evaporated over sulphuric acid in vacuo; the resulting
crystals, after being carefully drained, are dried by pressure between
bibulous paper.

_Prop., &c._ Long, slender crystals, or a crystalline mass, freely soluble
in both alcohol and water, and deliquescent in the air; taste sharp and
cooling, and somewhat sweetish. Its solutions cannot be evaporated without
loss of the ammonia; even the salt passes off in large quantities with the
vapour of water. Its aqueous solution becomes alkaline on keeping, from
decomposition of the acid. Distilled with anhydrous phosphoric acid, it is
converted into ACETONITRILE. An aqueous solution of this salt was
introduced into the Materia Medica by Boerhaave, and has since been
extensively used as a diaphoretic and febrifuge, under the popular name of
MINDERERUS SPIRIT, after Minderer or Mindererus, who extensively employed
it and extolled its virtues. When pure, both the salt and its solutions
are neutral to test-paper, and are wholly volatilised by heat. See
SOLUTIONS.

=Ammonium, Arseniate of.= (NH_{4})_{3}AsO_{4}. _Syn._ AMMONIÆ ARSE′NIAS,
L. _Prep._ 1. (NEUTRAL.) Saturate a warm concentrated solution of arsenic
acid with carbonate of ammonium in slight excess; evaporate by a gentle
heat, that crystals may form on cooling.

2. =Ammonium, Binarseniate of.= H(NH_{4})_{2}AsO_{4}. As above, but adding
an additional equiv. of the acid, as soon as any excess of ammonia has
been expelled by the heat employed to evaporate the solution.——_Dose_ (of
either). 1-24th to 1-12th gr.; in phthisis, certain skin diseases, &c. See
SOLUTIONS (and _below_).

=Ammonium, Arsenite of.= NH_{4}AsO_{2}. _Syn._ AMMONIÆ AR′SENIS, L.
_Prep._ From a hot concentrated solution of arsenious acid, and
sesquicarbonate of ammonium, as the last.——Used (chiefly) to make arsenite
of iron. The properties and physiological effects of the above arsenical
preparations are for the most part similar to those of arseniate and
arsenate of potassa. They are all poisonous.

=Ammonium, Benzoate of.= _Prep._ 1. Dissolve benzoic acid in ammonia
solution to saturation, then further add ammonia in slight excess, and
crystallise by refrigeration, or in vacuo.

2. (LIQUID; SOLU′TIO AMMONIÆ BENZOA′TIS, L.) As the last, but without
evaporating the solution.

_Prop., &c._ Very soluble and very difficult to crystallise. If the
solution is boiled for a short time and then abandoned to spontaneous
evaporation, crystals of ACID BENZOATE OF AMMONIUM are deposited. It is
used chiefly as a chemical test; but has been recently recommended in
chronic bronchitis, old coughs, &c.; and to check the formation of
chalk-stones and urinary calculi.——_Dose_, 10 to 15 gr.; (of the solution)
15 drops to 1 fl. dr., or more. See BENZOIC ACID.

=Ammonium, Bromide of.= NH_{4}Br. _Syn._ AMMO′′NII BROMI′DUM, A. BRO′MIS,
L.; HYDROBROMATE D’AMMONIAQUE, BROMURE D’AMMONIUM, Fr. A salt which is
obtained from hydrobromic acid, bromide of iron, &c., by similar processes
to those adopted for the iodide. The following process for the preparation
of bromide of ammonium is from the formula for the new medicaments adopted
by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society: “Add bromine very slowly to a
solution of ammonia, with continual stirring, until the liquid remains
faintly and persistently coloured by a slight excess of bromine.” It forms
white prismatic crystals; and, in its general properties, resembles
bromide of potassium. It is volatile, and easily decomposed.

Used as a nervine in hysterics; especially useful for sleeplessness where
there is no organic disease; given in epilepsy when bromide of potassium
fails.——_Dose_, 2 to 20 grains.

=Ammonium, Carbonates of=[47]——

[Footnote 47: For complete information respecting the various carbonates
of ammonia consult Dr Divers’ papers in the ‘Journal of the Chemical
Society.’]

=Ammonium, Carbonate of.= _Syn._ NEUTRAL CARBONATE OF AMMONIUM. Equal
parts of dry sal ammoniac and sodium carbonate are heated to form the
neutral ammonium carbonate of commerce, which sublimes. Solid crystalline
substance, with a strong ammoniacal odour, volatile and soluble.

_Uses, &c._ In the solid form it is not now used in medicine; but it is
indirectly employed in several liquid preparations in which the
sesquicarbonate is ordered. It is superior to any other preparation of
ammonia for filling smelling bottles; as it is not only more pungent, but
does not lose its pungency by keeping. It volatilises more quickly than
the sesquicarbonate, and the residuum, unlike that of the latter salt,
continues as odorous as ever. It is the basis of several of the most
popular and esteemed advertised smelling salts of the shops. Spirit of
hartshorn is an impure solution of this salt, originally obtained by
distilling hartshorn or bones.

=Ammonium, Sesquicarbonate of.= Probably 2NH_{4}HCO_{3} +
NH_{4}NH_{2}CO_{3}, _i. e._ a mixture or compound of bicarbonate of
ammonium and carbamate of ammonium. _Syn._ (CARBONATE OF AMMONIA, AMMONIÆ
CARBONAS. B. P.). CARBONATE D’AMMONIAQUE, Fr.; KOHLENSAURES AMMONIAK, Ger.
It is prepared on a very large scale commercially as follows:——Sal
ammoniac or sulphate of ammonia, and chalk, equal parts, both dry and in
powder, are mixed as before, and sublimed from a series of iron retorts or
iron pots, into a well-cooled and capacious receiver lined with lead or
earthenware; or, more generally, into such a receiver connected, by iron
or lead pipes, with a second and similar one containing a stratum of
water, to absorb the free ammonia evolved during the process.

The so-called “Volcanic Ammonia” is evolved during the manufacture of
borax, from carbonate of soda and boracic acid. It is largely used in
pharmacy.

_Prop._ The carbonate of ammonia, of commerce, usually occurs in the form
of white, fibrous, translucent, or semi-translucent cakes, generally about
two inches thick. It is less volatile and pungent than the neutral
carbonate; soluble in 4 parts of water at 55° Fahr., 3·3 parts at 62°, 2·5
parts at 96°, and 2 parts at 120°; boiling water and alcohol decompose it,
with the evolution of carbonic acid gas and ammonia; by age or exposure to
air, the surface assumes an opaque white colour, from its carbonate flying
off, and the remaining bicarbonate being less volatile. Unlike the
carbonate, it can neither be resublimed nor digested or distilled with
either alcohol or water, without suffering decomposition. Sp. gr. 0·966.

The exact composition of this salt varies, according to its method of
preparation.

_Uses, &c._ It is commonly employed by bakers to give lightness to their
fancy goods, and to make extemporaneous bread and pastry; by the chemist
and pharmaceutist, for the preparation of other salts of ammonia, and in
analysis, &c. In _medicine_ it is used as a stimulant, antispasmodic,
antacid, and diaphoretic, in acidity of the stomach, dyspeptic affections,
gout, scrofula, hysteria, lowness of spirits, epilepsy, &c.; and in the
convulsions attending dentition. It has been recently recommended, by Dr
Barlow, in diabetes. It is also employed to make effervescing draughts;
and externally as a counter-irritant and stimulant. Its use as a nasal
stimulant in headaches, fainting, &c., is well known. In large doses it is
emetic; in excessive doses poisonous. Its long-continued use, in quantity,
is often productive of very serious consequences——slow fever, debility,
emaciation, scurvy, loss of teeth, hæmorrhage, general cachexy, and even
death. The antidote and restorative treatment are, the free use of
lemon-juice, wine or malt-liquors, new milk, and antiscorbutic vegetables,
with a generous diet, of which the red meats form a large
proportion.——_Dose._ As a stimulant or diaphoretic, 5 to 15 gr., dissolved
in cold water; as an emetic, 20 to 30 gr., in tepid water, repeated if
necessary; as an effervescing saline draught, 15 to 30 gr. A few grains (8
or 10) dissolved in a tumbler of cold water is an excellent ‘refresher’ in
lowness of spirits, or after fatigue; and is highly esteemed by drunkards;
being, in each case, preferable to ‘spirit of sal volatile,’——_Doses for
Animals._ HORSE: 1 to 2 drachms. CATTLE: 2 to 4 drachms. SHEEP: 20 grains
to 1 drachm. PIG: 20 grains to 1 drachm. DOG: 3 to 10 grains; in bolus,
pill, or cold gruel.

_Concluding remarks, Patents, &c._ In extension of the above it may be
added that, on the large scale, the distillation is usually carried on in
cast-iron retorts, similar in size, shape, and character to those employed
in the manufacture of coal-gas, and of which five, or more, are commonly
set horizontally in the same furnace. (See _engr._) Each retort has its
mouth (_a_), through which the ‘charge’ is introduced, closed with a
movable door, which is securely fastened in its place, in the manner shown
in the engr.; and is furnished, at the upper part of its further end, with
an iron pipe (_c_), to carry off the evolved vapours to the condenser or
receiver. The latter consists of two large square wooden chambers (_B,
C_), lined with lead, and either fitted with movable covers, secured by
water-joints, or with doors in the side, to permit of the easy removal of
the sublimed salt. The first receiver communicates with the second by
means of a large lead tube (_d_) near its centre, and by another tube
(_d′_), somewhat smaller, and nearer the bottom, but above the surface of
the stratum of water in the second receiver, before alluded to. These
chambers have also a lead pipe (_e, e_), stopped during the process with a
plug or cock of lead, to allow of the liquid product of the distillation,
&c., to be drawn off, or run into another receiver or cistern, at will.
Both chambers are placed on strong wooden supports, or scaffolding, to
bring them on a level with the retorts. When the impure sulphate or other
ammonia-salt is used in the manufacture of the sesquicarbonate (which is
generally the case), the resulting salt being impure and discoloured, is
resublimed in iron pots (_f, f, f_), furnished with movable leaden heads,
which are kept cool by a current of air passing over them; a little water
being introduced into the subliming pots to render the product
translucent. The heat is applied either by means of a flue passing from
the retort-furnace (_A, b_), or by a water bath heated in the same manner;
the latter being the preferable method, as the temperature should not be
greater than about 200° Fahr., and need not exceed 150° to 155°. These
pots are arranged in sets, as shown at _D_ in the engraving.

[Illustration]

The charge of a retort usually consists of about 70 to 72 _lbs._ of
sulphate of ammonia or 57 to 58 _lbs._ of the hydrochlorate to 1 _cwt._ of
chalk; or in these proportions. The product is about 40 _lbs._ of the
crude salt, which, by careful resublimation, yields about 39 _lbs._ of
marketable carbonate of ammonia.

Carbonate of ammonia, like the chloride and sulphate, is now scarcely ever
prepared on the small scale, that of commerce being not only cheaper, but
sufficiently pure for all the purposes of medicine and the arts.

=Ammonium, Bicarbonate of.= HNH_{4}CO_{3}. _Prep._ By digesting cold water
on sesquicarbonate of ammonia in considerable excess, until the whole of
the pungent neutral carbonate is dissolved out. If the salt is reduced to
powder the operation is facilitated.

To powdered sesquicarbonate of ammonia add boiling water just sufficient
to dissolve it, and immediately close the vessel; crystals form as the
liquid cools, containing 2-1/2 equiv. of water.

_Prop., &c._ For the most part similar to the sesquicarbonate, except in
having a taste and smell which is only faintly ammoniacal, and hence more
palatable. Crystallises in oblique prisms, which, as usually obtained,
contain about 23% of water. It requires 8 parts of cold water to dissolve
it. It is distinguished from the previous carbonates by the almost entire
absence of ammoniacal odour, and by its solution giving no immediate
precipitate with chloride of barium, but by standing, or on the addition
of a little liquor of ammonia, a white earthy precipitate, accompanied
with the evolution of carbonic acid gas. A saturated solution of this
salt, evaporated by a very gentle heat, or refrigerated, gives small
prismatic crystals having neither smell nor taste.

_Uses, &c._ Similar to those of the other carbonates.——_Dose_, 6 or 7 to
20 or 25 gr.

=Ammonium, Chloride of.= NH_{4}Cl. _Syn._ MURIATE OF AMMONIA, SAL
AMMONIAC, HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA; CHLOROHYDRATE D’AMMONIAQUE, SEL
AMMONIAC, &c., Fr.; SALMIAK, Ger. A substance which, as already noticed,
appears to have been originally obtained, by sublimation, from the soot of
camels’ dung, in Egypt. In this country, at the present day, it is
manufactured chiefly from the crude ammoniacal liquors obtained as
secondary products in the manufacture of coal-gas and animal charcoal.

_Prep._ 1. From GAS-LIQUOR:——The crude ammoniacal liquor of the gas-works
is, either at once, or after distillation,[48] neutralised with
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, the choice being given to the one which is
the cheaper and more accessible at the place where the works are situated.
When hydrochloric acid is employed, the SATURATION is usually effected by
allowing the acid to flow from a large wooden vessel or tank lined with
lead or gutta percha into a large underground reservoir or tank containing
the ammoniacal liquor, and having an exit-tube passing into the chimney or
shaft of the steam-engine, to carry off the sulphuretted hydrogen and
other offensive gases liberated during the mixture. Sometimes the
gas-liquor is accumulated in enormous covered wooden tuns, capable of
holding from 10,000 to 20,000 gallons, or more; and the acid is added by
raising the gutta-percha carboys containing it by means of cranes, and
then thoroughly mixing it with the liquor by means of powerful
‘agitators,’ whilst the offensive fumes are either passed off as before,
or made to traverse the fire of the steam-engine before entering the
chimney-shaft. The quantity of acid employed to effect saturation must, of
course, depend on the ammoniacal strength of the gas-liquor operated on.
The usual proportions are 1-1/2 to 2 _lbs._ of the former, to each gal. of
the latter; but in all cases sufficient should be added to impart a very
faint acid reaction to the mixture. This last having been effected, the
saline solution, now containing hydrochlorate of ammonia, is, after
repose, ready to be pumped or run off into the evaporators.

[Footnote 48: This is now generally conducted in a large wrought-iron
boiler, connected with a rude modification of Coffey’s still; the object
being to obtain the liquor freer from tar and more concentrated.]

The EVAPORATION of the crude saline solution is usually carried on in
large square or rectangular cast-iron vats, of very moderate depth, and
capable of holding from 1000 to 1500 gallons, or more. These are encased
in brickwork, and are heated by a furnace, of which the flues pass in a
sinuous course beneath the lining of brickwork on which the vats or pans
rest. During the concentration of the liquid, the tar, &c., which
separates and floats on the surface, and which thus seriously impedes
evaporation, is, from time to time, removed by skimming. As soon as the
sp. gr. reaches 1·25, any excess of acid in the solution is exactly
neutralised with a little fresh ammoniacal liquor; by which any waste of
acid is prevented, at the same time that any ferric salt present, and
which would contaminate the ultimate product, is precipitated as
sesquioxide. After settling for a short time, the hot liquor is ready to
be transferred to the crystallisers.

The vessels employed in the CRYSTALLISATION are pans or tubs, usually
circular and about 7 or 8 feet wide, by 2-1/2 to 3 feet deep; and are
generally set on the ground, or are embedded either partially or wholly in
it. The saline liquor being pumped or run into them at a little below the
boiling temperature, crystallises as it cools; the only interference being
occasional stirring or agitation, to prevent the formation of large
crystals, which would be inconvenient in the subsequent part of the
process. The time occupied in the crystallisation varies, according to the
size of the ‘crystallisers,’ and the weather, from 3 or 4 to 8 or even 10
days. The ‘mother-liquor’ of the ‘crystallisers’ is pumped back into the
evaporating pans for further concentration. The crude blackish salt
(hydrochlorate) thus obtained is contaminated with tarry and oleaginous
matter, free acid, water, &c.; from part of which it is freed by exposing
it in a layer about 4 inches deep, on a cast-iron plate gently heated by a
zigzag flue of a small furnace, until all the water is expelled; care
being taken that the heat never rises high enough to volatilise the salt.
This operation is generally performed under a dome, or the expanded throat
of a large chimney. The salt will now have become of a greyish-white
colour, and is ready for the next operation.

[Illustration]

The crude dried salt of the last process is finally purified by
sublimation. For this purpose cast-iron-pots lined with clay, and heated
from below and by flues round their sides, are employed. (See _engr._) The
crude grey salt is beaten down into these pots until they are about 2-3rds
filled, when the heads or capitols are fitted on, and heat applied. The
latter are very heavy, being usually made of lead (sometimes of iron), and
have the form of a dome, or a hemispherical cup, with a small tube or hole
at the apex, in which a plug is loosely placed, to permit the escape of
steam. These domes or heads are so made as to fit closely and firmly on
the flat rim or flange of the ‘sublimers,’ and are retained in their
places, during use, both by their weight, and by 2 or 3 clamps provided
for the purpose. They are also furnished with 3 rings, set at equal
distances, to allow of their being lifted off, or moved, by means of a
pulley and chains. The due application and regulation of the heat is here
of the utmost importance. If the temperature employed be too high, the
sublimed salt will be contaminated with empyreumatic matter, while some of
it will be carried beyond the dome and lost; and if it be extreme, the
head may be altogether blown off, and the contents of the pan scattered
about the building; whilst on the other hand, if the heat employed be too
low, the resulting cake of sal ammonia will be soft, spongy, and either
grey or yellowish. The proper temperature is said to be known by two or
three drops of water readily boiling, and being dissipated in vapour, when
placed on the head or cover of the sublimer; but it should not ‘spit’ or
‘dance about,’ or be raised by the heat out of contact with the metal. The
usual practice is to keep the fires “briskly up until the sublimers and
their surroundings attain a sufficient degree of heat; they are then
slackened, and maintained at a mean temperature.” (Muspratt.) The
sublimation occupies from 5 to 9 days; but it is customary to raise the
heads once, or even twice a week, to ascertain the progress made; the
fires having been purposely neglected or checked for some hours
previously. The process is finally stopped before the whole of the crude
salt in the pots is volatilised; since the heat required for that purpose
would lead to the decomposition of the carbonaceous impurities, and cause
them to emit volatile hydrocarbons, which would materially lessen the
purity and beauty of the product. The unsublimed portion in the pots forms
a conical mass, which is technically called the ‘yolk.’ This is shown in
the second engr. (see _below_), in which the latest improvements in the
form of the subliming apparatus are also exhibited.

[Illustration]

The sublimation having been carried to a sufficient extent, the fires are
allowed to die out. The domes, after cooling, are lifted off, and the
attached hemispherical cakes or ‘bells’ of SAL AMMONIAC or HYDROCHLORATE
OF AMMONIA at once removed. These vary from 2 to 5 inches in thickness,
and from 45 or 50 _lbs._ to 1000 _lbs._, and upwards, in weight, according
to the size of the sublimers in which they have been produced. They are
generally nearly pure, except in the outer part which has been in contact
with the metal. From the subliming-house they are taken to the store or
packing-house, and after having been scraped, to remove the discoloured
portion before alluded to, are either preserved entire, or are broken up
into convenient pieces, which are then packed in casks or barrels, and in
either state are ready for the market.

When sulphuric acid[49] is used to neutralise the ammoniacal liquor, the
process is generally, for the most part, the same as when hydrochloric
acid is employed; but here the brown salt obtained by the crystallisation,
and subsequent desiccation, is crude SULPHATE OF AMMONIA, instead of the
hydrochlorate. It is intimately mixed with about an equal weight of
chloride of sodium (common salt) before being put into the sublimers.

[Footnote 49: Sp. gr. 1·33 to 1·38.]

In some cases, particularly where the ammoniacal liquor is rich in
carbonate of ammonia, gypsum is employed as a source of sulphuric acid.
(See _below_.)

Another method is to convert the solution of the crude sulphate into a
solution of the hydrochlorate, during the process, by the addition of
chloride of sodium. Both these last methods are described below.

2. From BONE-LIQUOR, &c.[50]——The ammoniacal liquor technically called
‘bone-liquor’ or ‘bone-spirit,’ and formerly known under the name of
‘spirit of hartshorn,’ is essentially a solution of carbonate of ammonia
more or less contaminated with volatile empyreumatic oil. Its conversion
into SAL AMMONIA may be easily effected by saturating it with hydrochloric
acid, evaporating the resulting neutral solution in lead or iron boilers
until a pellicle begins to form, then pumping or running off the hot
liquors into the crystallisers, and, lastly, draining and drying the
crystals. The salt thus obtained may be purified either by sublimation or
by recrystallisation. The whole series of processes closely resemble those
already described, except in being less troublesome, owing to the absence
of the tarry and other foreign matters which impede and complicate them
when gas-liquor is employed.

[Footnote 50: That employed in England is chiefly obtained, as already
mentioned, from the manufacturers of bone-black or animal charcoal; but,
on the Continent, the liquor obtained by a like destructive distillation
of various animal offals (blood, flesh, horn, hoofs, woollen rags and
waste, hair, scrapings of hides, leather cuttings, &c.) is employed for
the same purpose. The preparatory process by which this liquor is obtained
is essentially the same in each case; except that with animal offal the
temperature should not exceed a red-brown heat, in order that the
resulting charcoal may afterwards serve to make ferrocyanide of potassium
and Prussian blue. These liquors have usually a density ranging between 8°
and 9° Baumé (Ure; = sp. gr. 1·056 to 1·063).]

Another method adopted, particularly on the Continent, and one equally
applicable to any crude ammoniacal liquor rich in free ammonia or its
carbonates, is to employ sulphate of lime instead of sulphuric acid to
neutralise the alkali. For this purpose the ammoniacal liquor is passed
through a series of three or four covered wooden filters lined with lead,
each containing a layer of crushed gypsum to the depth of 3 or 4 inches.
These filters are usually set on ‘stages’ one above another, and each
communicates with a cistern placed beneath it by means of a leaden pipe
furnished with a stop-cock. This last is not opened untill the liquor has
remained some little time in the filter; and a pump throws back once, or
oftener, upon each filter, what has already passed through it, before it
is allowed to run into the next lower one. The ‘liquor’ in each filter is
not allowed to stand higher than from 2 to 3 inches above the surface of
the gypsum; and the lowest or last filter is supplied with fresh gypsum at
each separate charge of fresh liquor. A little water is lastly passed
through the filters to wash out the portion of ammoniacal liquor absorbed
or retained by the filtering media. In this way the gypsum of the filters
is converted into carbonate of lime at the expense of the carbonate of
ammonia in the solution; whilst the ammonia of the latter decomposes the
gypsum, and becomes converted into sulphate of ammonia, which, with some
free ammonia, is found in the filtrate. Sulphuric acid is next added to
the filtered liquor to completely neutralise the free and carbonated
alkali still existing in it; after which it is evaporated in a leaden
boiler, with frequent skimming to remove floating oil, until of the sp.
gr. 1·160. Chloride of sodium (common salt), in sufficient quantity to
convert all the sulphate of ammonia in the liquid into hydrochlorate, by
double decomposition, is now added, with constant stirring; after which
the clear portion is either pumped or syphoned off into a somewhat deep
reservoir or tank, where it is allowed to settle. The liquid after
sufficient repose is pumped from the reservoir to the boilers, and
evaporated, with frequent agitation, so long as the sulphate of soda now
existing in it falls to the bottom in granular crystals. These crystals
are, at intervals, scraped to the cooler portion of the pan or boiler,
whence they are removed by copper rakes and shovels, into
draining-hoppers, placed near the edges of the pan. The liquor in the
boiler is now a strong solution of sal ammoniac, but still containing a
little sulphate of soda, from which it has to be freed by crystallisation.
With this object it is further concentrated, and then run or pumped into
the crystallisers. In 30 or 40 hours, or longer, the mother-liquor is run
or pumped off. The mass of newly-formed crystals is then drained, and
slightly washed, first with a little weak solution of sal ammoniac, and
next with a very little cold water; after which they are again well
drained. The crude HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA, thus obtained, is converted
into the pure salts, by desiccation and sublimation, as before.

In France, where this method is very generally employed, the sublimation
is commonly conducted in stoneware or earthenware balloons or bottles
coated with loam, of about 18 to 20 inches in height in the body, and
either surmounted with inverted ‘cups’ or ‘heads’ 10 or 12 inches high, or
simply covered with a tile, when (in the latter case) the sublimate
collects in the upper part or neck of the balloon, which is above the
action of the fire. A number of these vessels are set on the dome of a
furnace, which is perforated with holes or slits, to allow the heat to
pass through; whilst their necks or heads are sheltered from the action of
the fire by plates of iron or earthenware, having semi-circular
indentations on their edges, so that when placed together they form a
level surface, through which the necks of the sublimers protrude, and fit
closely. The fire is nicely regulated, so as to cause the salts to
condense in the upper and cooler part of the vessels, or in the heads, as
the case may be; and great care is taken to occasionally clear the necks
with a skewer, to prevent choking, and consequent bursting.

In Scotland, where a similar process is also commonly pursued, the
sublimers, according to Dr Ure, are generally “cast-iron pots, lined with
fire-proof tiles; the condensation being effected in globular heads of
green glass, with which each of the iron pots are capped.”[51]

[Footnote 51: Ure’s ‘Dict. of Arts, M., & M.,’ 5th Edn., i, p. 143.]

_Ratio._ Gas-liquor contains carbonate of ammonium (chiefly), with
chloride, sulphate, hydrosulphate, cyanide, sulphocyanide, &c., of the
same radical. On neutralisation with hydrochloric acid, or sulphuric acid,
these are converted into chloride or sulphate of ammonium, according to
the acid used. By sublimation with chloride of sodium, the sulphate of
ammonium is converted, by double decomposition, into chloride of ammonium,
which sublimes; and sulphate of sodium, which remains in the subliming
pot. A similar change occurs when the solution of the sulphate, prior to
crystallisation, is decomposed by the addition of chloride of sodium, or
any other chloride. When the ‘gas-liquor’ is at once converted into
chloride of ammonium by the addition of hydrochloric acid, the sublimation
merely purifies the salt. Like changes occur when bone-spirit is employed.

_Comp._ Chemically considered, this salt consists of equal VOLUMES of
gaseous ammonia and hydrochloric acid gas condensed into the solid form;
or, by WEIGHT, according to the ammonia-theory, of——

                                        Atoms.  Equiv. wt.  Per cent.
  Ammonia (NH_{3})                        1        17·        31·78
  Hydrochloric acid (HCl)                 1        36·5       68·22
                                         ---      -----      ------
  Hydrochlorate of Ammonia (NH_{3}HCl)    1        53·5      100·

Or, according to the ‘ammonium-theory,’ of——

                                  Atoms.      Equiv. wt.   Per cent.
  Ammonium (NH_{4})                 1            18·         33·65
  Chloride (Cl)                     1            35·5        66·35
                                   ---          -----       ------
  Chloride of Ammonium (NH_{4}Cl)   1            53·5       100·

_Prop. &c._ The sal ammoniac of commerce is found under the form of large
white hemispherical, cup-like cakes or masses (or in large fragments which
are sections of them), possessing a tough, fibrous, semi-crystalline
texture, and very difficult to powder. It is odourless, has a saline taste
somewhat sharp or acrid, and sublimes without either fusion or
decomposition. It slightly reddens litmus; dissolves in rather less than 3
parts of cold water, and in about 1 part of boiling water; is soluble in
alcohol; and when crystallised from water, under favorable circumstances,
forms distinct octahedra, or cubes, usually small and aggregated together
in rays or feathery masses. By slowly evaporating its aqueous solution, it
may be sometimes obtained in cakes an inch in thickness. It is anhydrous.
Sp. gr. 1·450.

_Pur._ It should give a colourless solution with water; wholly sublime
with heat; and neither chloride of barium, nor sulphuretted hydrogen,
should affect its solution. A solution, to which a few drops of nitric
acid have been added, should not yield a blue precipitate with
ferrocyanide of potassium. It often contains sesquichloride of iron, and
sometimes lead; both of which may be readily detected by the above tests.
Its complete volatility may be easily determined by heating, in the flame
of a candle, a small fragment held on the point of a knife.

_Tests._——1. It is known to be a salt of ammonium by its cooling
ammoniacal fumes when triturated with lime, or when moistened with caustic
potassa or soda:——2. It is shown to be a chloride by its solution
yielding, with nitrate of silver, a white curdy precipitate, insoluble in
boiling nitric acid, soluble in ammonia.

_Uses, &c._ In the _arts_, chiefly in the coating and soldering of metals,
and the preparation of alloys; in dyeing; and in the manufacture of
ammonia-alum; also, in large quantities, to give a factitious pungency to
snuff. In _chemistry_, as a reagent; and, owing to the cold produced
during its solution, to form frigorific mixtures. In _medicine_ it is
chiefly used externally, as a stimulant and resolvent or discutient; and
occasionally, internally, as a diuretic, stimulant, resolvent, alterative,
tonic, &c., particularly in chronic inflammations of the mucous and serous
membranes, in chronic glandular and visceral enlargements and indurations,
and in amenorrhœa. In rather large doses, frequently repeated, it is said
to prove often highly beneficial in chronic enlargement and induration of
the prostate gland (M. René Vanoye); and also in other like
cases.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr., 3 or 4 times daily, either in powder or
solution, mixed with some demulcent; as a discutient or resolvent lotion,
1 to 1-1/2 oz., to 1/2 pint of water, either with or without 4 or 5 fl.
oz. of spirits or strong vinegar (often serviceable in chilblains); as a
weak lotion, or a collyrium or injection, 1 to 4 dr., to water, 1 pint. In
very large doses it is poisonous; the treatment is emetics and
mucilaginous or demulcent drinks.

_Concluding remarks, Patents, &c._ The methods already described are those
by which commercial hydrochlorate of ammonia is usually if not almost
entirely obtained; the various improvements or modifications, from time to
time introduced, affecting chiefly the minor details, and the form or size
of the apparatus and machinery employed, and not the general principles on
which the processes are based. One of the most important of these has for
its object the entire removal of the iron present in the crude salt, some
of which, if it be not removed before sublimation, is volatilised and
contaminates the ultimate product. To obviate this evil, Mr Brewer passes
a few bubbles of chlorine through the hot concentrated solution of the
salt, previous to its crystallisation; by which the protochloride of iron
is converted into the perchloride, which, being acted on by the ammonia
always present in the liquor, is precipitated as ferric hydrate, with the
formation of a small additional quantity of sal ammoniac. The only
precaution necessary is to avoid employing more chlorine gas than is
necessary to peroxidise the iron; as beyond this a portion of the
ammonia-salt itself is decomposed, with the evolution of nitrogen. The
temperature of the liquor is kept up, after the action of the chlorine,
until the whole of the brown flocculent oxide of iron has subsided, when
it is at once decanted or filtered into the crystallisers.

Another modification which has been adopted in two or three places is to
effect neutralisation of the crude ammoniacal liquor by distilling it, and
passing the fumes in at the lower end of a hollow shaft or column filled
with coke, down which the acid trickles; the resulting solution of
sulphate or chloride of ammonium being received in proper cisterns,
conveniently situated near the base of the column.

In Mr Spence’s method of obtaining ammonia-salts from gas-liquor or
bone-spirit, a series of (usually four) cylindrical boilers, or
reservoirs, so placed that the contents of each upper one may be drawn off
into the one next below it are employed. Each boiler has an exit-pipe
which carries the vapour generated in it to that next above it, whilst
that of the highest boiler passes off to a trunk containing the acid
necessary to form the salt. The top boiler is connected with the reservoir
of gas-liquor (which is already mixed with milk of lime) by a charging
pipe furnished with a stop-cock turned by a floating ball, so as to keep
the surface of the liquor constantly at the same height. High-pressure
steam enters the lower boiler, by which its ammonia is driven through the
connecting pipe into the next boiler, and so on in succession, until it
leaves the highest boiler in a concentrated state, and thus enters the
acid-tank. When this last contains moderately strong hydrochloric or
sulphuric acid, the resulting solution of CHLORIDE or SULPHATE OF AMMONIUM
(as the case may be) is sufficiently concentrated to be at once run off
into the crystallisers. As soon as the liquor in the lowest boiler is
exhausted of its ammonia, its contents are drawn off, and replaced by that
of the next boiler, which is followed by a like descent throughout the
whole series.

Among improvements having for their object the substitution of cheap
chlorides[52] for the more expensive commercial acids, may be mentioned
those of——

[Footnote 52: Particularly such chlorides as are the ‘waste or bye
products’ of other manufactures.]

1. Mr Laming (Patent dated 1843), who employs a strong solution of
CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM for converting the ammonia of gas-liquor into the
hydrochlorate.

2. Mr Hills (Patent dated 1846) employs CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM[53] in the
same way; and by a subsequent patent proposes to convert the ammonia
eliminated in the distillation of coal into the hydrochlorate, by mixing
CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM with the coal in the retorts, or by introducing the
chloride into a retort appropriated for the purpose. The heat dispels the
chlorine of the chloride, in the form of hydrochloric acid, and this,
uniting with the ammoniacal vapour, forms hydrochlorate of ammonia, which
is retained in the liquor of the condenser. From this liquor the salt is
obtained by evaporation, &c., in the usual way.

[Footnote 53: Of the Epsom-salt works, &c.]

3. Mr Croll (Patent dated 1849) converts the crude ammoniacal vapours that
issue with the gas from the common retorts into the hydrochlorate, and
obtains a solution of it by passing the gas through a solution of crude
CHLORIDE OF MANGANESE[54] (1 cwt. of the salt to about 40 galls. of
water), contained in one of the ordinary vessels used for purifying
coal-gas. The manganic solution absorbs the ammonia and its salts,
converting them into the hydrochlorate, whilst a corresponding proportion
of oxide of manganese is precipitated. As soon as the liquor in the
purifier is fully saturated, it is drawn off, and replaced by a fresh
quantity; whilst the saturated liquor containing the hydrochlorate, after
subsidence, or filtration, is evaporated, &c., as before. Crude CHLORIDE
OF IRON may be substituted for the chloride of manganese, in the above
process: as may also SULPHATE OF MANGANESE, but then the product, of
course, will be sulphate of ammonia, instead of the hydrochlorate.

[Footnote 54: Obtained from the chloride-of-lime works. The portion of the
precipitated oxide of manganese saved from the process may be reconverted
into the chloride, by mixing 3 parts of it with 4 parts of common salt,
and heating the mixture to low redness, scarcely perceptible in the dark,
for 2 to 3 hours. 140 _lbs._ of the calcined mass, with 40 galls. of
water, forms a solution that may be again pumped into the purifier.]

4. Mr Laming (Patent dated 1850) also proposes the use of various salts
and mixtures for retaining and condensing the ammoniacal vapour of
coal-gas as it passes from the retorts through the purifiers. Of these the
principal are CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM obtained by decomposing chloride of iron
by hydrate of lime; CHLORIDE OF IRON, obtained by decomposing sulphate of
iron with chloride of sodium; CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM; a mixture of SULPHATE
OF LIME and SULPHATE OF IRON; or of moist precipitated oxide of iron with
carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, or magnesian limestone; or one
containing sulphate of magnesia, or chloride of magnesium or calcium, or
one or more of them, in combination with oxide of copper, either with or
without lime or magnesia, or with both or either of them or their
carbonates. These salts, or compounds, are mingled with sawdust, or some
other porous substance not acted on by the gas, before being put into the
purifiers; and after they become saturated with the vapour, the
newly-formed hydrochlorate or sulphate (according to the salt or mixture
employed) is washed out of the mass with water.

Besides the usual sources of SAL AMMONIAC (and the other ammonia-salts of
commerce) it has been proposed to obtain it from guano, peat, shale, &c.,
as noticed under SESQUICARBONATE OF AMMONIA (_suprà_); the substance
employed to effect the neutralisation or decomposition of the ammoniacal
liquor being, in this case either hydrochloric acid or a chloride.

In Young’s Patent (1841) for ‘obtaining AMMONIA and its SALTS,’ a mixture
of 2 parts of guano, and 1 part of hydrate of lime, is distilled in a
retort placed vertically, at a moderate heat, gradually increased until
the bottom of the retort becomes red hot. The ammoniacal portion of the
fumes evolved are absorbed by the cold water contained in a suitable
condenser; whilst the other gases eliminated by the process pass off
uncondensed. By subsequently passing carbonic acid gas into the liquor of
the condenser, a solution of CARBONATE, BICARBONATE, or SESQUICARBONATE of
AMMONIA is formed. By nearly filling the condenser with diluted
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, instead of with water, a solution of
HYDROCHLORATE or of SULPHATE OF AMMONIA is obtained.

Stale urine saturated with hydrochloric acid, or with sulphuric acid
diluted with about twice its weight of water, yields SAL AMMONIAC, or
SULPHATE OF AMMONIA (according to the acid used) on evaporation.

Hydrochlorate of ammonia is now wholly prepared on the large scale, and
never by the dealer or retailer, by whom it is only occasionally refined
or purified, in small quantities, for chemical and medical purposes. The
sal ammoniac of commerce is found to be sufficiently pure for all its
ordinary applications in the arts; but when wanted of greater purity, it
is broken into pieces, and resublimed from an earthenware vessel into a
large receiver of earthenware or glass. The product (REFINED SAL AMMONIAC,
DOUBLE-REFINED S. A.; AMMONIÆ HYDROCHLO′′RAS PU′′RA, SAL AMMONI′ACUS
DEPURA′TUS†, L.) is popularly known as FLOWERS OF SAL AMMONIAC (flo′res
sa′lis ammoni′aci, L.), from being in a finely divided crystalline state.

The chemically pure chloride of ammonium may be prepared by bringing its
gaseous constituents——ammonia and hydrochloric acid——into contact. During
the combination much heat, and even light, is generated, and the anhydrous
solid salt is precipitated in a minutely divided state, which, under the
microscope, is seen to be crystalline. It may be also more easily and
conveniently prepared by saturating pure and moderately dilute
hydrochloric acid with ammonia or its carbonates, and evaporating the
solution until a pellicle forms, when crystals of the chloride separate as
the liquid cools. A similar but rather more violent reaction occurs when
gaseous chlorine is brought in contact with gaseous ammonia, or is passed
into a nearly saturated solution of ammonia or its carbonates; but in this
case nitrogen is evolved at the expense of the ammonia; moreover, the
process is attended with danger.

The manufacture of sal ammoniac is usually a distinct business, and is
carried on to a very great extent in the neighbourhood of London. Indeed,
the London makers now supply the chief portion of that used in England. A
large quantity is now, however, made at Manchester and Liverpool. A small
quantity is imported from Germany. That from Brunswick is in the form of
sugar-loaves. An inferior quality is also imported, in chests, from the
East Indies.

The red bands frequently seen in the sal ammoniac of commerce are said to
arise from the workmen falling asleep, and allowing the fire to go down,
and then suddenly raising the heat too high. (Muspratt.) They consist
chiefly of ammonio-chloride of iron.

=Ammonium, Citrate of.= (NH_{4})_{2}HC_{6}H_{6}O_{7}. _Syn._ DIAMMONIUM
CITRATE, CITRATE OF OXIDE OF AMMONIA; AMMON′′NIÆ CIT′RAS, L.

_Prep._ A concentrated solution of pure citric acid, gently heated, is
saturated with sesquicarbonate of ammonium, in fine powder (about 7 parts
to 6), and slightly in excess; and the resulting liquid is crystallised by
refrigeration in close vessels, or by evaporation in vacuo. If heat be
employed in the evaporation of the solution, an acid citrate will be
formed.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly as a chemical test. An extemporaneous citrate, made
with lemon-juice and drunk effervescing, is employed as a saline draught,
and a mild aperient and diaphoretic, in fevers, &c.

=Ammonium, Ferrocyanide of.= (NH_{4})_{4} FeC_{6}N_{6} . 3Aq. _Syn._
FERROCYANATE D’AMMONIAQUE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. Saturate a solution of
hydroferrocyanic acid with sesquicarbonate of ammonium, in slight excess;
evaporate the solution at a heat below ebullition, and crystallise by
refrigeration.

2. Digest ferrocyanide of lead or of iron in a solution of sesquicarbonate
of ammonium, at a gentle heat, for some time; then filter, evaporate, and
crystallise.

_Prop., &c._ It is isomorphous with ferrocyanide of potassium; it is
easily crystallisable, very soluble in water, and is decomposed by
ebullition.

=Ammonium, Iodide of.= NH_{4}I. _Syn._ HYDRIODATE OF AMMONIA; AMMO′′NII
IODI′DUM, L.; HYDRIODATE D’AMMONIAQUE, Fr. _Prep._ An aqueous solution of
hydriodic acid is neutralised with ammonia, or ammonium sesquicarbonate,
in slight excess; and the resulting liquid is either carefully, but
rapidly, evaporated to dryness over a water bath, or it is concentrated by
the same means, and then caused to deposit crystals by refrigeration; in
both cases care is taken to keep a slight excess of ammonia present during
the evaporation. The crystals are dried by pressure between folds of
bibulous paper; and the product, in either form, preserved in a stoppered
bottle.

Pure iodine is triturated with a little distilled water, and solution of
ammonium sulphydrate added, in small quantities at a time, with continued
trituration, until the red colour of the iodine has entirely disappeared.
The solution, after being gently boiled for a few seconds, to expel the
sulphuretted hydrogen present, is filtered, slightly alkalised, with
ammonia, and evaporated or crystallised, as before.

_Prop., &c._ Colourless; deliquescent; freely soluble in water, and in
spirit; air and light turn it yellowish or brownish, with partial
decomposition. It closely resembles iodide of potassium, than which it is
more active, and thought to be better suited to irritable and relaxed
habits.——_Dose_, 1 to 10 or 12 gr.

=Ammonium, Lac′tate of.= _Syn._ AMMO′′NIÆ LAC′TAS, L. An uncrystallisable
salt prepared by saturating ammonia, or its carbonate, with lactic acid.
It has been found useful in rickets, and in dyspepsia and worms, when
occurring in debilitated habits. For this purpose it is best taken
fresh-prepared, as a draught, flavoured with syrup of orange-peel, 3 or 4
times daily. See LACTATE and LACTIC ACID.

=Ammonium, Nitrate of.= NH_{4}NO_{3}. _Syn._ AMMO′′NIÆ NI′TRAS, L.;
NITRATE D’AMMONIAQUE, Fr. _Prep._ Saturate nitric acid (diluted with 3 or
4 times its weight of water) with sesquicarbonate of ammonium, evaporate
by a gentle heat, and crystallise. When not required in a crystalline
form, it is usually evaporated to dryness at about 212° Fahr.; and the
heat being carefully raised to about 250°, the fused salt is poured out on
a polished slab of iron or stone, and when solidified broken up and put
into bottles.

_Prop._ When the evaporation of the solution is conducted at a heat under
100° Fahr., the salt is obtained in beautiful hexagonal prisms; when at
212°, in long silky fibres; when by rapid evaporation and fusion, it forms
a white, compact, and usually foliated mass. It dissolves in about twice
its weight of water; is slightly deliquescent; melts at 230°, and is
decomposed into nitrous gas and water at 460° Fahr. It deflagrates, like
nitre, on contact with heated combustible matter.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly to prepare nitrous oxide or laughing gas (of which
nearly 4-1/2 cubic feet may be procured from every _lb._ avoir.); and with
water, to form freezing mixtures, for which purpose it may be used for any
number of times by simply evaporating the solution to dryness, when the
salt, obtained unaltered, is ready for another operation. Care, however,
should be taken not to expose it to too great a heat, as at a certain
temperature it deflagrates with violence. It is occasionally employed in
the laboratory to promote the combustion of organic bodies during
incineration; and sometimes, though seldom, in medicine, as a diuretic
and diaphoretic. It is said to reduce the frequency of the pulse, and the
animal heat, without affecting the head, chest, or stomach.
(Wibmer.)——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr.

=Ammonium, Nitro-sulphate of.= _Syn._ AMMO′′NIÆ NITRO-SUL′PHAS, L.
Dissolve sulphite of ammonium, 1 part; in solution of ammonia, 5 parts;
and pass nitric oxide gas through the solution; rapidly wash the crystals
that form with solution of ammonia, dry in bibulous paper, without heat,
and preserve them in a well-stopped bottle.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.; in
typhoid fevers, &c.

=Ammonium, Oxalate of.= (NH_{4})_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. _Syn._ AMMO′′NIÆ OX′ALIS,
L.; OXALATE D’AMMONIAQUE, Fr. Neutralise a hot solution of oxalic acid
with sesquicarbonate of ammonia; evaporate and crystallise.

_Prop._ It forms beautiful, colourless, long, rhombic prisms, which
effloresce in the air; slightly soluble in cold water; freely soluble in
hot water; heated in a retort, it yields ammonia, carbonate of ammonia,
cyanogen, and carbonic acid, together with oxamide, which sublimes.

_Uses, &c._ In _chemistry_, chiefly as a test for calcium (with which it
produces a white precipitate soluble in nitric acid), and to separate lime
from magnesium, solutions of the salt of which it does not precipitate. A
BINOX′ALATE may also be formed; but it possesses no practical interest.

=Ammonium, Phosphate of.= (NH_{4})_{3}PO_{4}. _Syn._ AMMO′′NIÆ PHOS′PHAS,
L. _Prep._ Saturate a solution of phosphoric acid with sesquicarbonate of
ammonium, in slight excess; gently evaporate and crystallise by
refrigeration. Diuretic, discutient, and antilithic.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr.,
or 20 to 30 drops of a saturated solution, 3 or 4 times a day; in gout,
rheumatism, and calculus, accompanied with the lithic-acid diathesis; also
in rickets and certain forms of dyspepsia.

=Ammonium Suc′cinate.= _Syn._ AMMO′′NIÆ SUC′CINAS, L. _Prep._ 1. Succinic
acid, 1 part; water, 4 parts; dissolve, neutralise with solution of
ammonia, or of ammonium carbonate, in slight excess, and evaporate, and
crystallise as directed under the ‘benzoate’ or ‘phosphate,’——_Dose_, 2 to
10 gr.

=Ammonium, Sul′phate of.= (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4}. _Syn._ SULPHATE OF OX′IDE OF
AMMONIA; AMMO′′NIÆ SUL′PHAS, L,; SULFATE D’AMMONIAQUE, Fr.; SCHWEFELSAUER
AMMONIUM SALZ, Ger.; Glauber’s SECRET SALT†, G. SECRET SAL AMMONIAC†, SAL
AMMONI′ACUM SECRE′TUM GLAUBE′′RI†, &c. Crude sulphate of ammonia exists in
considerable quantity in the soot from pit-coal; and it is obtained, as a
secondary product, from the ammoniacal liquor of gas-works and animal
charcoal manufactories. These last are its chief sources. It is also found
native, associated with sal ammoniac, in the neighbourhood of volcanoes,
under the name of ‘_mascagnine_’ or ‘_massagnine_,’

_Prep._ 1. (Medicinal.) Saturate dilute sulphuric acid with
sesquicarbonate of ammonia, in slight excess; filter, gently evaporate,
and crystallise.

2. (Commercial.) From gas-liquor or bone-spirit, saturated with weak oil
of vitriol, and, the clear portion of the liquid, after repose decanted,
concentrated by rapid evaporation, and crystallised, in the manner noticed
under AMMONIUM, CHLORIDE OF.

_Prop._ Crystals, long, flattened, six-sided prisms; soluble in 2 parts of
cold, and 1 of boiling water; fuses, with loss of one atom of water, at
about 280° Fahr.; and is volatilised, with entire decomposition, at about
535°. Even its solution, by long boiling, becomes acid from loss of
ammonia. The anhydrous salt does not exist.

_Uses, &c._ Pure sulphate of ammonia is diuretic, aperient, resolvent, and
stimulant.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr. It is now seldom employed in medicine.
The crude sulphate is principally used in the preparation of sal ammoniac
and sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and for manure. “A mixture of 10% of this
sulphate with 20% of bone-dust, some gypsum, and farm-yard manure, forms a
very fertilising compost, applicable to a great variety of soils” (Ure);
and we may add——greatly superior to a very large portion of what is now so
commonly vended under the name of ‘guano.’

_Concluding remarks, Patents, &c._ The manufacture of sulphate of ammonia,
on the large scale, has been unavoidably explained in treating on the
salts of that base already noticed. All that is necessary is to saturate
with sulphuric acid the solution of ammonia, crude or otherwise, and
obtained in any manner; and then to evaporate the solution until the salt
crystallises out. At other times, however, instead of adding the acid to
the ammoniacal liquor, the latter, either at once, or after treatment with
lime, is submitted to distillation, and the evolved alkaline vapour is
passed into the acid (previously somewhat diluted), contained in a large
receiver or cistern, or a series of them; the salt being obtained from the
resulting solution in the usual manner. By re-solution and a second
crystallisation the sulphate is generally obtained sufficiently pure for
all commercial purposes; but when the salt is intended for use as manure,
or (unless very rough) for conversion into sal ammoniac, this need not be
had recourse to.

Among modifications and improvements, not previously noticed, may be
mentioned——

1. That of Dr Richardson (Patent dated Jan., 1850), who mixes SULPHATE OF
MAGNESIA with the crude ammoniacal liquor, and thus forms a double
sulphate of magnesia and ammonia, from which he obtains the SULPHATE OF
AMMONIA by sublimation.

2. That of Michiel (Patent dated April, 1850), who prepares sulphate of
ammonia by means of OXYSULPHATE OF LEAD obtained by roasting galena
(sulphide of lead), by exposing it in a crushed state and thin layers for
2 or 3 hours, to the heat of a reverberatory furnace. The resulting
mixture of sulphate and oxide of lead is reduced to the state of coarse
powder, and well worked up with the ammoniacal liquor, when SULPHATE OF
AMMONIA and sulphide and carbonate of lead are produced by the mutual
reaction of the elements present. The first is removed by treatment with
water; and the residuum serves for the manufacture of lead compounds, or
may be reduced to the metallic state by fusion in the usual manner.

3. That of Mr Laming (Patent dated Aug., 1852), in which a stream of
SULPHUROUS ACID GAS is transmitted through the liquor containing the
ammonia, either in the free state or as carbonate, by which SULPHITE OF
AMMONIA is formed. This salt he oxidises, and thus converts into the
SULPHATE OF AMMONIA, by agitation and free exposure to the air.

Sulphate of ammonia, like the hydrochlorate, may also be obtained by
saturating stale urine with the acid, and subsequent evaporation and
crystallisation. See AMMONIA; AMMONIA, CARBONATES OF; AMMONIUM, CHLORIDE
OF, and MANURES, &c.

=Ammonium, Sulphide of (neutral).= (NH_{4})_{2}S. _Prep._ Saturate strong
solution of ammonia with pure sulphuretted hydrogen gas; then add a second
portion of solution of ammonia, equal to that first used, and preserve it
in a well-stoppered bottle.

=Ammonium, Sulphydrate of.= NH_{4}HS. _Syn._ SULPHIDE OF AMMONIUM,
HYDROSULPHIDE OF AMMONIUM, HYDROSULPHATE OF AMMONIA. _Prep._ By passing
sulphuretted hydrogen gas, to saturation, through a mixture composed of
strong solution of ammonia, 1 part, and distilled water, 4 parts.

_Props._ Prepared as above, it has a very fœtid odour. When pure it is
wholly volatilised by heat, and does not disturb a solution of sulphate of
magnesium. Mineral acids decompose it, with the evolution of sulphuretted
hydrogen. By keeping, it decomposes and acquires a yellow colour. This
yellow coloration does not, however, render it unfit for use as a reagent;
but it must be borne in mind that it will now deposit sulphur when mixed
with acids. In this state it proves valuable as a reagent to detect
hydrocyanic acid, and as a solvent to separate metallic sulphides thrown
down by sulphuretted hydrogen.

_Uses, &c._ It is principally employed by chemists as a reagent to
precipitate metals, to separate metallic sulphides, &c.; and by the
perfumers as a mordant in dyeing hair. In _medicine_ it has been used by
Cruickshank, Rollo, and others, to check the morbid appetite, and to
increase the action of the stomach and general tone of the system in
diabetes mellitus. It has also been used by Brauw, Gruithuisen, and
others, in old pulmonary and vesical catarrhs. It is a powerful sedative,
lessening the action of the circulatory system, causing nausea, vomiting,
vertigo, drowsiness, &c.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 drops, three or four times daily,
mixed with pure water, and instantly swallowed. In large doses it is
poisonous.

_Ant._ Very dilute solution of chlorine, or of chloride of lime or soda,
followed by a powerful emetic, or the stomach-pump. When the vapour has
been respired, free exposure to fresh air, with the head a little
elevated, and copious affusions of cold water, with moderate draughts of
brandy-and-water, and the use of the smelling-bottle (ammoniacal) should
be adopted. If need be, artificial respiration should be attempted, and
the air around the patient should be slightly impregnated with the fumes
of chlorine or chloride of lime.

=Ammonium, Persulphide of.= _Syn._ BOYLE’S FUMING-LIQUOR, HOFFMAN’S
VOL′ATILE SPIRIT OF SULPHUR, &c.; AMMO′′NIÆ PERHYDROSUL′PHAS, A.
PERHYDROSULPHURE′TUM, &c. Authorities differ as to the constitution of
this liquid, which, since its introduction by Beguin in 1650, has passed
under more ‘aliases’ than perhaps any other preparation. Its precise
position amongst the ammonia-compounds is still undecided.

_Prep._ 1. (Beguin.) Sulphur, 1 lb; quick-lime, 1/2 lb; sal ammoniac, 4
oz.; mix and distil.

2. (Boyle.) Sulphur and sal ammoniac, of each, 5 oz.; quick-lime, 6 oz.;
as last.

3. (Liebig.) Agitate the common hydrosulphate of ammonia with pure
sulphur, until the latter ceases to be dissolved; and, after repose,
decant the clear liquid.

_Prop., &c._ An orange-yellow, fuming, fœtid liquid, of an oily
consistence, having the characteristics of the common sulphydrate in a
remarkable degree. It may prove an excellent medicine. “Useful for wounds
and ulcers.” (Beguin.) Diluted with three parts of spirit of wine, it
formed the LIQUOR ANTIPODAG′RICUS of F. Hoffman; of which we are told that
about 30 drops acted as a strong sudorific; and applied externally, mixed
with camphor, “it relieved pain like a charm.” (Hoffman.) The sulphides of
ammonium are now scarcely ever employed as remedies.

=Ammonium, Sul′phite of.= (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{3}.7Aq. _Syn._ AMMONIÆ SULPHIS,
L. Prepared by passing sulphurous acid gas into a solution of ammonia. It
is crystallisable and very soluble in water.

=Ammonium, Sulphocyanide of.= NH_{4}CNS. _Prep._ 1. Neutralise
hydrosulphocyanic acid with ammonia, and gently evaporate the solution to
dryness, by the heat of a water bath.

2. Digest hydrocyanic acid with yellow sulphydrate of ammonium, and, after
a time, evaporate as before.

A deliquescent, white, saline mass, very soluble in water, but seldom
employed out of the laboratory in a pure state. Of late it has been
obtained in quantity as a crude product of the gas-liquors.

=Ammonium, Tartrates of.= Of these there are two:——

=Ammonium, Neutral Tartrate of.= (NH_{4})_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. _Syn._
AMMO′′NIÆ TAR′TRAS, L. _Prep._ Saturate a solution of crystallised
tartaric acid, 150 grs.; with sesquicarbonate of ammonium, 118 grs.; and
either evaporate the solution at a gentle heat, and crystallise; or
evaporate to dryness, and powder the residuum.

_Prop., &c._ Prismatic crystals, or a crystalline mass; soluble and
efflorescent. Its medicinal properties and doses resemble those of citrate
of ammonium.

=Ammonium, Bitartrate of.= NH_{4}HC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. _Syn._ AMMO′′NIÆ
BITAR′TRAS, L. _Prep._ To a strong solution of tartaric acid add another
of sesquicarbonate of ammonium, or of tartrate of ammonium, as long as a
precipitate falls; which must be collected and dried.

_Prop., &c._ A crystalline powder, only slightly soluble in water, closely
resembling ordinary cream of tartar. It is diaphoretic, diuretic, and
deobstruent, and is frequently, though improperly, sold for the preceding
preparation.

=Ammonium, Valerianate of.= NH_{4}C_{5}H_{9}O_{2}. _Syn._ AMMO′′NIÆ
VALERIA′NAS, L. _Prep._ Saturate valerianic acid with strong solution of
ammonia, and evaporate the resulting liquid to a syrupy consistence at a
heat under 175° Fahr.; then add twice its volume of alcohol, and, after
agitation, allow it to crystallise by spontaneous evaporation.——_Dose_, 2
to 8 or 10 gr.; in neuralgia, epilepsy, hypochondriasis, hysteria, low
fevers of an intermittent kind, &c.; also in dyspepsia and debility
complicated with these affections.

=AMMONI′ACAL.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AMMONIACA′LIS, L. Pertaining to, or
possessing the odour or properties of, ammonia. See AMMONIA, &c.

=AMMONI′ACUM.= _Syn._ GUM AMMONIACUM, G. AMMO′′NIAC†; GOMME AMMONIAQUE,
Fr.; AMMONIAK, Ger. A gummy-resinous exudation from the stem of _dorema
ammoniacum_, in tears and masses, of a pale cinnamon colour, brittle, and
when broken has a white and shining surface. Collected in Persia and the
Punjaub. (B. P.)

Gum ammoniacum has an unpleasant odour, especially when heated, and a
nauseous and slightly bitter taste. It is a mild, stimulating expectorant
and emmenagogue; and its effects on the system resemble those of
assafœtida except in being weaker. Externally, it is resolvent.——_Dose_,
10 to 30 gr. in pills or emulsion.

_Doses for Animals._ HORSE, 2 to 4 drachms. CATTLE, 2 to 4 drachms. SHEEP,
1/2 to 1-1/2 drachm. PIG, 1/2 to 1-1/2 drachm. DOG, 10 to 20 grains.
Either by bolus or emulsion.

=Ammoniacum, Strained′.= _Syn._ PREPARED AMMONIACUM; AMMONI′ACUM
PRÆPARA′TUM (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1851.) Boil ammoniacum in water
just sufficient to cover it; strain the mixture through a hair sieve, and
constantly stirring, evaporate in a water bath, until, on cooling, it
becomes hard. The product, owing to a loss of volatile oil, is much weaker
than the unprepared gum-resin. The process is only necessary with rough
lump ammoniacum.

=Ammo′′niated.= _Syn._ AMMONIA′TUS, L. In _pharmacy_, _perfumery_, &c.,
applied to preparations containing ammonia.

=AMMO′NIO-, Ammon′ico-.= In _chemistry_, a common prefix to double salts
containing ammonia; as ammonio-citrate, a.-chloride, or a.-tartrate of
iron, &c. See the respective metals.

=AMONTILLADO.= [Sp.] See SHERRY and WINE.

=AMORPH′OUS= (-morf′-us). _Syn._ AMORPH′US, L.; AMORPHE, INFORME,
DIFFORME, Fr.; AMORPHISCH, MISGEBILDET, MISSGESTALTET, Ger. Shapeless. In
_chemistry_ and _mineralogy_, applied to substances devoid of regular or
crystalline form; as a lump of chalk, the majority of precipitates, &c.
The corresponding substantives are AMORPH′ISM, AMORPH′OUSNESS*
(_amorphis′mus_, L.; _amorphisme_, Fr.).

=AMPHIB′IA= (fĭb′-y′ă). [L. pl.; prim. Gr.] _Syn._ AMPHIB′IANS (-yănz),
AMPHIB′IALS (-y′ălz). Animals that possess the faculty of living both in
water and on land. In _modern zoology_ it is restricted to those animals
which possess both gills and lungs; as the _batrach′ia_ or frog tribe. The
term is also often applied, colloquially, to otters, seals, walruses,
crocodiles, &c., none of which can breathe under water, although, from the
languid nature of their circulation, they are able to remain a long time
in it.

=AMPHIB′IOUS= (y′ŭs). _Syn._ AMPHIB′IUS, L.; AMPHIBIE, Fr.; BEYDLEBIG,
Ger. In _botany_ and _zoology_, having the faculty of growing or living
both on land and in water. See AMPHIBIA.

=AM′PHITYPE= (-fe-). See PHOTOGRAPHY.

=AMYGDALIN.= C_{20}H_{27}NO_{11}.3Aq. This substance exists in bitter
almonds. It crystallises in pearly white plates, which are odourless and
almost tasteless. It is nearly insoluble in hot and cold water and in cold
alcohol, but soluble in boiling alcohol. To prepare amygdalin, boil
well-pressed cake of bitter almonds twice in strong alcohol; strain
through linen, and press the residue; remove any oil that may appear, heat
the liquid again, and filter. In a few days part of the amygdalin
crystallises out. Concentrate the residuary liquor to a sixth part, and
add ether, which will throw down the amygdalin. Press it between blotting
paper, wash it with ether, and set aside to crystallise.

=AMYG′DALOID= (-loyd). _Syn._ AMYGDALOID′AL; AMYGDALOÏ′DES (-dēz), L.;
AMYGDALOÏDE, Fr. Almond-shaped. In _mineralogy_, amygdaloid is
‘toadstone.’

=AMYKOS= (Galen, Upsala). A cosmetic and mouth-wash. Claims to be prepared
according to an English patent. It is an aqueous extract of 420 grms.
cloves, boiled in a gallon of water, in which 420 grms. of pure glycerine
are dissolved, and to which 210 grms. of borax are added. (Hager.)

=AMYKOSASEPTIN= is linen saturated with a hot solution of borax.
(Nyström.)

=AMYLA′CEOUS= (ăm-e-lā′-sh′ŭs). _Syn._ AMYLA′CEUS, L.; AMYLACÉ, Fr. Of or
like starch; consisting of or abounding in starch; starchy. See FOOD,
NUTRITION, STARCH, &c.

=AM′YL= (-ĭl). C_{5}H_{11}. The radical of the fusel-oil compounds
(AMYL-SERIES).

=Amyl, Acetate of.= C_{5}H_{11}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}. _Syn._ PEAR-OIL. _Prep._
From fusel-oil, 1 part; acetate of potassa (dry), 2 parts; concentrated
sulphuric acid, 1 part; distilled, with the usual precautions, from a
glass retort into a cool receiver. The distillate is purified by washing
it with very dilute solution of potassa, and redistilling it from fused
chloride of calcium. A little litharge added to the liquid in the retort,
before rectification, will remove any sulphurous odour, should it be
present.

_Prop., &c._ Liquid, limpid, colourless; insoluble in water; soluble in
alcohol; boils at 272° Fahr.; alcoholic solution of potassa converts it
into an acetate of that base, with reproduction of fusel-oil.

_Obs._ The odour and flavour of this preparation are those of the
Jargonelle pear. It is now extensively manufactured, and, after dilution
with alcohol, is sold under the name of ESSENCE OF JARGONELLE PEAR, for
flavouring liqueurs and confectionery.

=Amyl, Vale′rianate of.= C_{5}H_{11}C_{5}H_{9}O_{2}. _Syn._ APPLE-OIL,
A.-ESSENCE, &c. This compound is abundantly formed during the preparation
of valerianic acid from potato oil, and is recognised by the offensive
odour of rotten apples evolved during the process. By treating the crude
product of the distillation with a weak solution of pure potassa, the
valerianic acid is removed, and the volatile oil obtained nearly pure.
Dissolved in rectified spirit it forms the ‘APPLE-ESSENCE’ now so much
employed as a flavouring ingredient for confectionery and liqueurs. See
FRUIT ESSENCES, VALERIANIC ACID, &c.

=AMYL NITRITE.= _Syn._ AMYL NITRIS, B. P. Produced by the action of nitric
or nitrous acid on amylic alcohol.——_Dose._ By inhalation, the vapour of 2
to 5 minims. To be used with caution. It may be produced by passing a
stream of nitrous acid gas through purified amylic alcohol at a
temperature of 132° C.

For other methods of preparing it consult ‘Wood and Bache’s United States
Dispensatory, 1877.’ Mr Umney (‘Pharm. Journal’) says that true nitrite of
amyl should be made by passing nitrous acid into amylic alcohol which has
been previously submitted to a fractional distillation, until the portion
retained for use has a boiling point of 132° C. A nitrate so prepared,
when deprived of any excess of acid it may contain by rectification over
fused carbonate of potash, will have a boiling point of 98°-99° C.

=AM′YLENE= (-e-lēne). C_{5}H_{10}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AM′ILENE*; AMYLE′NA,
AMYLE′NUM, L. A peculiar volatile, liquid hydrocarbon, discovered by
Cahours.

_Prep._ From fusel-oil repeatedly distilled along with either anhydrous
phosphoric acid, or a concentrated solution of chloride of zinc; the
product being repeatedly rectified at a low temperature, until the boiling
point sinks to 102° Fahr.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ An ethereal liquid, lighter than water, having an
aromatic odour, slightly alliaceous. Sp. gr. of vapour, 2·68. Its vapour
was several times successfully employed, by the late Dr Snow, as a
substitute for ether and chloroform in producing anæsthesia, being, though
less agreeable, also less pungent, and consequently easier to breathe,
than either of them; but its use has since been given up owing to doubts
as to its safety, two or three deaths having followed its inhalation.

=ANADOLI= (Kreller, Nuremburg). An oriental tooth-powder. Powdered soap,
42 parts; starch powder, 44 parts; levantine soapwort, 12 parts; oil of
bergamot and lemon to flavour. (Wittstein.)

=ANÆMIA.= Deficiency of blood.

=ANÆSTHE′SIA= (ăn-ēz-the′-zh′ă; -sh′ă; -thēze′y′ăr). [L.; prim. Gr.]
_Syn._ ANESTHÉSIE, Fr. In _pathology_, diminished or lost sense of
feeling.

In _surgery_ and _obstetrics_, the production of temporary anæsthesia, for
the purpose of rendering operations painless, relieving the pangs of
childbirth, &c., is effected by the use of——

=ANÆSTHET′ICS.= _Syn._ ANÆSTHET′ICA, L.; ANESTHÉTIQUES, Fr. In
_pharmacology_ and _surgery_, substances or agents which diminish or
destroy sensibility, or which relieve pain. In its full extent this term
includes both anodynes and narcotics; but it is now more generally
confined to those substances which greatly diminish common sensibility, or
entirely remove susceptibility to pain. Among the most useful, safe, and
powerful of this class are chloroform, ether, nitrous oxide, and intense
cold; besides several chlorinated compounds, such as the bichlorides of
ethylen, methylen, and carbon.

More than 1500 years ago the Chinese are said to have used a preparation
of hemp, or _ma-yo_, to annul the pain attendant upon cauterisation and
other surgical operations. Mandragora (mandrake) was employed for a
similar purpose by the Greeks and Romans; and we learn that as early as
the thirteenth century the vapour from a sponge filled with tinctures of
mandragora, opium, and other sedatives was used for a similar purpose.

Baptista Porta, in his work on natural magic printed in 1597, mentions a
quintessence extracted from medicines by somniferous menstrua, of the
nature of which he leaves us in ignorance. This quintessence was to be
preserved in leaden vessels very perfectly closed, lest the aura should
escape, for the medicine would vanish away. Furthermore, he adds, “when it
is used, the cover being removed, it is applied to the nostrils of the
sleeper, who draws in the most subtle power of the vapour by smelling, and
so blocks up the fortress of the senses, that he is plunged into the most
profound sleep, and cannot be roused without the greatest effort.” Dr Iron
suggested that the volatile substance was sulphuric ether, which he says
had been described more than fifty years before Porta wrote his book. In
the year 1800 Sir Humphry Davy suggested the employment of nitrous oxide,
or laughing gas, as it was then termed, for minor operations in surgery,
and in 1828 Dr Hickman proposed carbonic acid as an anæsthetic. The vapour
of sulphuric ether had been used in his practice by Dr Pearson as early as
1795, for the relief of spasmodic asthma. The fact that sulphuric ether
was capable of producing insensibility was demonstrated by American
physicians; viz. by Godwin in 1822, Mitchell in 1832, Jackson in 1833, and
Wood and Bache in 1834; but the first practitioner to employ it to prevent
the pain of an operation was Dr Morton, a Boston dentist, who successfully
used it for this purpose in 1846. On the 19th of December of the same year
Mr Liston, of University Hospital, London, and Mr Robinson, a dentist,
operated upon patients who had been rendered insensible by means of the
inhalation of the vapour of ether.

Throughout the year 1847 ether was employed as an anæsthetic both in
England and France, but towards the end of that year the anæsthetic
properties of chloroform were pointed out by Flourens. The first, however,
to introduce this agent into surgical and obstetric practice was Dr I. T.
Simpson, of Edinburgh. In 1849 a work on the inhalation of ether was
published by Dr Snow, who afterwards introduced a new anæsthetic, viz.
amylene, which was capable of producing effects similar to those of
chloroform; but as two patients out of but a small number who inhaled the
vapour of amylene died, this latter soon fell into discredit, and
consequent disuse.

Except in dental practice, in which nitrous oxide gas is the anæsthetic
invariably employed, chloroform is almost universally used in surgical
operations, one advantage it possesses over ether being its much more
rapid action, although this latter property must be regarded as one which
constitutes the risk which, although very slight (when the exceedingly
small per-centage of deaths resulting from its administration is taken
into account), undoubtedly attends its inhalation.

Dr Sansom says of chloroform:——“The cause of its danger is its power of
paralysing the cardiac and other motor sources of circulation. This
property resides in large and sudden doses of its vapour.” He strongly
recommends its dilution by air and alcohols. He further remarks that all
anæsthetics modify the endosmotic condition of the blood discs, and
contends that they affect the supply of arterial blood by altering the
calibre of the channels which convey it. He advocates the substitution of
one anæsthetic for another during the inhalation.

Methylene dichloride, introduced by Dr B. W. Richardson, is said to
possess the disadvantage of causing considerable depression.

The mode of administering these agents is by causing the patient to inhale
their vapour mixed with air.

Sometimes they are poured on to a sponge or a handkerchief, or piece of
lint, either of which is then applied to the mouth and nostrils of the
patient in such a manner that the air which passes into his lungs is
saturated with the vapour. Except in extemporised cases, however, this
method is pretty well abandoned, a proper apparatus having supplanted the
sponge or handkerchief, &c. Part of the apparatus consists of a graduated
bottle containing the anæsthetic, by means of which the operator is
enabled to tell how much of this latter is being consumed, and thus to
regulate the quantity inhaled.

The first effect that results from the administration of anæsthetics is a
form of intoxication, caused by the action of the anæsthetic agent on the
cerebral lobes, and as this action extends to the cerebellum, the patient
becomes incapable of directing his movements——an effect like that caused
by intoxication from alcohol.

In the next stage the spinal cord is attacked, unconsciousness supervenes,
and all powers of motion and sensation are lost. The individual is now
said to be in a state of anæsthesia; but the heart continues to beat,
respiration is not impeded, and the other essential functions of the body
go on as usual.

Should, however, the exhibition of the anæsthetic agent be incautiously
continued too long, the bodily temperature falls, the movements of
respiration and circulation become impaired, the heart ceases its action,
and death finally ensues. The introduction of anæsthetics into surgical
practice has been of great and invaluable service to the operator. The
patient being motionless and free from pain, the surgeon is enabled to
perform the operation at his ease, and consequently more efficiently;
moreover, in the reduction of dislocations and of hernia, the muscles
being flaccid, the obstacle produced by their contraction is removed. M.
Velpeau endeavoured to produce local anæsthesia, or insensibility of the
part of the body to be operated upon, by means of a freezing mixture
composed of ice and salt; this method, however, was found impracticable,
and was soon abandoned. Since then local anæsthesia as introduced by Dr
Richardson, when had recourse to, is effected by means of a spray of ether
directed on the part, the intense cold produced by the rapid evaporation
of the ether entirely depriving the part of sensation. It is said that
the pain resulting from the application of this method is a great barrier
to its use.

Amongst anæsthetics, nitrous oxide gas occupies an important place, its
use, as before stated, being almost wholly confined to operations in
dental surgery.[55] As in the case of ether, the American practitioners
were the first to employ nitrous oxide as an anæsthetic. Attention was
directed to its anæsthetic properties in 1844 by Mr Horace Wells, an
American dentist, but little interest seems to have been awakened by his
application of it, since it was not until 1863 that Dr Cotton, of New
York, drew attention to the subject by performing an operation on a
patient under its influence.

[Footnote 55: The ‘British Medical Journal’ for 1868 states it was used
successfully at the Ophthalmic Hospital, Moorfields.]

In March, 1868, Dr Evans, residing in Paris, after a visit from Dr Cotton,
directed the attention of medical men in England to the value of nitrous
oxide as an anæsthetic in dental surgery, and shortly afterwards it was
first employed to produce anæsthesia at the Dental Hospital. Nitrous oxide
is obtained from nitrate of ammonia, and the particulars of its
preparation may be found by referring to the article NITROUS OXIDE.

Immense quantities of the gas are used in dental operations. It has been
computed that in 1870 Messrs Coxeter and Barth could not have prepared
much less than 60,000 gallons in London alone. To fit it for transit it is
reduced by compression. Fifteen gallons may thus be diminished in volume
until it fills an iron bottle holding a quart. Five or six gallons of the
gas are, on an average, required for each patient. In the preparation of
nitrous oxide for surgical purposes Dr Evans advises it to be made at
least 24 hours before it is used, and further recommends its being
thoroughly washed. An apparatus for the preparation of the gas was devised
by Mr Porter, a description of which will be found in the ‘Transactions of
the Odontological Society of Great Britain’ for 1868, in which also
mention is made of a face-piece for its administration, the invention of
Mr Clover. By means of this latter instrument the desiderata that the
nitrous oxide should be inhaled without admixture with atmospheric air,
and contamination arising from the expired air given off by the patient,
are accomplished, for it has been found that when excitement and talking
attend the inhalation of the gas, these effects are due to the presence of
the carbonic acid thrown off by the lungs.

When inhaled in the ordinary way, nitrous oxide gas induces exhilaration
and narcotism, without asphyxia. When, however, the atmospheric air is
carefully excluded, it produces, as we have just seen, anæsthesia without
exhilaration. The time required to produce anæsthesia varies from 25 to
120 seconds, by from 10 to 60 inhalations. A patient has been subjected
for 10 minutes to its action without experiencing any unpleasant symptoms
or after effects. Mr Randle says it is perfectly safe in all short
operations, and possibly in long ones also, provided there is due
admission of air at proper intervals. It seems tolerably certain that
nitrous oxide is largely absorbed by the blood-corpuscles, and it is
probable that its presence in them may temporarily act to the exclusion of
oxygen, and thus prevent for a time that combination of oxygen with
hæmoglobin upon which the red colour of the corpuscles depends. Chemistry,
however, has failed to show that nitrous oxide is decomposed in the blood,
or that it exerts any of the chemical properties of oxygen on the
constituent elements of the blood. Whenever the slightest anæsthetic
effect is communicated to the nervous system, a simultaneous effect is
produced upon the medulla oblongata, the spinal chord, as well as upon the
cerebrum and cerebellum.

The whole available force in the body is undoubtedly due to oxidation.
This oxidation is accomplished by means of the blood, and it is therefore
evident that a continuous flow of oxygenated blood to the nerve centres is
necessary as a source of power and of sensibility, as well as for the
reintegration of nerve tissue. Any deficiency of oxygen in the blood is
followed by a decreased arterialisation of the whole volume of the blood.
Under these conditions the exhalation of carbonic acid is relatively less
rapid than its formation, and life cannot continue if the blood in the
arteries becomes thoroughly venous, as well in colour as in character.
That nitrous oxide, when inhaled, changes the colour of the
blood-corpuscles is evidenced by the livid appearance of the face and
mucous surfaces; the latter, indeed, is a characteristic accompaniment of
its administration, and the darkened colour of the blood may be observed
as it flows from the severed vessels. This colour of the blood is probably
in part due to uneliminated carbonic acid; but that nitrous oxide
possesses in a high degree the property of darkening the blood-corpuscles
may be easily demonstrated by directing a jet of the gas for a few seconds
upon a little arterial blood in a test tube. Yet, from what has previously
been advanced on this point, this latter result may more strictly be due
to physical than to chemical causes. An interruption of the circulation in
any part of the organism is soon followed by local insensibility in the
tissues from which the blood supply may have been withdrawn; and it is
beyond dispute that, during the anæsthetic state, the circulation of the
blood through the capillary system becomes diminished in velocity. A
tendency to stasis begins to appear, accompanied at the same time by a
considerable reduction in the supply of arterial blood. These are facts
that admit of experimental demonstration, as does also another fact, viz.
that during the period of insensibility produced by the inhalation of
nitrous oxide the brain itself is in a state of comparative anæmia. In
short, it appears most probable that an arrest of the capillary
circulation through the brain, to which several writers have attributed a
potential influence as the cause of anæsthesia, is simply, so far as it
may exist, a result of it.

The anæsthesia produced by the inhalation of nitrous oxide would,
therefore, appear to be referable to an altered condition of the blood,
whereby the molecular dynamic changes are interfered with, this
interruption being probably due either to the retention of carbonic acid,
or to the presence of nitrous oxide; or, as the result of both conditions,
to the exclusion of oxygen.

For minor operations nitrous oxide possesses many advantages over other
anæsthetics. The principal of these is its safety. In America, in 200,000
cases in which it had been administered, there was only one case of death.
Furthermore its use is not contra-indicated in patients having any
constitutional derangement, nor for women who are either pregnant or
suckling.

Nitrogen, coal-gas, and carbonic acid have also been employed as
anæsthetics.

The ‘British Medical Journal’ for June 13th, 1868, contains an account of
some experiments performed by Dr Burdon Sanderson, at Middlesex Hospital,
with nitrogen. It seems to have been longer in producing insensibility
than nitrous oxide, but no lividity of countenance accompanied, nor
sickness or headache followed, its administration.

=ANALEP′TIC.= _Syn._ ANALEP′TICUS, L.; ANALEPTIQUE, Fr. Restorative; that
recruits the strength lost by sickness.

=Analep′tics.= _Syn._ ANALEP′TICA, L.; ANALEPTIQUES, Fr. In
_pharmacology_, &c., restorative medicines and agents.

=ANAL′YSIS= (-e-sĭs). [Eng. L., Gr.] _Syn._ ANALYSE, Fr.; AUSLÖSUNG,
ZERLEGUNG, Ger. In a gen. sense, the resolution of anything, whether an
object of the senses or of the intellect, into its elementary parts. In
_chemistry_, the resolution or separation of a compound body into its
constituent parts or elements, for the purpose of either determining their
nature, or, when this is known, their relative proportions. It is divided
into QUAL′ITATIVE ANALYSIS and QUAN′TITATIVE ANALYSIS; and these again
into PROX′IMATE ANALYSIS and UL′TIMATE ANALYSIS. The first consists in
finding the components of a compound, merely as respects their nature or
names; the second, in finding not merely the component parts, but also the
proportions of each of them; the third gives the results in the names of
the proximate or immediate principles or compounds which, by their union,
form the body under examination; whilst the fourth develops the chemical
elements of which it is composed.[56] An analysis may also be made to
determine whether a certain body is or is not contained in a compound (as
lead in wine); or it may be undertaken to ascertain all the constituents
present; the extent of an investigation being merely limited by the object
in view.

[Footnote 56: Thus, suet consists of olein, palmitin, and stearin. These
would form the ‘terms’ of the PROXIMATE ANALYSIS of this substance. But
olein, palmitin, and stearin consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS of suet would, therefore, have reference to the elements
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.]

For success in chemical analysis a thorough acquaintance with the various
properties of bodies is required, as well as aptitude in applying this
knowledge in discriminating them, and separating them from each other.
Judgment and expertness in manipulation are, indeed, essential
qualifications. The method pursued must likewise be such as to attain the
object in view with unerring certainty, and in the most expeditious
manner. “The mere knowledge of the reagents, and of the reactions of other
bodies with them, will not suffice for the attainment of this end. This
requires the additional knowledge of a systematic and progressive course
of analysis, or, in other words, the knowledge of the order, and
succession, in which solvents, together with general and special reagents,
ought to be applied, both to effect the speedy and safe detection of every
individual component of a compound or mixture, and to prove with certainty
the absence of all other substances. If we do not possess this systematic
knowledge, or if in the hope of attaining an object more rapidly, we
adhere to no method in our investigations and experiments, analysing
becomes (at least in the hands of a novice) mere guesswork, and the
results obtained are no longer the fruits of scientific calculation, but
mere matters of accident, which sometimes may prove lucky hits, and at
others total failures.” (Fresenius.)

=ANALYSIS, SPECTRUM.= More than half a century ago Sir John Herschel
employed the prism in the analysis of coloured flames, and in 1834 Fox
Talbot, by means of the same instrument, distinguished the difference
between the spectra given by strontium and lithium, notwithstanding the
similarity of the two in colour. But it was reserved for Messrs Kirchkoff
and Bunsen, as the inventors of the spectroscope, to devise the only
efficient method of analysing flame, and, at the same time, to furnish
chemists with a means whereby they may detect with unerring certainty the
presence of any known element by observing the spectrum it gives when such
element is submitted to a temperature sufficiently high for it to emit a
luminous vapour. That certain chemical substances when heated in the flame
of the spirit-lamp or the blow-pipe, or any other source of comparatively
white light, imparted characteristic colours to the flame, was a fact that
had long been known to chemists; for example, when a salt of sodium was so
treated, an intense yellow colour was imparted to the flame. A salt of
potassium produced under the same circumstances a violet, strontium, a
crimson colour, &c. These results could only be produced when the
substance under examination contained but one of the salts in question. If
more than one were present, this method of qualitative analysis was
comparatively, if not wholly, valueless, because the specific colour
communicated to the flame by the presence of one element would be masked,
and, consequently, destroyed by the colour developed by the vapour of
another or other elements. For instance, so much more vivid is the yellow
colour given to flame by sodium salts than the violet tint imparted by
those of potassium, that a very small trace of sodium prevents the unaided
eye from perceiving the violet, even when the potassium compound is
present in large quantity.

Very different optical effects, however, follow if the rays from the
various-coloured flames are made to pass through a prism. As is well
known, if a ray of ordinary white light is made to traverse a prism, when
it issues from the prism it has become decomposed or dissected into seven
luminous rays of as many different colours, the coloured image thus
produced being called a prismatic spectrum, or simply a spectrum.

This phenomenon is owing to the prism refracting or bending out of its
course the beam of light sent through it, and to each coloured ray of
which the beam is made up being differently refracted.

“If, however, instead of the white flame coloured flames are examined by
means of a prism, the light being allowed to fall through a narrow slit
upon the prism, it is at once seen that the light thus refracted differs
essentially from white light, inasmuch as it consists of only a particular
set of rays, each flame giving a spectrum containing a few bright bands.
Thus, the spectrum of the yellow soda flame contains only one fine bright
yellow line, whilst the purple potash flame exhibits a spectrum in which
there are two bright lines, one lying at the extreme red, and the other at
the extreme violet end. These peculiar lines are always produced by the
same chemical element, and by no other known substance; and the position
of these lines always remains unaltered. When the spectrum of a flame
tinted by a mixture of sodium and potassium salts is examined, the yellow
ray of sodium is found to be confined to its own position, whilst the
potassium red and purple lines are as plainly seen as they would have been
had no sodium been present.”[57]

[Footnote 57: Roscoe.]

Equally characteristic and well-defined spectra, the bands in which have
each an invariable and fixed position in the spectrum, are also produced
when the coloured flames arising from heating to the requisite point the
remaining salts of the alkalies and alkaline earths are examined by the
prism. On the opposite page the first spectrum shows some of the fixed
dark lines that are always observed when a solar beam is examined by the
spectroscope. These lines are compared with the position of some of the
more important bright lines furnished by the spectra of the metals of the
alkalies and alkaline earths, when their chlorides are heated upon a loop
of platinum wire introduced into the flame of a Bunsen gas-burner. The
characteristic bright lines given by each metal are denoted by the letters
of the Greek alphabet, the earliest letter indicating the most strongly
marked lines.

In the potassium spectrum the most characteristic bright lines are the red
line K α, and violet line K β. In the case of sodium nearly the whole of
the light is concentrated on the intense yellow double line Na α. In the
lithium spectrum a crimson band, Li α, is the prominent line; Li β is
seldom visible, but at the elevated temperature of the voltaic arc an
additional blue line becomes very intense. In the spectrum of cæsium two
lines in the blue, Cs α and Cs β, are strongly marked. In rubidium the
lines Rb α and Rb β in the blue, and Rb γ in the red are almost equally
specific. Thallium is recognised by the intense green line Il α. The
spectra of the metals of the alkaline earths are equally definite, though
more complicated.

By means of the spectroscope quantities so inconceivably minute as the
33,000th of a grain of chloride of rubidium, the 170,000th of a grain of
chloride of cæsium, the 2,500,000th of a grain of sodium, and the
6,000,000th of a grain of lithium, have been detected, and have revealed
themselves to the sight by their characteristic bands in the spectrum.
Hence it is that in making use of this branch of analysis the chemist has
been enabled to show the universality of many elements hitherto regarded
as being very sparingly distributed throughout the globe.

Thus lithium, which until lately was supposed to be one of the rare
elements, has been found as a constituent of tea, tobacco, milk, blood,
and in almost all spring waters. Furthermore, the prodigiously sensitive
reactions afforded by the spectroscope have not only revealed the presence
of infinitesimal quantities of known elements, but have led to the
discovery of new ones which had escaped detection by the older and less
delicate processes of analysis. It was by means of spectrum analysis that
the two alkali metals, cæsium and rubidium, were discovered by Bunsen and
Kirchkoff in 1860 in a mineral water at Durkheim, and that Mr Crookes in
1861 discovered the metal thallium in the deposit found in the flue of a
pyrites furnace; whilst still more recently Messrs Reich and Richter, in a
spectrum examination of a zinc ore from Freiberg, discovered the metal
indium.

[Illustration]

The most brilliant spectra are given by those salts which are the most
easily volatilised, such as the chlorides, iodides, and bromides of the
different metals. But it is only the metals of the alkalies and alkaline
earths that give spectra that are characteristic. When it is desired to
obtain the spectra of the other metals, they may be raised to the
requisite temperature by means of the electric spark, which in passing
through the two points of the metal operated upon volatilises a minute
quantity of it, and thus enables it to emit its particular light. The
electric sparks are best obtained by means of Ruhmkorff’s coil. Thus each
metal may be made to yield a spectrum which specially belongs to it, and
to it alone. When the electric discharge is sent through a compound gas or
vapour, owing to the intense temperature generated separation of its
constituents must take place, since the spectra produced are those of the
elementary components of the gas. The permanent gases give each their
peculiar spectrum when they are strongly heated, by which they may be
recognised; thus the spectrum of hydrogen is composed of three bands, one
being bright red, one green, and the other blue. Nitrogen gives a very
complicated spectrum.

The accompanying figure exhibits a very complete form of the spectroscope
adapted to a single prism.

[Illustration]

P represents a flint-glass prism supported on the cast-iron tripod F, and
retained in its place by the spring _c_. At the end of the tube A nearest
the prism is a lens, placed at the distance of its focus for parallel rays
from a vertical slit at the other end of the tube. The width of the slit
can be regulated by means of the screw _e_. One half of this slit is
covered by a small rectangular prism designed to reflect the rays
proceeding from the source of light D, down the axis of the tube, whilst
the rays from the source of light E pass directly down the tube. By this
arrangement the observer stationed at the end of the telescope B is able
to compare the spectra of both lights, which are seen one above the other,
and he can at once decide whether their lines coincide or differ. _a_ and
_b_ are screws for adjusting the axis of the telescope so as to bring any
part of the slit at _e_ into the centre of the field of vision.

The telescope as well as the tube C is moveable in a horizontal plane
around the axis of the tripod. The tube C contains a lens at the end next
to the prism, and at the other end is a scale formed by transparent lines
on an opaque ground; it is provided with a levelling screw, _d_. When the
telescope has been properly adjusted to the examination of the spectrum,
the tube C is moved until it is placed at such an angle with the telescope
and the face of the prism, that when a light is transmitted through the
scale the image of this scale is reflected into the telescope from the
face of the prism nearest the observer. This image is rendered perfectly
distinct by pushing in the tube which holds the scale nearer to the lens
in C, or withdrawing it to a greater distance, as may be required. The
reflected lines of the scale can then be employed for reading off the
position of the dark or bright lines of the spectrum, as both will appear
simultaneously overlapping each other in the field of the telescope.

By turning the tube C round upon the axis of the tripod any particular
line of the scale can be brought to coincidence with any desired line of
the spectrum. Stray light is excluded by covering the stand, the prism,
and the ends of the tube adjoining it with a loose black cloth. The
dispersive power upon the spectrum may be much increased by using several
prisms instead of one. Kirchkoff used four prisms in his experiments upon
the solar spectrum. Great care must be observed in placing the prisms; the
refracting edge of each prism must be exactly vertical, and the position
of minimum deviation for the rays to be observed must be obtained.

The preceding remarks have reference to the spectra produced when the
vapours of certain elements are evolved in flame derived from artificial
sources. When, however, solar light is examined by the spectroscope,
results entirely the reverse follow.

If a beam of sunlight be sent through the slit of the spectroscope, the
prismatic image is seen to be intersected by a number of fine black lines,
varying in thickness and intensity, and invariably occupying the same
relative position in the solar spectrum. These lines were first noticed so
far back as 1815 by a German optician, Frauenhofer, after whom they were
named Frauenhofer’s lines; but it was not until the invention of the
spectroscope that the origin of these lines could be accounted for. By so
arranging the instrument as to cause the spectrum from a solar beam, and
that from a metallic element, to fall upon the field of the telescope, so
that the solar spectrum shall be above the other, both being perfectly
parallel; the bright bands or lines of the metal are all seen to be
continued in the dark solar lines, for, as may be seen by consulting the
plate of the different spectra, several lines are sometimes produced by
one element alone. If, for instance, the sodium and solar spectra are thus
compared, the bright yellow sodium line will be found to agree exactly
not only in position, but also in intensity and breadth, with one of the
dark solar ones. And the same thing occurs when the comparison is made
with many of the other metals, the bright lines in the respective spectra
furnished by them are each coincident with a particular dark line in the
solar spectrum, and from every dark line in the latter a corresponding
bright one can be found amongst the spectra of the metals. From what has
just been stated, the inference seems irresistible that this coincidence
between the dark solar lines and the bright lines of the metals cannot be
accidental, but must be due to some intimate connection between them, and
that this is the case can be proved beyond refutation by a simple
experiment, in which the bright metallic lines can be changed into dark
ones, corresponding in every particular with those of the solar spectrum.
Thus the bright yellow soda lines coincident with Frauenhofer’s lines can
be converted into dark ones by allowing the rays from a strong source of
white light to pass through a flame coloured with sodium, and then making
them fall upon the slit of the spectroscope. If we examine the spectrum
obtained by this means, instead of seeing the usual bright double band
upon a black ground, there will be presented to our sight a double dark
line, corresponding exactly with the position and width of the sodium
line, and instead of the black ground there will be a continuous spectrum
of white light, as in the solar spectrum.

The explanation of this remarkable phenomenon is due to Kirchkoff, and is
as follows:——When any substance is heated sufficiently to render it
luminous, rays of a certain and definite degree of refrangibility are
given out by it; whilst the same substance has also the power of absorbing
rays of this identical refrangibility. In the above experiment, therefore,
the yellow flame absorbed the same kind of light as it gave out, a
corresponding decrease of intensity in its own particular position in the
spectrum occurred, and a dark line showed itself in consequence.

In the same manner and under similar conditions the spectra of many other
substances have been reversed.

Reasoning on these facts, Kirchkoff has been able to account for the
presence in the solar spectrum of Frauenhofer’s dark lines. He supposes
that in the luminous atmosphere surrounding the sun the vapours of various
metals are present, each of which would give its characteristic system of
bright lines; but behind this incandescent atmosphere containing metallic
vapour is the still more intensely heated solid or liquid nucleus of the
sun, which emits a brilliant continuous spectrum, containing rays of all
degrees of refrangibility.

When the light of this intensely heated nucleus is transmitted through the
incandescent photosphere of the sun, the bright lines which would be
produced by the photosphere are reversed, and Frauenhofer’s dark lines are
only the reversed bright lines which would be visible if the intensely
heated nucleus were no longer there.

The correctness of this theory has been rigorously tested by Kirchkoff
himself, who submitted the solar spectrum to a most minute and searching
examination.

As a result of the knowledge thus obtained, the presence of certain metals
in the sun’s atmosphere was an inevitable deduction. The metals hitherto
detected in the solar photosphere are——iron, sodium, magnesium, calcium,
chromium, nickel, barium, copper, zinc, strontium, cadmium, cobalt,
manganese, aluminium, and titanium. Hydrogen also exists in large quantity
as an incandescent gas, and gives rise to the red protuberances that may
be observed during a total eclipse.

During the total eclipse of 1869, M. Janssen, a French astronomer, was
enabled to obtain and figure the specimen of these red protuberances,
which, taken exclusively from that source of light, gave not dark lines,
but bright ones, corresponding in position with those of hydrogen,
magnesium, and sodium.

The fixed stars, unlike the moon and planets, which shine only by
reflected light, are not merely illuminated by self luminous bodies, and
yield spectra, which show them to contain many elements known to us; their
spectra are crossed by dark lines similar to, but not identical with those
given by the sun’s light. The spectrum yielded by the star Aldebaran shows
it to contain hydrogen, sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, tellurium,
antimony, bismuth, and mercury; in the spectrum of Sirius only sodium,
magnesium, and hydrogen have been found; whilst in that of Orionis there
is an absence of hydrogen. Most of the nebulæ and comets give spectra in
which there are only bright lines. It is hence inferred that these
celestial bodies are composed of masses of glowing gas, and, unlike the
sun and stars, do not consist of a solid or liquid mass surrounded by a
gaseous atmosphere. In the nebulæ hydrogen and nitrogen only have been
found; and in comets, principally carbon.

=ANANAS HEMP= (_Ananassa sativa_, _S. Brumelia ananas_, as well as other
species). This hemp comes from the West Indies and Central and South
America, where the common ananas is cultivated. It is rather inferior to
some varieties for spinning.

=ANASTATIC PRINTING.= See PRINTING and ZINCOGRAPHY.

=ANATHERIN BALSAM.= The following formula is published by the Netherlands
Society:——Tincture of myrrh, 160 grms.; tincture of catechu, 80 grms.;
tincture of guaiacum, 40 grms.; tincture of rhatany, 40 grms.; tincture of
cloves, 30 grms.; spirit of cochlearia, 20 grms.; oil of cassia, 20 drops;
otto of roses, 1 drop; proof spirit, 630 grms.

=ANATHERIN BALSAM= (J. G. Popp, Vienna). A mouth-wash. Red sandal wood, 20
parts; guaiacum wood, 10 parts; myrrh, 25 parts; cloves, 15 parts;
cinnamon, 5 parts; oils of cloves and cinnamon, of each, 2/3 part; spirit,
90 per cent., 1450 parts; rose water, 725 parts. Digest and filter.

Dr Hager, who gives the above, says that on the expiration of the patent
the following formula was published, but that a preparation made from that
process had only a distant resemblance to the actual compound. Myrrh, 1
part; guaiacum wood, 4 parts; saltpetre, 1 part; to be macerated for a
night with corn brandy, 120 parts; spirit of cochlearia, 180 parts. Then
distil of this 240 parts, in which are to be digested for 14 days garden
rue, cochlearia, rose leaves, black mustard, horseradish, pellitory root,
cinchona bark, club-moss, sage-vetiver, and alkanet root, of each 1 part.
Strain and filter, and to each 120 parts of the filtrate add 1 part of
spirit of nitrous ether. (Hager.)

=ANATOM′ICAL.= _Syn._ ANATOM′ICUS, L.; ANATOMIQUE, Fr.; ANATOMISCH, Ger.
Belonging to anatomy or dissection.

=Anatomical Prepara′tions.= Objects of interest in both surgical and
pathological anatomy, and specimens in natural history, preserved by
subjecting them to antiseptic processes, to which is also frequently added
injection with coloured fluids (which subsequently harden), amalgams, or
fusible metal, in order to display more fully the minute vessels, or the
microscopic anatomy of the several parts. See FUSIBLE ALLOY, INJECTIONS,
PREPARATIONS, PUTREFACTION, SKELETONS, SOLUTIONS, &c.

=ANCH′OVY= (-chō′-). _Syn._ ANCHOIS, Fr.; ANCHOVE, ANSCHOVE, Ger.;
ACCIUGHE, ANCHIOVE. It.; ANCHOVA, Port., Sp. The _clu′pea encrasic′olus_
(Linn.), a small fish of the herring tribe, closely resembling the English
sprat. It is common in the Mediterranean, and occurs in the greatest
abundance and of the finest quality about the island of Gorgona, near
Leghorn. It is taken in the night, during May, June, and July.

Anchovies are prepared for sale or exportation by salting or pickling
them——the heads, intestines and pectoral fins having been first removed,
but not the scales, and afterwards packing them, along with rock-salt, in
the small kegs in which they are imported into this country. The small
fish are valued more than the larger ones. For the table they are often
fried to a pale amber colour, in oil or butter; having previously been
scraped clean, soaked for an hour or two in water, wiped dry, opened
(without dividing the fish), and had the back-bones removed. Before being
put into the pan they are usually highly seasoned with cayenne; and after
being again closed, are dipped into a rich light batter. They are also
divided into fillets, and served as sandwiches, or in curried toasts.
Anchovies are also extensively potted (POTTED ANCHOVIES), and made into
butter (A.-BUTTER), and into sauce (A.-SAUCE), particularly the last.

The anchovy has a fine and peculiar flavour, and is eaten as a delicacy
all over Europe. It was known to the Greeks and Romans, who prepared from
it a kind of garum for the table. It is said to be aperitive, stimulant,
and stomachic.

The high price of genuine Gorgona anchovies has led the fraudulent dealer
to either substitute for them, or mix with them, fish of a less expensive
kind. The most frequent SUBSTITUTIONS are Dutch, French, and Sicilian fish
of allied species or varieties, sardines and even the common sprat. The
genuine Gorgona fish is about the length of one’s finger; and may be known
by its silvery appearance; by the greater thickness of its head, which is
sharp-pointed, with the upper jaw considerably the longest, and the mouth
deeply divided; the dusky brown colour of its back,[58] and the pink
salmon colour of its flesh. When only 3 months old, its flesh is pale;
when of 6 months, rather pink; when of 10 to 12 months (or in its prime),
a beautiful deep pink colour; and when much older, darker, but less
lively. The fin-rays, varying in number with the age of the fish, are——

              Yarrell. Hassall.[59]
  Dorsal        14,      16 (?).
  Pectoral      15,      ——
  Ventral        7,      ——
  Anal          18,      19 (?).
  Caudal        19,      26 (?).

These fins are delicate in structure and greenish-white; and the membranes
connecting the rays almost transparent. “The length of the head, compared
with the length of the body alone, is as 1 to 3; the depth of the body but
2-3rds of the length of the head, and compared to the length of the whole
fish is as 1 to 7;” the tail is deeply forked, the gill covers are
elongated, and the scales of the body large and deciduous.” “The breadth
of the eye is 1-5th of the length of the whole head.”[60] Dutch fish may
be generally known by being deprived of the scales, and the French fish by
their larger size; and both by the paler or whiter colour of their flesh;
and sardines and sprats by the flesh being white. The genuine fish may
also be known by the pickle, after repose or filtration, being of a clear
pinkish colour, without any red sediment; whilst that from spurious kinds
is turbid and red only when agitated, and deposits a heavy red sediment
(Armenian bole, Venetian red, or red ochre) on repose. See BUTTER,
POTTING, POWDERS, SAUCES, &c.

[Footnote 58: The colour of the top of the head and back is, in the recent
fish, blue, with a tinge of green. (Yarrell.)]

[Footnote 59: Counted, by Dr A. H. Hassall, in fish in the preserved
state.]

[Footnote 60: Yarrell’s ‘British Fishes’.]

=Anchovies, Brit′ish.= See SPRATS.

=ANCHU′SIC ACID= (-kū′zĭk). See ANCHUSINE.

=ANCHU′SINE.= (-kū′zĭn). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANCHU′SIC ACID*,
PSEU′DO-ALKANN′INE*, PSEUDO-ALKA′′NIUM*; ANCHUSI′NA, L. The resinoid
constituting the colouring matter of alkanet-root (which _see_).

=ANCHYLO′SIS= (ăngk-e-). [L.; prim. Gr.] _Syn._ ANKYLO′SIS, ANCYLO′SIS
(ăn-se-), L.; ANKYLOSE, Fr., Ger. In _pathology_, stiffness or immobility
of a joint naturally moveable. Anchylosis is either true or complete, as
when the extremities of the bones forming a joint are reunited and
immovable; or false, or incomplete, where the affection depends upon a
contraction of the tendons and ligaments surrounding the joints, which
nevertheless admit of a small degree of motion. For the first there is no
available remedy; for the second gentle and progressive flexion and
extension of the part daily (carefully avoiding violence), friction with
oleaginous and stimulating liniments, and the use of the hot bath, vapour
bath, or hot-air or Turkish bath, and electricity, have been strongly
recommended, and have frequently proved successful.

=ANCYLO′SIS.= See ANCHYLOSIS.

=ANDITROPFEN= (Kirchner and Menge Arolsen), for weak digestion. Senna, 20
parts; rhubarb, 3 parts; jalap, 6 parts; zedoary root, 2 parts; ginger, 2
parts; galangal, 3 parts; soda, bicarbonate, 5 parts; sugar, 15 parts;
water, 300 parts; spirit, 65 parts. After digestion this is to be strained
and mixed with an infusion of 30 parts of yarrow (with the flowers) in 300
parts of hot water. After standing some time filter. (Hager.)

=ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA.= (Ind. Ph.) _Syn._ KARIYÁT. _Habitat._ Commonly
in shady places all over India.——_Officinal part._ The dried stalks and
root (Andrographis Caules et Radix, Kariyat, Creyat). The stem, which is
usually met with, with the root attached, occurs in pieces of about a foot
or more in length, quadrangular, of a lightish-brown colour, and
persistent bitter taste.——_Properties._ Bitter tonic and stomachic, very
analogous to quassia in its action.——_Therapeutic uses._ In general
debility, in convalescence after fevers, and in the advanced stages of
dysentery.

_Preparations_:——

=Compound Infusion of Kariyát= (Infusum Andrographis compositum). Take of
Kariyát, bruised, 1/2 an ounce; orange-peel and coriander fruit, bruised,
of each, 60 grains; boiling water, 10 fluid ounces. Infuse in a covered
vessel for an hour and strain.——_Dose._ From 1-1/2 to 2 fluid ounces,
twice or thrice daily.

=Compound Tincture of Kariyát= (Tinctura Andrographis composita). Take of
kariyát root, cut small, 6 ounces; myrrh and aloes, in coarse powder, of
each 1 ounce; brandy, 2 pints. Macerate for seven days in a closed vessel,
with occasional agitation; strain, press, filter, and add sufficient
brandy to make two pints.——_Dose._ From 1 to 4 fluid drachms. Said to be
tonic, stimulant, and gently aperient, and to prove valuable in several
forms of dyspepsia, and in torpidity of the bowels.

=ANDROPOGON (CYMBOPOGON) CITRATUM.= Lemon Grass. (Ind. Ph.) _Habitat._
Commonly cultivated in gardens in India; also in Ceylon, upon a large
scale, for the sake of its volatile oil.——_Officinal part._ The volatile
oil (Oleum Andropogi Citrati, Lemon Grass Oil, Oil of Verbena), obtained
by distillation from the fresh plant; of a pale sherry colour,
transparent, extremely pungent taste, and a peculiar fragrant lemon-like
odour.——_Properties._ Stimulant, carminative, antispasmodic, and
diaphoretic; locally applied, rubefacient.——_Therapeutic use._ In
flatulent and spasmodic affections of the bowels, and in gastric
irritability. In cholera it proves serviceable by aiding the process of
reaction. Externally, as an embrocation in chronic rheumatism, neuralgia,
sprains, and other painful affections.

_Dose._ From 3 to 6 drops, on sugar or in emulsion. For external
application it should be diluted with twice its bulk of soap liniment or
any bland oil.

=ANDROPOGON (CYMBOPOGON) NARDUS.= CITRONELLE. (Ind. Ph.) _Habitat._ Madras
Peninsula and Ceylon. The volatile oil of this plant has similar
properties to _A. citratum_. and is used for the same purposes.

=ANDROPOGON PACHNODES.= (Ind. Ph.) The volatile oil of this plant
possesses similar properties to that of _A. citratum_, and is used for the
same purposes.

=ANELEC′TRIC= (ăn-e-). Non-electric; a non-electric.

=ANEMOM′ETER= (ăn-e-). _Syn._ ANEMOM′ETRUM, L.; ANÉMOMÈTRE, Fr.;
WINDMESSER, Ger. An instrument or apparatus for measuring the force or
velocity of the wind, or of a current of air. Various contrivances have
been adopted for this purpose. The anemometer of Dr Lind being also
applicable to the determination of the draught of a chimney, and the
strength of air-current, in ventilation, may be usefully described here:——

[Illustration]

_Uses and Appl._ The open end (_a_) is kept, by means of a vane, presented
to the wind, which acting on the surface of the water, or other liquid in
_b_, raises the level of the fluid in the arm (_c_). The difference of the
level of the fluid in the two arms of the instrument is the measure of the
force of the wind. To estimate the draught of a flue or chimney, the arm
(_c_) is placed in the chimney, and the orifice (_a_) in the
apartment.[61]

[Footnote 61: The anemometers now generally used in meteorological
observations are those of Mr Follet Osler, Dr Robinson, and Dr Whewell.
For a description of these instruments, see Phillip’s ‘Report on
Anemometry,’ the ‘Trans. of the Brit. Assoc.,’ 1846, ‘Trans. Royal Irish
Acad.,’ &c.]

=ANEMOM′ETRY.= _Syn._ ANEMOME′TRIA, L.; ANÉMOMETRIE, Fr.; WINDMESSEN, Ger.
In _meteorology_, _physics_, &c., the art or act of measuring the velocity
or force of the wind, or of ascertaining its direction.

=ANEM′ONE= (ă-nĕm′-o-ne). _Syn._ ANEM′ONY; ANEM′ONE, L., Gr.; ANÉMONE, Fr.
The wind-flower. In _botany_, a genus of beautiful flowering herbaceous
plants, of the nat. ord. Ranunculaceæ. The double flowers of some of the
species are among the most elegant ornaments of our gardens. Others are
used in medicine. They are all acrid and stimulating.

=Anem′ones, Sea.= (-o-nēz). _Syn._ AN′IMAL-FLOWERS‡, SEA SUN′FLOWERS‡.
Animals of the genus _actin′ia_, so called from the resemblance of their
claws or tentacles, when expanded, to the petals of a flower. They are of
various colours, are generally fixed by one end to rocks or stones in the
sand, and are very voracious, being accused of occasionally swallowing a
mussel or a crab as large as a hen’s egg for a meal. They belong to the
highly organised polypes of Cuvier.

=ANEMON′IC ACID.= See ANEMONINE.

=ANEMONIN.= A crystalline substance found in the leaves of several species
of anemone, viz. _A. pulsatilla_, _A. pretensis_, _A. nemorosa_. Water
distilled from these leaves, after some weeks, deposits a colourless
inodorous substance, which softens at 150° C, giving off water and acrid
vapours. It is purified by repeated crystallisation from boiling alcohol.
Anemonin is a poisonous body. It causes slight irritation when applied to
the skin. By the action of alkalies anemonin is transferred into anemonic
acid.

=ANEM′OSCOPE= (ăn′-e——Brande, Mayne). _Syn._ ANEMOSCO′PIUM, L.;
ANÉMOSCOPE, Fr.; ANEMOSKOP, Ger. An instrument to measure the force and
velocity of the wind. See ANEMOMETER.

=AN′EROID= (-royd)[62]. In _physics_, &c., not fluid, or not depending on
water or a fluid for its action; applied to a certain form of barometer
(which _see_)

[Footnote 62: That is——α, _without_, νηρος, (the) _watery_,
ειδος, _form_, as correctly given by Brande. By some strange
mistake, Dr Mayne, in his new ‘Expository Lexicon,’ gives “α,
priv., αηρ, air, terminal _-ides_,” as the derivation of this word; and
marks it ‘_ane′roid_,’]

=ANEURISM.= A tumour on an artery, produced by the rupture of the inner
coat of the vessel, and the blood getting between it and the outer coat.

=ANGEL′ICA= (-jĕl′-). [L., Port., Sp.; Ph. E. & D.] _Syn._ GARDEN
ANGELICA; ANGÉLIQUE, Fr.; ANGELIKA, A.-WURZEL, ANGELKRAUT, Ger. The
_angelica archangel′ica_ of Linnæus, an aromatic herbaceous plant with a
biennial, fleshy root, indigenous to the north of Europe, but frequently
found wild in England, and largely cultivated in our gardens. Dried root
(ANGELICA, Ph. E.), aperient, carminative, diaphoretic, and tonic; much
esteemed by the Laplanders, both as food and medicine;——fruit or seed
(ANGELICA, Ph. D.) resembles the root, but is weaker. The whole plant has
been extolled as an aromatic tonic. As a masticatory, it leaves an
agreeable glowing heat in the mouth. The aromatic properties of this plant
depend on a peculiar volatile oil and resin.

_Uses, &c._ It has been recommended in diarrhœa, dyspepsia, debility, and
some fevers; but is now seldom used in medicine. _Dose_, 30 gr. to 1 dr.
The dried root and seeds are used by rectifiers to flavour gin and
liqueurs; and the fresh root, tender stems, stalks, &c., are made by the
confectioners into an aromatic candy. See CANDYING, LIQUEURS, &c.

=Angelica Atropurpu′′rea.= [Linn.] _Syn._ AMER′ICAN ANGELICA; ANGELICA,
Ph. U. S. _Hab._ North America. Resembles garden angelica, but placed by
some botanists in a separate, though allied genus. It is a popular remedy
for flatulent colic, indigestion, and cardialgia, in the United States;
and is there regarded as tonic, cordial, and aphrodisiac.

=ANGEL′IC ACID. HC_{5}H_{7}O_{2}.= A volatile substance, noticed by L. A.
Buchner, jun., in angelica-root. It has a pungent sour smell, and a biting
acid taste; is sometimes fluid and oleaginous, and sometimes crystallised
in striated prisms.[63]

[Footnote 63: Schmidt’s ‘Jahrb.,’ 1842.]

=ANGO′LA= _Syn._ ANGO′LA-WOOL, ANGO′′RA-W., ANGO′NA-W., &c.; POIL DE
CHEVRON D’ANGORA, Fr.; (Engoor′, Engour′, or Engu′ri) TIFTIC, Tur. The
wool of ‘ca′pra Angoren′sis’ or the Angora-goat, of which the shawls of
Cashmere are made, and others in imitation of them. It is also used to
make plush, light cloths for paletôts which are repellent of wet, &c.; and
is extensively employed in France in the manufacture of lace more
brilliant than that of Valenciennes and Chantilly, and at half the price.
See ALPACA, SHAWLS, WOOL, &c.

=ANGOSTU′RA, Angustu′ra.= (-tūre′-ă). See CUSPARIA.

=Angostura, False.= See BRUCEA, CUSPARIA and STRYCHNOS.

=ANGOSTU′′RINE=, =Angustu′rine= (-ĭn). See CUSPARIN.

=ANHYDRIDE.= Most, if not all modern chemists, adopting GERHARDT’S
practice of limiting the title of acid to a particular class of substances
which contain hydrogen, now regard all true acids as salts of hydrogen.
Formerly many bodies, such as silica or white arsenic, were looked upon as
acids, though if we adopt the foregoing definition they are not really so
until they have combined with water. Such bodies, because they contain no
hydrogen, are now distinguished as anhydrides; the substances, for
example, familiarly known as carbonic, sulphurous, and phosphoric acids,
must, upon the above principle, be designated carbonic, sulphurous, and
phosphoric anhydrides. We may also define an anhydride to be an oxide
which forms an acid on treatment with water.

=ANHY′DROUS= (-drŭs; _an′hydrous_, as marked by Brande, is less usual).
_Syn._ AN′HYDRUS, L.; ANHYDRÉ, Fr.; WASSERFREI, Ger. Free from water; dry.
In _chemistry_ and _mineralogy_, a term frequently applied to substances,
as acids, alcohol, gases, salts, minerals, &c., which do not contain
either free or combined water. GASES may generally be rendered anhydrous
by passing them through a tube containing fused chloride of calcium, or
(_e.g._ AMMONIA and two or three others) quick-lime, in coarse powder; and
some of them, by passing them through concentrated sulphuric acid. SALTS
may generally be dried by cautiously submitting them to the action of
heat, or by exposure to a very dry atmosphere; and alcohol, and many other
volatile fluids, by careful distillation from chloride of calcium, or some
other highly hygrometric substance.

=AN′IL.= [Fr., Sp., L.] The indigof′era anil of botanists——one of the
plants yielding ‘indigo’——a native of America, but now largely cultivated
in the East Indies. See INDIGO (and _below_).

=AN′ILINE=[64] (-een). [Eng., Fr.] C_{6}H_{7}N. _Syn._ PHENYL′AMINE;
ANILI′NA, ANILI′NUM, &c., L. A peculiar volatile organic base first
noticed by Unverdorben in empyreumatic bone-oil, and afterwards obtained
by Runge from coal-tar, and by Fritzsche, Zinin, A. W. Hofmann, and
others, as a product of various reactions, processes, and decompositions,
particularly those attending the destructive distillation of organic
bodies.

[Footnote 64: For a detailed account of the methods of preparing aniline
commercially, and of the dyes obtained therefrom, _see_ ‘Dictionnaire de
Chimie,’ par A. Wurtz.]

PREP. Aniline is now almost invariably obtained, on the large scale,
either directly or indirectly from coal-tar or indigo; and chiefly from
the basic oil or naphtha, or the nitrobenzol, of which the former is the
principal source. The following are the leading commercial and
experimental processes:

1. From COAL-TAR or COAL-TAR NAPHTHA:——The basic oil or basic portion of
coal-tar or coal-tar naphtha, forming the latter, denser, and least
volatile products of the distillation or rectification of these
substances, is strongly agitated, for some time, along with hydrochloric
acid in slight excess, a glass globe, or, on the large scale, a suitable
vessel of lead, or of enamelled iron, being employed for the purpose; the
clear portion of the liquid (containing the hydrochlorates of the bases
present) is then decanted and carefully evaporated over an open fire until
acrid fumes begin to be disengaged, when it is again decanted or filtered;
the clear liquor, or filtrate is next treated with potash or milk of lime
in excess, by which the bases——chiefly aniline and chinoline——are
liberated under the form of a brownish oil; the whole of the resulting
mixture is now submitted to distillation, the portion which passes over at
or about 360° Fahr., and which consists chiefly of crude aniline, being
collected separately; the product is purified by rectification and
recollection, once or oftener, at the same temperature, and, lastly, by
fresh treatment with hydrochloric acid and careful distillation with
excess of potash, or milk of lime, as before.

2. From NITROBENZOL:——_a._ (Zinin.) An alcoholic solution of nitrobenzol,
after saturation with ammonia, is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen,
until, after some hours, a precipitation of sulphur takes place; the brown
liquid is then repeatedly saturated with fresh sulphuretted hydrogen,
until no more sulphur separates, the reaction being aided by occasionally
heating or distilling the mixture; an excess of acid is next added, and,
after filtering the liquid, and the removal of the alcohol and unaltered
nitrobenzol by ebullition or distillation, the residuum is lastly
distilled with caustic potash, in excess. The ANILINE found in the
receiver may be rendered quite pure by forming it into oxalate of aniline,
repeatedly crystallising the salt from alcohol, and finally distilling it
with excess of caustic potassa, as before.

The following is a cheaper and more convenient process; and probably the
best, or one of the best, that has yet been invented for obtaining
aniline:——

_b._ (M. Béchamps.) From nitrobenzol distilled along with basic
protacetate of iron; or, what is better, by distilling a mixture of
iron-filings, 2 parts, and acetic acid, 1 part, with about an equal volume
of nitrobenzol, the reaction being assisted, whenever the effervescence
flags, by the application of a gentle heat. The liquor found in the
receiver consists of aniline and water, from which the first, forming the
lower portion, is obtained, after sufficient repose in a separator; or
more easily, by adding a very little ether, which by dissolving in the
aniline, causes it to rise to the surface, when it is at once decanted. A
very spacious glass or earthenware retort must be employed in the process,
as the mass swells up violently; and it must be connected with the
receiver, on the small scale, by means of a Liebig’s condenser, and, on
the large scale, by an ordinary worm-pipe and tub, kept in good action by
a sufficient flow of cold water.

The apparatus for carrying out Béchamp’s method was devised by Nicholson,
and is exhibited in the subjoined plate.

“It consists essentially of a cast-iron cylinder (A) of 10 hectolitres
(220 cubic gallons) capacity. A stout iron tube is fitted to this vessel,
reaching nearly to the bottom of the cylinder. The upper part of this tube
is connected with the machinery (G), while the surface of the tube is
fitted with steel projections. The tube serves to admit steam, as well as
acting as a stirring apparatus. Sometimes, instead of this tube, a solid
iron axle is employed, and in this case there is a separate steampipe (D).
Through the opening at K the materials for making aniline are put into the
apparatus, while the volatile products are carried off through E. H serves
for emptying and cleaning the apparatus. The S-shaped tube connected with
the vessel B acts as a safety valve. When it is intended to work with this
apparatus there is poured into it through K 10 parts of acetic acid at 8°
B. (sp. gr. 1·060), previously diluted with six times its weight of water;
next there are added 30 parts of iron filings, or cast-iron borings, and
125 parts of nitrobenzol, and immediately after the stirring apparatus is
set in motion. The reaction ensues directly, and is attended by a
considerable evolution of heat and vapours. Gradually more iron is added
until the quantity amounts to 180 parts. The escaping vapours are
condensed in F, and the liquid condensed in R is from time to time poured
back into the cylinder A. The reduction is finished after a few hours.”

[Illustration]

3. From INDIGO:——Powdered indigo is added to a boiling and highly
concentrated solution of caustic potash, as long as it dissolves and
hydrogen gas is liberated; the resulting brownish-red liquid is evaporated
to dryness, and the residuum is submitted to destructive distillation in a
retort, which, owing to the intumesence of the mass, should be strong and
spacious. The ANILINE is found in the receiver under the form of a
brownish oil mixed with ammoniacal liquor, and by separation from the
latter, and subsequent rectification, is obtained nearly colourless. It
may be further purified, as in the preceding processes.——_Prod._ 18 to 20%
of the indigo employed.

4. By fusing, with proper precautions, a mixture of isatine and hydrate of
potassium (both in powder); a retort connected with a well-cooled
receiver, being employed as the apparatus. Said by Profs A. W. Hofmann and
Muspratt to be “the most eligible process for isolating” aniline.[65]

[Footnote 65: Muspratt’s ‘Chemistry,’ i, 599.]

5. From anthranilic acid mixed with powdered glass or sand, and rapidly
heated in a retort.

6. By treating an alcoholic solution of benzine with a little zinc and
hydrochloric acid.

7. By heating phenyl-alcohol with ammonia in sealed tubes.

In Zinin’s process the nitrobenzol is dissolved in alcohol, and the
solution, after the addition of ammonia, is saturated with sulphuretted
hydrogen. After standing some time the solution deposits a large quantity
of sulphur, and the liquid yields aniline.

Many other reducing agents have been proposed for the conversion of
nitrobenzol into aniline, such as arsenite of sodium, powdered zinc, &c.,
but on the large scale they have all been found inferior to the process of
Béchamp. Kremer’s process consists in heating one part of nitrobenzol in a
proper apparatus with five of water and two and a half of zinc dust. When
the reaction is completed the aniline, amounting to about 65% of the
weight of the benzol, is distilled off in a current of steam.

_Prop., &c._ A thin, oily, colourless liquid, with a faintly vinous odour,
and a hot and aromatic taste; very volatile in the air; miscible in all
proportions with alcohol and ether; very slightly soluble in water;
neutral to ordinary test-paper, but exhibiting an alkaline reaction to
dahlia-petal infusion and paper; dissolves camphor, sulphur, and
phosphorus, and coagulates albumen; possesses a high refractive power; and
precipitates the oxides of iron, zinc, and alumina, from solutions of
their salts, and neutralises the acids, like ammonia. With the acids it
forms numerous crystallisable compounds of great beauty, and which are
easily formed, and are precisely analogous to the corresponding salts of
ammonia. These, on exposure to the air, acquired a rose colour, in many
cases gradually passing into brown. Its boiling-point is 359° to 360°
Fahr.; sp. gr. 1·028.

_Tests._——1. Chromic acid gives a deep greenish or bluish-black
precipitate with aniline and its salts:——2. Hypochlorite of lime strikes
an extremely beautiful violet colour, which is soon destroyed:——3. The
addition of two or three drops of nitric acid to anhydrous aniline
produces a fine blue colour, which, on the application of heat, passes
into yellow, and a violent reaction ensues, sometimes followed by
explosion:——4. With bichloride of platinum it yields a double salt
(platino-chloride of aniline) analogous to the like salt of ammonia.
These reactions distinguish it from all other substances.

Commercial aniline is a mixture consisting in great part of aniline,
paratoluidine (solid), and orthotoluidine in variable proportions. In
addition it contains small amounts of metatoluidine, nitrobenzol, odorine,
&c., but for all practical purposes it may be regarded as a mixture of
aniline and toluidine. These anilines are obtained from a portion of the
light coal-tar naphtha boiling between certain temperatures, by treating
it first with nitric acid to convert it into the nitro-compounds, and then
reducing these with iron and acetic acid, as already described under
Béchamp’s process. It is very plain that as the coal-tar naphtha contains
variable proportions of benzol and toluidine, the resulting product must
also vary in the quantities of aniline and toluidine it will contain. In
order to distinguish between various samples of commercial aniline,
Reimann submits them to fractional distillation and compares the results.
He places 100 c. c. of the sample to be tested in a retort fitted with a
thermometer and heated by means of an oil bath. The liquid as it distils
is received in a narrow graduated cylinder, and the amount that passes
over between every 5° C. (9° F.) is noted.

In order to obtain standards for comparison he first distilled a sample of
light aniline, or kuphaniline, as he terms it, then one of heavy aniline
or baraniline; afterwards mixtures of the two in varying proportions. In
the accompanying table the results are given.

  -------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------
   Centigrade {|K. 100    90     85       80       75     60      50       25       0
              {|B.   0    10     15       20       25     40      50       75     100
  -------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------
   Below 180°  |  8-1/2    7    2-1/2    5-1/2    7       ...    7        5-1/2    ...
   180°——185°  | 54       50   29-1/2   22        5-1/2    7     4-1/2    2-1/2    2
   185°——190°  | 34       34   56-1/2   55-1/2   55-1/2   37     7-1/2    4-1/2    1-1/2
   190°——195°  |  ...      5    7-1/2    8-1/2   15       33    42       17        8
   195°——200°  |  ...     ...   ...      ...      9       ...   19       36       18
   200°——205°  |  ...     ...   ...      ...      4-1/2   16    10       16       39
   205°——210°  |  ...     ...   ...      ...      ...     ...    3-1/2    8       19
   210°——215°  |  ...     ...   ...      ...      ...     ...    ...      4-1/2    7
   Residue     |  3-1/2    4    4        8-1/2    3-1/2    7     6-1/2    5        5-1/2
  -------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------

To ascertain the quality of any sample it is only necessary to distil it
in the manner already described, and compare the results with those in the
above table.

(For further information consult Wagner’s ‘Chemical Technology,’ Calvert’s
‘Dyeing and Calico Printing,’ edited by Stenhouse and Groves; Crooke’s
‘Practical Handbook of Dyeing and Calico Printing,’ Ure’s Dictionary,
edited by Hunt.)

_Uses_, _&c_. Chiefly in dyeing, for the production of colouring matter of
various rich shades of purple and violet, some approaching pink, by the
action of chromic acid; and of a splendid crimson, by the action of
various oxidising agents. It forms the basis of the celebrated new dyes
for silks lately patented by Mr W. H. Perkin, and others, and which are
not only more delicate and gorgeous in tint, but also more permanent, than
any produced by other substances.

Besides numerous salts, various substitution compounds of aniline have
been formed, all of which possess vast scientific interest, and several
are likely to prove of importance in the arts. See DYEING, INDIGO, TAR
COLOURS, &c. (also _below_.)

=Aniline, Chro′mates of=. _Prep_. 1. (NEUTRAL CHROMATE.) From sulphate or
oxalate of aniline and chromate of potash, by double decomposition.

2. (BICHRO′MATE:——Mr W. H. Perkin.) Sulphate of aniline and bichromate of
potash, in equivalent quantities, are separately dissolved in water, and
the solutions, after being mixed, are allowed to stand for several hours.
The whole is then thrown upon a filter, and the black precipitate which
forms is washed and dried. It is next digested in coal-tar naphtha (——?
benzol), to extract a brown resinous substance; after which it is digested
in alcohol, to dissolve out the colouring matter (BICHROMATE OF ANILINE),
which is left behind on distilling off the spirit, as a coppery friable
mass. Patented.

=Aniline, Cy′anide of=. Benzonitrile.

=Aniline, Ox′alate of=. (C_{6}H_{7}N)_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. Obtained by
saturating an alcoholic solution of oxalic acid with aniline; the salt
separating as a crystalline mass. It is very soluble in hot water; much
less so in cold water; only slightly soluble in alcohol; and insoluble in
ether. It may be crystallised from hot water or boiling alcohol. Used
chiefly to form other salts.

=Aniline, Sul′phate of=. (C_{6}H_{7}N)_{2}SO_{4}. Prepared by saturating
aniline with dilute sulphuric acid, and gently evaporating the liquid
until the salt separates. By re-solution in boiling alcohol, it
crystallises out, as the liquor cools, under the form of very beautiful
colourless plates, of a silvery lustre. It is freely soluble in water, and
in hot alcohol; scarcely soluble in cold alcohol; and insoluble in ether.
It is chiefly employed in the preparation of the new aniline dyes.

=ANIMAL′CULE= (-kūle). [Eng., Fr.; pl. animal′cules.] _Syn._ ANIMAL′CULUM
(pl., animal′cula[66]), L.; THIERCHEN, Ger. In _zoology_ and _physiology_,
a microscopic animal, or one so extremely small, that it is either
invisible, or not distinctly discernible, without the aid of a lens or
microscope; more especially one that is not perceptible to the naked eye.
“A mite was anciently thought the limit of littleness; but there are
animals 27,000,000 of times smaller than a mite.” A thousand millions of
some of the animalcula found in common water are said to be collectively
of less bulk than a single grain of sand; yet their numbers are so
prodigious as sometimes to give the fluid they inhabit a pale red or
yellow tinge. The milt of a single codfish is said to contain more of
these minute animals than there are people in the whole earth. Animalcula
were first scientifically observed by Leuwenhoek about the year 1677.
Assisted by the microscope he unveiled, as it were, he created a new world
for future naturalists and microscopists to explore.

[Footnote 66: Animalculæ for the plural, sometimes heard and met with, is
a barbarism; yet one not wholly confined to the vulgar, for we find it in
Vincent’s edition of Haydn’s admirable ‘Dict. of Dates,’ not merely twice,
or oftener, in the text, but as a ‘title-word,’ and also in some other
works where we might least expect it.]

“Take any drop of water,” says Professor Rymer Jones, “from our rivers,
from our lakes, or from the vast ocean itself, and place it under the
microscope; you will find therein countless living beings moving therein
in all directions with considerable swiftness, apparently gifted with
sagacity, for they readily elude each other in the active dance they keep
up.... Increase the power of your glasses, and you will soon perceive
inhabiting the same drop, other animals compared to which the former were
elephantine in their dimensions, equally vivacious and equally gifted.
Exhaust the art of the optician, strain your eyes to the utmost, until the
aching sense refuses to perceive the little quivering movement that
indicates the presence of life, and you will find that you have not
exhausted nature in the descending scale.”

Amongst the most remarkable discoveries of modern science must be reckoned
that of fossil animalcules in such abundance as to form the principal part
of extensive strata. This discovery is due to Ehrenberg, who found the
Polierschiefer (the polishing slate or tripoli) of Bilin to be almost
entirely made up of the siliceous shields of a minute fossil animalcule,
the length of one of which is about 1/288th of a line, so that about
23,000,000 of animalcules must have gone to form a cubic line, and
41,000,000,000 to form a cubic inch of the rock. Ehrenberg succeeded in
discovering the formation of similar strata in deposits of mud at the
bottom of lakes and marshes, the mud swarming with living animalcules,
probably in their turn to be fossilised. The bergmehl, or mountain meal of
Sweden and other parts of Europe, which is sometimes used as an article of
food, is entirely composed of the remains of animalcules; not merely,
however, of their siliceous shields, for it contains a considerable
per-centage of dry animal matter. Some animalcules prefer waters
impregnated with iron, and their death gives rise to an ochreous substance
in which iron is a principal ingredient.

=AN′IME= (ăn′-ĭm-e). [Eng., L., Sp.] _Syn._ GUM-AN′IME, A.-RES′IN; ANIMÉ,
Fr.; ANIMEHARZ, KOURBARILLHARZ, Ger.; COURBARIL, JUTAIBA, Nat. A pale
brownish-yellow, transparent, brittle resin, which exudes from the
_hymenæa courbaril_ (Linn.) or locust-tree, the _h. martiana_, and other
species of hymenæa growing in tropical America. It contains about ·2% of
volatile oil, which gives it an agreeable odour; melts without
decomposition; is (nearly) insoluble in alcohol and in caoutchoucine, but
forms a gelatinous mass in a mixture of the two. (Ure.) It burns readily,
emitting a very fragrant smell. Sp. gr. 1·054 to 1·057.

_Uses, &c._ As a fumigation in spasmodic asthma; in solution as an
embrocation; and in powder as a substitute for gum guaiacum. In this
country it is chiefly employed to make varnishes and pastilles (which
_see_).

=AN′ION= (-y′ŭn——Br., We.; ă-nī′-ŭn——Smart). Literally, ‘upward going,’ in
_electro-chemistry_, a substance which is evolved from the surface where
the electrical current is supposed to enter the electrolyte; an
electro-negative body, or one which passes to the positive pole, or anode,
in electrolysis, as opposed to a CATION. See ANODE, IONS, &c.

=AN′ISATED.= _Syn._ ANISA′TUS, L.; ANISÉ, Fr. In _pharmacy_, the art of
the liqueuriste, confectioner, &c., applied to articles or preparations
impregnated or flavoured with aniseed.

=AN′ISE= (-ĭs). _Syn._ ANI′SUM, PIMPINEL′LA A. (Linn.), A. OFFICINA′LE,
L.; ANIS, Fr.; ANIS, GEMEINER ANIS, Ger. An annual plant of the nat. ord.
Umbelliferæ (DC.). _Hab._, Egypt, Scio, and the Levant; but largely
cultivated in Malta, Spain, Germany, and various other parts of Asia and
Europe. “A considerable quantity is cultivated at Mitcham, in Surrey,
chiefly for the use of the rectifiers of British spirits.” (Stephenson.)
Fruit, aniseed. (See _below_.)

=AN′ISEED.= _Syn._ AN′ISE, AN′ISE-SEED; SEM′INA ANI′SI, FRUC′TUS A., L.;
ANIS, A. VRAI, GRAINES D’ANIS, SEMENCE D’ANIS, Fr.; ANIS, ANISAMEN, Ger.;
ANIS, Sp.; ANICE, It. The aromatic fruit or seed of the _pimpinella
anisum_ just noticed.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Its aromatic properties depend on the presence of
volatile oil. The seed and oil, and a spirit and a water prepared from
them, are officinal in the pharmacopœias. Both the seed and its
preparations are reputed stimulant, stomachic, carminative, pectoral,
diuretic, and emmenagogue. They are commonly used to relieve flatulence
and colicky pains, and to prevent the griping effects of certain
cathartics; and they have long been popular remedies for coughs, colds,
and other breath ailments. They are esteemed especially useful in warming
the stomach and expelling wind, particularly during infancy and childhood;
the distilled or flavoured water being usually employed. Nurses also take
the latter to promote the secretion of milk, to which it at length imparts
its peculiar odour and flavour. In _veterinary practice_ the powdered seed
is used as a carminative, pectoral, and corroborant. The essential
oil is said to be poisonous to pigeons. (Vogel; Hillefield.)
Aniseed is principally used to flavour liqueurs, sweetmeats, and
confectionery.——_Dose_ (of the powder), 10 gr. to 1 or 2 dr.; for a horse,
1/2 to 1 oz.; cattle, 3/4 to 2 oz.

_Pur., &c._ Powdered aniseed is nearly always adulterated, the adulterant
being generally linseed meal. Sometimes, as for the horse, the latter is
entirely substituted for it, a few drops of oil of aniseed being added to
give it smell. The adulteration is not readily detected by the
uninitiated, owing to the strong odour of aniseed; but readily by the
microscope. The fruit of _myrrhis odorata_ (sweet cicily), and of
_illicium anisatum_ (star-anise), also possess the odour and flavour of
common aniseed; indeed, most of the essential oil now sold as ‘oil of
aniseed’ is star-anise oil. See LIQUEURS, OILS, SPIRITS, WATERS, &c.

=Anise, Star′.= The fruit or seed of _illi′′cium anisa′tum_ (Linn.), an
evergreen tree growing in Japan and China. The odour and properties of
both the seed and oil greatly resemble those of common anise. They are
both employed by the liqueuriste. See ANISEED (_above_), &c.

=ANISETTE′= (ăn-ĭz-ĕt′). [Fr.] Aniseed cordial. See LIQUEURS.

=ANISOCHILUS CARNOSUM.= Nat. order LABIATÆ. An Indian plant. It is
stimulant, diaphoretic, and expectorant; is used in quinsy, and by the
native doctors of Travancore in catarrhal affections. Dr Bidie, an Indian
practitioner, characterises it as a mild stimulating expectorant, and as
such particularly useful in the coughs of childhood. Its properties depend
upon a volatile oil.

=ANISOMELES MALABARICA.= An Indian plant. Nat. order Labiatæ. Few plants
are held in higher esteem, or more frequently employed in native practice
in Southern India, than this. An infusion made of the leaves is very
generally used in affections of the stomach and bowels, catarrhal
complaints, and intermittent fevers.

Dr Wright says that in addition to its internal use in the case of fevers,
patients are made to inhale the vapour of a hot infusion, so as to induce
copious diaphoresis. An infusion of the leaves is reported to be
powerfully diaphoretic, and to have been found very useful in the low
continuous fevers of the natives. An oil obtained by distillation from the
leaves is likewise stated to be an effectual external application in
rheumatism.

=ANI′SUM.= Aniseed.

=ANNEAL′ING.= _Syn._ NEALING†§; LE RECUIT, Fr.; DAS ANLASSEN, Ger. The art
of tempering by heat: appropriately, the process by which glass,
porcelain, &c., are rendered less frangible, and metals which have become
brittle by fusion, or long-continued hammering, again rendered tough and
malleable.

Glass vessels, and other articles of glass, are annealed by being placed
in an oven or apartment near the furnaces at which they are formed, called
the ‘leer,’ where they are allowed to cool very slowly, the process being
prolonged in proportion to their bulk.

Steel, iron, and other metals are annealed by heating them and allowing
them to cool slowly on the hearth of the furnace, or in any other suitable
place, unexposed to the cold. Steel is also annealed by being made
red-hot, and in that state is placed in a heap of dry saw-dust till cold,
when it will be found quite soft.

Cast-iron is rendered tough and malleable, without ‘puddling,’ by
embedding it in ground charcoal or hæmatite, and thus protected, keeping
it exposed at a high temperature for several hours, after which the whole
is allowed to cool very slowly.

Prince Rupert’s drop may be mentioned as an example of unannealed glass,
and common cast-iron of unannealed metals, to which heads the reader is
referred.

=ANNOT′TA.= _Syn._ ANOT′TO, ANNAT′TO, ANNAT′TA; ARNAT′TO, ARNOT′TO, &C.;
ORLEA′NA, TER′RA O.*, &c., L.; ROUCOL, ROCOU, ROUCOU, Fr.; ORLEANS, Ger. A
colouring matter forming the outer pellicle of the seeds of the _bix′a
orella′na_ (Linn.), an exogenous evergreen tree, common in Cayenne and
some other parts of tropical America, and now extensively cultivated in
both the E. and W. Indies. It is usually obtained by macerating the
crushed seeds or seed-pods in water for several weeks, ultimately allowing
the pulp to subside, which is then boiled in coppers to a stiff paste, and
dried in the shade. Sometimes a little oil is added in making it up into
cakes or lumps. A better method is that proposed by Leblond, in which the
crushed seeds are simply exhausted by washing them in water (——?
alkalised), from which the colouring matter is then precipitated by means
of vinegar or lemon-juice; the precipitate being subsequently collected,
and either boiled up in the ordinary manner, or drained in bags and dried,
as is practised with indigo. Annotta so prepared is said to be four times
as valuable as made by the old process.

_Prop._ Good annotta is of a brilliant red colour; brighter in the middle
than on the outside; feels soft and smooth to the touch; has a good
consistence, and a strongly characteristic but not a putrid smell. It is
scarcely soluble in water; freely soluble in alcohol, ether, oils, and
fats, to each of which it imparts a beautiful orange colour, and in
alkaline solutions which darken it; acids precipitate it of an orange red
hue; strong sulphuric acid turns it blue. Its most important property is
the affinity of its colouring matter for the fibres of silk, wool, and
cotton.

_Pur._ Annotta is very frequently adulterated; indeed, nearly always so.
To what extent the sophistication of annotta is carried may be judged from
the statement of Mr Blyth, who says that on examination of thirty-four
samples of various kinds, as imported and obtained from English makers and
as purchased from dealers, he found only two that were genuine. As annotta
is often used to give colour to different articles of diet, it is
important that it should be as pure as possible; otherwise injurious
effects detrimental to health may be caused by partaking of any food to
which it is added. Now, amongst the list of adulterants given below are
three, at least, unmistakeable poisons, viz. red lead, orange chrome, and
sulphate of copper. It is but right to state of the first of these
substances (red lead) that Mr Blyth says it is extremely doubtful whether
it is now employed to the extent it formerly was. He also ascribes its
presence in annotta to the impure Venetian red which is used, the
employment of this colour being a necessity because of the large
quantities of flour and lime which are mixed with the annotta, which
thereby becomes so reduced in colour that it is essential to have recourse
to salt, alkalies, and the red earths to restore it to its original
standard. The adulterants are generally meal, flour, or farina, and often
chalk or gypsum, with some pearlash and oil, or even soap, to give it an
unctuous character; turmeric, Venetian red, red ochre, orange chrome, or
even red lead, to give it ‘colour,’ and common salt, and sometimes even
sulphate of copper, to prevent decomposition——the last two being
poisonous. Sometimes a little carbonate of ammonia is also added to it to
improve the colour. When quite pure it contains about 28% of resinous
colouring matter, and 20% of colouring extractive matter (Dr John), and
should leave only a small quantity of insoluble residuum after digestion
in alcohol, whilst the ash resulting from its incineration should not
exceed 1-1/2 to 2%. The quantity, colour, &c., of the ash will give an
easy clue to the inorganic adulterants, if any are present, which may be
then followed up by a chemical examination. The presence of red lead may
be detected by heating it on a piece of charcoal in the reducing flame of
the blowpipe, by which a small bead of metallic lead will be obtained. If
it contains chalk, ochre, gypsum, &c., the undissolved residuum of the
washed ash gives the amount of the adulteration (nearly).

_Microscopical Examination of Annotta._——When annotta is subjected to a
microscopical examination the outer red portion will be found to present
an almost homogeneous appearance, whilst the surface of the seed proper
will be seen to consist of narrow or elongated cells or fibres disposed in
a vertical direction, while the inner white portion will be seen to be
made up of cells filled with starch corpuscles, well defined, of medium
size, and resembling in the elongated and stellate hilum the starch
granules of the pea and bean.

When the annotta is manufactured, and an unadulterated sample is examined,
but little structure is met with. Portions of the outer cells may be seen;
and in those samples which in the course of their preparation have not
been subjected to the action of boiling water, a few starch granules may
be observed.

Since annotta, when manufactured, presents so few evidences of structure,
we are easily able, with the microscope at our command, to detect the
presence of most foreign vegetable substances. These consist of turmeric
powder, wheat, rye and barley starch, and sago flours. The salt and alkali
present in the fraudulent annotta generally greatly alter the appearance
of the turmeric. Most of the colouring matter of the cells is discharged,
so that the starch corpuscles contained within them become visible. Loose
starch granules of turmeric may also be frequently seen, and in a much
enlarged condition, owing to the action of the alkali upon them.

The following process for conducting the assay of annotta is given by Mr
Blyth:——

“In order to estimate the commercial value and detect adulteration in a
sample, the quickest and best way is the following: Weigh accurately a
gramme in a small platinum dish; dry in the water-bath for a couple of
hours, then weigh; the loss is the water. Finely powder, and digest it for
some hours in alcohol; then boil, filter and treat with successive
portions of alcohol until all the colouring-matter is dissolved; filter,
evaporate the filtrate down and weigh; the result is the resin. The
insoluble portion will in a good commercial specimen consist of woody
matter, extractive, gluten, &c. For the ash weigh another gramme in a
platinum dish; dry for a short time over the water-bath; then powder and
burn until it ceases to lose weight. It is prudent to fuse a little on
charcoal with carbonate of soda before the blow-pipe before burning it in
a platinum vessel, as there may be lead in the annotta. The ash should
then be submitted to the various reagents in order to detect lime,
alumina, &c. A correct determination of ash and resin is all that is
required to definitely pronounce upon the purity or impurity of the
samples.”

The following is the analysis of a fair commercial sample:——

The sample was in the form of a paste, colour deep red, odour peculiar,
but not disagreeable.

  Water                         24·2
  Resinous colouring matter     28·8
  Ash                           22·5
  Starch and extractive matter  24·5
                                ————
                               100·0

The following is an analysis of an adulterated specimen. The sample was in
a hard cake of a brown colour, with the maker’s name stamped upon it, and
marked “patent;” texture hard and leathery, odour disagreeable:

  Water                            13·4
  Resin                            11·0
  Ash, consisting of iron, chalk,
    salt, alumina, silica          48·3
  Extractive matter                27·3
                                   ————
                                  100·0

Thus, in the one the resin was 28%, the ash 22; in the other the resin was
only 11%, the ash no less than 48%.

_Uses, &c._ To colour varnishes and lacquers; as a pigment for painting
velvet and transparencies; as a colouring matter for cheese (1 _oz._ to 1
_cwt._ of curd), for which purpose it is not injurious, if pure; and as a
dye-stuff for cotton, silk, and wool, particularly the second, to which it
imparts a beautiful orange-yellow hue, the shade of which may be varied
from ‘aurora’ to deep orange by using different proportions of pearlash
with the water it is dissolved in, and by applying different mordants
before putting it into the dye-bath, or different rinsing liquids
afterwards. The hues thus imparted are, however, all more or less
fugitive.

=Annotta Cake.= _Syn._ FLAG ANNOTTA; ORLEA′NA IN FO′LIIS, L. From Cayenne;
bright yellow, firm and soft to the touch; in square cakes, weighing 2 or
3 _lbs._ each.

=Annotta Egg.= _Syn._ LUMP ANNOTTA; ORLEA′NA IN O′VULIS, L. Generally
inferior.

=Annotta, Eng′lish.= _Syn._ TRADE A., REDUCED’ A.; ORLEA′NA REDUC′TA, L. A
fraudulent mess commonly prepared from egg or flag annotta, gum
tragacanth, flour, or farina, chalk, soap, train-oil, Venetian red, or
bole, common salt, water, mixed by heat in a copper pan, and formed into
rolls. Sold for genuine annotta, from which it is readily distinguished by
its inferior quality and its partial solubility in alcohol.

=Annotta, Liq′uid.= See SOLUTION OF ANNOTTA (_below_).

=Annotta, Pu′′rified.= See ORELLINE.

=Annotta Roll.= _Syn._ Orlea′na in rot′ulis, O. IN BAC′ULIS, L. From the
Brazils; hard, dry, brown outside, yellow within. When pure, this is the
variety most esteemed, and the one preferred for colouring cheese.

=Annotta, Solu′tion of.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF ANNOTTA, EXTRACT OF A.,
ANNOTTA-DYE, &c.; SOLU′TIO ORLEA′NÆ, EXTRAC′TUM O., &c., L. A strong
aqueous solution of equal parts of annotta and pearlash, the whole being
heated or boiled together until the ingredients are dissolved. Sold in
bottles. See ANNOTTA (_above_), NANKEEN DYE, &c.

=ANNUALS.= Plants which bear flowers and fruit in the same year when
raised from seed.

=AN′O-.= [Gr.] In _composition_, upwards, &c.; as in anocathar′tic
(emetic).

=AN′ODE.= Literally, ‘upward way,’ in _electro-chemistry_, the ‘way in,’
or that by which the electric current is supposed to enter substances
through which it passes, as opposed to the CATHODE, or that by which it
goes out; the positive pole of a voltaic battery.

=AN′ODYNE= (-dīne). _Syn._ ANO′DYNUS (-dĭnŭs-), L.; ANODIN, Fr.;
SCHMERZSTILLEND, Ger. That allays pain; soothing; atalgic.

=Anodynes.= _Syn._ ANO′DYNA (sing., ano′dy̆̆num), L.; Anodins, REMÈDES A.,
Fr. In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, substances and agents which allay pain.
Some (as the PAREGORICS) act by actually assuaging pain; others
(HYPNOTICS) by inducing sleep; whilst a third class (NARCOTICS) give ease
by stupefying the senses, or by lessening the susceptibility to pain.
Among the principal anodynes are opium, morphia, henbane, camphor ether,
chloroform, chloral hydrate, and other medicines of the like kind; to
which must be added spirituous liquors, wines, and the stronger varieties
of malt liquor. “The frequent use of anodynes begets the necessity of
their continuance.” (W. Cooley.)

=Anodyne, In′fantile= (-īle). _Syn._ ANO′DYNUM INFAN′TILE (-tĭl-e), L.
_Prep._ Take of syrup of poppies, 1 _oz._; aniseed-water, 3 _oz._; French
brandy, 3/4 _oz._ (or rectified spirit, 1/2 _oz._); calcined magnesia, 1/4
_oz._; mix. An excellent anodyne and antacid for infants.——_Dose._ A small
teaspoonful as required.

=ANODYN= (Müller, Berlin.) Chiefly for rheumatic pains, toothache, &c. Oil
of rosemary, 30 drops; oil of thyme, 10 drops; camphor, 5 grms.; spirit of
ammonia, 12 grms.; spirit, 60 grms. (Hager.)

=ANODYN′IA= (-dĭn′-y′ă). Freedom from pain; anæsthesia.

=AN′OREXY=. _Syn._ ANOREX′IA, L.; ANOREXIE, Fr., Ger. In _pathology_, want
of, or morbidly diminished appetite, without loathing of food. It is
usually symptomatic of other affections. See APPETITE, DYSPEPSIA, &c.

=ANOSMIN FOOT POWDER= (Dr Oscar Bernar, Vienna). “An unfailing remedy for
sweaty feet and bad odour of the feet.” Powdered alum, 21 parts; maize
meal, 1 part. (Hager.)

=ANOSMIN FOOT WATER= (Koch), for a similar purpose. An aqueous solution of
tartaric acid.

=ANO ZABAGLIONE= (-băl-y′ō′-nā). _Prep._ Put 2 eggs, 3 teaspoonfuls of
sugar, and 2 small glassfuls of sherry or marsala, into a chocolate cup,
placed in boiling water, or over the fire, and keep the mixture rapidly
stirred until it begins to rise and thicken a little; then add 1 or 2
teaspoonfuls of orange-flower water or rose water, and serve it up in
wine-glasses. A pleasant Italian domestic remedy for a cold.

=ANT= (ănt). _Syn._ EMM′ET, PIS′MIRE*‡ (pĭz′-); FORMI′CA, L.; FOURMI, Fr.;
AMEISE, Ger.; ÆMET, Sax. This well-known little insect belongs to the
family formic′′idæ, and the order hymenop′tera. Like the bee, it is a
social animal, lives in communities which may be compared to
well-regulated republics, and is of three sexes——male, female, neuter.
Those belonging to the last alone labour and take care of the ova and
young. The red ant contains FORMIC ACID (acid of ants), and a peculiar
RESINOUS OIL. Both of these may be obtained by maceration in rectified
spirit. A tincture so prepared, and flavoured with aromatics, constitutes
Hoffman’s EAU DE MAGNANIMITÉ, once greatly esteemed as an aphrodisiac. See
FORMICA, FORMIC ACID, FORMYLE, &c.

=ANTAC′ID= (-tăs′-ĭd). _Syn._ ANTAC′IDUS, L.; ANTACIDE, &c., Fr.;
SÄURETILGEND, &c., Ger. An agent which neutralises acids or removes
acidity. (See _below._)

=ANTAC′IDS= (-tăs′-ĭdz). _Syn._ ANTAC′IDA, L.; ANTACIDES, &c., Fr. Antacid
substances. In _medicine_, &c., substances which remove or prevent acidity
of the stomach, and thus tend to relieve heartburn, dyspepsia, and
diarrhœa.

The principal antacids are potassa, soda, ammonia, lime, and magnesia,
with their carbonates and bicarbonates. AMMONIA is one of the most
powerful, and when the acidity is conjoined with nausea and faintness, or
is accompanied with symptoms of nervous derangement or hysteria, is
undoubtedly the best; when great irritability of the coats of the stomach
exist, POTASH is to be preferred; when the acidity is accompanied with
diarrhœa, carbonate of lime (prepared chalk), lime-water, or Carara-water;
and when with costiveness, MAGNESIA. They may be advantageously combined
with some simple aromatic, as ginger, cinnamon, or peppermint. Their
preparation, doses, administration, &c., will be found under each in its
alphabetical place; and formulæ containing them, under DRAUGHTS, LOZENGES,
MIXTURES, &c.

=ANTAL′GICS= (-tăl′-). _Syn._ ANTAL′GICA, L. Medicines which relieve pain;
anodynes.

=ANTAL′KALINES= (ănt-ăl′-kă-lĭnz). _Syn._ ANTALKALI′NA, L. Agents or
medicines which correct alkalinity. All the acids except the carbonic are
antalkaline.

=AN′TE-.= In _composition_, before, contrary, opposite; generally in the
first sense. See ANTI-.

=ANTEPIDEMICUM UNIVERSALE= (H. Müller, Copenhagen). “A valuable universal
remedy for all sorts of contagious diseases in man or domestic animals.” A
fluid like water, with a weak, almost imperceptible, odour of acetic
ether. Is composed of spring water, in which perhaps two or three drops of
pure carbolic acid are dissolved, and a few drops of acetic ether added to
disguise it. (Hager.)

=ANTHELMIN′TICS, Anthelmin′thics= (-thĕl-). See VERMIFUGES and WORMS.

=AN′THIARINE= (-ĭn). See ANTHIRINE.

=ANTHOK′YAN=. _Syn._ SUCC′US VI′OLÆ PREPARA′TUS, L. The expressed juice of
the sweet or purple violet (vi′ola odora′ta——Linn.), defecated, gently
heated in glass or earthenware to 192° Fahr., then skimmed, cooled, and
filtered; a little rectified spirit is next added, and the following day
the whole is again filtered. It must be kept well corked, and in a cool
situation.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly to make syrup of violets, to colour and flavour
liqueurs, and as a chemical test. The London druggists obtain it
principally from Lincolnshire.

=AN′THONY’S FIRE=, Saint (-to-nĭz). See ERYSIPELAS.

=ANTHOSENZ= (Dr Hess, Berlin). General tonic and anodyne balsam. Oil of
cloves, 4 parts; oil of geranium, 2 parts; pine-apple essence, 1 part;
spirit, 50 parts; coloured with alkanet root. (Hager.)

=AN′THOTYPE.= See PHOTOGRAPHY.

=ANTHRACENE.= C_{14}H_{10}. Anthracene is one of the last products passing
over in the dry distillation of coal-tar. Dr Calvert says it is “found
most abundantly in the ten or fifteen per cent. which comes over between
the temperature at which soft pitch is produced and that at which hard
pitch is formed.”

Coal-tar contains very variable quantities of anthracene, those tars
procured from coals which are richest in naphtha yielding it most
abundantly. The coals of South Staffordshire give the largest yield,
whilst the Newcastle coals give very little. In consequence of the
solubility of anthracene in the oily hydrocarbons which accompany it,
owing to “slight elevation of temperature, its extraction can only be
carried on advantageously in cold weather.”

Gessert prepares anthracene from coal-tar as follows: He places the last
pasty portions (the ‘green grease’) of the coal-tar distillation (which
must not be carried beyond the point at which white pitch is formed) first
in a centrifugal machine, and then in a hydraulic press at 40°, or
subjects the mass heated to 30°-40° directly to pressure in a filter
press. The pressed mass consists of about 60% of anthracene; for further
purification it is boiled with light tar-oil or petroleum naphtha, and
finally heated till it melts. The residue contains 95% of anthracene.

The following method for the purification of crude anthracene contaminated
with oily matters is by Schuller:——The crude anthracene is carefully
heated to commencing ebullition in a capacious retort connected with a
tubulated receiver of glass or earthenware, the lower aperture of which is
closed with a fine wire sieve. A strong current of air is then blown into
the retort with a pair of bellows, whereby the anthracene is driven over
in a very short time nearly pure and dry, and condenses in the receiver as
a faintly yellowish showy mass. By this method a quantity of anthracene,
the purification of which by re-crystallisation or sublimation would take
several days, may be purified in as many hours; moreover it is obtained in
a pulverulent form, in which it is very readily acted on by oxidising
agents. Anthraquinone prepared from crude anthracene may also be obtained
by this method in the form of a light yellow powder, resembling flowers of
sulphur.

Fritzsche obtained anthracene in crystals exhibiting a beautiful violet
colour by exposing a solution of anthracene in coal-tar naphtha to
sunshine, until the solution became colourless.

Pure anthracene assumes the form of fluorescent transparent crystals,
consisting of four- or six-sided plates, which when seen by transmitted
light are of a very pale blue colour, but of a pale violet by reflected
light.

The process for obtaining pure anthracene is a very troublesome one. Mr
Crookes says:——“A trustworthy method for determining the amount of pure
anthracene either in commercial anthracene or in crude green grease is the
following:——The melting-point of the sample in question is first
determined. 5 to 10 grammes are sufficient for the operation. It is put
between thick folds of blotting paper, and placed under a press, between
plates which have been previously warmed. The anthracene remaining upon
the paper after pressure is weighed. The residue after it has been boiled
with a certain quantity of alcohol, filtered, washed with cold alcohol and
dried, is weighed as pure anthracene. It is now advisable to determine the
melting-point of the purified product, which will generally be 210° C.”
Anthracene is only slightly soluble in alcohol, but rather more so in
ether and bisulphide of carbon. It is more soluble in hot, but less so in
cold benzene. Petroleum boiling between 160° and 195° F. dissolves less
than benzene.

“Anthracene dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a green colour,
and forms conjugated monsulpho or bisulpho-anthracene acid, according to
the temperature employed. Chlorine and bromine give rise to substitution
products. Nitric acid acts on it with great violence, with formation of
anthraquinone, nitro-anthraquinone, and other compounds according to the
temperature and proportion of the substances taken. With picric acid
anthracene forms a compound crystallising in very bright ruby-red needles,
which by the aid of the microscope are seen to be prisms. To prepare it a
saturated solution of picric acid in water at 80° F. is mixed with a
saturated solution of anthracene in boiling alcohol; on cooling the
compound is deposited in the crystalline state. It is rapidly decomposed
by an excess of alcohol into picric acid and anthracene, the solution
assuming a yellow tint. This reaction can be employed to distinguish
anthracene from naphthalene and other hydrocarbons, naphthalin under
similar circumstances forming a compound which crystallises in fine golden
yellow needles, whilst chrysene gives rise to clusters of very small
yellow needles.” (Calvert’s ‘Dyeing and Calico Printing,’ edited by
Stenhouse and Groves). Another characteristic of anthracene, noticed by
Fritzsche, is its deportment under the microscope with a solution of
binitro-anthraquinone in benzene. In this reaction fine rhomboidal scales
of a beautiful pink colour are formed, the purity and brilliancy of the
colour depending on the purity of the anthracene.

In the ‘Bul. Soc. Chim.,’ vii, 274, several reactions by which anthracene
is formed are described by Berthelot, as by the action of heat on other
hydrocarbons, or by passing the vapours of ethylene, styrolene, and
benzene through a porcelain tube heated to bright redness.

A great number of products are procured from anthracene, by far the most
important of these being artificial alizarin.

See ALIZARIN, ARTIFICIAL.

=AN′THRACITE= (sīte). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANTHRAC′OLITE, GLANCE′-COAL,
STONE′-COAL‡, MINERAL CHAR′COAL*; ANTHRACI′TES, L.; GLANZKOHLE, Ger. A
species of coal found in the transition-rock formation, consisting chiefly
of dense carbon. It has a conchoidal fracture, a semi-metallic lustre, and
a sp. gr. usually varying from 1·4 to 1·6. It burns without either flame
or smoke, emits an intense heat, and leaves scarcely any ash; but it is
difficult to kindle, and requires a lively draught for its combustion. It
is the common fuel in the United States of America, although, until
recently, scarcely employed in Europe, and that chiefly in a few iron
works and steam furnaces. Its adoption in this country would not merely at
once remove the smoke nuisance, but would produce a vast annual saving to
the community. By contracting the throat of the chimney a little, and
avoiding the use of the poker, it may be burnt in a common grate. The
Americans use a little charcoal as kindle, and seldom supply fresh coal to
the fire oftener than once or twice a day.

The inferior varieties of anthracite are technically and provincially
called culm; as is also the small and waste of the better kinds.

For the analysis, geology, calorific value, &c., of anthracite, see COAL,
CULM, EVAPORATION, FUEL, HEAT, &c.

De la Beche describes Anthracite as “a variety of coal containing a larger
proportion of carbon, and less bituminous matter, than common coal.”

In the ‘Memoirs of the Geological Survey’ we read:——“We see the same
series of coal beds becoming so altered in their horizontal range that a
set of beds _bituminous_ in one locality is observed gradually to change
into anthracitic in another. Taking the coal measures of South Wales and
Monmouthshire, we have a series of accumulations in which the coal-beds
become not only more anthracitic toward the west, but also exhibit this
change in a plane which may be considered as dipping south-south-east, at
a moderate angle, the amount of which is not yet clearly ascertained, so
that in the natural sections afforded, we have bituminous coals in the
high grounds and anthracite coals beneath. This fact is readily observed
either in the Neath or Swansea valleys, where we have bituminous coals on
the south and anthracite on the north; and more bituminous coal-beds on
the heights than beneath, some distance up these valleys, those of the
Nedd and Tawe. Though the terms bituminous coal and anthracite, have been
applied to marked differences, the changes are that there is no sudden
modification to be seen. To some of the intermediate kinds the term “free
burning” has been given, and thus three chief differences have been
recognised.”

The term _Culm_ is applied both to an inferior kind of anthracite only
worked for lime-making and mixing with clay and to the small pieces of
anthracite obtained in working the beds of true anthracite. It is also
known under the names of _Blind-coal_, _Glance-coal_, and _Kilkenny-coal_.

There are three distinct trades in anthracite. The first one is that where
the coal is sold just as it is brought from the pit. This is termed
_Through Culm_, and is used for lime-burning. This coal is inferior in
quality to that from which the large coal has been removed, and is
sometimes called _Bastard Stone-coal_. The trade in the Neath district is
exclusively of this kind. In Swansea and Llanelly it is partly of this
kind and partly of the kind where the large coal is picked out and sold as
_stone-coal_ for the various purposes to which that coal is put, the small
pieces being left for shipment to places where it is required for
lime-burning, under the name of _stone-coal culm_. No “through culm” is
shipped from Pembrokeshire. Four thousand tons almost in the condition of
dust are annually shipped from Swansea, under the name of _Lambskin_,
being sent to Cardiganshire, where it is used solely for mixing with clay.
This mixture, which is known under the name of _Fireballs_, is used for
household purposes. This mixture, made of the ordinary _stone-coal culm_,
is also in very general use throughout parts of Pembrokeshire and
Carmarthenshire.

Anthracite coal is found in this country at Bideford in Devonshire, at
Walsall in Staffordshire, in the western divisions of the South Wales
coalfield, in Ireland, and near Edinburgh. It is very abundant in America.
In the ‘Transactions of the American Geologists’ it is stated by Professor
Roger that in the great Apalachian coal-field, 720 miles in extent, with a
chief breadth of 180 miles, the coal is bituminous towards the western
limit, where it is level and unbroken, becoming anthracite towards the
south-west, where it becomes disturbed. Anthracite coal is also found in
the coal-measures of France, more particularly in the departments of
Isère, the high Alps, Gard, Mayenne, and of Sarth. About 42,271,000
kilogrammes (of 22,046 avoirdupois pounds each) form the annual yield.
Anthracite is also obtained in Belgium. “Anthracite is not an original
variety of coal, but a modification of the same beds which remain
bituminous in other parts of the region. Anthracite beds, therefore, are
not separate deposits in another sea, nor coal-measures in another area,
nor interpolations among bituminous coal; but the bituminous beds
themselves altered into a natural coke, from which the volatile bituminous
oils and gases have been driven off.”——_Lesley on Coal_.

  ------------------------+-------------------+-------+--------+------
         Locality.        |    Name of Coal.  |Carbon.|Volatile|Ashes.
                          |                   |       |matter. |
  ------------------------+-------------------+-------+--------+------
                          |   _Bituminous_.   |       |        |
                          |                   |       |        |
   Birtley Works,         |                   |       |        |
     Newcastle-on-Tyne    |                   | 60·50 | 35·50  | 4·00
   Alfreton, Derbyshire   |                   | 52·46 | 42·50  | 2·04
                          |                   |       |        |
                          |   _Anthracite_.   |       |        |
                          |                   |       |        |
   Neath Abbey            |Pwlferon Vein,     | 91·08 |  8·00  | 0·92
                          |  5th bed          |       |        |
   Swansea                |Peacock Coal       | 89·00 |  7·50  | 3·50
   Ystalyfera             |Brass Vein         | 92·46 |  6·04  | 1·50
   Cwm Neath              |Nine-feet Vein     | 93·12 |  5·22  | 1·50
   France                 |Anthracite, common | 79·15 |  7·35  |13·25
     ”                    |Côte-d’Or          | 82·60 |  8·60  | 8·80
     ”                    |Mais Saize         | 83·80 |  7·50  | 9·50
   Pennsylvania           |Beaver Meadow      | 92·30 |  6·42  | 1·28
        ”                 |Shenoweth Vein     | 94·10 |  1·40  | 4·50
        ”                 |Black Spring Gap   | 80·57 |  7·15  | 3·28
        ”                 |Nealey’s Tunnel    | 89·20 |  5·40  | 5·40
   Massachusetts          |Mansfield Mine     | 97·00 | 10·50  | 3·00
   Rhode Island           |Portsmouth Mine    | 85·84 | 10·50  | 3·66
   Westphalia             |Shafberg,          | 82·02 |  8·69  | 9·29
                          |  Alexander Seam   |       |        |
  ------------------------+-------------------+-------+--------+------

Anthracite, the exclusive employment of which is for iron-making, steam
engines, and for domestic uses in the United States, was some 60 years
since regarded as incombustible refuse, and as such looked upon as rubbish
and thrown away.

The foregoing analyses of bituminous and anthracite coals will
sufficiently show the difference between the two.

        _Principal Localities of Anthracite and
        Anthracitous Coal._
                                     Weight
                           Specific  of a
  EUROPE.         Gravity.  cubic yard
                                     in lbs.
  South Wales——Swansea       1·263     2131
               Cyfarthfa     1·337     2256
               Ynscedwin     1·354     2284
               Average       1·445     2278
  Ireland——Mean              1·445     2376
  France——Allier             1·380     2207
          Tantal             1·390     2283
          Brassac            1·430     2413
  Belgium——Mons              1·307     2105
  Westphalia                 1·305     2278
  Prussian Saxony            1·466     2474
  Saxony                     1·300     2193

  Average of Europe                    2281

  AMERICA.

  Pennsylvania——
    Lyken’s Valley          1·327     2240
    Lebanon Co., Grey Vein  1·379     2327
    Schuylkin Co., Lorberry
      Creek                 1·472     2484
    Pottsville, Sharp Mount 1·412     2382
      Peach                 1·446     2440
      Salem Vein            1·574     2649
    Tamaqua, North Vein     1·600     2700
    Maunch Chunk            1·550     2615
    Nesquehoning            1·558     2646
    Wilkesbarre, best       1·472     2884
    West Mahoney            1·371     2313
      Beaver Meadow         1·600     2700
      Girardville           1·600     2700
      Hazelton              1·550     2615
      Broad Mountain        1·700     2869
      Lackawanna            1·609     2715
  Massachusetts——Mansfield  1·710     2882
  Rhode Island——Portsmouth  1·810     3054

  Average in United States            2601

The calorific value of anthracite coal is well shown by the following
results from Dr Fyfe’s experiments, to compare Scotch and English
bituminous coals with anthracite, in regard to their evaporative power, in
a high-pressure boiler of a 4-horse engine having a grate with 8·15 square
feet of surface; also in a waggon-shaped copper boiler, open to the air,
surface 18 feet, grate 1·55:——

  KEY:
  A - Pounds burnt per hour on the Grate.
  B - Duration of the Trial in hours.
  C - Temperature of the Water.
  D - Pounds of Water evaporated from the initial Temperature by 1 lb. of
      coal.
  E - Pounds of Water at 212° from a lb. of Coal.
  F - Coal per hour on one sq. ft. of Grate.
  G - Time in seconds of consuming 1 lb. of Coal.
  H - Pounds evaporated per hour from each sq. ft. of surface.

  -------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+--------+------+----------------
     Kind of Fuel    |        |       |      |      |       |       |        |      |
      employed.      |    A   |   B   |   C  |  D   |   E   |   F   |    G   |  H   |   Remarks.
  -------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+--------+------+----------------
  Middlerig Scotch   |  81·33 | 9     |  45° | 6·66 |  7·74 | 10·00 |  44·27 | ...  |Pressure 17 lbs.
    coal             |        |       |      |      |       |       |        |      | per square in.
  Scotch coal,       | 108    | 5     | 170° | 6·62 |  6·89 | 13·25 |  33·33 | ...  |Ditto.
   different variety |        |       |      |      |       |       |        |      |
   from preceding    |        |       |      |      |       |       |        |      |
  ANTHRACITE         |  47·94 | 8-1/2 |  45° | 8·73 | 10·10 |  5·88 |  75·09 | ...  |Ditto.
  Scotch coal, from  |   8·24 | 8-1/2 |  50° | 5·38 |  6·90 |  5·31 | 436·89 | 3·15 |Lower pressure,
   near Edinburgh    |        |       |      |      |       |       |        |      | open copper
                     |        |       |      |      |       |       |        |      | boiler.
  English bituminous |   6·07 | 8·4   |  50° | 7·84 |  9·07 |  3·91 | 503·08 | 3·06 |Ditto.
   coal              |        |       |      |      |       |       |        |      |
  -------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+--------+------+---------------

Space will not admit of our entering fully into the question of the
evaporative power of anthracite, but its advantages under certain
conditions are fully established.

=AN′THRACOKA′LI=. [Eng., L.] _Syn_. ANTHRAKOKA′LI, ANTHRAK′ALI;
AN′THRACOKA′LI, Hamb. C. 1845. _Prep_. 1. (Polya.) Carbonate of potassa, 6
oz.; quick-lime, 3-1/2 oz.; water, 4 pints; proceed as directed for
solution of potassa, then evaporate the clear liquid, in an iron capsule,
to about 6 fl. oz., add of finely powdered mineral coal 5 oz., boil, with
constant stirring, to dryness, and continue the stirring at a reduced
heat, until the whole is converted into a homogeneous black powder, which
must be at once placed in small, dry, and well-stoppered phials.

2. (Hamb. C. 1845; Ph. Baden, 1841.) Hydrate of potassa, 7 dr.; melt, add
of cannel coal, 5 dr., and then proceed as before.

_Prop. &c._ A deliquescent black powder, with a caustic taste, and
empyreumatic smell; 10 gr. with 1 fl. oz. of water, after filtration,
forms a clear, dark brown solution, giving a precipitate with acids,
without effervescence.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr., twice or thrice daily; and
externally, made into a pomade or ointment (1/2 to 1 dr., to lard, 1 oz.);
in skin diseases (particularly herpetic eruptions), scrofula, chronic
rheumatism, &c. It has been highly extolled by Dr Gilbert, and by its
inventor, Dr Polya; but apparently undeservedly.

=Anthracokali Sulphuretted.= _Syn._ ANTHRACOKALI SULPHURETUM, L. _Prep._
(Polya.) As formula 1 (_above_), but adding sulphur, 4 dr., immediately
after stirring in the powdered coal.——_Dose_, _use_, &c., as the last. See
FULIGOKALI.

=ANTHRACOM′ETER.= _Syn._ ANTRACOM′ETRUM, L.; ANTHRACOMÈTRE, Fr.;
KOHLENSÄUREMESSER, Ger. An apparatus used to determine the heating power
or commercial value of coal, or other fuel; also an instrument for finding
the proportion of carbonic acid in any gaseous mixture.

=ANTHRAPURPURIN.= C_{14}H_{8}O_{5}.——A colouring matter obtained as a
secondary product in the preparation of alizarin from anthracen. It may be
prepared by dissolving the crude colouring matter in a dilute solution of
carbonate of soda, and shaking up the resulting solution with freshly
precipitated alumina, which combines with the alizarin, leaving the
anthrapurpurin in solution. This is filtered off from the alizarin lake,
heated to boiling, and acidified with hydrochloric acid. The colouring
matter which is precipitated is thrown on to a filter, washed and dried.

Anthrapurpurin has about the same affinity for mordants as alizarin. It
forms red with alumina, and purple and black with iron mordants. The reds
are much purer and less blue in colour than those of the alizarin, whilst
the purples are bluer and the blacks more intense. The anthrapurpurin
colours resist soap and light quite as effectively as those produced with
alizarin. When employed to dye Turkey-red, anthrapurpurin gives a very
brilliant scarlet shade of colour, which is of remarkable durability.

=ANTHYPNOTICS= (-thĭp-). _Syn._ ANTIHYPNOT′ICS (-hĭp-), &c. See
AGRIPNOTICS.

=AN′TI-.= [Gr., αντι, against.] In _composition_, before, against,
contrary to, corrective of, &c., more especially representing antagonism
or opposition; whilst the Latin _ante-_ is generally used in the sense of
before, having reference to precedence either of place or time.

_Anti-_ is a common prefix in English words derived from the Greek and
Latin, especially those connected with pharmacology and medicine, the
final _i_ being either dropped or retained (but generally the first)
before a, e, and h; as in antacid, antibilious, anti-emetic, anthelmintic,
anti-corbutic, antiseptic, &c., whether used as adjectives or
substantives. These compounds, which are very numerous, are in general
self-explanatory.

=AN′TIARINE= (-ĭn; -ti′——Brande). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AN′THIARINE, Eng.,
Fr.; ANTIARI′NA, ANTHIARI′NA, ANTIA′′RIA, UPA′SIA (-zh′ă), L. The active
principle of the upas poison of Java. It is extracted from the partially
inspissated juice (upas poison) of the upas tree by alcohol, and may be
obtained under the form of small pearly crystalline scales by careful
evaporation.——_Prod._ About 3-1/2% (Mulder).

_Prop., &c._ Soluble in 27 parts of boiling water; freely soluble in
alcohol; scarcely so in ether; heat decomposes it. It is a frightful
poison, to which no antidote is known. Even a minute quantity introduced
into a wound rapidly brings on vomiting, convulsions, and death. “It
renders the heart insensible to the stimulus of the blood.” (Sir B.
Brodie.)

=ANTI-ATTRI′′TION= (-trĭsh′-) [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANTIFRICTION GREASE,
AXLE-GREASE, FRICTION COMPO′, LU′BRICATING COMPOUND, &c. _Prep._ 1. Good
plumbago (black lead), finely powdered and sifted, so as to be perfectly
free from grit, is gradually added, through a sieve, to 5 times its weight
of good lard contained in an iron pan and rendered semi-fluid, but _not_
liquid, by a gentle heat; the mass being vigorously stirred with a strong
wooden spatula, after each addition, until the mixture is complete, and
the composition smooth and uniform. The heat is then gradually raised
until the whole liquefies, when the vessel is removed from the fire to a
cool situation, and the stirring, which should have been unremitted,
continued until the mixture is quite cold. It is applied in the cold
state, with a brush, about once a day, according to the velocity of the
parts; and is said to be fully 3-4ths cheaper in use than oil, tallow,
tar, or any of the ordinary compo’s. When intended for uses in which it
will be exposed to warmth, and consequent waste by dripping, a part, or
even the whole of the lard is replaced by hard strained grease or tallow,
or a little bees’ wax is added during its manufacture.

2. Black lead, 1 part; tallow or grease, 4 parts; ground together until
perfectly smooth, either with or without camphor, 3 to 5 _lbs._ per cwt.
Expired patent.

3. Scotch soda, 60 _lbs._; water, 30 _galls._; dissolve in a capacious
boiler, and palm oil and hard tallow, of each 1-1/4 _cwt._, and having
withdrawn the heat, stir vigorously as before, until the mass is
homogeneous and nearly solidified. In hot weather the proportion of tallow
is increased, and that of the palm oil diminished; in winter, the reverse.
Used for the axles of railway carriages and other coarse purposes. For
express trains all tallow is usually employed, irrespective of the
weather or season.

4. Melt, but avoid boiling, 16 _lbs._ tallow, and dissolve in it 2-1/4
_lbs._ of sugar of lead; then add 3 _lbs._ of black antimony. The mixture
must be constantly stirred till cold. This composition is for cooling the
necks of shafts, and may be of service where the shafts are not of the
proper length, or the bearings are at fault.

5. Lard, 2-1/2 _lbs._; camphor, 1 _oz._; black lead, 1/2 _lb._ Rub the
camphor in a mortar, into a paste with a small portion of the lard; then
add the remainder of the lard and the black lead, and thoroughly mix.

6. (_Railway Grease._)——For summer use, tallow, 1 _cwt._ 3 _qrs._; palm
oil, 1 _cwt._ 1 _qr._ For autumn or spring, tallow, 1 _cwt._ 2 _qrs._;
palm oil, 1 _cwt._ 2 _qrs._ For winter, tallow, 1 _cwt._ 1 _qr._; palm
oil, 1 _cwt._ 3 _qrs._ Melt the tallow in a boiler, then add to it the
palm oil as soon as the mixture boils, and put out the fire. When the
mixture, which should now be frequently stirred, has cooled down to blood
heat (98° to 100° F.), it should be run through a sieve into a solution of
from 56 to 60 _lbs._ of soda in about 3 _galls._ of water. Thoroughly mix
by stirring.

7. Bean or rye flour, 1 _cwt._; water, 6 _cwt._; mix to a smooth paste,
raise the heat until the mixture boils, and stir in first of milk of lime
(of about the consistence of cream), 7 _cwt._; resin-oil, 10 _cwt._; and
stir vigorously until cold. Inferior.

8. (Booth’s.)——_a._ From Scotch soda, 1/2 _lb._; boiling water, 1 _gall._;
palm oil or tallow, or any mixture of them, 10 _lbs._; as before,
observing to continue the stirring until the mixture has cooled down to
60° or 70° Fahr.

_b._ Soda, 1/2 _lb._; water and rape-oil, of each 1 _gall._; tallow or
palm-oil, 1/2 _lb._; as last. Expired patent.

9. (Mankettrick’s.) From caoutchouc (dissolved in oil of turpentine), 4
_lbs._; Scotch soda, 10 _lbs._; glue, 1 _lb._; (dissolved in) water, 10
_galls._; oil, 10 _galls._; thoroughly incorporated by assiduous stirring,
adding the caoutchouc last.

10. (LIARD, Fr.). Finest rape-oil, 1 _gall._; caoutchouc (cut small), 3
_oz._; dissolve with heat.

_Uses, &c._ To lessen friction in machinery, prevent the bearings rusting,
&c. The simplest are perhaps the best. Of late years several different
liquid hydrocarbons obtained from coal, and particularly paraffin oil,
have been extensively employed in this way. See FRICTION, LUBRICATION, &c.

=ANTIBIL′IOUS= (-yŭs). _Syn._ ANTIBILIO′SUS, L.; ANTIBILIEUX, Fr. An
epithet of medicines that are supposed to remove ailments depending on
disordered action of the liver. Aperients, mercurials, and aloetic
purgatives generally, belong to this class. See ABERNETHY MEDICINES, BILE,
PILLS, &c.

=ANTICAR′DIUM.= See REVIVER (Black).

=ANTI-CHOLERA ACID= (H. Ludwig, Vienna; also an American preparation). “A
proved cure and preventive of cholera.” Diluted sulphuric acid, 1 part;
wine, 5 parts; water, 10 parts. (Hager, Buchner, and Wittstein.)

=ANTI-CHOLERA WATER= (Eau Anticholerique de Duboc, Paris), for lead colic
and a preventive of cholera. Composed of water with some brandy and 1/2
per cent. of sulphuric acid. (Gmelin.)

=AN′TICHLORE= (-klōre). Among _bleachers_, any substance, agent, or means,
by which the pernicious after-affects of chlorine are prevented. Washing
with a weak solution of sulphite of soda (which converts any adhering
‘bleaching salt’ into sulphate, sulphide, or chloride) is commonly adopted
for this purpose. Recently chloride of tin, used in the same way, has been
recommended. A cheap sulphite of lime, prepared by agitating milk of lime
with the fumes of burning sulphur, and draining and air-drying the
product, has been lately patented in England and America, by Prof.
Horsford, under the name of ‘ANTICHLORIDE OF LIME,’ See BLEACHING, &c.

=AN′TIDOTE= (-dōte). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANTID′OTUM, ANTID′OTUS, L.;
ANTIDOT, GEGENGIFT, Ger. In _medicine_, _toxicology_, &c., a substance
administered to counteract or lessen the effects of poison.

The principal poisons, with their antidotes, are noticed under their
respective heads. Also see POISONS, TOXICOLOGY, &c.

=ANTI-EPILEPTICUM= (Wepler, Berlin), known as Wepler’s Krampfpulver.
Magnesia alba, 5 parts; rad. dictamni, 15 parts; rad. zedoar, 12 parts;
rad. artemis, 8 parts; soot, 1/2 part; ol. valerian, 1/2 part; ol.
cajeputi, 1/4 part.

Dr Hager is the authority for the above, and he adds that formerly the
same proprietor sold a remedy which consisted of a black powder made by
carbonising hempen thread.

=ANTIFER′MENT= (pop. and more us., in this sense, _an′tiferment′_). [Eng.,
Fr.] _Syn._ ANTIFERMEN′TUM, L. Any substance which prevents or arrests
fermentation. Several nostrums are sold under this name in the
cider-districts. The following are tried and useful formulæ:——

_Prep._ 1. Sulphite (not sulph_ate_) of lime, in fine powder, 1 part;
marble-dust, ground oyster-shells, or chalk, 7 parts; mix, and pack tight,
so as to exclude the air.

2. Sulphite (not sulph_ate_) of potassa, 1 part; new black-mustard seed
(ground in a pepper-mill), 7 parts; mix, and pack so as to perfectly
exclude air and moisture. _Dose_ (of either), 1/2 _oz._ to 1-1/2 _oz._ per
_hhd._

3. Mustard-seed, 14 _lbs._; cloves and capsicum, of each 1-1/4 _lb._; mix,
and grind them to powder in a pepper-mill. _Dose_, 1/4 to 1/2 _lb._ per
_hhd._

_Uses, &c._ The above formulæ are infinitely superior to those commonly
met with in trade; and are quite harmless. A portion of any one of them
added to cider, or perry, soon allays fermentation, when excessive, or
when it has been renewed. The first formula is preferred when there is a
tendency to acidity. The second and third may be advantageously used for
wine and beer, as well as for cider. That of the third formula greatly
improves the flavour and the apparent strength of the liquor, and also
improves its keeping qualities. See CELLAR-MANAGEMENT, FERMENTATION, &c.

=ANTI-FRIC′TION METAL.= _Prep._ 1. From tin, 16 to 20 parts; antimony, 2
parts; lead, 1 part; fused together, and then blended with copper, 80
parts. Used where there is much friction or high velocity.

2. Zinc, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; copper, 20 parts. Used when the metal is
exposed to violent shocks.

3. Lead, 1 part; tin, 2 parts; zinc, 4 parts; copper, 68 parts. Used when
the metal is exposed to heat.

4. (Babbet’s.) Tin, 48 to 50 parts; antimony, 5 parts; copper, 1 part.

5. (Fenton’s.) Tin with some zinc, and a little copper.

6. (Ordinary.) Tin, or hard pewter, with or without a small portion of
antimony or copper. Without the last it is apt to spread out under the
weight of heavy machinery. Used for the bearings of locomotive engines,
&c.

_Obs._ These alloys are usually supported by bearings of brass, into which
it is poured after they have been tinned, and heated and put together with
an exact model of the axle, or other working piece, plastic clay being
previously applied, in the usual manner, as a lute or outer mould. Soft
gun-metal is also excellent, and is much used for bearings. They all
become less heated in working than the harder metals, and less grease or
oil is consequently required when they are used. See ALLOYS, FRICTION, &c.

=ANTIGUG′GLER.= A small bent tube of glass or metal inserted into casks
and carboys, to admit air over the liquor whilst it is being poured out or
drawn off, so that the sediment may not be disturbed.

=ANTIHECTICUM POTERII.= Fuse together 4 parts of regulus of antimony, and
5-1/2 of fine tin; pour it on a metal plate, reduce it to powder, and
deflagrate it in a red-hot crucible with 15 parts of nitre; keep it hot
for some time, then wash it, and dry it with a gentle heat.——_Dose_, two
to ten grains in hectic fevers.

=ANTILITHIC.= See LITHONTRYPTICS.

=ANTIMO′′NIAL= (-mōne′y-′ăl).[67] [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANTIMONIA′LIS, L.
Pertaining to, composed of, or containing antimony. In _medicine_ and
_pharmacy_, applied to preparations or remedies (ANTIMO′′NIALS;
ANTIMONIA′′LIA, L.) in which antimony, or one of its compounds, is the
leading or characteristic ingredient.

[Footnote 67: Antimon′ial (——Mayne) is a barbarism.]

=ANTIMO′NIATED.= _Syn._ ANTIMONIA′TUS, L. Mixed or impregnated with
antimony; antimonial.

=ANTIMON′IC ACID.= _Syn._ ACIDUM ANTIMON′ICUM, L.; ACIDE ANTIMONIQUE, Fr.;
ANTIMONSÄURE, Ger.

_Prep._ 1. Pure metallic antimony, in coarse powder, or small fragments,
is digested in excess of concentrated nitric acid, until the oxidation and
conversion is complete; the excess of nitric acid is then removed by
evaporation nearly to dryness, and the residuum thrown into cold distilled
water; after which the powder (ANTIMONIC ACID) is collected on a calico
filter, washed with distilled water, and dried by a gentle heat. Pure.

2. Metallic antimony (in powder), 1 part; powdered nitre, 6 or 8 parts;
are mixed and ignited or deflagrated in a silver crucible; the mass, when
cold, is powdered; the excess of alkali washed out with hot water, and the
residuum (ANTIMONIATE OF POTASSIUM) decomposed with hydrochloric acid;
lastly, the precipitate (ANTIMONIC ACID) is washed and dried as before.

That obtained by the first process is dibasic, and has the formula
H_{2}Sb_{2}O_{6}, while that produced by the second process is tetrabasic,
and has the formula H_{4}Sb_{2}O_{7}; the former is called simply
antimonic acid, the latter metantimonic acid.

_Prop._ Antimonic acid is a soft white powder, sparingly soluble in water,
reddens litmus, and is dissolved, even in the cold, by strong hydrochloric
acid and by potash. The hydrochloric solution, mixed with a small quantity

of water, yields, after a while, a precipitate of antimonic acid; but if
diluted with a large quantity of water, it remains clear. Ammonia does not
dissolve it in the cold. By heating with a large excess of caustic potash
it is converted into metantimonic acid.

Metantimonic acid is more readily dissolved by acids than antimonic acid,
and is dissolved by ammonia, after a while, even at ordinary temperatures.
It is also perfectly soluble in a large quantity of water, and is
precipitated therefrom by acids. It is very unstable, and easily changes
into antimonic acid, even in water.

=ANTIMONIC ANHYDRIDE= (Sb_{2}O_{5}). _Syn._ ANTIMONIC OXIDE, ANHYDROUS
ANTIMONIC ACID, PENTOXIDE OF ANTIMONY. Antimonic or metantimonic acid,
heated to a temperature below redness, loses water and yields the
anhydride, Sb_{2}O_{5}. Antimonic anhydride is a yellowish-white powder,
tasteless and insoluble in water and acids. Boiled with a solution of
caustic potash, it is dissolved. If fused with carbonate of potassium,
carbonic anhydride is expelled, and a salt is produced from which
antimonic acid is precipitated by acids.

=ANTIMONIOUS ACID.= See ANTIMONY, TETROXIDE of.

=AN′TIMONETTED.= _Syn._ ANTIMO′′NIURETTED; ANTIMONIA′TUS, L. Combined with
or containing antimony. See HYDROGEN, &c.

=AN′TIMONY= (-te-mŭn-e). _Syn._ METAL′LIC ANTIMONY*, REG′ULUS OF A.†;
ANTIMO′′NIUM, A. METAL′LICUM, STIB′IUM, METAL′LUM ANTIMO′′NII†, A.
REG′ULUS†, &c., L.; ANTIMOINE, Fr.; ANTIMON, SPIESSGLANZ, SPIESSGLAS,
SPIESSGLANZMETALL, Ger.; ANTIMONIO, It., Sp. The term formerly applied to
the native sulphide or greyish-black semi-crystalline ore of antimony; but
now solely appropriated to the pure metal.

_Sources._ Metallic antimony, in combination with silver and iron (NATIVE
ANTIMONY), with sulphur (GREY SULPHIDE OF A.), or with nickel
(NICKELIF′EROUS SULPHIDE OF A.) is found in Bohemia, Hungary, Germany,
Sweden, France, England, Borneo, and America; and oxidised, combined with
oxide of iron, &c. (ANTIMO′′NIAL, O′CHRE, RED ANTIMONY, WHITE A.[68]),
forming ores, either small in quantity or of little value, in various
parts of the world. Of these the only one in sufficient abundance for
smelting is the common sulphide known as ‘grey antimony’ or ‘stibnite.’

[Footnote 68: White A. occurs in considerable quantities in Borneo, and is
used after roasting as a white pigment for iron and other surfaces.]

[Illustration:

  _a_, _b_, Grate and fire-place.
  _c_, Bridge.
  _d_, Air-channel.
  _e_, Concave space for ore, resting on a solid bed _f_, formed of
      sand and clay.
  _g_, Door for introducing the ore, and abstracting residuary slag.
  _h_, Pipe to convey away the liquid metal.
  _i_, Chimney.]

_Prep._ Native antimony is freed from impurities by fusion. The sulphide,
after being melted from the gangue, is commonly oxidised by exposure on
the concave hearth of a reverberatory furnace, and is then reduced to the
metallic state by fusion in crucibles with coal-dust, crude tartar, or
some other deoxidising agent. To free the product from iron, it is
generally fused, or re-fused, with a little antimonic oxide; and when the
ore contains arsenic, iron, or its oxide, and an alkaline carbonate or
sulphate, are used in the same way. It is seldom prepared on the small
scale. The following formulæ are in use, or are recommended:——

1. On the SMALL SCALE:——

_a._ From tersulphide of antimony, in coarse powder, 2 parts; iron
filings, 1 part; fused together in a covered crucible, at a heat gradually
raised to dull redness.

_b._ From the teroxide or the oxychloride of antimony, fused together, as
before, with twice its weight of crude tartar.

_c._ (Ph. Castr. Ru. 1840.) Sulphide of antimony, 16 parts; cream of
tartar, 6 parts; both in powder; throw the mixture, in small quantities at
a time, into a vessel (an earthen crucible) heated to redness; when the
reaction is over (having closely covered the vessel), fuse the mass, and
after a quarter of an hour pour it out, and separate the metal from the
slag.

_d._ From sulphide of antimony, 8 parts; crude tartar, 6 parts; nitre, 3
parts; as last.

_e._ (Wöhler.) Sulphide of antimony, 10 parts; nitre, 12 parts; dry
carbonate of soda, 15 parts; deflagrate together; powder the resulting
mass, and wash it thoroughly with boiling water; lastly, smelt the dried
residuum with black flux. All the preceding are nearly pure; the impurity,
if any, being traces of copper, lead, or iron.

_f._ (Berzelius.) From metallic antimony, in fine powder, 2 parts;
teroxide of antimony, 1 part; fused together. The product will be pure
provided the antimony employed is free from lead.

_g._ (Muspratt.) From antimony, 9 parts; peroxide of manganese, 1 part;
fused together; the resulting metal being re-fused with 1-10th of its
weight of carbonate of soda.

2. On the LARGE SCALE——commercial:——

_a._ See _above_ (before 1 _a_.).

_b._ From sulphide of antimony, 100 parts; iron (in very small scraps), 40
parts; dry crude sulphate of soda, 10 parts; powdered charcoal, 2-1/2
parts; fused together.——_Prod._ 60 to 65 parts of antimony, besides the
scoriæ or ash, which is also valuable.

_c._ (Berthier.) Sulphide of antimony, 100 parts; hammerschlag (rough
oxide or iron from the shingling or rolling mills), 60 parts; crude
carbonate or sulphate of soda, 45 to 50 parts; charcoal powder, 10 parts;
as last.——_Prod._ 65 to 70 parts.

_Prop., &c._ Bluish-white, lustrous, with a lamellar texture, and a
crystalline or semi-crystalline fracture, with fern-leaf markings on the
surface, when pure (star antimony); extremely brittle (may be powdered);
imparts brittleness to its alloys (even 1-1000th part added to gold
renders it unfit for the purposes of coinage and the arts); melts at
809-810° Fahr., or just under redness; fumes, boils, and volatilises at a
white heat, and, when suddenly exposed to the air, inflames with
conversion into the teroxide, which is deposited in beautiful flowers or
crystals; when perfectly pure and fused without contact with air or
foreign matter, it bears an intense heat without subliming (Thénard);
allowed to cool slowly from a state of perfect fusion, it crystallises in
octahedrons or dodecahedrons; tarnishes, but does not rust by exposure to
air or moisture at common temperatures; hot hydrochloric acid dissolves
it, with the formation of TRICHLORIDE OF ANTIMONY; nitric acid, when
concentrated, converts it into ANTIMONIC ACID; and when dilute, into
TRIOXIDE OF ANTIMONY. Sp. gr. 6·7 to 6·8.[69]

[Footnote 69: When perfectly pure, 6715——Ure.]

_Tests._ Metallic antimony may be recognised by the above properties; its
oxide, salts, &c., by the following reactions:——1. Sulphuretted hydrogen
gives, with acid solutions, an orange-red precipitate, which is sparingly
soluble in ammonia,[70] and insoluble in dilute acids; but readily soluble
in pure potassa and alkaline sulphides, and in hot hydrochloric acid with
the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen gas:——2. Sulphydrate of ammonium
gives an orange-red precipitate, readily soluble in excess of the
precipitant, if this latter contains sulphur in excess; and the liquor
containing the re-dissolved precipitate gives a yellow or orange-yellow
precipitate on the addition of an acid:——3. Ammonia and potassa, and their
carbonates, give (except in solutions of tartar emetic) a bulky white
precipitate; that with ammonia and its carbonate being insoluble in excess
of the precipitant; that with potassa, readily so; whilst that with
carbonate of potassium is only soluble on the application of heat:——4. A
rod of zinc throws down metallic antimony, as a black powder, from all its
solutions not containing free nitric acid. If the experiment be made with
a few drops of a solution of antimony containing a little free
hydrochloric acid, and a small platinum dish or capsule be employed, the
part covered by the liquid is soon stained brown or blackish, and the
stain is irremovable by cold hydrochloric acid, but may be easily removed
by warm nitric acid:——5. By ebullition of the acidulated liquid along with
copper gauze, foil, or wire, as noticed under ‘Reinsch’s Test.’[71] The
peculiar violet-grey of the deposit is characteristic, and may easily be
distinguished from that given by arsenical solutions:——6. Mixed with
dilute sulphuric acid and poured on some metallic zinc in a gas-generating
flask, provided with a small bent tube (see _engr._), it yields
ANTIMONETTED HYDROGEN (Marsh’s test), recognised by burning with a
bluish-green flame, and furnishing dense white fumes which adhere readily
to any cold substance (as a porcelain plate) held over it; or, if the
plate be depressed upon the flame, a deep black, and almost lustreless
spot of metallic antimony; the fumes and spots in both cases being
insoluble in water, and in dilute solution of chloride (crude
hypochlorite) of soda. On heating the centre of the tube to redness with a
spirit lamp, the bluish-green colour of the flame lessens in intensity,
and a mirror of metallic antimony, of silvery lustre, forms inside the
tube at the ignited part. On passing dry sulphuretted hydrogen through the
tube, still heated by a spirit lamp, this mirror assumes a reddish-yellow
colour, approaching black in its thicker parts; and by exposure to a
feeble stream of hydrochloric acid gas, almost immediately, or in a few
seconds, disappears, being carried off by the gas, which, if passed into a
little distilled water, yields a solution of chloride of antimony, which
may be further submitted to any of the usual tests.[71] If the substance
be in the solid state, it must be reduced to powder and dissolved in
water; or if insoluble in that menstruum, a solution must be obtained by
digestion in either hot hydrochloric or nitrohydrochloric acid, before
proceeding to examine it by this method.

[Footnote 70: The like precipitate from a solution of antimonic acid in
hydrochloric acid, dissolves readily in ammonia, particularly when
heated.]

[Footnote 71: See ARSENIOUS ACID.]

[Illustration:

  _a_, Flask containing the suspected fluid, dilute sulphuric acid,
      and zinc.
  _b_, Small tube, at the one end having an almost capillary
      orifice, where the gas is inflamed.
  _c_, Spirit-lamp.
  _d_, Support.]

_Estim._ Antimony is generally WEIGHED under the form of tersulphide; but
sometimes as antimonious anhydride, and——though more seldom——as pure
metal:——

1. A solution being obtained as above, if necessary, it is strongly
acidulated with tartaric acid, and the antimony thrown down as a sulphide
by a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen. After warming the solution and
allowing it to cool, the precipitate (TERSULPHIDE) is collected on a
filter, dried, and weighed. A small portion digested in strong
hydrochloric acid will completely dissolve if it be the pure sulphide; in
which case the quantity of ANTIMONY sought will be equal to 71-1/2%
(71·5%) of the weight of the sulphide found (very nearly).[72] Should only
part of the precipitate be soluble, a known weight of it may be introduced
into a flask, and a considerable quantity of fuming nitric acid added,
drop by drop, and afterwards, a little hydrochloric acid, the mixture
being digested, at a gentle heat, until the reaction is complete, and the
whole of the sulphur is dissolved. The resulting solution diluted with
water, strongly acidulated with tartaric acid, and solution of chloride of
barium added as long as it disturbs the liquid, yields a precipitate, of
which the weight, after it has been thoroughly washed, dried, and gently
ignited, multiplied by 136, gives the quantity of SULPHUR in the sample;
and which, deducted from the weight of the sulphide first found, gives the
quantity of pure ANTIMONY, as before.

[Footnote 72: Tersulphide of antimony dried at 212° Fahr. still retains
traces of water, which is not wholly expelled until the heat reaches
390-392°, when it acquires a black colour and a crystalline appearance.]

2. The quantity of PURE ANTIMONY in commercial samples may be determined
by treating them (in powder) with nitric acid, which oxidises the antimony
and leaves it in an insoluble state, whilst it dissolves the other metals.
The resulting oxide is collected on a filter, washed, dried, ignited in an
open porcelain crucible, and weighed——its weight multiplied by ·7898 gives
the quantity of pure metal sought.

3. Dissolve a known weight of the sample in hydrochloric acid, immerse a
blade of pure metallic tin in the solution, and keep the liquor acidulous,
and in a state of gentle ebullition by the heat of a sand bath, when the
whole of the ANTIMONY will be precipitated under the form of a black
powder, and may be collected, washed, dried, and weighed. This is
particularly adapted to alloys of antimony and tin. See _Tests_ (above)
and _Pur._ (below).

_Pur._ The antimony of commerce generally contains a little arsenic, with
variable quantities of iron, lead, sulphur, and tin. These impurities may
be thus detected:——

1. (Arsenic.) By fusing the sample, in powder, mixed with about an equal
weight of tartrate or bitartrate of potassium, in a covered crucible, for
2 or 3 hours, and placing the resulting button, which is an alloy of
antimony and potassium, in a ‘Marsh’s apparatus’ along with a little
water, when the disengagement of hydrogen gas will commence, and may be
tested in the usual manner. See ARSENIC.

2. (Iron.) Dissolve the powdered sample in nitrohydrochloric acid, dilute
the solution with a large quantity of cold water, filter, and pass a
current of sulphuretted hydrogen through the filtrate as long as it
produces a precipitate; again filter, boil the filtered liquor for a few
minutes to drive off the sulphuretted hydrogen, and then test it with
ferrocyanide of potassium, which will give a blue precipitate if iron be
present; or supersaturate the last filtrate with ammonia, and then add
hydrosulphydrate of ammonium, when, under like conditions, a black
precipitate will be formed.

3. (Lead.) Digest the powdered sample in hot nitric acid, which will
dissolve out the LEAD but leave the antimony behind. The whitish powdery
residuum may be washed, dried, ignited, and weighed, as above; the clear
decanted liquor may now be mixed with the first washings, evaporated to
dryness, the residuum re-dissolved in water, and the solution submitted to
reagents (see LEAD). If lead is found to be present, a solution of
sulphate of sodium may be added until it ceases to disturb the liquid, and
the resulting precipitate (sulphate of lead) washed, dried, and gently
ignited (alone) in a porcelain crucible; the weight of the ignited
residuum furnishes a number which, multiplied by ·683, gives the weight of
the LEAD sought.

4. (Sulphur.) The solution in nitrohydrochloric acid, when tested with
either nitrate or chloride of barium, gives a white precipitate of
sulphate of barium, insoluble in both water and acids, which when dried,
ignited, and weighed, and the weight multiplied by ·136, gives the
quantity of SULPHUR as before. In this case, as with the sulphides (see
_above_), free sulphur maybe removed by digesting and washing the powdered
sample in bisulphide of carbon, previous to its solution in the acid, by
which the violence of the subsequent reaction will be lessened.

5. (Tin.) Two samples of equal weight are taken; the one is tested for
ANTIMONY, as described above; the other is dissolved in a mixture of equal
parts of hydrochloric and nitrohydrochloric acid, and a blade of zinc
immersed in the solution (see _above_); the mixed precipitate of tin and
antimony which forms is collected on a weighed filter, washed, dried, and
weighed. The weight of antimony in the first sample subtracted from that
now obtained, leaves a remainder which indicates the quantity of TIN in
the original sample.

_Phys. eff., &c._ Nearly all the salts and preparations of antimony are
emetic and cathartic, and in large doses poisonous——occasioning vomiting,
profuse alvine dejections, acute colic, and inflammation of the stomach
and bowels, often serious, though rarely resulting in death. TARTAR EMETIC
and BUTTER OF ANTIMONY are those from which accidents have principally
occurred.——_Ant., &c._ Copious vomiting, if it has not already occurred,
should be promoted, and the recently prepared hydrated sulphide of iron
administered in considerable doses, followed or accompanied by
mucilaginous drinks and diuretics. If much prostration follows, wine and
stimulants may be had recourse to. In the absence of hydrated sulphide of
iron, a solution of tannin, or decoction of galls; cinchona, or oak bark,
or even powdered cinchona, mixed with tepid water, may be administered.

_Uses._ In the _arts_, antimony enters into the composition of several
useful alloys, as TYPE-METAL, PEWTER, BRITANNIA-METAL, MUSIC-PLATE METAL,
&c. It is added to the alloy for concave mirrors, to give them a finer
texture; to bell metal, to render it more sonorous; and to various other
metals to increase their hardness and fusibility; for the latter purpose
it is employed in the casting of cannon balls.

_Concluding Remarks._ In ‘roasting’ or oxidising the native sulphide of
antimony on the bed of the reverberatory furnace, as in the common method
before referred to, care must be taken to regulate and gradually raise the
heat, which, until towards the end of the process, need not be extreme,
and then only should it approach dull redness. Without this precaution
much of the undecomposed sulphide will be lost by volatilisation. During
the whole time the ‘charge’ should also be well stirred with an iron
spatula, to ensure the constant exposure of every part of it to the
atmosphere. The process is complete when the whole mass assumes a
greyish-white appearance. Earthen crucibles are commonly employed for the
subsequent reduction, and after being charged and covered over with ground
charcoal, are heated in a reverberatory furnace. The product is the crude
metallic antimony of commerce. It is generally REFINED by smelting it with
about 1-8th of its weight of the refined sulphide, and about 1-4th of its
weight of carbonate or sulphate of soda; but if there be much iron
present, more of the sulphide——even 1-4th——may be required; for unless
there be sufficient sulphur to combine with the whole of the iron, the
arsenic will not be oxidised, but remain as a contamination. When cold,
the metal is carefully separated from the slag, and is frequently re-fused
with a little fresh carbonate of soda (1 to 1-1/2 part); after which it is
cast into pigs, lumps, or ingots. The crude metal, thus treated, commonly
yields 94% of REFINED METAL of tolerable purity.

Should lead have been present in the sulphide or ore, it remains after a
second, or even a third fusion, although proportionately reduced in
quantity; and it can only be completely separated in the humid way. It is,
therefore, always desirable to select an ore free from lead.

=Antimony, Ash of.= _Syn._ ANTIMONY-ASH, CALCINED’ ANTIMONY*; CI′NIS
ANTIMO′′NII, ANTIMO′′NIUM CALCINA′TUM*, L. Prepared by roasting the common
grey sulphide of antimony on an iron plate set under a chimney, to carry
off the fumes. The product is a mixture of teroxide of antimony, with some
unburnt sulphide, and a little antimonious acid.

_Prop., &c._ Ash-grey; emetic in small doses. Used chiefly as a cheap
substitute for teroxide of antimony by the manufacturers of tartar emetic;
also to make metallic antimony.

=Antimony, Butt′er of.= See ANTIMONY, TRICHLORIDE OF.

=Antimony, Calx of.= _Syn._ CALX ANTIMO′′NII, L. Sometimes applied to
antimony-ash, but more commonly to crude, unwashed diaphoretic antimony.

=Antimony, Calx of= (Sul′phurated). _Syn._ ANTIMO′′NII CALX SULPHURA′TA,
L. _Prep._ (Hufeland.) Calcined oyster-shells, 10 parts; sulphur, 4 parts;
crude antimony, 3 parts; powder, mix, and calcine in a luted crucible for
an hour. Emetic, resolvent, and alterative.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr.; in gout,
rheumatism, scrofula, &c.

=Antimony, Ce′ruse of.= _Syn._ ANTIMO′′NII CERUS′SA, L. _Prep._ (Bate.) As
diaphoretic antimony (over which it possesses no advantage), merely using
the metal instead of the sulphide.

An old preparation made by igniting antimony in the sun’s rays, by means
of a lens, was called ANTIMONII CERUSSA SOLA′′RIS.

=Antimony, Chlo′′rides of= (klōre′-īdz):——

=1. Antimony, Trichloride of.= SbCl_{2}. _Syn._ TERCHLORIDE OF ANTIMONY,
ANTIMONIOUS CHLORIDE, CHLO′′RIDE OF ANTIMONY, SESQUICHLORIDE OF A., BUTTER
OF A., CAU′STIC ANTIMONY†, &c.; ANTIMO′′NII CHLORI′DUM, A. TERCHLORI′DUM,
A. BU′TYRUM*, &c., L.; CHLORURE D’ANTIMOINE, BEURRE D’ANTIMOINE, &c., Fr.;
ANTIMON-CHLORID, SPIESSGLANZ-BUTTER, Ger. This is the substance of which
common chloride, or butter of antimony, of the shops, is an impure
concentrated solution containing free acid.

_Prep._ 1. SOLID, ANHYDROUS:——

_a._ Pure commercial tersulphide of antimony, in coarse powder, 1 part;
concentrated hydrochloric acid, 5 parts; are mixed in a capacious
stoneware or glass vessel set under a chimney with a quick draught, to
convey away the fumes, the whole being constantly stirred, and, as the
effervescence slackens, a gradually increasing gentle heat applied until
solution is complete; the resulting liquid is put into a retort, and
distilled, until each drop of the distillate, as it falls into the aqueous
liquid which has previously passed over into the receiver, produces a
copious white precipitate; the receiver is then changed, and the
distillation continued, when pure TRICHLORIDE OF ANTIMONY passes over, and
solidifies on cooling to a white and highly crystalline mass, which must
be carefully excluded from the air.

_b._ From pure metallic antimony, 2 parts; bichloride of mercury, 5 parts;
both in fine powder; mixed and distilled in a retort with a large neck, by
a gentle sand-heat, into a suitable receiver. Chemically pure.

2. LIQUID:——

_a._ (LIQUOR ANTIMONII CHLORIDI, B. P.) _Syn._ SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF
ANTIMONY.

_Prep._ Take of black antimony, 1 _lb._; hydrochloric acid, 4 pints; place
the black antimony in a porcelain vessel; pour upon it the hydrochloric
acid, and, constantly stirring, apply to the mixture, beneath a flue with
a good draught, a gentle heat, which must be gradually augmented as the
evolution of gas begins to slacken, until the liquid boils. Maintain it at
this temperature for fifteen minutes; then remove the vessel from the
fire, and filter the liquid through calico into another vessel, returning
what passes through first, that a perfectly clear solution may be
obtained. Boil this down to the bulk of two pints, and preserve it in a
stoppered bottle.

_Characters and Tests._ A heavy liquid, usually of a yellowish-red colour.
A little of it dropped into water gives a white precipitate, and the
filtered solution lets fall a copious deposit on the addition of nitrate
of silver. If the white precipitate formed by water be treated with
sulphuretted hydrogen it becomes orange-coloured. The specific gravity of
the solution is 1·47. One fluid drachm of it mixed with a solution of a
quarter of an ounce of tartaric acid in four fluid ounces of water, forms
a clear solution, which, if treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, gives an
orange precipitate, weighing, when washed and dried at 212°, at least 22
grains.

_b._ (Commercial.)——_a._ Take of ash or calx of antimony, 3-1/4 _lbs._;
common salt, 2 _lbs._; oil of vitriol, 1-1/2 _lb._; water, 1 _lb._;
proceed as before. Prod., 2-1/2 _lbs._

_c._ From roasted sulphide or glass of antimony, 7 _lbs._; salt, 28
_lbs._; oil of vitriol, 21 _lbs._; water, 14 _lbs._; as before.

_d._ From crude sulphide of antimony (powdered), 25 _lbs._; strongest
commercial hydrochloric acid, 1 _cwt._; nitric acid, 3-1/2 _lbs._; as
before; the product being coloured with a little pernitrate of iron, and
made up to the sp. gr. 1·4. The quality is improved, and the process more
easily conducted, if the crude antimony is roasted before dissolving it in
the acid. The same applies to the other formulæ.

_Prop., &c._——_a._ SOLID. When pure, and nearly free from water, it
somewhat resembles butter, melts with a gentle heat, and partially
crystallises on cooling; is very deliquescent, and quickly passes into an
oily liquid when exposed to damp air; very soluble in strong hydrochloric
acid; water, according to its quantity, more or less decomposes it. When
perfectly pure and anhydrous, it forms a white and highly crystalline
mass, rapidly decomposed by air and moisture.——_b._ SOLUTION. The sp. gr.
of the solution of the shops varies from 1·25 to 1·4, in which state it is
a transparent fuming yellow liquid (unless when artificially coloured),
and extremely acid and caustic. Submitted to distillation, it at first
parts with its water and excess of acid, after which the salt itself is
volatilised. By changing the receiver as soon as the distillate concretes
on cooling, or produces a copious white precipitate on falling into the
liquid already passed over, the pure ANHYDROUS TRICHLORIDE may be readily
obtained.

_Phys. eff., Ant., Lesions, &c._ See ANTIMONY.

_Uses._ In _medicine_, only externally, and chiefly as a caustic or
escharotic to the wounds caused by rabid and venomous animals, and to
repress excessive granulations in ulcers. In _pharmacy_, as a source of
both oxychloride and oxide of antimony. The residuum in the retort when
corrosive sublimate is used, is sulphide of mercury, and was formerly
called CINNABAR OF ANTIMONY.

=2. Antimony, Pentachlo′′ride of.= Sb_{2}Cl_{5}. _Syn._ PERCHLO′′RIDE OF
ANTIMONY; ANTIMO′′NII PENTACHLORI′DUM, L. Prepared by passing a stream of
chlorine gas over metallic antimony in fine powder, and gently heated. A
mixture of TRICHLORIDE and PENTACHLORIDE OF ANTIMONY is found in the
receiver, from which the latter may be separated by careful distillation.
It is a colourless volatile liquid, forming a crystalline compound with a
small quantity of water, but decomposed by a larger quantity.

=Antimony, Cro′cus of.= _Syn._ SAFF′RON OF ANTIMONY, LIV′ER OF A.; CRO′CUS
ANTIMO′′NII C. METALLO′′RUM, HE′PAR ANTIMONII, L.; CROCUS D’ANTIMOINE,
SAFFRAN D’A., Fr. _Prep._ 1. From black sulphide of antimony, and
saltpetre, equal parts, deflagrated together by small portions at a time,
and the fused mass (separated from the scoriæ) reduced to fine powder.

2. (ANT. CROCUS, Ph. L. 1788,) Sulphide of antimony, 1 lb.; nitre, 1 lb.;
common salt, 1 oz.; as before.

_Prop., &c._ Its medicinal properties closely resemble those of
diaphoretic antimony. It is a mixture of sulphate of potassium,
antimoniate of potassium, teroxide of antimony, oxysulphide of antimony,
sulphide of potassium, and undecomposed trisulphide of antimony, in
variable and undetermined proportions. When repeatedly washed or boiled in
water, and dried, it forms the WASHED SAFFRON OF ANTIMONY (C. A. LO′TUS,
L.) of old pharmacy, and has then lost its sulphate of potassium, caustic
potash, and sulphide of potassium. Formerly used to make tartar emetic.
See ANTIMONY, LIVER OF.

=Antimony, Crude.= Native sulphide of antimony melted from the gangue.

=Antimony, Diaphoret′ic.= _Syn._ CALX OF ANTIMONY, CALCINED’ A.,
ANTIMO′′NIATE OF POT′ASH, STIB′IATED KA′LI†, DIAPHORETIC MIN′ERAL†, &c.;
ANTIMO′′NIUM DIAPHORET′ICUM, A. CALCINA′TUM, CALX ANTIMO′′NII, C. A.
ANGLO′′RUM†, POTAS′SÆ ANTIMO′′NIAS, KALI STIB′ICUM†, &c., L. var.;
ANTIMOINE DIAPHORÉTIQUE, BIANTIMONIATE DE POTASSE, Fr. An old preparation
with numerous synonyms, of which the first two of the above are those
which are now chiefly in use.

_Prep._ 1. Sulphide of antimony, 1 part; nitre, 3 parts; powder, mix, and
deflagrate by spoonfuls in a red-hot crucible, then calcine for half an
hour, and when cold powder the residuum.

2. WASHED DIAPHORETIC A., W. CALX OF A.; ANTIMONIUM DIAPHORETICUM LO′TUM,
A. D. ABLU′TUM (Ph. Bor. 1847), A. CALCINA′TUM (Ph. L. 1788); ANTIMOINE
DIAPHORÉTIQUE LAVÉ, &c., Fr.:——_a._ (Ph. L. 1788.) As the last, but the
powder is subsequently deprived of soluble matter by repeated washings
with water, after which it is collected and dried.

_b._ (Ph. Bor. 1847.) Metallic antimony, 1 part; nitre, 2 parts; as above,
but drying the washed powder at a heat not exceeding 104° F.

_Prop., &c._ A white or greyish-white powder, without either smell or
taste; gently diaphoretic and laxative; its activity greatly depending on
the quantity of acid in the stomach.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr., or even 10 gr.;
for _horses_, 1 to 3 or 4 _dr._ It was formerly in high repute; but is now
almost superseded by the present pharmacopœial preparations.

=Antimony, E′thiops of.= _Syn._ Æ′THIOPS ANTIMONIA′LIS, L. _Prep._ 1. From
metallic mercury, 1 part; sulphide of antimony, 2 parts; triturated
together until the globules of the former entirely disappear.——2. Sulphide
of antimony, 3 parts; black sulphide of mercury, 2 parts; triturated
together for some time. An old remedy in certain skin diseases, still
highly esteemed by some provincial practitioners.——_Dose_, 3 to 5 gr.,
gradually increased to 20 or 30 gr.

=Antimony, Flow′ers of.= _Syn._ FLO′′RES ANTIMO′′NII, L.; FLEURS
D′ANTIMOINE, Fr. _Prep._ Throw powdered sulphide of antimony, by spoonfuls
at a time, into an ignited tubulated retort with a short and very wide
neck, until as many ‘flowers’ collect in the receiver as are required. An
impure oxysulphide of antimony, with variable portions of trioxide, and
undecomposed tersulphide. Emetic in doses of 1 to 3 grains.

=Antimony, Flowers of (Ar′gentine).= [-ĭn.] _Syn._ WHITE OX′IDE OF
ANTIMONY, SNOW OF A.†; ANTIMO′′NII FLO′′RES ARGENTI′NI, A. NIX†, L.;
FLEURS ARGENTINE D’ANTIMOINE, OXYDE BLANC D’ANTIMOINE, Fr. _Prep._ Melt
metallic antimony in a vessel freely exposed to the air, and furnished
with a cool place for the ‘flowers’ to rest on, and collect them as
deposited; or, and what is better, heat the metal to a full red or white
heat in a covered crucible, and then suddenly expose it to the air, when
it will inflame, and the oxidised vapour condense as ‘flowers’ on any cool
surface (as a partially inverted wide-mouthed flask) held at a little
distance over it. The product is TRIOXIDE OF ANTIMONY in a crystalline
form, and received the name of argentine flowers from its silvery
whiteness and beauty.

=Antimony, Flowers of (Helmont’s).= _Syn._ FLO′′RES ANTIMO′′NII
HELMON′TII. An old preparation formed by dissolving sulphide of antimony
in aqua regia, expelling the free water and acid by heat, and subliming
the residuum with an equal weight of sal ammoniac. Violently emetic, even
in small doses, and unfit for internal use.

=Antimony, Flowers of (Red).= _Syn._ FLO′′RES ANTIMO′′NII RU′BRI, L. From
sulphide of antimony, and sal ammoniac, both in fine powder, mixed and
sublimed together. Resembles the last.

=Antimony, Ful′minating.= See FULMINATING COMPOUNDS.

=Antimony, Glass of.= _Syn._ VIT′RIFIED ANTIMONY*, V. OX′IDE OF A.*, GREY
O. OF A.*; ANTIMO′′NII VIT′RUM, ANTIMO′′NIUM VITRIFICA′TUM, A.
VITRIFAC′TUM (Ph. L. 1788), OX′YDUM ANTIMONII VITRIFICATUM, &c., L.; VERRE
D’ANTIMOINE, OXYSULFURE D’ANTIMOINE SILICATÉ, Fr. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1788.)
Roast sulphide of antimony in a shallow earthen vessel, over a moderate
fire, stirring it constantly with an iron rod, until it turns whitish-grey
and ceases to emit fumes at a red heat; put the residuum into a covered
crucible which it shall only two thirds fill, and expose it to an intense
heat (gradually raised), until it fuses, then pour it out on an iron
plate. If calcined too much, a little more crude antimony may be added to
make it run well.

_Comp., Prop., &c._ A mixture of sulphide and oxide of antimony
contaminated with a little silica and iron. In fine powder it is emetic,
in doses of 1 to 3 gr.; but owing to the uncertainty and violence of its
operation, is now seldom employed. It has been used as a cheap source of
the TEROXIDE by the manufacturers of tartar emetic.

=Antimony, Glass of (Cera′′ted).= _Syn._ ANTIMO′′NII VIT′RUM CERA′TUM, L.
_Prep._ (Dr Young & Ph. L. 1746.) Glass of antimony, in very fine powder,
1 oz.; yellow wax, 1 dr.; melt together in an iron ladle, and keep it over
a gentle fire free from flame (constantly stirring) for about half an
hour, or until it acquires a snuff colour, then pour it out on a piece of
white paper (or a plate), and when cold, powder it.——_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr.,
in dysentery, &c.

=Antimony, Li′ver of.= _Syn._ HE′PAR ANTIMO′′NII, L.; HÉPAR D’ANTIMOINE,
OXYSULFURE D’ANTIMOINE SILICATÉ, Fr. _Prep._ From sulphide of antimony, 1
part; and dry carbonate of sodium or potassium, 2 parts; melted together,
and heated until it acquires the proper colour, and then cooled and
powdered.

_Comp., Uses, &c._ A mixture of trioxide of antimony, sulphide of
potassium, carbonate of potassium, and undecomposed trisulphide of
antimony. It is chiefly used by farriers, in doses of 1 to 2 dr., as an
alterative purge for horses, in greasy heels, &c.; and sometimes by
chemists, as a source of the crude oxide. Crocus of antimony, before
noticed, sometimes passes under the name, and is sold for it.

=Antimony, Ore of.= _Syn._ ANTIMONY-ORE. Native sulphide of antimony.

=Antimony, Oxide of.= The B. P. name for Antimony, Trioxide of (which
_see_).

=Antimony, Oxides of.= Antimony forms with oxygen three definite
compounds, viz the——

  Trioxide or antimonious
  oxide                              Sb_{2}O_{3}

  Tetroxide or antimonoso-antimonic               { or
  oxide                              Sb_{2}O_{4}  {Sb_{2}O_{3}.
                                                  {Sb_{2}O_{5}

  Pentoxide or antimonic
  oxide                              Sb_{2}O_{5}

=Antimony, Trioxide of.= Sb_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ TEROXIDE OF ANTIMONY,
ANTIMONIOUS OXIDE (B. P. OXIDE OF ANTIMONY, Eng.; ANTIMONII OXIDUM, L.).
_Prep._ (B. P.) Take of solution of chloride of antimony, 16 fluid _oz._;
carbonate of soda, 6 _oz._; water, 2 _galls._; distilled water, a
sufficiency. Pour the antimonial solution into the water, mix thoroughly,
let the precipitate settle, remove the supernatant liquid by a siphon, add
one gallon of distilled water, agitate well, let the precipitate subside,
again withdraw the fluid, and repeat the processes of affusion of
distilled water, agitation, and subsidence. Add now the carbonate of soda
previously dissolved in two pints of distilled water, leave them in
contact for half an hour, stirring frequently, collect the deposit on
a calico filter, and wash with boiling distilled water until the washings
cease to give a precipitate with a solution of nitrate of silver
acidulated by nitric acid. Lastly, dry the product at a heat not exceeding
212°.

_Char. and Tests._ A greyish-white powder, fusible at a low red heat,
insoluble in water, but readily dissolved by hydrochloric acid. The
solution, dropped into distilled water, gives a white deposit, at once
changed to orange by sulphuretted hydrogen. It dissolves entirely when
boiled with an excess of the acid tartrate of potash.

_Uses._ Chiefly in making tartar emetic and some other salts of antimony;
also in the preparation of pulvis antimonialis. Therapeutically, it is a
diaphoretic and febrifuge.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 grains.

=Antimony, Pentoxide of.= See ANTIMONIC ANHYDRIDE.

=Antimony, Tetroxide of.= Sb_{2}O_{4} or Sb_{2}O_{3}.Sb_{2}O_{5}. _Syn._
ANTIMONOSO-ANTIMONIC OXIDE, ANTIMONIOUS ACID. Found natural as Cervantite
or Antimony ochre. Prepared by heating antimonic anhydride, by roasting
the trioxide or trisulphide, or by the action of excess of nitric acid on
finely powdered metallic antimony. Thus prepared, it is a white solid,
unalterable by heat; slightly soluble in water, more so in hydrochloric
acid.

=Antimony, Oxychloride of.= SbOCl. _Syn._ POWDER OF ALGAROTH. Thrown down
as a white precipitate when trichloride of antimony is poured into water.
Continued washing with water deprives it of nearly the whole of its
chlorine, and converts it into the trioxide, a change which is more
completely effected by aqueous solutions of the alkalies or their
carbonates.

=Antimony, Oxysulphide of.= The compound Sb_{2}O_{3}.2Sb_{2}S_{3} occurs
native as red antimony. Antimony blende, Kermesome, Rothspiessglanzerz,
Crocus of antimony, Glass of antimony, and similar preparations, are
believed by some authorities to be crude oxysulphides of antimony. See
ANTIMONY, SULPHURATED.

=Antimony, Red.= See OXYSULPHIDE OF ANTIMONY, before noticed.

=Antimony, Reg′ulus of.= _Syn._ REG′ULUS ANTIMO′′NII, L. Metallic antimony
obtained by fusion. Alloys formed by fusing antimony with iron, tin, lead,
or copper, and a little tartar, were respectively called MAR′TIAL REGULUS
OF ANTIMONY (_r. antimo′′nii martia′lis_, L.), R. A. JOVIA′LIS (L.), R. A.
SATURNI′NUS (L.), R. A. VEN′ERIS (L.), &c. (See _below_.)

=Antimony, Ru′by of.= _Syn._ MEDIC′INAL (-dĭs′-) REG′ULUS OF ANTIMONY;
ANTIMO′′NII RUBI′NUS, REG′ULUS MEDICINA′LIS, R. A. M., &c., L. From crude
sulphide of antimony, 5 parts; fused with carbonate of potassa, 1 part;
and the purified portion separated from the scoriæ. See LIVER OF ANTIMONY.

=Antimony, Saff′ron of.= See CROCUS OF ANTIMONY.

=Antimony, Smelt′ed.= _Syn._ ANTIMO′′NIUM PURIFICA′TUM, L. Crude antimony
melted and poured into small conical moulds.——_Uses, &c._ Same as the
ordinary tersulphide.

=Antimony, Snow of.= See ANTIMONY, FLOWERS OF.

=Antimony, Sulphurated.= B. P. _Syn._ OXYSULPHURET, or PRECIPITATED
SULPHIDE OF ANTIMONY, GOLDEN SULPHIDE OF ANTIMONY. Mix black antimony 10
_oz._ with solution of soda 4-1/2 pints, and boil for two hours, with
frequent stirring, adding distilled water occasionally to maintain the
same volume. Strain the liquor through calico, and before it cools add to
it by degrees dilute sulphuric acid till the latter is in slight excess.
Collect the precipitate on a calico filter, wash with distilled water till
the washings no longer precipitate with chloride of barium, and dry at a
temperature not exceeding 212° F.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 grains.

=Antimony, Sulphantimonate.= _Syn._ SCHLIPPE’S ANTIMONIAL SALT. Mix eight
parts of effloresced sulphate of soda, six of black antimony, and three of
charcoal, and expose to a red-heat in a covered Hessian crucible till the
fused mass ceases to throw up a scum. Boil the residue in a porcelain
vessel with one part of sulphur and sufficient distilled water, and set
the filtered liquor aside for crystallisation.

=Antimony, Pentasulphide of= (Sb_{2}S_{5}), is a yellowish-red powder,
obtained (1) by passing hydrosulphuric acid gas through a mixture of
pentachloride of antimony, water, and tartaric acid; or (2) through
antimonic anhydride suspended in water. It is insoluble in water; hot
hydrochloric acid decomposes it, producing trichloride of antimony,
sulphur, and hydrosulphuric acid. With the more basic metallic sulphides
it unites to form a class of salts called sulphantimonates.

=Antimony, Trisulphide of.= Sb_{2}S_{3}. _Syn._ TERSUL′PHIDE OF ANTIMONY,
SUL′PHIDE OF A., SUL′PHURET OF A., BLACK S. OF A., SESQUISUL′PHURET OF A.,
&c.; L′ANTIMOINE SULFURE, SULFURE D’ANTIMOINE, &c., Fr.;
SCHWEFEL-SPIESSGLANZ, ANDERTHALB, &c., Ger. This is the grey or
greyish-black substance commonly known as crude antimony, black antimony,
or sulphide of antimony, in commerce, and from which the other compounds
of antimony are chiefly obtained.

_Nat. hist., Sources, &c._ See ANTIMONY.

The crude ore is freed from earthy impurities in the following
manner:——The crushed ore is submitted to ‘eliquation’ in order to separate
the SULPHIDE from the gangue or earthy matter with which it is
contaminated; after which it is remelted and run into ‘loaves’ or large
cakes, in which form it is sent to market. Formerly the operation was
performed by introducing the ore into large pots or crucibles having a
hole in the bottom, and which, after being closely covered, were set in a
circle around a suitable furnace, by which they were heated. At the
present time the process is commonly conducted in a ‘reverberatory
furnace,’ similar to that figured in the _engraving_.

[Illustration:

  _a_, _b_, Grate and fire-place.
  _c_, Bridge.
  _e_, Concave space for ore formed by a solid bed (_f_) of clay and
      sand, and having a ‘hole’ near the bottom extending nearly
      horizontally through the wall of the furnace to ‘run off’ the
      fused sulphide.
  _g_, Door for introducing ore, and removing residuum.
  _h_, Chimney.
  _i_, Damper, chain, and lever.]

Native trisulphide of antimony treated in this way and ground to powder
constitutes the BLACK ANTIMONY (ANTIMONIUM NIGRUM), B. P.

=Antimony, Trisulphide of= (artificially prepared). Saturate an aqueous
solution of tartar emetic with hydrosulphuric acid; an orange precipitate
will be thrown down. This precipitate, when collected on a filter, washed,
and dried, is the pure trisulphide.

_Prop., &c._ (_Native._) Anhydrous, inodorous, insipid, opaque, brittle,
easily pulverisable, and of a dark leaden-grey or steel colour; it has a
striated crystalline texture, and breaks with a rough spicular fracture;
is insoluble in both water and alcohol; soluble, with decomposition, in
hot strong acids and alkaline solutions; melts at a red heat, and is
partly dissipated in white fumes, leaving an impure grey-coloured oxide
mixed with some undecomposed tersulphide (ANTIMONY-ASH). Its powder is
black, of peculiar richness, and stains the fingers. Sp. gr. 4·6 to 4·62.
The pure precipitated (amorphous) tersulphide is of orange colour; is
darkened by a gentle heat, with loss of water, and at a higher temperature
passes from the amorphous to the crystalline condition, at the same time
that it assumes the colour and appearance of the native sulphide. It
dissolves in hot hydrochloric acid, evolving hydrosulphuric acid, and
producing a solution of trichloride of antimony.

_Pur._ The crude commercial sulphide frequently contains lead, iron,
copper, and arsenic, and sometimes manganese. Its goodness is commonly
estimated by its compactness and weight, the largeness and distinctness of
the striæ, and the volatility of its sulphide.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly as a source of metallic antimony, and of the oxide in
the preparation of other antimonials. Exhibited alone, it possesses little
activity unless it meets with acid in the primæ viæ, when it occasionally
acts with considerable violence both as an emetic and cathartic.——_Dose_,
10 to 30 gr., in powder; as an alterative and diaphoretic in rheumatism,
gout, scrofula, and glandular affections, and in lepra, scabies, and some
other skin diseases. It is a favourite alterative in _veterinary
medicine_, particularly in skin diseases. Farriers and grooms frequently
mix a little of it with the food of horses to improve their coat and
promote their ‘condition,’——_Dose._ For a HORSE, 1 to 4 _dr._, in fine
powder, often combined with nitre and sulphur; for CATTLE, 1/2 to 1 _oz._,
or even 1-1/2 _oz._; DOGS, 5 or 6 to 20 or 30 gr.; HOGS, 20 to 30 gr.,
twice or thrice daily. According to Dr Paris, it is one of the ingredients
in Spilsbury’s Drops. It is also an ingredient in Tisane de Feltz.

=Antimony, Tartarated.= KSbOC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}.Aq. _Syn._ TARTARIZED
ANTIMONY, TARTAR EMETIC, EMETIC TARTAR, POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF ANTIMONY,
Eng.; ANTIMONIUM TARTARATUM, B. P. _Prep._ Various methods have been
devised for the preparation of this compound, but the following, which is
taken from the ‘British Pharmacopœia,’ is to be preferred:——

Take of oxide of antimony 5 _oz._, acid tartrate of potash in fine powder
6 _oz._, distilled water, 2 pints. Mix the oxide of antimony and acid
tartrate of potash with sufficient distilled water to form a paste, and
set aside for 24 hours. Then add the remainder of the water, and boil for
a quarter of an hour, stirring frequently. Filter, and set aside the clear
filtrate to crystallise. Pour off the mother-liquor, evaporate to one
third, and set aside, that more crystals may form. Dry the crystals on
filtering paper at the temperature of the air.

_Char. and Tests._ In colourless transparent crystals exhibiting
triangular facets, soluble in water, and less so in proof spirit. It
decrepitates and blackens upon the application of heat. Its solution in
water gives with hydrochloric acid a white precipitate, soluble in excess,
and which is not formed if tartaric acid be previously added. Twenty
grains dissolve without residue in a fluid ounce of distilled water at
60°, and the solution gives with sulphuretted hydrogen an orange
precipitate which, when washed and dried at 212°, weighs 9·91 grains.

_Phys. eff., Doses, &c._ Externally tartar emetic acts as a powerful local
irritant, causing a pustular eruption, which permanently marks the skin;
for this purpose it is used in the form of solution, ointment, or plaster.
Internally, in small doses (1/16 to 1/8, or even 1/6 gr.), it acts as a
diaphoretic and expectorant; in somewhat larger doses (1/6 to 1/2 gr.) it
excites nausea, and sometimes vomiting, occasioning depression and
relaxation, especially of the muscular fibre; in larger doses (1 to 2 or 3
gr.) it acts as an emetic and sudorific (and often as a purge), depressing
the nervous functions, and producing a feeling of feebleness, exhaustion,
and relaxation, greater than that caused by other emetics; in certain
doses (1/2 to 3, or even 4 gr.), it is used as a sedative and
antiphlogistic, to reduce the force of the circulation, _&c._; in
excessive doses it acts as an irritant poison, and has in some instances
caused death; and even small doses, frequently administered and long
continued, have brought on a state of weakness, prostration, and distaste
for food, which has led to a fatal termination. It is usually exhibited
dissolved in distilled water, either with or without the addition of a
little simple syrup. In acute rheumatism, inflammation of the lungs or
pleura, chorea, hydrocephalus, and apoplexy, it is said to have been given
in doses of 2 to 4, or even 6 gr., with advantage, by Laennec, Rasori, and
others; but these extreme doses are not always safe, and cannot be
commendable when smaller ones (1/4 to 1/2 gr., repeated every two hours)
appear equally beneficial, and distress the patient less.[73] In doses of
1/2 gr. to 3/4 gr. each, combined with calomel, it is a powerful and
excellent alterative in acute rheumatism and many skin diseases. Of all
our sudorifics it is perhaps the most valuable, and the one most generally
available. Triturated with 16 to 20 times its weight of sulphate of
potassa, it forms an excellent substitute for antimonial powder and
James’s powder, as a diaphoretic, in doses of 2 to 4 gr.

[Footnote 73: “In consequence of the violent vomiting” (and it might be
added——prostration) “which (even) 1 gr. has sometimes produced, I have
found patients positively refuse to continue the use of the medicine.”
Pereira ‘Th. & M. M.,’ 4th ed., i, 752.]

Whenever much gastric or intestinal irritation is present, tartar emetic
should be avoided, or very cautiously administered, and then combined with
an opiate, or some other sedative. It should also be given with caution to
children; as, according to Messrs Goodlad and Noble, even in small doses
it sometimes acts as a poison on them.

In _veterinary medicine_ it is employed to promote diaphoresis and
expectoration, and to reduce arterial action, particularly in fevers, and
catarrhal affections, the dose for HORSES being 20 gr. to 1 dr., or even
occasionally _1-1/2_ dr., in gruel, thrice daily; also sometimes as a
diuretic and vermifuge, in doses of 1 to 2 dr., combined with tin-filings,
for 2 or 3 successive days, followed by a purge of aloes. The usual dose
for CATTLE is 20 gr. to 1 dr.; SHEEP, 5 or 6 to 20 gr.; SWINE (chiefly as
an emetic), 2 to 5 or 6 gr.; DOGS (chiefly as an emetic), 1 to 3 gr. It is
sometimes, though seldom, used externally, as a counter-irritant, in chest
affections, &c.; but its employment thus requires caution.

_Pois., &c._ That from large doses has been already noticed under ANTIMONY
(which _see_). In poisoning the treatment is the entire disuse of all
antimonials, followed by tonics, a light nutritious diet, the use of
lemon-juice or ripe fruit, a little wine, warm baths, and mild
restoratives generally.

=Antimony, Tar′tarised.= See ANTIMONY, TARTARATED.

=Antimony, Vit′rified.= See ANTIMONY, GLASS OF.

=ANTI-MIASMATICUM.= A disinfecting powder, manufactured first in Berlin in
1866, and described as “prepared by steam.” Quicklime slaked with a
solution of sulphate of iron and mixed with turf ashes, also probably
containing some carbolic acid. Fluid anti-miasmaticum is a solution of
sulphate of iron in impure acetic acid. (Hager.)

=ANTIPHLOGIS′TIC= (-flo-jĭs′-). _Syn._ ANTIPHLOGIS′TICUS, L.;
ANTIPHLOGISTIQUE, Fr.; ANTIPHLOGISTISCH, Ger. In _medicine_, the common
epithet of remedies, agents, and treatment (ANTIPHLOGIS′TICS;
ANTIPHLOGISTICA, L.), which lessen inflammatory action, or allay the
excited state of the system which accompanies it. Of these the principal
are bleeding, purging, a low diet, cooling beverages (as water and
acidulous drinks), and sedatives generally.

=ANTIPSILOTHRON=, for preventing loss of hair (Hegewald, Berlin). A
brownish-yellow, clear, pleasant-smelling liquid, which consists of a
filtered extract of 2·5 grms. of nutgalls, with 50 grms. strong spirit and
30 grms. water; perfumed with several ethereal oils. The liquid is not
made turbid by dilution with water. Sold in square bottles containing
about 80 grms. The directions strongly recommend the supplementary use of
a Swiss “vegetable oil,” which probably Switzerland has never seen.
(Hager.)

=ANTI-RHEUMATIC DROPS= (Roll, Amsterdam). A turbid, dark-brown liquid,
which consists of a solution of spirituous extract of aconite in a
decoction of couch-grass root, and to which some tincture of opium with
saffron and oil of valerian have been added.

=ANTI-RHEUMATIC SALVE, Mrs HUNGERFORD’S= (Wedecke, Berlin). Recommended
for acute and chronic rheumatism, gout, and nervous pains. Camphor, 1
grm.; carbolic acid, 1 grm.; simple cerate, 12 grms. (Schädler.)

=ANTISCORBU′TIC= (-skor-bū′-). _Syn._ ANTISCORBU′TICUS, L.;
ANTISCORBUTIQUE, Fr.; ANTISCORBUTISCH, GUT WIDER DEN SCHARBOCK, Ger. Good
against scurvy. In _medicine_, an epithet of remedies, agents, &c.
(ANTISCORBU′TICS; ANTISCORBU′TICA, L.), used in scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe
fruit, milk, the salts of potassa, green vegetables, potatoes, meal-bread,
fresh meat, and raw or lightly boiled eggs, belong to this class.

=ANTISEP′TIC.= _Syn._ ANTISEP′TICUS, L.; ANTISEPTIQUE, Fr.; ANTISEPTISCH,
FÄULNISSWIDRIG, Ger. An epithet of substances, agents, &c. (ANTISEP′TICS;
ANTISEP′TICA, L.), that impede, arrest, or prevent putrefaction. The
principal antiseptics in common use are culinary salt, saltpetre, spices,
sugar, vinegar, carbolic acid, creasote, and alcohol; to which may be
added intense cold, desiccation, and the exclusion of air. Among
ANTISEPTIC MEDICINES, bark, dilute acids, quinine, wine, spirits, camphor,
charcoal, and yeast, take the first rank. See PUTREFACTION, SOLUTIONS
(Antiseptic), &c.

=ANTISPASMOD′IC= (-spăz-). _Syn._ ANTISPAS′TIC; ANTISPASMOD′ICUS, L.;
ANTISPASMODIQUE, Fr.; KRAMPESTILLEND, Ger. In _medicine_, an epithet of
substances and agents (ANTISPASMOD′ICS; ANTISPASMOD′ICA, L.) which allay
spasms and convulsions. It is frequently incorrectly applied to anodynes
and narcotics, which soothe pain, but do not repress muscular spasm.
Ammonia, assafœtida, bark, camphor, castor, chalybeates, chloral hydrate,
chloroform, ether, Indian hemp and cannabine, musk, opium, saffron, and
valerian, with many other similar substances, are regarded as
antispasmodics.

=ANTI-SPASMODIC SYRUP=, for hooping-cough (Dessaga, Strasburg). A pleasant
syrup, leaving a slightly sharp taste, containing a little carbonate of
potash, and faintly coloured with rosaniline. (Hager.)

=ANTISUDIN=, a remedy for sweaty feet (Mandowski, Annaberg). Powdered
alum. (Hager.)

=ANTS= (ănts). See ANT, FORMIC ACID, GARDENING, INSECTS, &c.

=AORT′A= [L., Ger.] _Syn._ AORTE, Fr. In _anatomy_, the main trunk of the
arterial system, arising immediately from the left ventricle of the heart,
and giving origin to all the other arteries of the body, except the
pulmonary artery and its ramifications, which permeate the air-vesicles of
the lungs.

=AP′ATITE= (-tīte). In _mineralogy_, native tricalcium phosphate
(phosphate of lime). It is found in Devonshire and Cornwall, and
abundantly in Spain, whence it is imported for use as manure, and recently
particularly for the manufacture of ARTIFICIAL GUANO. Its powder
phosphoresces on burning coals. It differs from phosphorite in not
containing fluorine.

Apatite (phosphate of lime of similar constitution to bone-earth,
Ca_{3}(PO_{4})_{2}) is found in every fertile soil, and of which it is an
essential ingredient.

=APE′′RIENT= (ă-pēre′-ĕ-ĕnt; -pĕr′-, as marked by Mayne and Smart, though
etym. correct, is less usual). _Syn._ APER′ITIVE (-tĭv); APER′IENS, L.;
APÉRITIF, Fr.; ABFÜHREND, ÖFFNEND, Ger. In _medicine_, opening, laxative,
gently purgative; usually applied as an epithet to substances and agents
(APE′RIENTS; APERIEN′TIA, APERITI′VA, L.) which, in moderate doses, and
under ordinary circumstances, gently, but completely, open the bowels; and
in this respect rank between the simple laxatives on the one hand, and the
stronger purgatives and cathartics on the other. Among these may be named
as examples——Aloes (when combined with soap or aromatics), Castile soap,
castor oil, compound extract of colocynth (in small doses), compound
rhubarb pill, confection of senna, cream of tartar, Epsom salts, Glauber’s
salt, phosphate of soda (tasteless purging salt), pil. rufi, seidlitz
powders, cold-water compress over the abdomen, &c. Several of these, in
larger doses, become active purgatives or cathartics. See PURGATIVES, also
DRAUGHTS, MIXTURES, PILLS, &c.

=A′PIOL= (-pe-ōle; or -ŏl). _Prep._ The soft alcoholic extract of
parsley-seed is either digested or agitated for some time with ether;
after sufficient repose in a cool place, the ethereal solution is
decanted, and the ether removed by distillation; the residuum is purified
by solution in rectified spirit, and agitation first with a little
litharge, and next with animal charcoal; after which the spirit is removed
by distillation from the filtered solution.

_Prop., &c._ A yellow, oily, non-volatile liquid, having a peculiar smell,
and a highly disagreeable taste; soluble in alcohol, ether, and
chloroform; insoluble in water; and coloured red by strong sulphuric acid.
Sp. gr. 1·078. In small doses it excites the pulse and nervous system; and
in larger ones it causes headache, giddiness, vertigo, &c. It is said to
be powerfully febrifuge, and has been highly extolled by MM. Joret and
Homalle as a substitute for quinine in intermittents.[74] It has also been
found useful in intermittent neuralgias and the nocturnal sweats of
phthisis. _Dose_, 5 to 15 drops, in capsules.

[Footnote 74: According to Drs G. O. Rees and A. S. Taylor, 66 out of 116
cases were cured by it in their practice; but according to the French
Commission, the cures are only 42%, and in many of these only temporary.]

=A′PIS.= [L.] The bee. In _entomology_, a genus of hymenopterous insects
of the family _anthoph′ila_ or _mellif′era_, section _apia′′riæ_.
(Latreille.) The mouth has two jaws, and a proboscis infolded in a double
sheath; the wings are four; the two foremost covering the hinder ones when
at rest. The sexes are three——prolific females or queens, unprolific
females or workers commonly (termed neuters), and males or drones. The
females and working bees have a sting. The honey or hive bee is
distinguished from the other species of this genus by having the femora of
the posterior pair of legs furnished with a smooth and concave plate on
the outer side, and fringed with hair, forming a basket or pocket for the
reception and conveyance of the pollen of plants; and also in being
destitute of spines at the extremity. The Linnæan genus includes nearly 60
species. See BEE.

=Apis Mellif′ica.= [Linn.] The honey bee.

=APLANAT′IC.= In _optics_, applied as an epithet to lenses, of which the
figure, as well as the materials of which they are composed, are such
that, with a given index of refraction, the amount of aberration, both
chromatic and spherical, is insignificant, or the least that can be
possibly obtained. See ABERRATION, ACHROMATISM, LENS, &c.

=APLOTAXIS AURICULATA.= Nat. ord., COMPOSITÆ. A plant growing in the North
Western Himalayas. It was first shown by the late Dr Hugh Falconer to be
the source of the _Costus Arabicus_ of the ancients, which Dr Royle had
previously identified with the _Patchuck_ or _Koot_ root met with in the
Indian bazaars. Dr Irvine states that formerly, when opium was not
produced in Rajwarra, this root was extensively smoked as a stimulant. He
adds, that it is said to be a narcotic when thus used, and that formerly
great quantities went to China for smoking purposes. It is chiefly used as
a perfume, as for protection of bales of cloth against insects.

=APO-.= [Gr.] In _composition_, from; denoting derivation, separation,
opposition, or departure. It is a common prefix in words from the Greek,
and is etymologically the same as the latin _ab-_.

=APOC′NYINE= (-pŏs′-e-nĭn). _Syn._ APOCYNI′NA, L. A bitter, crystallisable
substance, found in _apŏ′′cynum cannabi′num_ (Linn.), or the Indian hemp
of North America. See ALKALOID.

=APOMORPHINE.= _Syn._ APOMORPHIA. C_{17}H_{17}NO_{2}. A remarkable base,
obtained from morphia by Matthiessen and Wright. It is possessed of
powerful emetic properties. Introduce into a strong glass tube, closed at
one end, 1 part of pure morphia, and 20 parts of pure hydrochloric acid;
these should not occupy more than one fifteenth of the tube. Seal the open
end, and place the glass tube in another of cast iron, closed with a
screw, and heat the whole in an oil-bath at a temperature between 140° and
150° C., during three hours. After cooling, the morphine has been
converted into apomorphine, which can be purified as follows:

The tube is opened, and the liquid it contains diluted with water and
neutralised by bicarbonate of soda; then an excess of this salt being
added, the apomorphine is precipitated with any morphia that may remain.
The liquid is decanted, and the precipitate is exhausted with ether or
chloroform, which dissolves the apomorphine only. To the ethereal or
chloroformic liquor are afterwards added a few drops of hydrochloric acid
to saturate the base. Crystallised apomorphine then separates
spontaneously, and is deposited on the sides of the vessel. These crystals
are washed rapidly with cold water, and purified by crystallisation from
boiling water. The apomorphine can be obtained by precipitating a
concentrated solution of this hydrochlorate by bicarbonate of soda; the
precipitate is white, but turns green rapidly in the air. It should be
washed with a little cold water, and promptly dried to avoid this
alteration.

=AP′OPLEXY= (-plĕks-e). _Syn._ APOPLEX′IA, APOPLEX′IS, L. (from
απο-πλησσω, I astound, or strike down, Gr.); APOPLEXIE, Fr.; SCHLAGFLUSS,
Ger. A disease so named on account of the suddenness and violence of its
attacks.

_Symp._ Sudden suspension or loss of the powers of sense and motion; the
heart continuing to beat and the lungs to act, but generally with
difficulty. During the fit the patient usually lies in a state resembling
sleep, or the stupor induced by drunkenness. In some cases there is
paralysis of one side of the body, and convulsions of the other. In the
sanguineous or sthenic variety, or the one which is most common, the pulse
is hard and full, the countenance flushed and bloated, and the breathing
stertorous; in the serous or asthenic variety, the pulse is feeble, the
skin cold, and the countenance pale. “The presence of convulsions is
indicative of great danger.” (Dr Cheyne.) In both cases the patient is
generally found lying on his back, in a state of complete insensibility,
which defies every effort to arouse him; the eyelids almost cover the
eyes, which are fixed and devoid of intelligence, whilst the pupils
scarcely change their dimensions under the varying influence of light and
darkness; the lips are usually purple or very dark; and both the lips and
nostrils have generally a slight trembling movement communicated to them
by the deep and laborious breathing of the patient.

_Treat._ In this disease, more than perhaps any other, medical aid should
be immediately sought. In the mean time the patient should be placed in an
easy posture, in a well-ventilated apartment, and in the sanguineous or
sthenic variety, in as erect a position as possible; but in the asthenic
variety, when the face is pale, with the head and shoulders only
moderately elevated. The neckcloth should be removed, and the clothes
loosened, and the head and neck laid bare. Crowding round the patient
should be particularly avoided, and a free exposure to fresh air secured
in every possible way. When medical aid cannot be immediately procured,
blood should be freely taken (say 15 to 20 fl. oz., or more) from the arm,
by any person competent to do so; unless the face be pale, and the pulse
feeble, when cupping at the back of the neck, or leeches behind the ears,
should be substituted for ordinary bleeding. Cold water should be dashed
on the head, the legs placed in pretty warm water, and blisters or mustard
poultices applied between the shoulders. In the mean time 8 or 10 gr. of
calomel may be administered, and its action subsequently promoted by the
use of saline purgatives and stimulating clysters. When there is a
difficulty of swallowing, a couple of drops of croton oil may be applied
to the tongue; or it may be poured on sugar, before placing it in the
mouth. Indeed, this mode of relieving the bowels should be adopted in all
extreme cases, as soon as possible. Emetics should be carefully avoided.
The only exception to this rule is, when the stomach is distended by a
heavy undigested meal; when an emetic is hazarded as the less of two
evils. Nasal stimulants, as smelling salts or aromatic vinegar, should
also be avoided. If the bleeding has not afforded some relief, it may be
repeated in from 3 to 5 hours. When these means prove successful, the
remainder of the treatment may consist in the administration of mild
purgatives and diaphoretics, and the avoidance of stimulating food or
drinks, and of other like exciting agents.

_Prev., &c._ The premonitory symptoms of apoplexy are giddiness, pain and
swimming in the head, loss of memory, faltering in speech or using one
word for another, diminished sensibility either of body or mind, or both,
drowsiness, noises in the ears, specks floating before the eyes,
nightmare, frightful dreams, laborious respiration, heavy yet unrefreshing
sleep, an inclination to sigh without any moral cause, cramp in the legs
at night when there is no irritation of the bowels to account for them,
&c. &c. When any of these symptoms occur (especially in “free livers”)
aperient medicines and a light diet should be at once had recourse to, and
wine, beer, and spirits avoided as the most dangerous poisons. If the
symptoms increase or continue, active purgation, a still lower diet, and
even bleeding may be had recourse to. Pure air, early rising, regular
habits, gentle muscular exercise, and loose, easy clothing, are powerful
preventives of apoplexy. By attending to the admonitions of nature, and
adopting the simple means which are within the reach of all, it is
indisputable that many fatal cases of apoplexy might have been avoided,
and a still larger number lessened in severity.

Robust, plethoric persons, with short thick necks, are universally
accounted the most liable to apoplexy. In them the fit generally comes on
without warning; and when once attacked with this malady they are
especially liable to its recurrence. But it must be recollected that the
possessor of no particular constitution or temperaments, to whatever class
it may belong, enjoys immunity from the attacks of apoplexy——a disease
more fatal among Englishmen than the natives of other countries.

_Obs._ A loss of consciousness exists alike in apoplexy, epilepsy,
narcotism from opium and opiates, complete intoxication, and common
fainting. These may be distinguished by observing that——in EPILEPSY there
are almost always convulsions, and more or less rigidity of the limbs,
with (generally) foaming at the mouth and gnashing or grinding of the
teeth, and frequently, the utterance of noises often not unlike the
barking of a dog; whilst stertor and laborious breathing, as a rule, are
absent:——in the stupor produced by OPIUM, MORPHIA, &c., the face is pale,
calm, and perspiring, and the respiration is tranquil and without stertor;
whilst the patient can, in almost all cases, be temporarily aroused to
consciousness and kept awake by being made to walk between two attendants;
the odour of opium or laudanum is also frequently perceptible in the
breath or ejected matter:——in the insensibility of INTOXICATION the pulse
is usually feeble, and the patient may be temporarily roused by violent
shouting in the ear, or by the application of nasal stimulants,
particularly the common smelling-bottle (if strong); and the breath, and
ejected matter (if any), smells of liquor:——in ordinary FAINTING the face
and lips are pale, the breathing quiet, the pulse scarcely perceptible,
the limbs mobile, and the fit lasts only a few minutes.

_Treatment for Horses._ Give in the first place a strong stimulant
internally, and apply mustard embrocations to the belly and spine. Bleed,
should the pulse be small and indistinct.——_In the parturient apoplexy of
cows._ Bleed in the very earliest stage; give salts and croton; diluents;
no solid food; let the body and legs be rubbed and clothed; use catheter;
apply ice and refrigerants to head and neck; give frequent clysters of
linseed gruel; remove milk every hour, and apply rubefacients to the
spine.

=APOSEP′EDIN= (-dĭn). A substance found in putrid cheese, and supposed to
be a product of the fermentation of caseine. Mulder and others have shown
that it is merely impure leucine.

=AP′OSTEME=† (-tēme or -tĕm). _Syn._ AP′OSTEM†; APOSTE′MA†, L. An abscess
or collection of purulent matter in any part of the body.

=APPARA′TUS.= [L., Eng.; class. pl., appara′tus; Eng. pl.,
appara′tuses——Webster.] _Syn._ APPAREIL, Fr.; APPARAT, GERÄTHSCHAFT, Ger.
In technical language, the instruments, utensils, and mechanical
arrangements, employed in any operation, experiment, or observation, or in
any art or trade.

=Apparatus.= In _anatomy_ and _physiology_, a catenation of organs all
ministering to one general purpose or function; as the digestive
apparatus, respiratory a., &c.

=APP′ETITE.= _Syn._ APPETI′TUS, L.; APÉTIT, Fr.; APETIT, BEGIERDE,
ESSLUST, Ger. The natural desire of gratification, whether corporeal or
mental. In _physiology_, the instinctive inclination to perform certain
natural functions, as those of digestion and generation; but appr., the
natural desire for food. In _psychology_ and _philosophy_, the APPETITES
(pl.) are affections of the mind directed to general objects, as fame,
glory, or riches; these when subsequently turned to particular objects,
constitute the PASSIONS, as envy, gratitude, revenge, or love. In its
common and unqualified sense, the word appetite is confined to the desire
for food; and in that sense chiefly concerns us here.

The sensations of hunger and thirst are seated in the stomach, and their
recurrence at proper intervals is a necessary consequence of vital action,
and is essential to the existence of the body in a state of vigour and
health. Any alteration from their normal condition indicates diseased
action of the stomach, or of the nervous system or circulation; or it may
result from vicious habits. A healthy appetite for food is usually a most
certain indication that nature requires a supply; but in the indulgence of
this appetite certain regulations should be observed, and a boundary
should be put to mere animal gratification. By slowly eating and
thoroughly masticating the food, the stomach becomes gradually and equally
distended, and the individual feels himself satisfied only after he has
taken a quantity sufficient for the nourishment of his body; but, on the
contrary, if the food be swallowed rapidly, and without proper
mastication, it presses heavily and roughly against the sides of the
stomach, and induces a sensation of fulness before a sufficient meal has
been made. The consequences are, that hunger soon returns, and the party
must either have recourse to food between the usual time of meals, or
suffer the consequences of imperfect nutrition. Exercise and labour,
within certain limits, promote the healthy functions of the stomach and
bowels, through the action of the muscles of the abdomen increasing the
peristaltic motion of these viscera. An inordinate appetite in persons
leading a sedentary life is generally indicative of the food passing off
imperfectly digested, or of the coats of the stomach being relaxed, or
even diseased. More food is required in winter than in summer, in
consequence of the greater radiation of the heat of the body; and hence
the increased appetite which is usually an accompaniment of that season.
In persons who lead a more sedentary life in winter than in summer, either
no change of this kind occurs, or the reverse is the case; the want of
exercise producing a diminution of appetite corresponding to the increase
of it that would otherwise result from the seasonal change of atmospheric
temperature, or even greater. Deviations of the appetite from the healthy
standard, or the normal condition, constitutes DEFECTIVE or DISEASED
APPETITE.

Deficiency or loss of appetite (AN′OREXY; ANOREX′IA, L.) generally arises
from disordered stomach; but is also frequently symptomatic of other
affections, particularly dyspepsia, biliousness, feverishness, and organic
diseases of the lungs, stomach, and primæ viæ. It is a common consequence
of sedentary life, and of extreme mental anxiety, excitement, or
exhaustion. The _treatment_ will necessarily vary with the cause. In
simple spontaneous cases the appetite may generally be improved by outdoor
exercise, and the occasional use of mild aperients, especially salines and
aloetics. When the affection arises from the stomach being loaded with
bile and crudities, an emetic in the evening, followed by a stomachic
purgative the next morning, with an occasional aperient afterwards, will
seldom fail to effect a cure. With heavy drinkers a gradual reduction of
the quantity of the strong liquors usually consumed is generally followed
by a restoration of the appetite and digestive powers. The change thus
gradually effected in the course of 8 or 10 days is often almost magical.
The excessive use of liquors——especially of spirits, wine, or beer, or
even of warm weak ones, as tea, coffee, soup, &c.——is always prejudicial.
Hence drunkards are particularly subject to defective appetite; and
teetotallers and water-drinkers to a heartiness often almost approaching
voracity. See BILE, DYSPEPSIA, &c.

Depraved appetite (PI′CA, L.), or a desire for unnatural food, as chalk,
cinders, dirt, soap, tallow, &c., when an idiopathic affection or when
depending on vicious tastes or habits (as is often the case in childhood),
it may be treated by admixing very small doses of tartar emetic or
ipecacuanha with the objectionable food or articles. When symptomatic of
pregnancy, a plentiful and nutritious diet, including the red meats, with
a little good malt liquor or wine, may be adopted with advantage. When
symptomatic of chlorosis, to this diet may be added the use of chalybeate
tonics, and sea or tepid bathing; when of dyspepsia, a light diet, bitter
tonics, free exercise, fresh air, and cold bathing, will generally effect
a cure.

Insatiable appetite (CANINE APPETITE, VORACITY; BULIM′IA, L.) is generally
symptomatic of pregnancy, or worms, or diseases of the stomach or the
viscera immediately connected with it; but sometimes exists as a separate
disease, and is even said to be occasionally hereditary. When it occurs in
childhood, worms may be suspected, and vermifuges administered. In adults,
a common cause is imperfect digestion, arising from stomach complaints or
gluttony, when the languor and gnawing pains of disease are mistaken for
hunger. In this case the diet should be regulated and the bowels kept
gently relaxed with mild aperients, and tonics (as bark and steel), or
bitters (as orange-peel and gentian), may be administered. When pregnancy
or vicious habits are the cause, the treatment indicated under DEPRAVED
APPETITE may be adopted. When the affection is occasioned by acidity in
the stomach, an emetic, followed by the moderate use of absorbents or
antacids, will generally effect a cure. In those cases depending on a
highly increased power of the stomach in effecting rapid and complete
digestion, its contractile force and morbid activity may be often allayed
by the copious use of salad oil, fat meat, &c., by the cautious use of
opiates, or by the use, or freer use, of tobacco (either smoked or chewed,
or both). A cathartic daily, with a dose of blue-pill, or mercurial
powder, every second or third day, is also often advantageous. 25 or 30
drops of solution of potassa, in broth, twice or thrice daily, has also
been recommended. See BILE, DYSPEPSIA, WORMS, &c.

=APP′LE= (ăp′l). _Syn._ MA′LUM, PO′MUM, L.; POMME, Fr.; APFEL, Ger.;
APPEL, Dut.; APLE, Swed. This well-known fruit is the product of the
cultivated varieties of _pyrus malus_ (Linn.), or the crab-apple of our
hedges; a tree of the nat. ord. Rosaceæ. The date of its amelioration from
the wild state is probably very remote, as several kinds are noticed by
Pliny in a manner that would lead to the inference of a high antiquity.
Pippins, or ‘seedling improved apples,’ are said to have been introduced
into this country from the South of Europe towards the end of the 16th
century. Don enumerated 1400 varieties of the cultivated apple; there are
now probably above 1650. Rennet apples (POMA RENETTIA) are those ordered
in the P. Cod. to be used in pharmacy. In _botany_ and _composition_, the
term apple (POMUM) is used to designate any large, round, fleshy fruit,
consisting of a ‘pericarp,’ enclosing a tough ‘capsule’ containing several
seeds; as love-apple, pine-apple, &c.

The wood of the apple-tree is much used in turnery; that of the crab-tree
is generally preferred by mill-wrights for the teeth of mortise-wheels.

The expressed juice of 1 _cwt._ of ripe apples, after the free acid has
been saturated with chalk, yields from 11 to 13 _lbs._ of a very sweet,
but uncrystallisable sugar.

Apples have been analysed by Fresenius, and were found to have the
following composition:——

  SOLUBLE MATTER——
  Sugar                             7·58
  Free acid (reduced to equivalent
  in malic acid)                    1·04
  Albuminous substance              0·22
  Pectous substances, &c.           2·72
  Ash                               0·44
  INSOLUBLE MATTER——
  Seeds                             0·38
  Skins                             1·44
  Pectose                           1·14
  [Ash from insoluble matter included
  in weights given]                [0·13]
  Water                            85·04
                               ——————————
                                  100·00

=Love′-apple=‡. The tomato.

=Mad′-apple=‡. The larger Mecca or Bussorah gall. They are also called
DEAD-SEA APPLES, A. OF SODOM, &c. See GALLS.

=Acid of Apples.= Malic acid.

=A′PRICOT.= _Syn._ A′PRICOCK†; ARMENI′ACUM MA′LUM, PRÆCO′TIUM, L.;
ABRICOT, Fr.; APRIKOSE, Ger. The fruit of _armeniaca vulgaris_ (Lamb.;
_prunus armeniaca_, Linn.), a rosaceous tree indigenous in Armenia,
Cachmere, &c., and now cultivated in every temperate region of the world.
Under the name of _præcox_ it was known in Italy in the time of
Dioscorides; but it was not introduced into England until the reign of
Henry VIII (A.D. 1540). Its cultivation has since been zealously attended
to by our gardeners, and it is now one of the choicest and most esteemed
of our wall-fruits, and is particularly valued for desserts. It is reputed
to be nutritious, easy of digestion, laxative, and stomachic. The seeds
are bitter and saponaceous.

Apricots are principally eaten as gathered; but are also dried, candied,
and made into jam. In _confectionery_, the Brussels and Breda varieties
are preferred to the larger and sweeter kinds. See FRUIT, PRESERVES, &c.

=Apricots, Briançon′.= The fruit of _armeniaca brigantiaca_ (Pers.).
Acidulous; seeds or kernels, by expression, yield HUILE DE MARMOTE.

=A′QUA= (-kwă). [L.] Water.——AQUA DESTILLA′TA or A. DISTILLA′TA, is
distilled water; A. FLUVIA′LIS or A. EX FLU′MINE (-ĭn-e), river-water; A.
FONTA′NA, spring-water; A. MARI′NA or A. MA′′RIS, sea-water; A.
MINERA′LIS, mineral water; A. NIVA′LIS or A. EX NI′VE, snow-water; A.
PLUVIA′LIS, A. PLU′′VIA, or A. IM′BRIUM, rain-water, soft water; A.
PUTEA′NA or A. EX PU′TEO, well, pump, or hard water.

=Aqua.= In _chemistry_ and _pharmacy_, this word was formerly applied to
numerous preparations and articles now included under other heads. See
EAU, ESPRITS, HAIR-DYES, LIQUORS, SOLUTIONS, WATERS, &c.

=Aquafor′tis.= [L.] Literally, ‘strong water,’ the name given by the
alchemists to the acid obtained by distilling a mixture of nitre and
sulphate of iron. The word is still commonly employed by mechanics and
artists to designate the impure fuming nitric acid of commerce, and is
thus also retained in trade. By these parties concentrated nitric acid is
called ‘spirit of nitre.’ ‘Double aquafortis’ merely differs from the
other in strength. See NITRIC ACID.

=Aqua Amarella.= A compound for hair-dyeing; is prepared with sugar of
lead, common salt, and water.

=Aqua Græ′ca, A. Orienta′lis.= See HAIR-DYES.

=Aqua Mari′na.= [L.] The beryl†.

=Aqua Mirab′ilis=†. [L.] Literally, ‘wonderful water,’ a cordial and
carminative spirit distilled from aromatics, and formerly reputed to
possess many virtues.

=Aqua Re′gia.= [L.] Nitrohydrochloric acid, originally so called, by the
alchemists, from its power of dissolving gold.

=Aqua Toffa′nia.= [L.] See ACQUETTA.

=Aqua Vi′tæ=†. [L.] Literally, ‘water of life,’ a name familiarly applied
to the leading native distilled spirit. Thus, it is whiskey in Scotland,
usquebaugh in Ireland, geneva in Holland, and eau de vie or brandy in
France. When the term is employed in England, French brandy is understood
to be referred to. See ALCOHOL, &c.

=Aqua Vitæ Aromatico-Amara.= (F. Bolle, formerly J. B. Claude, Berlin).
Galangal ginger, āā, 2 parts; orange berries, European centaury, gentian,
cinnamon, angelica, āā, 1 part; alcohol, 30 parts; water, 26 parts. Digest
and filter. (Hager.)

=AQUARIUM.= A tank or vessel made of glass, containing either salt or
fresh water, and in which either marine or fresh-water plants and animals
are kept in a living state. In principle, the aquarium depends upon the
interdependence of animal and vegetable life. The carbonic acid evolved by
the animals is decomposed under the influence of solar light by the
plants, and the oxygen necessary for the maintenance of the life of the
animals is thus eliminated, whilst the carbonic acid essential to the
existence of the plants is supplied by the animals. The aquarium,
therefore, must be stocked both with plants and animals, and for the
welfare of both, something like a proper proportion should exist between
them. But even under these conditions the water should be frequently
aërated, whether the aquarium contains fresh or salt-water. This may be
done by simply blowing through a glass tube which reaches to near the
bottom, or, still better, in the following manner:——Take a glass syringe
which can be easily worked. Having filled it with water, hold it with the
nozzle about two inches from the surface of the water in the aquarium,
into which the contents are to be discharged quickly and with a sort of
jerk. By this means a multitude of small bubbles are forced down into the
fluid. This operation should be several times repeated. A simpler method
is to take out a portion of the water from the aquarium and to pour it
back again from a height. When, as not infrequently happens, the aquarium
is provided with a fountain, this of course ensures a continual change of
water; but even where this is the case the joint presence both of plants
and animals is advantageous to the health of both. When sea-water cannot
be procured for the marine aquarium a substitute for it may be made as
follows:——Mix with 970,000 grains of rain-water 27,000 grains of chloride
of sodium, 3600 of chloride of magnesium, 750 of chloride of potassium, 29
of bromide of magnesium, 2300 of sulphate of magnesia, 1400 of sulphate of
lime, 35 of carbonate of lime, and 5 of iodide of sodium. These all being
finely powdered and mixed first, are to be stirred into the water, from
which a stream of air may be caused to pass from the bottom until the
whole is dissolved. On no account is the water to be boiled, or even to be
heated. Into this water, when clear, the rocks and seaweed may be
introduced. As soon as the latter are in a flourishing state the animals
may follow. Care must be taken not to have too many of these, and to
remove immediately any dead ones. The loss that takes place from
evaporation is to be made up by adding clear rain-water. The presence of a
number of molluscous animals, such as the common periwinkle, is necessary
for the consumption of the vegetable matter continually given off by the
growing plants, and of the multitudinous spores, particularly of the
confervæ, which would otherwise soon fill the water, rendering it greenish
or brownish, and turbid. In a fresh-water aquarium the bottom should be
covered with a layer of fine sand and shingle, and in this the weeds
should be planted. The best for this purpose are _valesneria spiralis_,
_anacharis_, and _chara vulgaris_. A few water-snails should also be put
in; the best are _planorbis_, _paludina_, and _amphibia glutinosa_. One
plant and two or three snails should be used for each gallon of water put
into the aquarium.

=AQUATINT′A.= [L., Fr.] _Syn._ A′QUATINT, Eng.; ACQUATINTA, It. A species
of etching on copper, producing an effect resembling a drawing in Indian
ink.

=A′QUEOUS= (-kwe-). _Syn._ AQUOSE′*; A′QUEUS, AQUO′SUS, L.; AQUEUX, Fr.;
_Wässerig_, _Wässerhaltig_, Ger. Watery; made with, containing, or
resembling water. In _chemistry_ and _pharmacy_, applied to solutions,
extracts, &c., prepared with water.

=AR′ABESQUE= (-bĕsk). [Fr.] In the Arabian manner; more particularly
applied to a species of capricious, fantastic, and imaginative
ornamentation, consisting of foliage, stalks, plants, &c., to the entire
exclusion of the figures of animals. The designs of this class, now so
much employed in cloth and leather binding, are produced by the pressure
of hot plates or rollers having the pattern engraved on them. See
MORESQUE.

=AR′ABIN= (-bĭn). C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ SOLUBLE GUM;
ARABI′NA, L. The pure soluble principle of gum acacia.

_Prep._ Dissolve white gum arabic in pure water, filter the solution, and
add alcohol as long as it produces curdiness; collect the precipitate, and
dry it by a gentle heat.

_Prop. &c._ Very soluble in water; basic acetate of lead, alcohol, and
ether, precipitate it from its solutions. It is isomeric with crystallised
cane sugar. It possesses no practical superiority over the best gum
arabic, except its paler colour.

=AR′ABLE= (ăbl). _Syn._ ARAB′ILIS, L.; ARABILE, LABOURABLE, Fr.; PFLÜGBAR,
Ger. In _agriculture_, fit for or under tillage or aëration; ploughed.

=Arable Land.= In _agriculture_, land which is chiefly or wholly
cultivated by the plough, as distinguished from grass-land, wood-land,
common pasture, and waste. See LAND, SOILS, &c.

=ARACHIS HYPOGÆA.= _Syn._ GROUND NUT PLANT. _Hab._ Cultivated throughout
the tropics of the Old and New World. _Officinal part._ The oil of the
seeds (Oleum Arachis, Ground Nut Oil). Obtained by expression. Limpid,
clear, light yellow, almost inodorous, or with a faint smell and bland
taste. Sp. gr. 0·916.——_Prop. and Uses._ This oil affords a cheap and
excellent substitute for olive oil for pharmaceutical and other purposes.

The following notice, by the Editor of this work, appeared in ‘The
Veterinarian’ for October, 1876:——

“Having in the course of my analytical practice had occasion to examine
some samples of Marseilles earth-nut cake, I take the opportunity of
communicating the results obtained, in the hope of furnishing interesting
information respecting a material which is chiefly employed in the
sophistication of the more expensive feeding cakes, but which I think
might in some instances be with advantage substituted for them.

“Arachis seeds constitute one of the varieties of food termed pulse, and
the oil which exists in them to the extent of from 40 to 50 per cent., is
rapidly being introduced in the making of soap in this and other
countries. It is an article also of the Indian Pharmacopœia.

“By pressure the seeds yield all but about 7 per cent. of their oil, and
the material which remains after the expression of the greater part of the
oil is sent into commerce as earth-nut or ground-nut cake.

“Sometimes the husks of the seeds are first removed and only the kernels
subjected to pressure for the sake of the oil; the cake so produced is
called ‘decorticated earth-nut cake,’ at other times the entire seeds are
subjected to this treatment, and then the resulting cake is known as
‘undecorticated earth-nut cake.’

“The following table shows the composition in 100 parts of both
descriptions of cake, as well as that of linseed cake of first-rate
quality; the last analysis being added for the sake of comparison:——

        _Table showing the Centesimal Composition of
        Decorticated and Undecorticated Earth-nut Cake and
        Linseed Cake._

                                  Decorticated   Undecorticated  Linseed
                                 Earth-nut Cake. Earth-nut Cake.  Cake.
  Moisture                            9·58            9·28        11·72
  Fat and heat producers
    Oil                               7·40            6·99        12·00
    Starch digestible fibre, &c.     27·63           23·66        25·29
  Flesh-formers (albumenoids)        42·81[75]       32·81[76]    32·64
  Indigestible fibre                  7·87           23·80        11·79
  Ash                                 4·71            3·45         6·47
                                    ——————          ——————       ——————
                                    100·00          100·00       100·00

[Footnote 75: Containing 6·85 of nitrogen.]

[Footnote 76: Containing 5·25 of nitrogen.]

“From the foregoing analyses it will be seen that both descriptions of
earth nut are exceedingly rich in flesh-formers, and that they contain a
moderately large amount of oil. They also possess a sweet agreeable
flavour, and are, I believe, very digestible. As these may, I am informed,
be bought at from £6 to £8 per ton, it is evident that farmers would do
well to give earth-nut cakes a trial in the feeding of their stock.

“Pure linseed cake does not contain starch, but in its stead mucilage. The
feeding qualities of starch and mucilage are, however, very similar.”

=ARAROBA.= _Syn._ ARAROBA POWDER. BAHIA POWDER. GOA POWDER. The pith or
medulla of the stem and branches of a leguminous tree (a species of
_Centrolobium_) growing in Brazil. It is in extensive use amongst the
natives of India, who employ it in affections of the skin. It has been
applied with success in shingles and ring-worm, in the form of ointment
made as follows:——

  Araroba in powder      20 grains.
  Acetic acid            10 drops.
  Benzoated lard          1 ounce.

Dr Attfield found the powder to contain from 80 to 84 per cent. of
chrysophanic acid, to which substance its remedial powers are doubtless
due. It is now the chief source of this acid.

=ARA′TION*.= In _agriculture_, ploughing; culture by ploughing; tillage.
Lands in a state of aration’ are those under tillage.

=AR′BOR.= [L.] A tree. The seventh family of vegetables in Linnæus’s
system. In _anatomy_ and _chemistry_, a term formerly applied to membranes
and substances having some real or fancied resemblance to a tree or
vegetation. An ar′boret is a little tree; an arborist, or ar′borātor†, is
one who studies or cultivates trees.

=ARBUTIN.= C_{12}H_{16}O_{7}. A substance obtained by KAWALIER from the
leaves of the red bearberry _Arctostophylos uva ursi_, and by ZWENGER and
HIMMELMANN from the leaves of a species of winter-green, _Pyrola
Umbellata_. It is prepared by precipitating the aqueous decoction of the
leaves of either of these plants, with basic acetate of lead, filtering,
removing the excess of lead with sulphuretted hydrogen, and either
treating the filtrate with animal charcoal and leaving it to crystallise
or evaporating and digesting the residue with a mixture of eight parts of
ether and one part of alcohol, which dissolves out the arbutin, and
deposits it on evaporation in the crystalline state.

=ARCA′NUM= [L.] _Syn._ ARCANE, Fr.; GEHEIMNIS, Ger. A secret. In
_alchemy_, a term applied to various preparations without any precise
meaning. “Arcanum is a thing secret, incorporeal, and immortal, which can
only be known to man by experience; for it is the virtue of each thing,
which operates a thousand times more than the thing itself.” (Ruland) In
_ancient medicine_ and _pharmacy_; a nostrum. The word is still
occasionally used in the plural (ARCA′NA, secrets, mysteries), in the
titles of books; as, ‘Arcana of Chemistry,’ a book professing to contain a
full exposition of the mysteries of that art.

Among the old chemists, ARCANUM AL′BUM was ‘pulvis Viennensis albus
virgineus’ (see POWDERS); A. BEC′CHICUM, a sweetened aqueous solution of
liver of sulphur; A. CORALLI′NUM, red oxide of mercury that had been
digested in a solution of potash, washed with water, and then had spirit
of wine burnt on it (once a favourite mercurial and escharotic); A.
DUPLICA′TUM, sulphate of potash; A. D. CATHOL′ICUM, roots of colchicum and
plantain (worn as an amulet against fevers and pestilential diseases); A.
LUDEMAN′NI, oxide of zinc; A. TAR′TARI, acetate of potassa; A. VI′TÆ,
elixir vitæ; &c.

=ARCHE′US= (-kē′-ŭs; ăr′*——Mayne). [L.] _Syn._ ARCHÆ′US, L. A term
invented by Paracelsus, and employed by the alchemists and older
physicians, to imply the occult cause of phenomena, as well as the
sub-causes or agents by which the effects were accomplished. Van Helmont
and Stahl ascribe certain vital functions to the influence and
superintendence of a ‘spiritus archæus’ or intelligent vital principle.
According to others, the powers of ‘Archæus’ were indefinitely extended.
He or it was an occult power of nature, the artificer of all things,
physician-general to the universe, &c. &c., to the utmost bounds of
absurdity and confusion.

From this word comes the adj. ARCHE′AL or ARCHÆ′AL, hidden, operative.

=ARCH′IL= (artsh′-ĭl). _Syn._ ARCH′EL*, OR′CHIL; ARCHIL′LA, ORCHIL′LA (ch
as k), L.; ORSEILLE, Fr., Ger.; ORICELLO, It. A violet-red, purple or blue
colouring matter or dye-stuff, obtained from several species of lichens,
but of the finest quality from roccella tinctoria (DC.), and next from r.
fuciformis (DC.).

The archil of commerce is met with as a liquid paste, or as a thin liquid
dye or stain of more or less intensity. The ordinary archil or orchil of
the shops (ORCHIL-LIQUOR) is under the last form; and is known as either
BLUE OR RED ARCHIL——distinctions which arise as follows:——

_Prep._ 1. BLUE ARCHIL:——The bruised or coarsely ground lichen is steeped
for some time in a mixture of stale urine, or bone-spirit, and lime or
milk of lime, or in any similar ammoniacal solution, contained in covered
wooden vessels in the cold; the process being repeated until all the
colour is extracted.

2. RED OR CRIMSON ARCHIL:——The materials are the same as for the last
variety, but rather less milk of lime is used, and the ‘steep’ is
generally made in earthen jars placed in a room heated by steam,
technically called a stove. The two kinds merely differ in the degree of
their red or violet tint——the addition of a small quantity of lime or
alkali to the one, or of an acid to the other, immediately bringing them
both to the same shade of colour.

_Prop._ Archil has a disagreeable putrid ammoniacal odour. Its colouring
matter is soluble in water, alcohol, urine, ammoniacal and alkaline lyes,
and weak acid liquors; alkalies turn it blue, acids red; alum gives with
it a brownish-red precipitate, and solution of tin a red one; the
alcoholic solution gradually loses its colour when excluded from the air.
Its colouring matter consists chiefly of orcein.

_Pur._ Archil is frequently adulterated with extract of logwood, or of
Lima or Sapan-wood. It may be tested as follows:——1. A solution of 50 or
60 drops of pure archil in about 3 fl. oz. of water slightly acidulated
with acetic acid, almost entirely loses its colour, or presents only a
yellowish tinge, when heated to ebullition in a flask along with 50 drops
of a fresh solution of protochloride of tin made with 1 part of the salt
to 2 parts of water:——2. A drop of fluid extract of logwood treated in the
same way, gives a distinct violet tint, which resists several hours’
boiling; but when only 3 or 4 per cent. of logwood is present, the boiled
liquid has a permanent grey tint:——3. If the boiled liquid retains its red
hue, extract of Sapan-wood is present:——4. The boiled liquor, when the
archil is pure, re-acquires its colour by exposure to the air, and the
addition of an alkali, particularly ammonia; whilst the colour produced by
logwood is destroyed only by an alkaline solution of tin, and is restored
by acids.

_Uses, &c._ It is employed to tinge the spirit used to fill the tubes of
thermometers, and to stain paper, wood, &c. The aqueous solution stains
MARBLE, in the cold, of a beautiful violet colour, of considerable
permanence when not exposed to a vivid light. “Marble thus tinged
preserves its colour unchanged at the end of two years.” (Dufay.) Its
principal use is, however, in dyeing. By proper management it may be made
to produce every shade of pink and crimson to blue and purple.
Unfortunately, although the hues it imparts to silk and wool possess an
exquisite bloom or lustre, they are far from permanent, and unless well
managed, soon decay. It is hence generally employed in combination with
other dye-stuffs, or as a finishing bath to impart a bloom to silk or
woollens already dyed of permanent colours. In using it as a dye it is
added to hot water in the required quantity, and the bath being raised to
nearly the boiling-point, the materials are put in and passed through it,
until the desired shade is produced. A mordant of alum and tartar is
sometimes used, but does not add to the permanence of the colour. Solution
of tin added to the bath increases the durability, but turns the colour
more on the scarlet. (Hellot.) Milk of lime or salt of tartar is added to
darken it; acids or solution of tin to redden it. A beautiful crimson-red
is obtained by first passing the stuff through a mordant of tin and
tartar, and then through a bath of archil mixed with a very little
solution of tin. By the proper management of this dye, lilacs, violets,
mallows, rosemary flower, soupes au vin, agates, and many other shades may
be produced on silk or cloth, either alone or in conjunction with other
dyes to modify it. 1/2 _lb._ of solid archil, or its equivalent in a
liquid form, will dye 1 to 2 _lb._ of cloth. HERB-ARCHIL, it is asserted,
will bear boiling, and gives a more durable tint than the other lichens,
especially with solution of tin. (Hellot.) Recently Mr Lightfoot has
patented a process for dyeing with archil with the aid of oil, after the
manner followed for producing Turkey-red on cottons.

Archil, Facti′′tious:——1. From a mixture of onions (in a state of
incipient putrefaction) with about 1-10th to 1-12th their weight of
carbonate of potash and some ammonia, fermented together; and adding,
after some days, 1-7th to 1-8th of the weight of the potash used in a salt
of lead. The details of the process essential to success are, however, now
unknown, the secret having died with a relative of the writer of this
article.

2. Extract of logwood dissolved in juice of elderberries and putrid urine,
with the addition of a little pearlash for the BLUE, and a very little
oxalic acid or oil of vitriol for the RED variety. Used to stain wood.

=Arch′il, Herb.= Roccella tinctoria. See ARCHIL (_above_), LICHENS, and
MOSSES.

=ARE= (ăr; āre——Eng.). [Fr.] See MEASURES.

=ARE′CA.= [L.] In _botany_ a genus of East Indian trees, of the nat. ord.
Palmæ (DC.).

=Areca Cate′chu.= [L.; Linn.] _Syn._ ARE′CA, A. IN′DICA, A. FAUFEL,
BE′TEL-NUT TREE. _Hab._ East Indies. Fruit (BETEL-NUT), astringent and
narcotic; husk of fruit (PENANG or PINANG), sialagogue and stomachic; both
are used as masticatories; wood and nut yield an inferior or bastard sort
of catechu; charcoal of the nut highly esteemed as tooth-powder; also
given in tape-worm in doses of 1/4 _oz._ and 1/2 _oz._; said to be more
efficacious in coarse than in fine powder.——_Doses for Animals_. HORSE, 4
to 6 drachms; CATTLE, 4 to 8 drachms; DOG, 30 grains to 2 drachms.

=Areca Globulif′era.= [L.] Properties similar to the last.

=Areca Olera′cea.= [L.; Willd.] Cabbage-palm.

=ARENA′CEOUS= (ăr-e-). _Syn._ ARENA′CEUS, L.; ARÉNACÉ, SABLONNEUX, Fr.;
SANDIG, SANDARTIG, Ger. In agriculture, mineralogy, &c., sandy; resembling
sand; friable.

=ARENA′′RIOUS= (-nare′-). _Syn._ ARENA′′RIUS, L.; ARÉNAIRE, Fr. Sandy,
arenaceous. In _agriculture_ and _botany_ applied to soils (ARENARIOUS
SOILS) in which sand is the prevailing and characteristic ingredient; also
to plants that grow in sandy or arid soils.

=ARENA′TION.= _Syn._ SABURRA′TION; ARENA′TIO, L.; ARÉNATION, Fr.; SANDBAD,
Ger. In _medicine_ sandbathing; a practice formerly prevalent, in dropsy,
of applying hot sand, either by immersion or otherwise, to the feet, legs,
or even the whole body.

=ARENOSE′= (ăr-e-nōse’). _Syn._ AR′ENOUS*; ARENO′SUS, L.; ARÉNEUX, Fr.
Sandy; arenaceous (which _see_).

=AREOM′ETER= (ă-re- or ăr-re-; āre-e——Smart). _Syn._ AREOM′ETRUM, L.;
ARÉOMÈTRE, Fr. Literally, a ‘measure of lightness’ or ‘rarity,’ originally
applied to any instrument for determining the specific gravity of
alcoholic and ethereal liquids; but since applied, like the word
‘hydrometer,’ to instruments adjusted to the densities of all liquids. In
this country the term is principally confined to the aréomètres of Baumé,
on account of their general use by Continental chemists. The relations and
equivalents of Baumé’s scales, as now adopted in France, are shown in the
first two of the following _Tables_:——

I.——_Corresponding_ DEGREES of BAUMÉ’S AREOMETERS and REAL SPECIFIC
GRAVITIES:——

        1. _Areometer for liquids_ LIGHTER _than_ WATER, or
        _Pèse-esprit_.[77]

  -------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------
  Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific
  Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.
  -------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------
   10    | 1·0000 | 21    | 0·9300 | 32    | 0·8690 | 42    | 0·8202 | 52    | 0·7766
   11    | 0·9932 | 22    | 0·9241 | 33    | 0·8639 | 43    | 0·8156 | 53    | 0·7725
   12    | 0·9865 | 23    | 0·9183 | 34    | 0·8588 | 44    | 0·8111 | 54    | 0·7684
   13    | 0·9799 | 24    | 0·9125 | 35    | 0·8538 | 45    | 0·8066 | 55    | 0·7643
   14    | 0·9733 | 25    | 0·9068 | 36    | 0·8488 | 46    | 0·8022 | 56    | 0·7604
   15    | 0·9669 | 26    | 0·9012 | 37    | 0·8439 | 47    | 0·7978 | 57    | 0·7556
   16    | 0·9605 | 27    | 0·8957 | 38    | 0·8391 | 48    | 0·7935 | 58    | 0·7526
   17    | 0·9542 | 28    | 0·8902 | 39    | 0·8343 | 49    | 0·7892 | 59    | 0·7487
   18    | 0·9480 | 29    | 0·8848 | 40    | 0·8295 | 50    | 0·7849 | 60    | 0·7449
   19    | 0·9420 | 30    | 0·8795 | 41    | 0·8249 | 51    | 0·7807 | 61    | 0·7411
   20    | 0·9359 | 31    | 0·8742 |       |        |       |        |       |
  -------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+---------

[Footnote 77: These instruments were originally adjusted at the
temperature of 12-1/2° Cent., or 54-1/2° Fahr. Those now made in France
are adjusted at 15° C., or 59° F.; and those made in England, at either
59° or (more usually) 60° Fahr. The standard temperature of the instrument
must be known for its correct application.]

        2. _Areometer for liquids_ HEAVIER _than_ WATER;
        _Pèse-acide_, or _Pèse-sirop_.[78]

  +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
  |Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|
  |Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.|
  +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
  |  0    | 1·0000 | 16    | 1·1176 | 32    | 1·2667 | 47    | 1·4476 | 62    | 1·6889 |
  |  1    | 1·0066 | 17    | 1·1259 | 33    | 1·2773 | 48    | 1·4615 | 63    | 1·7079 |
  |  2    | 1·0133 | 18    | 1·1343 | 34    | 1·2881 | 49    | 1·4758 | 64    | 1·7273 |
  |  3    | 1·0201 | 19    | 1·1428 | 35    | 1·2992 | 50    | 1·4902 | 65    | 1·7471 |
  |  4    | 1·0270 | 20    | 1·1515 | 36    | 1·3103 | 51    | 1·5051 | 66    | 1·7674 |
  |  5    | 1·0340 | 21    | 1·1603 | 37    | 1·3217 | 52    | 1·5200 | 67    | 1·7882 |
  |  6    | 1·0411 | 22    | 1·1692 | 38    | 1·3333 | 53    | 1·5353 | 68    | 1·8095 |
  |  7    | 1·0483 | 23    | 1·1783 | 39    | 1·3451 | 54    | 1·5510 | 69    | 1·8313 |
  |  8    | 1·0556 | 24    | 1·1875 | 40    | 1·3571 | 55    | 1·5671 | 70    | 1·8537 |
  |  9    | 1·0630 | 25    | 1·1968 | 41    | 1·3694 | 56    | 1·5833 | 71    | 1·8765 |
  | 10    | 1·0704 | 26    | 1·2063 | 42    | 1·3818 | 57    | 1·6000 | 72    | 1·9000 |
  | 11    | 1·0780 | 27    | 1·2160 | 43    | 1·3945 | 58    | 1·6170 | 73    | 1·9241 |
  | 12    | 1·0857 | 28    | 1·2258 | 44    | 1·4074 | 59    | 1·6344 | 74    | 1·9487 |
  | 13    | 1·0935 | 29    | 1·2358 | 45    | 1·4206 | 60    | 1·6522 | 75    | 1·9740 |
  | 14    | 1·1014 | 30    | 1·2459 | 46    | 1·4339 | 61    | 1·6705 | 76    | 2·0000 |
  | 15    | 1·1095 | 31    | 1·2562 |       |        |       |        |       |        |
  +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+

II.——_Corresponding_ SPECIFIC GRAVITIES _and_ DEGREES _of_ BAUMÉ’S
AREOMETER _for heavy liquids_.[78] From the Batavian Pharmacopœia.

[Footnote 78: See footnote on previous page.]

  +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
  |Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|
  |Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.|Baumé. |Gravity.|
  +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
  |  0    | 1000   | 16    | 1125   | 32    | 1286   | 47    | 1485   | 62    | 1758   |
  |  1    | 1007   | 17    | 1134   | 33    | 1298   | 48    | 1501   | 63    | 1779   |
  |  2    | 1014   | 18    | 1143   | 34    | 1309   | 49    | 1516   | 64    | 1801   |
  |  3    | 1022   | 19    | 1152   | 35    | 1321   | 50    | 1532   | 65    | 1823   |
  |  4    | 1029   | 20    | 1161   | 36    | 1334   | 51    | 1549   | 66    | 1847   |
  |  5    | 1036   | 21    | 1171   | 37    | 1346   | 52    | 1566   | 67    | 1872   |
  |  6    | 1044   | 22    | 1180   | 38    | 1359   | 53    | 1583   | 68    | 1897   |
  |  7    | 1052   | 23    | 1190   | 39    | 1372   | 54    | 1601   | 69    | 1921   |
  |  8    | 1060   | 24    | 1199   | 40    | 1384   | 55    | 1618   | 70    | 1946   |
  |  9    | 1067   | 25    | 1210   | 41    | 1398   | 56    | 1637   | 71    | 1974   |
  | 10    | 1075   | 26    | 1221   | 42    | 1412   | 57    | 1656   | 72    | 2000   |
  | 11    | 1083   | 27    | 1231   | 43    | 1426   | 58    | 1676   | 73    | 2031   |
  | 12    | 1091   | 28    | 1242   | 44    | 1440   | 59    | 1695   | 74    | 2059   |
  | 13    | 1100   | 29    | 1252   | 45    | 1454   | 60    | 1715   | 75    | 2087   |
  | 14    | 1108   | 30    | 1261   | 46    | 1470   | 61    | 1738   | 76    | 2116   |
  | 15    | 1116   | 31    | 1275   |       |        |       |        |       |        |
  +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+

=AREOM′ETRY.= _Syn._ AREOME′TRIA, L.; ARÉOMÉTRIE, Fr. The art or operation
of ascertaining the specific gravity of liquids, and hence also their
strength or commercial value; hydrometry. See AREOMETER (_above_),
HYDROMETRY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, &c.

=ARE′CINA.= C_{23}H_{26}N_{2}O_{4}. An alkaloid discovered by Pelletier
and Comol, in white cinchona bark from Aréca. It is extracted from the
bark by the same process as Quinine, viz., by boiling the bark with
acidulated water, treating the liquor with lime, and digesting the
lime-precipitate in alcohol. The solution filtered at the boiling heat
yields a very dark-coloured liquid, which, after a time, deposits the
greater part of the aricine in crystals. An additional quantity may be
obtained from the mother-liquor by expelling the alcohol by distillation,
treating the residue with a slight excess of hydrochloric acid, separating
the greater part of the colouring matter by means of a saturated solution
of common salts, then throwing down the aricine by ammonia, dissolving the
precipitate in alcohol, decolourising with animal charcoal and
crystallising.

=ARGAMONE MEXICANA= (nat. order PAPAVERACEÆ). A tropical American plant,
now a common weed growing in almost every part of India. A fixed oil is
obtained from the seeds by expression, which has long been employed as an
aperient in the West Indies. In half-drachm doses it is said to act as a
gentle aperient, and at the same time it allays, apparently by its
sedative qualities, the pain in colic. The smallness of the dose, and the
mildness of its operation, commend it to the notice of the medical
practitioner. Its efficiency is impaired by keeping, the freshly prepared
oil proving more active and uniform in its action than that which has been
long on hand. It is reported to exercise a well-marked and soothing
influence when applied to herpetic eruptions and other forms of skin
disease. By the natives of India the expressed yellow glutinous juice of
the plant is held in high repute as a local application to indolent and
foul ulcers.

=ARGENT′INE= (-ĭn). _Syn._ ARGENTI′NUS, L.; ARGENTIN, Fr.; SILBERFARBEN,
&c., Ger. Silver-like; pertaining to, resembling, or sounding like silver;
argental.

=Ar′gentine.= (-tĭn). [Eng., Fr.] German silver*. In _mineralogy_,
nacreous carbonate of lime, from its whiteness and silvery lustre.

=ARGENT′UM.= [L.] Silver. In _old chemistry_ and _pharmacy_, ARGENTUM,
FUGITI′′VUM†, A. MO′BILE† (-ĭl-e), was quicksilver; A. MOR′TUUM†, dead
silver, grain-s; A. MUSI′VUM†, mosaic s., silver-bronze; A. NITRA′TUM†,
lunar caustic; A. VI′VUM†, quicksilver; A. ZOÖTIN′ICUM†, cyanide of
silver; &c.

=AR′GIL=† (jĭl). _Syn._ ARGIL′LA, L.; ARGILE, Fr. Clay or potter’s earth.

=ARGILLA′CEOUS= (-jĭl-). _Syn._ ARGILLA′CEUS, L.; ARGILLEUX, Fr.; THONIG,
THONARTIG, Ger. Clayey; pertaining to, containing, or of the nature of
clay or argil. In _agriculture_, an epithet of soils (ARGILLACEOUS SOILS)
of which clay is the principal or characteristic ingredient.

=Argil′lo-arena′ceous= (-jĭl-). In _agr._, consisting chiefly of clay and
sand.

=Argillo-calca′′reous.= In _agr._, consisting chiefly of clay and chalk.

=AR′GOL.= _Syn._ ARGAL*; TAR′TARUS CRU′DUS, L.; TARTRE BRUT, Fr.;
WEINSTEIN, Ger. Crude bitartrate of potash, as deposited by wine. That
from red wine is RED ARGOL; that from white wine, WHITE ARGOL. See TARTAR.

=ARM′ATURE= (-ă-tūre). _Syn._ ARMATU′′RA, L. In _magnetism_, a piece of
soft iron used to connect the poles of a horseshoe magnet, for the purpose
of preventing loss of power.

=AR′NICA.= [L., Fr., Eng.] _Syn._ ARNIQUE, Fr.; ARNIKA, WOLVERLEI, Ger. In
_botany_, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Compositæ (DC.). In the Ph.
U. S., arnica montana (see _below_).

=Arnica Monta′na.= [L.; Linn.] _Syn._ ARNICA, MOUN′TAIN A., M. TOBAC′CO,
GERMAN LEOP′ARD’S BANE; PANACE′A LAPSO′′RUM*, L. ARNIQUE, A. DES
MONTAGNES, TABAC DES SAVOYARDS ET DES VOSGES, Fr.; ARNIKA, FALKRAUT, &c.,
Ger. _Hab._ Meadows of the cooler parts of Europe, North America, and
Siberia. It is now cultivated in our gardens. Flowers (ARNICA, Ph. U. S.,
Castr. Ruth., and Bor.) and leaves, diaphoretic, diuretic, stimulant, and
narcotic; in large doses emetic and purgative; root discutient; whole herb
diaphoretic, stimulant, and nervine.

_Prop., &c._ Arnica acts as an energetic stimulant on the cerebro-spinal
system, and as an irritant on the stomach and bowels. It is much employed
on the Continent, and is given in a great variety of diseases——amaurosis,
chlorosis, convulsions, diarrhœa, dysentery, gout, paralysis, rheumatism,
&c. It is much used in Germany, instead of bark, in intermittents, putrid
fevers, and gangrene. In France it is commonly employed as an excito-tonic
in paralysis. It has been greatly extolled, as a restorative, and in
bruises and injuries from falls. The Savoyards and inhabitants of the
Vosges both smoke and ‘snuff’ the leaves. In England it is little used
except by homœopaths. It is said that no animal but the goat will eat this
plant. (Thomson.) Its noxious properties chiefly depend on the presence of
cytisine.——_Dose._ Flowers, 5 to 10 gr., in powder, with syrup or honey;
root, 10 to 20 gr. It is most conveniently administered under the form of
infusion or tincture. Severe abdominal pains and vertigo, and even tetanus
and death, have followed excessive doses.

_Obs._ According to Dupuytren, the emetic action of infusion of arnica
depends on minute particles of the down of the plant which remain
suspended in it, and which may be removed by filtration. See INFUSIONS,
TINCTURES, &c.

=ARNATT′O, Arnott′o.= See ANNOTTA.

=AR′NICINE= (seen). This name has been applied to two substances——the one
discovered by Pfaff; the other by Bastick:——

=Arnicine= (of Pfaff). The resinous matter extracted by alcohol from the
roots and flowers of mountain arnica, and in which their acridity appears
to reside.

=Arnicine= (of Bastick). _Syn._ ARNICI′NA, ARNICI′′A (nīsh′-y′ă), L.
_Prep._ 1. (Bastick.) From the flowers, by a similar process to that by
which he obtains lobelina. 2. From the flowers (or root), as directed
under ARICINA.

_Prop., &c._ Bitter; acrid; crystallisable scarcely soluble in water;
soluble in alcohol and ether; forms salts with the acids, the
hydrochlorate and one or two others being crystallisable. Its
physiological properties and dose have not as yet been accurately
determined.

=ARO′MA.= [L.] _Syn._ AROME, Fr.; AROM, GERUCHSTOFF, Ger. The
characteristic odour of substances, particularly the peculiar quality of
plants, and of substances derived from them, which constitutes their
fragrance.

=AROMA′TA.= [L.] See AROMATIC.

=AROMAT′IC.= _Syn._ AROMAT′ICUS, L.; AROMATIQUE, Fr.; GEWÜRZHAFT, Ger.
Fragrant; odoriferous; spicy; applied chiefly to plants and their products
(AROMATICS, A. PLANTS; AROMAT′A, AROMAT′ICA, L.; AROMATIQUES, ÉPICES, Fr.;
GEWURZ, Ger.) characterised by their spicy odour or aroma, and warm
pungent flavour, and of which allspice, cinnamon, cloves, lavender,
pepper, rosemary, sage, &c., are well-known examples. They are all
stimulant, carminative, and antiseptic; and from remote antiquity have
been regarded as prophylactic and disinfectant.

=Aromatic.= In _medicine_, _pharmacy_, _perfumery_, &c., applied to
substances, simple or compound, characterised by an agreeable odour or
carminative properties, or both; as aromatic confection, a. pastilles, a.
vinegar, a. bark (CORTEX AROMATICUS, white canella), &c.

=AROMATIC SULPHUR-SOAP= (Ed. Heger). For cleansing the teeth and mouth. A
hard sulphur-coloured soap externally; on cutting, greyish-brown. Composed
of soap with 10 per cent. of hyposulphite of soda, perfumed with a scent
resembling oil of balm. (Hager.)

=AROMATIQUE= (Albin Müller, Brünn). Spirit (90 per cent.), 50 grms.;
sugar, 45 grms.; extractive matter, 4 grms. (composed of cinnamon, cloves,
galangal, zedoary, angelica, anise); water, 81 grms. Sold in
wine-bottle-shaped bottles, and recommended for all derangements of the
digestive organs. (Hager.)

=ARQUEBUSADE′= (ar-ke-bŏŏ-zade′). [Fr.] Primarily, the shot of an
arquebuse; but afterwards applied to an aromatic spirit (EAU
D′ARQUEBUSADE, Fr.), originally employed as an application to gunshot
(arquebuse) wounds.

=AR′RACK= (_Syn._ RACK) (arrack′——Brande). [Ind.] _Syn._ ARAC, ARACK,
RACK‡§; PALM-SPIRIT; AR′AC′CA, SPIR′ITUS PAL′MÆ, S. SUC′CI P., S. ORY′ZÆ*,
L.; ARACK, Fr.; Arak, Ger. A spirituous liquor imported from the East
Indies. The finer qualities are distilled from the fermented juice (toddy,
palm-wine) of the cocoa-nut tree, palmyra tree, and other palms; and the
other kinds, from the infusion of unhusked rice (rice-beer), fermented
with cocoa-nut or palm-juice, either with or without the addition of
coarse sugar or jaggery.

_Prop., &c._ It is colourless or nearly so, but like other spirit, when
long kept in wood, gradually acquires a slight tinge, similar to that of
old Hollands. The best kinds, when of sufficient age, are pleasant
flavoured, and are probably as wholesome as the other spirits of commerce;
but common arrack has a strong and somewhat nauseous flavour and odour,
depending on the presence of volatile oil derived from the rice, and
corresponding to that of corn-spirit. The inferior qualities are hence
more heating and apt to disagree with the stomach than the other
commercial spirits. In this country it is chiefly used to make punch. When
sliced pine-apples are put into good arrack, and the spirit kept for some
time, it mellows down and acquires a most delicious flavour, and is
thought by many to be then unrivalled for making ‘nectarial punch’ or
‘rack-punch.’

_Obs._ Batavian arrack is most esteemed; then that of Madras; and next
that of China. Others are regarded as inferior. The common par′iah arrack
is generally narcotic, very intoxicating, and unwholesome; being commonly
prepared from coarse jaggery, spoilt toddy, refuse rice, &c., and rendered
more intoxicating by the addition of hemp-leaves, poppy-heads, juice of
stramonium, and other deleterious substances.

=Arrack, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ MOCK AR′RACK, BRIT′ISH A.;
VAUXHALL′NEC′TAR; &c. _Prep._ Good old Jamaica rum (uncoloured), rectified
spirit (54 to 56 o. p.; clean flavoured), and water, of each 1 quart;
flowers of benzoin, 1 dr.; sliced pine-apple, 1/4 oz. (or essence of
pine-apple, 1/2 teaspoonful); digest, with occasional agitation, for a
fortnight; then add of skimmed milk 1 wine-glassful; agitate well for 15
minutes, and in a few days decant the clear portion.

The crude Indian arrack, when subjected to distillation until it has a sp.
gr. ·920, is employed in India, as proof spirit, in the preparation of
official tinctures, and for other pharmaceutical purposes. A very useful
stimulating application, known in India as toddy poultice, and intended as
a substitute for yeast poultice, is prepared by adding freshly drawn toddy
to rice flour, till it has the consistence of a soft poultice, and
subjecting this to heat over a gentle fire, stirring constantly till
fermentation commences.

The light brown cotton-like substance from the outside of the base of the
fronds belonging to the Palmyra palm is employed by the Cyngalese doctors
as a styptic for stopping the hæmorrhage of superficial wounds.

=AR′ROW-ROOT.= The common name of _maran′ta arundina′cea_ (Linn.; _m.
Indi′ca_——Tuss.); a plant of the nat. ord. Marantaceæ (Lindl.;
Cannaceæ——Endl.). It was originally brought from the island of Dominica to
Barbadoes, by Col. James Walker. It has since been extensively cultivated
in the West Indies.

_Tubers_ yield true ARROW-ROOT; when fresh and good they contain about 26%
of starch, of which 23% may be obtained as arrow-root, and the rest by
boiling.

=Arrow-root.= _Syn._ MARAN′TA, AM′YLUM MARAN′TÆ, FÆC′ULA M., L.; RACINE
FLÉCHIÈRE, PIVOT, Fr.; PFEILWURZ, P.-SATZMEHL, Ger. The starch or fecula
obtained from the rhizoma or tubers of _maran′ta arundina′cea_ (Linn.; see
_above_), and which forms the true ‘arrow-root’ of commerce.

_Prep._ The fecula is extracted from the tubers when they are about 10 or
12 months old, by a process similar to that by which the farina is
obtained from potatoes. In Bermuda the tubers, after being washed, are
deprived of their paper-like scales and every discoloured and defective
part by hand; they are then again washed and drained, and next subjected
to the action of a wheel-rasp, the starch being washed from the comminuted
tubers with rain-water; the milky liquid is passed through a hair sieve,
or a coarse cloth, and allowed to deposit its fecula. This is then allowed
to drain, after which it is again carefully washed with clean water, again
drained, and, after being thoroughly dried in the air or sun, is at once
packed for market. (Cogswell.) In St. Vincent (on the Hopewell Estate), a
cylindrical crushing-mill, tinned-copper washing machines, and
German-silver palettes and shovels are employed; whilst the drying is
effected in extensive sheds, under white gauze, to exclude insects. In
Jamaica the washed tubers are generally pulped in deep wooden mortars;
machinery being seldom employed in any part of the process.

_Prop., &c._ A light, dull, dead-white, tasteless, inodorous powder or
small pulverulent masses, feeling firm to the fingers, and crackling when
pressed or rubbed; viewed by a pocket lens it appears to consist of
glistening particles, which are shown by a microscope to be convex,
irregular, ovoid or truncated granules, most of them, according to Mr
Jackson, being ·0010 of an inch in length, and ·0008 of an inch in
breadth; mixed with others varying from about double to only half that
size. In its action with boiling water, and its general properties it
resembles the other starches; than which, however, it is freer from any
peculiar taste and flavour; and thus agrees better with the delicate
stomachs of invalids and infants than the ordinary farinas.

[Illustration: West Indian Arrowroot (_Maranta Arundinacæa_). Scale
1-1000th of an inch.]

_Comp._ Similar to that of the other starches.

_Pur._ A large portion of the arrow-root of the shops consists either
wholly or in part of the fecula or farina of potatoes or of inferior
starches such as _cacuma_, or East Indian arrow-root, _jatropha_, or
Brazilian arrow-root, _canna_, or _tous les mois_; or is more or less
mixed with sago-meal or rice-meal: such materials can be readily detected
by the microscope. Potato starch is known in commerce as ‘FARINA’ or
‘BRITISH ARROW-ROOT,’ or simply ‘arrow-root,’ whereas genuine arrow-root
is always described as ‘Bermuda,’ ‘St. Vincent,’ ‘St. Kitts,’ or, at
least, as ‘West Indian arrow-root.’ The substitution of the inferior
farinas for genuine arrow-root is not only fraudulent on account of their
inferior value, but is reprehensible in a hygienic point of view; as some
of them are offensive to a delicate stomach, and exert of themselves, and
still more when carelessly manufactured, a laxative action on the bowels;
whereas the effect of true arrow-root is that of a slight and soothing
tonic.

_Uses, &c._ As an agreeable, non-irritable article of diet for invalids
and children, in the form of cakes, biscuits or puddings, or boiled with
milk or water and flavoured with sugar, spices, lemon-juice, or wine, at
pleasure. For young children a little caraway or cinnamon water is to be
preferred. It is especially useful in irritation or debility of the
stomach, bowels, or urinary organs, and in all cases in which a demulcent
or emollient is indicated. It must not, however, be employed to the entire
exclusion of other food, as, being destitute of the nitrogenous elements
of nutrition, it is incapable alone of supporting life. Arrow-root jelly
is prepared by first rubbing the powder up with a very small quantity of
cold water, and then gradually adding the remainder boiling, stirring well
all the time. Beef tea, veal broth, or milk may be used instead of water.
Some persons boil it for a few minutes. This jelly, flavoured with a
little genuine port wine and nutmeg, is almost a specific in cases of
simple diarrhœa arising from habit or debility.

_Obs._ Arrow-root is imported in tins, barrels, and boxes, from all the
West India Islands; and from Calcutta and Sierra Leone. The best quality
was, until recently, solely obtained from Bermuda; but of late equally
fine samples have been produced on the Hopewell Estate, St Vincent, and,
according to Dr Ure, with the advantage of being prepared with the purest
spring water, in profusion, instead of rain water.

In _commerce_, the word arrow-root is now often loosely used as a generic
term to indicate any white, tasteless, and edible starch or fecula.

=Arrow-root, Brazil′ian.= Cassava-starch or tapioca-meal.

=Arrow-root, East In′dian.= Curcuma starch; from the tubers of the
_curcuma angustifolia_ or narrow-leaved turmeric. The _maranta
arundinacea_ is now also extensively cultivated in India under the name of
maranta Indica, and the fecula therefrom extensively exported, which
might, with equal propriety, be called East Indian arrow-root; but this is
not the case in commerce, the whole passing as W. I. arrow-root
irrespective of the place of its production.

=Arrow-root, Eng′lish.= Potato-starch.

=Arrow-root, Portland.= From the underground tubers of _arum maculatum_
(Linn.) or wake-robin.

=Arrow-root, Tahi′ti.= Tacca starch or Otaheite salep; from the tubers of
_tacca oceanica_.

[Illustration: Rio, or Manihot Arrow Root. Scale 1-1000th of an inch.]

=ARSE′′NIATE.= _Syn._ AR′SENATE; ARSE′′NIAS, AR′SENAS, L.; ARSÉNIATE, Fr.;
ARSE′′NIKSAURE SALZE, Ger. A salt consisting of AsO_{4} and a metal or
other basic radical; _e.g._, ammonio-magnesium arseniate,
NH_{4}Mg_{9}AsO_{4}.

=AR′SENIC= (-se-nĭk). As. _Syn._ ARSENIUM; ARSEN′ICUM, ARSE′NIUM, L.;
ARSENIK, A.-METALL, Ger. ARSENICO, Sp., It. The brittle, grey-coloured
metal, or metalloid, which forms the base of the white arsenic and
orpiment of commerce. Discovered by Geber in the eighth century, but first
accurately described by Brandt (A.D. 1773). The poisonous properties of
arsenious acid were not generally known for some centuries after its
discovery. As a medicine it was first employed in intermittents in
Hungary.

_Sources._ Arsenic is peculiar to the mineral kingdom. The metallic
arsenic of commerce is obtained by roasting arsenical pyrites (MISPICKEL),
in earthen tubes, or in tubular earthen retorts; the arsenic sublimes, and
sulphuret of iron remains behind. On the small scale it is prepared by
sublimation from a mixture of arsenious acid and charcoal or black flux.
Combined with oxygen it frequently exists in mineral waters; and, in a
larger quantity, in certain rivulets and streams.

_Prep._ A mixture of arsenious acid, 1 part; and black flux, 2 or 3 parts;
is exposed to a low red heat in a Hessian crucible over which is luted a
deep empty crucible, or an earthen tube, to receive the metal; the latter
being kept as cool as possible. Charcoal or even oil may be substituted
for black flux, and a retort of hard glass may be used, with the same
result. Or the following method may be used:——White oxide of arsenic, of
commerce, 2 dr.; is placed at the sealed end of a hard German-glass tube
(1/2 × 18 inches), and covered with about 8 inches of dry and coarsely
powdered charcoal; the portion of the tube containing the latter is then
raised to a red heat, whilst a few ignited coals are placed beneath the
oxide to effect its slow sublimation. The sublimed metal gradually
attaches itself to the inside of the tube at its cool extremity. A small
charcoal furnace similar to that used for organic analysis should be
employed, and the process conducted under a flue to carry off any fumes
that may escape. The open end of the tube should be loosely closed with a
cork.

_Prop._ Very brittle, so much so that it may be easily powdered in a
mortar; lustre highly metallic; colour steel-grey or bluish-white; texture
crystalline; crystals rhombohedrons; sublimes, without fusion, at 356 to
360° Fahr., (and slowly at lower temperatures), in close vessels
unaltered, but when exposed to the air with conversion into arsenious
acid; at a higher temperature, in open vessels, it burns with a pale-blue
flame. Its vapour or fumes have a characteristic alliaceous odour; it is
slowly oxidised and dissolved by boiling water; but may be preserved
unchanged in pure cold water; it rapidly tarnishes in the air,
particularly when moist, a black film, consisting of metallic arsenic and
arsenious acid forming on its surface; with chlorine, iodine, sulphur, and
hydrogen, it unites to form definite compounds. With oxygen it forms
acids, but no basic oxide. It combines with the metals in a similar manner
to sulphur and phosphorus, the latter of which it resembles in many
respects. These compounds are termed AR′SENIDES, formerly ARSENIURETS. Sp.
gr. 5·7 to 5·9; sp. gr. of vapour, 1·0362.

_Uses, &c._ With copper it forms a white alloy (PACKFONG); and it is added
to some other alloys to increase their whiteness, hardness, and
fusibility. In _medicine_ it is only used in combination. In the metallic
state it is inert; but, from its great affinity for oxygen, it rapidly
becomes oxidised and poisonous; and hence acts as a powerful poison when
swallowed, or when rubbed on the skin. Its fumes are also highly
poisonous. See ARSENIOUS ACID (and _below_).

=Arsenic, Tribro′mide of.= AsBr_{3}. _Syn._ TERBRO′MIDE OF ARSENIC,
SESQUIBRO′MIDE OF A.; ARSEN′ICI BROMI′DUM, L. _Prep._ Add metallic
arsenic, in powder, cautiously and in a very small quantity at a time, to
pure bromine, contained in a vessel set in ice or a freezing mixture,
until light ceases to be emitted; then cautiously distil into a
well-cooled receiver.

_Prop., &c._ Solid below 68° Fahr.; above it, a yellowish fuming liquid,
which boils at 428° Fahr.

=Arsenic, Trichlo′′ride of.= AsCl_{3}. _Syn._ CHLO′′RIDE OF A., ARSEN′ICI
TERCHLORI′DUM, &c., L. _Prep._ 1. From a mixture of white arsenic, 1 part;
and bichloride of mercury, 6 parts; both in powder, carefully distilled
into a well-cooled receiver.

2. Gently boil powdered white arsenic for some time in hydrochloric acid
to which a little nitric acid has been added; then concentrate cautiously
by evaporation, and distil as before. It is also produced, with the
disengagement of heat and light, when powdered metallic arsenic is thrown
into gaseous chlorine.

_Prop., &c._ A colourless, volatile, highly poisonous liquid, decomposed
by water into arsenious acid and hydrochloric acid. It has been employed
as a caustic in cancer and venereal warts; but its use requires the
greatest caution.

=Arsenic, Flu′oride of.= AsF_{3}. _Syn._ ARSENIC TRIFLUORIDE, TERFLU′ORIDE
OF ARSENIC. A fuming volatile liquid, prepared as the bromide.

=Arsenic, Trii′odide of.= AsI_{3}. _Syn._ TERIODIDE OF ARSENIC, IODIDE OF
ARSENIC; ARSEN′ICI IODI′DUM, A. TERIODI′DUM, L.; ARSENIC IODURE, &c., Fr.
_Prep._ 1. From finely-pulverised metallic arsenic, 2 parts; iodide, 11
parts; mixed and gently heated in a bent glass tube, or a suitable retort,
until combination is complete; the heat being then raised, and the
sublimed iodide collected, and at once put into a well-stopped phial.

2. Arsenic, in fine powder, 1 part; iodine, 5 parts; triturate them
together, place the mixture in a small flask or retort just large enough
to contain it, and apply a gentle heat until liquefaction is complete,
avoiding the formation of iodine vapour; when the odour of iodine is no
longer perceptible, and the mass assumes a reddish-yellow colour and
crystallises on the sides of the vessel, the operation is complete,
without having recourse to sublimation. A very easy and excellent process.

_Prop., &c._ A deep orange-red, crystallisable solid; soluble in water,
and highly volatile and poisonous. Its aqueous solution yields the iodine
unchanged by rapid evaporation, but when slowly concentrated and set
aside, white pearly plates are obtained, consisting of arsenious acid and
the teriodide. As a medicine it combines the properties of both arsenious
acid and iodine, but its use requires great caution. It has been
successfully employed by Dr A. T. Thomson, Biett, and others, in obstinate
skin diseases (lepra, impetigo, herpes, lupus, psoriasis, &c.), and in
real or stimulated cancer.——_Dose_, 1/16 to 1/12 gr. (in pills or
solution), gradually increased to 1/6 or even 1/3 gr. (A. T. Thomson.)
Externally, 2-1/2 gr., to lard 1 oz.; of which 1 dr. may be used at a
time. (Biett.)

=Arsenic, Disulphide of.= As_{2}S_{2}. _Syn._ ARSENIC BISULPHIDE,
BISUL′PHIDE OF A., RED SUL′PHIDE OF A., &c., REALGAR; RÉALGAL, ARSENIC
ROUGE SULFURE, ORPIN ROUGE, &c., Fr.; ROTHES SCHWEFELARSENIK, &c., Ger.
This substance is found native at Solfaterra, near Naples, and in several
other volcanic districts; but that of commerce is often prepared by
distilling arsenical pyrites, or a mixture of sulphur and white arsenic,
&c., in the proper proportions, as noticed under REÄLGAR and RED PIGMENTS.

_Prop., &c._ A fusible, volatile substance; scarlet or ruby-red in mass,
but orange-red in powder, by which it is distinguished from cinnabar;
crystals, oblique rhombic prisms. Sp. gr. 3·3 to 3·6. Its chief use is as
a pigment and in pyrotechny to make white fire. The factitious sulphide
has not the rich colour of the native mineral, whilst it is much more
poisonous. It is improved by re-sublimation.

=Arsenic, Trisul′phide of.= As_{2}S_{3}. _Syn._ TERSUL′PHIDE OF ARSENIC,
YELLOW SUL′PHIDE OF A., SESQUISUL′PHIDE OF A., OR′PIMENT; A.
SESQUISULPHURE′TUM, ORPIMEN′TUM, L.; ORPIMENT, SULFURE JAUNE D’ARSENIC,
&c., Fr.; AURIPIGMENT, OPERMENT, RAUSCHGELB, Ger. This sulphide, like the
last, is found ready formed in nature; and is prepared artificially, by
sublimation, from a mixture of arsenious acid and sulphur, as noticed
under ORPIMENT and YELLOW PIGMENTS. It also falls as a precipitate when a
stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed through an acid solution of
arsenious acid or of an arsenite.

_Prop., &c._ Golden-yellow crystalline lumps, or a fine golden-yellow
powder; crystals, right rhombic prisms; volatile; fusible; very soluble in
pure alkalies, by which it is distinguished from sulphide of cadmium; and
from trisulphide of antimony by being soluble in hydrochloric acid. The
factitious sulphide (KING’S YELLOW) of the shops often contains 80 to 90%
of white arsenic; and is, therefore, much more poisonous than the native
trisulphide. Sp. gr. (native) 3·44 to 3·60.

_Use, &c._ As a dye, as a pigment, and as an ingredient in fireworks, and
in some depilatories. Silk, woollen, or cotton goods soaked in a solution
of pure orpiment in ammonia, and then suspended in a warm apartment or
stove-room, rapidly lose their ammonia, and become permanently dyed of a
superb yellow colour. The native sulphides (both red and yellow) are much
less soluble, and hence less poisonous, than those prepared artificially.
They also possess the richest colour; and are, therefore, preferred by
artists and dyers. In former times, orpiment, like realgar, was employed
in medicine. See ARSENIC.

=Arsenic, Pentasul′phide of.= As_{2}S_{5}. _Syn._ SULPHARSEN′IC ACID, &c.;
ARSEN′ICI PENTASULPHURE′TUM, &c., L. When a stream of sulphuretted
hydrogen is transmitted for some time through a solution of arsenic acid,
a precipitate of the PENTASULPHIDE is deposited after some hours’ repose.
Its formation is accelerated by boiling the liquid.

_Prop., &c._ It greatly resembles the tersulphide in its appearance and
general properties.

=Arsenic, White‡.= See ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE.

=Arsenic, Yell′ow.= Trisulphide of arsenic.

=ARSENIC ACID.= H_{3}AsO_{4}. _Syn._ ACIDUM ARSEN′ICUM, L.; ACIDE
ARSÉNIQUE, Fr.; ARSENICSÄURE, Ger.

_Prep._ 1. Arsenious acid, in fine powder, 2 parts; concentrated nitric
acid, 6 parts; hydrochloric acid, 1 part; mix in a flask or tubulated
retort, and digest, with heat, until solution is complete; after repose,
decant the clear portion and evaporate, to the consistence of a thick
syrup.

2. Dissolve arsenious acid in hot hydrochloric acid, and when the solution
is cold add concentrated nitric acid, in small quantities at a time, until
red vapours cease to be evolved, then proceed as before.

_Prop._ Thick syrup, occasionally forming clear transparent crystals, very
deliquescent, readily soluble in water, and converted by heat into the
anhydrous acid. Extremely poisonous.

=Arseniates.= _Prep._ Most of the metallic arseniates may be formed by
adding a solution of a soluble salt of the metal to another of an alkaline
arseniate, as long as a precipitate falls; which must be collected,
washed, and dried. The alkaline arseniates may be prepared by adding the
base or its carbonate to a solution of the acid, to alkaline reaction, and
then evaporating and crystallising the liquid.

_Prop., &c._ The arseniates of the alkalies are soluble in water; those of
the earths and metals insoluble, except in acids. They are isomorphous
with the corresponding phosphates.

_Tests._ Nitrate of silver added to the solution of an arseniate gives a
highly characteristic reddish-brown precipitate, which distinguishes it
from arsenious acid. Nitrate of lead gives a white precipitate, and the
salts of copper greenish-blue ones. Pure lump-sugar dissolved in an
aqueous solution of this acid becomes, in a few hours, of a reddish
colour, and afterwards of a magnificent purple. Heated with charcoal it
evolves a garlic-like odour, and is reduced to the metallic state. The
suspected liquid being treated with sulphurous acid and boiled for a short
time, the arsenic acid loses oxygen and is converted into arsenious acid,
which may be tested for as such. Sulphuretted hydrogen does not
precipitate a solution of arsenic acid, or an acidified arseniate, until
after the lapse of several hours; and alkaline and neutral solutions not
at all.

=ARSENIC ANHYDRIDE.= As_{2}O_{5}. _Syn._ ANHYDROUS ARSENIC ACID, ARSENIC
ACID; ACIDUM ARSENICUM, L.; ACIDE ARSÉNIQUE, Fr.; ARSENIKSÄURE, Ger. Best
prepared by igniting the arsenic acid, in a platinum crucible, at a low
red heat, as long as water is given off.

_Prop._ White deliquescent substance, and violent poison, readily soluble
in water to the acid.

=ARSENIOUS ACID.= See ARSENIOUS ANHYDRIDE.

=ARSE′′NIOUS ANHYDRIDE.= As_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ AR′SENIOUS ACID, AR′SENIC,
WHITE A.; ACIDE ARSÉNIEUX, ARSENIC BLANC, OXYDE, Fr.; ARSENIGSÄURE,
ARSENICHSTE S., Ger.; ARSENICO BIANCO, It.; A. BLANCO, Sp. The arsenic, or
white arsenic, of the shops.

_Sources._ The white arsenic of commerce is principally imported from
Germany, where it is obtained in the process of roasting arseniuretted
cobalt ores, in making zaffre. At Altenburgh it is procured from arsenical
iron pyrites (mispickel); and at Reichenstein from native arsenide of
iron. About 900 to 1000 tons are also annually collected at Cornwall,
being principally a secondary product of the process of roasting grey
copper ore and white mundic. The British arsenic works in that county are
perhaps the finest in the world. The usual plan is to roast the powdered
ore in muffle-furnaces; by which its arsenic is converted into arsenious
anhydride, which escapes as vapour (smelting-house smoke), and passing
into the condensing-chambers, is deposited in a pulverulent state, forming
the flowers of arsenic, or rough white arsenic, of the smelters, (the
giftmehl or poison-flour of the Germans). The crude article obtained in
this way is purified by re-sublimation in suitable iron pots or other iron
vessels, before it is fit for sale. It then forms a semi-transparent
vitreous cake, which gradually becomes opaque, and of snowy whiteness, by
exposure to the air, and at length acquires a more or less pulverulent
state on the surface.

[Illustration]

In Silesia the crude arsenious anhydride obtained from arsenical pyrites
is refined by sublimation as follows:——For this purpose the cast-iron
vessels (_a_) are employed. Upon these are placed iron rings or collars
(_b_, _c_, _d_) and a hood (_e_), communicating by means of tubes with a
series of chambers, of which the first only is shown in _i_. The flanges
of the cast-iron collars and all other joints having been thoroughly
luted, the fire is lighted and the heat so increased as to cause the
semi-fusion of the arsenious anhydride, which, after cooling, exhibits a
peculiarly porcelain-like appearance, at first being as transparent as
glass.

_Prop._ Crystals (obtained by careful sublimation, or by cooling a boiling
aqueous solution), usually transparent, regular octahedrons (fig. 1), but
sometimes, though rarely, assume the form of tetrahedrons (see 2). When
prepared on the large scale it forms large, glassy, colourless or
yellowish-white, transparent or semi-transparent cakes or porcelain-like
masses (vitreous arsenious anhydride, glacial a. a.), which soon becomes
opaque on their exterior, and often friable and pulverulent; odourless;
volatilises at 380° Fahr.; fumes odourless, unless carbonaceous organic
matter be present, when they smell strongly like garlic; heated under
pressure it liquefies and forms a transparent glass; taste faintly
sweetish, with a slight acidity and astringency, not perceived until some
minutes after being swallowed. The opaque variety is soluble in 80 parts
of water at 59° Fahr., and 7·72 parts of boiling water; but on cooling to
60°, only about one third of this quantity continues in solution. The
transparent variety is soluble in 103 parts of water at 59°, and 9·3 parts
of boiling water. Both soluble in alcohol, syrups, oils, and spirits, and
freely so in alkaline lyes and hydrochloric acid; organic matter generally
impedes its solution; solutions redden litmus; heated with organic matter
it is reduced to the metallic state. Sp. gr. 3·5 (lowest opaque var.) to
3·8 (highest transp. var.).

[Illustration]

=Arsenites.= True arsenious acid (HAsO_{2}) has never been obtained in a
satisfactory condition, but its salts are readily obtained by dissolving
arsenious anhydride in a solution of the base, or by double decomposition.
They are generally white, nearly all insoluble, except those of the
alkalies, and all soluble in acids.

_Tests, Detec., &c._ Owing to the importance of the subject, and for
convenience and facility of reference, the leading tests for the arsenites
and arsenious anhydride are noticed alphabetically below; to which a few
general remarks on their application, under the various circumstances that
occur to the chemist and toxicologist, are appended. When not otherwise
stated, it is to be understood that they are to be applied to pure, or
nearly pure and colourless solutions of arsenious acid or the arsenites.
_Ammonio-nitrate of silver_ gives a well-marked yellow precipitate of
arsenite of silver in an aqueous or arsenious anhydride solution which is
soluble in ammonia and in dilute nitric acid.

_Crystallisation Test._——A very minute quantity of arsenious acid placed
in a small tube (arsenic-tube), and heated in the flame of a spirit lamp,
gives a crystalline sublimate, which collects on the cooler portion of the
tube, and which, when examined by a pocket lens, is found to consist of
sparkling octahedral crystals (see _engr._)

[Illustration: (Magnified.)]

_Ellis’s Test._——This is a modification of the ‘nascent hydrogen test,’ in
which the suspected gas is passed through a tube containing slips of
copper leaf or riband, or still better pure oxide of copper, gently
heated; the end of the tube communicating with the atmosphere being drawn
to a capillary size, at which the gas may be inflamed and tested, as in
‘Marsh’s Apparatus.’ (See _engr._) If arsenic be abundant in the gas, the
copper will be almost instantly covered over with a coating of metallic
arsenic; and after continuing the heat for a few minutes it will present a
beautiful silvery surface, and may then be submitted to further
examination.

[Illustration:

  _a_, Flask containing the suspected fluid, dilute sulphuric acid,
      and zinc.
  _b_, Funnel.
  _c_, Tube containing the copper-leaf or c.-riband, and heated by
      the lamp _d_.
  _e_, Support.
  _f_, Capillary end of tube _c_, with the gas inflamed.]

_Lassaigne’s Test._ (Adopted by the French Academy.) This consists in
passing the gas generated in the suspected liquid, through a solution of
nitrate of silver. (See _engr._) When arsenic is present black flocculi of
metallic silver are deposited, and arsenious acid remains in solution
mixed with nitric acid and some arsenide of silver. The filtered liquor,
treated with ammonia, will now give a characteristic yellow precipitate of
arsenite of silver; or a little dilute hydrochloric acid may be cautiously
added to precipitate any remaining nitrate of silver, and the liquid,
after filtration, tested for arsenic either in a Marsh’s apparatus, or
with any of the liquid tests; or it may be evaporated to dryness, when its
arsenious acid will be converted into arsenic acid by the nitric acid
present, and will then be found to give the usual brick-red precipitate of
arseniate of silver with a solution of the nitrate of that metal. See
MARSH’S TEST.

[Illustration:

  _a_, Bottle containing dilute sulphuric acid, zinc, and suspected
      fluid.
  _b_, Funnel for supplying the bottle with acid.
  _c_, _c_, Supports.
  _d_, Tube filled with asbestos.
  _e_, Bent tube to convey the liberated gas.
  _f_, Glass vessel containing a solution of nitrate of silver.]

_Marsh’s Test._ Some of the suspected liquid is mixed with dilute
sulphuric acid until strongly acid, and is then poured upon some pure
granulated zinc, or clippings or other small pieces of zinc, previously
placed in the apparatus; hydrogen gas is immediately evolved, and, if
arsenic be present, unites with it, forming arseniuretted hydrogen gas,
which escapes by the aperture _b_ (see _engr._), and may be recognised as
follows:——

It possesses a garlic-like odour.

It burns with a bluish-white flame and emits a whitish smoke.

[Illustration:

  _a_, _a_, Bent glass tube, containing dilute sulphuric acid, zinc,
      and suspected liquid.
  _b_, Stop-cock and jet.
  _c_, Plate of glass to receive the stain.
  _d_, Support.
  _e_, _e_, Bands to keep the tube upright.]

If a piece of window-glass, or a white porcelain plate or saucer, be held
a short distance above the flame, a fine pulverulent film of arsenious
acid is deposited on it. See (fig.) _above_.

If the cold plate be held in the flame, so as to slightly impede the
combustion of the gas, a blackish-brown deposit of metallic arsenic is
obtained, more or less deep, brilliant, and glistening. Both these
deposits may be obtained simultaneously by holding nearly vertically over
the flame a glass tube about 8 or 10 inches long and 3/8ths of an inch in
diameter. See (fig.) _above_.

A solution of arsenious acid may be obtained by letting the flame play
upon 3 or 4 drops of water placed on the under side of the piece of glass
or china, to which the liquid tests may be then applied. Another plan is
to apply drops of the liquid tests to the plate as above, and to let the
flame play on them successively.

The true arsenical spot or film is of a blackish-brown colour, and
generally of a very deep hair-brown, usually surrounded at the
circumference, with a white film of arsenious acid; whilst that of
antimony, which in some points is similar, is of a deep black colour, and
but feebly lustrous, and, when viewed by transmitted light, appears smoky
black; whereas an arsenical spot viewed in the same way appears brown. It
is further distinguished from others by——Treated with concentrated nitric
acid, it instantly disappears, leaving upon the surface of the liquid
traces of the metal, which only dissolve on the application of heat. This
solution, gently and carefully heated, leaves a white residuum, which,
when cold, gives with a concentrated solution of nitrate of silver a
dull-red precipitate of arseniate of silver.——The nitric solution treated
with a few drops of sulphurous acid, and subsequently with sulphuretted
hydrogen, gives a canary-yellow precipitate of trisulphide of arsenic,
which readily redissolves, forming a colourless solution with
ammonia.——The arsenical spot, when heated, is turned bright yellow by
sulphuretted hydrogen, and is then readily dissolved, as before, by
ammonia, and by its bicarbonate; whereas one of antimony is turned of a
deep orange-red, or reddish-brown, by sulphuretted hydrogen, is not
readily dissolved by ammonia, and is scarcely or not at all affected by
bicarbonate of ammonia.——It is freely soluble in and removed by
hypochlorite of soda; a reagent which does not affect antimonial spots.
Heated by a flame of pure hydrogen an arsenical stain rapidly disappears.
A mixed stain of antimony and arsenic does not disappear by the action of
the last two reagents, and is shown to contain arsenic by the two first
tests above. When hydrochloric acid is present zinc stains are sometimes
formed, but they do not resemble those from arsenic. The flame which
produces it is very pale blue or bluish-white; whereas antimoniuretted
hydrogen burns with a pale green or greenish-yellow flame, and a white
smoke, both of which are characteristic.

[Illustration]

_Obs._ Marsh’s test is admirable for its simplicity, delicacy, and
trustworthiness, as well as for the ease of its application. It is adapted
to all liquids, whether colourless or coloured, which are not so glutinous
as to inconveniently froth during the extrication of the hydrogen.[79]
Various modifications of the original apparatus have been proposed to
obviate this difficulty; among which the one chiefly deserving notice is
figured in the margin. It consists of a bent tube having two large bulbs
blown in it, and fitted with a stop-cock and jet in the usual manner. In
this case the grains or fragments of zinc are put into the lower bulb
(_a_). It is, however, worthy of remark, that, with ordinary care and
skill, a simple wide-mouthed bottle, furnished with a tube and cock, will
often be found to answer quite as well as more costly apparatus; as the
fluid is less liable to froth than in a narrow tube. Even a common
quinine-phial, or a 4-_oz._ or 6-_oz._ medicine phial, fitted with a piece
of glass tube of very small bore, or even with a piece of a common
tobacco-pipe, for a burner (see _engr._), may be used when no more
convenient instrument is at hand.

[Footnote 79: Animal tissues and liquids containing organic matter are
best prepared for testing for arsenic by Marsh’s test, in the following
manner proposed by Odling:——The tissue, or the residue obtained by the
evaporation of a liquid over a water-bath, is to be thoroughly dried at a
temperature of about 212° F., then ground to powder or cut up into small
pieces, next drenched with the strongest hydrochloric acid and allowed to
stand twenty-four hours in a warm place, and finally distilled. The
distillate will contain arsenic (if it existed in the material under
examination) comparatively free from organic matter, and is, therefore, in
a fit state to be introduced into Marsh’s apparatus, as the organic
matter, which is the cause of frothing, has been removed.]

[Illustration]

A film of oil placed on the surface of the liquid tends considerably to
lessen the frothing.

_Objec., precau., &c._ Objections have been raised to this mode of
testing, from the great frothing which often occurs with organic mixtures,
and from antimony and imperfectly charred organic matter also forming
crusts somewhat resembling, to the inexperienced eye, those produced by
arsenic. But these objections are invalid, because there are easy means of
purifying the liquid before testing it, and of discriminating between true
arsenical spots or deposits and false ones. Another objection is, that
both zinc and sulphuric acid sometimes contain arsenic; but to obviate
this difficulty, we have only to use them when perfectly pure; and to test
them by means of the apparatus before pouring the suspected liquid into
it. Indeed, these objections apply with equal force to all those tests
which depend on the production of nascent hydrogen. The precaution
necessary to success, and to reliable results, is to set the apparatus
with simple zinc, acid, and water, and after it has worked a short time to
test the evolved gas for arsenic (as above); when, if no trace of that
substance is detected, the suspected fluid, in which the organic matter
(if necessary) has been destroyed by any one of the methods hereinafter
pointed out, may be added, and the operation continued. Care should also
be taken not to light the jet of gas before all the atmospheric air is
expelled from the apparatus, as without this precaution an explosion may
take place.

_Modification of Marsh’s Test._——_Davy._ This process consists in the use
of sodium amalgam instead of zinc and sulphuric acid, both of which are
liable to be contaminated with arsenic. Sodium, on the other hand, has
never been found to contain arsenic, and mercury only very rarely; but
should it exist in that metal, it can be easily removed by digesting the
mercury in dilute nitric acid, and afterwards well washing it with water.

One part by weight of sodium to 8 or 10 parts of mercury forms a very good
amalgam. The mercury is placed in a test-tube, and the sodium gradually
added in small portions; the metals readily combine, forming an alloy,
liquid whilst hot, but hard and brittle when cold.

The author uses this amalgam by placing the suspected solution, or solid
substance, along with a little water in a test-tube, then adding a small
piece of amalgam about the size of a grain of wheat, and quickly covering
it with a piece of white filtering paper or the lid of a porcelain
crucible moistened with a dilute solution of silver nitrate slightly
acidified with nitric acid. If arsenic is present, a dull black or deep
brown stain on the paper or porcelain will be developed on the moistened
part, owing to the silver being reduced to the metallic state by the
arseniuretted hydrogen. The solution may be made by dissolving 20 gr. of
nitrate of silver in an ounce of distilled water acidulated with 2 drops
of strong nitric acid.

It is advisable to place between the moistened paper or lid and the tube a
small disc of bibulous paper, to prevent any particles of the liquid
producing minute black spots, and thus interfering with the results.
1/1000th part of a grain of arsenious acid in 1 c. c. of distilled
water gives a very decided effect in a few moments, but much smaller
quantities may be detected, _e.g._, the 1/100000th or even 1/1000000th
part of a grain in 1 c. c.

This method is applicable not only to arsenic as arsenious acid, but also
to other compounds of arsenic, soluble or insoluble in water, _e.g._,
orpiment and realgar, the alkaline arsenates, and even the metal itself if
in powder. Organic matter interferes but very little with this method.
Antimony, as in Marsh’s process, will produce, with the sodium amalgam,
results similar to those of arsenic; this, when brought into contact with
the nitrate of silver, forms a black antimonide of that metal.

Fleitmann, however, pointed out that antimoniuretted hydrogen is not
evolved from strongly alkaline solution, and, as in this case, the action
of the sodium amalgam is to render the mixture quickly alkaline, only a
very small quantity of antimony present will be evolved, and by previously
rendering the mixture strongly alkaline the evolution of that gas may be
almost entirely prevented.

It may be occasionally necessary to determine whether the stains on the
paper moistened by the silver solution are due to arsenic or antimony. It
is then best to digest the paper-stain in sulphide of ammonium, the metal
present being converted into a sulphide, and dissolving in the excess of
the alkaline salt, leaving the silver sulphide undissolved; the alkaline
solution when evaporated will, in the case of arsenic, leave a bright
yellow residue, almost insoluble in hydrochloric acid; whereas in the case
of antimony an orange-coloured residue will remain soluble in that acid.
Dr Russell observes that hydrogen alone is capable of reducing silver
solution to the metallic state, but acknowledges that this action is
exceedingly slow. Pellet, on the other hand, maintains that pure hydrogen
when passed through solutions of soda and nitrate of silver has no action
at the ordinary temperature; but he states that the silver salt which has
been fused possesses an alkaline reaction in solution, and hydrogen thus
produces a slight precipitate, which can be prevented by adding a drop or
two of nitric acid.

Davy, however, found in his experiments only the faintest possible effect
of the reducing action of pure hydrogen in solutions of caustic soda and
nitrate of silver.

Finally, the author mentions that where paper is used with the silver
solution we must not forget that the silver alone will after some time
blacken the paper, especially if exposed to light; but this gradual change
is very unlike the quick effect produced by arseniuretted or
antimoniuretted hydrogen. (‘Chem. News,’ xxxiii, 58-63.)

_Nascent Hydrogen Test._ The apparatus used may be similar to that figured
in the _engr._ The plan followed in the laboratory of Giessen is to heat
the long tube through which the gas passes to redness in several parts, to
produce distinct metallic mirrors; and then to remove the tube from the
hydrogen apparatus and transmit a very feeble stream of dry sulphuretted
hydrogen through it, the metallic mirrors being at the same time heated by
means of a common spirit lamp from the outer towards the inner border or
extremity. If arsenic alone is present, yellow trisulphide of arsenic is
formed within the tube; if antimony alone is present, an orange-red or
black trisulphide of antimony is produced; and if the mirror consists of
both metals, the two sulphides appear side by side, the sulphide of
arsenic, as the more volatile, lying invariably before the sulphide of
antimony. If dry hydrochloric acid gas be now transmitted through the
tube, without application of heat, no alteration will take place if
sulphide of arsenic alone is present, even though the gas be transmitted
through the tube for a considerable time. If sulphide of antimony alone is
present, this will entirely disappear; and if both sulphides are present,
the sulphide of antimony will immediately volatilise, whilst the yellow
sulphide of arsenic will remain. If a small quantity of ammonia be now
introduced into the tube, the sulphide of arsenic is dissolved, and may
thus be readily distinguished from sulphur, which perhaps may have
separated.

[Illustration:

  _a_, Flask containing the suspected fluid, dilute sulphuric acid
      and zinc.
  _b_, Small tube, at the one end having an almost capillary
      orifice, where the gas is inflamed.
  _c_, Spirit-lamp.
  _d_, Support.]

_Reduction Test._ A small quantity of the suspected sample, in the state
of powder, is mixed with twice its weight, or more, of some reducing agent
or flux, and the mixture is placed at the bottom of a very small glass
tube, and heated in the flame of a spirit lamp for some time, when the
arsenic gradually sublimes, and condenses in the cooler portion of the
tube, under the form of a metallic crust, mirror, or ring. A common
test-tube, if of very small diameter, may be employed; but those known as
the reduction tubes of Liebig, Rose, or Berzelius are undoubtedly the most
convenient and efficient. (See _engr._)

Liebig’s method is by using a mixture of equal parts of dry carbonate of
sodium and cyanide of potassium. The suspected substance, perfectly
dry and in powder, being first introduced into a Berzelius’ tube, is then
covered with 6 times the quantity of this mixture, and so that the whole
will not more than half fill the bulb. A very gentle heat is next applied,
to expel any adhering moisture from the powder and the tube, after which a
strong heat is applied to the bulb, and continued for some time, to effect
the entire reduction and sublimation of the arsenical compound.

[Illustration:

  _a_, The arsenical mixture.
  _b_, Arsenical ring.]

The best fluxes to use are ferrocyanide of potassium dried at 212° F.,
calcined bitartrate of potassium, cyanide of potassium, and powdered
charcoal.

The metallic ring is proved to be arsenical by the properties and tests
previously noticed. Should it be imperfectly formed, or masked by
decomposed organic matter, the portion of the tube which contains it may
be cut off with a file, next coarsely powdered, then reintroduced into
another arsenic tube, and the exposure to heat repeated.

The characteristics most simple and well-marked are——

The volatility of the deposit when heated, shown by its escaping from the
hotter portion of the tube and condensing on the cooler part higher up or
further on.

Its conversion into minute octahedral crystals of arsenious anhydride,
when repeatedly chased up and down the tube by the cautious application of
the flame of a spirit lamp first to one part, and then to another. The
character of these crystals with respect to volatility, lustre,
transparency, and form, is so exceedingly well marked that a practised eye
may safely identify them, though their weight should not exceed the
1/100th or even the 1/250th part of a grain. A pocket lens is here
serviceable. The form of the crystals is very evident with a microscope of
4 powers. Oxide of antimony never forms octahedrons, but only prisms.

In employing this test, particular care must be taken to avoid soiling the
sides of the tube in inserting the mixture, and that the substances
operated on are perfectly dry; as unless this is attended to, the
experiment does not succeed. The common plan is to introduce the mixture
through a small paper funnel or tube extemporised for the purpose. The
heat at first should be gentle, and merely sufficient to expel any
adhering moisture from the mixture and the inner surface of the tube;
after which (except where otherwise ordered) the upper portion of the
mixture should be strongly heated, and then the bulb or bottom of the tube
exposed to the full flame. After the operation is complete the bulb or
lower portion of the tube is usually removed by a file, and the portion
containing the deposit hermetically sealed, when it may be preserved,
unaltered, for any length of time, ready to be produced as evidence if
required.

This test is usually regarded as decisive; as we here actually obtain the
arsenic in a solid form, recognisable by the most unequivocal characters.

_Reinsch’s Test; Cupro-arsenical Test._ The suspected solution is strongly
acidulated with hydrochloric acid (1 to 6 or 8), and after being raised to
ebullition in a porcelain or glass vessel, a piece of bright and clean
metallic copper about 1/2 inch long and 1/4 inch wide in the form of gauze
or foil, but preferably the first, is added, and the whole boiled
together. The time required for the ebullition varies according to the
strength of the solution; when weak it should be continued for at least a
quarter of an hour. When the quantity of arsenic in the suspected liquid
is very small, at least half an hour should elapse before the removal of
the copper. In solutions containing a notable quantity of arsenic, a few
seconds is often sufficient to obtain a coating; but which, for safety
sake, may be extended to two or three minutes, or even longer. Liquids
rich in organic matter also require longer boiling than those nearly free
from it. The coated copper, which has now acquired a characteristic
iron-grey colour, is then taken from the liquid, carefully washed in
distilled water, in alcohol, and (if greasy) in ether, next dried on
blotting-paper, and then either cut into small pieces, or rolled into a
small coil or cylinder. It is then heated in a reduction-tube over a
spirit lamp, when the metallic arsenic forming the coating is volatilised,
and yields a sublimate of minute octahedral crystals of arsenious
anhydride; or, if the tube be very small, or any reducing agent be added,
a bright metallic ring. When the coating on the copper is sufficiently
thick, it may be scraped off with a knife, and heated separately in an
arsenic-tube.

This test is invaluable as affording a certain and ready means of
abstracting arsenic from its solution, whether pure or mixed with organic
matter. The contents of the stomach or other viscera may thus be at once
examined, without any tedious preliminary operations. In this way Dr
Christison discovered the presence of arsenic upwards of four months after
interment; and we have ourselves found it two years and eight months after
interment. The coated copper may be preserved unharmed for years. Dr
Taylor found that the 1-8th of an inch in one of these deposits that had
been kept in paper nearly fourteen years gave a well-marked ring of
octahedral crystals when heated.

[Illustration]

_Sulphuretted Hydrogen Test; Sulphur Test._ This produces a bright yellow
precipitate of trisulphide of arsenic (orpiment) in solutions containing a
free acid; but acts slowly and imperfectly on pure and neutral solutions,
and does not disturb those that possess an alkaline reaction. The
suspected liquid should therefore be slightly acidulated with hydrochloric
or acetic acid before applying this test, unless it be already acid, when
it is better first to neutralise it with an alkali, and then to add the
acid. The transmission of the gas through the liquid (see _engr._) should
be continued for at least half an hour; when the end of the conducting
tube, after being well rinsed in the liquid, is removed, and the glass,
lightly covered with a piece of porous paper, set aside in a temperature
of about 100° Fahr., until the odour of sulphuretted hydrogen is
completely lost. The precipitate is now collected on a small filter,
washed with pure water, and dried by a gentle heat. It is then placed in a
watch-glass or small capsule, and redissolved in a little liquor of
ammonia, which is then again expelled by heat; or it may be at once
submitted to confirmatory tests. It is shown to contain arsenic by its
ready and perfect solubility in ammonia, and in solutions of the fixed
alkalies, their carbonates and bicarbonates, and in alkaline sulphides; by
being nearly insoluble in hydrochloric acid, even when concentrated and
boiling; and by yielding a metallic mirror when mixed with a flux and
submitted to the reduction-test (which _see_).

Sulphuretted-hydrogen water and sulphydrate of ammonium act in a similar
way to gaseous sulphuretted hydrogen; but much less effectively.

[Illustration]

For accuracy, the sulphuretted hydrogen should be washed by passing it
through a small bottle containing a little pure water, or dilute sulphuric
acid, before allowing it to enter the arsenical liquor. The reduction of
the newly precipitated sulphide is generally regarded as the most
important part of the investigation, and requires great care and
attention. An extremely elegant and sensitive method of effecting this is
by heating the mixture in a stream of dry carbonic acid gas. This method
has been followed by Drs Babo and Fresenius with the most satisfactory
results, and is thus performed:——(_A_) is a capacious flask for the
evolution of carbonic acid, half filled with rather large pieces of solid
limestone or marble (not chalk). To one aperture of the doubly perforated
cork, a funnel-tube (_a_) is adapted, which nearly reaches to the bottom
of the vessel; to the other aperture a tube (_b_), by means of which the
gas evolved is conducted into a flask of smaller size (_B_), in which it
is washed and dried by concentrated sulphuric acid. The tube (_c_)
conducts the carbonic acid into the reduction-tube (_C_), which is
shortened in the _engr._, and must be made of difficultly fusible glass.
When the apparatus is prepared, the sulphide of arsenic intended for
reduction is rubbed in a small basin, previously heated in a water-bath,
with about twelve parts of a well-dried mixture consisting of 3 parts of
dry carbonate of sodium and 1 part of cyanide of potassium (prepared by
Liebig’s method). The mixed powder is then placed on a small strip of
card-paper beat into the shape of a gutter, which is next pushed into the
reduction-tube up to the point (_f_), and the tube is turned half round.
In this manner the mixture is deposited without soiling any other part of
the tube; after which the strip of card-paper is cautiously withdrawn.
The reduction-tube is then, by means of the cork (_e_), fixed in its
place; a moderate stream of carbonic acid gas is evolved by pouring
hydrochloric acid into the funnel-tube (_a_), and the mixture carefully
dried, by very moderately heating the tube along its whole length, by
means of a small spirit lamp. When the gas-stream has become so low that
the bubbles pass through the sulphuric acid at intervals of about a
second, the spot (_k_) is heated to redness by means of a spirit lamp.
When this point is attained another strong spirit-flame is applied to the
mixture, progressing from (_d_) to (_f_), until all the arsenic is reduced
and volatilised (the first flame at the same time continuing in action at
(_k_)).

The reduced arsenic recondenses at the spot (_g_), forming a mirror,
whilst an exceedingly small portion escapes at the capillary orifice
(_h_), and fills the air with its garlic-like odour. The second spirit
lamp is at last slowly advanced towards the other lamp, or the spot (_k_),
so as to drive towards (_g_) all the arsenic which has adhered to the
walls of the wider part of the tube. Both lamps are then removed, the tube
closed at the point (_h_) by fusion, and heat applied, progressing from
the point (_h_) towards (_g_), to contract the mirror on that side also,
which increases its beauty and distinctness. The tube is then cut off at
(_f_), and hermetically closed and sealed. In this state it becomes a
permanent evidence which may be referred to in any future proceedings.
Neither sulphide of antimony nor any other compound of antimony yields a
metallic mirror or ring when treated in this way. Less than 1/300 gr. of
trisulphide of arsenic thus gives a very distinct and beautiful mirror;
and even 1/500 gr. a clearly perceptible one.

_Voltaic Test._ The wires from the opposite poles of a voltaic battery are
immersed or brought in contact with a little of the arsenious solution
placed in a capsule or on a piece of window glass. If arsenic be present
it is developed at the negative pole; and if this be formed of copper
wire, it becomes whitened and assumes the appearance of polished steel or
silver, in consequence of the formation of arsenide of copper.

_Detection of Arsenic in Organic Mixtures._ Of the tests those which act
by producing coloured precipitates are only applicable, with any degree of
certainty, to perfectly limpid and colourless liquors. Those depending on
the extrication of arseniuretted hydrogen are partially free from this
inconvenience; but even here, if the suspected liquid be more than
slightly charged with organic matter, so much frothing ensues, as to
render the process nearly unmanageable. In this respect Reinsch’s Test
possesses advantages over all others, as it may be applied even to
coloured liquids containing a considerable quantity of organic matter,
without these being subjected to any preliminary process, and without
danger of failure. In some cases also, as with liquids possessing only a
slight degree of consistency or colour, the arsenic may be separated,
after simple filtration and acidulation with hydrochloric acid, by a
stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, in the usual manner. The reduction-test
is only applicable to solid arsenious acid, or to compounds of arsenic
obtained by means of other tests or processes. In toxicological
examinations the poison is almost always to be sought for in mixtures
loaded with organic matter, and under other conditions even more
embarrassing. Soon after arsenic is swallowed it enters the circulation,
contaminates the various tissues, localises itself in certain viscera, and
is eliminated in the excretions. Hence it becomes necessary not only to
examine the solids and liquids in which it is suspected the poison has
been administered, the vomited matter, and the contents of the stomach and
primæ viæ, but also, in fatal cases, the stomach itself, the liver, blood,
muscles, and more especially the urine.[80] In such cases the stomach is
the part first laid open, and a careful examination is made of its
contents and coats in order to detect any undissolved particles of the
poison, a pocket lens being employed, if necessary, in the search. If any
particles, however minute, are found they are carefully collected and
submitted to the reduction-test. If the reverse be the case, the stomach
(cut into small pieces), together with its contents, is submitted to some
further process, to obtain a solution suitable for the application of the
usual tests. The liver, also some muscle, and any other portion of the
body that may be selected, are likewise separately treated in the same
manner. We have here both solid and liquid organic matter to operate on,
and the problem for solution is the abstraction of their arsenic in the
simplest and most certain manner, and in a form in which its presence may
be demonstrated by tests. This subject has long engaged the attention of
the most eminent chemists and toxicologists, and various plans have been
proposed for the purpose, among which the following appear to be the most
valuable and that usually adopted:——

[Footnote 80: Absorbed arsenic more particularly localises itself in the
liver, in which it may generally be found in from 12 to 15 hours after
administration. The liver also generally retains traces of arsenic long
after it has been eliminated from the other viscera and the muscular
tissues.]

(Reinsch.) Solids (as the stomach, liver, &c.) are cut into small
fragments and boiled in a glass vessel with water acidulated with about
1-4th of its volume of hydrochloric acid, until the tissues or fragments
are entirely broken down into flakes or grains, when the whole, after
filtration, is again heated to the boiling-point, and tested as described
under Reinsch’s test (see ANTIMONY). Liquids do not require this
preparation.

Reinsch’s test is inapplicable when, as sometimes happens, the arsenic
sought after may be in the state of one of the sulphides——either as
orpiment or realgar——a not improbable contingency, when it is remembered
that, although arsenious anhydride or white arsenic is the form most
generally used for criminal or suicidal purposes, the yellow and the red
varieties being largely employed in workshops where fireworks are
manufactured, have not unfrequently been had recourse to. Again, when the
examination of a corpse long buried and disinterred takes place, it must
be borne in mind that the arsenious anhydride taken by the deceased has,
by the decomposition of the body, become converted into sulphide. In these
cases the hydrochloric acid necessary for the performance of Reinsch’s
test fails to effect the solution of the sulphide.

Mr Blyth says: “It is found that the post-mortem change into orpiment is
never quite complete, so that for the detection of arsenic in solid
organic substances, such as the tissues of the body, the best general
method is most decidedly to convert the arsenic, if present, into the
volatile chloride; and according to Dr Taylor, there is always sufficient
arsenic (if present at all) unchanged into sulphide to ensure success. The
only necessary caution is that the substance be thoroughly dried, and that
the reagents be pure. After drying it is placed in a retort with fuming
hydrochloric acid, and slowly distilled by the heat of a sand-bath. The
distillate contains chloride of arsenic (if arsenic was present), and may
be submitted to further tests.”

_Estim._ This may be effected in various ways:——

1. GRAVIMETRICALLY:——Arsenic is usually WEIGHED under the form of arsenate
of lead, arsenate of sesquioxide of iron, tersulphide of arsenic,
(metallic) arsenic, or (directly) as arsenious anhydride. The last three
only, as the more simple and convenient, will be noticed here:——

As trisulphide:——The whole of the arsenic being precipitated by a stream
of sulphuretted hydrogen, with the necessary precautions, in the manner
already noticed, the precipitate, after being carefully collected, washed,
and dried, is purified by redissolving it in pure ammonia water, and
evaporating the resulting solution in a weighed watch glass or capsule by
the heat of a water-bath. It is then dried at a temperature not above 212°
Fahr., and finally weighed. Each grain of the tersulphide so found
corresponds to ·80487 gr. of arsenious acid, or ·61 gr. of metallic
arsenic.

As (metallic) Arsenic:——Obtained by one of the processes already given.
Each gr. represents 1·32 gr. arsenious acid.

As Arsenious anhydride:——Obtained in a weighed capsule or tube, either by
the crystallisation or sublimation test. The weight is the answer sought
for arsenious anhydride. Each gr. of this is equiv. to ·75758 gr. of
metallic arsenic.

VOLUMETRICALLY. (Method of F. Mohr.) This depends on the fact that an
aqueous solution of arsenious acid, or of an alkaline arsenite, when mixed
with an excess of saturated solution of pure bicarbonate of soda and a
little starch-paste, has its arsenious acid converted into arsenic acid by
a solution of iodine. A standard solution of iodine is, therefore, an
appropriate arsenim′eter for the above mixture. The solution of iodine is
added until the blue starch-reaction just begins to appear, the arsenious
solution having been previously exactly neutralised with pure carbonate of
soda if acid, or with pure hydrochloric acid if alkaline. The results are
accurate when no substance capable of oxidising or decomposing iodine is
present in the liquid tested.

_Phys. eff., &c._ Arsenious anhydride or white arsenic is alike
destructive to vegetable and animal life. Seeds soaked in any but a very
weak solution of it lose their power of germination, and buds plunged in
it become incapable of expanding into flowers. When applied to the leaves,
roots, or stems, absorption takes place, and the plant soon perishes. On
combustion it evolves the characteristic garlic-like odour of arsenic, and
arsenic may be discovered in its substance by chemical tests. According to
Jäger, Gilgenkrantz, and Pereira, a few of the lower order of the algæ are
occasionally developed in solutions of arsenious acid. To all animals,
from the infusoria up to man, arsenic proves deleterious, although in
different degrees, the highest susceptibility of its effects existing in
man on account of the superiority of his development. In all of them death
is preceded by inordinate actions and increased evacuations, especially
from the mucous surfaces. Difficult respiration, thirst, vomiting, and
convulsions are the leading symptoms which gradually develope themselves
as we approach the higher grades of the system. (Jäger.) In very small or
therapeutical doses, properly administered, it is a valuable medicine, and
acts as a tonic, alterative, and antispasmodic attenuant, and externally
as an escharotic. In slightly increased medicinal doses, or long-continued
small doses, nausea, vomiting, purging, griping, debility, emaciation, and
all the effects of slow-poisoning, occur in succession——a gradual sinking
of the powers of life, without any violent symptom; a nameless feeling of
illness, failure of the strength, an aversion to food and drink, and to
all the enjoyments of life. Redness of the conjunctiva and eyelids,
headache and giddiness, spasms, eczematous eruptions, numbness and
paralysis of the limbs, and ptyalism, are also frequent and well-marked
symptoms of slow poisoning by arsenic. In an excessive or poisonous dose
the symptoms are rapid and violent, usually indicating extreme
gastro-intestinal inflammation and disorder of the cerebro-spinal system,
and often occasioning death in from one to three days. The smallest fatal
dose found recorded by Christison is 4-1/2 gr., taken in solution. The
subject was a child 4 years old, and death occurred in six hours. 2-1/2
gr. destroyed a robust girl in 36 hours. (Letheby.) 2 gr., in solution,
are suspected to have caused the death of a full-grown woman. 2 or 3 gr.
may be a fatal dose. (Dr A. Taylor.) Notwithstanding these facts much
larger quantities have been taken, under peculiar circumstances, with
comparative impunity; and cases are not wanting in which even enormous
quantities have produced very trifling effects.

_The dose for animals is_——CATTLE, 5 to 10 grains. HORSE, 5 to 10 grains.
SHEEP, 1 to 2 grains. PIG, 1/2 to 2 grains. DOG, 1/15th to 1/10th of a
grain.

Under all circumstances arsenious anhydride is, undoubtedly, one of the
most powerful of the mineral poisons; and in whatever form or way it is
introduced into the system it exerts the same deleterious influence. In
all cases, in sufficient doses, its action is to increase the secretions,
diminish the contractility of the voluntary muscles, and to produce
convulsions, prostration and death.

Arsenic is a non-accumulative, irritant poison, and exerts no decided
chemical or corrosive action on the tissues. (Taylor.)

_Pois., &c.——Symp._ These sometimes begin to appear within half an hour
after the poison has been taken, or even sooner; but much more generally,
not until after the lapse of some hours. They usually commence with nausea
and distress at the stomach, followed by thirst, often intense, and a
sense of burning heat in the bowels; then come on constriction of the
œsophagus, violent vomiting, severe colic pains, tenesmus, and excessive
and painful purging, the stools being occasionally bloody; but pain,
vomiting, &c., do not invariably occur. The pulse is generally quick,
small, feeble, and irregular——sometimes scarcely perceptible, and the
heart’s action is irregular and tumultuous. The tongue is dry and furred;
the respiration difficult and panting; the urino-genital apparatus is
often affected; there is pain and difficult micturition, and sometimes
entire suppression of urine; faintings, coldness of the limbs, and cold
sweats, with other signs of debility, intervene. Itching, and eczematous
eruptions of the skin, trembling, painful cramps, and contractions of the
extremities, and violent convulsions often follow; and after these, a
greater or less prostration of strength, which induces a deceitful calm.
At length the heart’s action abates, the skin becomes suffused with a cold
clammy sweat, and the sufferer dies from exhaustion. The progress,
succession, and precise character of the symptoms are modified by the
idiosyncrasy of the individual, the quantity of the poison, and the manner
in which it has been taken; and are seldom all present in the same person.

_Treatm._ If vomiting has commenced it should be promoted by tickling the
throat, and administering a large quantity of gelatinous hydrated peroxide
of iron, or other appropriate antidote, in divided doses, mixed with a
large quantity of warm or tepid water, strongly sweetened with sugar. If
vomiting has not commenced, which is rare, it must be excited by
administering 15 to 20 gr. of sulphate of zinc, or ipecacuanha (or in the
absence of these, a teaspoonful of flour of mustard) in a tumbler of tepid
water, and tickling the throat as before. If these means fail in rapidly
inducing copious vomiting, the dose must be repeated, or the stomach-pump
had recourse to. Altogether as much as 16 to 18 _oz._ of the hydrated
peroxide of iron may be administered. If the poison has been swallowed
several hours previously, and hence may have passed the pylorus, a strong
dose of castor oil or a purgative clyster may be administered, and, after
its action, another clyster containing the antidote. As soon as the
stomach and bowels are cleared, diuretics and sudorifics should be given
in abundance. Lastly, any remaining irritation must be relieved by
demulcent and soothing remedies; or if urgent, by slight general or local
bleeding, which cannot be earlier practised without danger; and opium,
camphor, and ether, followed by tonics, may be had recourse to, to recruit
the system.

_Lesions._ Redness and inflammation of the whole primæ viæ; and sometimes
of the mouth, fauces, and œsophagus, but more usually the contrary.
Sometimes also, though seldom, there is no marked appearance of
inflammation in the stomach and intestines. The stomach is usually highly
injected, and frequently marked with extravasations; lungs gorged with
blood; mucous lining of trachea reddened; heart generally flabby, and
exhibiting deep red or blackish stains, and the right cavities more or
less loaded with blood; the conjunctiva is sometimes very vascular; and
redness, extravasation of blood, and effusion of serum is occasionally
seen in the brain. The blood is frequently, though not invariably, fluid
after death, and dark coloured. Under certain circumstances, the mucous
membrane of the stomach and intestines is lined with a multitude of
brilliant points or grains, which have been mistaken for arsenious
anhydride; but which, according to Orfila, are composed of fat and
albumen. Placed on burning coals, they decrepitate on drying, and produce
a species of explosion or detonation. These grains are also met with in
the stomach of persons who have not been poisoned. Digested in water, the
liquid obtained from them does _not_ show the presence of arsenic when
submitted to reagents.

_Ant._ In the order of their assumed efficiency:——MOIST PEROXIDE OF
IRON.——See under the preparations of IRON (Arsenici Antidotum, G.).
Hydrated or gelatinous sesquioxide or peroxide of iron (for an adult——a
tablespoonful, in water, every 8 or 10 minutes until 12 or 16 oz., or
more, have been taken). Hydrated sulphide of iron (as the last).
Gelatinous hydrate of magnesia (as the last). Calcined magnesia (taken as
the first). Salad or olive oil, or almond oil, and oil or fats generally
(ad libitum), are all highly effective in lessening, if not destroying the
action of arsenious anhydride.[81] Albumen (white of egg), or liquids
containing it (in cold water, ad libitum). Milk, wheat-flour, oatmeal
gruel (with water, ad libitum). Lime water, with milk (as the last).
Chalk, with milk and water (as the last). Infusion or decoction of bark,
or better, of nut-galls (as the last). Sugar or syrup (ad libitum). See
_Treatm._ (above); also the above substances under their respective heads.

[Footnote 81: Dr Blondlot, in a paper communicated to the Paris Academy of
Sciences, has come to the conclusion that the slightest quantity of greasy
matter in contact with arsenious anhydride reduces its solubility to about
1-20th of what it was before. This explains at once why, in certain
judicial investigations, arsenic has been sought for in vain in the liquid
contents of the stomach, when the food consisted partly of fatty
substances, such as broth, milk, &c. It likewise explains how arsenious
anhydride, taken in powder, may sometimes remain a long time in the
stomach before it produces any deleterious effect; since, in such cases,
its action is hindered by the presence of fatty matter. Jugglers often
swallow arsenic with impunity, because, according to Dr Blondlot, they
previously take the precaution to drink milk and eat fat bacon. Hence, in
cases of poisoning by arsenic, oils and fatty substances may be
administered as real antidotes, capable of suspending the action of the
poison for a considerable time, until more radical means of effecting a
cure can be applied. The people engaged in some of the arsenic-works
regard salad oil as almost a certain antidote to this poison.]

_Uses, &c._ Arsenious anhydride and its compounds are extensively employed
in the arts and medicine. It is used by the dyer, it furnishes the artist
with several of his most beautiful pigments, and the glass-maker and
enameller with a flux or material to whiten and decolour their wares. In
_agriculture_, it is used (in solution) as an anti-smut for seed-wheat;
and as an anti-vermin lotion or dipping for sheep and cattle. In small
(therapeutical) doses it is a valuable remedy in intermittent fevers,
chronic skin diseases (especially lepra and psoriasis), and in several
nervous affections (as neuralgia, epilepsy, chorea, tetanus, &c.). It is
the active ingredient of the tasteless ague-drop; of Fowler’s and
Pearson’s solutions; and in the Tanjore pills, long celebrated in India
for the cure of the bite of the cobra di capello and other venomous
serpents, as well as of hydrophobia. It has been given in syphilis,
chronic rheumatism, typhus, and several other diseases, with more or less
advantage. Cautiously administered in phthisis, it frequently restores the
appetite and strength and greatly retards, and in some cases arrests, the
progress of the disease. It has been recently used to relieve toothache
arising from caries. Externally, it is employed in the form of powder,
lotion, and ointment, for the cure of cancer. Plunkett’s ointment, Pâte
arsénicale, Davidson’s Remedy for Cancer, and several other like
preparations, owe their activity to arsenious anhydride. Water in which
white arsenic has been steeped has become a favorite cosmetic wash with
many ladies, since its assumed property of softening the skin was
announced in a certain popular periodical. It is also the prime ingredient
in the papier moure, a popular fly paper. Its use, whether internal or
external, is, however, attended with considerable danger in unskilful
hands, and should, therefore, never be adopted but under proper
advice.——_Dose_, 1/20 to 1/8 gr., made into pills with crum of bread and
lump sugar; or in solution, 3 to 5 or 6 drops, twice or thrice daily,
gradually and cautiously increased to 12, or even 15 drops. As a rule,
arsenical preparations should be taken soon after a meal, and by no means
on an empty stomach. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) The dose should be suspended, or
greatly reduced, as soon as the conjunctiva is affected (Hunt); or if
dryness of the mouth or throat, or irritation of the stomach or bowels,
ensues. Mr Maculloch found the pills more efficacious than the solution;
they act differently, and cannot be substituted for one another.

Arsenic is a favorite tonic and alterative with farriers, who often
administer it very carelessly to horses, to the serious injury of these
animals. It is also a favorite with grooms, who have imbibed the notion
that small doses of it contribute to improve the condition of the skin.
The best-informed veterinarians, however, either wholly avoid it, or use
it with very great caution.[82]——_Dose_ (for a HORSE), 2 to 5 or 6 gr.,
twice or thrice daily; in farcy or glanders, 10 to 12 gr. In solution it
is often employed as a wash or dipping to destroy vermin in cattle and
sheep; but its use is not free from danger, particularly to the shepherds
or dippers.

[Footnote 82: “As a therapeutic agent for horses, arsenious acid can be
well dispensed with. It is, however, employed by some as a tonic, in doses
of from 10 to 20 gr. daily; and by others as a vermifuge. When
injudiciously administered death has been the result. By those of the old
school it is extolled as a caustic, and a very powerful one doubtlessly it
is; but there is this disadvantage attending its use——we cannot control
its action, and, oftentimes, a most extensive and painful wound is caused
by it. Occasionally it is resorted to for the eradication of warts;
although a better plan is to extirpate them at once with the knife. When,
however, this is inadmissible, 1 part of arsenious acid, in very fine
powder, may be mixed with 4 parts of lard, and a (small) portion of the
compound applied, with friction, over and around the excrescence every
other day, for three or four times. This will excite such a powerful
sloughing action, that in about 10 days the warts will be thrown off.”
(Prof. Morton.)]

_Gen. commentary._ The necessary length of the preceding article, owing to
the great importance of the subject in its relations to toxicology and
medical jurisprudence, has left us little space for further remark here.
In addition to what has been said on arsenical testing, it may be useful
to caution the reader of the absolute necessity of only employing tests
and reagents which are themselves absolutely pure; and in which the
operator has, by personal examination, failed to detect the slightest
trace of arsenic. Commercial sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids,
potash, soda, nitre, iron, and zinc, frequently contain arsenic; from
which, however, they may be freed by chemical processes; or they may be
purchased in the pure state from respectable dealers in chemicals. But no
assurance of the vender should be regarded as a proof of their purity. In
all judicial investigations the absence of arsenic in the several tests
and reagents, and the apparatus employed, must be demonstrated and sworn
to. We may further add, that the results afforded by no single test can be
depended on. In matters of such vast importance, the most ample
confirmatory evidence must be sought.

Marsh’s, Reinsch’s, Lassaigne’s, the sulphur, and the Reduction Tests, and
their modifications, are those now generally preferred by toxicological
chemists; each of which, with its confirmatory tests, are amply sufficient
for the indisputable identification of arsenic.

Modern toxicologists have abandoned most of the old processes for the
detection of arsenic, and have adopted one of two, which have been found
more expeditious as well as more certain. These are the tests of Marsh and
Reinsch, preferably the latter.

HERAPATH’S METHOD is to obtain deposits by Reinsch’s Test on 4 or 5 pieces
of No. 13 copper wire; each piece being about 2-1/2 inches long, and
previously flattened and planished with a polished hammer for about one
half its length. The deposit, with some of the adhering copper, scraped
from one of these coated pieces, is sealed up hermetically in a tube for
future production. The scrapings from three pieces of wire are separately
submitted to the sublimation test in tubes bent in the form of an obtuse V
capillary at one end, and about 3/10ths of an inch in diameter at the
other; the capillary leg being about three times as long as the larger
one. The scrapings are placed in the bent part of the tube; and the flame
of a small spirit lamp is so applied as to slowly drive the sublimate into
the narrower portion of the tube, which is held rather higher than the
other. If the deposit so obtained be mercury, it condenses in white
shining globules;——if lead or bismuth, it does not rise but melts into a
yellowish glass, which adheres to the copper; if tellurium, it falls as a
white amorphous powder; if antimony, it does not rise at that low
temperature; but if it be arsenic, it sublimes as arsenious anhydride,
which condenses as minute octahedral crystals, looking, with the
microscope, like very transparent grains of sand. One of these tubes
containing the sublimed arsenious anhydride is then sealed up, like the
first one, for future production. The capillary part of another tube
containing the sublimate is then cut off, and carefully boiled in a few
drops (10 to 15) of distilled water; and, when cold, 3 or 4 drops of the
resulting solution is poured on a plate of white porcelain, and to this,
by means of a glass rod, one drop of solution of ammoniacal sulphate of
copper is added. The mixture is then carefully conducted on to a piece of
white filtering-paper set on the surface of a smooth, clean, and dry
chalk-stone, by which the moisture is absorbed, and the smallest portion
of Scheele’s green produced by the test rendered more conspicuous. The
ammonio-nitrate of silver test is then applied, in a similar manner, to 3
or 4 drops of the remaining solution; after which the pieces of paper with
the spots are dried, and sealed up in separate tubes, as before, observing
to exclude the light from that containing the yellow precipitate of
arsenite of silver. A stream of sulphuretted hydrogen is then passed
through the remaining tube containing the arsenical sublimate, by which
the latter is converted into the yellow tersulphide——this too is sealed
up. Here are now five tests——the metal, the acid, arsenite of copper,
arsenite of silver, and yellow tersulphide of arsenic.

It is now well known that certain soils contain arsenic, either as
arsenite of lime or sulphide of arsenic; and which, under favorable
circumstances, may permeate or be absorbed by a body, after interment. In
judicial investigations following disinterment it is, therefore, necessary
to examine portions of the cemetery-earth taken from the grave, as well as
from parts more or less distant from it. For this purpose the earth should
be thoroughly dried in a water-bath, drenched with pure and concentrated
hydrochloric acid, and allowed to stand for twenty-four hours. The mixture
is then distilled, and the distillate tested for arsenic by Reinsch’s or
Marsh’s test. Should the product of one distillation yield no evidence of
arsenic, it should be returned to the retort, if necessary, a second or
even a third time, and the distillation repeated.

The practice of employing an alkaline solution of white arsenic as an
anti-smut steep for wheat, has lately arrested the attention of chemists.
M. Audouard states that he has detected traces of arsenic in the crops
raised from seed-wheat thus treated. But that which appears to be likely
to prove much more dangerous is the introduction of arsenic into crops by
the employment of crude superphosphate of lime as manure——a substance
often rich in this poison. Dr Edmund Davy positively states that arsenic,
as it exists in artificial manures, is taken up by plants growing where
those manures have been applied! He found cabbages and turnips taken from
fields manured with superphosphate give unmistakeable evidence of being
‘arseniated.’ These facts have some important bearings; for though the
quantity of arsenic which occurs in such manures is not large when
compared with their other constituents, and the proportion of that
substance which is thus added to the soil must be necessarily small, still
plants during their growth, as in the case of the alkaline and earthy
salts, take up a considerable quantity of this substance. Further, as
arsenic is well known to accumulate in soils, though not an accumulative
poison in the animal system, the effects after some time will probably
be, that vegetables raised on those continuously so manured will
ultimately be found to contain such a proportion of arsenic as will
exercise an injurious effect on the health of man and animals. The
statement of M. Audouard has been disputed by M. Girardin, because he
failed to detect arsenic in corn under the circumstances; and it is also
denied by Dr A. S. Taylor, and others; but our own experiments, very
carefully performed, confirm the assertions of both Audouard and Davy. The
ultimate consequences of pouring into the Thames such enormous quantities
of disinfectants contaminated with arsenic, as has been done during the
last three or four years, is another matter deserving consideration, and
one which has been ably pointed out by Dr Letheby, in his reports as
Officer of Health to the City of London.

Dr Lois has found arsenic, often in large quantities, in ordinary brass,
and brass utensils; and we have ourselves repeatedly found arsenic in the
Britannia-metal, German-silver, and other cheap white alloys at present in
such general use.

The preceding facts are recommended to the careful attention of medical
jurists.

By an Act of Parliament[83] it is provided——1. That every vender of
arsenic shall, before the delivery of the same to the customer, enter in a
book or books kept for the purpose, the date of sale, name, and residence
of the purchaser, in full, his or her condition or occupation, the
quantity so sold, and the purpose or purposes for which it is required, in
a form set forth in the schedule to the Act; which form or schedule shall
be signed by the vender, and by the said purchaser, unless he be unable to
write, when such fact shall be recorded in the said schedule by the
vender; and this schedule, when a witness is required to the sale, shall
also bear his signature, together with his place of abode:——2. Arsenic is
not to be sold to a stranger, unless in the presence of a witness
acquainted with both vender and purchaser:——3. No person to sell arsenic
unless it be previously mixed with at least 1 _oz._ of soot or 1/2 _oz._
of indigo to the pound; unless such admixture would be injurious to the
object for which it is intended, when not less than 10 _lbs._ is to be
sold at any one time:——4. Penalty for evading the Act, either as vender,
purchaser, or witness, £20:——5. Act not to extend to arsenic used in
compounding prescriptions nor to the wholesale trade:——6. The word
‘arsenic’ to include ‘arsenious anhydride,’ and the arsenites, arsenic
acid and the arseniates, and all other colourless poisonous preparations
of arsenic. See ARSENIC, ARSENIC ACID, LOTIONS, PILLS, SHEEP-DIPPING,
SOAPS, SOLUTIONS, WHEAT-STEEPS, IRON, POTASSA, SODA, and other Bases, &c.
&c. (also _below_).

[Footnote 83: 16{?} Vict., c. xiii, 1851.]

=Self-detect′ing Arsenious Anhydride.= _Prep._ (Dr Cattell.)——1. Ordinary
white arsenic to which is added a small quantity of a mixture of dry
calomel and quick-lime; or of dried sulphate of iron and powdered
gall-nuts. The product is white, but immediately turns black when mixed
with liquids:——2. As the last, but adding a mixture of thoroughly dried
sulphate of iron and ferrocyanide of potassium. Strikes a blue:——3. As
last, but using dried phosphate of sodium and dried sulphate of iron.
Strikes a green. Proposed as a method of preventing arsenic being used as
a poison.

=ARSENICAL PIGMENTS, EFFECTS OF.= The composition of those substances
which are compounds of copper with arsenious, very frequently combined
with acetic acid, will be found under GREEN PIGMENTS, under their
respective commercial names of SCHEELE’S GREEN, MINERAL GREEN, EMERALD
GREEN, and SCHWEINFURT GREEN. The purity of tint and durability of these
arsenical salts have, not unnaturally, caused them to be employed in many
branches of industry, the products of which are everywhere around us, and
as the colouring material of these, they are placed in conditions very
favorable to their being taken into the stomach or lungs. This will be
apparent when we name a few of the materials in which they are
employed:——wafers, candles, wall-papers, window curtains, confectionery.

A curious illustration of the risks attending their use may be cited from
the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ of April, 1854, which states that some
loaves found to contain arsenic were discovered on inquiry to have got the
dangerous intruder from having been allowed to stand on shelves freshly
painted a bright green colour. Arsenical-coloured wafers may be pronounced
free from danger, so long as they are kept out of the reach of children;
and although the arsenical vapours given off by burning a green wax taper
would not be sufficient to induce toxic results, the fact of the extreme
sensibility of some people to the action of this poison, when taken in by
the lungs, renders the use of these tapers a very objectionable one,
particularly if they are generally employed in a household. The burning of
wax candles, coloured with arsenical green, is, of course, still more
strongly to be condemned, because from its superior mass, when compared
with the taper, the candle gives off a greater amount of the poisonous
fumes. An arsenical taper weighing 17·69 grains was found upon analysis by
Mr Bolas, late of Charing Cross Hospital, to contain 0·276 grains of
arsenious acid. “A Christmas tree,” says Mr Blyth, “brilliantly
illuminated with Christmas candles, may be taken as an extreme instance of
the danger likely to arise from this source.” That the employment of
arsenical green in the manufacture of sweetmeats was not abandoned in 1873
may be evidenced from a circumstance quoted by Mr Blyth in his interesting
work on ‘Hygiène.’ “During the Christmas of 1873 a large cake in which was
imbedded a green card labelled “for the bairnies,” was seized in a
baker’s shop at Greenock. The card was coated with sugar, and on being
submitted to analysis, was found to contain 7·04 grains of arsenious acid.

A curious case, illustrating the effect of arsenical wall-papers, is
furnished by Dr Dalzell, of Malvern. He was attending a lady ill with
scarlet fever, and during the attack her husband occupied a small bedroom.
The first night he slept in it his slumbers were most unrefreshing and
disturbed by horrible dreams, and on rising in the morning he felt languid
and weak, had lost his appetite, and had a dull headache. Towards the
evening these unpleasant symptoms had nearly vanished. On the second night
(when he occupied the same dormitory) and on the day following the same
disagreeable symptoms returned. He then changed his bedroom, and forthwith
they troubled him no more. A servant, who next occupied the chamber, was
affected as her master had been. Dr Dalzell suspecting the wall-paper as
the cause, examined it, and found it to contain a large quantity of
arsenic.

Some little time since Mr Bolas examined a sample of wall-paper containing
27·53 grains of arsenious acid in the square foot, and in this case the
pigment was so loosely fixed that the slightest friction was sufficient to
detach a portion and diffuse it through the air. Nor is this surprising
when we consider how slightly the arsenical colour is attached to the
surface of the paper, as well as how easily it may become liberated from
it by the desiccation of the air of the room when heated by a fire. This
may be exemplified by drawing the sleeve of a black or dark-coloured coat
over an arsenical wall-paper, and observing the green deposit that is left
on the garment.

After this we shall be prepared for the following statement: “Hamberg
drew, by means of aspirators, the air of a room, the walls of which were
papered with a very old green paper, through various tubes containing
cotton wool and silver nitrate. On examination scarcely any solid
particles could be discovered. The cotton-wool was fused with sodium
nitrate and carbonate, and gave a little ferric oxide and a trace of
arsenic, but the solution of nitrate of silver gave decided evidence of
arsenic, as well as of sulphide of silver.” (‘Phar. Jour.’)

Not many years since Professor Fleck showed that the arsenious acid in the
Schweinfurt green, when in contact with moist organic substances, and
especially starch-sizing, forms arseniuretted hydrogen, which diffuses in
the room, and which is no doubt the cause of some of the cases of
arsenical poisoning from green papers. So that a contrary condition to a
dry atmosphere, viz. a moist or damp one, may also lead to results nearly,
if not quite as objectionable, when rooms are papered with arsenical
papers. We have Mr Blyth’s word for the assertion, that the most dangerous
of the arsenical papers, viz. those covered with a thick, unvarnished,
loosely coherent layer of Seheele’s green are most frequently to be met
with in our nurseries, where the beds are placed next the wall, and where
the attrition of the bedclothes frequently removes portions of the
poisonous colouring matter. The fine cupro-arsenical dust which thus
becomes diffused through the room, now and then produces in children
symptoms resembling those of violent catarrh. Some of the wall-papers of
these nurseries have been found to yield 18 grains of arsenious acid in a
square foot. It would appear that the use of arsenical pigments is by no
means restricted to green wall-papers. Very recently an analytical chemist
examined a great number of samples of wall-papers of different colours,
and was surprised to find arsenic in most of them. Within the last year
the writer examined the pigment which he could disengage without much
difficulty from a very small piece of green muslin window curtain, and
found it yield a large quantity of arsenic. In Paris alone there are more
than 15,000 people who earn their living by making artificial flowers, a
quarter at least of these workers being engaged in that branch of the
manufacture in which Schweinfurt green is used. From the instances already
adduced of the ill effects caused, although in a mild degree, by
occasional and accidental exposure to arsenical pigments, we shall be
prepared to learn that the danger and the damage to health is very much
more intensified when, as in the case of these poor artisans, the workman
is constantly handling the deadly material, and incessantly inhaling an
atmosphere laden with its particles. Dr Vernois has published a most
interesting description, which we subjoin, of the artificial flower-maker
at work. He says:——“These greens are formed either from arsenite of copper
alone, or mixed in variable proportions with acetate of copper (English
green). Arsenical greens are employed to colour different herbs, to tint
the fabric destined to prepare the leaves of artificial flowers, as they
are painted directly on the leaves or petals of flowers worked on cloths
of various textures. For these various purposes they buy the Schweinfurt
or the English green (vert Anglaise), either in powder or in aqueous
solution, and add to it, according to the effect desired, a certain
quantity of Flanders glue, starch, gum, honey, or turpentine. Sometimes it
is applied in the dry state, in order to sprinkle it over the things
already coloured by the arsenical green. They frequently also, in order to
modify the colour, mix with it a certain quantity of chromate of lead or
picric acid.

_The preparation of herbs_ is carried on as follows:——The workman plunges
into a shallow vessel, containing a sufficiently liquid solution of
Schweinfurt green, one or several stalks of natural plants, perfectly
dried, and agitates them quickly, seizing them by their roots with a pair
of forceps. This operation, which is termed ‘steeping,’ stains the
fingers, the arms, the person, and the clothes of the workman, and the
surrounding objects are covered with traces of this kind of paint. The
plants thus prepared are hung on a line, and there allowed to dry for
thirty-four or forty-eight hours. At the end of that time all the stalks
are gathered and formed into bundles, which are used finally for bouquets.
Often enough, to satisfy some freak of fashion, they are sprinkled with
powdered arsenite of copper. This is the powdering. The bouquet-work
constitutes one of the principal dangers; for the colouring matter not
having been fixed by any mordant, detaches itself in the form of a fine
dust, which penetrates the skin of the hands, and which the workman
breathes constantly. This danger is still more increased when he handles
bouquets covered with arsenical powder. At other times, however, in the
manufacture of the plants, the Schweinfurt green is diluted with a
sufficient quantity of turpentine. In this way the colour takes a smooth
appearance, not altered by contact with water, and does not escape
immediately in the form of powder by gentle handling; but when it is
thoroughly dry it falls to the ground in little flakes, and may again rise
in the air with ordinary dust. Thus the danger is modified, a little
retarded, but always exists. There are then in this speciality of the
florist the operations of steeping, drying, powdering, and arranging the
flowers for bouquets, which in their details place the workman or the
purchaser under the more or less direct, and more or less active influence
of arsenical salt. This particular industry is exercised under conditions
which render it still more injurious; for it is freely practised by a
number of poor workpeople, by households living in one or two rooms,
ill-ventilated, ill-lighted, and which they never sweep, and of which the
floor like the furniture, and like the clothing of the workpeople, is
continually impregnated by pigment and covered with arsenical dust. The
preparers of the cloth destined for the manufacture of the artificial
leaves by the aid of arsenical greens, comprehend the portion of the work
most exposed to deleterious action. They use arsenite of copper alone,
mixed principally with starch, and in rare instances associated with
acetate of copper in variable proportions. Some use _eublèe_, a mixture of
picric acid and of greenish indigo, in which they steep their stuffs.
Other manufacturers use fabrics prepared with hot solutions by ordinary
dyers. According to the hue which the Schweinfurt dyer wishes to obtain,
the workman commences by giving the stuff a yellow shade, by plunging it
into a solution of picric acid and pure alcohol. He squeezes it between
his fingers, in order to completely impregnate it and dries it. It is this
preliminary operation which stains the workman’s fingers yellow.
Frequently the latter mixes picric acid by grinding it with the
Schweinfurt green, and applies this paste immediately to the fabric. The
paste is prepared by kneading the Schweinfurt green, already treated with
water, with a solution of starch thick enough, yet sufficiently liquid, to
be easily spread on the cloth. During this working up the paste the
fingers, arms, and hands of the workman are covered with arsenical
solution. This being ready, the workman lays out his stuff, distributes
the paste over it, then beats it between his hands, in order to make the
colouring matter thoroughly penetrate the cloth. The longer it is beaten
the better is the quality of the article. During this operation the skin
of the hands and arms is completely impregnated with the solution.
Sometimes the cloth, having been touched here and there with arsenical
paste, is attached to a hook in the wall, and twisted different
ways——wrung as it were. In this way a very uniform colouring is obtained.
This process is as bad to the workman as the former. Lastly, a process
which is generally practised consists in placing the fabric, stained or
not with picric acid, on a wooden table, and distributing on both sides
the arsenical preparation with a brush, and then beating the stuff with a
thick rubber. In this way the hands and arms of the workman are much less
exposed to the paste than in the preceding processes. After the brushing
and beating of the fabric comes the drying, to which operation attention
must next be directed. Once impregnated with the green colour by whatever
process, the pieces in squares of about 1 metre 50 cent. are hung on
wooden frames, furnished with teeth, on which the borders of the cloth are
transfixed. During this simple operation the workmen stain themselves
much. When the stuffs are detached from the squares they are folded, and
from every crease falls a fine dust, which may then be carried into the
mucous membranes. The workmen then are liable to all the accidents of the
manufacturers of flowers, especially in the operations of kneading the
paste, or during the beating, brushing, drying, and folding of the cloths.
From the hands of the fabricator the fabrics are very often immediately
consigned to the manufacturers of artificial flowers, who press them,
figure them (that is to say, make the nerves), arm them with a wire, and
mount them with flowers. It may be at once understood how much all the
manipulations I have just mentioned are liable to develop the arsenical
dust. The paste has not been fixed on the stuffs by any mordant; the
starch with which it is mixed has given it a very brittle consistence, and
has predisposed it to be easily detached from the cloth.

The stamping is effected by putting a certain number of folded pieces one
above the other, and submitting them to the pressure of a stamping
instrument. Repeated blows of this instrument detach the paste in scales,
and cover with dust the fingers and person of the workman. A series of
small packets are taken from the stamping press, which contain, strongly
pressed together, from twelve to twenty-four leaves. They are passed on to
another workman, who is charged with the folding. This operation is
performed by holding the little bundle of leaves between the thumb and
index finger of the left hand.

The thumb of the right hand presses the edges quickly and sharply so as to
separate the leaves one from another, as you separate the leaves of a book
recently bound. During this process still more dust escapes. Then comes
the figuring, which by reason of successive blows applied to each leaf
covers the body of the operator with the same pulverulent material. Fixing
a wire to the leaves at their lowest part by the aid of gum follows that
operation.

Then the leaves are arranged together in dozens, and passed to the bouquet
manufacturers, who mount them. From thence they go to the milliners, who
adapt them to different articles of dress, and sell them to the public.
Through all this series of transformations there are the same
manipulations, the same production of dust, the same action on the skin
and mucous membrane, only in a decreasing degree, from the first preparer
to the milliner. There is, however, a process of preparing the cloth which
diminishes notably the severity and frequency of the evils of the
Schweinfurt green. It is that which immediately after the drying of the
stuffs submits them at once to the “calendrage.” This operation causes the
arsenical paste to penetrate mechanically into the fibres of the stuff,
and gives it a smooth and glazed aspect, which only permits imperfectly
the production of the arsenical dust. This process renders the successive
workings of the cloth less injurious, but it would be an error to consider
it as inoffensive. During the action of the press, and especially during
the separating and the fixing of the flowers, a notable quantity of the
toxic dust is still produced. However well prepared the fabrics may be,
you have only to tear it, to detach the coating under the form of a
palpable powder.

It is only necessary to add that the waxing of the leaves, after they have
been separated and figured, and before putting them into bouquets,
constitutes a protecting envelope against the effects of the powdered
coating for workmen who then handle them, as well as for women who wear
them; but this film of wax is only applied, comparatively speaking, to a
small number of leaves, for it alters the green and vivacity of its
colour.

In the preparing of the stuffs in the process of drying, Dr Vernois
says:——A new condition and serious results appear. The multiplicity of
sharp points fixed in the wooden squares inevitably pricks and scratches
the skin of the workmen. An inoculation of the arsenical salt immediately
takes place, as if it had been practised experimentally. The skin
irritates and inflames, a vesicle first, then a large pustule covers the
orifice of the prick, and undergoes all the stages of inflammation, which
produces suppuration and often gangrene, below which a deep and painful
ulceration is developed——all the more tedious to heal as the inoculation
is renewed from day to day.

The action of picric acid mixed with the paste can only augment and
aggravate the irritation of the wounds. If the ulcerations are numerous
the workmen may absorb the arsenious acid and be liable to serious
results. I have seen a certain number of workmen with glandular
enlargements under the armpits, and the hands in such a state that they
were obliged to come to the hospital, where they were only cured after one
or several months of treatment. The aspect of the hand was then
characteristic to the greenish-yellow tint of all the skin, and especially
of the palmar aspect of the hands. To the greenish crust under the nails
was nearly always added a yellow colour of the nails, produced by the
repeated contact with picric acid.

When we add a generally diffused erythema, then a series of black points,
or of inflamed pustules, and sometimes a whitlow, we shall have a faithful
representation of the evils which most frequently present themselves in
the preparers of stuffs, for artificial flowers tinted with Schweinfurt
green.

Amongst the endeavours to counteract the evils entailed upon the workers
in this branch of industry may be mentioned the attempt to substitute
chrome for Schweinfurt green, as the less poisonous of the two substances,
and the ingenious process of M. Bérard-Zenzilin, which consists in
directly incorporating the arsenical colouring matter with a specially
prepared collodion.

=AR′SENIDE.= _Syn._ ARSEN′IURET; ARSENIURE′TUM (-i-ū-), L.; ARSÉNIURE, Fr.
A combination of arsenicum with a metal (including hydrogen), in definite
proportion.

=AR′SENITE= (-nīte). _Syn._ AR′SENIS, L.; ARSENITE, Fr.; ARSENIGSÄURE
SALZ, Ger. A salt of arsenious acid.

=ART.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ARS (gen., ar′tis; pl., ar′tes), L.; τεχνη,
(tech′ne), Gr.; KUNST, Ger. Primarily, strength, power, and hence also
mental strength, skill; the application of knowledge or power to effect a
desired purpose; the power or ability of doing something not taught by
nature or instinct; practical skill guided by rules. SCIENCE is
knowledge——ART, practical skill in applying this knowledge. ART is applied
science; whilst SCIENCE is knowledge obtained by observation, experience,
and ratiocination. This distinction is nowhere more fully seen than within
the domain of chemistry, where knowledge, deduction, great power of
generalisation, and great expertness are necessary elements of success.
Art has filled the world with luxuries, conveniences, and comforts; and
art——the ARTS——useful or fine——are the safest and surest civilisers of our
race. See SCIENCE.

=ARTESIAN WELL.= A cylindrical perforation bored vertically down through
one or more strata of the earth till it reaches a porous bed of gravel
containing water, this fluid being placed under such incumbent pressure
that it rises up the perforation either to the surface, or to a convenient
height for the operation of a pump. When they rise to the surface these
wells are called spouting or flowing. The name of these wells is taken
from Artois, a province in the Departement du pays de Calais, where their
use was revived. They have been in use for a long time in Italy and in the
East. The accompanying drawing represents the manner in which rain may be
supposed to distribute itself when it falls upon a portion of the surface
of our globe. The figure represents a geological section, showing the
succession of the different strata.

[Illustration]

The figure is supposed to represent two beds, A, B, more porous, and
consequently more absorbent than the rocks by which they are
interstratified. The condensed dews and rains falling upon the distant
hills pass rapidly by the outcrops of the strata to the lower levels,
until the entire mass becomes thoroughly saturated with water. Supposing
two such beds as are represented in the section to exist, fully charged
with water, it is evident that if we bored down into them through the
rocks as represented at C, D, the water would rise through those wells or
borings, and spring out in the form of a jet to such a height above the
surface as is due to the height of the hills from which the water has been
obtained. The fountain derived from B would necessarily flow as much
higher as that derived from the bed A, as is the height of B above A.

For particulars as to the modes of constructing artesian wells, the reader
is referred to ‘Traité sur les puits Artesiens,’ by M Gamier, and to
‘Considérations Géologiques et physiques sur la théorie des puits forcés,
ou fontaines Artésiennes,’ by M. le Vicomte Hericart de Thury, and to
‘Rudimentary Treatise on Well-digging, Boring, &c.,’ by J. G. Swindell,
and also to Ure’s ‘Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines,’ edited by
Mr Robert Hunt.

=ARTHANI′TINE= (-tĭn). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ARTANITI′NE; ARTHANITI′NA, L. A
peculiar substance first obtained by M. Saladin, by the action of alcohol
on the tuberous stems of the herb _arthrani′ta_, or sow-bread. It is
acrid, colourless, and crystalline, and imparts its acridity to the plant.

=AR′TICHOKE.= _Syn._ CIN′ARA, CYN′ARA; SCOL′YMUS, L.; ARTICHAUT, Fr.;
ARTISCHOCKE, Ger. The _cynara scoly̆̆mus_ (Linn.), a thistle-like
perennial plant of the _nat. ord._ Compositæ (DC.). _Hab._ Southern
Europe; but now extensively cultivated in our gardens, for its ‘bottom,’
or the sweet fleshy receptacle of its flowers, which is eaten as a pot
herb. These are soaked in brisk boiling in water, stalk-ends uppermost,
until tender; and take 1/2 to 1 hour according to their age. Sometimes
they are preserved in brine (PICKLED ARTICHOKES); and also after depriving
them of the ‘choke’ and spiny hairs and blanching them by immersion in
boiling water, by drying in the sun (DRIED ARTICHOKES; CULS D’ARTICHAUT,
Fr.), by which they retain their flavour for some time. Infusion of the
flowers, used with rennet.

As an esculent the artichoke resembles asparagus in its general
properties; but it is said to be more nutritious, and even more diuretic.

=Artichokes, Jeru′salem.= The _helianthus tuberosus_ (Linn.), a perennial
plant of the sun-flower family, and quite distinct from the preceding.
_Hab._ The Brazils. The appellation “Jerusalem” is believed to be a
corruption of the Italian word _girasole_——“a sunflower,” to which
botanical family the plant belongs. It is cultivated in England for
culinary purposes. Roots (tubers) resemble the artichoke in flavour; but
are considered far from wholesome, being apt to produce flatulence and
dyspepsia. They are diuretic, and impart the odour of turpentine to the
urine. They are cooked by boiling (15 to 25 minutes, according to size),
or frying; in the former case served with melted butter. They are also
served mashed, like turnips. The flowers yield a volatile oil resembling
that of turpentine.

Composition of the Jerusalem artichoke from an analysis by Payen, Poisot,
and Fevry:——

  Nitrogenous matter    3·1
  Sugar                14·7
  Inulin                1·9
  Pectic Acid           0·9
  Pectin                0·4
  Cellulose             1·5
  Fatty matter          0·2
  Mineral matter        1·3
  Water                76·0
                      —————
                      100·0

From the above it will be seen that this esculent contains no nitrogen.

=ARTIFICIAL FOODS.= See FARINA.

=ASARABAC′CA= (ăs-ă-). _Syn._ AS′ARUM, A. EUROPÆ′UM: (Linn.), NAR′DUS
MONTA′NA*, &c., L.; ASARET, A. D’EUROPE, CABARET, AZARUM C., NARD SAUVAGE,
OREILLE D’HOMME, &c., Fr.; HAZELWURTZEL, Ger. The ασαρον of Dioscorides, a
small round, hard, stemless, hardy herbaceous plant, bearing
chocolate-coloured flowers; and of the nat. ord. Aristolochieæ (DC.). It
grows freely in central France, and is found in woods and shady places in
Lancashire, Westmoreland, and other parts of England. _Hab._ Europe,
between 37° and 60° latitude.——Root & rhizome (AS′ARI RA′DIX) has a
pepper-like odour and an acrid taste:——Leaves (A. FO′LIA) less odorous,
though bitter-tasted, acrid, and aromatic; formerly officinal in the
pharmacopœias:——Whole plant (ASARABACCA of the shops) nauseant, emetic,
and purgative. Before the introduction of ipecacuanha it was the common
emetic (6 to 9 of the green leaves in whey); but, owing to the violence of
its action, it has long fallen into disuse. Its common name in France
(CABARET, or public-house plant) is said to have arisen from its frequent
employment to relieve the stomach of those who had drunk too hard. It is
now almost solely used as a sternutatory or errhine, and is probably one
of the best.

According to Gräger[84], asarabacca contains three volatile, oily
principles, which may be obtained by distillation with water:——VOLATILE
OIL (o′leum as′ari):——AS′ARITE, an odourless, tasteless, and crystalline
solid; fusible and volatilisable, yielding white and very irritating
fumes:——AS′ARUM-CAM′PHOR, differing chiefly from the last in being
precipitated, by water, from its alcoholic solution in cubes or six-sided
prisms, instead of delicate flexible needles. Also a brownish, bitter,
crystallisable principle (AS′ARINE, AS′ARUM-BIT′TER), which is soluble in
alcohol.

[Footnote 84: Gobel and Kemze, ‘Pharm. Waarenk,’ 1830-1.]

_Uses, Dose, &c._ Dried leaves, 20 to 30 gr., or root, 10 to 12 gr.; as a
purge or emetic. As an errhine——leaves, 3 to 5 gr.; root, 1 to 3 gr.; in
powder, snuffed up the nose every day, or every other day, at bedtime. It
excites irritation and a copious watery discharge, more or less muculent,
which frequently continues to flow for several days, and occasionally
proves highly useful in certain affections of the brain, eyes, mouth,
nose, ear, and throat, on the principle of counter-irritation. It has been
found “particularly serviceable in cephalalgia (headache), obstinate
headache, chronic ophthalmia (inflammation of the eyes), and some other
lethargic affections.” (Dr A. T. Thomson.) In dimness of sight (especially
that arising from fatigue or congestion), deafness, and slight paralytic
affections of the mouth, tongue, lips, or eyelids, not of a serious
organic character, and particularly in chronic earache, it also sometimes
affords relief after other remedies have failed. It constitutes the basis
of several CEPHALIC SNUFFS, ASARABACCA-SNUFF, BARON MCKINSEY’S MEDICINAL
POWDER (or SNUFF), and several other like nostrums, which are much
extolled by their venders, and sold at marvellously high prices. See
PATENT MEDICINES, POWDERS, SNUFFS, &c. (also _below_).

=AS′ARIN= (-rĭn). C_{20}H_{26}O_{5}. _Syn._ ASARONE. A species of
stearopten, discovered by Görtz, in asarabacca. It has an aromatic taste
and an odour resembling camphor, and is said to be emetic. It is probably
a mixture of asarum-camphor and some partially oxidised volatile oil. (See
_above_.)

=As′arine= (of Gräger). _Syn._ ASARI′NA, L. The crystallisable bitter
principle of asarabacca, noticed above. It is said to greatly resemble
cytisine.

=AS′ARITE= (-rīte). See ASARABACCA.

=ASBES′TOS.= _Syn._ ASBES′TUS (ασβεστος, incombustible, unconsumable,
Gr.), AMIANTH′US, LA′PIS A., &c., L.; ASBESTE, AMIANTE, Fr.; ASBEST,
STEINFLACHS, Ger. In _mineralogy_, a soft, fibrous substance, composed of
flexible or elastic filaments which, in their most highly developed form,
greatly resemble those of flax or silk, and which bear exposure to a very
considerable degree of heat without suffering decomposition. It has been
proposed to clothe our firemen in dresses of asbestos; but without freedom
of respiration could be insured in a heated and poisonous atmosphere, this
envelope would be of little service. Gloves are sometimes made of it, for
holding red-hot crucibles. It is also used as a filtering medium for
corrosive liquids. A kind of felt made of asbestos is now used as a
substitute for wire gauze to support beakers, retorts, &c., over lamps.

_Var._ Of these there are several; as AM′IANTH or ELAS′TIC ASBESTOS,
LIG′NIFORM A., MOUNTAIN-CORK, M.-LEATHER, M.-WOOD, &c.; varying from a
grey, brown, or green colour, to pure white, and from extreme flexibility
and softness, to rigidity and hardness, as indicated by the respective
names.

=ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES.= A parasite belonging to the genus _entozoa_,
commonly known as the round worm, and found in the intestines of man, the
horse, the ox, the pig, and some other of the lower animals. It is of a
greyish-red colour and in size and general appearance like the common
earthworm.

Children are very frequently infested by them. Their usual habitat is the
small intestines. But they are occasionally found in the stomach, and
have been known to transport themselves into the gall-ducts, frontal
sinuses, nostrils, and mouth. The males are smaller than the females and
much more rare. The females produce eggs in great numbers, but it is
doubtful if the young are ever developed in the intestine in which the
parent worm dwells.

It is probable that the ova gain access to the intestines of the animals
of which they eventually become the pests from various outer sources. They
are said to be very frequent in persons who partake much of raw leaves and
roots. Dr Paterson, of Leith, noticed that families who drank certain
water from a well supplied from a dirty pool, which contained various
vermiform animalcules, were much infested with this particular species of
intestinal worm; whilst others in the same street, who had recourse to a
different water supply, entirely escaped. For medicinal treatment, see
WORMS.

=ASCARIS MYSTAX.= A parasitic round worm infesting the cat. It has been
also occasionally found in man.

=ASH.= _Syn._ FRAX′INUS, L.; FRÊNE, Fr.; ESCHE, Ger. The popular name of
several species of valuable hardy trees bearing apetalous flowers (except
in the ‘flowering ash’), belonging to the nat. ord. Oleaceæ (DC.), and
gen. Fraxinus; but appropriately the——

=Ash.= _Syn._ COMM′ON ASH; FRAX′INUS, F. EXCEL′SIOR (Linn.), F. APET′ALA
(Lamb.), F. OR′NUS (Scop.), L.; FRÊNE, F. COMMUN, Fr.; GEMEINE ESCHE, Ger.
A large tree common to our woods and hedges; timber (ASH or ASH-WOOD) used
by carpenters, cabinet-makers, and machinists, and much esteemed for its
great toughness and elasticity; bark febrifuge, diuretic, resolvent, and
tonic; has been successfully exhibited in agues; seeds acrid, bitter, and
diuretic; leaves purgative, diuretic, and febrifuge; sometimes used
instead of senna. In southern Europe it exudes an inferior kind of MANNA,
and its medicinal properties are much greater than in our
climate.——_Dose._ (Leaves) 1/4 _oz._ to 1-1/2 _oz._ (made into an
infusion), as a purge; seeds, 1 dr., as a diuretic, &c.

=Ash, Flow′ering.= _Syn._ MAN′NA-ASH; FRAX′INUS OR′NUS (Linn.), L. A small
tree of southern Europe. Yields MANNA. The ‘round′-leaved flowering-ash’
(CALA′BRIAN-ASH; FRAX′INUS ROTUNDIFO′′LIA, Lamarck) is a smaller variety
of the preceding, and a native of Calabria and the Levant. Said to yield
the best MANNA. The ‘small′-leaved flowering-ash’ (FRAX′INUS PARVIFO′′LIA,
Lam.) is another manna-yielding species, indigenous to Asia Minor.

=ASH.= Ashes (which _see_).

=ASH-BALLS.= The ashes of land-plants, especially ferns, damped and made
into balls. Used as a substitute for soap in washing, and in cleaning
paint.

=ASH′ERY.= [Amer.] A place where potash or pearlash is made or kept.

=ASH′ES.= (-ĭz). [Eng. pl.] _Syn._ ASH; CI′NIS, L.; CENDRES (_pl._), Fr.;
ASCHE, Ger. The remains of anything burned. In _antiquity_, the remains of
a body consumed on the funeral pyre; and hence, figuratively, the remains
of the dead. The word, in English, has properly no singular; although
‘ash’ is very commonly heard; and is now almost exclusively used in
composition, as in pearlash, potash, soda-ash, &c.

=Ashes.= In _commerce_, the residuum of the combustion of vegetable
substances containing either carbonate of potassium (‘land-plants’), or
carbonate of sodium (‘marine plants’), and from which the commercial
alkalies are obtained. Their value depends upon their richness in
‘alkali,’ which is determined in the manner explained under ALKALIMETRY.
The word is also commonly employed as a general term for the crude
carbonates of potash of commerce (which _see_).

=Ashes of Plants.= See following page, on which will be found a table
giving the chemical composition of the ashes of a few well-known plants
used as food for men and animals. See also MANURES, PLANTS, VEGETATION,
&c.

A careful determination of the ash of different substances is of great use
to the analyst, by enabling him to detect adulteration; for instance,
almost every plant on being burnt yields a very constant amount of ash,
and not alone the quantity is constant, but the different proportions of
the various components are also, within certain limits, tolerably
unvarying. Many plants have the power of extracting from the soil certain
elements; for instance, the ash of the tobacco contains lithium; tea,
manganese; seaweed, iodine. It seems by no means improbable that by the
examination of the ashes of plants by means of the spectroscope new
elements may be discovered. Appended is a short list of the amount of ash,
contained in a few important substances:——

                       Total Ash.
  Cayenne pepper, from 5 to 6 per cent.
  Chicory           ”  5          ”
  Cocoa             ”  3 to 4     ”
  Coffee            ”  4          ”
  Flour             ”   ·7 to 1·5 ”
  Mustard           ”  3 to 4·5   ”
  Pepper            ”  4·3 to 5   ”
  Rice              ”  5          ”
  Tea               ”  5·6        ”
  Turmeric          ”  5 to 6     ”

The ashes of plants are employed by the agriculturist according as the
nature and proportion of the different salts they contain is suited to the
soil and to the crops it is desired to raise. M. SOULANGE BODIN says that
ashes hold the middle place between stable-dung and pasture manure. They
act mechanically by dividing soils that are too compact, hygroscopically
by absorbing moisture, and they appear to have an action similar to lime
in accelerating the decomposition of the mould. They also probably
exercise a stimulating effect on the soil. In the case of low-lying lands
they are particularly suited for very damp clayey soils. In Picardy the
ashes of turf are made use of; in England, the low countries and the north
of France, coal ashes are employed.

  -----------+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+--------
             |      |      |  Red  |         |Wheat |      |       |     |Turnip
             | Peas.|Beans.|Clover.|Sainfoin.|Grain.|Straw.|Barley.|Oats.| Root.
  -----------+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+--------
  Potassa    | 42·43| 36·72|  18·44|  31·90  | 29·76| 10·51| 20·07 |17·70| 23·70
  Soda       |  3·27|  0·14|   2·79|   ...   |  5·26|  1·03|  4·56 | 3·84| 14·75
  Lime       |  5·73| 12·06|  35·02|  24·30  |  2·88|  5·91|  1·48 | 3·54| 11·82
  Magnesia   |  5·92|  6·00|  11·91|   5·03  | 11·06|  1·25|  7·45 | 7·33|  3·28
  Sesquioxide|      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
    of Iron  |  0·44|  0·65|   0·98|   0·61  |  0·23|  0·07|  0·51 | 0·49|  0·47
  Sulphuric  |      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
    acid     |  6·23|  4·28|   3·91|   3·28  |  0·11|  2·14|  0·79 | 1·10| 16·13
  Silica     |  1·74|  1·52|   4·03|   3·22  |  2·23| 73·57| 32·73 |38·48|  2·69
  Carbonic   |      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
    acid     |  4·38|  1·63|  12·92|  15·20  |  0·22|  ... |  ...  | ... | 10·47
  Phosphoric |      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
    acid     | 29·92| 33·74|   5·82|   9·35  | 48·21|  5·51| 31·69 |26·46|  9·31
  Chloride of|      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
    potassium|  ... |  ... |   ... |   6·24  |  ... |  ... |  ...  | 0·92|  ...
  Chloride of|      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
    sodium   |  ... |  3·26|   4·13|   0·78  |  ... |  ... |  ...  | ... |  7·05
  -----------+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+--------
  Total      |      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
    amount   | 99·96|100·00|  99·95|  99·96  | 99·96| 99·99| 99·98 |99·96| 99·93
  Per-centage|      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
   of dry ash|      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
   in dry    |      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
   substance |  2·60|  2·90|   7·87|   6·37  |  2·05|  ... |  2·50 | 2·50|  6·00
  Per-centage|      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
   of ash in |      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
   the fresh |      |      |       |         |      |      |       |     |
   substance |  2·24|  2·54|   6·77|   5·65  |  1·81|  ... |  2·25 | 2·27|  0·75
  -----------+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+--------
  -----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+-------
             |       |      |      |      |Lettuce |       |       |      |
             |       |      |      |      |Leaves  |Olive- |       |      |
             |Turnip | Beet |Carrot|Pota- | and    | tree  |       |      |Clupea
             |Leaves.| Root.| Root.|toes. |Stalks. |Wood.  |Hops.  |Hay.  |Sprouts.
             |       |      |      | [85] |  [86]  | [87]  | [88]  | [89] | [90]
  -----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+-------
  Potassa    | 11·56 | 21·68| 37·55| 25·41|  22·37 | 20·60 | 24·88 | 11·93| 17·23
  Soda       | 12·43 |  3·13| 12·63|  ... |  18·50 |  ...  |  ...  |  1·07|  1·19
  Lime       | 28·49 |  1·90|  9·76|  2·34|  10·43 | 63·02 | 21·59 | 14·76| 23·57
  Magnesia   |  2·62 |  1·79|  3·78|  4·17|   5·68 |  2·31 |  4·69 |  5·30|  3·01
  Sesquioxide|       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
    of Iron  |  3·02 |  0·52|  6·74|  0·50|   2·82 |   ... |  1·75 |  2·75|  0·28
  Sulphuric  |       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
    acid     | 10·36 |  3·14|  6·34|  4·71|   3·85 |  3·09 |  7·27 |  0·20|  ...
  Silica     |  8·04 |  1·40|  0·76|  3·64|  11·86 |  3·82 | 19·71 | 53·43|  ...
  Carbonic   |       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
    acid     |  6·18 | 15·23| 15·15|  ... |   ...  |   ... |  2·17 |  ... |  ...
  Phosphoric |       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
    acid     |  4·85 |  1·65|  8·37| 10·38|   9·38 |  4·77 | 14·47 |  6·34| 43·52
  Chloride of|       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
    potassium|  ...  |  ... |  ... | 12·40|   ...  |  1·09 |  ...  |  ... |  ...
  Chloride of|       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
    sodium   | 12·41 | 49·51|  4·91| Trace|  15·09 |   ... |  3·42 |  2·27| 11·19
  -----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+--------
  Total      |       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
    amount   | 99·96 | 99·96| 99·99|100·00|  99·99 |100·00 | 99·95 |100·00|100·00
  Per-centage|       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
   of dry ash|       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
   in dry    |       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
   substance | 16·40 | 11·32|  5·12| 4·86 |   ...  |  0·58 |  5·95 |  6·97|  ...
  Per-centage|       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
   of ash in |       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
   the fresh |       |      |      |      |        |       |       |      |
   substance |  1·97 |  1·02|  0·77|  ... |   ...  |  ...  |  ...  |  6·15|  ...
  -----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+-------

[Footnote 85: Griepenkerl.]

[Footnote 86: Griepenkerl.]

[Footnote 87: A. Müller.]

[Footnote 88: Way.]

[Footnote 89: Hubert.]

[Footnote 90: Way.]

Coal ashes, when mixed with excrement, besides disinfecting the latter,
make an excellent manure.

=ASPAR′AGIN= (-ă-jĭn). C_{4}H_{8}N_{2}O_{3}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ALTHE′INE,
ASPAR′AMIDE, MAL′AMIDE*; ASPARAGI′NA, ASPARAGI′NUM, L.; AGÉDOÏLE, Fr.;
SPARGELSTOFF, Ger. A peculiar azotised principle discovered by Vauquelin
and Robiquet in asparagus, and since found in the potato, marsh-mallow,
liquorice, climbing vetch, and several other plants. Many plants which do
not naturally contain it may be made to yield it by growing them in dark
damp cellars; whilst many which only normally contain it in very small
quantities are found to yield much more when allowed to vegetate in the
same manner.

_Prep._ 1. From ASPARAGUS-SPROUTS:——The expressed juice, after being
heated to the boiling-point (to coagulate albumen) and carefully skimmed
and filtered, is evaporated, at a gentle heat, to a syrupy consistence,
and then abandoned to spontaneous evaporation in a warm dry atmosphere for
several days; the resulting crystals being purified by cautious washing
with very cold water or very strong alcohol, re-solution, and
re-crystallisation.

The following are cheaper and more convenient processes.

2. From MARSHMALLOW-ROOT:——_a._ The root (chopped small, or grated) is
macerated for several days in milk of lime, in the cold; the filtered
liquid precipitated with carbonate of ammonium, and the clear solution
evaporated in a water-bath, and otherwise treated as before.

_b._ From the expressed juice, 2 parts; milk of lime, 1 part; agitated
well together; the liquid portion, after some hours, being decanted,
filtered, and evaporated, &c., as before.

3. From the ETIOLATED SHOOTS OF VETCHES:——The expressed juice of the young
shoots when from 2 or 3 to even 12 or 15 inches long, is gently simmered
for 8 or 10 minutes, to coagulate the albumen; and, after straining or
clarification, the clear liquid is gently evaporated to the consistence of
a thin syrup, and set aside to crystallise, as before. The resulting brown
crystals are purified by washing with very cold water, re-solution in
boiling water, and re-crystallisation, as in No. 1; or, and what is
better, the hot liquid, before evaporation to a syrup, is digested for a
short time with a little pure animal charcoal in coarse powder, and then
filtered, when large and beautifully white crystals are obtained by the
first operation.[91] An excellent and very economical process.

[Footnote 91: This use of animal charcoal may also be advantageously
extended to the other formulæ. Mr C. G. Williams, in Ure’s ‘Dict. of Arts,
M., & M.,’ 4th ed., directs the shoots to be used when of “a length of 2
inches;” but some authorities recommend them to be of 9, 12, or even 15
inches. The selection must, however, in many cases, depend upon
circumstances and convenience.]

_Prop., &c._ Crystals brilliant, transparent, colourless, right rhombic
prisms; neutral to test-paper; non-basic; having a faint, cooling, and
scarcely nauseous taste; scarcely soluble in cold water; freely soluble in
hot water; insoluble in strong alcohol and ether; solution unaffected by
alkaline sulphurets, oxalate of ammonia, acetate of lead, or infusion of
galls; triturated with quick-lime, ammonia is evolved; heated to 212°
Fahr. the crystals lose two equiv. or 12% of water; heated with water
under pressure in a closed vessel, or boiled along with an acid or an
alkali, or dissolved in a saccharine liquid and then submitted to
fermentation it is converted into ammonium and aspartic acid; aqueous
solutions of asparagin and aspartic acid treated with a current of nitrous
acid evolve pure nitrogen, with the formation of malic acid which remains
in solution. It was called asparamide under the impression that it is
aspartite of ammonia minus 1 atom of water; and malamide, for similar
theoretical reasons.

_Uses._ It is sedative and diuretic.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr.; in dropsies,
heart-affections, &c.

=ASPAR′AGUS.= [L., Eng.] In _botany_, a genus of low, spiny plants, with
scale-like leaves, many of which are shrubs and climbers, of the nat. ord.
Asparageæ (DC.).; Liliaceæ (Lindl.). The following species, which is that
best known in England, is, however, an exception to this description, as
it is neither climbing nor spinose.

=Asparagus Officina′lis.= [Linn.; L.] _Syn._ ASPAR′AGUS, COMM′ON A.,
GARD′EN A.; SPAR′AGUS§, SPAR′ROW-GRASS§, SPER′AGE†§; ASPERGE, Fr.;
SPARGEL, Ger. A well-known perennial plant, and one of the oldest and most
delicate of our culinary vegetables.——Young shoots, from the underground
eyes (TURIO′NES ASPAR′AGI, L.), the asparagus of our tables; diuretic;
communicate a peculiar fœtid odour to the urine, and, when eaten in
excess, occasion bloody urine and accelerate fits of gout; formerly
esteemed emmenagogue and aphrodisiac.——_Root_ (RA′DIX ASPAR′AGI, L.),
properties resemble those of the young shoots, but stronger; one of the
five ‘greater aperient roots’ (RAD′ICES APERIEN′TES QUIN′′QUE MAJO′′RES,
L.) of old pharmacy. The tops and roots, though no longer officinal in the
British Pharmacopœias, are both occasionally employed as popular remedies
in dropsy and stone——the first being eaten in the usual way at table; and
the second made into an infusion or decoction (1/2 _oz._ to the pint),
taken ad libitum.

As an article of food, asparagus, in moderation, is both wholesome and
nutritious. It is cooked by simply boiling it rather quickly until tender,
like the other soft green vegetables; and is either served up plain, or
on toast with melted butter or sauce Hollandaise in a boat (Soyer;
Rundell.) When very small and green, it is frequently dressed and served
like green-peas, the tender portion of each shoot being cut into bits of
equal size, and about 1-3rd of an inch long. (Miss Acton.)

_Choice, &c._ “The large grass is generally preferred; although the
smaller has the fullest flavour for a dish.” (Soyer.) Unlike other plants,
the asparagus officinalis has not produced a single well-marked permanent
variety by cultivation.[92]

[Footnote 92: “The young shoots of polygona′tum (Solomon’s Seal), and
others, have been substituted for asparagus.” (Lindley’s ‘Veg. King.,’ 3rd
ed., 203.)]

=Asparagus Petræ′a.= [L.] _Syn._ ROCK′-ASPAR′AGUS; CORRUDA; ASPAR′AGUS
ACUTIFO′′LIA, L,; CORRUDE, Fr. Resembles the last in its general
qualities; but is said to contain more asparagin.

=ASPAR′AMIDE= (-mĭd). See ASPARAGIN.

=ASPAR′TIC ACID.= HC_{4}H_{6}NO_{4}. _Syn._ MALAM′IC ACID; ACIDUM
ASPAR′TICUM, L.; ACIDE ASPARTIQUE, Fr. An acid first obtained, by Plisson,
from asparagin, by boiling it along with hydrate of lead or of magnesia.
Its salts are called ASPAR′TATES (Eng., Fr.; ASPAR′TAS, L. sing.) See
ASPARAGIN.

=AS′PEN= (-pĕn). _Syn._ ASP*, TREM′BLING POP′LAR‡; POP′ULUS TREM′ULA
(Linn.), L.; TREMBLE, Fr.; AESPE (äspe), &c. Ger. A large tree, of the
nat. ord. Amentaceæ; (DC.), not uncommon in the moist woodlands of
England, and found native on many of the Scottish mountains. It derives
its name from the trembling motion of its leaves, which, owing to the
peculiar flattening of the leafstalks, are agitated by the slightest
impulse of the air. Bark and leaves contain POP′ULIN associated with
SAL′ICIN. Both bark and leaves have been used with advantage in strangury
and intermittents.

=ASPHALT′= (-fălt′). Asphaltum.

=ASPHALT′UM.= [L., prim. Gr.] _Syn._ ASPHALT′, COMPACT BITUMEN, MINERAL
PITCH, JEW’S PITCH, FOSS′IL BITU′MEN, VIT′REUS B., &c.; ASPHAL′TUS,
BITUMEN FOS′SILE (-e-le), B. JUDA′ICUM, B. SOL′IDUM, B. VIT′REUM, MU′MIA†,
M. MINERA′LIS*, &c., L.; ASPHALTE, BITUME MASSIF, B. SOLIDE, POIX JUIVE,
&c., Fr.; ASPHALT, ERDPECH, JUDENPECH, &c., Ger. A black, hard, brittle,
and glossy variety of bitumen found on the shores of the Dead Sea (hence
called _La′cus Asphalti′tes_), on and near the shores of the Great Pitch
Lake of Trinidad, and as a mineral product in various other parts of the
world.

_Prop., &c._ Melts without decomposition, and, when pure, burns without
residue. It is distinguished from other varieties of bitumen by its more
difficult fusibility, and by its fracture being clean, conchoidal, and
vitreous. Distilled by itself it yields about 36% of a peculiar bituminous
oil (crude PETROLENE), together with combustible gases, traces of ammonia
and water. To anhydrous alcohol it yields 5% of a yellow resin, soluble in
rectified spirit and ether; by digesting the residuum in ether, a further
70% of a brownish-black resin is obtained, which is freely soluble in the
volatile oils and in about 5 times its weight of mineral naphtha. The
portion (25%) left undissolved by ether is very soluble in the oils of
turpentine and petroleum. These three resinous principles dissolve
altogether, when digested, in the oils of anise, rosemary, and turpentine,
and in the fixed oils. (John.) According to others, asphaltum consists
almost entirely of asphaltene. (Boussingault.) Paranaphthaline has been
found in some varieties. (M. Laurent.) Average sp. gr. 1 to 1·68. By
friction it affords negative electricity. It is soluble in oil of
turpentine, benzole, mineral and coal-tar naphtha, the fixed oils,
solutions of the caustic alkalies, and several other liquids, by the aid
of heat.

_Sources._ That of commerce is chiefly obtained from the shores of the
Dead Sea; but much of that of the shops is a spurious article of the most
worthless character. A short time since some specimens of the purest and
most beautiful description, from the Great Bitumen Lake of Trinidad, were
given us by our respected and venerable friend, the late Earl of
Dundonald, who stated that the supply of both liquid and indurated
bitumens, of every grade of quality, was unlimited from that source; but
that owing to injudicious importations of inferior kinds (those most
easily shipped), a prejudice had been created against them in the London
market. Our personal investigations have since confirmed the accuracy of
these statements.

_Uses._ The finer varieties are chiefly used as a ‘glazing colour’ by
artists, and in the manufacture of black varnishes and japans. The
inferior kinds are applied to the same purposes as ordinary solid bitumen.
The Egyptians used it in embalming under the name of MU′MIA; and the
Babylonian builders are said to have employed it, as a cement, in lieu of
mortar. It is, however, doubtful whether the hard semi-vitreous variety of
bitumen, properly termed ‘asphaltum,’ was that which was thus employed;
its present hardness being probably due to time. As a _medicine_ it is
stimulant; and it was formerly used as an ingredient in certain plasters
and ointments. See BITUMEN, PITCH, &c. A mixture of asphalt, chalk, sand,
ground sandstone, &c., is used as a pavement for making water-tight tanks
and covers, as a coating for gas and water pipes, and for various other
similar purposes. Sometimes the pitchy residue obtained by distilling off
the more volatile portions of gas tar is employed to replace the asphalt
in the foregoing mixture; the product is called artificial or gas-tar
asphalt.

=Asphaltum, Facti′′tious= (-tĭsh-′ŭs). _Syn._ ASPHAL′TUM FACTI′′TIUM, L.
That of the shops, when not an inferior kind of true asphaltum, is
commonly made from the bottoms of Barbadoes tar, and other mineral
bitumens, by heating them until quite hard. Sometimes a little Scio
turpentine, balsam of copaiba, or even common resin, is added. Colour,
hardness, &c., inferior to those of native asphaltum.

=Asphaltum, Liq′uid.= _Syn._ PREPARED’ ASPHALTUM; ASPHAL′TUM LIQ′UIDUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. Scio turpentine, 2 _oz._; melt; add asphaltum (in powder), 1
_oz._; mix, cool a little, and reduce with hot oil of turpentine.

2. (Wilson’s.) Asphaltum, 1/2 _lb._; melt; add of hot balsam of copaiba, 1
_lb._; and, when mixed, thin it with hot oil of turpentine. Both are used
as ‘black japan’ or ‘varnish,’ and as a ‘glazing colour’ by artists.

=ASPHYX′IA= (-fĭk′-sh′ă; -fĭks′-e-ă‡). [L., Gr.] _Syn._ ASPHYX′Y‡ (-e),
Eng.; ASPHYXIE, Fr.; PULSLOSIGKEIT, SCHEINTOD, Gr. Literally, absence of
pulse; hence, a fainting fit; apparent lifelessness. Its use is now
generally confined to a suspension of vitality from some cause
interrupting respiration, but in which life is not actually extinct, and
may, under favorable circumstances, be revived.

Asphyxia is commonly divided into four varieties by nosologists:——

1. ASPHYXIA ALGIDA:——_Cause._ Exposure to intense cold.——_Symp._
Countenance pale, livid, and shrivelled; limbs rigid.

2. ASPHYXIA ELEC′TRICA:——_Cause._ Stroke of lightning or
electricity.——_Symp._ Countenance pale, limbs flexible, blood
incoagulable.

3. ASPHYXIA MEPHIT′ICA:——_Cause._ Inhalation of irrespirable gases or
fumes.——_Symp._ Countenance pallid, lips wan, &c.

4. ASPHYXIA SUFFOCATIO′NIS:——_Cause._ Suffocation or strangulation, as
from drowning, hanging, &c.——_Symp._ Countenance turgid and livid.

_Treatm., &c._ No general rules can be given exactly suitable to each
variety. Whenever it is possible to procure medical aid, it should, of
course, be immediately sought, as the delay of even a single minute may
render it unavailing. In the _treatment_ of suspended animation the
principal object is to effect a restoration of the respiratory and
circulatory functions; the former of which has been arrested by the
external condition of the patient; the latter by the contact of morbidly
carbonised blood with the capillary vessels of the lungs. The first thing
to be attempted is the restoration of warmth by active friction with the
warm hands, flannels, &c.; the second, the re-establishment of natural
respiration by an available means, of which, perhaps, none is simpler or
better than alternate pressure and its relaxation, applied to the thorax
and abdomen, so as to induce expiration first, and inspiration immediately
afterwards, by the natural action and elasticity of the ribs and
diaphragm. Cold water may also be suddenly dashed on the face and general
surface previously warmed by the frictions, in the hope of inducing a more
decided inspiration. If these measures fail, artificial respiration should
be promptly had recourse to. (Dr Marshall Hall.) The warm bath, and slight
electrical shocks, or continued streaming electricity, may also be
applied.

See CHARCOAL, COLD, DROWNING, HANGING, RESPIRATION (Artificial),
SEWERS-GAS, STRANGULATION, SUFFOCATION, &c.

=ASPHYX′IATED.= _Syn._ ASPHYXIA′TUS, L.; ASPHYXIÉ, Fr.; ASPHYKTISCH,
SCHEINTODT, &c., Ger. Affected with or labouring under asphyxia. (See
_above_.)

=ASP′IC=†. Spike lavender or French lavender; also the male lavender,
spica nardi, or pseudo-nardus of old writers.

=Aspic.= In _cookery_, “savory jelly extracted from the succulence of
meat.” (Soyer.)

_Prep._ (Miss Acton.) Calf’s feet, 2 in no.; veal, 4 _lbs._; ham, 3 _lb._;
onions, 2 (large); carrots, 3; water, 1 gall.; boil 5 or 6 hours, or until
reduced to less than one half, strain, and when cold, put the jelly into a
stew-pan with the whites of 4 eggs well beaten, a large bunch of savoury
herbs, 3 blades of mace (in shreds), a teaspoonful of white peppercorns,
and salt, q. s.; keep it well stirred until pretty hot, then let it gently
simmer for about 15 minutes, and, after settling, pass it through a
jelly-bag till quite clear. After cooling a little, it is fit for use; or
it may be allowed to cool and be at any time remelted. French cooks
commonly flavour it with tarragon-vinegar, added after clarification.

_Uses, &c._ “Cold poultry, game, fish, plovers’ eggs, truffles, and
various dressed vegetables, with many other things often elaborately
prepared, and highly ornamental, are moulded, and served in it, especially
at large déjeûners and similar repasts. It is also much used to decorate
raised pies and hams, and for many other purposes.”[93]

[Footnote 93: Miss Acton’s ‘Modern Cookery,’ Longmans, 1860{?}, p. 104.]

=ASPIRATOR.= An apparatus for drawing a stream of air through a tube or
other vessel. There are several forms of aspirator; that invented by
Brunner is perhaps one of the most convenient. It consists of two equal
cylindrical vessels placed one above the other, and communicating by tubes
which can be opened or closed, so that when the water has run from the
upper to the lower vessel, the apparatus turning for the purpose on a
horizontal axis may be inverted so as to bring the empty vessel to the
bottom and the full one to the top; the water may then again be made to
flow without the trouble of refilling. See AIR, ANALYSIS OF.

=ASS= (ăss). _Syn._ AS′INUS, L.; ANE (âne), Fr.; ESEL, Ger. The _e′quus
as′inus_ (Linn.), a well-known animal found almost everywhere.

=ASSAFŒTIDA.= [L. and Eng.] _Syn._ ASSAFETIDA, DEVIL’S DUNG, Eng.;
ASSAFŒTIDA GUMMI, L.; STINKASAND, STINKENDER ASAND, TEUFELS-DRECK, Ger. A
gum resin exuded from the excised root of _narthex assafœtida_ (B. P.);
from _ferula assafœfida_, and probably from _ferula Persica_. It yields
its virtues to alcohol, and forms a clear tincture, which becomes milky on
the addition of water. It is imported into Europe from Persia, viâ Bombay,
in cases, mats, and casks.

_Comp._ Assafœtida contains from 4 to 5% of a peculiar volatile oil, and
from 50 to 60% of resin of a whitish colour, turning rose-red and
reddish-brown by exposure to the air, and giving a greenish solution with
concentrated sulphuric acid. Brande resolved this resin into two
others——one soluble in ether; the other insoluble in that menstruum.

_Pur._ The assafœtida of the shops is generally in masses of a whitish,
reddish, or violet hue, formed principally of adhering tears or grains,
possesses a peculiar fœtid, alliaceous odour, and forms an emulsion with
water in all proportions. Hot sulphuric acid blackens it and forms a dark
blood-red liquid, sulphurous fumes being evolved. This solution diluted
with water, and then saturated with potassa, has a blue colour, which is
most visible by reflected light. Digested first in alcohol, and afterwards
in weak spirit-and-water, the residuum should not exceed 16%. Sp. gr.
1·325 to 1·330. It is frequently adulterated with inferior gums, and with
chalk, clay, sand, &c. The purest and best is that which is clear, of a
more or less pale-red colour, full of white tears, and very fœtid.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Assafœtida is stimulant, antispasmodic, emmenagogue,
expectorant, aphrodisiac, and anthelmintic, and is the most powerful of
all the fœtid gum-resins. It is administered with advantage in several
uterine diseases, hysteria, chorea, flatulent colic, hooping-cough,
infantile convulsions, spasmodic asthma, and some other affections of a
spasmodic and convulsive character.——_Dose_, 5 or 6 to 30 gr.; in pills,
or preferably made into an emulsion; as an enema, 2 dr., with warm water,
q. s.——_Dose for Animals._ Similar to Assafœtida. Some oriental nations
esteem it highly as a condiment. The Brahmins use it against flatulence,
and to correct the coldness of their vegetable food. In Persia the leaves
of the plant are eaten as salad; and the root, after being roasted. In
_cookery_ it is now frequently employed as a substitute for garlic. “I am
assured by an experienced gastronome that the finest relish which a
beef-steak can possess may be communicated by” (slightly) “rubbing the
gridiron on which the steak is to be cooked with assafœtida.”[94]

[Footnote 94: Pereira, ‘Mat. Med. & Therap.,’ 4th ed., iii, 177.]

=ASSAFŒTIDA, PREPARED.= As AMMONIACUM, PREPARED.

=ASSAMAR.= A substance described by Reichenbach, and found by him in the
crust of bread. It possesses the faculty of retarding tissue
metamorphosis.

=ASSAY′= (-sā). _Syn._ ESSAI (_anc._, asaie), Fr. PRÜFUNG, &c., Ger.
Literally, a ‘trial’ or examination. In _chemistry_, the determination, by
any chemical means, of the richness of a substance in its essential
material or more valuable ingredient; more particularly applied to
quantitative analyses of the commercial alkalies, bleaching-powder, oxide
of manganese, ores, and other like articles that are employed on the large
scale. In _docimacy_ and _metallurgy_ the determination of the quantity of
metal in any ore, alloy, or other metallic compound, particularly in the
‘dry way,’ or by the process of cupellation; and more especially of the
quantity of pure gold, or pure silver, contained in coin, bullion, and the
commercial alloys and ores of these metals. The substance assayed*. See
ASSAYING, &c.

=ASSAY′ING.= _Syn._ ASSAY′, DOC′IMACY (dŏos′-) DOCIMAS′TIC ART;
COUPELLATION, Fr.; ABTREIBEN AUF DER CAPELLE, Ger. The art of assay, or of
determining the quantity of gold and silver in ores and alloys of these
metals, in the ‘dry way,’ or by cupellation. It differs from chemical
analysis in merely furnishing the quantity of the precious metal contained
in the sample examined; instead of the nature and proportions of all, or
any, of the ingredients in the compound, at the will of the operator.

[Illustration:

  _a, a_, Rollers on which the furnace rests.
  _b_, Ash-pit.
  _c_, One of the ash-pit dampers.
  _d_, Grate supporting the muffle-plate.
  _e_, Muffle containing the cupels.
  _f_, The mouth-plate, upon which, during use, is piled ignited
      pieces of charcoal, by which the mouth of the furnace is
      closed, and heated air made to pass over the cupels.
  _h_, Interior of furnace containing charcoal.
  _i, i_, Walls of the furnace.
  _k_, Moveable chimney for regulating the draught.]

_Materials, Appar., &c._ These are——furnace, muffle, cupels, charcoal,
&c., all of which must be provided and properly arranged for use before an
assay can be made:——

The FUR′NACE employed at the Royal Mint and at Goldsmiths’ Hall, London,
is figured in section in the above _fig._, and has the following
dimensions:——Total height, 2-1/2 feet; from the bottom to the grate, 6
inches; grate, muffle-plate, and bed of loam that covers it, 3 inches;
space between the grate and the bottom of the funnel or chimney, 21-1/2
inches; funnel, 6 inches. A furnace of any other shape and size may be
employed, provided it affords a sufficient heat, and allows of the easy
introduction of the muffle.

The MUFF′LE (mŭf′l) is a vessel made of clay (see _engr._), and furnished
with an opening to admit of the introduction of the cupels, and the
complete inspection of the process. It is placed on the muffle-plate (see
_above_), by which it is introduced into the furnace.

[Illustration]

The CU′PEL (kū′-pĕl) is a small, porous, shallow crucible, usually made of
bone ashes or burnt horn. The powder (slightly moistened with water) is
placed in a circular steel mould, and after being pressed down tight, is
finished off with a rammer having a convex face of polished steel, which
is forcibly struck with a mallet, until the mass becomes sufficiently hard
and adherent. The newly formed cupel is then carefully removed and exposed
in the air for a fortnight or three weeks to dry. Fig. 1 represents a
cupel in section, and fig. 2 the tongs used for charging it. The best
weight for cupels ranges between 180 and 200 gr. Those used at the Royal
Mint are made of the calcined cores of ox-horns.

[Illustration]

_Proc. of Ass._ The muffle, with the cupels properly arranged on the
‘muffle-plate,’ is placed in the furnace, and the charcoal added and
lighted at the top by means of a few ignited pieces thrown on last. After
the cupels have been exposed for about half an hour, and have become
white-hot, the lead (see _below_) is put into them by means of the tongs.
As soon as this becomes bright red and ‘circulating,’ as it is called, the
specimen for assay, wrapped in a small piece of paper or lead-foil, is
added. The fire is now kept up strongly until the metal enters the lead
and circulates well, when the heat, slightly diminished, is so regulated
that the assay appears convex and more glowing than the cupel itself,
whilst the ‘undulations’ circulate in all directions, and the middle of
the metal appears smooth, with a margin of litharge which is freely
absorbed by the cupel. When the metal becomes bright and shining, or, in
technical language, begins to ‘lighten,’ and prismatic hues suddenly flash
across the globules, and undulate and cross each other, followed by the
metal becoming very brilliant and clear, and at length fixed and solid
(called the ‘brightening’), the separation is ended and the process
complete. The cupels are then drawn to the mouth of the muffle, and
allowed to cool slowly. When quite cold, the resulting ‘button,’ if of
silver, is removed by the pliers or tongs from the cupel, and after being
flattened on a small anvil of polished steel, with a polished steel
hammer, to detach adhering oxide of lead, and cleaned with a small hard
brush, is very accurately weighed. The weight is that of the pure silver;
and the difference between the weight of the alloy before cupellation, and
that of the button of pure metal, represents the proportion of alloy in
the sample examined. (See _below_.) In the case of gold, the ‘button’ has
to undergo the subsequent operations of quartation, parting, and
annealing, before it is weighed, as described under that metal.

_Assayer’s weights, &c._ The materials used in assaying are accurately
weighed in a balance of the most susceptible description; and the weights
are given in terms of the ‘notation’ employed by assayers. The ‘fineness,’
‘richness,’ or ‘degree of purity’ of gold is expressed in carats. Pure
gold is spoken of as 24 carats fine; and any other sample containing in 24
parts only 12, 18, 22, &c., parts of pure gold, is said to be of as many
carats fine. Every carat is nominally divided into 4 ‘assay-grains,’ each
assay-grain into ‘quarters,’ and each quarter into ‘eighths’ (= 1/32
carat), giving 768 “reports” for gold. On this system fractional alloys
are commonly spoken of as of so many ‘carats and thirty-seconds fine.’ The
real quantity taken for assay, technically termed the ‘assay-pound,’ is,
however, very small, generally either 12 gr. or 6 gr., which makes each
assayer’s eighth-grain, or “report,” equal to either the 1/64 or 1/128 gr.
Troy, as the case may be. The nominal assayer’s gold carat is 12 gr. The
“journey-weight of gold” is 15 lbs. Troy (= 701 sovereigns = 1402
half-sovereigns).

The ‘fineness,’ ‘richness,’ or ‘purity’ of silver was formerly expressed
in pennyweights; but is now generally reckoned in 1000ths, which admits of
greater accuracy. Pure silver was said to be silver of 12 pennyweights.”
If it contained 1, 2, or 3 parts of alloy, it was termed “silver of 11,
10, or 9 pennyweights,” as the case might be. Every assayer’s pennyweight
was nominally divided into 24 gr., and hence gave 288 fine grains, or
‘reports,’ for silver. The fineness of specimens containing odd grains was
given in pennyweights and fine grains. The ‘assay-pound’ for silver, on
this system, may be 24 Troy gr., when 2 real grains are equal to 1 ‘fine
pennyweight,’ and 1/12 real gr. equal to 1 ‘fine-grain.’ In the decimal
method pure silver is = 1000. The usual weight of silver taken for the
‘assay-pound,’ when the fineness is reckoned in 1000ths, is 20 Troy gr.,
every real grain of which represents 50/1000th of fineness; and so on of
smaller divisions. The mint “journeyweight of silver” is 60 lbs. Troy
(=3920 shillings, or a like value in other denominations).

_Ratio._ Cupellation, which is the distinctive and most important
operation in assaying gold and silver, is founded upon the feeble affinity
which these metals have for oxygen, in comparison with copper, tin, and
other cheaper metals; and on the tendency which these latter metals have
to oxidise rapidly in contact with lead at a high temperature, and to sink
with it into any porous earthen vessel, in a thin, glassy or vitriform
state. The conditions essential to the success of the process, and which
are found in the precious metals, are——that “the metal from which we wish
to part the oxides must not be volatile;” and that “it should also melt
and form a button at the heat of cupellation; for otherwise it would
continue disseminated, attached to the portion of oxide spread over the
cupel, and incapable of being collected.”[95]

[Footnote 95: Ure’s ‘Dict. of Arts, M., & M.,’ 5th ed., i, 214.]

_Concluding Remarks._ The art of assaying requires very great care, skill,
and experience, for its due exercise; and from the costliness of the
precious metals, and their general employment for coin, jewelry, plate,
&c., is of the utmost importance both to individuals and governments. Such
is the extreme delicacy of the operation of cupellation that, without the
requisites alluded to, it is more likely to fail than to give reliable
results. An assay is thought to be good when the ‘button’ or ‘bead’
separates readily from the cupel, has a round form, with a brilliant upper
surface, and the lower one granular and of a dead metallic lustre. When
the upper surface is ‘dead’ and ‘flat,’ too much heat has been employed;
and in the case of silver, some of the metal may have been lost by fuming
or absorption. When the bead adheres to the cupel, or is spongy,
variegated, or has scales of litharge still adhering to it, either too
little heat has been used, or the process has been stopped before the
assay was complete. The remedy is re-exposure to heat in the cupel, adding
a little powdered charcoal or a few small pieces of paper, and continuing
the heat until the metal ‘brightens’ and ‘circulates’ freely. The lead
employed must be absolutely pure, or that technically called ‘poor lead,’
and, for this purpose, is commonly prepared by the reduction of refined
litharge mixed with some carbonaceous matter, by heat; but, according to
the late T. H. Henry, “lead reduced from the litharge of commerce usually
contains from 10 to 15 _dwt._ of silver per ton.” These remarks apply
equally to gold and silver.

The process of assaying by the cupel, however skilfully conducted, gives
much less accurate results, especially with silver, than the method of
chemical analysis, often termed ‘humid’ or ‘volumetrical assay,’ whilst it
is, in all cases, much more troublesome and expensive, and with compounds
containing only small quantities of the precious metals, is not to be
depended on. See GOLD, SILVER; also CARAT, CUPELLATION, PARTING,
LIQUATION, QUARTATION, REFINING, &c. (and _below_).[96]

[Footnote 96: Those desirous of further information on the subject than
that contained in this work, are referred to Mitchell’s ‘Manual of
Assaying,’ and to the various memoirs of Gay-Lussac, Chaudet, D’Arcet,
Tillet, Brande, Ure, Henry, and others.]

=Assay of the Touch.= The fineness of JEWELRY, and of small quantities of
GOLD which it is either impossible or inconvenient to assay according to
the usual method, is generally determined by means of touch-needles and
touch-stones. The former are made in sets, containing gold of different
degrees of fineness, and differently alloyed with copper and silver. The
latter are usually of black basalt; but pieces of good black pottery
answer the purpose very well. The mode of using them is to mark the stone
with the sample under examination, and to compare its appearance,
hardness, colour, &c., with that produced by one or more of the needles.
When the two are similar, the quality or ‘fineness’ is considered to be
the same. The marks are then further examined by heating the ‘touch-stone’
to redness, and moistening the strokes with aquafortis, when the
appearance resulting from oxidation, &c., differ according to the nature
and quantity of the alloy. A nearly similar method is sometimes adopted
with SILVER; but the characteristics are scarcely so distinct with the
metal. (See _above_.)

=Hu′mid Assaying, Humid Assay.= Terms applied to the estimation of the
quantity of gold and silver in ores and alloys in the moist way, more
especially by the method known as volumetrical analysis. See GOLD
(ESTIM.), SILVER (Estim.), VOLUMETRICAL ANALYSIS, &c.

=ASSIMILA′TION.= [Eng. Fr.] _Syn._ ASSIMILA′TIO, L.; ANEIGUNG,
VERÄHNLICHUNG, &c., Ger. In _physiology_, the conversion of food into
nutriment, and finally into the substances which compose the bodies of
animals and plants; the function of nutrition.

=ASTHEN′IC.= _Syn._ ASTHEN′ICUS, L.; ASTHÉNIQUE, DÉBILE, Fr.; SCHWACH,
Ger. Weak; debilitated. In _pathology_, an epithet of diseases (ASTHEN′IC
DISEASES) accompanied by great and well-marked debility.

=ASTHEN′OPY.= _Syn._ ASTHENO′PIA, L. In _pathology_, incapacity to keep
the eyes fixed on near or small objects for any length of time without
confusion of vision. The common causes are over-exertion of the eyes,
particularly by artificial light, or by a very brilliant one, or during
convalescence; congestion of the ocular vessels; debilitating discharges
or indulgences; and general nervous debility, however produced. It
“appears to consist in weakness of the apparatus by which the eye is
adjusted for the vision of near objects;” and along with this “there is
an irritable state of the retina, connected in some manner with a tendency
to internal congestion of the eyes.”[97] The _treatment_ may consist of
rest to the eyes, and ablution of them in cold water, with such other
efforts to restore their tone and the general health as are noticed under
AMAUROSIS. The prospect of complete cure, when the cause is not removable,
is unfavorable; but even when confirmed the disease is not likely to end
in blindness. The use of convex spectacles of very low power will
generally be found serviceable. See EYE, SPECTACLES, VISION, &c.

[Footnote 97: T. W. Jones, ‘Defects of Sight,’ Lond., 1856; p. 82.]

=ASTH′MA= (ăst′mă[98]). [Eng., Ger., L., Gr.] _Syn._ ASTHME, Fr.;
ENGBRÜSTIGKEIT, Ger. In _pathology_, a well-known disease coming on by
fits, and characterised by shortness and difficulty of breathing,
accompanied by a wheezing sound, cough, stricture and tightness of the
chest, with other like symptoms. These gradually increase until the
patient can no longer remain in a recumbent position, being, as it were,
threatened with immediate suffocation; and they generally terminate, after
the lapse of a few hours, in copious expectoration. The attack usually
commences towards evening, and the symptoms increase in urgency during the
night——often occurring suddenly after the first sleep——until at length, on
the approach of morning, a remission takes place, and, in all probability,
the patient, worn out and exhausted, falls into a sound sleep. On awaking
in the morning he still feels the ‘tightness’ at the chest, breathes with
some difficulty, which is increased by moving, and cannot lie in bed
unless his head and shoulders are greatly raised. After a repetition of
the fits for some nights, they at length moderate, and after more
considerable remissions, pass off at last, leaving the patient in his
usual state of health for a time, or until fresh exciting causes produce a
return of the disease. For an evening or two previous to the fit the
patient generally feels drowsy, indolent, and low-spirited, and
experiences a sensation of fulness about the stomach, with headache,
general uneasiness, and indigestion——these are the premonitory symptoms.

[Footnote 98: Asth′ma (with th fully sounded), as given by Knowles, is
difficultly pronounceable, and is now obsolete.]

Asthma is principally confined to the later periods of life, and appears
in many cases to be hereditary. It is generally severest in the heat of
summer, or in the foggy or damp or windy weather of winter. The fits vary
in duration from two to several hours. Sometimes copious expectoration
commences early, which has led to the division of asthma, by nosologists,
into two kinds——dry, nervous, or spasmodic asthma (ASTHMA SIC′CUM, L.) and
humid a. (A. HU′MIDUM, L.).

The exciting causes of asthma are exposure to sudden changes of
temperature, particularly from heat to cold; unwholesome effluvia, hard
drinking, heavy meals, indigestion, violent exercise, and cold, damp,
foggy, and sometimes windy weather.

_Treatm._ A dry, warm, and airy situation as a residence should, if
possible, be sought. The use of flannel next the skin, and tepid or warm
bathing is also advantageous. The bowels should be kept regular by mild
aperients, and the stomach preserved in order by the adoption of a light
and wholesome diet; particularly avoiding excess in either eating or
drinking. The severity of the paroxysm may be generally lessened by
adopting the sitting posture, and inhaling the vapour of hot water or of
an infusion of chamomile. Small doses of camphor, ether, and opium,
frequently repeated, may also be tried. The inhalation of the vapour of a
little tar liquefied by heat is said to often produce considerable relief.
The fumes arising from the slow combustion of porous paper dipped in a
solution of nitre, and dried, have also been recommended. “The fumes of a
piece as big as one’s hand being placed on an earthenware plate, and
ignited, presently become sensible throughout the room; and within a
quarter of an hour their influence in many cases is rendered evident, in
clearing the passages and gradually opening the air tubes.” “Of calming
vapours that of chloroform is, however, the one likely, in respect of its
soothing power, to supersede all others. Inspired in moderate quantity,
far less than is requisite to produce general insensibility, it has been
found of singular efficacy in allaying, at once, the spasmodic distress of
an asthma-fit. But it is a remedy too potent and subtle to be entrusted to
the discretion of the patient himself.” (Dr Watson); unless, indeed, he
well understands its properties and nature, and has some friend near him
to restrain his using it too freely——a thing he is, unfortunately, often
tempted, by the urgency of the symptoms, to do. “Bleeding is an imprudent
operation in every species of asthma” (Dr Bree); and has often proved
highly injurious, especially in elderly persons. It is only in full
plethoric habits, or when the paroxysms are very severe, and attended with
signs of congestion of the lungs and brain, indicated by lividity of the
countenance, stupor, extreme dyspnœa, &c., that blood should be taken; and
then only by ‘cupping’ between the shoulders, or by leeches to the chest.
Emetics and active purgatives must also be avoided during the paroxysm; at
which time costiveness may be best removed by an aperient clyster
containing assafœtida. At other times, emetics (of ipecacuanha) and
diaphoretics, followed by mild purgatives, may be administered with
advantage; indeed, an emetic, taken a few hours before an impending fit,
will frequently prevent its accession. Dyspeptic symptoms must be treated
in the usual manner. “Chalk and opium will astonish the asthmatic, by the
excellence of their effects when the irritation proceeds from dyspepsia
of the first passages only.” (Dr Bree.) The same authority also states
that vinegar, separately administered, counteracts the flatulence and
distension of the stomach.

Various other remedies have been recommended for asthma; among which are
the smoking of tobacco and stramonium. In using the latter herb, the root
and lower parts of the stem are chopped up and placed in the bowl of a
common tobacco-pipe, and a few whiffs are occasionally taken. Drinking at
the same time should be avoided. Lately _lobelia inflata_ (Indian tobacco)
has been highly extolled in asthma, in doses of——tincture, 20 or 30 drops,
to 2 teaspoonfuls——powder, 5 to 15 or 20 gr.; taken at the commencement or
shortly before the accession of the fit, and repeated after the interval
of an hour, if nausea or expectoration does not intervene. Sir John Floyer
is said to have been cured of an asthma of 60 years’ standing, at the age
of 80, by the constant use of very strong coffee. Sir John Pringle adopted
the same remedy with great success. He remarks, “One quality occurred to
me which I have observed of that liquor (coffee), confirming what you have
said of its sedative powers. It is the best abater of periodic asthma
which I have seen. The coffee used ought to be the best Mocha, newly
burnt, and made very strong immediately after grinding it. I commonly
order an ounce for one dish, which is to be repeated with fresh coffee
after the interval of a quarter or half an hour; and which I direct to be
taken without milk or sugar.”[99]

[Footnote 99: ‘Letter to Dr Percival.’]

Very recently cigars and cigarettes of _datura tatula_, Linn.——a peculiar
species of stramonium——have been prepared by Messrs Savory and Moore; and
are strongly recommended by Drs Watson, Latham, Fergusson, and many other
physicians of eminence, as the very best remedy yet introduced for asthma.

A change of diet and habits, and particularly a change of residence, will
often produce a marked improvement in asthmatic patients, and even effect
a cure, when medicines have failed. The use of bark and bitters, or mild
chalybeate tonics (when not contra-indicated), tends to improve the tone
of the system, and may be adopted, in nearly all cases, with perfect
safety. See BATH, AIR (Compressed), CIGARS, DATURA, &c.

_Treatment for Horses._ Ether and belladonna; chlorodyne; inhalation of
chloroform; or amyl nitrite; subcutaneous injection of morphine or
atropine; arsenic; and regular digestible diet.

=Asthma, Grind′er’s.= See MELANOSIS.

=ASTHMA CURE.= 1. (Dr Aubrée, Ferte Vidame, Eure et Loire, France.)
Decoction of senega (10 parts of the root), 250 parts; iodide of
potassium, 50 parts; extract of opium, 4 parts; simple syrup, 500 parts;
weak spirit, 200 parts. Coloured with some cochineal tincture. (Hager.)

According to a later analysis by Schröppel, this remedy is thus
composed:——Iodide of potassium, 9 parts; French lactucarium, 1 part;
water, 288 parts; simple syrup, 48 parts; chloric ether, 1-1/2 part.

2. (Kubale, Klitschdorf, near Bunzlau.) This is a solution of iodide of
potassium, bromide of potassium, and sugar in water, strongly coloured
with a cochineal tincture containing alum. It is supplied in six bottles,
numbered 1 to 6, No. 1 being the weakest, and No. 6 the strongest in the
iodide and bromide. In No. 3, for example, we found:——Iodide of potassium,
5 grms.; sugar, 2-1/2 grms.; alum, 1/3 grm.; cochineal colouring matter,
1/2 grm.; water, 200 grms. (Hager.)

=ASTHMA TEA= (Dr Orleïn). Recommended for difficulty of breathing, dry
coughs, loss of sleep, loss of appetite, &c. Liquorice, 8 parts;
marshmallow root, 6 parts; Iceland moss, 5 parts; a sort of buckbean, 2
parts; horehound, 2 parts. (Schädler and Selle.)

=ASTHMATIC PASTILLES= (S. Kittel’s, now Daniel White & Co., New York). Set
fire to the pastilles and inhale the smoke. An analysis found in 100
parts:——Nitrate of potash, 20·1 parts; impure resin of scammony, 3·5
parts; gum and sugar, 35· parts; charcoal, plant-stems, and leaves, 40·7
parts. (Dr Fleck.)

=ASTRIN′GENT= (-trĭnje′-). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ASTRIN′GENS, L.;
ZUSAMMENZIEHEND, Ger. That straitens or causes wrinkling or constriction.
In _pharmacology_, an epithet of substances or agents (ASTRIN′GENTS;
ASTRINGEN′TIA, L.) which constrict animal fibre and coagulate albuminous
fluids, and thereby obviate relaxation and check excessive secretion or
discharges. In modern use, the word, both as an adj. and subst., is
chiefly applied to internal remedies, those of a like character, employed
externally, being usually termed ‘styptics,’ ‘desiccants,’ &c.

The principal astringents are——alcohol, alum, chalybeates (generally),
sulphate of copper, sulphate and perchloride of iron, acetate and
diacetate of lead, lime, bichloride of mercury, nitrate of silver,
vegetable astringents (see _below_), acetate, carbonate, chloride, oxide,
and sulphate of zinc, &c. See DESICCANTS, STYPTICS, TONICS, &c.

=Astringents, Min′eral.= See ASTRINGENT (_above_).

=Astringents, Veg′etable.= Of these the principal are——alkanet, bistort,
catechu, the cinchona barks and their alkaloids, dragon’s blood, French or
red rose, galls, kino, logwood, mastiche, oak-bark, red sanders wood,
rhatany, tormentil, tannic acid, gallic acid, and areca nut. (See
_above_.)

=Astringent Prin′ciple.= A term formerly restricted to tannin; but now
commonly applied to the astringent matter of any vegetable.

=ATMOM′ETER.= _Syn._ ATMIDOM′ETER; ATMOM′ETRUM, &c., L.; ATMOMÈTRE, &c.,
Fr. In _chemistry_ and _meteorology_, an instrument for measuring the rate
of evaporation from a humid surface. It is of very simple construction,
and possesses some practical value. It consists of a long glass graduated
tube divided into inches, having attached to the bottom a hollow ball made
of porous earthenware, similar to that used in water bottles. When used,
water is poured in at the top until it rises to the zero point of the
scale. The outside of the porous ball being always covered with dew, the
more rapidly the evaporation takes place, the more quickly will the water
fall in the tube.

=AT′MOSPHERE= (-fēre). _Syn._ ATMOSPHE′′RA, L.; ATMOSPHÈRE, Fr.;
ATMOSPHÄRE, DUNSTKREIS, Ger. Primarily, a ‘vapour-sphere,’ appr., the
assemblage of respirable gas and aëriform vapours which surround the
earth; fig., any surrounding medium or influence.

_Comp., Chem. prop., Pur., Uses, &c._ See AIR (Atmospheric).

_Mechanical properties_ of the atmosphere:——

COLOUR:——The prevailing colour of the atmosphere is blue; at considerable
elevations this blue tint is lost, and the sky appears deep black. The
prevalence of blue is referred to the greater facility with which the blue
and violet rays are reflected, whilst the glowing tints of morning and
evening are conceived to arise from the red rays possessing greater
momentum than the other rays of the spectrum.

DENSITY:——The density of the atmosphere diminishes with the distance from
the earth’s surface, and this is the duplicate ratio of the altitude.
Thus, if at a given altitude the density of the air is only one half what
it is at the level of the sea, at twice that elevation it possesses only
one fourth that density. On this fact depends the application of the
barometer to the determination of the elevation or depression of any point
above or below the level of the sea, taken as a standard.

        _Density of the Atmosphere at Different
        Elevations._ By Prof. GRAHAM.

  +----------------------+-------+-------------+
  |Height above the level|Volume |Height of the|
  | of the Sea in miles. |of Air.| Barometer.  |
  +----------------------+-------+-------------+
  |          0·          |   1   |     30      |
  |          2·705       |   2   |     15      |
  |          5·41        |   4   |      7·5    |
  |          8·115       |   8   |      3·75   |
  |         10·82        |  16   |      1·875  |
  |         13·525       |  32   |       ·9375 |
  |         16·23        |  64   |       ·46875|
  +----------------------+-------+-------------+

HEIGHT, &c.:——If the density of the air were uniform throughout its whole
extent, the height of the atmosphere, measured by a corresponding column
of mercury, would be barely 5-1/4 miles. As, however, its density
decreases with the distance from the earth’s surface, its real height must
be considerably greater. Kepler found that the reflection and refraction
of the sun’s rays by the atmosphere, producing twilight, ceases when that
luminary descends 18 degrees below the horizon, whence it is calculated
that the atmosphere cannot have a greater altitude than 45 miles. On the
other hand, there is reason to believe that it cannot be much less than
this sum. “With a good air-pump air may be rarefied 300 times; supposing
this to be the utmost limit to which rarefaction can be carried, the
atmosphere would still extend to an altitude of above 40 miles.” Whether,
in a state of extreme tenuity in which its grosser properties are lost, it
extends indefinitely into space, was formerly a subject of controversy.
That its boundaries are limited, and that it belongs exclusively to our
earth appears almost certain. “We are warranted in concluding that the
atoms of air are not infinitely divisible, and consequently that the
atmosphere has a limit; and the limit must be situated at that height
above the earth where the gravitation of the atoms is just equal to the
force of their repulsion.”[100] Under ordinary circumstances the mercury
of the barometer falls about one inch for every 1000 feet of elevation.

[Footnote 100: Brande’s ‘Dict. of Lit., Sci., & Art.’]

PRESSURE:——The weight or pressure of the atmosphere is shown by the rise
of water in the barrel of the common ‘lifting pump’ and the suspension of
the mercurial column in the tube of the barometer. The last affords a
ready means of determining the actual pressure of the air, the column of
mercury, and the column of air by which it is suspended, resembling two
weights in equilibrio, at the opposite extremities of the same balance.
The mean height of the barometer at the level of the sea, in England, is
28·6 inches (= about 33-1/2 feet of water); and as a cubic inch of mercury
weighs 3425·92 gr., or ·48956 _lb._, it follows that the weight of a
column of mercury whose base is a square inch is 14·6 _lbs._ avoirdupois.
The pressure of the atmosphere is not merely downwards, but is equally
diffused in all directions, and exerts a most powerful effect in the
economy of organic beings. On the surface of the body of an adult of
ordinary size (say = 15 sq. feet, or 2160 inches), it amounts to the
enormous weight of 31,536 _lbs._, which is not sensible, only because it
is balanced by the force of the elastic fluids in the interior of the
body. Were this equilibrium to be suddenly destroyed, the consequence
would be, either that the body would be instantly torn to pieces with
explosive violence, or that it would be crushed under the overwhelming
weight that would suddenly fall upon it. Even the comparatively slight
variations of atmospheric pressure which occur with changes of wind,
weather, and season, exercise a perceptible effect on the functions of
life.

        _Mean pressure of the Atmosphere at the level of the
        Sea, in different latitudes, at 32° Fahr., expressed in
        inches of mercury_.

  -----+------------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------
  Lat. |   Height   |  Lat.    |  Height   |   Lat.    |   Height
       |  (inches). |          | (inches). |           |  (inches).
  -----+------------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------
   0°  |  29·930    |   40°    |   30·019  |   54-1/2° |   29·926
  10   |  29·975    |   45     |   30·000  |   60      |   29·803
  20   |  30·064    |   49     |   29·978  |   64      |   29·606
  30   |  30·108    |   51-1/2 |   29·551  |   67      |   29·673
  -----+------------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------

TEMPERATURE:——The temperature of the atmosphere, independently of changes
arising from variations of latitude and season, diminishes, like its
density, with its elevation. In general, every 100 yards of ascent causes
the temperature to fall 1° Fahr. See AIR (Atmospheric), EPIDEMICS,
VENTILATION, &c.

=Atmosphere=. In _engineering_ and _pneumatics_, the pressure of a column
of mercury at 0° Cent. or 32° Fahr., which is 76 centimètres or 29·9218
inches high, at the mean level of the sea in latitude 45°, taken as a
standard of that exerted by other elastic fluids. In practice this is
assumed to be 15 _lbs_. to the square inch, under a barometrical pressure
of 30 inches. Thus, steam or air condensed so as to exert a pressure of 30
_lbs_. per sq. inch is said to be of two atmospheres; at 45 _lbs_., of
three atmospheres, &c.

=AT′OM (-ŭm). Atomic Weight, Atomic Theory=. _Syn_. AT′OMUS, L.; ATOME,
Fr.; ATOM, UNTHEILBARE THEILCHEN, Ger.

ATOMIC WEIGHT. When the elements unite chemically, they invariably do so
in the proportions by weight represented by the numbers attached to them
in the following table, or in multiples of these proportions. Dalton
accounted for this law by supposing that the constituent particles of
matter are indivisible, and believed that, if it were possible to place
such particles in the balance, their relative weights would be found to
correspond with the numbers given in the table.[101] In other words, the
term _atom_, which is derived from the Greek ατομος, indivisible, is
applied in modern chemistry to the smallest quantity by weight of an
element which is capable of existing in a chemical compound, hydrogen
being taken as unity.

[Footnote 101: Strictly speaking, Dalton, the inventor of the Atomic
Theory, did not adopt the precise numbers given in the table, but others,
which, however, bear a very simple relation to them.]

  --------------------+------------+-----------+------------
        Name.         |   Symbol.  |  Atomic   |   Atomic
                      |            |  weight.  |   volume.
  --------------------+------------+-----------+------------
  =ALUMINUM=          |     Al     |    27·5   |
  ANTIMONY            |     Sb     |   122     |
  ARSENIC             |     As     |    75     |    1/4
  BARIUM              |     Ba     |   137     |
  BISMUTH             |     Bi     |   208     |
  BORON               |     B      |    11     |
  =BROMINE=           |     Br     |    80     |     1
  Cadmium             |     Cd     |   112     |     2
  Cæsium              |     Cs     |   133     |
  =CALCIUM=           |     Ca     |    40     |
  =CARBON=            |     C      |    12     |
  Cerium              |     Ce     |    92     |
  =CHLORINE=          |     Cl     |    35·5   |     1
  CHROMIUM            |     Cr     |    52·5   |
  COBALT              |     Co     |    58·8   |
  =COPPER=            |     Cu     |    63·5   |
  Didymium            |     D      |    96     |
  =FLUORINE=          |     F      |    19     |     1
  Glucinum            |     G      |    14     |
  GOLD                |     Au     |   196·7   |
  =HYDROGEN=          |     H      |    1      |     1
  Indium              |     In     |    74     |
  =IODINE=            |     I      |   127     |     1
  IRIDIUM             |     Ir     |   198     |
  =IRON=              |     Fe     |    56     |
  Lanthanum           |     L      |    92     |
  =LEAD=              |     Pb     |   207     |
  Lithium             |     Li     |     7     |
  MAGNESIUM           |     Mg     |    24     |
  =MANGANESE=         |     Mn     |    55     |
  =MERCURY=           |     Hg     |   200     |     2
  Molybdenum          |     Mo     |    92     |
  NICKEL              |     Ni     |    58·8   |
  Niobium             |     Nb     |    97·6   |
  =NITROGEN=          |     N      |    14     |     1
  Osmium              |     Os     |   199     |
  =OXYGEN=            |     O      |    16     |     1
  PALLADIUM           |     Pd     |   106·5   |
  =PHOSPHORUS=        |     P      |    31     |    1/4
  PLATINUM            |     Pt     |   197·4   |
  =POTASSIUM=         |     K      |    39     |
  RHODIUM             |     Rh     |   104     |
  Rubidium            |     Rb     |    85·5   |
  Ruthenium           |     Ru     |   104     |
  Selenium            |     Se     |    79     |     1
  =SILICON=           |     Si     |    28·5   |
  =SILVER=            |     Ag     |   108     |
  =SODIUM=            |     Na     |    23     |
  STRONTIUM           |     Sr     |    87·5   |
  =SULPHUR=           |     S      |    32     |     1
  Tantalum            |     Ta     |   137·5   |
  Tellurium           |     Te     |   128     |
  Thallium            |     Tl     |   204     |
  Thorium             |     Th     |   231·5   |
  TIN                 |     Sn     |   118     |
  TITANIUM            |     Ti     |    50     |
  TUNGSTEN            |     W      |   184     |
  URANIUM             |     U      |   120     |
  Vanadium            |     V      |    51·2   |
  Yttrium             |     Y      |    68     |
  =ZINC=              |     Zn     |    65     |     2
  Zirconium           |     Zr     |    90     |
  --------------------+------------+-----------+------------

ATOMIC VOLUME. The volume or space occupied by the atomic weights of gases
at a temperature of 60° F., and under a pressure of 30 inches of the
barometer, compared with that occupied by one part by weight of hydrogen
under the same conditions.

In the same table the most important elements are distinguished by the
largest type, those next in importance by medium type, and those of rare
occurrence, or of which we know but little, by the smallest type.

=ATOMIC WEIGHTS.= See ATOM.

=ATON′IC.= _Syn._ ATON′ICUS, L.; ATONIQUE, Fr.; ATONISCH, SCHLAFF, Ger.
Weak; debilitated; deficient in tone or strength. In _pathology_, applied
to diseases or conditions of the body (ATONIC DISEASES; ATONY) in which
debility is the leading feature. In _pharmacology_, ATONICS are agents
which relax or lower the tone of the system.

=AT′ONY.= _Syn._ ATO′NIA, L.; ATONIE, &c., Fr., Ger. In _pathology_, loss
of tone, relaxation, morbid diminution of vital energy or power; commonly
applied to debility of any kind.

=AT′ROPHY= (-fe). _Syn._ ATRO′PHIA, L.; ATROPHIÉ, &c., Fr.; ATROPHIE, Ger.
In _pathology_, wasting or emaciation, with loss of strength, and
unaccompanied by fever or other sensible cause; defective nutrition;
decline.

_Classif., Causes, &c._ It is either local, as in the case of a limb which
is small, imperfectly developed, or withered; or general, affecting the
whole body. GEN′ERAL ATROPHY appears to depend on deficient nutrition,
arising from a want of due balance between the functions of assimilation
and absorption, or from profuse evacuations draining off the materials
necessary for the support of the body. In the former case only may it be
regarded as an independent disease. LO′CAL ATROPHY commonly arises from
some cause which lessens the normal circulation of blood in the part; or
from a diminution of the nervous influence, as in paralysis. General
atrophy is most frequent in infancy, childhood, and old age. In the first
two it may be often traced to bad nursing, worms, or a scrofulous taint;
and not unfrequently to continually inhaling impure or damp air. In
adults, the causes are impaired digestion and imperfect action of the
chyliferous organs, and sometimes diseased action of the liver. In many
cases it results from the use of tobacco.

_Treatm._ This consists in a close attention to diet (which should be
liberal and nutritious), exercise, clothing, ventilation, warmth, &c.,
with gentle stimulants, and chalybeate tonics where not contra-indicated;
and, in the case of adults, the moderate use of pure generous wine or
malt-liquor. Among special remedies, both in this disease and anæmia, may
be mentioned pure sweet cod-liver oil, which seldom fails to arrest or
greatly retard the progress of the disease, and in very many cases effect
an entire cure. When this affection is symptomatic of any other disease,
as worms, stomach or liver complaints, &c., the removal of the latter must
of course be first attempted. See ANÆMIA, CHLOROSIS, TABES, &c.

=ATRO′′PIA= (trōpe′y′ă). C_{34}H_{23}NO_{6}. [L.; B. P.] _Syn._ AT′ROPINE
(-pin; sometimes atro′pĭne‡), Eng., Fr.; ATROPI′NA, ATRO′′PIUM*, L. An
alkaloid discovered by Brandes in _at′ropa belladon′na_ or deadly
nightshade.

_Prep._ 1. (B. P. Process.) Take of belladonna-root, recently dried, and
in coarse powder, 2 _lbs._; rectified spirit, 10 _pints_; slaked lime, 1
_oz._; diluted sulphuric acid, carbonate of potash, of each a sufficiency;
chloroform, 3 _fl. oz._; purified animal charcoal, a sufficiency;
distilled water, 10 _fl. oz._ Macerate the root in 4 pints of the spirit,
for 24 hours, with frequent stirring. Transfer to a displacement
apparatus, and exhaust the root with the remainder of the spirit by slow
percolation. Add the lime to the tincture placed in a bottle, and shake
them occasionally several times. Filter, add the diluted sulphuric acid in
very feeble excess to the filtrate, and filter again. Distil off three
fourths of the spirit, add to the residue the distilled water, evaporate
at a gentle heat, but as rapidly as possible, until the liquor is reduced
to one third of its volume and no longer smells of alcohol; then let it
cool. Add very cautiously, with constant stirring, a solution of carbonate
of potash so as nearly to neutralise the acid, care, however, being taken
that an excess is not used. Set to rest for six hours, then filter, and
add carbonate of potash in such quantity that the liquid shall acquire a
decided alkaline reaction. Place in a bottle with the chloroform; mix well
by frequently repeated brisk agitation, and pour the mixed liquids into a
funnel furnished with a glass stop-cock. When the chloroform has subsided,
draw it off by the stop-cock, and distil it on a water-bath from a retort
connected with a condenser. Dissolve the residue in warm rectified spirit;
digest the solution with a little animal charcoal: filter, evaporate, and
cool until colourless crystals are obtained.

2. Expressed juice of belladonna is evaporated over a water-bath to the
consistence of an extract, and then triturated in a marble or porcelain
mortar with a strong solution of caustic potassa; the resulting mass is
digested and well agitated for some time, at the temperature of 75° to 80°
Fahr., with benzole, q. s.; and, after repose, the benzole-solution is
carefully separated, and its volatile hydrocarbon is distilled off by the
heat of a water-bath; the residuum in the retort is now exhausted with
water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and the resulting ‘acid-solution,’
after filtration, precipitated with carbonate of soda; the precipitate is
crude ATROPIA, which is collected on a filter, pressed between folds of
bibulous paper, and dried; after which it is purified by one or more
re-solutions, in alcohol, and crystallisations, which may or may not be
modified in the manner noticed. The proportion of potassa should be about
1 dr. to every quart of the expressed juice. An excellent and economical
process. The product is 0·3 to 4% of the weight of the plant from which
the juice has been obtained.

3. (Mein and Liebig.) Belladonna-root (fresh-dried and coarsely powdered)
is exhausted by alcohol (sp. gr. 0·822); slaked lime (1 part for every 24
of the dried root employed) is then added to the tincture, and the whole
digested, with agitation, for 24 hours; sulphuric acid is next added, drop
by drop, to slight excess, and, after filtration, rather more than one
half the spirit is removed by distillation; a little water is now added to
the residue, and the remainder of the alcohol evaporated as quickly as
possible by a gentle heat; after again filtering, the liquid is reduced by
further evaporation to the 1/12th part of the weight of the root employed,
and a concentrated solution of potassa dropped into the cold liquid (to
throw down a dark greyish-brown matter), carefully avoiding excess or
rendering the liquid in the slightest degree alkaline; in a few hours the
liquid is again filtered, and carbonate of potassa added as long as a
precipitate (ATROPIA) falls; after a further interval of from 12 to 24
hours, this precipitate is collected and drained in a filter, and after
pressure between folds of blotting-paper, dried by a very gentle heat. It
is purified by making it into a paste with water, again squeezing it
between the folds of blotting-paper, drying it, re-dissolving it in 5
times its weight of alcohol, decolouring it with pure animal charcoal,
distilling off greater part of the alcohol, and evaporation and
crystallisation by a very gentle heat; or only about one half the spirit
is distilled off, and 3 or 4 times its volume of water gradually agitated
with it, the resulting milky liquid being then heated to boiling, and
allowed to cool very slowly, when nearly the whole of the ATROPIA
crystallises out after a few hours. The same may be effected by at once
agitating 6 or 8 volumes of water with the alcoholic solution, and setting
aside the mixture for 12 to 24 hours, by which time the crystallisation
will be completed. This process originated with Soubeiran, was improved by
Mein, and subsequently, with slight modifications, adopted by Liebig. The
product is about 0·3% of the weight of root operated on.

4. (Bouchardat and Cooper.) The filtered tincture is precipitated with
iodine dissolved in an aqueous solution of iodide of potassium, the
resulting ioduretted hydriodate of atropia, decomposed by zinc-and-water,
the metallic oxide separated by means of carbonate of potassa, and the
alkaloid thus obtained dissolved in alcohol and crystallised.

5. (Mr Luxton.) The dry leaves of belladonna are gently boiled for 2 hours
in distilled water just sufficient to cover them, and the resulting
decoction is strained through a coarse cloth into a large precipitating
jar; this process is repeated with a second quantity of distilled water,
and the two decoctions mixed; concentrated sulphuric acid is now added in
the proportion of 2 dr. to every pound of leaves operated on, by which the
vegetable albumen of the decoction is precipitated, and the liquid becomes
clear and sherry-coloured; the clear liquor is now decanted or syphoned
off, and, if necessary, filtered; the filtrate is now decomposed by either
passing a stream of gaseous ammonia through it, or by suspending in it a
lump of carbonate of ammonia. The effect is that the liquid turns black,
and crystals of ATROPIA are slowly formed and deposited. At the expiration
of a day or two, the supernatant mother-liquid is removed with a syphon,
and the crystals thrown on a filter to drain and dry.[102] It may be
purified by re-solution and crystallisation. 1 lb. of leaves yields 40
gr.; or at the rate of fully ·57%.

[Footnote 102: ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ 1854-5, p. 209{?}.]

6. (Rabourdin.) To the crystallised juice of the plant (previously heated
to coagulate its albumen, filtered, and allowed to cool), 1 quart, is
added of caustic potassa 1 dr., and afterwards of chloroform 1 oz.; the
whole is then agitated well, and after half an hour’s repose, the
supernatant liquor is poured from the discoloured chloroform, which, after
being washed with distilled water as long as it gives any colour to that
liquid, is placed in a small retort, and the chloroform distilled off by
the heat of a water-bath; the residuum is dissolved in a little water
acidulated with sulphuric acid, and precipitated with carbonate of
potassa, in slight excess; the precipitate is redissolved in alcohol, and
the solution, by spontaneous evaporation, yields crystals of ATROPIA.

7. (Ure.) From the expressed juice of the fresh, or the watery extract of
the dry plant, by treating it with caustic soda, in slight excess, and
then agitating the mixture with 1-1/2 times its volume of ether; the
ATROPIA taken up by the ether is again deposited after repose for some
time, and is then purified by repeating the treatment with fresh ether as
often as necessary.

8. Freshly precipitated hydrate of magnesia is added to the coagulated and
filtered expressed juice, and the mixture evaporated to dryness, as
quickly as possible, in a water-bath; the residuum is pulverised and
digested in strong alcohol, and the clear liquid allowed to evaporate
spontaneously. The crystals may be purified by repeated re-solutions in
alcohol.

_Prop., Tests, &c._ The crystals obtained from hot concentrated solutions,
colourless, transparent, silky prisms; from solutions in dilute spirit,
silky needles, like those of disulphate of quinine. It is colourless; has
a bitter, acrid, and somewhat metallic taste; dissolves in 200 parts (300
parts——Thomson) of cold and 50 to 54 parts of boiling water, in 1-1/2
parts of cold alcohol, and in 25 parts of cold, and 6 parts of boiling
ether; it has an alkaline reaction, fuses at about 194° Fahr., is slightly
volatile at common temperatures, and freely rises in vapour at 212° Fahr.;
at higher temperatures it volatilises with partial decomposition; with the
acids it forms salts, of which several are crystallisable.

_Tests._——1. Nitric acid forms with it a yellow solution:——2. With cold
sulphuric acid it gives a colourless solution, which becomes red only when
heated:——3. Aqueous solutions of atropia and its salts are——_a_, turned
red by tincture of iodine——_b_, gives a citron-yellow precipitate with
terchloride of gold——_c_, a flocculent whitish precipitate with tincture
of galls, and——_d_, a yellowish-white one with bichloride of platinum:——4.
Heated with caustic potassa or soda, it suffers decomposition, and ammonia
is evolved:——5. A weak solution cautiously applied to the eyelid or
conjunctiva, produces dilation of the pupil lasting for several hours.

_Pur., &c._ Alkaloid prepared from the root of atropa belladonna.
Crystals; white, in the form of prisms; soluble in water and rectified
spirit. It leaves no ash when burned with free access of air (B. P.).

_Phys. eff._ It is a very powerful narcotico-acrid poison.[103] Its
effects are similar to those of belladonna, but considerably more
powerful. “A very minute (imponderable) quantity applied to the eye is
sufficient to dilate the pupil.” (Pereira.) The 1/12 to 1/10 gr. often
causes very serious effects in the human subject. The 1/6th of a grain
accelerates the pulse, affects the brain, causes dryness of the throat,
difficulty of deglutition, dilation of the pupil, dimness of sight,
giddiness, strangury, numbness of limbs, sense of formication in the arms,
rigidity of thighs, depression of pulse, and sometimes feebleness or loss
of voice. These symptoms continue for from 12 to 24 hours. In larger doses
death ensues.

[Footnote 103: A “cerebro-spinal poison.”——Taylor.]

_Ant., &c._ These may be similar to those described under BELLADONNA and
ALKALOID.

_Uses._ Chiefly as an external agent, as a substitute for belladonna, to
cause dilation of the pupil; and as a local anæsthetic or anodyne,
especially in facial neuralgia. Internally, it has been occasionally given
in hooping-cough, chorea, and a few other nervous diseases.——_Dose_, 1/30
gr., gradually increased to 1/20, or, occasionally, even 1/15 gr. in
solution, or made into a pill with liquorice powder and honey, or syrup,
or used endermically; for a collyrium, 1 gr. to water 1 oz., a few drops
only being applied to the eye at a time, the greatest caution in each case
being observed. It is also employed to make the sulphate. In dispensing it
a single drop of acetic acid, or dilute sulphuric acid, will be found to
facilitate and ensure its perfect solution. See BELLADONNA and
BELLADONINE.

=Atropia, Sul′phate of.= _Syn._ ATRO′PIA SUL′PHAS, L. _Prep._ (B. P.) Take
of atropia, 120 _gr._; distilled water, 4 _fl. dr._; diluted sulphuric
acid, a sufficiency.

Mix the atropia with the water and add the acid gradually, stirring them
together until the alkaloid is dissolved and the solution is neutral.
Evaporate it to dryness at a temperature not exceeding 100°.

_Characters and Tests._——A colourless powder, soluble in water, forming a
solution which is neutral to test-paper, and when applied to the eye
dilates the pupil as the solution of atropia does. It leaves no ash when
burned with free access of air.

Intended for external application. It is a powerful poison.

_Uses, &c._ The same as those of the pure alkaloid.——_Dose_, 1/25 to 1/20
gr., either in solution or pills; 1 to 3 gr. to water 1 fl. oz., as a
collyrium, of which a few drops seldom fail to produce full dilation of
the pupil in about a quarter of an hour; 1 to 2 gr. to lard 1 dr. forms an
excellent ointment in neuralgic affections.

_Obs._ Sulphate of atropia (which is intended for external use only) is
rather difficult to crystallise, as it has a tendency to assume an
amorphous or gum-like condition. It is more soluble than the pure
alkaloid; and, like it, is a terrific poison.

=ATROPIA, VALERIANATÈ.= The Paris Codex directs this salt to be prepared
as follows:——Dissolve valerianic acid in ether, and add atropia just
sufficient to saturate the acid. Let the ether evaporate.

=ATROP′IC ACID.= _Syn._ ACIDUM ATROP′ICUM, L. The name given by Richter to
a volatile crystallisable substance, possessing acid properties, found in
atropa belladonna or deadly nightshade. In many respects it resembles
benzoic acid, from which, however it is distinguished by not precipitating
the salts of iron.

=ATROPI′NA, At′ropine.= See ATROPIA.

=AT′TAR.= See OTTO and VOLATILE OILS.

=ATTELETTES= (-lĕts′). [Fr.] In _cookery_, small skewers, generally of
silver, with ornamental heads. The term is also applied to small dishes
(ENTRÉES, &c.) in which the articles are mounted on attelettes. Small
fish, as smelts, are often served in this way. See AIGUILLETTE.

=ATTEN′UANT= (-ū-ănt). _Syn._ ATTEN′UANS, L.; ATTÉNUANT, Fr.; VERDÜNNEND,
Ger. That makes thin, or less dense or viscid; diluting. In _medicine_,
applied to remedies (ATTEN′UANTS, SPANÆM′ICS) which are supposed to act by
thinning, diluting, or impoverishing the blood.

=ATTENUA′TION.= _Syn._ ATTENUA′TIO, L.; ATTÉNUATION, Fr.; VERDÜNNUNG, Ger.
A thinning or diminishing; a reducing in consistence. In _medicine_, see
the adj. (_above_); in _brewing_, the decrease of the density of worts
during fermentation, arising from the gradual conversion of their
‘saccharine’ (sugar) into alcohol. See BREWING, DISTILLATION, WORTS, &c.

=ATTRAC′TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ATTRAC′TIO, L.; ANZIEHUNG, Ger. The
power that draws together matter and resists its separation. That force
which attracts bodies towards the centre of the earth, and which keeps on
its surface those that are movable, is called GRAVITY, or the attraction
of gravitation. It is exerted at sensible, often at immense, distances,
and determines the figure and motions of the planets and comets, and
causes the descent of heavy bodies to the ground. This force it is which
confers the property of weight upon matter.

That force which unites particles of the same kind of matter, so as to
cause them to assume the condition of solid or liquid masses, _e.g._
particles of chalk to form a mass of chalk, particles of water to form a
mass of water, is called COHESION, or the ATTRACTION OF COHESION. That
force which binds together different substances without changing their
properties, as when paint sticks to wood, ink to paper, &c., is called
ADHESION, or the ATTRACTION OF ADHESION. CAPILLARY ATTRACTION is a
modification of adhesion, and is characterised by being exerted between
liquids and the internal surfaces of tubes and pervious bodies. The
absorption of water by a sponge, the ascent of oil in the wick of a lamp,
are examples of this power. The CHEMICAL FORCE or AFFINITY differs from
all other kinds of attraction in being exerted between definite and
constant quantities (atoms) of matter, usually of dissimilar natures, and
producing combinations possessing properties different from those of their
components. (See AFFINITY.) This force, as well as cohesion and adhesion,
is exerted at distances so small as to be immeasurable.

The terms ELEC′TRIC ATTRACTION and MAGNET′IC ATTRACTION are employed in
_physics_ to denote phenomena which we imperfectly understand, and which
operate between bodies at sensible distances, and simulate those of the
attraction of gravitation.

=ATTRI′′TION= (trĭsh′-ŭn). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ATTRI′′TIO, L.; ABREIBUNG,
AUFREIBUNG, Ger. In _mechanics_, the wearing away of parts by friction. In
_medicine_, a graze, abrasion, or solution of continuity of the cuticle,
or the act which causes it. In _surgery_, the crushing or tearing away of
any exterior portion of the body by violence. See ABRASION,
ANTI-ATTRITION, FRICTION, &c.

=AURANTIA′CEÆ= (-she-ē). [Lat.; DC.] The orange tribe. In _botany_, an
extensive and important natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, found
exclusively in the temperate and tropical parts of the Old World, and
unknown in a wild state in America. The fruit is pulpy, succulent,
sub-acid, and eatable, and separated into cells by membranous partitions,
and is covered with a leathery aromatic skin or rind. Some of the genera
embrace plants of great beauty and utility. A few of the Indian species
are climbers. The genus CIT′RUS, which includes the orange, lemon, citron,
lime, bergamot, and shaddock, is that best known in Europe.

=AURAN′′TIIN= (-she-ĭn). _Syn._ HESPERIDIN; AURAN′TINE* (-tĭn), Eng., Fr.;
AURANTII′NA, &c., L. The bitter principle of the peel of oranges and
lemons.

_Prep._ The exterior or yellow peel of the Seville orange (carefully
separated from the white matter, and air-dried) is steeped in hot water,
and the filtered liquor gently evaporated to dryness.

_Prop._, _&c._ It possesses the bitter properties of the peel without any
of its glutinosity or fragrance, and is said to agree better with delicate
stomachs. It may be taken in water either with or without the addition of
a little sugar or capillaire, or dissolved in wine.

=AU′′RIC= (aw′- or awr′-). _Syn._ AURI′CUS, L. Of or relating to gold, or
containing it, or formed from it.

=AURIF′EROUS.= _Syn._ AU′′RIFER, AURIF′ERUS, L.; AURIFÈRE, Fr.;
GOLDHALTIG, Ger. In, _mineralogy_, that yields or contains gold; as
auriferous sand, a. quartz, &c.

=AURIPIGMEN′TUM†.= [L.] Literally, paint of gold; appr., native orpiment.
See ARSENIC.

=AURO-CHLO′′RIDES= (klōre′-īdz). Compounds of terchloride of gold with
chlorides of other bases. They may be prepared by mixing the terchloride
of gold with the chloride of the base, in atomic proportions, and setting
aside the solution to crystallise.

_Prop._, _&c._ Most of the auro-chlorides crystallise in prisms, dissolve
in both alcohol and water, have an orange or yellow colour, and are
decomposed at a red heat.

=AURO-CY′ANIDES= (ĭdz). In _chemistry_, compounds of cyanide of gold with
cyanides of other bases. They may be formed in a similar manner to the
auro-chlorides. Auro-cyanide of potassium is much used in electro-gilding.

=AURORA BOREALIS.= This luminous phenomenon, which is occasionally seen in
our own country on clear frosty nights, and much more frequently and
vividly by the dwellers in more northern latitudes, has been supposed to
have an electrical origin, and to be occasioned by the passage of
electricity through the rarefied strata of the upper regions of the
atmosphere from the poles towards the equator. But physicists look upon
this explanation as unsatisfactory, and inadequate to account for the
effects produced. The hypothesis, however, seems to derive some support
from the following fact:——

If one of Gassiot’s vacuum tubes be brought near to a powerful electrical
machine, both while the machine is in motion and for some time after,
flashes of light may be seen passing from the wire at one end of the tube
to the other extremity, which flashes bear a great resemblance to the
auroral rays. The great doubt, however, is whether the conditions
necessary to the production of the aurora are similar to those prevailing
during this experiment, a doubt not lessened by the difficulty of
satisfactorily accounting for the rarefied state of the atmosphere which
is assumed to exist.

The forms which the aurora assumes are very varied and of great beauty;
there appears, however, to be some general similarity in its aspect at the
same locality. Its appearance is briefly as follows:——A dingy aspect in
the heavens in a northernly direction is usually the precursor of the
aurora; and this gradually becomes darker in colour, and assumes the form
of a circular segment surrounded by a luminous arch, and resting at each
end on the horizon. This dark segment presents the appearance of a thick
cloud, and is frequently seen as such in the fading twilight, before the
auroral light manifests itself. The density of this segment must, however,
be very inconsiderable, as stars may sometimes be seen shining brightly
through it.

This dark segment is bounded by a luminous arch of a blueish-white colour,
which varies in breadth from 1 to 6 diameters of the moon, having the
lower edge sharply defined, and the upper edge only when the breadth of
the arch is small. This arch may be considered to be a part of a luminous
ring, elevated at a considerable distance above the earth’s surface and
having its centre corresponding with some point near the north pole. The
preceding description indicates the general features of the appearance of
the aurora borealis; but several auroras have been described which
presented striking peculiarities. Sometimes the phenomenon assumed the
form of one or more curtains of light, depending from dingy clouds whose
folds were agitated to and fro as if by the wind. Sometimes this curtain
appeared to consist of separate ribbons of light, arranged side by side in
groups of different lengths, and attaining their greatest brilliancy at
the lower edges. In this country the aurora borealis seldom assumes the
distinctness and brilliancy which characterise its appearance in northern
latitudes, but the description thus given indicates the type to which such
appearance of the meteor more or less approaches. During the winter that
prevails in the northern hemispheres the inhabitants of the arctic zone
are deprived for months together of the sun’s light, and their long dreary
night is relieved by the light emanating from this beautiful meteor, which
shines with great frequency and brilliancy in those regions.

A remarkable connection has been observed between the aurora and the
earth’s magnetism, the magnetic needle showing great disturbance during a
display of the aurora. The arches of the aurora most commonly traverse the
sky at right angles to the magnetic meridian, though deviations from this
direction are not rare. Sir J. Franklin found that the disturbance of the
needle was not always proportionate to the agitation of the aurora, but
was always greater when the quick motion and vivid light were observed to
take place in a hazy atmosphere. The aurora is most frequent and vivid in
high latitudes, towards either pole, but the meteor is not confined to
these parts, as Dr Hooker states that one of the most brilliant displays
he ever witnessed was under the tropical sky of India; and other observers
have recorded instances of its appearance in the equatorial districts of
the globe.

The attitude of the aurora varies considerably; there appears to be little
doubt, however, that it frequently occurs at small elevations. Both
Franklin and Parry record instances where it appeared below the level of
the clouds, which they describe as having been hidden behind the masses of
its light, and as reappearing when the meteor vanished. It would seem that
there are two distinct kinds of aurora one dependent upon local causes, as
in the cases last given, while in the other causes are probably cosmical,
and the auroral effects are seen at very distant points of the earth’s
surface.

=AURORA POMADE.= For promoting the action of the skin. Cocoa butter with
orris.

=AUTOG′ENOUS= (tŏj′-). _Syn._ AUTOGE′′NEAL; AUTOG′ENUS (tŏj′). L.
Self-generating or affecting; acting without the aid of foreign matter. In
_anatomy_, &c., developed from distinct and independent centres; as parts
or processes. Among _metallists_, it denotes a method of joining metals by
fusing the parts in contact, by means of a flame of hydrogen, or of a
mixture of hydrogen and common air, without the intervention of a fusible
alloy or solder. Lead, and even ordinary hard solders, are, however,
sometimes so employed, and the name, though improperly, retained.

=AUTOMAT′IC.= _Syn._ AUTOMATI′CUS, AUTOM′ATUS, L.; AUTOMATIQUE, Fr.;
AUTOMATISCHE, Ger. Self-acting or self-moving, or that seems to be so;
mechanical; of or resembling an automaton. In _physiology_, involuntary,
applied to functions which are performed without the operation of the
will; as the movements in respiration, the contractions and dilations of
the heart, the persistent contraction of the sphincters, &c. In
_mechanics_, &c., moving and acting from concealed machinery; also, as
applied to _machinery_, self-regulating and directing, within the limits
prescribed by its author, though moved by external power. To the last
class belongs the self-acting machinery of our flax and cotton mills, our
engineering establishments, &c.; in which the elemental powers are made to
animate, as it were, millions of complex organs, infusing into forms of
wood, iron, and brass, an agency resembling that of intelligent beings.
The manufactures in which such machinery is employed are termed the
AUTOMATIC ARTS.

=AUTOPSY.= Literally, personal observation or examination; ocular view.
The term, however, is now applied, rather loosely, to a post-mortem
investigation. A post-mortem may be performed with the object of
endeavouring to ascertain the cause of death in a medico-legal inquiry, or
in the furtherance of the study of pathology. It is also a preliminary to
embalmment, and is sometimes had recourse to as a means of saving the
child when a woman dies in full pregnancy.

In France no post-mortem examination is permitted to take place until at
least 24 hours after death, this delay being enforced as a safeguard
against the possibility of the body operated upon being still alive. In
England no post-mortem can be made without the consent of the friends of
the deceased, unless by warrant from a coroner; although in many public
institutions this consent is dispensed with. Whenever, however, a prisoner
dies in gaol an inquest and post-mortem are held on the body.

An autopsy is to be discouraged in cases where a person has died from
infectious disease; but should the law require it to be undertaken,
disinfectants both during and after the operation should be liberally had
recourse to.

=AUTUMNAL FEVER.= This term is chiefly employed by American medical
writers to designate typhoid fever, because of its prevalence in the
autumn.

=AUXILION.= A packet of small plasters for the painless and radical cure
of corns. Each plaster is to be worn for about a week, and then the horny
pustule is to be removed with a sharp knife. The plaster is a compound of
1 part of resin plaster and 2 parts of lead plaster, and is likely to
promote the removal and solution of the thick skin of the corns. (Hager.)

=AVA.= _Syn._ KAVA-KAVA. The native names of the root, a species of piper,
the _piper methysticum_, cultivated in Tahiti, Hawaii, the Society and
Tongan Islands, the natives of which make it into an intoxicating drink.
It is said to have been used in France with excellent effect in gonorrhœa;
and a tincture of it has been strongly recommended both for external and
internal administration in gout. “For medicinal purposes it is used in the
form of infusion,” a drachm of the scraped root being macerated in a quart
of water for five minutes. Its action appears to vary with the amount
taken; in small doses it is generally stated to act as a stimulant and
tonic, but when taken in large doses it produces an intoxication which
differs from that caused by alcohol, in being of a silent and drowsy
nature accompanied by incoherent dreams” (‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ August
19th, 1876, which consult for further information.’)

=AVE′NA.= [L.] The oat; oats.

=AVE′NIN= (-nĭn). _Syn._ AVENA′INE* (ăv-e-) AVENI′NA, &c., L.; AVÉNINE,
&c., Fr. A nitrogenous compound, analogous to, and probably identical
with, casein, obtained from oats, and on which its nutritiveness chiefly
depends.

_Prep._ The grain, reduced to the state of powder or meal, is washed on a
sieve, and the milky liquid, after being allowed to deposit its starch, is
heated to about 200° Fahr., to coagulate the albumen; when cold, acetic
acid is added as long as a white powder falls, which is AVENIN; this is
collected on a filter, drained, and dried by a gentle heat.

=AVEN′TURIN, Avant′urin= (-ū-rĭn; -vŏ_ng_-tōō——Knowles and Smart). [Eng.
Fr.] A beautiful iridescent variety of rock crystal, minutely spangled
throughout with yellow scales of mica (AVENTURIN, A. QUARTZ). A variety of
felspar (A. FELSPAR) of somewhat similar appearance is found in the
Continent and the Peninsula, of which the finer kinds are called A.
ORIENTALE and PIERRE DE SOLEIL by the lapidaries. Both varieties are now
imitated by the glass and porcelain manufacturers. See GLASS, GLAZE,
PASTE, &c.

=A′VIARY= (-ve-). _Syn._ AVIA′′RIUM, L.; VOLIÈRE, Fr.; VOGELHAUS,
VOGELHECKE, Ger. A place for keeping birds; generally applied to an
enclosed space or building in which birds are kept, or bred, on account of
their rarity, plumage, or song; and not for food.

_Situa., &c._ For exotic birds, a place should be selected where the
temperature can be maintained at a proper degree throughout the year, and
which is well protected from the weather. This is commonly done by
choosing a space attached to the summerhouse or hot-house. When the aviary
is only intended for birds of climates similar to our own, any part of the
open garden may be chosen, and a portion closed in, either with
trellis-work or wire-work, or netting; care being taken to provide, in
some easily accessible portion of it, full protection from vicissitudes of
weather and season. Nor must cleanliness, and due ventilation and
protection from foul air or noxious fumes, be left unattended to.

=AVIGNON′ BERRIES= (ăv-veen-yo_ng_). French berries.

=AV′OIRDUPOIS′= (ăv-ĕr-du-pois′). The common weight of 16 oz. or 7000 gr.
to the lb., used in these realms for all kinds of goods, except jewelry
and the precious metals, and medicines in dispensing, or as ordered in the
‘British Pharmacopœia’ of 1867.

=AX′IS.= [L., Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AXE, Fr.; ACHSE, Ger. Primarily, that on
or around which anything acts or performs; an axle or axle-tree. In
_anatomy_, that on or around which any organ or part rests, gravitates, or
centres. In _astronomy_, the diameter on or about which a celestial body
revolves. In _botany_, part or parts about which particular organs are
arranged; an imaginary line passing from the base to the apex of a
pericarp &c. In _crystallography_, imaginary lines passing through the
central points of a crystal, and about which the molecules or particles of
matter composing it may be conceived to be symmetrically built up. In
_geology_, the centre of a mountain-group. In _mechanics_, the straight
line, real or imaginary, about which any body oscillates or revolves. See
CRYSTAL, &c.

=AX′LE, Ax′le-tree= (ăks′l). _Syn._ ESSIEU, Fr.; AXE (am rade), &c., Ger.
In _mechanics_, the pin, rod, or material line, on which a wheel, &c.,
turns. See ANTI-ATTRITION, FRICTION, &c.

=AX′UNGE= (-ŭnje). _Syn._ AXUN′GIA, L. _Primarily_, ‘wheel-grease,’ the
lard or fat of an animal; restricted in _pharmacy_ to hog’s lard.——AXUNGIA
CURA′TA, A. PREPARA′TA, is prepared or washed hog’s lard (which _see_).

=AYER’S PILLS.= Sold in long wooden boxes, each containing 25 pills,
covered with sugar and starch, and composed of pepper, colocynth, gamboge,
and aloes. (Hager.)

=AZADIRACHTA INDICA.= (Ind. Ph.) Nim or Margosa Tree. (Ind. Ph.)
_Habitat._ Common throughout India; often cultivated in gardens.
_Officinal parts._——1. The bark (_Azadirachtæ cortex_, Nim bark). It
varies much in appearance, according to the size and age of the tree
producing it. The bark from the trunk of a tree above three or four years
of age is covered with a thick scaly epidermis, and varies in thickness
from 1/4 to 1/2 inch. That from the smaller branches is smooth, of a
dullish purple colour, marked by longitudinal lines of ash-coloured
epidermis, from 1/8th to 1/12th of an inch apart. The inner layer of the
bark, of a whitish colour in the fresh state, is powerfully bitter, far
more so than the outer dark-coloured layer, which, however, possesses a
greater amount of astringency. It contains a crystallisable principle
(margosine) and an astringent principle (catechin).——2. The fresh leaves
(_Azadirachtæ folia_, Nim leaves).——_Properties._ Bark astringent tonic
and antiperiodic; leaves stimulant.——_Therapeutic uses._ In intermittent
and other paroxysmal fevers, in general debility, and convalescence after
febrile and other diseases, the bark has been employed with success. The
leaves form a useful application to ulcers and skin diseases when a mild
stimulant is required.——_Dose._ Of the powdered bark, a drachm three or
four times a day.

_Preparations._ DECOCTION OF NIM BARK (Decoctum Azadirachtæ). Take of the
inner layer of nim bark, bruised, 2 _oz._; water, a pint and a half. Boil
for 15 minutes, and strain whilst hot.——_Dose._ As an antiperiodic, from
1-1/2 to 3 _fl. oz._, every second hour previous to an expected paroxysm.
As a tonic, 1 or 2 _fl. oz._ twice or thrice daily. As this decoction soon
decomposes in hot weather, it should be prepared fresh for use when
required.

TINCTURE OF NIM BARK (_Tinctura Azadirachtæ_). Take of the inner layer of
nim bark, bruised, 2-1/2 _oz._; proof spirit, 1 pint. Macerate for seven
days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation; strain, press, filter,
and add sufficient proof spirit to make 1 pint. It may also be prepared by
percolation in the same manner as Tincture of Calumba, q. v.——_Dose._ From
1/2 to 2 _fl. dr._ as a tonic.

POLTICE OF NIM LEAVES (Cataplasma Azadirachtæ). Take of fresh nim leaves a
sufficiency; bruise and moisten with tepid water. A good stimulant
application to indolent and ill-conditioned ulcers. Should it cause pain
and irritation, as it sometimes does, equal parts of rice-flour and
linseed-meal may be added. The bitter oil of the seeds is held in high
repute by the natives as an anthelmintic, and as an external application
in rheumatism. It is also said to be an insecticide.

=AZOERYTH′RYN= (-rĭth′-rĭn). A substance obtained, by Kane, from archil.
It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and water; but is very soluble in
alkaline lyes, to which it imparts a port-wine colour.

=AZO′IC.= _Syn._ AZÖOT′IC; AZO′ICUS, AZÖOT′ICUS, &c., L. Lifeless; wholly
destitute of organic life. In _geology_, &c., applied to strata which do
not contain organic remains.

=AZOLIT′MIN= (ăz-o-lĭt′-mĭn). A dark-red substance obtained, by Kane, from
litmus, of which it forms a large portion of the colouring matter. It is
insoluble in alcohol, and in water unless alkalised.

=AZ′OTE*= (ăz′ōte; a′-zōte). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AZO′TUM*, L.; AZOT*, Ger.
Nitrogen (because it is unfit for respiration, _i.e._ destroys life).

=AZOT′IC.= _Syn._ AZOT′ICUM, L.; AZOTIQUE, Fr.; AZOTISCH, Ger. Of or like
azote, or containing it or formed from it; irrespirable; destructive to
life.——AZOTIC ACID† is nitric acid; A. GAS†, nitrogen.——AZO′TOUS ACID† was
nitrous acid.

=AZ′OTISED= (-tīzd). _Syn._ NITROGENISED, Containing azote or nitrogen; a
common epithet of nitrogenous substances used as food.

=AZ′URE= (ăzh′-ūre; ā′zhure——Knowles, Smart, Walker). _Syn._ CÆRU′LEUM,
L.; AZUR, Fr.; HELLBLAU, HIMMELBLAU, Ger. In _dyeing_ and _painting_,
sky-blue; also the name of one or more pigments which possess this colour.
See BLUE DYES, BLUE PIGMENTS, SMALTS, ULTRAMARINE, &c.

=AZ′URE-STONE.= Lapis lazuli.

=AZ′URITE= (-īte). In _mineralogy_, lazulite; blue malachite; sometimes,
lapis lazuli (the name being, unfortunately, very loosely applied by
different writers).

=AZ′YMOUS†= (-e-mŭs). _Syn._ AZ′YMUS, L. Unleavened; unfermented; as
sea-biscuit. Unleavened bread was formerly termed AZ′YME† (-e-me) and
AZ′YMUS† by theologists.


=BAB′LAH.= The rind or shell of the fruit of _mimosa cineraria_. According
to Dr Ure, it contains a considerable quantity of gallic acid, some
tannin, a red colouring principle, and an azotised substance, and is the
article imported from the East Indies and Senegal under the name of
NEB-NEB.——Used as a cheap dye-stuff for various shades of drab and grey.

=BAC′CA= (băk′-ă). [L.; pl., bac′cæ, băk′-sē.] A berry.

=BACK.= [D., bak, a bowl or cistern.] _Syn._ BAC. In _brewing_, a large,
open, flat reservoir or cistern; commonly that in which wort is cooled. In
_distillation_, the vessel into which the wort is pumped from the coolers,
in order to be ‘worked’ with yeast. The LIQUOR-BACK in a brewery,
distillery, or rectifying house is the water reservoir or cistern.

=BACKS.= In the _leather trade_, the thickest and stoutest portion of the
hide, used for sole-leather.

=BACON= (bā′-kn). [W., baccun, prob. from Ger., bache, a wild sow; “old
Fr., for dried flesh or pork”——Craig.] The flesh of swine salted and
dried, and subsequently either smoked or not. The term is usually
restricted to the sides and belly so prepared; the other parts of the
animal having distinctive names. Sometimes, though rarely, the term is
extended to the flesh of bears, and of other like animals, cured in a
similar manner.

_Qual., &c._ When bacon has been properly prepared from young and well-fed
animals, and is neither ‘stale’ nor ‘rusty,’ it forms a very wholesome and
excellent article of food, especially adapted for a light or hasty meal,
or as a relish for bread or vegetables. For persons with a weak stomach,
and for invalids, great care should be taken to cook it without injuring
its flavour, or rendering it indigestible. This is best effected by
cutting it into slices of moderate thickness, and carefully broiling or
toasting it; avoiding dressing it too hastily, too slowly, or too much.
The common practice of cooking it in almost wafer-like slices, until it
becomes brown and crisp, renders it not merely indigestible, but also a
most fertile source of heartburn and dyspepsia. Fried bacon is remarkably
strong, and is hence more likely to offend the stomach than when it is
broiled, or preferably toasted before the fire; the last being, of all
others, the best way of dressing it so as to preserve its delicacy and
flavour. Gourmands, however, often esteem, as ‘une bonne bouche,’ bacon
dressed in the flame arising from the dropping of its own fat.

_Choice._ Good bacon has a thin rind, and an agreeable odour, the fat has
a firm consistence and a slightly reddish tinge; the lean is of a pleasing
red colour, is tender, and adheres, whilst raw, strongly to the bone. When
the fat is yellow, it is either ‘rusty’ or becoming so, and should be
avoided. The streaky parts are not only those which are most esteemed, but
are the most wholesome.

Bacon should be broiled or toasted in front of the fire. The rashers
should be in thin slices, and the rind should be removed. The melted fat
from the bacon should never be wasted. To partake of all broiled meats in
perfection they should be served up as soon as they are taken off the
gridiron.

=BACTERIUM= (BACTERION, a little rod). Since the publication of the
researches of Professor Cohn, of Breslau, upon the nature of this
organism, the idea previously entertained by Ehrenberg and others as to
its animal origin has been long abandoned, and microscopists now very
generally regard it as belonging to the vegetable kingdom. It is probably
one of the lowest and most simple forms of vegetable or animal life, and
consists of an envelope more or less enclosing protoplasm——the nitrogenous
substance from which the cell nucleus is formed. Dr Lionel Beale very
carefully crushed a very large bacterium while under observation by the
microscope, and when the external membrane was ruptured the protoplasm was
seen to escape, and to exhibit what Dr Beale regards as vital movement. In
form, bacteria may be either globular, rod-shaped, egg-shaped, or
filamentous. Cohn has described a variety presenting the appearance of
beaded chains, or aggregations.

Bacteria vary considerably in size, some being as much as 1/3000th of an
inch in length, whilst others are less than 1/10000th, and are only
visible by the aid of a glass of very high power, such as the 1/50th of an
inch objective. Dr Beale says, “The germs from which the little particles
spring are far more minute and more difficult to identify. They appear as
minute specks, the largest of them exhibiting a circular outline, and
probably being spherical. The smallest are too minute to be discerned with
the highest magnifying powers at our command. If a specimen of fluid in
which these particles are rapidly growing and multiplying be carefully
examined, many points will be observed to appear from time to time. After
watching with great care for a considerable time a given spot I have
assured myself that new particles actually come into existence; and that
one does not, after intently watching for a time and concentrating the
attention upon a certain space, merely see one coming into view one after
another, as star after star. The material in which the minute germs of
bacteria are imbedded, and which, at least in part, consists of formed
material produced by the bacteria, is much softer than the matter of which
the capsule of fungi consists. It is, perhaps, almost as soft as mucus. I
believe that even the most minute bacterium germ is surrounded by a layer
of such soft formed matter, in which very minute particles of bioplasm
(protoplasm) divide and subdivide before they attain even the 1/100000th
of an inch in diameter. When, therefore, bacteria in an early stage of
development dry, it is not possible to identify them. When moistened, the
dry mass swells up, and the bioplasm in the soft mucus-like matter grows,
each particle producing a fresh investment of formed material, and then if
the conditions are favorable, the germs either at once divide and
subdivide for a time, or grow into perfect bacteria, which move freely and
grow and multiply in this more advanced stage of development.”

Bacteria increase by bisection, and when the surrounding conditions are
favorable their rate of production is marvellous. It has been computed
that an individual bacterium will generate nearly 17,000,000 of its
fellows within twenty-four hours. The very probable vegetable origin and
nature of bacteria insisted upon by Professor Cohn not only appears to
derive great support from his researches into the metamorphoses they
undergo during development, &c., but also from their behaviour with
certain chemical reagents. For instance, it was found that boiling them in
solution of potash had no effect, and also when treated with sulphuric
acid and iodine they deported themselves somewhat as cellulin does under
like circumstances; although from their extreme minuteness any changes
that take place in their tissue are very difficult to observe. Another
remarkable analogy presented between bacteria and plants is the manner in
which they both assimilate the elements of which they are built up; for
they derive their nitrogen not from previously existing albuminous
compounds, but from ammonia.

They may be made to develop themselves in any fluid if the fluid contains
an organic substance in which carbon is present, a nitrogenous substance
which need not be organic, and a phosphate. They appear to derive their
carbon by the decomposition of almost any substance, containing this
element except carbonic acid, and they will obtain their nitrogen from a
nitrate, the nitrate becoming reduced to the state of a nitrite. A
knowledge of these facts will of course indicate the method to be followed
if we wish to obtain bacteria. All that we have to do is to prepare a
liquid that fulfils the conditions just stated. Dr J. Burdon Sanderson
gives the following formula for one:——Phosphate of potassium 1/2 per
cent., sulphate of magnesium, 1/2 per cent., dissolve in water having a
trace of phosphate of calcium in suspension, and then add a per cent. of
tartrate of ammonium, and boil the mixture. If properly boiled the liquid
will be free from bacteria; but the contact of almost any organic
substance, for example, a drop of water, a pinch of hay, a morsel of meal,
&c., will cause their appearance.

The tenacity of life exhibited by the bacteria is extremely great. Dr
Beale says, “Extreme dryness does not destroy them, and they withstand a
temperature far below the freezing point; and that under adverse
circumstances they remain dormant, and are not destroyed by a degree of
heat which is fatal probably to every other living organism.” Bastian says
that the germs of bacteria are destroyed at a temperature of 160° F., but
others are of opinion that under certain circumstances these germs are not
killed at 212°, and that they may increase and multiply after having been
exposed to this degree of heat. Professor Tyndall indeed has shown that in
one experiment heating for a quarter of an hour at a temperature of 230°
F. was insufficient to destroy them, whilst in another the five minutes’
exposure of an atmosphere containing them to the incandescence of the
voltaic current failed to kill them.

Cohn relates that manufacturers of pots of preserved peas at Lubek have
since 1858 been obliged to cook them in a solution of 28 per cent. of
salt, at a temperature of 226° F., to prevent the putrefaction of their
contents, as in warm years nearly half the pots were found to be spoiled.
In experiments made in conjunction with Dr Hare, Cohn found that in
infusions boiled for less than fifteen minutes organisms were, without
exceptions, developed. Somewhat lower temperature proved fatal to the
great majority of bacteria. Those that survived were all found to belong
to the genus _Bacillus_, and among _bacilli_ to the species _Bacillus
subtilis_.

The experiments of Drs Ferrier and Burdon Sanderson would seem to show
that bacteria do not nominally exist in the fluids and tissues of the
body, but that their presence in the animal fluids may be traced to
external surface contamination with ordinary water, the extent of their
development being in proportion to the amount of the contamination. They
contend that different varieties of water possess different degrees of
what they term the ‘zymotic power.’ They examined the waters supplied by
the several London water companies, and they found them to consist of
varying degrees of bacterian impurity. They assert that all except freshly
distilled water teems with invisible germs of bacteria. Writing of the
universality of the presence of bacteria and bacterian germs, Dr Beale
remarks:——“It would be difficult to say where bacterium germs do not
exist. In air, in water, in the soil adhering to tiny particles of every
kind, in every region of the earth, from the poles to the equator, they
are found. In the substance of the tissues——nay, in the cells of almost
all plants, and in the interstices of the tissues of many
animals——bacteria germs exist. I know not what part of the body of man and
the higher animals is entirely destitute of particles which under
favorable circumstances develop into bacteria. Upon the skin and the
surface of the mucous membranes they exist in profusion, and they abound
in the mouth and in the follicles and glands.”

Dr Eberth, of Zurich, states that he has found on ordinary sweat small
oval-shaped bacteria which are frequently united in strings of two or
three, and endowed with rather active movements. The author thinks that
they very likely conduce to produce certain chemical modifications of
sweat.

Drs Ferrier and Sanderson appear to have satisfactorily proved that fungi
are not developed from microzymes, and that their apparent association is
one of juxtaposition only. They give the following reasons for adopting
this conclusion:——(1) The quick appearance of _torula_ cells in Pasteur’s
solution whenever it is exposed to the air, and the rapid development and
luxuriant fructification of the higher form (_penicillium_) show that so
far as the chemical composition of the liquid is concerned, there exist in
it all the conditions favorable to the process. (2) When precautions are
taken to prevent contamination by impure surfaces or liquids, the
development which ends in _penicillium_ goes on from first to last without
the appearance of microzymes. (3) Whenever it is possible to impregnate
the test-liquid with microzymes, without at the same time introducing
torula cells or germs, the development of the former begins and continues
by itself without any transformation into the latter. Thus _fungi_ are not
developed, notwithstanding the presence of microzymes in the same liquid
in which, microzymes being absent, but air having access, they appear with
the greatest readiness. As we have already seen the germs of bacteria
exist largely in air; the experiments of Hiller, of Berlin, would seem to
negative the theory of Ferrier and Sanderson, as they tend to show that
bacteria have little influence on putrefaction.

We are indebted to Dr Lionel Beale for these illustrations, which are
taken from his very interesting work on ‘Disease Germs.’

[Illustration]

Hiller’s experiments tend to show that putrefaction is independent of the
presence of bacteria, that bacteria can develop in liquids such as urine
without producing its decomposition, and that the degree of their
development and the rate of their multiplication depend upon the amount of
assimilable material.

The following is the definition given to the word ‘microzyme’ (which
occurs above) by its originator, Dr Sanderson: “I proposed the word
‘microzyme’ as a convenient general term for the first organic forms which
present themselves in organic nitrogenous liquids when about to undergo
spontaneous decomposition.”

From the experiments of Béchamp it appears that under some circumstances
the mother of vinegar, a conglomeration of microzymes, can be transformed
into bacteria, and under other circumstances into a cellular ferment which
can excite normal alcoholic fermentation in cane sugar. Subsequent
researches have shown that the converse of this is also true, and that the
cellular ferment may be transformed into microzymes and bacteria.

A mixture of starch and yeast kept at a temperature of 24° to 35° soon
liquefies, and the yeast undergoes remarkable changes. The cells swell,
become transparent, and gradually disappear. Myriads of microzymes of
great agility spring into existence, then vibrios appear, and as these
increase the microzymes diminish. The vibrios in their turn are succeeded
by myriads of bacteria, and finally the bacteria disappear, leaving
nothing but microzymes, single or coupled together. During these changes a
small quantity of gas is disengaged, no butyric acid is formed, and but
little acetic or lactic acids.

As then the mother of vinegar when changed into bacteria becomes lactic or
butyric ferment, and when transformed into cellular matter becomes
alcoholic ferment, and as beer yeast becomes lactic or butyric ferment
when reduced to microzymes, vibrios, or bacteria, it is evident that the
property of being a ferment of any particular nature does not depend
essentially upon the nature of the ferment, but upon its organisation or
structure.

A contributor to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ of February 2nd, 1878,
advances the opinion that many of the bacteria are only parts of a plant
which has other forms and other modes of growth and propagation when not
confined to the living organism or to fluids, and regards the bacterium as
a transitional or provisional and not as a permanent form, but an abnormal
phase of life thrust upon the plant by accident.

=BACTERIA AS ORIGINATORS OF DISEASE.=——The researches of many eminent
microscopists and physiologists afford abundant evidence of the presence
of bacteria in the blood of persons affected with various infectious
diseases. For instance, Core and Feltz, of Strasbourg, found a linked
bacterium in the blood of those attacked with septicæmia, typhoid, and
puerperal fevers. The same investigators also discovered bacteria in the
blood of patients suffering from scarlet fever; this blood when injected
into the veins of rabbits set up a feverish disease that proved fatal.

Again, in the blood of man and the sheep attacked with smallpox, a
bacterium of the globular or sphere-shaped variety was found by Keber,
Hallier, and Zurn.

Bacteria have also been found in the blood during measles, and in the
splenic apoplexy of sheep and cattle. They have likewise been identified
in diphtheritical exudations both from the kidneys and womb, as well as in
the blood during an attack of rheumatic fever, and they are undoubtedly
present in the same fluid during many feverish disorders. Drs Lewis and
Cunningham failed to discover them in the blood of cholera patients.
Professors Cohn and Koch stand prominently forward as the advocates of the
germ theory of disease by bacteria. Professor Cohn divides the bacteria
into groups, genera, and species, and assigns to each species a different
function.

For instance, he considers the ferment of contagion to be due to the
presence of a variety of the sphere-shaped bacterium——one of his groups.
He divides the whole group into three——the chromogen, zymogen, and
pathogen, the bacteria of pigmentation, of fermentation, and of contagion,
respectively. He says those organisms are exceedingly minute, darkish or
coloured granules, so small as to be immeasurable. They frequently present
the appearance of beaded chains or the form of aggregations. They are
motionless and are occasionally found with the _Bacterium termo_ in
putrefying organic liquids.

Messrs Chauveau and Sanderson have discovered a bacterium in vaccine lymph
which believers in the germ theory class among the pathogen bacteria, and
which they have named the _Micrococcus vaccinæ_. Amongst the pathogen
bacteria they also include the _Micrococcus dipthericus_ and _Micrococcus
septicus_, the former found in the epithelium of certain organs during
certain forms of pyæmia, and the latter in the miliary eruption of typhus,
pyæmia, and other diseases. The chromogen or pigmentary bacteria have
occasionally been the means of working miracles. Several instances of
bread exuding blood, under supernatural circumstances, are related by
Rivola. Ehrenberg found this colour on some bread in the house of a
patient who had died of cholera, and he ascertained the pigment to be due
to the presence of the _Monas prodigiosa_, small round bodies which
Professor Cohn classes with the micrococci, a variety of the sphere-shaped
bacterium.

The recent investigations of Koch were directed to the cause of splenic
fever, and Cohn on examining his specimens found that they were examples
of Bacteria of the species called _Bacillus anthracis_, which seems to
present little or no difference to the _Bacillus subtilis_ of hay
infusions. Koch found that _bacilli_ increase with enormous rapidity in
the blood, and in the fluid of tissues of living animals, by developing in
length and dividing transversely. The animals employed were chiefly mice,
and a small incision being made at the root of the tail, as minute a drop
as possible of the fluid containing the _bacilli_ was injected into the
system. The spleen invariably became enormously swollen, and filled with a
large number of crystalline-looking rods of varying size, never exhibiting
movement or spore formation; they increased in numbers solely by division.
The number of _bacilli_ found in the blood varies in different animals;
thus in the guinea-pig it was enormous, sometimes exceeding that of the
blood-corpuscles; in the rabbit much smaller, so that sometimes several
drops had to be examined before any were found, in the mouse often _nil_.
In the blood of dead animals or other suitable fluids the _bacilli_ grow
to very long straight leptothorax-like filaments (within certain limits of
temperature, and with the presence of air), while the formation of
numerous spores goes on at the same time.

Kohl believes that it is to the presence of the spores that the occurrence
of splenetic fever appears to be referable. When living, inoculation with
them always produced the disease; but if killed, as by drying, or a high
temperature, inoculation failed; it was necessary either that living
spores should be present, or that the filaments should be capable of
generating spores, in order that the disease should be propagated by
inoculation.

Koch tried whether the poisonous bacilli spores could gain entrance
through the digestive organs, but found that mice and rabbits could eat
them with impunity. Koch draws attention to the similarity of splenic
fever to typhus and cholera. He says it presents analogies to typhus in
its dependence on soil-water, its preference for low grounds, its sporadic
occurrence throughout the year, and its development into an epidemic in
the late summer and autumn. Like cholera, again, he says, it is connected
with soil-water, and it also agrees with cholera in the point which has
been so well made out by Pettenkofer, that on board ship an interval of
three or four weeks is sufficient to prevent its further development.

Hence Koch is disposed to hope that the contagium of typhus and cholera
may still be discovered in the form of some _Schizophyte_ or spheroidal
bacterium, though practical observers have hitherto sought for them in
vain.

Many pathologists, however, refuse to accept the accuracy of these
deductions, and regard the presence of bacteria in the blood and tissues
during disease as of no significance; whilst they deny that it is
satisfactorily proved that they are the cause of disease.

Dr Lionel Beale says:——“Changes in the processes of digestion are soon
followed by the multiplication of bacteria in every part of the alimentary
canal, and within a few hours countless millions may be developed. They
multiply in the secretions under certain circumstances, almost as soon as
these are formed, and I have adduced evidence to show that bacteria germs
exist even in healthy blood. In the very substance of some cells I have
seen them, and in many cases in which little granules have been discerned
in connection with bioplasts. There is reason to believe that some of them
are really bacteria germs, passive as long as the higher life is
maintained in its integrity, but ready to grow and multiply the instant a
change favorable to them, and adverse to us, shall occur.”

And again he remarks:——“Bacteria prey upon morbid structure, and upon the
substances resulting from the death of bioplasm (protoplasm). We ought
not, therefore, to be surprised at their existence in disease. They are
found in great numbers amongst pus-corpuscles which have ceased to live,
and they grow and multiply with great rapidity in fluids which contain
disease germs, as soon as these begin to lose their specific powers and to
undergo decomposition.” See GERMS.

=BAD′′GER= (băj′-ĕr). _Syn._ ME′LES, L.; BLAIREAU, Fr.; DACHS, Ger. The
_ur′sus me′les_ (Linn.), one of the plantigrade carnivora, a burrowing
nocturnal animal, common in Europe, Asia, and North America. Since the
extirpation of the bear, the badger is the sole representative of the
ursine family in our indigenous zoology. Its habits are “nocturnal,
inoffensive, and slothful; its food consists of roots, earth-nuts, fruits,
the eggs of birds, insects, reptiles, and the smaller quadrupeds; its
noxious qualities are consequently few and of slight moment, and by no
means justify the exterminating war unintermittently waged against it.”
(Brande.) Its “muscular strength is great, its bite proverbially powerful;
and a dog must be trained and encouraged to enter willingly into combat”
with it. (Id.)

_Uses, &c._ The flesh of the badger is prized as food; the skin used for
pistol furniture; the hair made into brushes. The American badger is
commonly called the GROUND-HOG. The Cape badger produces HYRACEUM (which
_see_).

=BAD′IANE= (-e-ăhn). [Fr.] _Syn._ BAD′IAN, B.-SEED. Star-anise seed.

=BADI′′GEON= (bă-dĭzh′ōne; băd′-e-zhŭn‡, or bă-dĭj′ŭn‡——Smart). Among
operatives and artists, any cement used to fill up holes and to cover
defects in their work. Among statuaries, a mixture of plaster and
free-stone is commonly used for this purpose; among joiners and
carpenters, a mixture of sawdust and glue, or of whiting and glue; and
among coopers, one of tallow and chalk. The name is also given to a
stone-coloured mixture used for the fronts of houses, and said to be
composed of wood-dust and lime, slaked together, stone powder, and a
little ochre, umber, or sienna; the whole being mixed up with weak alum
water to the consistence of paint, and laid on in dry weather.

=BAEL.= [Nat.] _Syn._ INDIAN BAEL, BEL*; BAEL, B. IN′DICUS, BE′LA, B.
IN′DICA, L. The _œg′le marmelos_ (Correa; _cratæva m._, Linn.) one of the
Aurantiaceæ (DC.). Dried half-ripe fruit imported from the E. Indies,
under the name of INDIAN BAEL. Astringent and refrigerant; highly extolled
in chronic dysentery, diarrhœa, English cholera, and relaxations
generally. It is also used in bilious fevers, hypochondriasis,
melancholia, &c. Root-bark, stem-bark, and expressed juice of the leaves,
particularly the first, also used in the same cases in India. Ripe fruit
fragrant and delicious; used, in the E. I., as a warm cathartic, and
regarded as a certain cure for habitual costiveness. Mucus of the seeds
used by painters as size; also as a cement. Unripe fruit used to dye
yellow. It is generally administered under the form of DECOCTION or
EXTRACT (which _see_).

=BAGASSE′= (-găs′). [Fr.] The dry refuse stalks of the sugar cane as they
leave the crushing-mill.——Used as fuel in the colonial sugar-houses.

=BAGG′ING.= The cloth or materials of which bags or sacks are made. In
_agriculture_, applied to a method of reaping corn by a chopping, instead
of a drawing cut. See RATS, &c.

=BAHIA POWDER.= See ARAROBA.

=BAHR’S NON-POISONOUS MEDICAL SNUFF.= A snuff largely advertised in the
Berlin journals, composed chiefly of powdered galls. (Hager.)

=BAIN-MARIE.= [Fr.] In _old chemistry_, a water bath; also, sometimes, a
sand bath. In _cookery_, a shallow vessel containing heated water, in
which saucepans, &c., are placed, when it is necessary either to make them
hot, or to keep them so, without allowing them to boil. It is extremely
useful in making sauces, warming soups and small dishes, and when dinners
are delayed after they are ready to be served.

=BA′′KING= (bāke′-). _Syn._ ACTION DE CUIRE AU FOUR, Fr. The process of
cooking, or of heating, drying, and hardening any substance in an oven or
kiln, or by the rays of the sun; the art or trade of a baker‡; also
technically, a batch or ovenful, or the quantity baked at once (= FOURNÉE,
Fr.).

In _cookery_, baking is, perhaps, of all others, the cheapest, most
convenient, and best way of dressing dinners for small families, where a
good domestic oven is at hand. Though the flavour of baked meat is
generally considered barely equal to that of the same parts roasted, there
are some joints and dishes to which it appears particularly suitable.
Among these may be mentioned legs and loins of pork, legs and shoulders of
mutton, fillets of veal, &c. A baked pig, if it has been occasionally
basted, and the heat has not been too great, eats equal to a roast one.
Geese and ducks treated in the same way are also excellent. A baked hare
which has been basted with raw milk and butter also eats well; and so do
various pieces of beef, especially the buttock. Cooks tell us that this
last should be sprinkled with a little salt for a day or two before
dressing it, and after being washed is preferably baked, along with about
a pint of water, in a glazed earthen pan tied over with writing paper,
‘three or four times thick.’ A baked ham is said to be preferable to a
boiled one; to be tenderer, fuller of gravy, and finer flavoured. It
should be soaked in water for about an hour, wiped dry, and covered with a
coarse thin paste or batter. Ordinary dishes require similar treatment in
baking to that given them when roasted.

For domestic use, where the kitchen-range does not include a really good
oven, the portable articles known as a ‘DUTCH-OVEN,’ and an ‘American
oven,’ form an excellent substitute, admirably adapted for small joints,
poultry, &c., all of which, when these utensils are skilfully employed,
possess a delicacy and flavour fully equal to the same when roasted;
whilst not more than one half the fire is required for the purpose.
According to Miss Acton they also “answer excellently for delicate sweet
puddings, and for cakes.” See BREAD, CAKES, ROASTING, &c.

=Baking Pow′der.= See POWDERS.

=Baking Powder, American.= For making light pastry. Tartaric acid and
chalk. (Reichardt.)

=Baking Powder, Borwick’s German=, is an artificial fermentation powder,
compounded with coarse maize-flour. (Gädike.)

=Baking Powder, Goodall’s=, is a compound of 2 parts of rice flour with 1
part of a mixture of tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda. (K. Boschan.)

=Baking Powder or Yeast Powder, Professor Horsford’s= (Cambridge, U.S.).
This is a powder supplied in two packets. The one contains an acid
phosphate of lime and magnesia made up with a certain quantity of flour,
and the other is bicarbonate of soda, with a little chloride of potassium.

=BAL′ANCE.= As in the process of what is termed gravimetric analysis the
chemist has to determine the weights of the different substances employed
as well as found, it will be self-evident that for his results to be
trustworthy the balance he employs must be perfectly accurate and
reliable.

The accompanying drawing, from Roscoe, represents a common form of
chemical balance.

[Illustration]

The apparatus consists of a perforated brass beam (AA), vibrating about
its centre, at which is fixed a triangular knife-edge of agate (C); this
rests upon a horizontal agate plane attached to the upright brass pillar.
To each end of the beam light brass pans (BB) are hung, each pan being
suspended by an agate plane, upon an agate knife-edge fixed on the end of
the beam at DD. This arrangement is rendered necessary in order to reduce
as much as possible the friction of the edges on their supports, which
friction, if unchecked, would seriously impair the sensibility of the
balance.

In order to prevent the agate edges being worn away by constantly rubbing
on the agate planes, the beam and the ends (DD) are supported by the brass
arm (EE), when the balance is not in use, so that the agate surfaces are
not in contact. The beam and pans are released when required by turning
the handle (F). The movement of the brass arm (EE) is accompanied by means
of a rod descending through the upright brass pillar, and resting on a
simple eccentric, by the turning of which by the handle (F) it may be
gradually raised or lowered. The substance to be weighed (held by a tube,
watch glass, &c.) is placed in one of the pans, and weights added one by
one in the other, until the beam is in equilibrium: this is ascertained by
the long pointer(G) oscillating to an equal distance on each side of the
central mark or index, this latter being subdivided into equal spaces, so
that the oscillations can be measured. A spirit level is also a necessary
appendage to the instrument, since it enables the operator to place the
beam on an exactly horizontal level.

The beam of the balance is generally graduated into decimals. This saves
the trouble of placing a weight on the scale, since it enables the
operator to weigh the milligramme and its fractions by suspending a
centigramme rider or hook on or between the indicated points of a
graduated line.

The balance is enclosed in a glass case, which serves not only to protect
it from dust, but to allow of the weighing being carried on away from the
outer air, in which the prevalence of draughts proves a source of
considerable annoyance to the weigher. The front of the scale case
generally consists of three parts, viz. a fixed centre piece and two
lateral frames or doors, all of course of glass. It is of importance that
the air inside the balance case should be perfectly dry, since a humid
atmosphere would not only affect the weight of many hygroscopic substances
when placed in the pans, but likewise be liable to attack the instrument
itself. To guard against these casualties a small beaker containing oil of
vitriol, or chloride of calcium, or freshly-burnt lime, should be kept in
the case. A balance capable of weighing 70 or 80 grammes in each scale
will be found to meet the needs of most chemists.

Fresenius says, “The ACCURACY of a balance depends upon the following
conditions:

“_a._ The fulcrum must be placed above the centre of gravity of the beam.

“_b._ The suspension points of the scales must be on an exact level with
the fulcrum.

“_c._ The beam must be sufficiently strong and inflexible to bear without
bending the greatest weight that the construction of the balance admits
of.

“_d._ The arms of the balance must be of equal length; _i.e._ the points
of suspension must be equidistant from the fulcrum or point of support.

“The SENSIBILITY or DELICACY of a balance depends upon the following
conditions:

“_a._ The friction of the edges upon their supports must be as slight as
possible.

“_b._ The centre of gravity must be as near as possible to the fulcrum.

“_c._ The beam must be as light as possible.”

The following are the tests given by the same authority for the accuracy
and sensibility of a balance:

“1. The balance is in the first place accurately adjusted, if necessary,
either by the regulating screws, or by means of tinfoil, and a milligramme
weight is then placed in one of the scales. A good and practically useful
balance must turn distinctly with this weight; a delicate chemical balance
should indicate the one tenth of a milligramme with perfect distinctness.

“2. Both scales are loaded with the maximum weight the construction of the
balance will admit of; the balance is then _accurately_ adjusted, and a
milligramme added to the weight in one scale. This ought to cause the
balance to turn to the same extent as in 1. In most balances, however, it
shows somewhat less on the index.

“3. The balance is accurately adjusted should it be necessary to establish
a perfect equilibrium between the scales by loading the one with a minute
portion of tinfoil (this tinfoil must be left remaining upon the scale
during the experiment); both scales are then equally loaded, say with
about fifty grammes each, and if necessary the balance is again adjusted
(by the addition of small weights, &c.). The load of the two scales is
then interchanged, so as to transfer that of the right scale to the left,
and _vice versâ_. A balance with perfectly equal arms must maintain its
absolute equilibrium upon the interchange of the weights of the two
scales.

“4. The balance is accurately adjusted; it is then arrested, subsequently
set in motion, and again allowed to recover its equilibrium; the same
process should be repeated several times. A good balance must invariably
reassume its original equilibrium.

“A balance of which the end edges afford too much play to the hook resting
upon them, so as to allow the latter slightly to alter its position, will
show perceptible differences in different trials. This fault, however, is
possible only with balances of defective construction.

“A balance to be perfectly useful for the purposes of quantitative
analysis _must_ stand the first, second, and last of these tests. A slight
inequality of the arms is of no great consequence, since this may be
readily and completely remedied by the manner of weighing.” See WEIGHTS.

=Balance, Hydrostat′ic.= See SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

=Balance, Tor′sion.= A delicate instrument, invented by Coulomb, for
measuring the intensities of the electrical and magnetic forces.

=BALD′NESS= (bawld′-). _Syn._ CAL′VITAS, CALVI′′TIES (vĭsh′-e-ēz), L.;
CALVITIE, CHAUVETÉ, Fr.; KAHLHEIT, KAHLKOPF, KAHLKÖPFIGHEIT, Ger.
Primarily, absence or loss of any natural covering; appr., destitution or
loss of hair, more especially of that of the top and fore-part of the
head. In _botany_, absence of beard or awn.

Grey hair and baldness dependent on old age are natural consequences of
man’s infirmity, and must be regarded as evidence of failing vigour,
rather than in the light of a disease. Premature loss of hair may be
induced by various causes. It is common after severe fevers, and is
frequently caused by external pressure, friction, or violence, and by such
other local actions and conditions which, when long continued, interrupt
the normal functions of the skin. Persons with a consumptive, scorbutic,
scrofulous, or syphilitic taint, or of a general bad habit of body,
frequently lose their hair early. In these cases it probably arises from
debility or paralysis of the cutaneous vessels, and the consequent
insufficient nutrition of the hair-bulbs. When it occurs in persons under
the middle age, and apparently enjoying good health, it may be often
traced to the pernicious practice of constantly wearing a hard
non-ventilating hat, or to disordered stomach, habitual smoking or hard
drinking, irregular habits, or late hours. Excessive anxiety or grief, and
intense study and thoughtfulness, also tend to promote the early decay of
the hair. The natural baldness of the aged, and frequently the premature
baldness of earlier years, arises from the gradual attenuation of the
scalp, which ultimately becomes too thin to afford room for the
performance of the functions of the hair-producing organs, and too
scantily supplied with blood for their due nutrition and support.[104]

[Footnote 104: In such cases it will be found that, owing to this
attenuation, the scalp covers a larger portion of the skull than
previously; and that its sides have somewhat receded from the top of the
head, so that the roots of the remaining hair descend lower towards the
forehead, temples, and back of the neck, than when the parts were in
vigorous health. This may be perceived by applying the open hand to the
part, and then gently closing the fingers, when the scalp may be drawn
into its original position, and will then appear loose and wrinkled over
the occiput, &c.; and this in a manner very different to what occurs when
the top of the head is covered, or well-covered, with hair.]

_Treatm._ The baldness of senility and that arising from the permanent
injury or destruction of the hair-bulbs, admit of no cure, notwithstanding
the daily assurances of advertising impostors to the contrary. In other
cases, when a disposition to baldness exists, shown by the hair falling
off in large quantities, or ceasing to grow with its usual vigour and
rapidity, the frequent but gentle use of the hair-brush, and of any bland
stimulating oil, pomade, or wash, if adopted in time, will generally prove
sufficient to arrest the progress of decay, and, very frequently, to
restore the hair to its pristine condition. The head may be advantageously
washed in cold water, at least once a day; or what is better, a shower
bath may be taken on rising in the morning. Should this plan not succeed,
the head, or the upper part of it, may be shaved, and a wig, or a scalp,
adopted for a time. The effect of keeping the hair closely cropped or
shaved is to make it grow thicker, stiffer, and stronger, and this often
when all other means fail.

Among more active and less common remedies for baldness may be
mentioned——mild streaming electricity, stimulant fomentations,
cantharidised, ioduretted, phosphoretted, &c., oils and lotions, a
night-cap that, without pressing injuriously on the head, lifts, as it
were, the scalp into its natural position, &c., all of which are noticed
elsewhere.

The celebrated John Wesley recommended rubbing the part morning and
evening with a raw onion until it became red, and then applying a little
honey. The vendors of Rowland’s ‘Macassar Oil’ recommend the head to be
rubbed with a towel (or hair-brush), until somewhat red, each time before
applying their nostrum; and the advice is certainly good, as independent
of the stimulus thus given to the skin, and the increased flow of blood
through the minute vessels of the scalp, it is rendered more absorbent and
sensitive to the action of medicaments. At the same time the reader must
be cautioned against placing any reliance on external applications, unless
he assists their action by due attention to diet, exercise, ventilation,
and such other matters as tend to promote the general health and vigour of
the body.

The substances usually employed to medicate hair-cosmetics, the general
management of the hair, and the formulæ for various applications to
promote its growth, preservation, and beauty, are noticed in the articles
HAIR, HAIR-COSMETICS, POMADES, OILS, WASHES, &c., to which the reader is
referred.

=BALEEN′= (-lēne′). [Fr. _baleine._] The fisher’s name for whalebone.

=BALL= (bawl). [Eng., Ger., Swed.] _Syn._ BALLE, BOULE, Fr.; BAL, BOL,
Dau.; GLOB-U-LUS, PI′LA, L. In _commerce_, _veterinary medicine_,
_perfumery_, &c., applied to various substances made up into a globular,
spheroidal, or even a cylindrical form, as ash-balls, horse-balls,
soap-balls, &c.

=BALLOON′= (-lōōn’). _Syn._ BALLON, Fr., Ger. Any hollow spherical body of
which the sides are extremely thin or attenuated in comparison with its
diameter or bulk. In _aërostatics_, a machine or apparatus for elevating
and sustaining bodies in the air. In _chemistry_, a globular
glass-receiver, with either one or two necks (= GROS RÉCIEIENT, FR.;
GROSSE R., Ger.). In _pyrotechny_, a hollow case or ball of pasteboard
filled with fire-works or combustibles, which explodes in the air on being
fired from a mortar.

=Balloon.= In _aërostation_, a bag or hollow pear-shaped vessel, made of
varnished silk or other light material, and inflated with some gas or
vapour lighter than the air, as hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, heated
air, &c., so as to rise and float in the atmosphere. When filled with gas
it is called by way of distinction an AIR-BALLOON (_aérostat_, &c., Fr.,
_lufball_, _luft-schiff_, &c., Ger.); when with heated air, a FIRE-BALLOON
or MONTGOLFIER B. (_ballon à feu_, &c., Fr.).

In the early days of aërostation, and indeed for some years afterwards,
balloons were inflated with hydrogen gas, obtained by the action of
sulphuric acid and water on iron filings or small fragments of iron; but
this method of filing them ultimately gave place to the cheaper and more
convenient supply afforded by the gas-light companies. Of late years, the
coal-gas furnished by the gas-works has been generally, if not solely,
used for the inflation of balloons.

The principles of ballooning may be referred to the well-known difference
in the specific gravity of bodies, and to the physical properties of the
atmosphere. Pure hydrogen, weighed at the level of the sea, is about 16
times lighter than common air; but when prepared on the large scale, and
containing water, and other impurities, it is only from 7 to 11 times
lighter than the atmosphere. A globe of atmospheric air of 1 foot in
diameter, under like circumstances, weighs 1/25 _lb._; a similar globe of
hydrogen (reckoning it only as 6 times lighter than common air, will,
therefore, have an ascensional force of 1/30 _lb._). Now, the weight of
the body of air which a balloon displaces must exceed the gross weight of
the balloon and all its appendages, in order for the latter to ascend in
the atmosphere. The difference of the two weights expresses the
ascensional force. The aërostatic power of balloons is proportional to
their dimensions, in the ratio of the cubes of their diameters. Thus, it
appears that a balloon of 60 feet diameter filled with common hydrogen
will ascend with a weight of nearly 7000 _lbs._, besides the gas case;
whilst one of only 1-1/2 foot in diameter will barely float, owing to the
less proportionate volume of gas to the weight of the case containing it.
In round numbers the buoyancy of a balloon may be reckoned as equal to 1
_oz._ for every cubic foot of hydrogen it contains, _less_ the weight of
the case and appendages. The carburetted hydrogen supplied by the
gas-works is much heavier than hydrogen gas, and consequently much less
buoyant, for which due allowance must be made. That which possesses the
least illuminating power is the lightest, and consequently the best
adapted for aërostation.

The fabric of which the cases of air-balloons are made is strong thin
silk, covered with an elastic varnish of drying oil or india rubber, or,
what is better, a solution of india rubber in either chloroform or
bisulphide of carbon; the netting is of strong light silk or flaxen cord;
and the car of basket-work. Fire-balloons, on the small scale, are
generally made of silver-paper, and are inflated with the fumes of burning
spirit of wine, by means of a sponge dipped in that liquid, and suspended
just within the mouth of the apparatus.

Owing to the increasing rarity of the atmosphere as we ascend from the
earth’s surface, balloon cases are made very much larger than is required
to contain the necessary quantity of gas, to allow for its expansion as it
rises into a rarer medium. A cubical foot of gas measured at the level of
the sea occupies a space of two feet at an elevation of 3-1/2 miles.

The following _Table_ will prove useful to the amateur aëronaut or
balloonist:——

        TABLE _showing the relations between the diameters,
        surfaces, and capacities of spheres_.

  ---------------------------------------------
  | Diameters. | Surfaces. | Cubical contents.|
  ---------------------------------------------
  |      1     |    3·141  |         ·523     |
  |      2     |   12·567  |        4·188     |
  |      3     |   28·274  |       14·137     |
  |      4     |   50·265  |       33·51      |
  |      5     |   78·54   |       65·45      |
  |     10     |  314·159  |      523·6       |
  |     15     |  706·9    |     1767·1       |
  |     20     | 1256·6    |     4189·        |
  |     25     | 1963·5    |     8181·        |
  |     30     | 2827·     |    14137·        |
  |     40     | 5026·     |    33510·        |
  ---------------------------------------------

See ATMOSPHERE, GAS, HYDROGEN, PARACHUTE, VARNISH, &c.

=BALLOON′ING‡.= _Syn._ BALLOON′RY†*. The act, art, or practice of
ascending or travelling in balloons; aërostation. A BALLOON′IST‡ is an
aëronaut (particularly an amateur or enthusiastic one).

=BALLS.= The application of this term in _commerce_, _perfumery_,
_veterinary medicine_, &c., has been already noticed. (See BALL.) The
following may be inserted here:——

=Balls, Al′mond= (ah′-mŭnd). _Syn._ BOULES D’AMANDE, Fr. _Prep._ 1.
Spermaceti, 4 _oz._; white wax (pure) 8 _oz._; oil of almonds, 1 pint;
melt them together in a glazed earthenware-vessel, by the heat of a water
bath, and when the mixture has cooled a little, add essential oil of
almonds, and expressed oil of mace, of each 2 _dr._; stir assiduously
until it begins to cool, and then pour it into the moulds, which may be
ounce-gallipots with smooth bottoms (very slightly warmed), when it will
form beautiful hemispherical cakes. Very fine.

2. Hard clarified suet, 1-1/4 _lb._; white wax, 1/4 _lb._; ess. oil of
almonds, 1-1/2 _dr._; oil of cloves (or of pimento), 1/2 _dr._; as before.

_Uses, &c._ To soften the skin, and in winter to prevent chaps and
chilblains. Sometimes these balls are coloured, which is done whilst the
mixture is in the liquid state. A rich pink or red may be given by a
little alkanet-root or dragon’s blood; a yellow, by palm oil or annotta; a
blue, by a little finely powdered indigo; and a green, with spinage
(steeped in the oil before use), or a few grains of verdigris. The most
appropriate tint for them is a pale yellow or amber.

=Balls, Barèges= (-rāzhe’). _Syn._ BOULES DE BARÈGES, Fr. _Prep._ 1.
Extract of soap-wort, 3 _oz._; good glue or gelatin, 1-1/2 _oz._; water, 4
_oz._; dissolve with heat, and add of sulphide of calcium, 6 _oz._; common
salt, 1 _oz._ (both in powder); mix thoroughly, and form the mass into
balls weighing 2-1/2 _oz._ each, adding a little powdered gum, if
required, to thicken it, and using powdered starch to roll them in.

2. Gelatin, 8 _oz._; sulphide of calcium, 12 _oz._; common salt, 2 _oz._;
water, q. s.; after solution and admixture, add carbonate of soda and
Castile soap, of each (in powder), 2-1/2 _oz._ One ball is added to the
water of a bath for an adult, to be used as a substitute for that of
Barèges.

=Balls, Bitter.= _Prep._ 1. Powdered gentian, 2 _lbs._; extract of
gentian, 1 _lb._; grains of paradise (ground), 1/2 _lb._ syrup, q. s.; mix
with heat, and divide into half-pound rolls. For ALE.

2. To the above add of Spanish-juice, 1-1/2 _lb._; previously softened
with a little boiling water For PORTER and STOUT. Both are used by
fraudulent brewers; and by publicans in reducing their beer.

=Balls, Black′ing.= _Prep._ 1 (Bailey’s). Gum-tragacanth, 1 _oz._; water,
4 _oz._; dissolve, add of sugar candy, 4 _oz._; and afterwards,
ivory-black and Prussian blue (in very fine powder), of each 2 _oz._;
neat’s foot oil, 2 _fl. oz._; thoroughly incorporate, and evaporate by a
gentle heat, constantly stirring, until of a proper consistence, then pour
it into oiled moulds.

2. Gum-arabic, moist sugar, and ivory-black, of each 1/2 _lb._;
lamp-black, 1/4 _lb._; glue (melted with a little water), 2 _oz._; water,
1 quart, or q. s.; neat’s foot oil, 1/4 pint; as before.——Used by the
shoemakers, harness-makers, &c., to blacken and polish leather. See BALLS,
HEEL.

=Balls, Breech′es.= See BALLS, SCOURING.

=Balls, Bronze.= See BALLS, COPYING.

=Balls, Cam′phor.= _Syn._ CAM′PHOR-CAKES, CHAP′-BALLS‡, CHIL′BLAIN B.‡,
&c.; GLOB′ULI CAMPHORA′TI, PLACEN′TÆ CAMPHORA′TÆ, &c., L. _Prep._ 1.
Spermaceti and white wax, of each 2 _oz._; almond or olive oil, 1/4 pint;
melt together by a gentle heat, add of camphor (in small pieces), 1 _oz._;
when dissolved, stir until partly cold, and then pour it into moulds, as
directed under ALMOND-CAKES (_above_).

2. Clarified suet, 1 _lb._; spermaceti and white wax, of each, 3 _oz._;
camphor, 2 _oz._; as before.

3. Spermaceti cerate (Ph. L.), 1 _lb._; spermaceti, 2 _oz._; camphor,
1-1/2 _oz._; as before.

4. To either of the above add of balsam of Peru, 1/4 to 1/2 _oz._; and,
after solution, either strain the mixture through muslin, or allow it to
settle, and decant the clear portion from the dregs.

_Use, &c._ A popular preventive of chapping and chilblains. A little is
well rubbed into the skin, previously washed clean and wiped dry. Some
persons add colour and scent; but they are generally sold without either.
The only suitable colours are amber, pink, or yellow. The best perfumes
are allspice, ambergris, cassia, cloves, mush, nutmeg, rondoletia,
vanilla, and violets. See BALLS, ALMOND (_antè_).

=Balls, Clothes.= See BALLS, SCOURING.

=Balls, Contrayer′va.= _Syn._ LA′PIS CONTRAYER′VÆ, GLOB′ULI C., L.
Compound contrayerva-powder made into balls with gum-water. An obsolete
preparation, once in great repute as a stimulant, tonic, diaphoretic, and
absorbent.

=Balls, Cop′ying.= These have a similar composition to ‘heel-balls’ (see
_below_). For BLACK, the best colouring matter is lamp-black or plumbago
with about half its weight of indigo; for a BRONZE-COLOUR, bronze-powder
is substituted; and for a mellow BROWN, burnt terra di Sienna. These
should be all in very fine powder. The semi-fluid mass is poured into
small flat cylindrical moulds——paper pill-boxes answer the purpose
well.——Used by artists and amateurs to copy inscriptions, monumental
brasses, and other slightly raised or sunken patterns; the ball being
rubbed over the paper previously laid flat on the design, and held
securely in its place. They are sometimes rendered more permanent by
damping the wrong side with a sponge dipped in water, strong spirit, or
oil of turpentine; or by passing the wrong side over a hot iron held with
the face upwards.

=Balls, Cosmet′ic.= See SAVONETTES, &c. (also _above_).

=Balls, Cream.= See SAVONETTES, SOAP BALLS, &c.

=Balls, Dog.= See DOGS.

=Balls, Gas′coign’s.= _Syn._ GLOB′ULI GASCOIG′NII, L. Gascoign’s powder
made up into small balls with thin mucilage. See POWDERS.

=Balls, Heel.= _Prep._ 1. (Ullathorne’s.) Bees’ wax, 1 _lb._; suet, 4
_oz._; melt together, and stir in of ivory-black (very finely powdered), 4
_oz._; lamp-black (sifted), 3 _oz._; gum arabic and sugar-candy, of each
(in very fine powder) 2 _oz._; and, when thoroughly mixed and partly cold,
pour the composition into tin or leaden moulds.

2. To the last add of resin, 3 _oz._; oil of turpentine, 2 _oz._

3. Hard suet and bees’ wax, of each 4 _oz._; powdered gum, sugar candy,
and Venice turpentine, of each 1 _oz._; ivory-black and lamp-black, of
each 2 _oz._; as before.

4. Suet and bees’ wax, of each 4 _oz._; lamp-black and brown sugar, of
each 8 _oz._; common size, 5 _oz._; melt together and stir until
incorporated.

_Uses, &c._ Employed to black leather, and more especially by shoemakers
for the edges of the soles; the ball being first rubbed on, and the part
afterwards smoothed over with a burnisher or polished iron tool gently
heated. Also used by artists to copy inscriptions, basso relievos, &c. To
produce a good article, the gum, colouring matter, and sugar, must be in
the state of extremely fine powder, and the mixture very carefully made;
no lumps being left. Some persons dissolve the gum in a little water, and
then stir the mixture over the fire until it acquires the proper
consistence for moulding (as in No. 4, _above_); but the first is
accounted the best method.

=Balls, Horse.= See VETERINARY MEDICINE, &c.

=Balls, Martial.= _Syn._ GLOB′ULI MARTIA′LES, L. _Prep._ 1. Those of the
P. Cod. consist of tartarised iron mixed with aromatics, and made up into
small globular masses.

2. (BOULES DE NANCY.) Equal parts of iron filings and red tartar, in fine
powder, made into balls with proof spirit or brandy. Both are used as
chalybeate tonics, either in the form of pills or dissolved in hot water.
Seldom employed in England.

=Balls, Physic.= (Vet. Med.) See MASSES.

=Balls, Poultry.= See POULTRY.

=Balls, Scent.= See PASTILS (Toilet), PERFUMERY, POMAMBRA, SCENTS, &c.

=Balls, Scouring.= _Syn._ BREECH′ES BALLS, CLOTHES B., CARPET B., &c.
_Prep._ 1. Curd soap (sliced), 1 _lb._; water, 2 _oz._; melt in a water
bath, or a glue-pot, and when cooled a little, add ox-gall and oil of
turpentine, of each, 5-1/2 _oz._; mix well and roll or mould the mass into
balls or cakes.

2. Fuller’s earth, 2 _lbs._; curd-soap, 1 _lb._; beat to a stiff paste
with ox-gall, q. s.

3. Soft soap and fuller’s earth, equal parts, beat up with a little oil of
turpentine, and either with or without a little essence of lemons.——_Obs._
The above are used to remove paint, grease, and dirt from cloth, carpets,
&c. The spot, first moistened with hot water, is rubbed with the cake, and
allowed to soak a few minutes, or to become nearly dry, when it is well
rubbed with a little warm water and a brush or piece of woollen cloth, and
afterwards rinsed in clean water, and finally rubbed dry and smoothed off
with a piece of dry cloth or a dry brush. The last formula produces the
composition so commonly vended about the streets of London in penny cakes.

4. Whiting and pipe-clay, equal parts; water, q. s. Used for soldiers’
belts, trousers, &c.

5. Pipe-clay, 2 _lbs._; fuller’s earth, 1 _lb._; whiting, 1/2 _lb._;
water, q. s.

6. Bath brick, 1 _lb._; pipe-clay, 2 _lbs._; soft soap, 1/4 _lb._;
ox-gall, 1/2 pint.

7. To the last add of pumice-stone, in very fine powder, 6 _oz._——_Obs._
The last four are used for cloth and leather, especially for drab and
light-coloured coats, trousers, leather breeches, belts, and gloves. Rose
pink, yellow ochre, umber, Irish slate, or other like colouring matter,
may be added to produce any desired tint. White pepper, cloves, &c., are
also occasionally added to drive away moths and insects; and orris root,
or essence of bergamot or of lemon-grass, as perfume.

=Balls, Sweet.= See BALLS, SCENT (_antè_).

=Balls, Tan.= The muddy sediment of tan-pits made into balls or
lumps.——Used by the poor for summer fuel.

=Balls, Wash.= See SAVONETTES, SOAP, &c.

=BALM= (bahm). _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM, L.; BAUME, Fr.; BALSAM, Ger. Primarily,
balsam (of which it is a contraction); formerly and still popularly
applied to anything assumed to be soothing, healing, or genial in its
action, particularly if also aromatic or fragrant; but chiefly to
medicines and liqueurs, supposed to possess these properties. See BALSAMS,
LIQUEURS, QUACK MEDICINES, &c.

=Balm.= _Syn._ COM′MON BALM, GAR′DEN B.; MELIS′SA, L.; BAUME, MÉLISSE, Fr.
The _melis′sa officina′lis_ (Linn.), an aromatic perennial herb, a native
of the south of Europe, but commonly cultivated in our gardens. It is
reputed to be diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, exhilarating, nervine,
and stomachic; and under the form of infusion (BALM-TEA) has long been a
popular remedy in hypochondriacal, hysterical, and nervous affections, and
in amenorrhœa and chlorosis. It is still sometimes ordered as a drink in
fevers and in hypochondriasis.

=Balm of a Thousand Flowers.= Chandler says this is a thick yellow
emulsion, free from injurious metallic ingredients.

=Balm of White Lilies=, for preserving and beautifying the skin (H. A.
Hoadley, New York). This, also according to Chandler, is a red-coloured
water containing a large quantity of chalk in suspension, but with no
injurious metallic ingredient.

=BAL′SAM= (bawl′-săm; -sŭm‡§——Knowles, Walker). [Eng., Ger.] _Syn._
BAL′SAMUM (băl′-), L.; BAUME, Fr. Originally, any strong-scented
oleo-resinous vegetable juice or exudation, of about the fluidity of
treacle, and supposed to possess medicinal virtues. In _modern chemistry_
and _pharmacy_, any vegetable production which is either semi-liquid, or
which naturally becomes concrete, and which contains either benzoic acid,
or cinnamic acid, combined with resin and aromatic essential oil. Several
of the substances popularly termed balsams contain no benzoic acid, and
are consequently now classed with the turpentines. This distinction,
however, is far from being universally adopted, and a late high authority
defines balsams to be “Exudations from plants, which are liquid or soft
solid, and consist of a substance resembling a resin, either combined with
benzoic acid, or with an essential oil, or both.” (Brande.)

The leading properties of the true natural balsams are——Insolubility in
water, almost entire solubility in alcohol, and partial solubility in
ether and in the volatile and fixed oils; the possession of a powerful,
and generally, an agreeable odour, a hot, resinous or terebinthinate
taste, and the usual stimulant and tonic properties of the milder
turpentines. Distilled with water, ethereal oil and some acid pass over,
and the residuum consists chiefly or entirely of acid-resin.

The TRUE BALSAMS, as those of benzoin Peru, styrax, and tolu, and the
celebrated Chinese varnish-balsam, contain either benzoic or cinnamic
acid. Among those falsely termed balsams, are copaiba, opobalsam, Japan
lac-varnish, and some of the turpentines.

The following list includes most of the substances, natural and
artificial, which pass, or have passed, under the name of balsams:[105]——

[Footnote 105: For articles and preparations often called ‘balsams’, and
not found under this head, see ELIXIRS, OILS, PATENT MEDICINES, PERFUMERY,
TINCTURES, &c. &c.]

=Balsam, Acous′tic.= See DROPS.

=Balsam, Amer′ican†.= Balsam of Peru.

=Balsam, An′odyne.= _Syn._ SOOTH′ING BALSAM; BAL′SAMUM ANO′DYNUM (-dĭn-),
B. TRANQUIL′LANS, L.; BAUME ANODIN, B. TRANQUILLE, B. TRANQUILLISANT, &c.,
Fr. _Prep._ 1. (Bate’s.) See PATENT MEDICINES.

2. (Guy’s.) A vulnerary balsam invented by Guy, of Caliac, once in great
repute, but now obsolete. It consisted of aloes, amber, ammoniacum, balsam
of Peru, bdellium, caranna, castor, galbanum, labdanum, myrrh, olibanum,
storax, tacamahaca, and Venice turpentine, digested in alcohol.

3. (B. TRANQUILLANS, P. Cod.) Fresh leaves of belladonna, henbane,
night-shade, tobacco, poppy, stramonium, of each two ounces; dried leaves
of costermary, rosemary, rue, and sage, of each half an ounce; dried tops
of wormwood, hyssop, sweet marjoram, peppermint, buckbean, and thyme, of
each half an ounce; flowers of lavender and elder, of each half an ounce;
olive oil, fifty ounces. Heat the green plants in the oil gently until all
their water is dissipated; keep on the fire until the oil becomes of a
green colour, and whilst still hot, mix in the other plants, carefully
dried, and cut up. Digest for twelve hours on a water bath, strain, and
filter.

4. (BAUME TRANQUILLE DE CHOMEL.) Henbane, hound’s tongue, and tobacco, of
each 1 lb.; white wine, 3 pints; boil down to a quart; press, strain, and
add to the hot ‘strained liquor’ of olive oil, 1 quart, and again boil.

=Balsam, Ap′oplexy.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM APOPLEC′TICUM, B. AD APOPLEC′TICOS
(Ph. E. 1744), L. _Prep._ 1. Amber, civet, musk, Peruvian balsam, and some
volatile oils, made into a balsam.

2. (Ph. E. 1744) Expressed oil of nutmeg, 1 oz.; liquefy by a gentle heat,
and stir in of the oils of cloves, lavender, and rosemary, of each, 1/2
dr.; oil of amber, 10 drops; balsam of Peru, 1 dr. Both were formerly used
to anoint the head and nostrils of apoplectic patients, and were believed
to be of great efficacy.

=Balsam, Asiat′ic†.= Balm of Gilead.

=Balsam, Bate’s.= See BALSAM, ANODYNE.

=Balsam, Berlin=, for burns, cuts, bruises, and wounds of every kind,
sores and ulcers, frost-bites, &c. Chloride of lime with impure glycerine.

=Balsam Bilfinger=, for rheumatism and gout. Black soap, 25 grms.; water,
40 grms.; spirit of wine, 10 grms.; camphorated spirit, 10 grms.; liquor
ammoniæ caustic, 20 grms.; tinct. capsici, 5 grms. (Schädler.)

=Balsam, Brazilian.= Balsam of copaiba.

=Balsam, Calaba′.= _Syn._ TACAMAHA′CA. A fragrant resinous substance
produced by _calophyl′lum cal′aba_, or Santa Maria tree.

=Balsam, Cam′phor.= _Syn._ CAM′PHORATED BALSAM; BAL′SAMUM CAMPHORA′TUM,
&c., L. _Prep._ 1. As camphor-liniment, Ph. L.

2. (B. ACE′TICUM C., Sanchez’s GOUT-B.:——Pelletier.) Curd-soap and
camphor, of each 5 drs.; oil of thyme, 2 scru.; acetic ether, 5 oz.;
digest together in a stoppered bottle until the solids are dissolved.
Recommended as an efficacious anodyne liniment in certain forms of
rheumatism and gout.

=Balsam, Can′ada.= See TURPENTINES.

=Balsam, Cana′ry.= A volatile oleaginous substance obtained by
distillation from _draco-ceph′alum Moldavi′cum_.

=Balsam, Carpa′thian.= Riga Balsam.

=Balsam, Cephal′ic.= (Saxon.) _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM CEPHALI′CUM SAXON′ICUM, L.
A liquid preparation obtained from the essential oils of amber, lavender,
marjoram, nutmeg, pennyroyal, rue, sage, &c., distilled together. Once in
high repute; but long disused in England.

=Balsam, Chil′blain.= See LINIMENTS.

=Balsam, Chi′na Varnish.= The aromatic varnish-like exudation of _au′gia
sinen′sis_, used by the Chinese as a varnish or lacquer, for which purpose
it is, perhaps, unequalled. It is highly fragrant, and abounds in benzoic
acid.

=Balsam, Command′er’s†.= Compound tincture of benzoin.

=Balsam, Copalm′.= Liquid-ambar.

=Balsam Egyp′tian.= Balm of Mecca.

=Balsam, Eye, Augsburg.= Red oxide of mercury, ·75 grm.; extract of
belladonna, ·5 grm.; tincture of opium, ·5 grm.; fatty substance, 7 grms.
(Hager.)

=Balsam, Eye= (Müller, Berlin). Red oxide of mercury, 5 parts; opium, 3
parts; unsalted butter, 100 parts.

=Balsam, Eye=, (Müller’s Widow, Berlin). Red oxide of mercury, ·2 grm.;
unsalted, unusually rancid, butter, 10 grms.

=Balsam, Fe′male.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM EMBRYO′NUM, A′QUA E., L. An obsolete
preparation made by digesting misletoe, civet, musk, and several other
aromatics, in a mixture of wine and various medicated waters, and
submitting the whole to distillation. Formerly taken both internally and
externally, as a tonic for both fœtus and mother; and particularly to
prevent abortion, &c.

=Balsam, Fri′ar’s.= Compound tincture of benzoin.

=Balsam, Gen′oa.= Locatelle’s balsam.

=Balsam, Glyc′erin= (glĭs′-). _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM GLY̆̆CERI′NÆ, L. _Prep._ To
white wax and spermaceti, of each, 1 _oz._; almond oil, 1/2 _lb._; melted
together, add of glycerin, 2 _oz._; balsam of Peru, 1/2 _oz._; and stir or
agitate until nearly cold. 12 or 15 drops of otto of roses may be
substituted for the balsam.——Used to soften and whiten the skin, and to
prevent chaps and chilblains.

=Balsam, God′bold’s Vegetable.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Balsam, Goulard’s′.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM GOULAR′DII, B. SATUR′NI, L.; BAUME
DE GOULARD, Fr. _Prep._ (Van Mons.) Acetate of lead (in fine powder, and
quite dry) is triturated, for some time, with hot oil of turpentine, in a
heated mortar, or until no more will dissolve; after repose, and whilst
still hot, the clear portion is decanted. Recommended as a useful
application to foul and painful ulcers, and to scalds and burns.

=Balsam, Green.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM VIR′IDE, &c., L.; BAUME VERT, Fr.
_Prep._ 1. Linseed-oil, 6 lbs.; gum-elemi, 1 lb.; heat them together; add
of powdered verdigris, 3 oz., or q. s. to impart a rich green colour, and,
after repose, decant the clear portion.

2. Linseed oil strongly coloured with verdigris. Both were formerly much
used by surgeons as detergents. ‘Green-oil’ or ‘oil of elder-leaves’ is
now commonly sold for it.

A natural balsam, brought from Peru, and produced by _chlorox′ylon
verticilla′tum_, is also popularly called GREEN BALSAM (of Peru).

=Balsam, Guaiacum.= (Ph. Lond. 1745.) Guaiac, 1 lb.; balsam of Peru, 3
dr.; rect. spirit, 2 pints.

=Balsam, Gurgun′= (-gōōn’) _Syn._ GURGI′NA BALSAM, WOOD-OIL (of India).
From _dipterocar′pus tri′nervis_, and other species, by applying a slow
fire to a notch or wound made in the trunk. Has a mixed smell of copaiba
and naphtha. _Properties_ and _dose_ similar to those of balsam of
copaiba. Sp. gr. ·962 to ·964. See COPAIBA and WOOD-OIL.

=Balsam, Hill’s, of Honey.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Balsam, Hungarian.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM HUNGAR′ICUM, L. A terebinthinate
exudation from the extremities of the branches of _pi′nus pumil′io_
(Willd.) or mountain-pine. It is also obtained by pressure from the
‘cones’ of the same tree.

=Balsam, Ioduretted.= See LINIMENTS.

=Balsam, Japan Varnish.= _Syn._ JAPAN LACQ′UER. Exudes from incisions made
in the trunk of _melanorrhœ′a usitatis′sima_, according to Wallich; or
_stagma′′ria, avernicif′lua_ according to Lindley. It constitutes the
celebrated lac-varnish of the Japanese. It differs from that of China, and
from the true balsams, in not containing benzoic acid. It is extremely
acrid and irritant; and even its fumes affect the eyes and respiration.

=Balsam†, Jews′.= Balm of Gilead.

=Balsam of Life, Professor Cook’s.= Recommended especially for toothache
and skin diseases. Borax, 20 parts; boiling water, 250 parts; camphor,
1-1/2 part. (Hager.)

=Balsam, Locatelle’s′.= _Syn._ LOCATEL′LI’S BALSAM; BAL′SAMUM LOCATEL′LI,
B. LUCATEL′LI, B. ITAL′ICUM, B. GENOFE′VÆ, &c., L. var. _Prep._ 1.
(Original Formula.) Olive oil, 6 oz.; yellow wax, 4 oz.; sherry wine, 5
fl. oz.; red sanders (in very fine powder), 4 dr.; simmer them together
until the moisture is nearly evaporated, then add of Strasburgh
turpentine, 6 oz.; balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; strain through linen, and stir
until nearly cold.

2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Olive oil, 24 fl. oz.; yellow wax, 1 lb.; melt, and add
of Venice turpentine, 1-1/2 lb.; and, when cooled a little, further add,
powdered dragon’s blood, 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, 2 oz.; and stir until
cold.

3. (Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil, 16 fl. oz.; Venice turpentine and yellow wax,
of each 1/2 lb.; red sanders, 6 dr.

_Uses, &c._ A once highly esteemed pectoral, and still occasionally used,
by the lower classes, in phthisis and chronic coughs (mixed with an equal
weight of conserve of roses), and as a mild stimulating ointment.——_Dose_,
1/2 dr. or more.

=Balsam, Mercu′′rial†.= Ointment of nitrate of mercury.

=Balsam, Metz’s.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM VIR′IDE METEN′SIUM, L.; BAUME VERT DE
METZ, Fr. _Prep._ (Guibourt.) Linseed oil and olive oil, of each 6 oz.;
oil of laurel-berries, 1 oz.; common turpentine, 2 oz.; melt by a gentle
heat, and add of verdigris 3 dr.; aloes, 2 dr.; sulphate of zinc, 1-1/2
dr. (all in powder); mix well, strain or pour the liquid into a bottle,
and add oil of juniper, 4 dr.; oil of cloves, 1 dr. Used on the Continent
as a common detergent dressing to wounds and ulcers.

=Balsam, Mex′ican†.= Balsam of Peru.

=Balsam, Nat′ural†.= That which exudes from plants, as opposed to those
formed by art.

=Balsam, Ner′vine.= See OINTMENTS.

=Balsam, Odontal′gic.= See DROPS.

=Balsam, Opodel′doc.= See OPODELDOC (French).

=Balsam, Pec′toral.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM PECTORA′LE, L.; BAUME PECTORAL, Fr.
_Prep._ 1. Tincture of tolu and compound tincture of benzoin, of each, 2
oz.; rectified spirit, 4 oz.; mix. _Dose_, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful, night and
morning; in chronic coughs, hoarseness, &c.

2, 3. See BALSAM OF HONEY, B. OF HOREHOUND, &c.

=Balsam, Persian†.= Friar’s Balsam.

=Balsam, Peru′′vian.= See BALSAM OF PERU.

=Balsam, Poly′chrest.= _Syn._ ELIXIR POLYCHRESTON. (E. 1745.) Guaiacum, 6
oz.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 32 oz. Digest in a sand
bath for 4 days, and add oil of sassafras, 2 dr.

=Balsam, Poser’s= (E. Gross, Breslau), for chronic and local rheumatism. A
yellow liquid, composed of:——Oil of rosemary, 4 grms.; camphor, 10 grms.;
tincture of ants, 15 grms.; tincture of cantharides, 5 grms.; spirit of
wine, 90 grms.; tincture of saffron, 10 drops. (Hager.)

=Balsam, Potsdam= (aromatic balsamic perfume). Liquid storax, 4 grms.;
cloves, 2 grms.; oil of cloves, 3 grms.; oil of cassia, 1 grm.; oils of
bergamot, lemon, and lavender, āā, 2 grms.; oil of curled mint, 1/4 grm.;
rectified spirit, 200 grms.; macerate and filter. (Hager.)

=Balsam, Riga.= (rē′-). _Syn._ CARPA′THINA BALSAM; BAL′SAMUM CARPATH′ICUM,
B. LIB′ANI, &c., L.; BAUME DE CARPATHES, Fr. A pellucid white fluid
obtained by careful distillation from the young shoots of _pi′nus cem′bra_
(Linn.) or Siberian stone-pine. It much resembles oil of juniper; and,
like that article, is powerfully diuretic. It is regarded as vulnerary,
and is highly esteemed by some in sprains and bruises. The bottoms of oil
of juniper are commonly sold for it in the shops. The spirit distilled
from pine-tops (_spiritus turionum pini_) is also frequently, although
incorrectly, called BIGA BALSAM.

=Balsam, Sanchez’s Gout.= See BALSAM, CAMPHORATED.

=Balsam, Sooth′ing.= See BALSAM, ANODYNE.

=Balsam, St. Genevieve.= Thick turpentine, 5 parts; olive oil, 30 parts;
bees’ wax, 25 parts; spermaceti, 5 parts; camphor, 1 part; red sanders, 4
parts.

=Balsam, St. John Long’s= (liniment), used for application to the chest in
cases of phthisis, is a thick emulsion composed of:——Turpentine, 25 parts;
yolk of eggs, 50 parts; concentrated vinegar, 5 parts; rose water, 15
parts; and a few drops of essence of lemon.

=Balsam, Stomach′ic= (-măk′-). _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM STOMACH′ICUM, L.; BAUME
STOMACHIQUE, Fr. _Prep._ (Ph. Slesv.-Hols. 1831.) Oils of cloves, mace,
wormwood, and peppermint, of each 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; oil of
nutmeg, 2 oz.; mix. 1 to 5 or 6 drops, on sugar, or dissolved in spirit.

=Balsam, Syr′ian.= Balsam of Mecca.

=Balsam, Thibaut’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Balsam, Tooth′ache.= See DROPS, &c.

=Balsam, Traumat′ic.= Compound tincture of benzoin.

=Balsam, Tur′key.= _Syn._ TUR′KEY BALM. The distilled oil of the
dracocephalum moldavicum.

=Balsam, Tur′lington’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Balsam, Univer′sal.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM UNIVERSA′LE, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
Slesv.-Hols. 1831.) Rape oil (recent), 1-1/2 lb.; yellow wax, 1/2 lb.;
acetate of lead (in fine powder), 3 oz.; powdered camphor, 1/2 oz.; melted
together; observing to triturate the acetate with a small portion of the
oil before adding it to the mixture, and not to add the camphor until the
heat is reduced a little.——_Obs._ This name has also been given to
‘compound cerate of lead,’ and even to ‘cerate of acetate of lead.’

=Balsam, Vervain’s†.= Compound tincture of benzoin.

=Balsam, Wound.= Several vulnerary preparations have been so called; but
FRIAR’S BALSAM (comp. tinct. of benzoin) is that usually intended.

=Balsam of Acou′chi.= A yellowish aromatic liquid, of a terebinthinous
nature and consistence, obtained from the wounded branches and shoots of
the _icica heterophylla_ (DC.). It is highly esteemed as vulnerary by the
Caribs of Guiana. (Lindley.)

=Balsam of Alpi′nus.= Balm of Gilead; because Prosper Alpinus wrote a
learned (?) treatise on it.

=Balsam of Am′ber.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM SUCCINI, L.; BAUME D’AMBRE, Fr. The
article to which this term is usually applied has been already noticed.
Oil of amber was also formerly so called; and the same name has been given
to the following and other like preparations by their inventors:——

1. (Radius.) Oil of amber, 4 fl. oz.; oil of myrrh, 2 fl. oz; oil of
turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; mix with a gentle heat.

2. (Bate.) See BALSAM ANODYNE. They are all stimulant and antispasmodic,
and are used either internally or as a friction, like oil of amber.

=Balsam of Arcæ′us.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM ARCÆ′I, L.; BAUME D’ARCÆUS, Fr. A
digestive ointment formerly in great repute, and still much employed on
the Continent. It is now superseded in England by the comp. elemi ointment
of the Pharmacopœias. In the original formula, boiling water, 4 parts,
were ordered to be stirred in.

=Balsam of Can′ada.= See TURPENTINES.

=Balsam of Cloves.= _Syn._ AROMAT′IC BALSAM OF CLOVES; BAL′SAMUM
CARYOPHYL′LI, L. _Prep._ (Bories.) Oil of cloves and oil of nutmeg, of
each 1/2 dr.; spirit of juniper berries, 3 oz.; mix. Rubefacient and
diuretic.——Used chiefly as a stimulating friction. _Internally_, 1/2 to 1
teaspoonful.

=Balsam of Copai′ba.= See COPAIBA.

=Balsam of Fern.= Oil of male fern.

=Balsam of Fiovaren′ti.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM FIOVAREN′TI, L. _Prep._ (P.
Cod.) Venice turpentine, 16 oz.; amber, elemi, galbanum, myrrh, styrax,
and tacamahaca, of each 3 oz.; aloes, 1 oz.; bay-berries, 4 oz.; cinnamon,
cloves, galangal, ginger, nutmegs, and zedoary, of each 1-1/2 oz.; dittany
of Crete, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 lbs.; macerate a week and distil off
7 lbs. The distilled spirit constitutes this notable preparation of,
professedly, many virtues. It is reputed aromatic, diuretic,
antispasmodic, and stimulant. One of its applications is as a collyrium——a
drop or two being rubbed on the palm of the hands, which are then held to
the eyes, so as to cover, without touching them——in chronic ophthalmia,
conjunctivitis, &c.

=Balsam of Gil′ead.= See BALSAM OF MECCA.

=Balsam of Gua′iacum= (gwā-yă-). _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM GUAI′ACI, B.
GUAIACI′NUM, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1745.) Gum-guaiacum, 1 lb.; balsam of
Peru, 3 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest 10 days and filter.
Diaphoretic, arthrodynic, and anodyne.——_Dose_, 30 to 60 drops, in milk or
water; in agues, rheumatism, &c. _Externally_, reputed also
anti-suppurative.

=Balsam of Honey.= _Syn._ PEC′TORAL BALSAM, P. B. OF HONEY; BAL′SAMUM
MEL′LIS, B. PECTORA′LE, B. P. MELLIS, L.; BAUME DE MIEL, &c., Fr. _Prep._
1. Balsam of tolu, 1 lb.; honey (finest), 2-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1
gall.; turmeric, 1 oz.; make a tincture.

2. To the last, before maceration, add of powdered opium, 2 oz.

3. (Hill’s.) See PATENT MEDICINES. _Uses, &c._ A good pectoral in colds,
tickling chronic coughs, hoarseness, &c., when unaccompanied with
fever.——_Dose._ For an adult, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful, twice or thrice a day;
an occasional dose of some mild aperient being also taken. Tincture of
balsam of tolu, or a mixture of the tinctures of tolu and benzoin, is
frequently sold in the shops under the name of ‘balsam of honey.’ See
PECTORAL BALSAM, &c.

=Balsam of Hore′hound.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM MARRU′BII, L. _Prep._ 1. Extracts
of horehound and liquorice, of each 2 oz.; hot water, 1/2 pint; dissolve,
and when cold, add of paregoric, 3/4 pint; oxymel of squills, 6 oz.;
tincture of benzoin, 2 oz.; honey, 10 oz.; and, after thorough admixture,
strain through flannel.

2. (Ford’s.) See PATENT MEDICINES.

_Uses, &c._ A popular pectoral.——_Dose, &c._, same as of BALSAM OF HONEY
(_above_).

=Balsam of Houmi′′ri.= [Nat.] From humir′ia balsamif′era, or the
houmiri-tree of Guiana. It resembles ‘balsam of umiri’ produced by
another tree of the same genus. (See _below_.)

=Balsam of Lead.= See BALSAM, GOULARD’S.

=Balsam of Life.= _Syn._ BALM OF LIFE; BAL′SAMUM VI′TÆ, L.; BAUME DE VIE,
ELIX′IR DE VIE, &c., Fr. Several compound medicines have been called by
this name. Those of Gabius, Hoffman, and Turlington, are noticed under
PATENT MEDICINES (which _see_). The following are distinct preparations:——

1. BAUME DE VIE EXTERNE:——Soap liniment, 2 parts; oil of turpentine, 1
part; mix. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used with friction.

2. BAUME DE VIE PURGATIF; Elixir de vie:——_a._ (Briett.) Socotrine aloes
and saffron, of each, 2 drs.; rhubarb, 6 drs.; liquorice-root, 1 oz.;
proof spirit or brandy, 1/2 pint; digest a week, and filter.

_b._ (Original Swedish formula.) Aloes, 9 drs.; agaric, gentian, rhubarb,
saffron, theriaca, and zedoary, of each 1 dr.; proof spirit or brandy, 1
quart. A mild stomachic purge.——_Dose._ 1 to 6 drs. Tincture of
rhubarb-and-aloes (Ph. E.) is commonly substituted for it. See ELIXIRS.

=Balsam of Liq′uorice.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Balsam of Mec′ca.= _Syn._ BALM OF GIL′EAD, B. OF MEC′CA, OPOBAL′SAM
(-bawl′-), JEWS’ BALSAM†, OIL OF B.†, &c., Eng.; BAL′SAMUM (băl′-)
GILEADEN′SE, B. È MEC′CA, OPOBAL′SAMUM (-băl′-) &c., L.; BAUME DE LA
MECQUE, B. DE MECCA*, B. DE JUDÉE, OPOBALSAMUM, &c., Fr. BAL′SAMUM
ÆGYPTI′ACUM†, B. ALPI′NI†, B. ANTIQUO′′RUM GENUI′NUM†, B. ASIAT′ICUM†, B.
SYRI′ACUM†, O′LEUM BAL′SAMI†, &c., L. A fragrant oleo-resinous substance,
obtained from _balsamoden′dron gileaden′se_ (Kunth.; _amy′ris
gileaden′sis_, Linn.; _a. opobal′samum_, Forsk), a middle-sized tree of
the nat. ord. Terebinthacæ (DC.), growing in Arabia Felix, Asia Minor, and
Egypt. It is the BALM of the Old Testament, and the βἁλσαμον of
Theophrastus and Dioscorides. It is chemically classed with the
turpentines.

_Prop., &c._ When fresh it is turbid and whitish, but becomes by degrees
transparent, of a rich golden colour, and slightly thicker; and by
exposure, eventually solid. It possesses a penetrating and delicate
fragrance; tastes sharp, bitter, spicy, and somewhat astringent; is not
entirely soluble in rectified spirit, but dissolves more or less
completely in both the fixed and volatile oils, which then assume the
fragrance of the balsam. A drop let fall on hot water spreads itself over
the whole surface, like a film of oil, and again contracts on the water
cooling. This, with its fragrance, is the common test of its genuineness
in Turkey. The inferior qualities, or those of commerce, are generally
opaque and thick, rapidly resinifying and turning of a dull yellow by age.
When applied to the skin it causes redness and swelling. It was formerly
regarded as possessing the most varied and exalted virtues, particularly
as an antiseptic, stimulant, vulnerary, and nervine; and its fumes were
supposed to prevent barrenness. It is still highly prized in the East as a
cosmetic and perfume; and is said to be unequalled for giving a healthy
glow to the complexion and promoting the growth of the hair. Its medicinal
qualities are intermediate to those of the aromatic turpentines and balsam
of tolu.——_Dose._ From 3 to 6, or even 10 or 12 drops.

_Obs._ According to Bruce, and others, the best balm of Gilead is a
spontaneous exudation from the tree; a second quality is obtained by
cutting the bark with an axe, and receiving the juice which exudes in a
small earthen bottle. A large branch is said to produce not more than 3 or
4 drops a day; and even the most resinous trees seldom yield more than 60
drops daily. Hence its scarcity and costliness. Both varieties are held in
such high estimation by the Turks and Egyptians, that none of them are
exported as an article of commerce. That which is sent to England is
obtained by boiling the leaves and young twigs of the balsam tree in
water, and is rejected by the Orientals as worthless. Most of that sold in
the shops of England is entirely spurious (see _below_).

The cosmetics recently so much advertised as ‘BALM OF MECCA’ do not
contain even a trace of this article; nor do we believe that there is a
single drop of the genuine balm to be purchased in London.

The following formulæ are current in the trade for =Fac′′titious Balm of
Mecca=:——

1. Gum-benzoin (bright, coarsely powdered), 4 _oz._; liquid styrax
(finest), 3 _oz._; balsam of tolu, 2 _oz._; Canadian balsam, 1-1/2 pint;
are mixed together in a flask, and exposed (closed) to the heat of a water
bath, with frequent agitation, until the liquid is saturated; when cold,
the clear portion is decanted, and a sufficient quantity of the oils of
lemon, cassia, rosemary, nutmeg, and vanilla, added to give it a strong
aromatic odour.

2. From gum-benzoin and balsam of Peru, of each 1 _oz._; vanilla and
nutmeg, of each (cut small) 1 _dr._; Canadian balsam, 1/2 pint; digested
as before, and some essential oils added to the decanted liquid.

=Balsam of Nut′meg.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM MYRIS′TICÆ, B. NUCIS′TÆ. L. _Prep._
(Ph. Bor. 1847.) Expressed oil of nutmeg (——? mace), 3 _oz._; olive oil, 1
_oz._; yellow wax, 1/2 _oz._; melt them together by a gentle heat, pour
the mixture into paper moulds, and, when cold, cut the mass up into cakes.

=Balsam of Peru’= (rōō′). _Syn._ PERU′VIAN BALSAM; BAL′SAMUM PERUVIA′NUM
(Ph. L., E., and D.), L.; BAUME DU PÉROU, B. PERUVIEN, Fr.; PERUVIANISCHER
BALSAM, Ger. A balsam obtained from _Myroxylon Pereiræ_ (_Myrospermum of
Sonsonate_). It exudes from the trunk of the tree after it has been
scorched and removed. From Salvador, in Central America. B. P.

_Prop., &c._ A chocolate-coloured or a reddish-brown liquid, of the
consistence of treacle, possessing a bitterish, rather pungent taste, and
an agreeable aromatic odour somewhat similar to that of a mixture of
vanilla and benzoin. It is reputed stimulant, tonic, and expectorant, and
has long been a popular remedy in chronic asthma, catarrh, and other
pulmonary affections, debility, &c. It is now, however, principally used
as an ingredient in pomades, hair-oils, lip-salves, and other cosmetics,
in which it is only inferior to ‘balm of Mecca,’ and in compound
perfumery. It is also used to scent lozenges, pastils, and chocolate and
liqueurs; for these last, chiefly as a substitute for ‘vanilla’ when it is
scarce and dear.——_Dose_, 10 or 12 to 30 gr. (even 1 dr. is sometimes
given), either on sugar, or made into a bolus with liquorice powder, or
into an emulsion with honey, mucilage, or yolk of egg.

_Pur., Tests, &c._——1. The sp. gr. should not be lower than 1·15; nor
higher than 1·16:——2. Ether dissolves it readily and completely:——3.
Soluble in 5 parts of rectified spirit:——4. It should undergo no
diminution in volume when agitated with water:——5. 100 gr., by its benzoic
or cinnamic acid, should saturate not less than 7-1/2 gr. of pure
crystallised carbonate of soda:——6. Sulphuric acid converts it into resin,
artificial tannin, or charcoal, according to the quantity employed; if, on
adding water, a brittle resin is not formed, some fixed oil (probably
castor oil) is present:——7. Treated with nitric acid, some hydrocyanic
acid is formed, benzoic acid sublimes, and the residual matter is
artificial tannin:——8. The alkalies and their carbonates form with it a
thickish semi-crystalline mass, which, on being treated with sulphuric
acid, deposits a peculiar resinous matter, with crystals of benzoic and
cinnamic acid:——9. If a few drops are distilled, and, when iodine is added
to the distillate, an explosion results, it has been adulterated with
‘copaiba’:——10. The genuine balsam contains about 6-1/2% of benzoic
(cinnamic) acid:——11. (Hager). If two or three cubic centimètres of balsam
of Peru be shaken with five or six cubic centimètres of petroleum spirit,
the mixture separates upon being allowed to stand into a black-brown
layer, and a limpid and colourless or slightly yellowish layer, and is
easily decanted. If the balsam be adulterated, this latter layer is turbid
and coloured, while the viscous residue which separates is more fluid,
which renders decantation more difficult. Sometimes the brown residue is
pulverulent.

_Obs._ Balsam of Peru was formerly very generally adulterated, and often
entirely factitious; but, owing to its present reduced price, this is now
only confined to a few of the most unprincipled venders. The following
formulæ for this purpose are still extant in the trade:——

=Balsam of Peru, Facti′′tious:=——From gum-benzoin (in coarse powder), 3
_lbs._; dissolved in the least possible quantity of rectified spirit, and
then mixed with balsam of tolu, 1 _lb._; and liquid styrax, 2 _oz._;
subsequently adding of rectified spirit, q. s.

=Balsam, Reduced Peruvian:=——1. Balsam of Peru, 3 _lbs._; balsam of tolu,
2 _lbs._; rectified spirit, q. s. to reduce it to a proper
consistence:——2. Balsam of Peru, 3 _lbs._; gum-benzoin (dissolved in a
little rectified spirit), 1 _lb._; as before. It is occasionally met with
largely adulterated with liquid styrax.

=Balsam of Rackasi′ri.= _Syn._ BALSAM OF RAKASI′RA; BAL′SAMUM RACKASIRI,
B. RACAZZI′RÆ, B. RHADASI′RI. A species of balsamic turpentine, said to be
obtained from the _bursera balsamifera_ (Pers.), an Indian tree of the
natural order Terebinthaceæ. It has a slightly bitter taste, adheres to
the teeth when chewed, and, when heated, smells like balsam of tolu. It
has been extolled as possessing the virtues of copaiba in an exalted
degree. The nostrum vended under the name of BALM OF RACKASIRI by certain
quacks, simply consists of English gin, coloured, sweetened, and
aromatised.

=Balsam, Saturnine.= (Bate.) Acetate of lead 40 _oz._; oil of turpentine
12 _oz._ Digest for some days.

=Balsam of Soap.= Soap-liniment.

=Balsam of Soap= (Ethe′′real). _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM SAPO′NIS ÆTHE′′REUM, L.
_Prep._ (Cottereau.) Castile soap (powdered) and camphor, of each 1 dr.;
oil of thyme, 10 drops; acetic ether, 1 oz.; dissolve in a close vessel
with the aid of a gentle heat, and decant the clear portion. Used as an
embrocation or liniment in gout, rheumatism, &c.

=Balsam of St. John’s Wort.= See OILS.

=Balsam of Sto′′rax.= Liquid-ambar or styrax.

=Balsam of Sul′phur.= See OILS.

=Balsam of Sul′phur, Anisated.= (Ph. Edin. 1722). Originally made by
digesting one part of sulphur; three of turpentine; and four of oil of
aniseed. A mixture of one part of oil of aniseed with three or four of
balsam of sulphur is usually sold for it.

=Balsam of Sul′phur with Turpentine.= Digest one part of sulphur with
three of oil of turpentine till dissolved. Similar compounds were formerly
made with sulphur and Barbadoes tar, and with the empyreumatic oils of
amber, benzoin, &c.

=Balsam of Syri′acum.= See BALSAM OF MECCA.

=Balsam of Tolu′= (-l′ōō). _Syn._ TOLU’ BAL′SAM*; BAL′SAMUM TOLUTA′NUM
(Ph. L., E., & D.), B. DE TO′LÛ, L.; BAUME DE TOLU, Fr.; TOLUTANISCHER
BALSAM, B. VON TOLU, &c., Ger. Balsam flowing from the incised trunk of
“_myrosper′mum toluif′erum_.” (B. P.) The tree which produces it is a
native of the mountains of Tolu, Turbaco, &c., in South America.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ When first brought over it is soft and tenacious, but
by age and careless keeping becomes hard, and even brittle, somewhat
similar to resin. It is perfectly soluble in alcohol and in ether, and
gives out its acid (benzoic or cinnamic) to water. Its odour is fragrant,
though less powerful than that of either styrax or balsam of Peru; and it
has a pleasant sweetish taste. It softens under the teeth, melts readily,
and burns with an agreeable odour. As a medicine it is a stimulating
expectorant, and, as such, is employed in chronic bronchial affections
unaccompanied with inflammatory action. It has long been a popular
pectoral. Syrup of Tolu is an agreeable and common adjunct to pectoral
mixtures, and, with Tolu lozenges, is often serviceable in tickling
coughs. It is also used by confectioners, perfumers, &c., and in
fumigating pastils.——_Dose_, 5 to 20, or even 30 gr., dissolved in spirit,
or made into an emulsion.

_Pur._ This is shown by its perfect solubility in rectified spirit,
forming a transparent tincture, and by its odour. When adulterated it has
a weaker smell, is only partially soluble in alcohol, and the tincture
formed with that fluid is opaque. The presence of colophony (or lac),
according to Ulex, may be detected by the balsam, instead of dissolving in
sulphuric acid, swelling up, blackening, and disengaging sulphurous
fumes.[106] Castor oil may be detected in the way noticed under BALSAM OF
PERU.

[Footnote 106: ‘Archiv der Pharm.,’ 1855.]

=Balsam of Tolu, a Factitious=, was formerly met with in trade, made of
equal parts of orange-lac and white sugar, reduced to a proper consistence
with rectified spirit, and ‘brought up’ with some tincture of benzoin, and
a few drops of the oils of cassia and nutmeg dissolved in a little essence
of vanilla.

=Balsam of Tur′pentine= (-tīne). _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM TEREBIN′THINÆ, L. A name
formerly given to Strasburgh, Venice, and other like turpentines.

=Balsam of Tur′pentine= (Emollient). _Syn._ B. TEREBINTHINA′TUM, L.
_Prep._ Olive oil, 6 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; yellow wax, 1 oz.;
balsam of Peru, oil of nutmeg, and camphor, of each 2 dr. A stimulant
emollient; in contusions, ulcerations, engorgements, nephritic pains, &c.

=Balsam of Umi′′ri.= [Nat.] By incision, from the _humir′ia floribun′dum_
(Mart.), or the _umiri-plant_ of Para. It is fragrant, limpid, of a
palish-yellow colour, and in its medicinal properties is said to combine
those of the balsams of copaiba and Peru.

=BALSAM′IC= (băl-). _Syn._ BALSAM′ICUS, BALSA′MEUS, BALSAM′INUS, L.;
BALSAMIQUE, Fr.; BALSAMISCH, Ger. Of the nature of balsam, or containing
or resembling it; bland, soothing, healing; balmy.

=BAMBOO′= (-bōō′). [Nat.] _Syn._ BAMBU′SA, L.; BAMBON, Fr.; BAMBUS,
BAMBUSROHR, INDIANISCHER ROHR, Ger. The name of several species of the
genus ‘_bambusa_,’ but appr. of _b. arundina′cea_ or ‘common bamboo.’ See
BAMBUSA.

=Bamboo′-habit= (-hăb-). A species of ‘life-preserver,’ or ‘float,’ used
in China and the Indian Archipelago, consisting of four pieces of bamboo
tied together so as to form a square.

=BAMBU′SA.= [Endl.] The bamboo. In _botany_, a genus of magnificent
arborescent grasses, of the nat. order Gramineæ (DC.), having hollow
jointed stems, of a hard woody texture, externally coated with siliceous
matter, and sometimes secreting a similar siliceous substance (TABASHEER′)
in their internal cavities. They are all of rapid growth, and vary in
height from 6 to 150 feet.

There, is, perhaps, scarcely any other plant besides the palm which serves
for so many purposes useful to man, as the various species of bamboo. Its
grain is used for bread; the young shoots are eaten like asparagus, and
are also pickled; the smaller stalks are made into walking canes, umbrella
and parasol sticks, flutes, &c.; whilst its fibres are manufactured into
cloth, and even paper. It is employed extensively in the construction of
houses, bridges, masts for boats, domestic furniture, boxes, mats,
baskets, utensils of various kinds, fences, water pipes and vessels,
quicksilver bottles, &c., and for numerous other purposes connected with
everyday life. In localities where ordinary surgical appliances are not at
hand, splints, of any required length or size, can be made with very
little delay, from the stems of the bamboo. The older and drier stems are
to be preferred for this purpose. The genus is confined to the East and
West Indies and tropical America. See CANE, PICKLES, TABASHEER, &c.

=BANA′NA= (nā′- or -nah′-). [Nat.] The _mu′sa sapien′tum_ (Linn.), a
species of plantain; also its fruit. The Banana contains about 27 per
cent. of solid matter, and has nearly the same nutritive value as rice. It
is largely consumed in the tropics, where the common allowance for a
labourer is 6-1/2 lbs. of the fresh fruit or 2 lbs. of the dry meal, with
a quarter of a pound of salt meat or fish. It is sometimes fried in slices
and often made into preserves.

        _Composition of the Pulp of Ripe Bananas_
                 (CORENWINDER).

  Nitrogenous matter                 4·820
  Sugar, pectose, organic acid, and
  traces of starch                  19·657
  Fatty matter                       0·632
  Cellulose                          0·200
  Saline matter                      0·791
  Water                             73·900
                                   ———————
                                   100·000

See PLANTAIN.

=BANCOUL, NUTS OF.= This nut is the seed of a tree belonging to the
_Euphorbiaciæ_, of which two or three species occur in Ceylon,
Cochin-China, New Caledonia, Bourbon, &c. It is composed of a hard and
woody endocarp, and of an oily kernel, containing:——

  Water                   5·000
  Oil                    62·175
  Nitrogenous matter     22·653
  Non-nitrogenous matter  6·827
  Mineral matter          3·345
                        ———————
                        100·000
  Nitrogen                3·625%

This cake, after expression of the oil, contains 9 per cent. of nitrogen,
and 4 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and is consequently of high value as a
manure. The expressed oil is purgative, but as a lamp-oil it is superior
to colza. Unfortunately the kernel forms only 33 per cent. of the entire
weight of the nut. Hence, before it can become an article of commerce, it
must be decorticated at the place of its birth. (Corenwinder.)

=BAND′AGE= (āje). _Syn._ DELIGA′TIO, FAS′′CIA, LIGA′MEN, LIGATU′′RA,
VINCTU′′RA, L.; BANDAGE, BANDE, Fr.; BINDE, VERBAND, Ger. In _surgery_,
the fillet, roller, or cloths, used to support parts, to exert pressure on
them, or to retain dressings in their proper places.

Bandages are usually formed of long narrow slips of calico or linen, and,
occasionally, of flannel, which are generally made into a roll (ROLLER) of
moderate size, so as to be the more conveniently handled and applied. They
are either SIMPLE, as the cir′cular, the spīral, or the unīt′ing bandage;
or COMPOUND, as the T-bandage, suspen′sory b., &c.

The application of bandages, as in the dressing of wounds, ulcers, &c.,
though of such frequent occurrence, is often very carelessly and badly
done. The form and nature of the part, and the object in view, should
always receive consideration; as should also the condition of the patient
after their application——whether of repose, exercise, or labour. Ordinary
ingenuity will supply the rest. The safest, simplest, and most effective
means of fastening them is, in most cases, furnished by a common needle
and thread or cotton.

=Bandage, Mus′tard.= A woollen roller soaked in a mixture of the best
flour of mustard and warm water, of the consistence of fresh cream, the
excess of moisture being expelled by gentle pressure.——Used to envelope
the body, or a limb, by repeatedly folding it round the part; in the cold
stages of cholera, and in other cases requiring an energetic stimulant.
Other medicaments, particularly those of a stimulating and anodyne
character, are sometimes applied in the same manner. See EMBROCATIONS,
LOTIONS, POULTICES, &c.

=BANDAN′A.= [Ind.] _Syn._ BANDAN′NA. A handkerchief, originally from the
East Indies, having white spots on a red, blue, or other dark ground. In
_calico-printing_, a ‘discharge style’ in imitation of the Indian
bandanas. The fabric, many folds thick, is placed between leaden plates
having the pattern cut out of them; hydraulic pressure is then applied,
and a clear solution of chloride of lime forced through, followed by a
stream of pure water.

=BAND′OLINE= (-lĭn; -lēne‡). See FIXATURE.

=BANE.= Poison; anything deleterious or destructive; a word often found
joined to another, in the popular and vulgar names of plants and disease,
to denote their character; as BANE′-BERRY, the herb Christopher;
BANE′-WORT, deadly-nightshade; SHEEP’S BANE, the rot; &c.

=BANG, Bangue= (băng′). [Nat.] See HEMP, INDIAN.

=BAN′IAN= (băn′-yăn). The _fi′cus In′dicus_ (Linn.), or Indian fig. The
fruit and young branches yield one species of gum-lac; and both the juice
and bark are used medicinally.

Among sailors, BANIAN′ DAYS are those on which butcher’s meat is not
served up at dinner.

=BANN′OCK= (-ŭk). In Scotland and the northern counties of England, a flat
round cake made of oat, rye, or barley meal, baked on an iron plate over
the fire, or on the hot hearth.

=BARBS.= _Syn._ LAMPAS, SKEW. This occurs in horses from two to four years
old, and arises from a little inflammation of the ridges that pass along
the palate, above and behind the incisor teeth, occasionally preventing
the animal from eating and setting up slight fever. The best treatment is
to scarify the enlarged ridges freely with a lancet or penknife, and to
give for a time bran mashes, soaked grain, and other soft food.

=BAR′BERRY.= _Syn._ PEP′PERIDGE-BUSH‡, THORNY BOX′-TREE*; BER′BERIS, B.
VULGA′′RIS (Linn.), L.; EPINE-VINETTE, VINETTIER, Fr.; BERBERITZE, Ger. A
perennial bush or shrub common in woods and hedges. Berries (BAR′BERRIES,
PEP′PERIDGES), gratefully acid, cooling, and astringent; used in pastry,
but require, according to their degree of ripeness, from one half their
weight to an equal weight of sugar. Both bark and berries were formerly
esteemed in jaundice, biliary flukes, &c. The crushed berries with water
form a refreshing fever-drink. The root dyes a fugitive yellow. See
BERBERINE, JAMS, PRESERVES, &c.

=BAREGE= (barège, băr-rāzhe’). [Fr.] A light woollen fabric so named from
having been first made in the valley of Barèges. Of late years Paris has
become celebrated for its barèges; but these are generally woven with the
‘warp’ of silk, and the ‘woof’ of wool. In the common imitations of the
shops, the ‘warp’ is generally of cotton.

=BAREGINE= (barégine). See GLAIRINE.

=BARIL′LA.= [Eng., Ger., L., Sp.] _Syn._ SO′DÆ CAR′BONAS VENA′LE, L.;
BARIG′′LIA, BARIL′LOR, Sp., Lev.; BARILLE, SOUDE, Fr. The alkaline
residuum of the combustion of salsola, salicornia, chenopodium, and other
species of the order Chenopodiaceæ. These plants, which are cultivated on
the sea-coast for the purpose, are cut down when ripe, dried, and burned
in heaps, on iron bars laid across pits dug in the earth. The alkali and
saline matter contained in them is thus fused, and flows into the cavity
below, forming, when cold, a hard grey or bluish porous mass which is
BARILLA.

_Comp._ Carbonate, sulphate, chloride, and sulphide of sodium, carbonate
and sulphate of calcium, alumina, silica, oxide of iron, and imperfectly
consumed carbonaceous matter, with a little iodine and bromine. The
proportion of soda varies in different varieties:——

ALICANT’ BARILLA; obtained chiefly from several species of _salso′la_ and
from _chenopo′dium setig′erum_ (-tĭj′-), &c.; contains from 25% to 40% of
carbonate of soda. (Guibourt.)

CANA′′RY B.; from _salso′la ka′li_. (Loudon.) _French barillas_:——

_a._ NARBONNE’ B., SALICOR; from _salicor′nia ann′ua_ or _herba′cea_;
contains 14% to 15% of carbonate of soda.

_b._ B. OF AIGUEMORTES, BLANQUETTE; from mixed plants; contains 3% to 8%
of carbonate of soda. (Guibourt.)

_c._ NOR′MANDY B., N. SODA; from _fuci_.

SIC′ILY BARILLA (sĭs′-). Principally from _salso′la sati′va_; furnishes
55% of carbonate of soda. (Fée.)

Good barilla, on the average, contains about 20% of real or available
alkali, chiefly under the form of carbonate, besides sulphates, muriates,
&c.

_Assay._ See ALKALIMETRY.

_Uses, &c._ Barilla is chiefly used in the manufacture of soap and glass;
but the gross quantity imported, though annually increasing, only reached
54,608 _cwt._ in 1856; whilst the exports of soda in the same year reached
to about 1,500,000 _cwt._, and in 1859 to above 2,000,000 _cwt._ This
enormous quantity was chiefly furnished by our home manufactories.

Barilla is chiefly imported from Spain, Sicily, Teneriffe, and the Levant;
but since the introduction of Le Blanc’s process for obtaining soda from
common salt, its importance and value has considerably lessened. See KELP,
SODA, &c.

=BARIUM.= Ba. A metallic radical or element, of which baryta is the chief
oxide, and somewhat extensively distributed. First obtained in 1808 by Sir
H. Davy. Prepared from baryta by strongly heating it in an iron tube,
through which the vapour of potassium is conveyed; the reduced barium
being subsequently extracted from the mixed residuum by quicksilver, which
is afterwards driven off in a small green-glass retort, in a vapour of
mineral naphtha.

_Prop., &c._ Greyish-white, approaching silver in colour and lustre;
decomposes water, and gradually oxidises in the air, with the formation of
the ordinary oxide (BARYTA). It is malleable, fusible under a red heat;
burns in contact with air with a deep red light, and has the sp. gr. 4·70.

_Salts._ Barium forms numerous salts, which are all either colourless or
white, except a few, whose acids are coloured, as the chromate, manganate,
&c. Some of them are soluble in water; one or two only are soluble in
alcohol, and that very sparingly; and (with the exception of the sulphate)
they are all extremely poisonous. They may be prepared by saturating
solutions of the acids with either baryta-water, or carbonate of barium;
and some of them may be prepared by double decomposition.

The various soluble barium salts are known by the following reactions, and
they are all (except the sulphate) soluble either in water or in dilute
hydrochloric acid, except the nitrate and chloride, which are not soluble
in aqueous solutions of their respective acids. Their solutions give an
immediate heavy white precipitate with dilute sulphuric acid, and with
solutions of the sulphates, which is insoluble in dilute acids and
solutions of the alkalies and of the salts of ammonia, that
with a solution of sulphate of lime being very sensitive, and
characteristic:——Hydrofluosilicic acid gives a very characteristic
colourless crystalline and quickly subsiding precipitate, only slightly
soluble in hydrochloric acid and nitric acid; alcohol, in equal volume,
being added, so hastens and completes the reaction, that the filtrate is
unaffected by sulphuric acid:——Chromate of potassium gives a bright yellow
precipitate in neutral solutions, soluble in hydrochloric acid and in
nitric acid, but insoluble in acetic acid:——Caustic potassa or soda (when
quite free from carbonate), and caustic ammonia, cause no precipitate,
except in highly concentrated solutions:——Alkaline carbonates give a heavy
white precipitate with baryta-water or a solution of baryta, and which is
all but insoluble in water, and freely soluble in dilute hydrochloric
acid:——Heated with proof spirit, or pyroxilic spirit, the barium salts
give a greenish-yellow tinge to the flame:——The barium salts, and
particularly the chloride, when exposed on a platinum wire to the inner
flame of the blowpipe, colour the outer flame yellowish-green:——Insoluble
sulphate of barium may be mixed with powdered charcoal, and exposed for a
short time to a full red heat, when sulphide of barium will be formed,
which is freely soluble in water, and which, after being neutralised with
hydrochloric acid, or acetic acid, will yield a solution suitable to the
application of the usual tests. The carbonate, and the salts of barium
with the organic acids, are all convertible into pure baryta by exposure
to a bright red heat.

Baryta is distinguished from lime and from magnesia by its great
solubility in hot water, and by the entire insolubility of its sulphate;
from strontia, by being precipitated by hydrofluosilicic acid, and by not
giving a red colour to the flame of alcohol; from alumina, by its
causticity and alkaline reaction, and by not being precipitated from its
solution in water by ammonium sulphydrate.

_Pois., &c._ The sulphate, owing to its insolubility, is the only salt of
barium which is not poisonous.——_Symp._ Nausea, vomiting, pains in the
head, ringing in the ears, vertigo, and intermitting cramps and
convulsions; the respiration is frequently suspended for several moments,
and the pupil is generally dilated. The symptoms, however, often vary, and
are not very distinctive.——_Treatm., Ant., &c._ Vomiting, followed by
copious draughts of water soured with sulphuric acid, or sulphate of soda
(Glauber-salt) or sulphate of magnesia (Epsom-salt), dissolved in a large
quantity of water. When carbonate of barium has been swallowed, a mixture
of one of the above sulphates and weak vinegar should be taken after the
vomiting, in order that a soluble barium salt may be first formed, on
which the alkaline sulphate will act more readily. Subsequent irritation
may be soothed by opium or morphia, and antiphlogistics.

=Barium, Ac′etate of.= Ba(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}). _Syn._ BARY′TÆ ACE′TAS, L.
_Prep._ From dilute sulphuric acid, neutralised with carbonate of barium,
and the solution evaporated and crystallised. Very soluble in water;
insoluble, or nearly so, in rectified spirit.——_Uses, Dose, &c._ Same as
the chloride. It is seldom employed.

=Barium, Arse′′niate of.= Ba_{3}(PO_{4})_{2}. _Syn._ BARY′TÆ ARSE′′NIAS,
L. _Prep._ A solution of chloride of barium is added to another of
arseniate of potassium or sodium, and the precipitate collected, washed,
and dried. By dissolving this salt in a solution of arsenic acid, and
crystallising, BINARSE′′NIATE OF BARIUM is obtained. Has been recommended
in certain skin diseases, and in phthisis complicated with
scrofula.——_Dose_, 1/16 to 1/4 gr.

=Barium, Ar′senite of.= Ba(AsO_{2})_{2}. _Syn._ BARY′TÆ AR′SENIS, L. Very
slightly soluble.——_Use, &c._ As the last.

=Barium, Bromide of.= BaBr_{2}. _Syn._ BA′′RII BROMI′DUM, L.; BROMURE DE
BARYUM, &c., Fr. _Prep._ Boil a solution of protobromide of iron with
moist carbonate of barium, in slight excess; filter, evaporate to dryness,
and heat the residuum to redness. By careful evaporation of its aqueous
solution it may be obtained in crystals. It is soluble in both alcohol and
water, and its physiological properties resemble those of iodide of
barium.

=Barium, Carbonate of.= BaCO_{3}. _Syn._ CARBONATE OF BARY′TA; BARY′TÆ
CAR′BONAS, L.; CARBONATE DE BARYTE, &c., Fr.; KOHLENSAURES, BARYT, &c.,
Ger. A heavy white mass or powder, very nearly insoluble in water, and
decomposed by nearly all the acids. It is found in the crude state
abundantly in nature, but can only be obtained absolutely pure by adding
an alkaline carbonate to a solution of chloride of barium, or by
saturating the hydrate with carbonic anhydride, and in either case washing
and drying the precipitate. Native carbonate of barium (_witherite_) is
ordered in the pharmacopœias, and is sufficiently pure for making the
barium salts, the only purpose to which it is therein applied.

_Uses._ In _pharmacy_, &c., chiefly to prepare barium salts. In
_chemistry_, to separate certain metallic oxides when occurring together
in solutions. In the _arts_, as a base for certain delicate colours, as an
ingredient in plate-glass, in the manufacture of beet sugar, &c. It is not
used in medicine. It is extremely poisonous.

=Barium, Bisulphide.= This substance may be obtained as a fine
yellow-coloured product by shaking a solution of barium chloride with a
mixture of ammonium sulphide and carbon disulphide. It is insoluble in
alcohol, soluble in water, and rapidly dissolved by slightly acidulated
water.

=Barium, Chloride of.= BaCl_{2}.2Aq. _Syn._ CHLORIDE OF BARIUM; BARII
CHLORIDUM, L.; CHLORURE DE BARYUM, CHLORHYDRATE DE BARYTE, &c., Fr.;
SALZSÄURE SCHWERERDE, CHLORBARIUM, Ger. Neutralise a hot dilute solution
of hydrochloric acid with carbonate of barium, evaporate down, and
crystallise. Sulphide of barium can be substituted for the carbonate. If
required chemically pure, gaseous hydrochloric acid is transmitted through
a concentrated solution of common or impure chloride of barium, as long as
a precipitate forms; the resulting crystalline powder, which is nearly the
whole of the chloride of barium present, is collected on a filter, and,
after draining, is washed repeatedly with small quantities of pure
hydrochloric acid, until the washings, diluted with water, and
precipitated with sulphuric acid, give a filtrate which, upon evaporation
in a platinum capsule or a watch-glass, leaves no residue; the last traces
of acid having been removed by a little alcohol applied in a like manner,
the powder is at once dried, and then carefully preserved from the
air.——Used in analysis.

_Prop., &c._ Crystals, flat, four-sided tables, colourless and
transparent; sometimes double eight-sided pyramids; slightly efflorescent
in dry warm air, but otherwise permanent; decrepitate when heated, and
lose their water of crystallisation; fuse at a red heat; volatilise at a
white heat; insoluble in hydrochloric acid and in alcohol, slightly
soluble in rectified spirit, and very soluble in water; water at 60°
dissolves 43-1/2% of the crystals, and nearly 37% of the dry salt; and
when boiling 75% of the former, and about 66% of the latter; a saturated
boiling solution (223° Fahr.) contains 100 parts of water, and 78 parts of
the crystallised salt.

The crystals contain 2 atoms of water; and a formula of BaCl_{2} + 2Aq.

_Uses, Phys. eff., &c._ In _chemistry_, it is employed as a test for
sulphuric acid and the soluble sulphates. In _medicine_, it has been
employed, both internally and externally, as an alterative, resolvent, and
deobstruent, in scrofula, glandular swellings, and enlargements,
scirrhous cancer, skin diseases, &c.; and more particularly in the first
with marked benefit. In large doses it is poisonous. According to Sir B.
Brodie, its action on animals is analogous to that of arsenic. Locally, it
acts as an irritant. A very weak solution, used as a lotion, often proves
serviceable in herpetic eruptions, and as a collyrium in scrofulous
ophthalmia. _Dose_, 1/2 gr. thrice a day, in water, gradually increased to
2 or 3 gr.

=Barium, Chlorate of.= Ba(ClO_{3})_{2}. _Syn._ CHLORATE OF BARY′TA;
BARY′TÆ CHLO′′RAS, L. _Prep._ From a solution of chloric acid neutralised
with freshly precipitated carbonate of barium; the resulting solution,
after filtration, being crystallised by evaporation.

By passing chlorine through strong milk of hydrate or of carbonate of
barium, in the same way as in making chlorate of potassium.

_Prop., &c._ Soluble in 4 parts of cold water. Used in pyrotechny, and to
make chloric acid.

=Barium, Ferrocy′anide of.= Ba_{2}FeC_{6}N_{6}. _Syn._ BA′′RII
FERROCYANI′DUM, L. From pure ferrocyanide of iron digested in baryta
water. By careful evaporation, efflorescent prismatic crystals may be
obtained, soluble in 4-1/2 parts of water.

=Barium, Fluoride of.= BaF_{2}. _Syn._ BA′′RII FLUORI′DUM, &c., L. A white
powder, formed by digesting freshly precipitated carbonate of barium in
hydrofluoric acid, in excess.

=Barium, Hydrate of.= Ba(HO)_{2}. _Syn._ HYDRATE OF BARYTA; BARYTÆ HYDRAS,
L. _Prep._ By digesting caustic baryta, or barium oxide, with a little
water, or igniting gently the crystallised hydrate. It can be obtained
crystallised as follows:

1. From a concentrated solution of either nitrate or chloride of barium,
precipitated with a rather strong solution of pure potassa, or of pure
soda, perfectly free from carbonic acid.

2. A strong solution of sulphide of barium is boiled with successive
portions of black oxide of copper, until it ceases to give a black
precipitate with a salt of lead; the liquid, after filtration, yields
crystals of the hydrate on cooling.

=Prop., Uses, &c.= Forms a bulky white powder, containing 10-1/2% of water
of hydration, which it retains even after ignition. In this state it is
soluble in 20 parts of cold water, and in 2 parts of boiling water. The
hot saturated solution, as it cools, deposits abundantly columnar crystals
(CRYS′TALLISED HYDRATE OF B.), which contain 51-1/2% of water, of which
they lose, by drying and ignition, 88-3/4% (= 4-3/4% of their weight),
being reduced to the state of the common or amorphous hydrate. Of all the
bases it has the strongest affinity for both sulphuric and carbonic acid,
and hence its solution (BARY′TA-WATER) and those of its neutral salts
(nitrate or chloride) form our most sensitive tests for these substances.
Sp. gr. 4·3 to 4·7. The crystallised hydrate is converted into the
ordinary hydrate at a gentle heat, and this last fuses at a low red heat
without losing its water of hydration, which it only slowly and with
difficulty begins to part with at higher temperatures. In _chemistry_, its
uses are, for the most part, similar to those of BARIUM, OXIDE OF.

=Barium, Iodide of.= Ba_{2}I. _Syn._ BA′′RII IODI′DUM, L.; IODURE DE
BARYUM, &c., Fr.

_Prep._ 1. Dissolve sulphide of barium in water, and add iodine
(gradually) in excess; after the reaction is complete, filter, and either
evaporate to dryness, or crystallise.

2. Digest freshly precipitated carbonate of barium, in excess, in a hot
solution of protiodide of iron; filter and evaporate to dryness; then
re-dissolve and crystallise.

3. By saturating hydriodic acid with oxide or carbonate of barium.

_Prop., &c._ A white or greyish-white mass, or acicular crystals
(according to the mode of its preparation); very soluble in water and in
alcohol; and decomposed by exposure to the air. It has been highly
recommended as an alterative, resolvent, and liquefacient, particularly in
scrofula, glandular swellings, chronic inflammations, and the other
affections in which chloride of barium and iodine are given.——_Dose_,
1/12th to 1/8th gr. (gradually and cautiously increased to 1 gr.), in
distilled water, 2 or 3 times a day. Externally, as an ointment (3 or 4
gr., to lard, 1 oz.), as an application to scrofulous swellings. (Biett.)
It possesses all the irritant, corrosive, and poisonous properties of the
chloride, but in a much more violent degree.

=Barium, Nitrate of.= Ba(NO_{3})_{2}. _Syn._ NITRATE OF BARYTA; BARY′TÆ
NI′TRAS, L. _Prep._ As the acetate or chloride of barium, substituting
pure nitric acid for acetic or hydrochloric acid.

_Prop., &c._ Transparent, colourless octahedrons, which are anhydrous,
insoluble in alcohol, and require about 8 parts of cold water, and about 3
parts of boiling water, for solution.

_Uses._ In _chemistry_, to prepare baryta, and as a test for sulphuric
acid and the soluble sulphates; and in _pyrotechny_, to give a green tinge
to flame.

=Barium, Oxalate of.= BaC_{2}O_{4}. _Syn._ OX′ALATE OF BARYTA; BARY′TÆ
OX′ALAS, L. _Prep._ By precipitating a barium salt with oxalate of
ammonium. Very nearly insoluble.

=Barium, Oxide of.= BaO. _Syn._ BARYTA, BARY′TES, CAU′STIC BARYTA*, OX′IDE
OF BA′′RIUM, PROTOX′IDE OF B., HEAV′Y EARTH; BARYTE, OXIDE DE BARIUM,
TERRE PESANTE†, &c., Fr.; BARYT, BARYTERDE, SCHWERERDE, &c., Ger. One of
the earths discovered by Scheele in 1774.

_Sources._ Sulphate and carbonate of barium are abundant minerals, forming
the ‘vein-stone’ of many lead mines. It is from the latter that baryta
and the barium salts are almost exclusively obtained.

_Prep._ 1. A mixture of carbonate of barium and charcoal (both in fine
powder and moistened) is strongly ignited, for some time, in a porcelain,
Hessian, or black-lead crucible, and then allowed to cool out of contact
with the air, from which it must also be subsequently carefully preserved.

2. (Pure.) Crystallised nitrate of barium is calcined in a capacious
covered porcelain or Hessian crucible, at a bright red heat, until red
(nitrous) vapours are no longer disengaged, even on raising the
temperature; and the residuum, as soon as the temperature has fallen
sufficiently, but whilst still warm, is at once transferred to a bottle,
as before.

3. M. Rosenthiel’s process is founded upon the decomposition of sulphide
of barium dissolved in boiling water by oxide of zinc. Caustic baryta and
sulphate of zinc are formed.

_Prop._ A greyish-white, spongy, earthy-looking mass, fusible only before
the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; highly caustic, corrosive, and alkaline, and
slaking, like quick-lime, on the addition of water, but with the evolution
of more heat.

=Barium, Peroxide of.= BaO_{2}. _Syn._ DEUTOX′IDE OF BARIUM; BA′′RII
BINOX′YDUM, &c. L.; BINOXIDE DE BARYUM, &c., Fr. _Prep._ Pure baryta is
heated to full redness in a porcelain tube, and a stream of pure dry
oxygen passed over it as long as the gas is absorbed.

Baryta, 4 parts, is heated as above in a platinum crucible, and chlorate
of potassium, 1 part, gradually added to it; the chloride of potassium
formed along with the binoxide being afterwards washed away with cold
water.

_Prop., &c._ Grey or greyish-white; with water it forms a hydrate, which
is slightly soluble in water, and undecomposed by it in the cold. It is
interesting chiefly in its relations with peroxide of hydrogen and the
oxygenised acids of M. Thénard.

=Barium, Phosphate of.= Ba(PO_{4})_{2}. _Prep._ In a similar manner to the
oxalate, which it resembles in being an almost insoluble white powder.

=Barium, Sulphate of.= BaSO_{4}. _Syn._ SULPHATE OF BARYTA, HEAV′Y SPAR,
BOLO′′GNIAN S., CAWK (mi); BARY′TÆ SUL′PHAS (Ph. E. & D.), SPA′THIUM
PONDERO′SUM, &c., L.; SULFATE DE BARYTE, SPATH PESANT, &c., Fr.;
SCHWEFELSAURES BARYT, SCHWERSPATH, &c., Ger. This salt is found native,
often in beautiful tabular crystals, but more frequently in white or
reddish-white masses. It is also occasionally prepared artificially, as a
pigment and chemical, by decomposing a solution of chloride of barium with
dilute sulphuric acid, or with a solution of sulphate of sodium; the
resulting precipitate being collected, well washed, and dried.

=Prop., &c.= When pure, or free from iron, its powder is white. It is
insoluble in water, and nearly insoluble in all other menstrua; before the
blowpipe it decrepitates, fuses with great difficulty (by which it is
distinguished from the sulphates of strontium and calcium), and ultimately
melts into a hard, white enamel. Mixed with charcoal, and heated to
redness in a covered crucible, it is reduced to sulphide of barium. It is
readily decomposed by fusion with alkaline carbonates; also very slightly
so by their cold solutions; but ultimately completely, though slowly, by
their boiling solutions. Sp. gr. 4·3 to 4·75.

_Uses._ Chiefly as a pigment (PER′MANENT WHITE), and to adulterate
white-lead; for which purposes the native sulphate is commonly well
washed, first in very dilute sulphuric acid, and afterwards in pure water,
to remove any iron which may contaminate it, and impair its whiteness. It
is also used to form sulphide of barium; and, in _pyrotechny_, instead of
the more expensive nitrate.

=Barium, Sulphide of.= BaS. _Syn._ SUL′PHIDE OF BARIUM, SUL′PHURET OF
BARYTA; BA′′RII SULPHURE′TUM, &c., L.; SULFURE DE BARYUM, &c., Fr. _Prep._
Sulphate of barium, well dried and in fine powder, 3 parts; powdered
charcoal or powdered coal, 1 part; the mixture is pressed tightly into an
earthen crucible, and the cover being fitted on, it is exposed for 1-1/2
to 2 hours, to a bright red heat; after it has cooled, the black mass thus
obtained is powdered, and boiled in water, and the resulting solution
allowed to crystallise. Some authorities recommend forming the mixed
powders into a stiff paste with oil, or oil of turpentine, before
calcination; but this is not at all necessary.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Crystals, thin and nearly colourless plates, containing
combined water; very soluble in hot water, less so in cold water; and
rapidly decomposed by exposure to the air. It is principally used to form
the BARIUM SALTS, and in organic analysis. Care should be taken in its
preparation to expose the solution to the air as little as possible.
SULPHIDES of a higher grade may be formed by boiling this compound with
sulphur; but they possess little practical interest.

=Barium, Sulphite of.= BaSO_{3}. _Syn._ SUL′PHITE OF BARYTA. _Prep._ By
testing a soluble barium salt with sodium sulphite, and washing the
precipitate. Insoluble.

=Barium, Tartrate of.= BaC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. _Syn._ TAR′TRATE OF BARYTA.
_Prep._ Like that of oxalate of barium. White powder. Slightly soluble.

=BARK.= [Eng., Dan.] _Syn._ COR′TEX, L.; ÉCORCE, Fr.; BAUMRINDE, RINDE,
Ger. The rind or exterior covering of vegetables, corresponding to the
skin of animals. It consists of the——cu′ticle or epiderm′is——cellular
substance, containing colouring matter, &c., and——li′ber, the inner or
true bark. The last is formed of woody fibre in great quantity, intermixed
with cellular tissue. At the commencement of the annual growth of a tree,
the bark separates spontaneously from the wood, in order to make room for
the new matter forming beneath. It thus increases by yearly layers, and
gradually perishes on the outside, owing to distension, from the growth of
the interior portion. Its physiological uses are numerous and important.
It is the depository of many of the secretions of plants, and it acts as a
living filter, separating secretions from each other, and allowing a part
of them to pass off horizontally through the medullary processes on their
way to the centre of the tree. But its principal offices appear to be to
act as a protection to the tender wood, and as a channel for the sap in
its descent from the leaves. “True bark only exists in exogens and
gymnosperms; in endogens its place is supplied by cortical integuments,
which cannot be separated from the adjacent wood, without violence.”
(Lindley.)

According to Liebig, the characteristic ingredients found in bark are
excrementitious——“substances evidently expelled by the living organism.”
True wood yields only ·25% to 2% of ash; whilst the bark of some trees
give 6, 10, to 15 times more; and these, like the organic constituents,
differ materially in their composition and characters.

The uses of different species of bark in medicine and the arts are well
known. CINCHONA-BARK is invaluable in fevers; OAK-BARK furnishes the
tanner with one of the most important materials of his trade; and the
tenacious fibres of other varieties are manufactured into cordage and
textile fabrics.

Barks should be collected at that season in which they can be most easily
separated from the wood, which, with a few exceptions, is late in the
spring; because at this time the active principles deposited in their
cells are most abundant. OAK-BARK, collected in spring, contains four
times as much astringent matter as that collected in winter.

=Bark.= (In _medicine_.) See CINCHONA.

=Bark.= (In _tanning_.) See OAK.

=Bark, Jes′uit’s.= Cinchona-bark.

=Bark, Salt of= (Essential). See EXTRACTS and SALTS.

=BAR′LEY.= _Syn._ HOR′DEUM, L.; ORGE, Fr.; GERSTE, Ger., Anglo-S. A
well-known grain, the produce of several species of the genus _hordeum_.

_Var., Cult., &c._ Those principally cultivated in England
are——TWO′-ROWED, LONG′-EARED, or COMM′ON BARLEY (_hor′deum dis′tichon_,
Linn.); SPRING′-BARLEY, SQUARE′-B., or BERE (_h. vulga′′re_, Linn.); and
SIX′-ROWED BARLEY, WINTER B., Scotch BERE or BIGG (_h. hexas′tichon_,
Linn.). PUT′NEY, SPRAT, or BATT′LEDORE B. (_h. zeocriton_, Linn.), is
another species less frequently met with. Of each of the above there are
several varieties. In Spain and Sicily, two crops of barley are obtained
in a year; but, in countries so far north as Britain, it produces only
one, and is a delicate species of grain. In England it is generally
adopted as a succession crop on light lands, following turnips or green
crops. (Loudon.) The ‘yield’ per acre varies from 28 to 64 bushels, and is
usually from 28 to 40 bushels. The average weight per bushel is 50 to 51
_lbs._; but the best Norfolk and Essex samples weigh 53 to 54 _lbs._ per
bushel.

_Comp._ The leading constituents of barley are nearly similar to those of
wheat, but it is scarcely so rich in nitrogenised matter. According to
Einhof, the ripe SEEDS or GRAINS are composed of——

  Meal            70·05
  Husk            18·75
  Moisture        11·20
                 ——————
                 100·

According to Johnston, average fine BARLEY-MEAL contains——

  Starch                      68·
  Albumen, gluten, &c.        14·
  Fatty matter                 2·
  Ash or saline matter         2·
  Water                       14·
                             ————
                             100·

According to Payen, dried barley possesses the following composition——

  Nitrogenous matter        12·96
  Starch                    66·43
  Dextrin                   10·00
  Fatty matter               2·76
  Cellulose                  4·75
  Mineral matter             3·10
                           ——————
                           100·00

According to Dr Ure, the sp. gr. of ENGLISH BARLEY is 1·25 to 1·33
(average, 1·235), and the weight of the husk is about 1-6th; that of BIGG,
1·227 to 1·265, and weight of husk, 2-9ths.

The analyses of the following varieties of barley, gave as the composition
of the ashes of the grains:——

  ---------------------------------------------------
               |Unknown |Chevalier|  From  |Chevalier
               |        | Barley  |Moldavia| Barley
  -------------+--------+---------+--------+---------
  Potash       | 21·14  |  20·77  | 37·55  |   7·70
  Soda         |        |   4·56  |  1·06  |   0·36
  Lime         |  1·65  |   1·48  |  1·21  |  10·36
  Magnesia     |  7·26  |   7·45  | 10·17  |   1·26
  Sesquioxide  |        |         |        |
    of iron    |  2·13  |   0·51  |  1·02  |   1·46
  Sulphuric    |        |         |        |
    acid       |  1·91  |   0·79  |  0·27  |   2·99
  Silica       | 30·68  |  32·73  | 24·56  |  70·77
  Phosphoric   |        |         |        |
    acid       | 28·53  |  31·69  | 38·64  |   1·99
  Chloride of  |        |         |        |
    Sodium     |  1·10  |         |  1·47  |   1·10
  ---------------------------------------------------

In the ‘Journal of the Agricultural Society’ for 1873 is a report by
Messrs Lawes and Gilbert of twenty years’ experiments with barley. The
soil of a field at Rothampstead, in which the barley had been grown for
twenty years, consisted of heavy loam, with a subsoil of clay resting on
chalk, and was previous to the barley being planted almost exhausted by
cropping. The produce was found to be greatest during the absence of
drought and sudden alterations of temperature, the rather cool but uniform
season of 1854 giving the heaviest crops. The yield from farm-yard manure
and nitrate of soda was found in dry seasons to be rather larger than that
from ammonia salts. Barley manured with phosphates was found to ripen one
to two weeks earlier than when the phosphate was omitted.

The average produce per acre of a few of the principal plots is given
below. The “ammonium salts” are stated to be a mixture of equal parts of
sulphate and chloride; the “alkali salts” consist of the sulphates of
potassium, sodium, and magnesium; the “cinerials” consist of alkali salts,
plus superphosphate:

  KEY:
  A: Dressed Corn.
  B: Straw and Chaff.
  C: Total Produce.
  D: Corn to 100 Straw.
  E: Weight per Bushel of Dressed Corn.
  F: Produce of second 10 yrs. over or under first 10 yrs.

  -----------------------------+--------+------+----+----+----+--------
        Manures per Acre.      |   A    |   B  |  C | D  | E  |   F
  -----------------------------+--------+------+----+----+----+--------
                               |bushels.| cwts.|lbs.|    |lbs.|per cwt.
                               |        |      |    |    |    |
  Unmanured                    | 20     |11-3/4|2454|86·6|52·3|- 23·6
  Mixed cinerials              | 27-1/2 |14-3/8|3162|96·4|53·4|- 20·2
  Ammonium salts, 200 lbs.     | 32-1/2 |18-1/2|3919|89·2|52·1|-  9·7
  Ammonium salts, 200 lbs., and|        |      |    |    |    |
    alkali salts               | 35     |20-3/4|4317|86·3|52·8|-  5·3
  Ammonium salts, 200 lbs., and|        |      |    |    |    |
    superphosphate             | 47     |27-5/8|5760|86·8|53·5|+  2·7
  Ammonium salts, 200 lbs., and|        |      |    |    |    |
    cinerials                  | 46-1/4 |28-1/2|5817|83·2|54·0|-   ·3
  Rape cake (mean 1300 lbs.)   | 45-1/4 |26-7/8|5571|87·3|53·8|
  Farmyard manure, 14 tons     | 48-1/4 |28-1/4|5933|88·5|54·3|+ 14·8
  -----------------------------+--------+------+----+----+----+--------

The authors direct attention to the results obtained by using the cinerial
manure alone, as illustrating the unsoundness of the old “mineral theory,”
according to which plants were supposed to possess a sufficient source of
nitrogen in the atmosphere. They found a greater crop yielded by barley
than wheat, when no manures were employed, as well as when cinerials were
employed, a fact which they attribute to barley being better able than
wheat to supply itself with nitrogen, notwithstanding the deeper roots of
the latter. They state that with both wheat and barley the produce is
slowly falling off under these circumstances. With ammonium salts alone,
and with nitrate of sodium alone, there is much less falling off than when
no nitrogenous manure is used. The falling off was least with the nitrate.
The nitrate gives a rather larger crop for the same amount of nitrogen
supplied, and they found this to hold when both nitrate and ammonia are
applied with cinerials. The addition of superphosphate to ammonium salts
or sodium nitrate greatly increases the produce; the further addition of
potassium, sodium, and magnesium salts they found almost without effect.

The inference was that the barley had obtained an ample supply of potash
from the natural soil, but an insufficient supply of phosphoric acid.

When ammonium salts are used alone, and the quantity of ammonia does not
exceed 50 lbs. per acre, 3·68 lbs. of ammonia will yield an average
increase of 1 bushel of corn and 63 _lbs._ of straw——total, 115 _lbs._;
the extremes in 20 years were 2·25-18·05 _lbs._ When ammonium salts are
applied with superphosphate, 2·21 _lbs._ of ammonia will produce the same
result; the extremes were 1·47-5·36 _lbs._

Silicate of sodium had been applied for eight years and a half to half the
barley plots receiving ammonia; no increase has resulted where ammonia and
superphosphate are employed; but on the other three plots an increase had
taken place, which, in the case of the plot receiving only ammonia and
alkali salts, is very considerable.

The authors think this irregular reaction seems to show that the silicate
has not produced its effect by furnishing silica to the crop, but by some
reaction upon the plant-food of the soil. The rape cake supplied much more
nitrogen than the ammonium salts, and also some phosphates and potash.
Rape cake alone gives a better return than either ammonium salts or sodium
nitrate applied alone; but when the three manures are mixed with
superphosphate, the results for equal amounts of nitrogen show the rape
cake to be decidedly inferior. From the above experiments it is inferred
that a supply of carbonaceous matter does not increase the crop of barley.

A farm-yard manure containing about 0·64 per cent. of nitrogen supplied
far more plant food than any of the other manures. On an average of
twenty years it was found that about 8 lbs. of ammonia in the form of dung
would produce a bushel of barley, with its equivalent of straw.

In all cases which were comparable it was found that barley appropriates
more of the nitrogenous manure than wheat, save with farmyard manure. A
large amount of nitrogen applied by manure is not taken up by the crop.
Experiments in the barley field proved that large residues from ammonium
salts and sodium nitrate show a small but distinct effect upon succeeding
crops, the influence extending over many years. From an examination of the
drainage waters from lands dressed with the nitrates of ammonium and
sodium, the authors conclude that ammonium salts, as well as sodium
nitrate, will be more economically applied in the spring than in the
winter. Manures containing organic nitrogen are clearly not so liable to
loss from drainage.

Experiments were made on the growth of barley after turnips, and also in
an ordinary four-course rotation. After growing turnips ten years
consecutively with purely cinerial manures, and carting off the produce,
the yield of barley was much smaller than in the experimental field, where
barley was grown after barley. The turnips, though very small crops, had
exhausted the soil of nitrogen to a greater extent than corn crops would
have done. On one plot where rape cake had been applied to the turnips,
the produce of barley was 8-1/4 bushels more than when none had been used.
In the rotation experiments barley was grown after turnips (carted off),
and was followed by beans and wheat. In one series all the crops were
unmanured; in another the turnips received superphosphate; in a third the
turnips received an abundant cinerial and nitrogenous manure.

The mean produce of the six crops of barley obtained in twenty-four years
of rotation was as follows:

  ------------------------------------------------
                            |Dressed  | Straw and
    Character of Rotation.  | Corn.   |   Chaff.
  --------------------------+---------+-----------
                            | bushels.|    cwt.
  Unmanured continuously    |  38-3/8 |   21-3/4
  Superphosphate for turnips|         |
    only                    |  29-3/8 |   16-1/2
  Mixed manure for turnips  |         |
    only                    |  44-3/8 |   25-1/4
  --------------------------+---------+-----------
  Mean produce of unmanured |}        |
    barley in barley        |} 21-1/2 |   12-1/8
    field during the same   |}        |
    season                  |}        |
  ------------------------------------------------

The unmanured turnips were so very small in quantity, that the barley in
the first series was practically grown after a fallow; this barley,
however, was a much larger crop than that grown after turnips manured with
superphosphate only, the available nitrogen of the soil in this case being
exhausted by the turnips.

In the last series the residue of the abundant manure applied to the
turnip crop suffices to produce a good crop of barley.

_Qual., Uses, &c._ Its employment and value as food, and in the
manufacture of malt, are well known. It forms good wholesome bread well
adapted for persons who live luxuriously; but which, for the abstemious
and the delicate, is inferior to that made of wheat, as it is rather less
nutritious, and less easy of digestion, and commonly proves laxative to
those unaccustomed to its use. Barley-flour and barley-meal are also more
perishable than wheat-flour; being very apt to acquire a hot nauseous
taste, which even the heat of the oven does not remove. In a medical point
of view, barley is regarded as the mildest and least irritating of the
cereals. It has always been in high estimation as a demulcent and
emollient. The decoction (BAR′LEY-WATER), made with pearl barley, is a
common and useful drink in inflammatory diseases, particularly in those of
the chest and urinary organs. Among the Ancients, decoctions of barley
(κραθη) were the principal aliments and medicines employed in acute
diseases.

Barley was extensively cultivated by the Romans and many other nations of
antiquity, as well as by the ancient inhabitants of Gaul. The Greeks are
said to have trained their athletes on it.

The best tests of the genuineness of barley are its colour, freedom from
dust, grit, and insects. The microscope will lead to the detection of any
cheaper grains if mixed with it. It is rarely adulterated, although it is
said to be extensively used for the purpose of sophisticating wheat,
annatto, and roll liquorice.

[Illustration: Barley Starch.]

=Barley, Cau′stic.= Sabadilla.

=Barley, Pat′ent.= _Syn._ FARI′NA HOR′DEI, L. Pearl barley reduced to fine
powder by grinding in a mill.

=Barley, Pearl.= _Syn._ PEARL′ED BARLEY*; HOR′DEUM DECORTICATUM (B. P.),
L.; ORGE PERLÉ, Fr.; PERLENGRAUPEN, Ger. The seeds of _hordeum distichon_
deprived of the husks. That of commerce is usually made by steaming
spring-barley, to soften the skin, then drying it, and grinding it in a
mill with the stones set wide apart, so as to round and polish the grains,
and to separate the whole of the husk except that left in the furrow of
the seed. SCOTCH PEARL-BARLEY and FRENCH BARLEY resemble the last, but are
smaller, being generally made from winter-barley or bigg. FARO DE ORZO is
another variety made from sprat-barley. See BARLEY (_above_).

=Barley, Scotch.= _Syn._ HULLED BARLEY‡, POT-B.‡; HOR′DEUM MUNDA′TUM, L.;
ORGE MONDÉ, Fr.; GERSTENGRAUPEN, GRAUPEN, Ger. The grains deprived of the
husk by a mill, as noticed above, but less completely, and without
rounding them.

=BAR′LEY SUGAR.= See CONFECTIONERY, and SUGAR.

=BARM.= See YEAST.

=BAROM′ETER= (_baros_, weight; _metron_, measure). _Syn._ WEATHER-GLASS‡;
BAROM′ETRUM, L.; BAROMÈTRE, Fr.; BAROMETER, WETTERGLAS, Ger. An instrument
for measuring the weight or pressure of the atmosphere. It was invented by
Torricelli, of Florence, A.D. 1643.

The barometer is made of several forms, but the principle of its
construction, with the exception of the aneroid barometer, is the same in
each, and essentially consists of a column of fluid (usually mercury)
supported in vacuo, in a glass tube, by the pressure of the atmosphere on
its surface. The annexed figures exhibit the principal varieties at
present known; several of which have been proposed with the view of
improving the original instrument, either by increasing its range, or its
portability. None, however, equal in simplicity, cheapness, and
usefulness, the old forms proposed by Torricelli, and represented by the
figs. 1 & 2. To avoid confusion, the graduated scales and cases of the
instruments are not shown.

[Illustration:

  1. Torricelli’s cistern barometer.
  2.    ”      syphon        ”
  3. Huygen’s barometer.
  4.    ”        ”     modified.
  5. Wheel barometer.
  6. Bernoulli’s syphon barometer.
  7. Aminton’s   conical   ”
  8. Gay Lussac’s   ”
  9.  ”     ”       ”   modified by M. Bunten.
  _a_, Tube containing a column of mercury.
  _b_, Mercurial cistern.
  _c_, A column of mercury supporting another of water, _d_.
  _e_, _e_, Weights, one of which floats on the surface of the mercury,
      and by means of the cord _f_ moves the index _g_.
  _h_, Graduated dial.
  _k_, Capillary hole drilled laterally to admit air.]

The construction of a barometer requires the utmost skill and care of a
practised artist, and will therefore be seldom undertaken by the amateur
or experimentalist——a fact which renders it unnecessary for us to enter
into the details here. In the choice of his instrument the purchaser must
greatly depend on the known experience and integrity of the manufacturer;
as nothing but lengthened use, and frequent comparisons with other
instruments, can possibly prove its excellence. An ordinary barometer,
however carefully made, is found to suffer gradual deterioration, from the
external air insinuating itself between the mercury and the glass tube, by
which the perfection of the vacuum is destroyed. Various plans have been
proposed to remedy this inconvenience and source of error. Prof. Daniell
forms the bottom part of the tube, to the extent of about 1/3rd of an
inch, of solid platinum, welded to the glass. This plan has proved
completely satisfactory. Dr Ure proposes the use of platinum-foil for the
same purpose. Before purchasing an instrument it is as well to ascertain
that this has been done. In those called ‘STANDARD BAROMETERS’ the scale
is movable and adjustable by a delicate screw, so as to enable the
observer to bring the lower point or zero (0) of the scale coincident with
the surface of the mercury in the cistern. Exact contact is readily
effected by making the point, and its image as seen by reflection from the
surface of the mercury, to coincide. In this case the cistern is made of
glass. Provided the ivory scale be connected with the zero-point with a
strip of brass, correction as to temperature is very nearly effected by
this simple adjustment. The WHEEL-BAROMETER is chiefly serviceable as a
domestic or land weather-glass.

Of the many forms of mercurial barometer, that perhaps known as Fortin’s
is the best. In this instrument the cistern and the lower portion of the
tubes is shown in the annexed figure.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

“The cistern is made of boxwood, with a movable leather bottom _b b_, and
a glass cylinder, _b_, is inserted into it above, all except the glass
being encased in brass. In the bottom of the brass box a screw, C, works
on the upper end of which the leather rests, so that by elevating or
depressing this screw, the bottom of the cistern, and with it the cistern
level of the mercury, can also be raised or depressed at pleasure. A small
ivory pin, _p_, ending in a point is fixed to the upper frame of the
cistern, and when an observation is made, the surface of the mercury is
made to coincide with the point of the pin as the standard level from
which the barometric column is to be measured. The tube of the barometer,
the upper part of which is shown in the lower figure, is enclosed in one
of brass, which has two directly opposite slits in it for showing the
height of the column, and on the sides of these the graduation is marked.
A brass collar, _d, d_, slides upon the tube with a vernier, _v, v_,
marked on it for reading the height with the greatest exactness and in
which two oblong holes are cut, a little wider than the slits in the brass
tube. When a reading is taken the collar is so placed that the last streak
of light is cut off by the two upper edges of the holes or until they form
a tangent to the convex mercurial curve. By this means the observer is
sure that his eye is on a level with the top of the column and that the
reading is taken exactly for this point. Fortin’s barometer is generally
arranged so as to be portable, in which case the screw, _c_, is sent in
until the mercury fills the whole cistern, by which the air is kept from
entering the tube during transport, the leather yielding sufficiently at
the same time to allow for expansion for increase of temperature. It packs
in a case which serves as a tripod when the instrument is mounted for use.
On this tripod it is suspended about the middle, swinging upon two axles
at right angles to each other, so that the cistern may act the part of a
plummet, in keeping the tube vertical——the position essential to all
measurements.”[107]

[Footnote 107: Chambers’s ‘Encyclopædia.’]

_How to Manage a Barometer._——It is of the first importance to have the
instrument hung perfectly perpendicular. This is best effected by means of
a plummet line. It should be placed in a good light, but protected from
direct sunlight and also from rain. If air should accidentally find its
way into a common cistern barometer, it may be got rid of by first fixing
the ivory piston, so as to prevent the escape of the mercury, then by
means of the screw raising the mercurial column nearly to the top of the
tube, then by slowly inverting the instrument and tapping the cistern
gently, the air may then perhaps ascend to the cistern and thus escape. In
transporting a barometer from place to place it is best to carry it by
hand; and if packed it is almost needless to say that the float must be
firmly fixed and the mercurial column raised by means of the screw, so as
to prevent any escape of the metal.

_Reading the Barometer._——The mercury in the cistern must first be brought
by means of the screw to the ‘zero,’ and then the vernier must be screwed
up so that its horizontal edge forms a tangent to the mercurial curve. The
vernier is an instrument for reading off the graduated scale of the
barometer correctly to 1/100th or 1/500th of an inch.

Buchan gives the following description of the vernier and of the method of
using it: “It consists (see figures _a_ and _b_) of a piece similar to the
scale of the barometer along which it slides. It will be observed from
figure _a_ that ten divisions of the vernier are exactly equal to eleven
divisions of the scale, that is, to eleven tenths of an inch. Hence each
division of the vernier is equal to a tenth of an inch, together with a
tenth of a tenth, or a hundredth, or to ten hundredths, and one hundredth,
that is, to eleven hundredths of an inch. Similarly two divisions of the
vernier are equal to twenty-two hundredths of an inch, which expressed as
a decimal fraction is 0·22 inch, three divisions of the vernier is 0·33
inch, &c. Suppose the vernier set as previously described——that is, having
the zero line of the vernier a tangent to the convex curve of the mercury
in the column. If the vernier and scale occupy the relative positions as
in figure _a_, then the height of the barometer is 30·00 inches, but if
they stand as in figure _b_, we set about reading it in this way: (1) The
zero of the vernier being between 29 and 30, the reading is more than 29
inches, but less than 30 inches, and we obtain the first figure 29 inches.
(2) Counting the tenths of an inch from 29 upwards we find that the
vernier indicates more than seven tenths and less than eight tenths,
giving the second figure seven tenths or 0·7 inch. (3) Casting the eye
down the scale to see the point at which a division of the scale and a
division of the vernier lie in one and the same straight line, we observe
this to take place at line 9 of the vernier; this gives this last figure
nine hundredths or 0·09 inch, and placing all these figures in one line we
find that the height of the barometer is 29·79 inches. This sort of
vernier gives readings true to the hundredth of an inch. If the inch be
divided into half tenths or twentieths, and twenty-five divisions of the
vernier equal twenty-four divisions of the scale, it follows that the
difference of these divisions is two thousandths of an inch.”

[Illustration]

A still more divided vernier is always used with the best barometers, and
though a little troublesome to read at first, yet if the method of reading
the simpler one just described be understood, the difficulty will be
easily overcome.

_Uses, &c._ The barometer is employed for ascertaining the amount of
atmospherical refraction in astronomical calculations, for measuring
altitudes, and in prognosticating the weather. For the last purpose, on
land, it sometimes proves a false prophet; but at sea, its monitions are
highly trustworthy. As a mere weather-glass, the indications, as read off
from the scale of the instrument, are generally sufficiently accurate; but
in all observations connected with meteorology, altitudes, astronomy, &c.,
certain corrections must be made; the height of the mercury being
influenced both by the size of the tube and by the temperature of the air
by which it is surrounded, as well as by variations in the weight or
pressure of the atmosphere. (See _below_.)

_Barometrical Corrections_:——

1. As to CAPILLARITY:——This applies to all cistern-barometers formed of
tubes of very small diameters, owing to the mercury assuming a convex
surface in the tube. As the tube increases in diameter, so the depression
of the mercury lessens. Hence, the “interior diameter” of a barometer
“should, in every case, exceed one-fourth of an inch.” (Brande.) Syphon
barometers that have each of their legs of equal size, require no
correction, as the depression is equal at both ends.

        TABLE _of Barometrical Corrections for_ CAPILLARITY,
        _from the_ ‘Encycl. Brit.’

  --------------------+------------------
    Diam. of Tube.    |   Depression.
  --------------------+------------------
    ·10 inch.         |   ·1403 inch. +
    ·15 ”             |   ·0863 ”
    ·20 ”             |   ·0581 ”
    ·25 ”             |   ·0407 ”
    ·30 ”             |   ·0292 ”
    ·35 ”             |   ·0211 ”
    ·40 ”             |   ·0153 ”
    ·45 ”             |   ·0112 ”
    ·50 ”             |   ·0083 ”
    ·60 ”             |   ·0044 ”
    ·70 ”             |   ·0023 ”
    ·80 ”             |   ·0012 ”
  --------------------+------------------

2. As to TEMPERATURE:——These depend on the expansion of the mercury, and
of the scale on which the divisions are marked. The rule for reducing an
observed height to the corresponding height at the freezing-point, or 32°
Fahr., the usual standard temperature, is——Subtract 1·10000th part of the
observed height of the barometer for every degree of Fahr. above 32° at
the time of the observation. Or——

(obs. t. - 32) × obs. h. × ·0001 = corr. req.

_Measurement of Heights by the Barometer._——When a barometer is at the
foot of a mountain, the pressure it sustains is greater than that to which
it is subjected at the top, by the weight of the column of air intervening
between the top and the bottom.

The height can be obtained from the following table by calculating the
number of feet which must have been ascended to cause the observed fall;
and then making a correction for temperature by multiplying the number
obtained from the table, which may be called A, by the following formula:
_t_ is the temperature of the lower and _t′_ of the upper station:——

  1 × ((_t_ + _t′_ - 64) / ·900) × A.

  To lower the barometer from 31 in. to 30 =  857 feet must be ascended.
       ”          ”       ”   30    ”   29 =  886  ”           ”
       ”          ”       ”   29    ”   28 =  918  ”           ”
       ”          ”       ”   28    ”   27 =  951  ”           ”
       ”          ”       ”   27    ”   26 =  986  ”           ”
       ”          ”       ”   26    ”   25 = 1025  ”           ”
       ”          ”       ”   25    ”   24 = 1068  ”           ”
       ”          ”       ”   24    ”   23 = 1113  ”           ”
       ”          ”       ”   23    ”   22 = 1161  ”           ”
       ”          ”       ”   22    ”   21 = 1216  ”           ”
       ”          ”       ”   21    ”   20 = 1276  ”           ”
       ”          ”       ”   20    ”   19 = 1341  ”           ”
       ”          ”       ”   19    ”   18 = 1413  ”           ”

A very complex formula is given by mathematicians for finding very nearly
the true height of a mountain from barometrical and thermometrical
observations made at its base and summit. The following rule by Mr Ellis
will be found to give very nearly the same results:——Multiply the
difference of the barometric readings by 52,400, and divide by the sum of
the barometric readings. If the result be 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, or 5000,
add 0, 0·2, 6, 14, respectively. Subtract 2-1/3rd times the difference of
the temperature of the mercury. Multiply the remainder by a number
obtained by adding 836 to the sum of the temperatures of the air and
dividing by 900. A correction must also be given for latitude, which can
be done by the annexed table.

  ---------+--------++---------+---------
  Latitude.| Factor.||Latitude.| Factor.
  ---------+--------++--------+----------
      80   | 0·99751||   35    | 1·00090
      75   | 0·99770||   30    | 1·00265
      70   | 0·99797||   25    | 1·00170
      65   | 0·99830||   20    | 1·00203
      60   | 0·99868||   15    | 1·00230
      55   | 0·99910||   10    | 1·00249
      50   | 0·99954||    5    | 1·00261
      45   | 1·00000||    0    | 1·00265
      40   | 1·00046||         |
  ---------+--------++---------+---------

Fortin’s and Gay-Lussac’s barometers are employed for measuring heights.
The aneroid can be used for altitudes reaching to 5000 feet. A delicate
instrument will register for as small an ascent as 4 feet.

_The Barometer as a Weather-glass._——Generally speaking when the mercurial
column in the barometer falls, ‘rain’ is indicated, and ‘fair weather’
when it rises. When it continues steady, a continuance of the weather at
the time is regarded as the forecast; when low, the weather is generally
broken or bad; and when high, it is fair and settled. A storm is usually
preceded by a sudden fall in the mercurial column, the violence of the
storm being in proportion to the suddenness of the fall. An unsteady
barometer indicates an unsettled condition of weather, whilst a gradual
change in it indicates the approach of some permanent condition of it. The
state and direction of the wind has also to be taken into consideration
when studying the changes of the barometer, and forms an important element
in the calculations of the meteorologist, each different wind indicating
variations of weather. The connection between changes of weather and the
pressure of the atmosphere does not seem to have been satisfactorily
established.

One of the reasons assigned for the mercurial column in the barometer
being lower in wet than in fine weather is that so long as aqueous matter
remains in the air in the form of elastic vapour, its tension assists in
supporting the barometric column, but that when this aqueous vapour is
precipitated in the form of rain, this tension is lost or removed, and the
column therefore falls.

The correspondence between wet and fine weather and an elevation and
depression of the barometer seems, however, equally, if not more,
dependent on the nature of the winds than on the preceding cause. “In
western Europe, the south and south-western winds, which are the
rain-bringing winds, are warm winds. Now, a column of warm air to be of
the same weight as one of cold air must necessarily be higher, but this
cannot well be the case in the atmosphere, for no sooner does the warm
column rise by its lightness above the surrounding level of the upper
surface of the aërial ocean, than it flows over and becomes nearly of the
same height as the cold air around it. The interchange taking place less
interruptedly, and consequently less slowly, in the higher strata than in
those near the ground, it is some time before the equilibrium, thus
disturbed, is restored; and meanwhile the barometer keeps low under the
pressure of a rarer atmospheric column. On the other hand, the northerly
and easterly winds, being comparatively cold and dry, are accompanied by
fair weather and a high barometer. It is thus to the warmth, and not to
the moisture of these winds, that the pressure is to be ascribed.”[108]

[Footnote 108: Chambers’s ‘Encyclopædia.’]

=Barometer, An′eroid.= An instrument invented, or at least perfected, by
M. Vidi, of Paris, in which the pressure of the atmosphere is measured
without the employment of a fluid, as in the ordinary barometer.[109]
Externally, it somewhat resembles in appearance a carriage clock or a
ship’s chronometer; internally, it consists of a small air-tight
cylindrical box, formed of thin corrugated copper plates, and partially
exhausted of air, the sides of which yield to the pressure of the
atmosphere; the effect being regulated by a spring, multiplied by a system
of levers, and ultimately recorded by the index on a graduated dial.
Compensation for changes of temperature are self-effected, with almost
perfect accuracy, by the elastic force of the spring being so adjusted to
that of the air in the cylinder, that the loss of force in the one and the
increased expansive force of the other shall, independently of changes of
atmospheric pressure, preserve the lever in equilibrio.

[Footnote 109: An instrument founded on the same principle, and of nearly
similar construction was described by M. Conté, in 1798, in the ‘Bull. des
Sci. Nat.,’ t. i, No. xiii, p. 106.]

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

The indications of the aneroid barometer closely correspond to those of
the mercurial barometer at ordinary ranges; the differences never
exceeding ·01 of an inch. It is so extremely sensitive that an ascent or
descent of only a few feet is distinctly indicated by it; whilst its
portability adapts it for service in situations for which an ordinary
barometer is unfitted. On the other hand, it is liable to move by jerks,
and the elasticity of the spring, and consequently the zero-point of the
scale, has been found to be sometimes affected by time and a rough
journey. On this account it is necessary to compare it occasionally with
some standard mercurial barometer, to determine its amount or rate of
variation, if any.

[Illustration]

=Barometer, Phi′al.= This amusing philosophic toy is made by cutting off
the rim and part of the neck of a common glass-phial with a file. The
phial is then nearly filled with water, either pure or tinged blue or red;
and the finger being placed on its mouth, it is inverted, and suspended in
a vertical position by means of a piece of twine or wire, when the finger
is withdrawn. (See _engr._) In dry weather the under surface of the water
remains level with the neck of the bottle, or even concave; in damp
weather, on the contrary, a drop appears at the mouth and continues
enlarging until it falls, and is then followed by another in the same way.

=Barometer, Fitzroy.= This, which is a very cheap instrument, is made on
the syphon principle, but the cistern is formed by the lower limit, which
is blown into a bulb.

=Barometer, Port′able.= The most accurate are those of Gay-Lussac and
Bunten, and after them the aneroid. They should be set on universal
joints, and well balanced. The common instrument made with a box and
leather cistern seldom continues long correct.

=Barometer, Wheel.= The common form of the instrument having a dial-face
and hands.

[For further information in connection with the above subject the reader
is referred to the ‘articles’ ANEROID, ATMOSPHERE, GAS, HEIGHTS, STEAM,
STORM-GLASS, VAPOUR, WEATHER, &c.]

=BAR′OSCOPE=† (-skōpe). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BAROSCO′PIUM, L. A barometer;
sometimes applied to the wheel-barometer of Hooke.

=BAR′RAS.= The concrete resinous exudation from the bark of fir-trees.
That from _pi′nus marit′ima_ is called GALIPOT.

=BARSE.= [Provincial.] The common perch.

=BAR′WOOD.= A red dye-wood imported from Angola and other parts of Africa.
It closely resembles cam-wood and sanders-wood in its colouring matter
being of a resinous nature, and scarcely soluble in water. In _dyeing_
this difficulty is obviated by taking advantage of the strong affinity
existing between it and the proto-salts of tin and iron. Thus, by strongly
impregnating the goods with protochloride of tin, either with or without
the addition of sumach, according to the shade of red desired, and then
putting them into a boiling bath containing the rasped wood, the colour is
rapidly given out and taken up, until the whole of the tin in the fibres
of the cloth is saturated, and the goods become of a rich bright hue. In
like manner the dark red of bandana handkerchiefs is commonly given by a
mordant of acetate of iron followed by a boiling bath of this dye-stuff.
See DYEING, MORDANTS, &c.

=BASALT′= (bă-sŏlt′). [Eng., Ger.] _Syn._ BASAL′TES (-săl′-tēz), L.;
BASALTE, Fr. In _geology_, &c., a species of trap-rock, essentially
composed of the minerals felspar and augite. It is of a fine compact
texture, of a dark-green, grey, or black colour, and usually occurs in
regular columns, of which the Giants’ Causeway and the Island of Staffa
furnish magnificent examples. It is fusible; and when rapidly cooled forms
a dark brittle glass; but when slowly cooled retains its original beauty
and hardness almost unimpaired. Messrs Chance, Brothers, of Birmingham,
have availed themselves of this property to apply it to decorative and
ornamental purposes. Their process is to melt the material[110] in a
reverberatory furnace, and, when sufficiently fluid, to pour it into
red-hot moulds of sand encased in iron boxes. The corresponding adj. is
BASALT′IC (-sōlt′-; BASAL′TICUS, -săl′-, L.; BASALTIQUE, Fr.).

[Footnote 110: Rowley-rag is used by the Messrs C.; as beside ordinary
basalt, greenstone, whinstone, and other similar minerals, possess the
same property.]

=BASE.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BA′SIS (pl., ba′ses), L., Gr.; GRUND,
GRUNDFLÄCHE, Ger. In _chemistry_ it was formerly, and is now occasionally,
applied to metallic oxides which possess the property of forming salts
with acids. The alkaloids are also designated organic bases. In
_pharmacy_, the characteristic or principal ingredient in any medicine or
compound preparation; or that on which its qualities or efficacy depends.

=BAS′IL= (-băz′-). _Syn._ SWEET BAS′IL, CIT′RON B.; BASIL′ICUM, L.;
BASILIC, Fr.; BASILIKUM, Ger. The _oc′ymum_ (ŏs′-) _basil′icum_ (Linn.),
an annual aromatic herbaceous plant, of the nat. ord. Labiatæ (DC.). It is
a native of India, but is largely cultivated in every part of Europe as a
pot-herb. Leaves strong-scented; popularly reputed emmenagogue; much used
to flavour salads, soups, &c., especially in French cookery. Mock-turtle
soup derives its peculiar flavour from this herb; as also did the original
Fetter-lane sausages, once so highly esteemed by cockney gourmands. In
India it is commonly employed as an anodyne in childbirth.

=Bas′il= (băz′-). _Syn._ BAS′AN; BASANE, Fr. A sheep-skin, tanned;
particularly one dressed on the grain side, for book-binding.

=BASIL′ICON.= See CERATES and OINTMENTS.

=BAS′KET= (băs′-). _Syn._ COPH′INUS (kŏf′-), L.; PANIER, CORBEILLE, &c.,
Fr.; KORB, Ger. BASKETS are generally STAINED or COLOURED with the simple
liquid dyes used for straw or wood; and that, for variegated work, the
twigs, after being carefully peeled, washed, and wiped dry or slightly
air-dried, are stained before being woven. See OSIERS, &c.

=BASS‡.= [Provin.] The linden-tree; also a hassock or mat made of its
inner bark. See BAST.

=Bassia butyracea.= A tree growing in the sub-tropical Himalayas. The
seeds yield by expression a concrete oil, known by the name of _Fulwa
Butter_, which does not become rancid by keeping. It is held in high
esteem in India as an external application in rheumatic and other painful
maladies.

=BAS′SORIN= (-rĭn). _Syn._ BASSORI′NA, L. A substance first noticed, by
Vauquelin, in _Bas′sora-gum_. See GUM, INSOLUBLE, TRAGACANTHINE, &c.

=BAST= (băst). _Syn._ BASS (which _see_). The inner bark of the linden
tree or tiel tree; also matting, &c., made of it.

=BAS′TARDS= (-tărdz). _Syn._ BAS′TARD SUG′AR (shŏŏg′-), PIECES, &c. In
_sugar-refining_, impure or damaged sugar resulting from the heat and
chemicals used in the process of manufacture, and which will not pay for
purifying.

=BA′′SYL= (bāse′ĭl). In _chemistry_, any simple or compound body, acting
as a basic radical.

=BATATA= [_Convolvulus batatas_, or SWEET POTATO]. This is a native of the
East Indies, but is now cultivated in all tropical and sub-tropical
countries for the sake of its tubers, which are highly esteemed as an
article of food. They are eaten either roasted or boiled, and are sweet,
wholesome, and nutritious, although somewhat laxative.

In some parts of America the Batata, next to maize, forms the principal
diet of the poorer classes. The plant was introduced into England by Sir
Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins; but they do not bear the cold of our
winters, and if grown here are raised in hot-houses, where they may be
obtained without difficulty varying from 1 lb. to 2 lbs. in weight. They
thrive better in the south of Europe. The tubers contain about 32 per
cent. of solid matter, 16 of which is starch, 10 sugar, 1·5 albumen, 1·1
gum, 0·3 fat, 2·9 mineral matter. The leaves are used as a boiled
vegetable.

=BATH= (bahth). _Syn._ BAL′NEUM, L.; BAIN, Fr.; BAD, Ger., Sax. A place
for bathing; a vessel or receptacle, natural or artificial, containing or
adapted to contain water, and used to bathe in. In _architecture_ and
_hygiene_, a building fitted up for and appropriated to bathing.

_Constr., &c._ Here one of the first subjects which must engage our
attention is the selection of the material of which the bath is to be
formed. For FIXED BATHS polished white marble has always been in favour,
owing to its cleanliness and beauty. For this purpose, slabs of sufficient
thickness and free from flaws or cracks should be chosen; and they should
be securely and properly bedded in good water-tight cement, in a
well-seasoned wooden case. The objections to marble, independent of its
costliness, are, that it is apt to get yellow or discoloured, and to lose
its polish, by frequent and careless use; and that the restoration of its
surface to its original purity, is a matter of considerable expense and
difficulty. It is also only fitted to contain water with, at the most,
soap, weak alkalies or alkaline carbonates, aromatics, or neutral organic
principles; and cannot be employed with water medicated, however slightly,
with acids, sulphurets, iodine, chlorine, salines (others than those just
named), or calorific substances. As a cheaper material thick slabs of
Welsh slate are often substituted for marble; but even this substance is
attacked by chemicals, though much more slowly. A lining of large Dutch
tiles is sometimes used: but here the joints are very apt to leak. For
baths adapted to all the requirements of health and disease, and which are
at the same time durable and comparatively inexpensive, we must,
therefore, seek further. Porcelain, glass, and hard glazed stone-ware have
been proposed, and are even sometimes used for baths; but they possess the
disadvantages of being fragile, and very liable to crack when filled with
hot water in cold weather. Wedgewood-ware is very beautiful and durable;
but is expensive, and baths formed of it can only be obtained on special
order. Stourbridge-ware, as produced of late years, is the only product of
the potter’s art that appears entirely to meet the case; but even this
yields in durability to enamelled iron as a material for baths adapted to
all liquids and temperatures, and to rough or careless usage. (See _engr._
1.) The better qualities of PORT′ABLE BATHS (see _engr._ 2) are generally
made of copper. Stout tinned or galvanised iron, and even stout block-tin
thickly covered with waterproof paint or japan, are also employed; but
though less expensive than copper, they have the disadvantage of being
much less durable. All these substances are, however, readily acted on by
chemicals. A durable and cheap portable bath, adapted to all purposes,
must, therefore, like a fixed one, be made of one or other of the
materials already noticed. For MED′ICATED BATHS large wooden troughs are
frequently employed, particularly for acidulated, ioduretted, and
sulphuretted baths.

[Illustration: 1.]

[Illustration: 2.]

The arrangements for supplying cold and hot water must necessarily greatly
depend on circumstances, and the quantity required. For a single fixed
bath, or even for two or three of them, the common circulating
water-heater or boiler, placed in some apartment on a rather lower level
than the bath, is, perhaps, the most convenient; but where this is not
attainable the water may be run, by means of a pipe, from a boiler
situated on a somewhat higher level. In either case a supply of cold water
must also be at hand, and conveyed in a like manner, to enable the bath to
be reduced to any required temperature. On the large scale, as in our
public baths, where numerous baths are in constant use during the day, the
hot water is best supplied from a large cistern somewhere above the level
of the bath-rooms, and which is heated by a coil of pipe supplied with
high-pressure steam from a boiler situated on a lower level, as the ground
floor or basement. The hot and the cold water, conveyed by separate pipes
of about 1-1/2 inch diameter, unite in a two-way cock close to the bath,
so as to enter it together, by which only _one_ aperture in the end of the
bath is required for the purpose. The bath is emptied, and excess of water
removed, by a grated aperture in the bottom, also stopped by a cock which,
like the former, has handles or keys so placed as to be accessible to the
attendant outside the bath-room, as well as to the bather, whilst the
danger of overflowing is obviated by a two-inch waste-pipe, opening into
the bath at about two inches from the top.

For heating portable baths, so many plans are in use, and have been
suggested, and even patented, that the reader cannot possibly be at a loss
for one to suit his particular case. A small grate for burning charcoal is
the one most commonly adopted; but where attainable, a ring or cross of
small inflamed gas-jets, is more cleanly and manageable.

When the bath consists of a wooden tub, or any other deep vessel, a simple
and inexpensive apparatus brought out in America, under the title of the
‘ITAL′IAN BATH′-WARMER’ (see _engr._ 3), and made of thin sheet-iron, will
occasionally be found useful.[111]

[Footnote 111: A small cast-iron ‘horse’ with three legs (not shown in the
engr.) to support the ‘warmer’ about 2 inches above the bottom of the
bath-tub, and to keep it steady and upright, is usually sold with it.]

[Illustration: 3.

_a_, Bath-tub.

_b_, The larger arm of the warming-tube by which the charcoal is
introduced, and by which the fumes fly off.

_c_, The smaller arm to admit air to support the combustion.

_d_, The fire grate, to support the burning charcoal.]

This situation and the minor details connected with the comfort and
convenience of the bath, must greatly depend on the character of the
building, and the sum to be devoted to the purpose. When possible, the
bath-room should always be on the same floor as the bedrooms, of easy
access to them, and so situated and arranged, that a plentiful and
constant supply of pure water can be ensured, and the waste water removed
without trouble or inconvenience. The basement story should always be
avoided; for, as observed by Dr Ure, there is a coldness and dampness
belonging to it, in almost all weathers, which is neither agreeable nor
salubrious.

The ranges of the temperature of water appropriate to the respective
baths, according to the common nomenclature, are shown in the following
Table:——

  ------------------------------------
  Name.           | Temperature. Fahr.
  ------------------------------------
  Cold bath       | 33° to 75°
  Temperate bath  | 75  ”  82
  Tepid bath      | 82  ”  90
  Warm bath       | 90  ”  98
  Hot bath        | 98  ” 112
  ------------------------------------

_Concluding Remarks._ The importance, and indeed the absolute necessity of
frequent personal ablution, has been already insisted on and explained.
But however important and beneficial the use of water in this way may be,
the effects arising from the immersion of the body in that liquid, as in
the practice of bathing, are far more extensive and complete. What the one
does usefully but not completely, the other accomplishes readily,
satisfactorily, and perfectly. There is no absolute succedaneum for the
entire bath. Its physiological effects are peculiar to itself, and of the
utmost importance in pathology and hygiene. The practice of wearing
flannel, the daily use of clean linen, the mere washing of the more
exposed parts of the body, are but poor attempts at cleanliness, without
the occasional, if not frequent, entire submersion of the body in water.
Nor should the action of judicious bathing in the promotion of personal
comfort and personal beauty be forgotten. Intellectual and moral vigour
are also gradually, but materially, influenced and promoted by the
beneficial action of bathing on the system; for mind and conscience being
linked to matter in the ‘house we live in,’ become perturbed, or
lethargic, in almost exact accordance with the fluctuations of our
physical health. The neglect of bathing in this country is, to us, an
absolute enigma. We are always talking about health, and continually
professing to be seeking it; but the practical applications of the
principles which we advocate, and the doctrines which we teach, are,
unfortunately, the exceptions and not the rule.

Our recommendation of bathing applies chiefly to the warm bath and the
tepid bath, which are alike adapted to the delicate and the robust, and to
every condition of climate and season. Cold bathing, in this climate, is
only suited to the most healthy and vigorous, and can only be safely
practised during the warmer months of the year, and in a mass of water
sufficient to permit of the heat of the body being maintained by swimming
or other active exercise. The plunge and shower baths are partial
exceptions to these remarks; whilst sea-bathing, for the reasons given
elsewhere, comes under another category. This last, “on account of its
stimulative and penetrating power, may be placed at the head of those
means which regard the care of the skin; and it certainly supplies one of
the first wants of the present generation, by opening the pores, and
thereby re-invigorating the whole nervous system.” “Besides its great
power in cases of disease, it may be employed by those who are perfectly
well, as the means most agreeable to nature for strengthening the body and
preserving the health.” Another important advantage which sea-bathing has
over bathing in fresh water is, that persons seldom take cold from
indulging in it.

For old people, or those of middle age, the cold bath is not to be
recommended, or if taken, considerable caution is required in using it. By
such persons, also, bathing in very hot weather, or in the sea, should
likewise be prudently practised. For these, the warm or tepid sponge-bath
will be found the much safer method.

It sometimes happens that, both with the old and young, the cold bath
gives rise to headache, palpitation, shortness of breath, loss of
appetite, or great languor. Whenever any of these effects are produced,
the bath should be at once given up.

The best time for taking a cold hath or for swimming is in the morning,
not too early, but when the sun is well up. Immersion is best practised
after a light meal, but not immediately following one. After breakfast,
from 10 a.m. to noon, are the preferable hours. Should the bather be
unable to swim, when going into the sea or into a river, he should keep
briskly moving all the time his body is immersed in the water. If in a
room bodily friction must be substituted for exercise. A desirable glow
may often be produced by rubbing the body with either a rough towel, a
flesh-brush, or a pair of horsehair gloves.

The above remarks are meant to apply only to persons in average health.

Weakly and delicate persons, even without any disease about them, would
always do well to consult their medical adviser before taking to cold
bathing.

We may add, that for bathing to produce its best effects the water should
be soft and pure, and good soap sparingly, but regularly, employed
whenever the skin requires it. See ABLUTION and WASH-HOUSES.

The medical and hygienic properties of baths are noticed below, under
their respective names:——

=Bath.= In _chemistry_, &c., a vessel or apparatus containing some medium
in which the vessel holding the substance to be heated is immersed,
instead of being exposed to the direct action of the fire; by which means
a limited and uniform temperature may be ensured.

The highest temperature that can be given to any substance contained in a
vessel placed in another of boiling water, is about 205° or 206° Fahr.;
but by adding 1/5th part of common salt to the bath, a heat of fully 212°
may be obtained. Baths of fusible metal, saturated solutions of salt,
sand, and (on the large scale) steam, are also used for the same purpose.
A bath of oil may be safely heated to about 500° Fahr. without suffering
decomposition, and will be found an exceedingly appropriate and convenient
source of heat in many processes. The simplest and most convenient form of
water bath is that afforded by raising water to the boiling point in a
copper basin placed over a gas lamp, and supporting the vessel to be
heated over the basin, by means of a circular hoop of copper resting on
the top of the basin. By this means the lower surface of the dish or
vessel to be heated is brought in contact with the steam. Copper basins,
fitted with a series of concentric copper rings, so as to render the basin
capable of supporting dishes of different sizes, are made for this
purpose.

[Illustration]

For drying many substances an air bath is required. The accompanying cut
represents a convenient form of air bath. It consists of a cylindrical
copper vessel (_A_), the cover of which is moveable, and has two
apertures, the middle one (_E_) serving for the escape of vapour, and the
lateral one (_C_) for the insertion of a thermometer. The vessel holding
the substance to be heated rests on a ring within the box, supported on a
tripod.

A larger air bath, by means of which several small vessels can be heated
at once, is seen below.

Air-baths are sometimes surrounded with a jacket, and may be converted
into water or oil baths, according as the jacket is filled with either of
the fluids. For a Table of Boiling-points, see EBULLITION.

An air-bath of constant temperature between 100° and 200° C. has been
contrived by Sprengel. It consists of an ordinary hot-water oven made of
sheet-lead autogenously soldered, and filled with dilute sulphuric acid
boiling at the required temperature.

In order that the temperature may remain constant, the water which distils
from the dilute sulphuric acid is condensed and allowed to flow back again
into the bath by means of a worm of lead cooled by the atmosphere, or a
long vertical metal or glass tube.

[Illustration]

=Bath.= In _medicine_, the medium in which the body, or a part of it, is
bathed or immersed, for some object beyond that of mere personal
cleanliness or enjoyment; the composition, use, or temperature of the
medium being generally indicated by some epithet, as in the instances
below. When only the last is pointed out, pure water is, of course,
intended to be used.

Baths are divided by medical writers into classes, and even minor
subdivisions, in a manner which is more ingenious than useful. They are
said to be SIMPLE when water or its vapour forms the bath; and COMPOUND
when the water or vapour is medicated by the addition of other substances
(COM′POUND BATHS; BAL′NEA COMPOS′ITA, L.). The latter class is also
subdivided into THERAPEU′TIC BATHS (MED′ICATED BATHS; BAL′NEA MEDICA′TA,
B. THERAPEU′TICA, L.); and NUTRIT′IVE BATHS (B. NUTRIEN′TIA, B.
NUTRI′′TIA*, B. NUTRITO′′RIA*, L.). Thus, besides the ordinary water and
vapour baths, the medical uses of which are hereafter noticed, we have
WINE′-BATHS, MILK′-BATHS, SOUP′-BATHS, &c. (used to convey nourishment, or
to sustain the body, as in occlusion of the œsophagus, certain diseases of
the stomach, &c.); CHLO′′RINE BATHS, SUL′PHUROUS B., MERCU′′RIAL B., &c.
(used in skin diseases, syphilis, &c.); AROMAT′IC and CHALYB′EATE BATHS
(employed as tonics); and ACID BATHS (sometimes used to remove the effects
of mercury).

On the Continent a variety of substances are employed to medicate baths,
which are seldom or never so used in this country.

The quantity of any medicinal substance used to medicate a bath, for an
adult, may be, in general, for each gallon of water employed, about the
same as that which is used to form a half-pint lotion of medium or rather
weak strength. Thus; taking the quantity of bichloride of mercury to form
the lotion at 5 _gr._, and that of sulphurated potash at 1/2 _dr._, the
quantity required for a bath of 30 to 40 _galls._ will be about 2-1/2
_dr._ of the first, and about 1-3/4 _oz._ of the second of these
substances. Much, however, depends on the nature of the case, the length
of the immersion, the periods of recurrence, and the intended number of
repetitions. In the case of very active remedies it will be safest and
best to begin with less than (say 1/4 to 1/3) the quantity thus indicated.

Medicated baths are, in nearly all cases, taken warm or fully tepid.

⁂ In the following baths the quantity of the ingredients ordered, when not
otherwise indicated, is that proper for an ordinary full-sized bath for an
adult; viz., from 40 to 60 _galls._ Those which do not contain volatile
substances may be used more than once; and many of them several times by
adding a small quantity of fresh ingredients to keep up their strength.

=Bath, Acid= (ăs′-). _Syn._ BAL′NEUM AC′IDUM (ăs′-), L. See HYDROCHLORIC,
NITRIC, NITRO-HYDROCHLORIC, and SULPHURIC ACID BATHS (_below_). Enamelled,
hard-glazed, or wooden vessels must be used with all of them.

=Bath, Air.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM PNEUMAT′ICUM, L.:——_a._ (Cold.) Simple
exposure of the body, in a state of nudity, for a short time to the
atmosphere. Tonic, anodyne, and sedative; in febrile excitement, nervous
irritability, and restlessness accompanied by a quick or full pulse, &c.
Safe and often very effective. It will frequently induce sleep when all
other means fail.

_b._ (Hot:——ASSA, A. SUDA′TIO, L.) An apartment to which dry heated air is
admitted. Sometimes the arrangement is such that the air is _not_ inhaled.
Stimulant; sudorific; more so than even the vapour bath; produces copious
perspiration, being, indeed, the most powerful and certain diaphoretic
known. It has been advantageously employed in cholera (for which its
advocates state that it is almost a specific), congestive fevers, chronic
rheumatism, contractions, stiff joints, paralysis, scaly skin-diseases,
dropsical swellings, and most of the cases in which the vapour bath is
usually employed. The temperatures are——as a sudorific, 85° to 105° Fahr.;
as a stimulant, 100° to 130°. When not inhaled it may be often raised,
with advantage, 15° to 25° higher. See BATH, TURKISH.

_c._ (Compressed.) Recommended, by M. Tarberie, in aphonia, &c. It has
recently been employed in asthma, phthisis, and some other like diseases,
with extraordinary success, at Ben Rhydding.

_d._ (Rarefied.) Applied locally. Revulsive; resembles CUPPING, DRY (which
_see_).

=Bath, Al′kaline.= _Syn._ AL′KALISED BATH; BAL′NEUM ALKALI′NUM, B.
ALKALIZA′TUM, L. Carbonate of potash (salt of tartar), 3/4 _lb._ In itch,
prurigo and chronic skin diseases accompanied with dryness and irritation,
acute gout, lithic gravel, scurvy, diarrhœa, &c. Scotch soda, 1 _lb._, is
sometimes substituted for the ‘potash’; but is less effective, and is
theoretically objectionable.

=Bath, Al′um.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM ALU′MINIS, L. Alum (in powder, or
previously dissolved in hot water), 3/4 _lb._ to 1-1/2 _lb._, or even 2
_lbs._ In troublesome excoriations, extensive burns, obstinate vesicular
eruptions, diarrhœa, &c.; also in obstinate piles and prolapsus ani. See
BATH, ASTRINGENT.

=Bath, Ammoni′acal.= See HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA BATH (_below_).

=Bath, Animal.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM ANIMA′LE, L. The skin or any part of an
animal just killed, wrapped round the body or a limb. Once much esteemed;
now, happily, disused in this country.

=Bath, Antimo′′nial.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM ANTIMONIA′LE, L. Tartar-emetic, 1 to
2 _oz._ (Soubeiran.) In lumbago and certain skin diseases; also as a
counter-irritant.

=Bath, Antipso′′ric.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM ANTIPSO′′RICUM, L. See BATH,
SULPHURETTED (also others).

=Bath, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM AROMAT′ICUM, L. Balm, chamomile,
lavender, mint, rosemary, sage, thyme, with any other like aromatic herbs
(at will), of each a handful, mixed together and steeped in a (covered)
pail of boiling or very hot water, for an hour, and then strained, with
pressure, into the bath. Sometimes 2 or 3 _oz._ of sal-ammonia, a 1/4
_lb._ of alum, or 1 _lb._ of common salt, is also added. Occasionally used
in cutaneous affections, chronic rheumatism, diarrhœa, dyspepsia,
stiff-joints, &c.; also in debility arising from loss of blood,
spermatorrhœa, suppressions, hysteria, hypochondriasis, &c.

The AROMATIC VAPOUR BATH is made by causing the vapour to pass through the
herbs.

=Baths, Aromatic Malt= (J. Hoff, Berlin). Wittstein says these consist of
coarsely crushed barley malt at six times its selling value.

=Bath, Astrin′gent.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM ASTRIN′GENS, L. _Prep._ (Most.) Alum
(2 to) 4 _lbs._; dissolve in boiling water; and add, whey, 6 or 8
pailfuls, or q. s. In extensive burns, piles, prolapsus ani, &c. See BATH,
ALUM, BATH, OAKBARK, &c.

=Bath, Balsamic.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM BALSAM′INUM, L. Bordeaux turpentine and
tar, of each 2 _lbs._ (or of tar alone, 3 to 4 _lbs._); hot water, 6 or 7
_galls._; stir continuously until nearly cold, then add the clear portion
to water q. s. to form a bath. In mumps, pruriginous diseases of the skin,
eczema, impetigo, &c.

=Bath, Barèges= (Factitious). _Syn._ BAL′NEUM BARETGINEN′SE (Factitium),
L. _Prep._ 1. Crystallised sulphide of sodium, 3-1/2 _oz._; chloride of
sodium, 1-1/2 _oz._; gelatine (dissolved), 4 _oz._

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Dry sulphide of potassium, 4 _oz._; water, 16
_oz._; dissolve, and add the solution to the bath; then further add, of
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, 1/2 _oz._, previously diluted with water,
8 _oz._ In itch, moist skin diseases, chronic diarrhœa, chronic
rheumatism, lead colic, &c. See BALLS, WATERS, &c.

=Bath, Benzo′ic.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM BENZO′ICUM, L. 1. Benzoin (in powder),
1/2 _lb._; water (at 90°) q. s. In irritations, hysteria, hypochondriasis,
&c. It is also reputed to be feebly aphrodisiac. 2. A common warm bath,
with a little powdered benzoin laid on a heated plate near the bather, so
that the fumes may be inhaled. Slightly soothing or anodyne; in chronic
laryngitis, relaxed uvula, &c.

=Bath, Bichlo′′ride of Mer′cury.= See BATH, MERCURIAL.

=Bath, Bran.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM FUR′FURIS, L. Bran, 5 to 7 _lbs._; boiling
waters, 2 or 3 galls.; digested together for an hour, or boiled for 15
minutes; the strained liquid being added to the bath. Emollient; in dry
and scaly skin disease, and to allay itching and surfacial irritation;
also to promote suppuration, &c.

=Bath, Bromine.= The saline waters of Kreuznach contain bromides. The
salts derived from the evaporation of these waters are imported into this
country, and are employed in baths. Or the following substitute may be
used:——Artificial sea-salt, 11 _lbs._; bromide of potassium, 4 _oz._; mix,
and let the above be added to a bath containing sufficient water for
immersion. The bromine bath is more especially used for tumours of every
kind. It requires to be continued in for a long time. When the patient
does not possess the conveniences for taking the bath, flannels dipped in
a strong solution of the salt and wrung out may be applied wet to the
abdomen for some hours daily.

=Bath, Cam′phor.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM CAM′PHORÆ, B. CAMPHORATUM, L. Camphor, 3
or 4 dr., coarsely powdered, and placed on a plate heated by boiling
water, in the bathroom. Anodyne, anaphrodisiac, and diaphoretic; in
spasmodic asthma, chronic cough, relaxation of the uvula, ardor urinæ,
nervous irritability, &c.

=Bath, Carbon′ic.= _Syn._ CARBON′IC ACID BATH; BAL′NEUM CARBON′ICUM, B.
AC′IDUM CARBONICUM, L.

1. Carbonic acid gas applied, by means of a suitable apparatus, to prevent
its being respired. Antiseptic, diaphoretic, and excitant to the vascular
system; in amenorrhœa, chlorosis, hysteria, scrofula, cancerous and other
ulcers (particularly foul ones), &c.

2. Water, at 50° Fahr., charged with the gas. Powerfully antiseptic and
sedative; in foul ulcers, gangrene, &c.

=Bath, Chlo′′ride of Ammo′′nium.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM AMMO′′NII CHLORI′DI, B.
AMMO′′NIÆ HYDROCHLORA′TIS, L. Sal-ammoniac, 2 to 3 _lbs._, or even 4
_lbs._ In chronic inflammations, glandular enlargements and indurations,
chronic rheumatism and affections of the joints, leucorrhœa, chilblains,
frost-bites, &c.

=Bath, Chlo′′ride of Soda.= Solution of chlorinated soda, 1-1/2 _lb._;
water, 30 _galls._

=Bath, Chlo′′rine.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM CHLORIN′II, B. CHLORINA′TUM, L. Tepid
water to which a little chlorine has been added. Antiseptic, stimulant,
and subsequently sedative and antiphlogistic; in itch, foul and gangrenous
ulcers, chronic liver affections, &c. Chloride of lime is commonly
substituted for chlorine.

2. (Magendie; Wallace.) Chlorine gas (obtained from salt, 1-1/2 _oz._; oil
of vitriol and water, of each 1 _oz._; and black oxide of manganese, 1/2
_oz._ to 1 _oz._) diluted with air, at a temperature of 104° to 150°
Fahr., and applied, by means of a suitable apparatus, for 10 minutes to
1/2 an hour; every possible precaution being taken to prevent it being
inhaled. In chronic liver affections, gradually and cautiously increasing
the ingredients to three times the above quantity, and decreasing the
dilution with air until the gas is used nearly pure.[112]

[Footnote 112: A dangerous remedy in careless or unskilful hands; and even
with the experienced not always free from danger. The writer of this
article once nearly lost his life from a single inspiration of the gas
which accidentally escaped its proper limits. Terrific spasms of the
glottis and a convulsive cough immediately came on, and lasted, with more
or less severity, for nearly 14 hours.]

=Bath, Cold.= _Syn._ BALNEUM FRIG′IDUM (-frĭj′-), FRIGIDA′′RIUM, L.; BAIN
FROID, Fr. Water, fresh, saline, or mineral, at a temperature varying from
33° to about 75°; but usually understood to apply to water between 50° and
70° Fahr. When below 50° it is considered very cold. At a temperature
ranging from 60° to about 75° it is commonly used by the healthy and
vigorous as a luxury, and for cleanliness.

“The immediate effects of the cold bath are a sensation of cold (speedily
followed by one of warmth), contraction of the cutaneous vessels, paleness
of the skin, diminution of perspiration, and reduction of the volume of
the body. Shivering, and, as the water rises to the chest, a kind of
convulsive sobbing, are also experienced. Continued immersion renders the
pulse small, and ultimately imperceptible, and the respiration difficult
and irregular. A feeling of inactivity succeeds; the joints become rigid
and inflexible; pain in the head, drowsiness, and cramps, come on; the
temperature of the body falls rapidly; and faintness, followed by death,
ensues.” “Its primary effects constitute the SHOCK——its secondary effects,
the REACTION or GLOW.”[113] Hence it is that immersion of the body in
water below about 65° Fahr. cannot be tolerated for any length of time
without such a loss of animal heat as frequently to induce highly sedative
and depressing effects, from which the constitution does not readily
recover. Water at a temperature of below about 50° Fahr. can only be
safely used as a plunge-bath. The sedative effects of sea and mineral
waters is much than that of pure water, or of spring or river water.

[Footnote 113: Pereira, ‘Mat. Med. and Therap.,’ 4th ed., i, 29.]

The cold bath, medically considered, is tonic, stimulant, and restorative,
when judiciously taken, and when not too long continued or too often
repeated. When beneficial, the patient feels a pleasant glow on the
surface of the body immediately following it. If a sensation of coldness
or shivering ensues, it acts injuriously, and should not be repeated. The
duration of the immersion may vary from 2 to 15 minutes, the precise time
depending upon the temperature of the water and the feelings of the
bather; the longer period being only proper in fine weather, and when
accompanied by swimming or violent exercise.

As a remedial agent, the cold bath is principally recommended to increase
the tone and vigour of the system; and is contra-indicated when there is a
tendency to apoplexy, or to chronic affections, functional or organic, of
the heart, lungs, or kidneys. It should never be taken when the person
feels chilly, languid, or depressed; or if drowsiness and shivering follow
it.

The temperature of the water of the rivers and the coasts of England
ranges, in summer, from 55° to 70 or 72° Fahr.

=Bath, Creosote.= Creosote, 2 _dr._; glycerin, 2 _oz._; boiling water, one
_gall._ To be added to 29 _galls._ of water.

=Bath, Douche.= See BATH, SHOWER, DOUCHE, &c.

=Bath, Dry.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM SICCUM, L. The immersion of the body in any
dry material, as ashes, salt, sand, &c. EARTH-BATHING, as administered by
the once notorious quack, Dr Graham, was of this kind. In the sudatorium
or sweating room of the ancients the body was immersed in heated sand.

=Bath, Elec′tric.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM ELEC′TRICUM, L. The patient, placed on
an insulated stool, is put in contact, by means of a metallic wire, with
the prime conductor of an electrical machine in action. The surface of the
body is thus rendered electro-positive, and the surrounding air, by
induction, electro-negative. It has been recommended in chronic
rheumatism, scirrhous tumours, &c.

=Bath, Electro-chemical= (of Dr Caplin). This is founded on the
supposition that all diseases arise from the presence of mineral, or other
extraneous morbific matter, in some organ, or the whole organism, and
which is capable of removal by electrolysis. The patient is placed in an
appropriately arranged voltaic bath, and there “saturated with the
electric fluid.” This “decomposes everything which is foreign to the
organism, the vital parts being protected by the law of conservation
belonging to every organic production.” These foreign substances are said
to be thus carried out of the system by the electric current, and to be
“fixed and plated on the copper in the same way, and according
to the same law and principle (only reversed), as in the process of
electro-plating.”[114]

[Footnote 114: ‘Hist. Records of the Electro-chem. Bath,’ by Mons. J. F.
J. Caplin, M.D. Baillière, 1860.]

=Bath, Fec′ula.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM AM′YLI, B. FÆC′ULÆ, L. Potato-starch or
wheat-starch, 1 to 4 _lbs._; boiling water q. s. to dissolve. Resembles
the BRAN-BATH.

=Bath, Ferru′ginous.= _Syn._ CHALYB′EATE BATH; BAL′NEUM FERRUGIN′EUM, B.
CHALYBEATUM, L. 1. Green sulphate of iron, 1 to 2 _lbs._ A well-tinned
copper, wooden, or japanned bath may be used. In general debility when
chalybeates are indicated, and the stomach will not bear iron; also in
piles and prolapsus. The stains on the towels used to wipe the patient may
be removed by at once soaking them in water acidulated with hydrochloric
acid.

2. (Ioduretted.) See BATH OF IODIDE OF IRON.

=Bath, Foot.= _Syn._ PEDILU′VIUM, L. Warm (or hot). Revulsive,
counter-irritant; in colds, menstrual and hæmorrhoidal suppressions,
rheumatism, stiffness of the ankles, tender feet, &c. A little common
salt, flour of mustard, or sal-ammoniac, is often added to render it more
stimulant, to prevent ‘taking cold,’ &c. See FEET, &c.

=Bath, Gelat′inous.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM GELATINO′SUM, B. GELATIN′II, L.
Gelatin or fine Salisbury glue, 3 or 4 _lbs._; dissolved in boiling water,
2 _galls._, or q. s.; and added to a warm bath. At the ‘Hospital for
Cutaneous Diseases’ 8 _lbs._ of patent size are used for a bath of 30 to
35 _galls._ Emollient; formerly, but erroneously, considered nutritive.
_Used_ in skin diseases; generally combined with sulphur. See BATH,
BARÈGES.

=Bath, Glyc′erine= (glĭs′). _Syn._ BAL′NEUM GLYCERIN′II, B. G.
COMPOS′ITUM, L. Glycerine, 2 _lbs._; gum arabic (dissolved), 1 _lb._ Used
as a soothing emollient, in itching, dryness, irritation, and hardness of
the skin, &c. Where expense is an object, 3 or 4 _lbs._ of good honey, and
1 _oz._ of salt of tartar, form an excellent substitute for the glycerine.

=Bath, Hem′lock.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM CO′NII, L. 1. Dried hemlock-leaves (or
herb), 4 to 6 handfuls; water, 1 _gall._; infuse 2 hours, and strain. The
part to be immersed in, or bathed with, the warm infusion, observing not
to apply it if the skin is unsound; or it may be added to the water of a
bath in the usual manner. In gout, cancer, chronic rheumatism, and certain
skin diseases.

2. (Cut. Hosp.) Extract of hemlock, 2 _oz._; starch, 1 _lb._; boiling
water, 1 _gall._; dissolve. For a bath of about 30 _galls._ As the last.

=Bath, Hip.= _Syn._ COXÆLU′VIUM, L. Usually warm; sometimes fully warm, or
somewhat hot. In inflammatory, spasmodic, and chronic affections of the
abdominal and pelvic viscera; in suppressed and painful menstruation,
hæmorrhoids, strangury, prolapsus, ischuria, &c.; also as a substitute for
a full bath, when this last is contra-indicated by some affection of the
lungs, heart, brain, or great vessels. Like full baths, it may be often
advantageously medicated. See BIDET.

[Illustration]

=Bath, Hot.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM CAL′IDUM, CALDA′′RIUM, L.; BAIN CHAUD, Fr.
Usual temperature, 98° to 106° Fahr.

The hot bath has a remarkably tranquillising effect upon the nervous
system, producing a strong tendency to quietude and sleep. It also acts as
a powerful antispasmodic, and by determining the blood to the surface of
the body tends to relieve visceral inflammation and congestion. In chronic
affections arising from the action of cold and damp and from exhausted
energy, in stiff joints, rheumatism, neuralgia, diarrhœa, and numerous
other affections, its effects are often rapid and remarkable. At high
temperatures it strongly stimulates the arterial system, and arouses
nervous energy and vital action, producing excessive excitement and
turgescence, followed by copious perspiration, which has been often found
successful in cholera, paralysis, &c. If the immersion be too long
continued, or the bath be injudiciously employed, lassitude, debility, and
somnolency ensue, and the good effect of the bath is more or less lost. In
these cases violent throbbing and painful distension of the vessels of the
head, with a distressing feeling of suffocation and anxiety, are
premonitory symptoms of impending apoplexy, an accident which sometimes,
though seldom, follows its improper use.

=Bath, Hydrochlo′′rate of Ammonia.= See BATH, CHLORIDE OF AMMONIUM.

=Bath, Hydrochlo′′ric Acid.= _Syn._ MURIAT′IC ACID BATH; BAL′NEUM
HYDROCHLO′′RICUM, B. ACIDUM H., B. MURIAT′ICUM, &c., L. Commercial
hydrochloric acid, 1 to 3 _lbs._ (in chronic liver affections); or 3 to 6
fl. oz. (in prurigo and lichen).

=Bath, Hydrosul′phuretted.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM HYDROSULPHURE′TUM, L.——1. A
tepid sulphuretted bath, with the addition of hydrochloric acid, 2 or 3
fl. _dr._, immediately before immersion. In rheumatism, chronic skin
diseases, hooping-cough, and certain forms of paralysis:——2. A tepid bath
to which 3 to 6 fl. _oz._ of (liquid) hydrosulphate of ammonia is added
immediately before use. Used as the last. It often acts almost as a
specific in hooping-cough and certain breath ailments.

=Bath, I′odine of I′ron.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM FER′RI IODI′DI, L. _Prep._
(Pierquin.) Iodide of iron, 1/2 _oz._ to 2 _oz._ In amenorrhœa,
leucorrhœa, chlorosis, scrofula, &c.; gradually increasing the quantity of
the iodide until 4 _oz._, or more, is used for a bath.

=Bath, I′odine.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM IODIN′II, L.:——1. Iodine, 3 to 5 _dr._;
dry siliceous sand, 2 _oz._; triturated together until reduced to fine
powder, and then agitated with the water of a tepid bath for 10 or 15
minutes. 2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Iodine, 4 _dr._; liquor of potassa, 4 _oz._;
water, 2 _pints_; dissolve; for a bath of 30 _galls._ In skin diseases
complicated with scrofula, glandular enlargements, amenorrhœa, &c.

=Bath, Io′duretted.= _Syn._ IO′DURATED BATH, I′ODISED B., COMPOUND
IODINE-B., &c.; BAL′NEUM IODURE′TUM, B. IODURA′TUM*, B. POTAS′′SII
SUPERIODI′DI, &c., L. Lugol, the leading authority on this subject,
employs this bath of the different strengths, &c., shown in the following
tables:——

_a._ FOR ADULTS:——

  ---------+------------+------------+---------------
   Degree. |  Iodine.   | Iodide of  | Water for the
           |            | Potassium. |     bath.
  ---------+------------+------------+---------------
           |    dr.     |     dr.    |     gal.
  ---------+------------+------------+---------------
      1    | 2 to 2-1/2 |   4 to 5   |      50
  ---------+------------+------------+---------------
      2    | 2 ”  3     |   4 ”  6   |      60
  ---------+------------+------------+---------------
      3    | 3 ”  3-1/2 |   6 ”  7   |      75
  ---------+------------+------------+---------------

_b._ FOR CHILDREN:——

  ---------+----------+------------+----------
     Age.  |  Iodine. |  Iodide of |  Water.
           |          | Potassium. |
  ---------+----------+------------+----------
           |    gr.   |    gr.     |   gal.
  ---------+----------+------------+----------
    4 to 7 | 30 to 36 |  60 to 72  |     9
  ---------+----------+------------+----------
    7 ” 11 | 48 ”  72 |  96 ” 144  |    18
  ---------+----------+------------+----------
   11 ” 14 | 72 ”  96 | 144 ” 192  |    31
  ---------+----------+------------+----------

⁂ The dry ingredients of the first Table are to be dissolved in a pint of
water, and of the second, in 1/2 pint of water, before adding them to the
bath.

In scrofulous affections and the other cases in which the external use of
iodine or the iodides is indicated. Enamelled ware, stoneware, or wooden
vessels must be employed.

=Bath, Lime.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM CUM CAL′CE, L. Lime, 3 _lbs._; slaked, and
added to the bath. In gout, lithic diathesis, itch, &c. See BATH, VAPOUR.

=Bath, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ ANTISYPHILIT′IC BATH; BAL′NEUM MERCURIA′LE, B.
HYDRAR′GYRI BICHLORI′DI, B. ANTISYPHILIT′ICUM, &c., L.; BAIN MERCURIEL, B.
ANTISYPHILITIQUE, &c., Fr. Bichloride of mercury, in fine powder, 1 to 3
_dr._, hot water, 1 _pint_; agitate together until solution is complete,
before adding them to the bath, the ‘water’ of which (contained in an
enamelled or wooden vessel) must be soft (rain) and pure. At the ‘Cutan.
Hosp.’ hydrochloric acid (= 1/3rd the weight of the chloride) is commonly
added; and at the ‘Fr. hospitals,’ an equal, or rather more than an equal
weight, of sal-ammoniac. These additions facilitate the solution of the
chloride, and retard its decomposition by any slight impurity in the water
forming the bath.

_Uses, &c._ In syphilitic affections, either with or without skin disease;
in chronic rheumatism, swelled joints, and chronic skin diseases
generally, where the use of mercury is indicated, and the remedy is
rejected by the stomach; especially in these affections in women and
children (for the last, proportionately reduced in strength and quantity).
Also used in it, and to destroy pediculi on the body.

=Bath, Met′al.= See BATH (in _Chemistry_), FUSIBLE METAL, &c.

=Bath, Mud.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM LU′TEUM, B. LU′TI, L. Mud-bathing
(ILLUTA′TION) was common among the ancients. The slime of rivers, and the
mud on the sea-shore, were especially prized for this purpose. The Tartars
and Egyptians still employ baths of this description in hypochondriasis,
scrofula, and scurvy. At Franzenbad, in Germany, an acidulous species of
black bog-earth found there, is beaten up with warm water to a semi-liquid
consistence, and used as a bath. This is said to render the skin
satin-like and soft; and to be useful in debility, and in paralytic
affections of a gouty origin. In France, hot dung (DUNG BATH) is
occasionally used in rheumatism; and in Poland, in syphilis. The husk of
grapes and the refuse of olives, after undergoing a partial fermentation,
have been successfully employed in France against acute rheumatism.[115]

[Footnote 115: Mérat and De Lens, ‘Dict. Univ. de Mat. Méd.’]

=Bath, Muriat′ic.= See BATH, HYDROCHLORIC ACID.

=Bath, Mus′tard.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM SINA′PIS, L.:——1. Flour of mustard, 2
_lbs._; warm water, 1 _gall._; make a thin soup; in fifteen minutes pour
it into a coarse linen bag or cloth, and press out the liquid, which is to
be stirred up with the bath. In cholera, diarrhœa simulating cholera, &c.;
also to cause reaction; the patient remaining in the bath until a somewhat
painful sense of burning and irritation is experienced:——2. Flour of
mustard, 3 to 8 _oz._; as before. Used as a gentle stimulant to excite the
skin, and promote its healthy action, &c.

=Bath, Ni′tro-hydrochlo′′ric.= _Syn._ AC′ID BATH‡ (ăs′-), NITRO-MURIAT′IC
B.*, N. A. B.*; BAL′NEUM NITRO-HYDROCHLO′′RICUM. B. AC′IDI (ăs′-), B. A.
NITRO-HYDROCHLO′′RICI, B. A. NITRO-MURIAT′ICI*, &c., L.:——1. Water
slightly acidulated with the acid, so that its sourness to the taste is
about that of common vinegar. According to Ainslie, 1 _oz._ of acid is
sufficient for 1 gall. of water.[116] Other formulæ in use are——

[Footnote 116: ‘Mat. Med. Indica,’ ii, 340.]

2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Nitric acid, 1-1/2 lb.; hydrochloric acid, 1 _lb._; for
a bath of 60 to 70 _galls._

3. (Soubeiran.) Nitro-hydrochloric acid, 4 to 16 fl. oz.; according to the
case.

4. (Dr Scott.) Nitric acid, 2 fl. oz.; hydrochloric acid, 3 fl. oz.;
water, 5 fl. oz.; mix. 1-1/2 to 2 _fl. oz._ to each _gall._ of water for a
general bath; 3 _fl. oz._ to the _gall._ for a foot, knee, or sponge bath.

_Uses, &c._ In its weaker forms, in skin-diseases depending on disordered
liver; in others, chiefly in liver complaints, and to relieve the pain on
the passing of gall-stones. It must be contained in an enamelled or wooden
vessel, and may be used as a hip, knee, or foot-bath; a knee-bath being
the one generally adopted in England. Dr Scott, of Bombay, who first
brought this bath into notice, once plunged the Duke of Wellington up to
his chin in one, in India, and thus cured him of a severe hepatic
affection. In its stronger form it causes tingling and pricking of the
skin, and a peculiar taste in the mouth, and affects the gums and salivary
glands, often producing plentiful ptyalism, without which, indeed, its
advocates regard its action as incomplete. Time of application, 15 to 20
minutes daily, for a fortnight or three weeks; and afterwards, every
second or third day.

=Bath, Oak-Bark.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM QUER′CÛS, B. QUER′CI, L. Oak-bark, 3 or
4 handfuls for a child; 10 to 15 for an adult; made into a decoction, and
strained with pressure into the bath. In hæmorrhoids, prolapsus,
leucorrhœa, hernia, diarrhœa, ill-conditioned and bleeding ulcerations,
&c. Drs Elaesser, Eberle, and Fletcher have successfully employed it in
the intermittents of infancy and childhood, tabes mesenterica or scrofula,
&c. It has also proved useful in phthisis.

=Bath, Oil.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM OLEO′SUM, L. Olive or other oil (hot),
strongly aromatised with the oils of cassia, cloves, nutmegs, cedron, and
juniper; and digested for a week on ambergris and vanilla, of each
(bruised), about 10 gr. to the gallon. Used, in the East, to anoint the
body, as a preservative against the plague and other contagious diseases;
also as a full bath or hip-bath, the immersion being for 15 to 30 minutes.

=Bath, Pneumat′ic.= See BATH, AIR.

=Bath, Saline′= (Gelatinous). _Syn._ BAL′NEUM SALI′NO-GELATINO′SUM, L.;
BAIN DE PLOMBIÈRES, Fr. _Prep._ Common salt and Flanders glue, of each 2
_lbs._; water, 1 _gall._; dissolve separately, and add the solutions to
the bath. In scrofula, &c.

=Bath, Salt.= See BATH, SALINE, BATH, SEA, &c.

=Bath, Sand.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM ARE′NÆ, L.; BAIN DE SABLE, Fr. See BATH (in
_Chemistry_), BATH, DRY, &c.

=Bath, Sea.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM MARI′NUM, L.; BAIN MARIN, Fr. Immersion in
the sea or in recent sea water (temperate, tepid, warm, or hot). Owing to
the saline matter which it contains, it possesses stimulant, alterative,
and resolvent properties, superadded to those of pure water at the
corresponding temperature. When taken, in summer, on our coasts, the
reaction and glow follow more speedily and certainly than after a common
water bath; and it may be taken with greater safety, and for a longer
period. It often proves very serviceable in diseases accompanied with
debility, in phthisis, scrofula, glandular enlargement, &c. A warm or hot
sea-water bath is one of the most restorative imaginable; often removing
the effects of fatigue and exposure——exhaustion, stiff joints, cramps,
rheumatism, &c.——like a charm. Unless under sanction of a medical man,
boys and girls should never be allowed to bath in the sea after the end of
September. See BATH (_above_), WATERS, &c.

=Bath, Sea.= (Factitious). _Syn._ BAL′NEUM MARI′NUM FACTI′′TIUM, L.
Artificial sea-water, or rather a substitute for sea-water, for this
purpose, is commonly prepared by adding about 3% of common salt to
ordinary water.[117] The following are, however, more serviceable
imitations:——

[Footnote 117:

  Or (say) for small quantities——
      1-1/4 _oz._ to the quart;
      5 _oz._ to the gallon.
  And for large quantities, as a full bath——
      2 _lbs._ to every 7 gallons.]

1. As above, with the addition of 1 _dr._ of iodide of potassium to every
3 or 4 galls. of water.

2. (Cutan. Hosp.). Common salt, 8 _lbs._; sulphate of magnesia, 2 _lbs._;
chloride of calcium, 1 lb.; water, 50 to 60 _galls._

3. Salt, a handful; water, a pailful; flour of mustard, 1 _oz._ For a
foot-bath.

=Bath, Show′er.= _Syn._ IMPLU′′VIUM, BAL′NEUM PEN′SILE, &c., L.; DOUCHE,
Fr. Similar in its effects to the cold bath or plunge-bath; but without
many of its advantages. It is less alarming to nervous persons, and less
liable to produce cramp, than immersion in cold water; whilst the reaction
or glow follows more speedily and certainly. It is considered the best and
safest mode of cold bathing, and is often highly serviceable in nervous
affections. A good plan is to allow the water to remain in the bedroom all
night, by which any undue degree of coldness is removed. Tepid water may
be commenced with; and at first, in extreme cases, the patient may stand
in hot or warm water at the time of taking the bath. The reaction
following its use is greatly promoted by friction of the surface with dry
rough towels.

[Illustration]

=Bath, Soap.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM SAPO′NIS, L. White soap, 2 to 3 _lbs._;
water, 3 _quarts_; dissolve by heat, and add it to a warm bath. Detergent,
lubricating, and discutient; in itch and other skin diseases, &c.

=Bath, Spon′′ging= (spŭnje′-). This title explains itself. In the sponging
bath exercise and ablution are combined, and its employment by persons of
sedentary habit is highly advantageous.

=Bath, Sulphur.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM SUL′PHURIS, L. 1. Flowers of sulphur, 1/2
to 1 _lb._; water, a pailful; mix, agitate occasionally for 12 to 24
hours, and then add the whole to an ordinary bath. Useful in various mild,
but obstinate, skin diseases. Its occasional employment, even in health,
seldom fails to render the skin soft, smooth, and delicate. Soap may be
used with it.

2. (Compound; B. S. COMPOS′ITUM, L.)——_a._ (Cutan. Hosp.) Precipitated
sulphur, 2 _lbs._; hyposulphite of soda, 1/2 _lb._; water, 1 _gall._;
dissolve, and add of sulphuric acid, 1 _dr._ One pint to every 30 _galls._
of water. In various skin diseases (see _below_).

_b._ See BATH, SULPHURETTED.

=Bath, Sul′phurous.= _Syn._ SUL′PHUROUS ACID BATH; BAL′NEUM SULPHURO′SUM,
B. SUL′PHURIS‡, L. From sulphur, 1/2 _oz._, sprinkled on a hot plate
placed under or near the patient; the proper precautions being taken as
directed under CHLORINE BATH. In itch, lepra, psoriasis, &c. Cleanly, but
seldom used, chiefly on account of the number of baths required to prove
serviceable. See BATH, SULPHURETTED.

=Bath, Sul′phuretted.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM SULPHURET′UM, B. SULPHURA′TUM, B.
SULPHU′′REUM, &c., L.; BAIN SULFURÉ, &c., Fr. 1 Sulphurated potash, 1
_oz._; for every 10 or 12 _galls._ of water employed. Sometimes
sulphurated soda, or (in the Ger. hosp.) suphurated lime, is the
sulphur-salt employed. 1/2 _dr._ of sulphuric acid is also occasionally
added to the bath; but this increases its fœtor, without adding much, if
anything, to its curative power; whilst, without care, the evolved gas may
impede respiration.

2. (Gelatinous; GELAT′INO-SUL′PHUROUS B.; B. S. GELATINO′SUM, L.) Flanders
glue, 1-1/2 to 2 _lbs._; dissolved and added to a ‘sulphuretted bath.’
Recommended, by Dupuytren, as a substitute for the ‘Barèges bath.’

_Obs._ The sulphur or sulphuretted bath, under any of its forms, is a
powerful remedy in almost every description of skin disease. Leprosy, the
most obstinate of all, has been completely cured by it; the common itch
requires only one or two applications to eradicate it entirely; all the
scurfy and moist skin affections, local irritation, pimples, inflammatory
patches, &c., speedily yield to its influence; scrofula, and, indeed,
_all_ those affections in which the warm or vapour bath is serviceable,
also derive powerful assistance from the sulphur bath.

=Bath, Tem′perate.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM TEMPERA′TUS*, L.

=Bath, Tep′id.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM TEP′IDUM, B. EGEL′IDUM, TEPIDA′′RIUM, L.;
BAIN TIÈDE &c., Fr. Approaches the warm bath in its hygiènic and medical
properties; and is, perhaps the one best adapted for the mere purposes
of personal cleanliness. In the spacious public tepid baths of London,
swimming may be safely indulged in even in cold weather.

=Bath, Tum′ble.= An obsolete form of the shower bath.

=Bath, Turk′ish.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM TUR′CICUM, L. A hot vapour bath or
sweating bath, with massing or shampooing, ending with a warm bath or warm
ablutions and friction. The EGYPTIAN, PERSIAN, and RUSSIAN BATHS are
essentially similar. In the ANGLO-TURKISH BATH, recently introduced to
this country, hot dry air wholly takes the place of vapour. See BATH, AIR
(_antè_).

=Bath, Turpentine.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM TEREBINTHINA′TUM, L. _Prep._ (Dr T.
Smith.) Camphine (rectified oil of turpentine), 1/4 to 1/2 pint; Scotch
soda, 2 lbs.; oil of rosemary, 1/2 dr.; for an adult. It calms the pulse,
softens the skin, and renders the perspiration freer.

=Bath, Va′pour.= _Syn._ DEW′-BATH*; BAL′NEUM VA′PORIS, B. RO′′RIS†, AS′SA
SUDA′TIO, A. VAPORA′TIO, VAPORA′′RIUM*, L.; BAIN DE VAPEURS, Fr. The
vapour of hot water, either pure or medicated.

The simplest form of vapour bath is, perhaps, produced by placing some wet
cloths, or sprinkling a little water on two or three heated bricks, laid
under a chair on which the patient is seated; both the patient and whole
apparatus being covered with a sheet or blanket, or, better still, a
spacious waterproof cloak, to keep in the heated vapour. A large lump of
quick-lime, set in a pan or an old iron pot and sprinkled with a little
water, or else wrapped up in a thick coarse towel which has been
previously soaked in water, may be substituted for the hot bricks; and
often advantageously so. The slaking of the lime and the consequent
evolution of vapour may be kept up or renewed, when necessary, by
sprinkling on a little more water. This forms the “POOR MAN’S VAPOUR BATH”
of the French. Dr Serres has suggested, as something apparently original,
that a lump of quick-lime, wrapped in a wet cloth and covered with a dry
one, be placed on each side of the patient;[118] and the whole being
covered up allowed to remain until copious perspiration is established. It
must, however, be recollected that by none of these minor contrivances can
the temperature of the vapour, and its supply, be regulated, as in a
perfect bath, even a portable one, such as is shown in the _engraving_.

[Footnote 118: “In bed” (!), says the Dr; but surely one who could only
afford such a bath would find it difficult to obtain a fresh, dry bed;
whilst it would be equally improper for him to lie in a wet or damp one.]

[Illustration]

The following are the temperatures, &c., of this bath:[119]——

[Footnote 119: The temperatures of baths given here, and previously are
those now generally adopted in the profession. See Dr Forbes’s ‘Cycl. of
Prac. Med.,’ vol. i, 265; Pereira’s ‘Mat. Med.,’ i, 17; &c.]

  -----------------+-----------------------------
                   |Temperature of Vapour, Fahr.
                   +-------------+---------------
                   |  Breathed.  | Not breathed.
  Tepid vapour bath|  90° to 100°|  96° to 106°
  Warm   ”      ”  | 100  ”  110 | 106  ”  120
  Hot    ”      ”  | 110  ”  130 | 120  ”  160
  -----------------+-------------+---------------

_Uses, &c._ It is one of the most powerful diaphoretics known, and is
almost specific in nearly all those cases wherein warm or hot bathing
proves advantageous. It is one of the most certain agents existing in
cases of chronic rheumatism, contracted muscles and tendons, stiffness of
joints, indurations, dysentery, diarrhœa, suppressions, &c. Instances are
numerous in which the lame have thrown aside their crutches and the
bedridden have again mixed with the world after a few applications of this
bath. It is no uncommon thing to hear a patient start and shriek with
agony before entering the bath, and to receive his congratulations and
thanks on his coming out. They often exclaim——“It is wonderful. I could
not have believed it!”[120]

[Footnote 120: Culverwell ‘On Baths and Bathing.’]

=Bath, Warm.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM CAL′IDUM, B. CALID′ULUM, B. THERMA′LE,
THERM′A, &c. L., BAIN THERMAL, B. CHAUD, &c., Fr. A bath at a temperature
equal, or nearly equal, to that of the human body.

The sensations attendant upon immersion in a warm bath are most delicious.
Its first effect is to increase the circulation of the blood, and to
determine it to the skin. After a few minutes an agreeable and universal
increase of heat is experienced; the face and head are generally soon
bedewed with perspiration; a pleasing and prevailing calm, both mental and
physical, follows; and after remaining in it some 12 or 15 minutes the
effect is of the most refreshing and happy character.

The idea that the warm bath is relaxing is erroneous. It is only so where
persons remain in it too long, or take it too frequently. Nor are those
who indulge in it more liable to take cold than others. On the contrary,
they are less liable, unless they wilfully expose themselves,
insufficiently clad (particularly about the neck and chest), to draughts
of cold air.[121]

[Footnote 121: We have been for many years accustomed to take baths at 98°
to 100° Fahr., in all weathers and seasons, even during our severest
winter, and on leaving the bath have often been engaged, for hours, moving
about in the open air, even until midnight, without ‘catching cold,’ or
the slightest inconvenience. However, we do not recommend others to follow
our practice without due care.]

As a remedial agent, the warm bath is adapted to general torpor of the
system, liver and bowel complaints, hypochondriasis, hysterical
affections, morbid suppressions, dryness of the skin, nearly all cutaneous
and nervous diseases, chronic rheumatism, &c. As a tonic or stimulant
after excessive fatigue, great mental excitement, or physical exertion, it
is unequalled, and furnishes one of the most wholesome, and at the same
time luxurious sources of refreshment we are acquainted with. “To those
who are past the meridian of life, who have dry skins and begin to be
emaciated, the warm bath for half an hour, twice a week, I believe to be
eminently serviceable in retarding the advances of age.” (Darwin.) The
healthy longevity of the late Duke of Wellington, after a period of
exposure and trials equal to the entire life of many individuals, has been
by some, and we think correctly, mainly attributed to the free and
constant use of the warm bath. A warm bath frequently gives great relief
to infants suffering from griping or flatulence. See BATH (_antè_), &c.

=Bath, Wa′ter.= _Syn._ BAL′NEUM A′QUÆ, B. AQUO′SUM, B. MA′′RIÆ, B.
MA′′RIS, L.; BAINMARIE, Fr. A water bath; in _chemistry_ and _cookery_,
applied to a bath of hot or boiling water. See BATH (in _chemistry_),
BAINMARIE, &c.

=BATH′ING= (bāthé-). See BATH.

=BATH METAL.= A species of brass having the following composition:——

1. Zinc, 3 _parts_; copper, 16 _parts_; melted together under charcoal.

2. Fine brass, 32 _parts_; spelter, 9 _parts_. See BRASS and ALLOYS.

=BATH PIPE.= See PIPES.

=BATH, VICHY= (ARTIFICIAL). Bicarbonate of soda, 17 _oz._; water, 60
_galls._

=BATHS= and =WASH′HOUSES=. See BATH.

=BATTER.= Ingredients beaten together so as to form a semi-fluid mass. In
_cookery_, a semi-fluid paste, which becomes hard in dressing, formed of
flour, and milk or water, or a mixture of them, enriched and flavoured
with eggs, butter, and (frequently) spices, currants, &c., at will. Used
for frying vegetables, fillets, &c., and as a material for fritters and
pancakes; also to form puddings, which are either baked alone, or under
meat; and to cover various articles during the operation of cooking them.
Miss Acton gives the following formulæ:——1. (For the Frying-pan.) Butter,
2 _oz._; boiling water (nearly) 1/4 pint; mix, and stir in, gradually, of
cold water, 3/4 pint; when quite smooth, mix it by degrees, very smoothly
with fine dry flour, 3/4 _lb._; adding (for fruit) a small pinch of salt
(but more for meat or vegetables); just before use, stir in the whites of
two eggs (or the white and yelk of one), and fry until light and crisp. In
humble cookery the eggs may be omitted.

2. (For Puddings.) Eggs (yelk and white), about 4 in no.; flour, 1/2
_lb._; milk, q. s.

_Obs._ When fruit, &c., are added, the batter must be made thicker than
when none is used, to prevent it sinking. When sufficiently dressed it
should cut smoothly and not stick to the knife. Eggs increase its
firmness.

=BATT′ERY.= In _frictional electricity_, a series of Leyden jars so
arranged as to admit of being charged and discharged together. See
ELECTRICITY, &c.

=Battery.= In _electro-chemistry_, _galvanism_, &c., a pair, or series of
pairs, of ‘excited’ metallic plates, so arranged as to act in unison,
producing an electrical current by chemical decomposition.

=BAUME= (Baumé). See AREOMETER.

=Baume Nerval.= See OINTMENTS.

=BAUXITE.= A ferruginous aluminic hydrate containing 55·4 per cent. of
alumina and 44·5 of ferric oxide. It is met with in roundish masses in the
crystalline limestone of Baux (hence its name) near Arles, in France.
Bauxite is one of the sources of alum.

=BAY.= See SWEET BAY.

=BAY ESSENCE.= BAY RUM. This compound, which is largely employed as a
perfume in America, and is one of the articles of the United States’
Pharmacopœia, is, when genuine, imported from the West Indies, where it is
said to be prepared by distilling rum, with the leaves of the bayberry
tree. More than three fourths, however, of the bay rum consumed is
undoubtedly an imitation of the imported essence, and is a mechanical
mixture of the volatile oil of the bayberry tree, rum, and spirit;
sometimes with the addition of aromatic spices and various colouring
matters. The volatile oil from which this last preparation is made is
frequently adulterated to a large extent.

Mr Rother, an American chemist, states that in one sample alone he found
about fifty per cent. of fixed oil. The imported rum is far superior in
point of fragrance to the artificial. When mixed with water the genuine
essence remains clear, whilst the imitation almost always becomes turbid
or milky.

Mr Rother finds the following formula to yield a satisfactory product, and
one much stronger in aroma than the imported perfume:

  Oil of bayberry tree  1 fl. oz. and m_{l} xx.
  Jamaica rum           1 pint   }
  Strong alcohol        4 pints  } o.m.
  Water                 3 ”      }

Mix the rum, alcohol, and water, then add the oil; mix, and filter.

=Bay Rum.= One of the highly valued American head-washes, pleasant in use,
cooling and cleansing, and promoting the growth of the hair. It is
prepared by distilling rum from the leaves of _Myrica acris_ (called
“Bayberry” in America).

=BDEL′LIUM= (dĕl′-yŭm). The commercial name of two gum-resins:——

=Bdellium, Af′rican.= _Syn._ BDELLIUM, AFRICA′NUM, L. From the
_heudola′tia africa′na_ (Guillem.), a terebinthaceous tree, of Senegal.

=Bdellium, In′dian.= _Syn._ IN′DIAN MYRRH, FALSE M.; BDELLIUM (of
Scripture); BDELLIUM IN′DICUM, L. From _am′y̆̆ris commiph′ora_ (Roxb.), or
_balsamoden′dron Roxbur′gii_, a terebinthaceous tree of India.

_Prop., &c._ Once considered slightly deobstruent; sometimes used as a
pectoral and emmenagogue, and, externally, as a stimulant and suppurative.
It is now seldom met with in this country.

=BDELLOM′ETER= (dĕl-). _Syn._ MECHAN′ICAL LEECH; BDELLOM′ETRUM, L.;
BDELLOMÈTRE, Fr. In _surgery_, a contrivance combining the principle of
the cupping-glass, scarificator, and exhausting-syringe in one small
instrument.

=BEACH’S (Dr) Specific against Hemorrhoids and Stomach Complaints of all
kinds.= A tin box containing about 160 grammes of a fine sulphur-yellow
powder, and imbedded in it a vial with 40 grammes of a brown clear fluid.
The powder is a mixture of 7 parts of washed flowers of sulphur, 2-1/2
parts cream of tartar, 1/6 part of an inferior kind of rhubarb, finely
powdered. The drops consist of a solution of brown sugar in strong spirit,
with traces of various ethers. (Hager.)

=BEAD= (bēde). _Syn._ GLOB′ULUS, SPHÆR′ULA, &c., L.; GRAIN (de collier),
&c., Fr.; BETHE, PERLE, &c., Ger. A little ball or spheroid pierced for
stringing; any very small globular body‡; a bubble (‡ or tech.). A number
of the first mounted on a thread or ribbon form a ‘string of beads’ or
‘chaplet.’

_Materials, Manufac., &c._ Beads are often formed of coral, gems, jet,
pearls, porcelain, rock-crystal, &c.; but much more frequently of white
and coloured glass. The mode in which these last are produced is as
follows:——Glass tubes, appropriately ornamented by colour, reticulation,
&c., are drawn out in various sizes, and from 100 to 200 feet in length.
These tubes are cut into two-feet lengths, and then, by means of a steel
knife, divided into pieces having, as nearly as possible, the same length
as diameter. The resulting small fragments or cylinders are next well
stirred with a mixture of sand and wood ashes, in order to prevent the
closure of the perforations and their adhering together during the
subsequent part of the process. They are then placed in a revolving
cylinder and gradually heated until they become sufficiently spherical.
They are next sifted from the sand and ashes, sorted into sizes, first by
means of sieves, and afterwards by hand, and are lastly either put up in
weighed parcels or strung by women and children for the market.

The manufacture of coral, gems, jet, and minerals generally, into beads,
belongs to the lapidary.

_Uses._ Chiefly to form necklaces, bracelets, and other articles of
personal ornament; by milliners to decorate head-dresses, &c.; and for
other like purposes. They are also employed among Catholic and Mohammedan
nations for devotional purposes; and among savage tribes in lieu of money.
They are still sometimes worn as amulets. See BUGLE, CORAL, GLASS, PASTE,
PEARLS, &c.

=Beads, Jum′ble= (bēdz). The dried seeds of _a′brus precatōr′ius_ (Linn.)
or Jamaica wild liquorice. Hard and indigestible; accounted cephalic and
ophthalmic by the vulgar.

=Beads, Lo′vi’s.= _Syn._ SPECIF′IC-GRAV′ITY BEADS. Small hollow spheres of
glass carefully adjusted and numbered, in sets, intended to supersede the
hydrometer in determining the density of fluids. They are used by dropping
them into the liquid, in succession, until one is found that exhibits
indifference as to buoyancy, and will float under the surface at any point
at which it may be placed. The number on this ball indicates, in
thousandths, the sp. gr. sought. They are particularly serviceable in the
hurry of the commercial laboratory, and have the advantage of being
applicable to very small quantities of liquid; but their use, of course,
requires the same precautions, and the results obtained the same
corrections for deviations from the normal temperature, as with other
instruments. See HYDROMETER, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, &c.

=Bead.= _Syn._ BEAD′ING‡. In _architecture_, _cabinet-work_, &c., any
small moulding or continued projection of which the vertical section is
semicircular.

=Bead= (of Liquors). [Tech.] The small bright iridescent bubbles,
possessing some slight degree of permanence, which form on the surface of
alcoholic liquors of sufficient strength, when agitated. See
ALCOHOLOMETRY, PROOF, &c. (also _below_).

=BEAD′ING.= In the _liquor-trade_, anything added to commercial spirits to
cause them to carry a ‘bead’ and to hang in pearly drops about the sides
of the glass or bottle when poured out or shaken. The popular notion being
that spirit is strong in proportion as it ‘beads,’ the object is to impart
this property to weak spirit, so that it may appear to the eye to be of
the proper strength. Various formulæ are current among the ‘knowing ones’
of the trade, most of which are unscientific, and many of them absolutely
ineffective. The following are those now usually employed:——

_Prep._ 1. Oil of sweet almonds and oil of vitriol, of each 1 _oz._; rub
them together in a glass, porcelain, or wedgewood-ware mortar or basin,
adding, by degrees, of crushed lump-sugar, 1 _oz._; continue the
trituration until the mixture becomes pasty, then add, gradually,
sufficient rectified spirit (strongest) to render the whole perfectly
liquid; pour it into a quart bottle, and wash out the mortar twice, or
oftener, with a little fresh spirit, until about 1 pint of rectified
spirit has been employed, adding the washings each time to the bottle;
lastly, cautiously shake the bottle (loosely corked) until admixture
appears complete, and then set it aside in a cool place. For use, this
compound (after agitation) is thrown into a two-gallon can or measure,
which is then filled, from a tap, with the spirit to be ‘beaded,’ when the
whole is thrown into the cask, and the measure washed out by refilling it
and returning it two or three times; after which the contents of the cask
are well ‘rummaged up,’ Gin is usually ‘fined’ a few hours afterwards; but
it is better not to add the ‘finings’ for two or three days. Other spirits
are allowed to become ‘fine’ by simple repose. According to Mr Hartley,
and others, this quantity is “sufficient for 100 _galls._ of any spirit;”
but it is more commonly used for a puncheon of 80 to 85 gallons.

2. Oil of vitriol, 2 to 3 _oz._; rectified spirit, (strongest), 1 pint;
cautiously agitate them together in a loosely corked quart bottle; in 2 or
3 hours add another pint of rectified spirit, and again agitate. It will
be fit for use in a week; as before.

3. Sulphuric ether, 1/2 _lb._; strongest rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix.
May be used at once, as before; but if otherwise, should be kept, like the
last, closely corked, and in a cool place.

4. Soapwort-root (saponaria officinalis), bruised or rasped small, 1
_lb._; rectified spirit and water, of each 1/2 _gall._; macerate in a
corked jar, with occasional agitation, for 8 or 10 days, strain with
pressure, and, after a few days’ repose, decant the clear portion. Used as
before.

_Obs._ The above are not injurious when employed for ‘beading,’ since the
quantity employed is much too small to injure the wholesomeness of the
liquor. The fraud consists in their being used to disguise the presence of
10 to 12% of water, which is thus sold at the price of spirit. Beyond a
certain degree of dilution they fail, however, to produce the intended
effect, the bubbles becoming ‘soapy,’ and without the requisite
permanence. The addition of a little powdered white sugar (1/2 _oz._ to
1-1/2 _oz._ per _gall._) increases the efficacy of all of them. This may
be dissolved in the water, if any is added at the time; but its effect on
the hydrometer must be recollected. See ALCOHOLOMETRY, GIN, SPIRIT
(Management of), &c.

=BEAK′ER= (bēke′-). _Syn._ BEAK′ER-GLASS. In _chemistry_, a beaked cup or
glass, more or less of the tumbler-pattern, used to collect precipitates
and to heat liquids in.

[Illustration]

=BEAL*= (bēle). _Syn._ BOUTON, PUSTULE, Fr. A pimple or pustule; a small
inflamed tumour.

=BEAM= (bēme). See BALANCE, SCALES, &c.

=BEAM′-TREE.= _Syn._ WHITE BEAM-TREE. The ‘_pyrus aria_’ or wild pear.
Wood, hard, compact, and tough; used for axle-trees, naves and cogs of
wheels, &c.

=BEAN= (bēne). [Sax., Eng.] _Syn._ FA′BA, L.; FÈVE, Fr.; BOHNE, Ger. The
general name of leguminous seeds, as also of the plants which produce
them; appr., _fa′ba vulgār′is_ (Mönch.[122] _vĭcia faba_, Linn.) or common
GAR′DEN-BEAN, _phase′olus multiflōr′us_ (Willd.) or SCARLET-RUNN′ER,[123]
and _ph. vulgaris_ (Sav.), FRENCH BEAN, KID′NEY-B., or HAR′ICOT
(-ko),[124] with their varieties, all of which are annuals cultivated in
our gardens——the first chiefly for its seeds——the others both for their
green pods and ripe seed. The name is also often popularly applied, as an
appellative, to the fruit or seeds of other plants which, in size and
appearance, resemble common beans, as noticed below.

[Footnote 122: Var. β, HORSE′-BEAN (_fa′ba equi′na_, _f. mi′nor_, &c.,
L.)]

[Footnote 123: Var. α, _phase′olus coccin′eus_ (red-flowered); β, _ph.
albiflor′us_ (white flowered).]

[Footnote 124: Var. α, _ph. unic′olor_ (seeds of one colour);——β, _ph.
fascia′tus_ (seeds striped) or ZE′BRA-STRIPED BEAN;——γ, _ph. variega′tus_
or SPECK′LED BEAN:——δ, _ph. na′nus_ or DWARF′-BEAN.]

Those principally cultivated in our gardens are the small LIS′BON,
SAND′WICH, SPAN′ISH, TOKAY′, WIND′SOR, and MAZ′AGAN (from north Africa),
with almost innumerable sub-varieties of each. The exquisite perfume of
beans in blossom is referred to by the poet Thomson:——

      “Arabia cannot boast a sweeter gale.”

Preparations including their fragrant principle are highly prized in
modern perfumery.

_Qual., &c._ The pods eaten in the green state, properly dressed, are
regarded as antiscorbutic and wholesome; but are apt to produce
flatulence, unless combined with spices. In the dried or ripe state they
are rather difficult of digestion, and very apt to distend the stomach and
intestines with wind. This objection does not exist, to the same extent,
to their use in the form of flour or meal. The amount of nutritious
nitrogenous matter in beans rather exceeds that in wheat, and
independently of a disposition to produce constipation in some habits, and
being rather less easy of digestion, they must be considered nearly as
wholesome as that cereal. The London millers and bakers use immense
quantities of bean flour to adulterate their flour and bread.

This sophisticant may be detected by the appearance it presents under the
microscope. The meshes of cellulin are very much larger than those of the
fourth coat of wheat, with which it has been sometimes confounded, and the
starch grains present a totally different appearance. They are oval or
reniform, or with one end slightly larger; they have no well-defined hilum
or rings, but many have a deep central longitudinal cleft running in the
longer axis, and occupying two thirds or three fourths the length, but
never reaching completely to the end; this cleft is sometimes a line,
sometimes a chasm, and occasionally secondary clefts abut upon it at
parts of its course; sometimes, instead of a cleft, there is an
irregular-shaped depression. If a little liquor potassæ be added the
cellulin is seen more clearly. If the flour be added to a little boiling
water, the smell of bean becomes evident.

[Illustration]

Green beans (pods or legumes) are cooked by simply throwing them into
boiling water, and simmering them until quite tender, taking the
precaution of removing the lid of the saucepan, a ‘pinch’ of salt of
tartar, or a little common salt, being usually added to preserve their
green colour. Young and small ones take from 12 to 18 minutes——large or
older ones longer. The first are merely ‘topped and tailed’ with a knife
before being dressed; the others require also the ‘side strings’ to be
drawn off, and to be cut obliquely into pieces of a lozenge form, or else
to be split lengthwise into strips, and then divided once across. Old ones
never boil tender. Windsor beans, and other “shelled beans,” take 15 to 30
minutes according to age. These last are sometimes skinned after being
dressed. All of them are commonly ‘served up,’ or eaten, with melted
butter. Beans, although rich in nitrogenous, are deficient in carbonaceous
constituents; hence it is curious to note how almost invariably they are
when eaten combined with some substance rich in carbon. The Hindoo, for
instance, mixes lentils with rice and ghee or a form of clarified butter.
In Yucatan and throughout the whole of central Africa, where a black bean
is extensively used as food, they are well boiled in water, and eaten with
pepper, salt, and pork. In this country, beans and bacon always appear at
table together, and have done so for centuries. See LEGUMINOSÆ, PULSE, &c.
(also _below_).

=Bean, Algaro′ba.= See ALGAROBA.

=Bean, Earth.= American earth-nut.

=Bean, French=; Horse-bean; Kidney-bean; &c. See BEAN (_antè_).

_Composition._ (Einhof.)

  |---------------------------------------------|
  |                          | Kidney |  Field  |
  |                          | beans. |  beans. |
  |--------------------------|--------|---------|
  | Water                    |  23·0  |  15·6   |
  | Albumenoid bodies        |  23·6  |  11·7   |
  | Starch, sugar, gum, &c.  |  44·7  |  58·3   |
  | Oil and fat              |   0·7  |   2·    |
  | Husk                     |   7·0  |  10·0   |
  | Salts (ash)              |   1·0  |   4·4   |
  |--------------------------|--------|---------|
  |                          | 100·   | 100·    |
  |---------------------------------------------|

=Bean, St. Ignatius’s.= The poisonous seed of the fruit of _Igna′tia
amār′a_, Linn.; _stry̆̆ch′nos Igna′tii_, Berg.; a tree indigenous to the
Philippine Islands.——_Prop., Uses, &c._ Similar to those of nux vomica.
Contains Strychnine (which _see_).

=BEAR= (bare). _Syn._ UR′SUS, L.; OURS, Fr.; BÄR, Ger.; BERA, Sax. In
_zoology_, a Cuvierian genus of the ‘plantigrade carnivora,’ of several
species, found both in the Old and New World. Those generally known under
the name are omnivorous or frugivorous. The skin of the American black
bear (_ursus America′nus_, Pallas) was formerly highly prized, and fetched
an extravagant price. The brown bear (_u. arc′tos_, Linn.) supplies the
Kamschatkans, and some other northern races, with many of the necessaries,
and even the comforts of life. The fat or grease (BEAR’S GREASE; AD′EPS
UR′SI, L.) of all the common species has long been highly esteemed for
promoting the growth of the human hair; but apparently without sufficient
reason. The mass of that sold under the name in England is simply hog’s
lard or veal fat, or a mixture of them, variously scented and slightly
coloured. The quantity annually consumed in Great Britain, and exported,
is estimated at many tons; being a larger quantity than all the bears at
present procurable in Europe would supply, if slaughtered and stripped of
their fat.

=BEAR′BERRY, Bear’s Bil′berry=, &c. See UVA URSI.

=BEAR’S GREASE.= See BEAR (_above_), HAIR COSMETICS, MARROW, POMADES, &c.

=BEARD= (bēerd). [Sax., Eng.] _Syn._ BAR′BA, L.; BARBE, Fr.; BART, Ger.,
Dan.; BAARD, Dut. The hair of the lips and chin; but appr., only the
last——that on each lip being distinguished, in toilet-nomenclature, by a
separate name. In popular _botany_ and _zoology_, any beard-like
appendage; the ‘awn’ of corn or grass; the ‘gills’ or breathing organs of
oysters and other bivalves, &c.

=Beard-cultivating Pomade, Royer’s= (Royer & Co., Berlin). An ointment of
1 part pulv. cinchon. rub., and 1-1/2 parts of a hair pomade containing
wax. (Hager.)

=Beard-cultivating Tincture= (Bergmann, Rochlitz). A spirituous extract of
some agreeable bark, mixed with a little oil of rosemary and thyme.
(Wittstein.)

=Beard-cultivating Tincture, Royer’s= (Royer, Berlin). 10 grammes kitchen
salt, 150 grammes French brandy, fictitious and fuselly, and 2 grammes
tincture of mace. (Schädler.)

=Beard Tincture, American= (Teinture americaine pour la barbe), for dyeing
the beard black. Three fluids. No. 1, nitrate of silver solution; No. 2,
tincture of galls; No. 3, sodium sulphide solution.

=BEARD′ED.= _Syn._ BARBA′TUS, L.; BARBU, Fr.; BARTIG, Ger. In _anatomy_,
_botany_, and _zoology_, having a beard, or a beard-like appendage;
prickly, barbed, jagged; awned.

=BEA′VER=, (bē′-) _Syn._ CAS′TOR, L.; CASTOR, BIÈVRE, Fr.; BIBER, Ger. The
_fi′ber cas′tor_ (Linn.), an animal belonging to the _rodentia_ of Cuvier,
and remarkable for the great ingenuity which it exercises in the
construction of its lodges or habitations. _Hab._ Europe and America.
Those of the former are burrowers; those of the latter, builders. The fur
has long been employed in the manufacture of the best quality of hats
(BEAVER HATS). The fat was officinal in the Ph. L. 1618. Castor
(CASTO′′REUM) is obtained from this animal.

=BE′BEERINE= (bēbe′-ĕr-in‡). C_{19}H_{21}NO_{3}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._
BI′BIRINE (bē′-bĕr-ĭn); BEBEERI′NA, BIBIRI′NA, &c., L. A peculiar
alkaloid, discovered by Dr Rodie, in the bark and seeds of the beeberu,
bibiri, or green-heart tree (_nectan′dra Rodiæ′i_, Schomb.), of British
Guiana; and since minutely examined by Maclagan and Tilley, and by Von
Planta.

_Prep._ 1. That of commerce, which generally contains some sipirine (——?
altered bebeerine), and a little lime, is generally first obtained in the
form of sulphate, by a process analogous to that employed in the
preparation of sulphate of quinine; and from this salt it is precipitated
by the addition of ammonia or an alkali.

2. (Pure.) By precipitating the sulphate with ammonia, washing the
precipitate with very cold water, and triturating it, whilst still moist,
with fresh hydrated oxide of lead; next drying the mixture by a gentle
heat, exhausting the residuum with alcohol, distilling off the alcohol,
and treating the last residuum with ether; the ethereal solution on
evaporation leaves pure bebeerine, under the form of a white or
yellowish-white, resinous-looking substance, which is pure white when
powdered.

_Prop., &c._ Amorphous; uncrystallisable; non-volatile; bitter-tasted;
inodorous; unalterable in the air; very slightly soluble in water; very
soluble in alcohol; less so in ether; reaction alkaline; when quite pure,
melts at 355° Fahr., and on cooling forms a vitreous or semi-vitreous mass
(Winckler); at a higher temperature it suffers decomposition; ignited on
platinum-foil, it burns without leaving any carbonaceous residue;
neutralises acids forming uncrystallisable salts, most of which are
soluble in water.——_Prod._ From the bark, 1·5 to 1·75%; dried seed, 2·5%
(nearly).

_Use, &c._ Bebeeru-bark has been proposed and occasionally employed as a
substitute for cinchona bark, and bebeerine for quinine, in the usual
cases; but whether as a tonic, febrifuge, or antiperiodic, they appear
less powerful and certain than these last.——_Dose_, 2 to 12 gr. or more.
(See _below_.)

=Sul′phates of Bebeerine.= Of these there are two, both of which are
obtained in a similar manner to the Ph. E. formula for sulphate of
quinine, and merely differ in the amount of acid finally left in
combination with the alkali:——

1. =Sulphate.= _Syn._ NEU′TRAL SULPHATE OF BEBEERINE; BIBIRI′NÆ SUL′PHAS,
&c., L. Easily soluble in water. Contains 86·4% of bebeerine, and 13·6% of
sulphuric acid.

2. =Subsul′phate.= _Syn._ BAS′IC SULPHATE OF BEBEERINE, DISUL′PHATE OF B.;
BIBERI′NÆ SUBSUL′PHAS, &c., L. Soluble in alcohol; sparingly soluble in
water unless acidulated. Contains 90·8% of bebeerine, and 9·2% of
sulphuric acid. This is the sulphate of bebeerine of commerce, and the one
usually employed in medicine. It is generally met with in thin
brownish-yellow scales, which are formed in a similar manner to those of
ammonio-citrate of iron.——_Dose._ As a tonic, 1 to 3 gr.; as a febrifuge
or antiperiodic, 5 to 20 gr.; in similar cases to those in which
disulphate of quinine is employed.

=BECH′AMEL= (bĕsh′-ă-mĕl‡[125]). _Syn._ BÉCHAMEL, Fr. In _French cookery_,
a fine white sauce, essentially consisting of concentrated veal gravy or
veal consommé and cream, with or without flavouring. See SAUCES.

[Footnote 125: Thus as English.]

=BE′CHIC*= (-kĭk). _Syn._ BE′CHOUS†; BE′CHICUS (bĕk′-‡), L.; BÉCHIQUE,
Fr.; HUSTEND, &c., Ger. In _medicine_, &c., of or for a cough; pectoral;
also subst., applied to remedies (BE′CHICS; BE′CHICA, L.) used to relieve
cough.

=BED.= [Eng., D., Sax.] _Syn._ LIT, COUCHE, Fr.; BETT, &c., Ger.; CUBI′LE,
LEC′TUS, LEC′TULUS, GRABA′TUS, &c., L. A couch; that in or on which we
sleep; that on which anything is generated, deposited, or rests.

Bed curtains and valances are both unnecessary and objectionable as bed
appendages, and as such should be discarded. Before making the bed in the
morning the blankets and sheets should be stripped off and allowed to
remain for an hour or two in a current of air, on the back of a chair or
some other convenient support. If it does not rain, or is not too damp,
they are best placed near the window. The night dress which has been slept
in should be exposed in the same manner; and on going to bed it would be
found a good plan, when removing the inner vest which has been worn
during the day, to turn it inside out, and to hang it over the footboard
of the bed. Under ordinary conditions the sheets should be changed every
week. When it is remembered that on an average a third of a human being’s
existence may be said to be passed in bed, the importance of his dormitory
being kept scrupulously clean will be self evident. Every bedroom should
therefore be well swept out each day, and the floor diligently scrubbed
once a week. With the exception of a small strip beside the bed, the room
should contain no carpet; a piece of New Zealand matting, being less able
to retain dust, is preferable to carpeting. The door and windows of the
bed-chamber should be kept more or less open during the day, so as to
ensure a thorough draught of air through the room, and all slops and
contents of chamber utensils should be immediately removed. No plants
should be allowed in the bedroom.

There is no better form of mattress than one made of horsehair, both for
children and adults. The pillows should also be made of the same material.
Both pillows and mattress should be taken to pieces once a year, and their
contents well ventilated by exposure to the air. When a child is ricketty,
weak in the neck, inclined to stoop, or at all crooked, a pillow is best
dispensed with. Cotton sheets have two advantages over linen ones——they
are more absorbent, and feel less cold. In cases of sickness the
comfortable construction of the patient’s bed, as well as the adoption of
such means as shall ensure as much as possible its efficient ventilation,
are matters of primary import. Hence because it permits of a more thorough
circulation of air than any other kind, the horsehair mattress calls even
more imperatively for adoption than in health. It may be placed upon the
feather or wool bed, and should it be found too rough, or causing any
discomfort, one or two blankets may be placed over it. The straw palliass
should at the same time be removed. Both sheets and pillow cases should be
frequently changed, more especially in fevers. If the patient perspire
very profusely, fresh sheets and pillow cases should be supplied every
twenty-four hours. If soiled by evacuation of any kind, it is most
important that they should be changed at once, and so with the night
dress. In all cases of eruptive and other fevers, and contagious diseases,
all articles of wearing apparel (underclothing, as well as sheets, pillow
cases, handkerchiefs, &c.) should when removed be placed in a vessel and
covered with water.

In the articles on “air” and “vitiated air” the evil effects of
ill-ventilated dormitories have been adverted to. Every bedroom should if
possible contain an enclosed fireplace having free access to the chimney.
Failing this a series of little holes about the size of a shilling should
be bored in the lower part of the door, and the upper sash of the window
should be opened to the extent of two or three inches.

[On the connection of BEDS and BEDDING with comfort and health, see
COTTON, DAMP, FEATHERS, LINEN, SLEEP, VENTILATION, VERMIN, &c.; also
_below_.]

[Illustration: 1.]

[Illustration: 2. (Opened.)]

[Illustration: 3. (Closed.)]

=Bed, Air.= Beds, pillows, cushions, &c., when properly constructed and
inflated with air, are clean, luxurious, and healthy substitutes for those
in common use. For this purpose the air-proof part should be formed of
separate cells or tubes, arranged in ridges (see _engr._), or in any
similar manner to admit of free ventilation; and in the case of beds, or
of cushions for the sick, two or three folds of flannel, or blanket, or of
any loose porous fabric, should be placed between them and the under sheet
or the person of the sleeper or patient. Without this precaution,
discomfort and restlessness, excessive warmth and perspiration and even
bed-sores, are apt to follow their use by invalids, when badly
constructed. To obviate these objections to articles of this class
commonly sold, a new one has been produced under the name of the
‘INCOM′PARABLE BED’ (Aycbourn’s Patent), which is thoroughly applicable to
all purposes——domestic, medical, naval, or _military_——and superior to any
feather, flock, or spring bed, however good or carefully made up. This bed
consists of an outer case made of ordinary bed-ticking divided internally
into numerous separate cells, into each of which is placed a suitably
constructed bag, which may be either wholly or partially filled with air
or water; the latter either hot or cold. (See _engr._ 2, 3.) It is
incapable of bursting, and is very agreeable to lie on. It retains its
shape, saves the time, trouble, and wear and tear ordinarily bestowed or
produced by servants in daily tossing about one of down or feathers, is
easily washed and kept clean, allows all the ventilation essential to
health, and is so portable that it may be easily packed in a carpet-bag.
In almost an instant it may be converted into six, or more, separate
life-preservers; and what is equally important it will stand any climate.
Hitherto the use of air-beds and water-beds has been almost exclusively
confined to the upper and wealthy classes, and to hospital practice; but
the moderate prices[126] at which Aycbourn’s beds, cushions, &c.,
are sold, place these luxuries, and in many cases——absolute
necessities——within the reach of the masses of the people.

[Footnote 126: These are less than those of feather beds of corresponding
dimensions.]

=Bed, Water.= Water-beds, cushions, &c., are chiefly employed for patients
labouring under bed-sores, paralysis, spinal affections, &c., or who are
the subjects of active surgical treatment in which equable support for the
body or a limb is absolutely necessary. Their construction and use are
similar to those previously noticed, except that, instead of being
inflated with air, they are filled with water, either warm or tepid. For
the bedridden, and for long-continued use generally, they are much
inferior to air-beds. See AIR-BED (_above_).

=Bed.= _Syn._ STRA′TUM, L.; STRATE, &c., Fr.; SCHICHT, &c., Ger. In
_geology_, a mineral layer, seam, or stratum, thick or thin.

=Bed.= In _horticulture_, a small plot of land, usually raised a little
above the general surface, in which flowers, or other plants, are raised
or grown.

=BEDDING, PURIFICATION OF.= To be efficiently disinfected, bedding must be
taken to pieces and subjected to dry heat. This last condition can only be
satisfactorily carried out in large ovens or disinfecting chambers. Any
local authority may provide a proper place and necessary appliances for
the disinfection of bedding. Any local authority may direct the detention
of bedding, clothing, &c., which have been exposed to infection, and may
give compensation for the same.

Any person giving, lending, selling, transmitting or exposing bedding,
clothing, rags, &c., which have been exposed to infection, is liable to a
penalty not exceeding £5.

=Bedding or Litter.= The following is from Col. Fitzwygram’s useful work,
‘Horses and Stables,’ “One great item in a horse’s comfort, and
consequently in his aptitude to carry flesh, is a good bed. Every horse
should be bedded down at mid-day. As regards economy of straw, it is
essential not to give the horse a chance of eating it. With this view no
fresh straw should be placed within his reach. The fresh straw should be
brought in first, and put not merely at the bottom, but also in rear of
the stall; then the old litter should be brought in and put at the top and
in front. The horse will not readily eat at, and by the following morning
the new straw will have become somewhat tainted, and may then be mixed and
dried along with the rest. Again, great care should be taken in the
morning to thoroughly shake up and cleanse the bedding from dung; and any
parts which may have become rotten should be thrown out. Good straw
rapidly deteriorates if these precautions are not taken. On the other hand
careless servants often throw away along with the bad parts much good
bedding which might be dried and used again. Bedding should be taken up,
and turned over at least twice in each forenoon, so as to expose every
part to the drying and purifying influence of the sun and air. It is,
however, a mistake to expose it over-much to the action of a very hot sun,
as it makes it too dry and brittle.” See HORSE.

=BED′EGUAR= (-e-gahr). _Syn._ BÉDÉGUAR (or GAR, Fr. Sweet-briar sponge
(which _see_).

=BEE= (bē). _Syn._ HIVE-BEE, HON′EY-B. (hŭn′-), DOMES′TIC B.; A′PIS, L.;
ABEILLE, A. MELLIFIQUE, &c., Fr.; BIENE, HONIGBIENE, &c. Ger. The _a′-pis
mellif′ica_ (Linn.; Ph. L., E., & D.), one of the hymenop′tera best known
and most useful to man. [Those desirous of studying the habits and economy
of bees are referred to the works of Huber and Latreille; and for their
management to Mr Cobbett’s little book on the subject.] See APIS, HIVE,
HONEY, WAX, &c.

=BEE′-BREAD.= The pollen of flowers collected by bees as food for their
young.

=BEE′-GLUE=, _Syn._ PROP′OLIS, L., Fr. The resinous matter with which bees
cement the combs to the hives, and close up and repair the cells.

=BEECH= (bēche). _Syn._ BEECH′-TREE; FA′GUS, L; HÉTRE, H. COMMUN, Fr.;
BUCHE, GEMEINE B., Ger. The _fa′gus sylvat′ica_ (Linn.), a magnificent
English forest-tree, of the nat. ord. Amentaceæ (DC.). Fruit (BEECH′-MAST,
B.-NUTS), used to feed swine, and, sometimes, in obstinate headaches, and
in gravel complaints; yields oil by expression; inner bark occasionally
used in hectic fevers. Wood (BEECH, B.-WOOD), handsome and very hard, but
brittle and perishable, and particularly liable to become worm-eaten; its
durability is increased by steeping it, when fresh-hewn, for some time in
water; chiefly used by cabinet-makers, coach-builders, millwrights, and
turners; and, sometimes, by coopers; also burnt for charcoal.

=BEEF= (bēfe). _Syn._ CHAIRE DE BŒUF, DU BŒUF, Fr.; RINDFLEISCH, &c.,
Ger.; BU′BULA, CA′′RO BO′VIS, &c., L. The flesh of bovine animals,
generally; but ordinarily only that of the domestic ox, cow, or bull.

_Qual._ Good beef is highly wholesome and nutritious; and is well adapted
to persons of good appetite, or that labour or take much exercise. For the
delicate, especially those suffering from debility, partial anæmia,
amenorrhœa, and similar ailments, it is, perhaps, superior to every other
kind of animal food. If cooked so as to be left full of gravy, it sits
lightly on the stomach, and its fat proves even more digestible than that
of either veal or mutton.

It has been proved that under-done beef is one of the causes of tapeworm.

_Choice._ OX-BEEF is known by having a fine smooth, open grain, a lively
and agreeable red colour, and a tender texture, with the fat of a pleasing
pale whitish-yellow or but slightly yellow, and the suet white and hard.
When fine and well fed, the flesh is inter-grained or marbled with
fat.——COW-BEEF has a closer grain than ox-beef, and the lean is of a
deeper red.——BULL-BEEF is closer still, the fat dark, hard, and skinny,
the lean of a deep coarse red, and it has a strong smell and
flavour.——HEIFER BEEF resembles ox-beef, except in being smaller, often an
advantage; but it lacks the rich flavour of the flesh of full-grown oxen.

_Joints, Managem., &c._ Beef is CURED, SALTED, and DRESSED, in all the
ways common to the other meats; the only care necessary being in the
selection of the appropriate joint or part. The ribs, sirloin, rump, and
veiny piece are the proper joints for ROASTING or BAKING. The buttock or
round, edge-bone, second round or mouse-buttock, brisket, flank, shoulder
or leg-of-mutton piece, and the clod, those generally BOILED, STEWED, or
SALTED. The choicest STEAKS are cut from the middle of the rump; the next
best from the veiny piece, or from the chuck-rib. In summer, excellent
ones may also be cut from the shoulder. In France, steaks cut from the
sirloin (without bone) are preferred to all others, and are exceedingly
delicate and tender. The neck may be either stewed or boiled, and is much
used to make soup and gravy. In the country, the round, when fine, and
well hung, is also often roasted or baked.

According to Miss Acton, “the finest part of the sirloin is the chump-end,
which contains the larger portion of the fillet; of the ribs, the middle
ones.”

Beef is in season during the whole year, but is finest——when it is most
relished——during the winter months, when, owing to the temperature of the
air, it may be ‘hung’ a long time, and thus increased in tenderness and
flavour. See OX, BAKING, BOILING, ESSENCES, ROASTING, SALTING, TEA, &c.
(also _below_).

=Beef, Alamode′.= _Syn._ BŒUF À LA MODE, Fr. The true ‘beef à la mode’ is
made as follows; and is not a mere kind of rich stew, such as is daily
sold under the name in the ‘cook-shops’ of London:——

1. (M. Alexis Soyer.) Rump, sirloin, or rib of beef (about) 12 _lbs._;
lard it through with 10 or 12 long pieces of fat bacon; put it into an
earthen pan with a calf’s foot, 4 onions, 2 carrots (sliced), a bunch of
parsley, 2 bay leaves, 2 sprigs of thyme, 2 cloves, 1/2 teaspoonful of
pepper, 1 do. of salt, 4 wine-glassfuls of sherry, 4 do. of water, and 1
_lb._ of streaky bacon (cut into small squares); place on the cover, make
it air-tight round the edges with a little flour-paste, and expose it in a
moderate oven for about 4 hours. Dish up with the vegetables and bacon
placed tastefully round it, the gravy (skimmed) being poured over all. Or
it may be eaten cold, in which case the pan should not be opened until the
whole has thoroughly cooled.

2. (Mrs Rundell.) Rump of beef (or any part of the beef which will stew
well), 3 or 4 _lbs._; trim it, and cut off the fat; add several sorts
(according to taste) of sweet herbs chopped very fine, a little shalot,
and a great deal of spice (cayenne, white pepper, allspice, cloves, and
mace; or mixed spices), and put them, with vinegar, into a saucer that has
been rubbed with garlic; add fat bacon cut into long slips; lard the beef
regularly on both sides, and rub it over with the herbs and spices; next
flour it, and add a small piece of butter, and a pint of water; bake it in
an oven until thoroughly ‘done,’ then strain the gravy, and serve it up
with pickles on the top. Excellent either hot or cold.

_Obs._ Miss Acton——a high authority in these matters——tells us, that 7 or
8 _lbs._ of beef, thus treated, takes 4 to 5 hours to dress it properly;
and that if a stew-pan be used, it should be as nearly the size of the
meat as possible, the whole being allowed to simmer very gently, and the
meat turned when half done. She also states that “veal dressed in this way
is even better than beef;” but, of course, it takes less time in cooking.

=Beef, Col′lared.= _Prep._ 1. (Miss Acton.) The piece of beef is rubbed
with a little coarse sugar, and set aside for two or three days; it is
then slightly salted (about 1 _oz._ of salt, containing a little
saltpetre, to each _lb._ of meat); and allowed to rest 8 to 10 days; the
bones and tougher skin are next removed, and the under side is sprinkled
thickly with parsley and other savoury herbs (shred small), after which it
is very tightly rolled up, secured with a cloth, and bound as closely as
possible with broad tape. A piece of 8 _lbs._ will require about 5 hours’
gentle boiling, and should be placed, in the same state, whilst still hot,
under a heavy weight, or in a press, for a few hours. The ribs, or
(better) the thinnest part of the flank, is generally selected. The last
should be ‘hung’ in a damp place for a day or two before curing it.

2. (Mrs Rundell.) From stewed shin of beef and ox-tail, re-stewed with a
glassful each of wine and ketchup, and some of the old broth, and then
poured into moulds. Sweet herbs, sliced eggs, and pickles, may be added at
will.

=Beef, Dutch, Hung Beef.= The round, rump, veiny-piece, or thick flank,
cured, for 10 or 12 days, with dry salt to which a little saltpetre and
some sugar and black pepper has been added; and afterwards ‘hung’ for use.
It eats well if boiled tender with greens or carrots. If to be grated or
shred, as Dutch, and eaten as a relish on bread and butter, then cut a
lean bit, boil it till extremely tender, and while hot put it under a
press. When cold, fold it in a sheet of paper, and hang it in a very dry
place. It will then keep two or three months.

=Beef, Pott′ed.= See POTTED MEATS, &c.

=Beef, Spiced= (spīst’). Salted beef when spices (usually black pepper and
allspice) have been added to the salt, &c., used in curing it. See BEEF,
COLLARED (_above_).

=Beef Tea.= An extract manufactured at Berlin, which contains the
nutritive matter of the flesh in the highest state of potency. A pale
blood-red(!) jelly, which will not keep long, and after a time passes into
a state of odorous putrefaction. (A. Buchner.)

=BEER= (bēre). _Syn._ BIÈRE, Fr.; BIER, D., Ger.; BIRRA, It.; CEREVI′′SIA
(-vĭzh′-’ă), CERVI′′SIA (Pliny), C. LUPULA′TA* (_i.e._ hopp′d or modern
b.), VI′NUM ANGLIC′ANUM*, V. HORDEA′CEUM* (-sh′ŭm), ZY′THUM* (or -THUS*;
ζὑθος, Gr.), &c., L.; BERE, BEERE, Sax.; BIR, W. An aqueous infusion of
malted grain which, after being boiled with hops, has undergone the vinous
fermentation; malt-liquor. The word BEER is now the common generic term
for all fermented malt-liquors, and, indeed, for all other beverages
prepared by a process of brewing. Whenever the term is used in a special
sense, it is with a descriptive prefix, as, for example, spruce beer,
ginger beer, &c.

_Hist._ Ale and wine are fabled to have been invented by Bacchus; the
former, in Egypt, where the soil and climate would not permit of the
cultivation of the grape. Herodotus ascribes the origin of the art of
brewing to Isis, the wife of Osiris, and notices zythum ζὑθος, a beer
obtained from barley. Malt-liquor was undoubtedly employed as a beverage
in the fifth century before Christ; and, probably, very much earlier.
Xenophon distinctly alludes to it in his famous retreat (B.C. 401).
Aristotle speaks of ‘beer drunkenness,’ and Theophrastus calls it
‘barley-wine.’ The Romans learned the art of brewing from the Egyptians,
and gave the liquor thus made the appropriate name of cerevisia (quasi
Cererisia), from its being the product of corn, the gift of Ceres. The
most celebrated beer of ancient times was the _Pelus′ian pota′tion_, so
named after a town at the mouth of the Nile where beer was prepared in
great perfection. The use of beer was likewise known to the ancient Gauls
and Germans, and probably also to most other ancient nations inhabiting
the temperate zone. Pliny says “Zythum is made in Egypt, _ce′lia_ and
_ce′′ria_ in Spain, and many other sorts (of beer) in Gaul.” In our own
country, ale was early known and valued as a beverage. The art of its
preparation appears to have been obtained either from the Romans or the
Saxons. According to Verstegan, “This excellent and healthsome liquor,
beere, anciently called ale, as of the Danes it yet is, was of the Germans
invented and brought into use.” Alehouses are mentioned in the laws of
Ina, king of Wessex (A.D. 680). Alebooths were regulated by law, A.D. 728.
By the beginning of the 13th century ale was drunk generally in England.
By a statute of James III, of Scotland, it was made a capital offence to
mix wine with beer (A.D. 1482). In 1492, a licence was granted to a brewer
at Greenwich to export 50 tons of that “ale” called “beer” or “bere;” the
distinction between the two apparently being, that the latter was
flavoured with wormwood or other bitters; whereas ale was not. Ale was
originally made from barley-malt and yeast alone, and those who put in
anything else were held to sophisticate the liquor. Hops were introduced
A.D. 1524; and to this date modern, or hopp′d beer, may be traced.

By statute of James I the “ale” called “bere” was taxed, and “one quart
of the best thereof” ordered to be sold for a penny (A.D. 1610). Alehouses
were first licensed in 1621, and during the reign of Charles II were,
together with all malt-liquor, placed under the control of the Excise
(A.D. 1660). By the Statutes 1 & 4 Will. IV (1834), previous enactments
respecting malt liquors and their sale were reduced to their present form.
Beer is now the common beverage in all European countries where the vine
is not a subject of rustic husbandry.

_Qual._ Pure malt-liquor which has undergone sufficient fermentation is
perhaps, when taken in moderation, one of the most wholesome beverages
that can be drunk. Ale is the most nutritious variety, and, when
moderately mature, is the one best adapted to the debilitated and
delicate; but good porter, owing to being less rich in extractive and
gummy matter, and from being slightly astringent from high-dried or
scorched malt being used in its preparation, occasionally agrees better
with bilious constitutions and the dyspeptic. Much, however, depends on
acquired taste and habit. The most wholesome, and perhaps the least
exceptionable beverages obtained from malt, are those known as East-India,
Scotch, and Bavarian ales, when honestly prepared and not highly
‘bittered’ with the hop, as is, unfortunately, now so general. A late
writer has described good beer as nutritious, from the sugar and mucilage
which it contains; exhilarating, from its spirit; and strengthening and
narcotic, from its hops. Pereira says, “Beer is a thirst-quenching,
refreshing, intoxicating, and slightly nutritious beverage.” Its effects,
when taken injudiciously, or in excess, for the most part resemble those
of other intoxicating liquors——disease, misery, and crime; and these in
direct proportion as it deviates from the true standard of purity and
excellence.

All medical authorities agree in discountenancing the use of beer for
infants and children. Water or milk with the child’s meals are the best
beverages for them.

_Var._ The numerous varieties of malt liquor met with in commerce may be
resolved into two great classes——ALE and PORTER. ALE of all kinds is
brewed chiefly from pale malt, and is generally of a light amber colour.
PALE ALE is manufactured from the finest and lightest dried malt, and the
choicest hops, the latter in excess. MILD ALE differs from pale ale in
being sweeter, stronger, and almost free from the flavour of the hop.
BITTER ALE or BITTER BEER has, as a rule, less body than pale ale, and is
more highly hopped. TABLE BEER is a weak liquor commonly containing three
or four times the proportion of water usually present in ordinary beer or
ale. PORTER differs from ale chiefly in its being artificially coloured by
the use of roasted malt, which also imparts to it a peculiar bitter
flavour. In point of strength it stands about midway between light and
strong ales, although frequently brewed of a strength very slightly above
that of table beer. STOUT, BROWN STOUT, &c., are simply richer or stronger
descriptions of porter, and may be said to have nearly the same relation
to the higher qualities of mild ale that porter holds with regard to pale
ale or bitter beer. In London, PORTER is called BEER; and, indeed, in all
parts of the kingdom, the prevailing beverage of this kind consumed by the
masses, of whatever class, commonly goes by the name of beer.

The two great classes of malt liquor above referred to, are, independently
of mere differences of strength, excellence, and commercial value,
practically subdivided into an almost infinite number of varieties. Every
county, every town, and almost every brewer, is distinguished by the
production of a different-flavoured beer, readily perceived, and highly
appreciated by their respective votaries. These differences may be traced
to——variations in the quantity and quality of the materials employed in
their manufacture——the temperature of the water used for mashing——the
duration of the boiling——the temperature at which the fermentation is
conducted, and the extent to which it is carried, together with numerous
other circumstances, which, though usually of an accidental and uncertain
character, are nevertheless sufficient to affect the flavour and quality
of a brewing. Among these, those depending on the condition of the
building, the locality, the apparatus, the water, the management, &c., are
not the least important. In general, however, when the same quantity and
quality of materials are employed, and the same time allowed for the
maturation of the liquor, the chief causes of this diversity will be found
to depend on the water used in the brewing, and the method followed in the
preparation of the malt. Thus, Bavarian, Scotch, and Burton ales differ in
style from other ales chiefly from being fermented at a lower temperature,
and from the water employed in the brewing being that usually denominated
‘hard,’ whilst porter and stout differ from all these because they are
brewed from a mixture of pale and roasted malt. It is from causes like
these, though apparently trivial, that the many varieties of malt liquor
met with, at the present day, originate.

The per-centage in English beers of malt extract (dextrin and sugar
glucose) is least in bitter, and highest in the sweet ales. The hop
extract (lupulin and hop resin) is in much smaller amount.

The alcohol varies considerably, as does also the free acidity.

The albuminous matter in most beers does not average more than 0·5 per
cent.

The salts, which consist of alkaline chlorides and phosphates, and some
earthy phosphates, average 0·1 to 0·2 per cent. Ammoniacal salts are found
in small quantities. Caramel and assamar are found in the dark beers and
porters. Carbonic acid is always more or less present. The average is 0·1
to 0·2 parts by weight per cent., or about 1-3/4 cubic inches per ounce.
Volatile and essential oils are also present.

PARKES says, “Adopting means numbers; one pint (20 oz.) of beer will
contain——

  Alcohol                1  ounce.
  Extractive (dextrin),
      sugar, &c.         1·2 ”  (534 grains).
  Free acid             25  grains.
  Salts                 13    ”

The following beer analyses are given by Professor WANKLYN:

Bass’s bottled bitter ale contains in 100 cubic centimètres:

  5·3   grams of alcohol.
  5·52   ”  organic residue.
  0·36   ”  ash.

A sample of draught ale, costing 2d. per pint in London, contained in 100
cubic centimètres:

  4·7  grams of alcohol.
  5·8   ”  organic residue.
  0·32  ”  ash.

A sample of London porter in 100 cubic centimètres contained:

  3·3  grams of alcohol.
  3·45   ”  organic residue.
  0·30   ”  ash.

“A large number of analyses recently made show that in the various classes
of malt liquor sold in London there is a variation in the amount of
alcohol contents from 3·87 to 8·41 per cent. of absolute alcohol by
weight, these two extremes corresponding to ·98 and 2·18 fluid ounces of
absolute alcohol in the pint of beer. The amount of extract varies from
2·16 to 13·32 per cent. by weight, or from ·73 to 2·77 ounces per pint of
beer, as will be seen from the accompanying table.

  ----------------------+---------+----------------------+---------+-------+------------------------
                        |         |   Per-centage of     |         |       |  Con. vols., per pint.
                        |         |----------------------|Original |Malt,  |------------------------
   Kind of Malt Liquor. | Specific|Alcohol|Extract|Acetic|Gravity  |per    |Alcohol,|Extract|Acid,
                        | Gravity.|       |       |Acid. |of Wort. |barrel.|fl. oz. |ounces.|grains.
  ----------------------+---------+-------+-------+------+---------+-------+--------+-------+-------
  Burton ale (Allsopp’s)| 1040·38 | 8·25  | 13·32 | ·32  | 1121·63 | 4·50  |  2·16  |  2·77 | 29·12
  Bass’s barley wine    | 1032·31 | 8·41  | 11·75 | ·23  | 1114·78 | 4·25  |  2·18  |  2·42 | 20·77
  Edinburgh ale         | 1006·63 | 4·41  |  3·58 | ·19  | 1048·38 | 1·77  |  1·12  |   ·72 | 16·73
  Guinness’s stout      | 1015·51 | 6·81  |  6·17 | ·24  | 1078·06 | 2·88  |  1·74  |  1·25 | 21·32
  Truman, Hanbury,      |         |       |       |      |         |       |        |       |
      & Co.’s porter    | 1013·16 | 4·02  |  5·12 | ·24  | 1051·33 | 1·90  |  1·03  |  1·01 | 21·27
  Whitbread’s porter    | 1014·04 | 4·28  |  5·15 | ·18  | 1054·11 | 2·00  |  1·09  |  1·03 | 15·97
  Hoare’s porter        | 1012·99 | 4·18  |  5·04 | ·18  | 1052·42 | 1·94  |  1·06  |  1·03 | 15·95
  Perry’s ale           | 1006·48 | 3·87  |  3·65 | ·14  | 1045·82 | 1·69  |  0·98  |  0·73 |  7·97
  ----------------------+---------+-------+-------+------+---------+-------+--------+-------+-------

“The relative proportions of alcohol and extract in beer will also have
some influence on its fitness in a medical point of view for certain
persons; and in some instances thin dry beer, that has had the
fermentation carried so far as to reduce the amount of extract to a
minimum, may be very preferable to beer containing a larger amount of
extract. In this respect some samples of the Prestonpans’ beer are
remarkable for the small proportion of extract they contain.

“In regard to the nutritive value of beer, over and above the stimulant
and tonic actions due to the alcohol and to the bitter principle of the
hop, it is worth notice that a pint of pale ale contains from 1/2 an ounce
to an ounce of solid extract, while mild and old ale contain from 1-1/10
to 2-3/4 ounces in the pint.

“The amount of free acid in British beer appears to be uniformly larger
than in the Viennese and Bavarian beer recently introduced here, and
sometimes it is very much larger. This free acid is represented in the
tables as acetic acid; but there is reason to believe that beer probably
contains lactic acid or other fixed acids, together with a substance
analogous to glucic acid, which, according to Graham, Hoffmann, and
Redwood, appears to be produced in the fermentation of beer wort, as
practised in this country.

“There appears to be great differences in the quality of beer sold by
publicans at a given price. Thus, for instance, the variation in the pale
ale sold at fourpence per pint is from 4·08 to 7·10 per cent. of alcohol,
and from 3·22 to 7·53 per cent. of extract; in the mild ale sold at
twopence per pint it is from 4·43 to 5·62 per cent. of alcohol, and from
5·01 to 5·56 per cent. of extract; and in old ale sold at fourpence per
pint it is from 6·20 to 8·31 per cent. of alcohol, and from 4·56 to 6·2
per cent. of extract. These differences represent respectively 1·58, ·27,
and ·49 bushels of malt per barrel of beer. From the great alcoholic
strength of some kinds of old ale they partake more of the nature of wine
than of beer, in the usual sense of this term. They are, in fact, quite
equal in that respect to most of the cheaper wine imported from the
Continent, while in flavour and general character old ale, such as that
brewed at Burton-on-Trent and in Scotland, is far superior to any wine of
the kind referred to, which can be sold here at a price even double that
of the best old ale. This kind of ale, however, is but rarely sold by
publicans.”——Dr PAUL.

_Materials, Manuf., &c._ See MALT, HOPS, BREWING, &c.

_Purity._ The leading characteristics of good beer are transparency, a
fine colour, an agreeable semi-vinous flavour, and the property of
remaining for several hours exposed in a glass or cup without becoming
‘flat’ or insipid. If the materials used were good, if the brewing was
skilfully conducted, if the liquor has been carefully stowed in perfectly
sweet casks or vessels, in a suitable cellar, for a sufficient time, and
has not been tampered with, this will almost always be the case. Hence
colour, transparency, and flavour, and the power of resisting exposure,
are tests of the purity and quality of beer, which should not be lightly
treated. There are none more simple and effectual; and, together with a
good ‘palate,’ and a close observance of its effects on the head and on
the stomach, will readily distinguish pure and wholesome beer from
‘doctored’ and inferior liquor. If, therefore, we find a sample of beer
possessing the above qualities and in good condition, and on testing it
for its alcohol and saccharine matter, find these substances in such
quantities as fairly to represent the amount of malt which should have
been used in the brewing of such a liquor, we may, in the absence of proof
to the contrary, infer it to be pure; because the object for which
adulteration is practised——the saving of malt and hops——did not exist in
this case. To demonstrate the purity of beer requires an elaborate and
troublesome analysis, which can only be performed by those accustomed to
chemical operations. Good and pure beer should contain nothing but what
exists in the malt, the hops, and the water, from which it is brewed, or
which is produced from them in the processes of ‘mashing,’
‘fermentation,’ and ‘maturation.’

_Adulteration._ Until the year 1862 nothing was allowed to enter into the
composition of beer but malt and hops; and the Act 56 Geo. III, cap. 58,
imposes a penalty of £200 on any “brewer, dealer, or retailer of beer,”
who “shall receive, or have in his possession, or use, or mix with, or put
into any worts or beer any molasses, honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia,
cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, Guinea-pepper, or opium, or any
extract or preparation of these substances, for, or as a substitute for,
malt or hops;” and a further penalty of £500 on any “druggist, or vender
of, or dealer in drugs, or chemist, or other person whatever,” who shall
“sell, send, or deliver to any licensed brewer,” &c., any of the above
materials. However, by the Act 25 Vic., cap. 22, s. 20, so much of the
above is repealed as relates to hops. This Act provides that——

“On and after the 16th Sept., 1862, so much of an Act passed in the 56th
year of the reign of King George the Third, cap. 58, and of an Act passed
in the 7th and 8th years of the reign of King George the Fourth, cap. 52,
and of any other Act relating to the revenue of excise, as imposes any
excise penalty upon any brewer of, or dealer in, or retailer of beer, for
receiving into, or having in his possession, or using or mixing with any
worts or beer, any article for, or as a substitute for hops, or as
prohibits the sale of any such article to the said persons, shall be, and
is hereby repealed: provided always, that nothing herein contained shall
be construed to extend to repeal any such penalty or prohibition so far as
regards any article which may be used as a substitute for malt,
notwithstanding that it may be also a substitute for hops.”

Prior to this an Act (10 Vic., c. 5) had been passed allowing brewers to
use sugar under certain restrictions.

As the law now stands, a brewer may use hops, quassia, wormwood, gentian,
or any other simple bitter; but he is forbidden to use any substitute for
malt, such as unmalted grain, sugar in a liquid state, molasses, or any
substance which would give pungency or intoxicating properties to the
beer, such as cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, tobacco, &c. It is a
well-known and authenticated fact, that beer is commonly and sometimes
dangerously adulterated. The cupidity of fraudulent brewers and publicans
frequently induces them to introduce other ingredients than malt and
bitters into their liquors, with a view of giving them a false appearance
and strength. Thus, to give pungency——capsicum, grains of paradise,
ginger, &c., have been added; to give intoxicating properties——opium,
cocculus indicus, tobacco, &c.; as a substitute for malt——molasses,
treacle, colouring, honey, &c.; to impart a false appearance of
age——sulphuric acid, alum, green vitriol, glycerin, mustard, &c.; to
remove acidity——pearlash, soda, chalk, &c.; and to impart a frothy
head——alum, foots, table-salt, &c.

The publicans generally ‘reduce’ their strong beer with water (which they
call ‘liquor’), and add treacle, together with a mixture of copperas,
salt, and alum (termed ‘heading’), to make it bear a frothy head. The
cheap beer sold in many of the low taverns of London is made by dividing
the contents of two butts between three butts, filling them up with water,
and adding a bladder of porter-extract (technically termed ‘P. E,’) to
each. This ‘P. E,’ is a mixture of powdered cocculus, Spanish juice,
caramel, capsicum, &c., boiled up with treacle and water to the
consistence of a thin extract, and then put into bullocks’ bladders.

_Exam., Tests, &c._ The analysis of beer, both qualitative and
quantitative, as already noticed, is a matter of considerable difficulty.
We shall therefore defer its consideration until we come to the article
PORTER, as that description of beer, on account of its colour, is not only
the one most difficult to examine, but also the one most frequently
adulterated. See ALE, BREWING, HOPS, MALT, PORTER, &c.

=Beer, Am′ber.= _Syn._ AMBER. A liquor, formerly much drank in London,
brewed from a mixture of 3 parts of amber malt, and 1 part of pale malt,
with about 6 _lbs._ of hops to the quarter. It was generally ‘tapped’
within a few days after it had done ‘working,’ and was chiefly used mixed
with bitters, or made into ‘PURL,’

=Beer, Wheat′en=, Wheat′-malt Beer. See MUM.

⁂ Besides malt liquor, or BEER properly so called, a somewhat similar
beverage, though of inferior quality, may be prepared from any vegetable
substance rich in starch and sugar, as noticed in our article on BREWING.
Certain summer beverages also pass under the name; but in both the cases
referred to, the name of the characteristic ingredient, or that of the
vegetable employed, is always conjoined; as in pea-shell beer,
potato-beer, ginger-beer, &c. Examples of some of these are given below:——

=Beer, Gin′ger.= _Syn._ CEREVIS′IA (-vĭzh′-) ZINGIB′ERIS, C.
ZINGIBERA′TA*, C. CUM ZINGIB′ERE* (-ĕr-e), L. _Prep._ 1. Lump-sugar, 1
_lb._; good unbleached Jamaica ginger (well-bruised), 1 _oz._; cream of
tartar, 3/4 _oz._ (or tartaric acid, 1/2 _oz._); 2 or 3 lemons (sliced);
boiling water, 1 gall.; macerate, with frequent stirring, in a covered
vessel, until barely lukewarm, then add of yeast, 1-1/2 or 2 _oz._ (about
2/3rds of a wine-glassful), and keep it in a moderately warm place, to
excite a brisk fermentation; the next day rack or decant the liquor, and
strain it through a jelly-bag or flannel; allow it to work for another
day, or two, according to the weather; then skim it, again decant or
strain, and put it into bottles, the corks of which should be ‘wired’
down.

2. Good white sugar, 18 to 24 _lbs._; lemon-juice or lime-juice, 1 quart;
finest Narbonne honey, 1 or 2 _lbs._; bruised Jamaica ginger, 1-1/2
_lb._; pure soft water (that has been boiled, and then allowed to settle),
q. s. Boil the ginger in 3 _galls._ of the water for half an hour; then
add the sugar, the juice, and the honey, with sufficient water (see
_above_) to make the whole measure 18-1/4 _galls._, and strain the mixture
as before. When the liquor has become almost cold, add the white of 1 egg,
and 1/2 _fl. oz._ of essence of lemon, and strongly agitate the cask or
vessel for about half an hour. After standing 3 to 6 days, according to
the state of the weather, bottle it, and place the bottles on their sides
in a cellar, just as is done with wine or beer. It will be ready for use
in about 3 weeks, and will keep good for several months. If wanted for
immediate use, about 1/2 pint of yeast may be added, as in formula 1; but
then it will not keep so well, or be quite so transparent and free from
deposit. The lemon juice and essence of lemon may be replaced, at will, by
cream of tartar (in powder) or tartaric acid, 4 _oz._; and lemons (sliced)
1-1/2 to 2 doz.; added with the sugar, &c.; but the original formula is
preferable.——_Prod._ 18 _galls._ = 24 doz. 1/2-pint bottles, or 30 doz.
ordinary sized ones.

3. EXTEMPORANEOUS:——_a._ Into each bottle put concentrated essence of
ginger, 1 drop; simple syrup or capillaire, 1/2 _oz._ (or in lieu of them,
syrup of ginger and simple syrup, of each a dessert-spoonful); and fill
with aërated soda-water at the ‘bottling machine,’ in the usual way. Very
superior.

_b._ Into each bottle put two or three lumps of sugar, fill them to the
proper height with pure water, throw in (quickly) an effervescing
ginger-beer powder, and instantly cork the bottle, and secure the cork
with wire.

_Use._ As a cooling and refreshing drink in warm weather; and as a
restorative after hard drink, fatigue, &c.

_Obs._ The products of all the above formulæ, if well managed, are
excellent; those of No. 2, and 3_a_., of the very finest description, much
stronger and superior to nine tenths of that sold for the best in the
shops. They are often called, by way of distinction, LIMO′′NIATED
GINGER-BEER, IMPERIAL G.-B., &c. Cheaper articles are made by omitting
some of the ingredients, and particularly a portion of the sugar. The
ginger-beer vended at 1_d._ and 2_d._ a bottle, with that known as GINGER
POP, IMPE′′RIAL POP, &c., are generally made with moist sugar (1/2 to 3/4
_lb._ to the _gall._), and merely flavoured with a little coarse ginger.
No. 2, made with 2 _lbs._ of sugar to the _gall._ may be kept 2 years, if
not bottled for six months, and well-stored; and with 3 _lbs._ to the
_gall._, for 4 years, when it forms a splendid article (GINGER-CHAMPAGNE).

=Beer, Pine.= See, BEER SPRUCE.

=Beer, Spruce.= _Syn._ CEREVIS′IA (-vĭzh′-) ABI′ETIS, C. ABIETI′NA, C.
ABIET′ICA*, L. _Prep._ 1. Sugar, 1 _lb._; essence of spruce, 1/2 _oz._;
boiling water, 1 _gall._; mix well, and when nearly cold, add of yeast 1/2
a wine-glassful; and the next day bottle like ginger-beer.

2. Essence of spruce, 1/2 pint; pimento and ginger (bruised), of each 5
_oz._; hops, 1/2 _lb._; water, 3 galls.; boil the whole for 10 minutes,
then add of moist sugar, 12 _lbs._ (or good treacle, 14 _lbs._); warm
water, 11 _galls._; mix well, and, when only lukewarm, further add of
yeast, 1 pint; after the liquid has fermented for about 24 hours, bottle
it.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Diuretic and antiscorbutic. Regarded by some persons as
an agreeable ‘summer-drink,’ and often found useful during long
sea-voyages. When made with lump-sugar it is called WHITE SPRUCE-BEER;
when with moist sugar or treacle, BROWN SPRUCE-BEER. An inferior sort is
made by using less sugar, or more water. If made with 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 _lb._
of lump-sugar per gall., and without yeast, in a similar manner to that
described under GINGER-BEER (No. 2), it may be kept a twelvemonth or
longer in a moderately cool place.

=Beer, Sugar.= _Syn._ CEREVIS′IA (-vĭzh′-) SAC′CHARI, L. From moist sugar
(1 to 2 _lbs._ to the _gall._) and a little hops; as treacle-beer.

=Beer, Trea′cle= (trē′kl-). _Syn._ CEREVIS′IA FÆ′CIS SAC′CHARI, &c., L.
_Prep._ 1. From treacle or molasses, 3/4 to 2 _lbs._ per _gall._
(according to the desired strength); hops, 1/4 to 3/4 _oz._; yeast, a
table-spoonful; water, q. s.; treated as _below_.

2. Hops, 1-1/2 lb.; corianders, 1 _oz._; capsicum-pods (cut small), 1/2
_oz._; water, 8 _galls._; boil for 10 or 15 minutes, and strain the
‘liquor’ through a coarse sieve into a barrel containing treacle, 28
_lbs._; then throw back the hops, &c., into the copper, and reboil them,
for 10 minutes, with a second 8 _galls._ of water, which must be strained
into the barrel, as before; next ‘rummage’ the whole well with a stout
stick, add of cold water 21 _galls._ (sufficient to make the whole measure
37 _galls._), and, after again mixing, stir in 1/2 a pint of good fresh
yeast; lastly, let it remain for 24 hours in a moderately warm place,
after which it may be put into the cellar, and in two or three days
‘bottled,’ or ‘tapped’ on ‘draught.’ In a week it will be fit to drink.
Very superior.——_Prod._ 1 barrel, or 36 gallons. For a stronger beer, 36
_lbs._, or even 1/2 _cwt._, of treacle, may be used. It will then keep
good for a twelvemonth.

_Obs._ A wholesome drink; but one apt to prove laxative when taken in
large quantities. See BREWING, BEER, GINGER, POWDERS, &c.

=BEERS.= (In _pharmacy_.) _Syn._ CEREVIS′IÆ (-vĭzh′-e-ē) MEDICA′TÆ, L. The
general nature and preparation of these articles have been already
noticed.[127] They are little employed in this country. The ingredients
should be so proportioned that from 1/4 to 1/2 a pint may form the proper
dose. The following are examples:——

[Footnote 127: See ALES (Medicated).]

=Beer, Antiscorbu′tic.= _Syn._ CEREVIS′IA ANTISCORBU′TICA, L.; SAPINETTE′,
Fr. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod. 1839) Scurvy-grass and buds of the spruce-fir, of
each 1 oz.; horse-radish root, 2 oz. (all fresh, and bruised or sliced);
new ale or beer, 3-1/2 pints (say, 1/2 _gall._); macerate 4 days, press,
and strain for use.

2. (Ph. Castr. Ruth. 1840.) Horse-radish (fresh), 4 _lbs._; juniper
berries, 3 _lbs._; root of _calamus aromaticus_ and buds of _pinus abies_,
of each 1 _lb._; ginger, 1 _oz._; syrup (of brown sugar), 6 _lbs._; beer,
120 _lbs._ (say, 12 _galls._); macerate 4 days, or until it ferments, then
decant, strain, and add of cream of tartar, 1/2 _lb._; tincture of mustard
(flour of mustard 2 _oz._, to proof spirit 12 _oz._), 5 _lbs._ (say, 1/2
_gall._). In scurvy, &c.

=Beer, Cincho′na.= _Syn._ A′GUE-BEER, BARK′-BEER; CEREVIS′IA CINCHO′NÆ,
&c., L. _Prep._ 1. Bruised cinchona-bark, 1 _oz._; proof spirit or brandy,
2 _oz._; mix; the next day add of new beer, 1 quart, and in 3 days decant
or filter.——_Dose_, 2 or 3 wine-glassfuls.

2. (Mutis.) Cinchona, 4 _oz._; sugar, 2 _lbs._; boiling water, 5 _pints_;
when lukewarm, ferment with a little yeast, as for ginger-beer.——_Dose_, 1
or 2 wine-glassfuls.

3. (Ph. Ferrara.) Bruised Peruvian bark, 1-1/2 _oz._; cinnamon, 2 _dr._;
nutmeg (rasped), 7 _dr._; sugar, 25 _oz._; yeast, 2 _oz._; water, 5
_pints_; mix, ferment, decant, and strain, as before.——_Dose_, 3 or 4
wine-glassfuls. They are all administered during the intermission of ague.

=Beer, Pipsissewa.= _Syn._ CERVIS′IA CHIMAPH′ILE, &c., L. _Prep._ (Dr J.
Parrish.) Pipsissewa (_chimaphila umbellata_), 1/2 _lb._; water, 1
_gall._; boil, strain, add of sugar, 1 _lb._; powdered ginger, 1/4 _oz._;
yeast, q. s.; and ferment, stain, and bottle, as for ginger-beer. In
scrofulous affections; especially of the joints.——_Dose._ Half a
tumblerful. It is a favorite remedy with some American practitioners.

=Beer, Sarsaparil′la.= _Syn._ LIS′BON DI′ET-BEER, SPAN′ISH JARAVE;
CEREVIS′IA SAR′ZÆ, C. SARSAPARIL′LÆ, INFU′SUM S. PARA′TUM FERMENTATIO′NE,
&c., L. _Prep._ 1. Compound extract of sarsaparilla, 1-1/2 _oz._; hot
water, 1 _pint_; dissolve, and when cold, add of good pale or East-India
ale, 7 pints.

2. Sarsaparilla (sliced), 1 _lb._; guaiacum-bark (bruised small), 1/4
_lb._; guaiacum-wood (rasped), and liquorice root (sliced), of each 2
_oz._; aniseed (bruised), 1-1/2 _oz._; mezereon root-bark, 1 _oz._; cloves
(cut small), 1/4 _oz._; moist sugar, 3-1/2 _lbs._; hot water (not
boiling), 9 quarts; mix in a clean stone jar, and keep it in a moderately
warm room (shaking it twice or thrice daily) until active fermentation
sets in, then let it repose for about a week, when it will be fit for use.

_Obs._ It is said to be superior to the other preparations of sarsaparilla
as an alterative or purifier of the blood, particularly in old affections.
That usually made has generally only one half the above quantity of sugar,
for which treacle is often substituted; but in either case it will not
keep well; whereas, with proper caution, the products of the above formulæ
may be kept for one, or even two years. No yeast must be used.——_Dose._ A
small tumblerful 3 or 4 times a day, or oftener.

=Beer, Stomach′ic.= _Syn._ MED′ICATED PURL; CEREVIS′IA STOMACH′ICA, L.
_Prep._ (Dr Quincy.) Centaury-tops and Roman wormwood, of each 4 handfuls;
gentian root (bruised), 2 _oz._; the yellow peels of 6 Seville oranges;
Spanish angelica-root and Winter’s lard, of each (bruised) 1 _oz._; new
ale, or beer, 3 quarts (say, 1 _gall._); digest for a few days, as before.
One or two wine-glassfuls early in the morning, and an hour before a meal.

=Beer, Sulphu′′ric Acid.= _Syn._ SULPHURIC LEMONADE; CEREVISIA ACIDI
SULPHU′′RICI, C. ANTICOL′ICA, L. _Prep._ 1. Treacle beer, or other weak
mild beer or ale, to which a little concentrated sulphuric acid has been
added, in the proportion of about 1 dr. to every 8 or 10 pints; the whole
being well agitated together, and allowed a few hours to settle.

2. Treacle, 14 _lbs._; bruised ginger, 1/2 lb.; coriander, 1/2 _oz._;
capsicum and cloves, of each 1/4 _oz._; water, 12-1/2 _galls._; yeast, 1
_pint_; proceed as for ginger-beer, and when the fermentation is nearly
over, add of oil of vitriol, 1-1/2 _oz._ (diluted with 8 times its weight
of water), and of bicarbonate of soda, 1-1/2 _oz._ (dissolved in a little
water). It is fit to drink in 3 or 4 days.

_Uses, &c._ It is taken with great benefit by workers in lead, especially
by those employed in white lead works; also in cases of lead colic,
poisoning by lead or its salts, &c. A tumblerful twice or thrice daily. It
is both harmless and wholesome.

=Beer, Tar.= _Syn._ CEREVIS′IA PI′CIS, C. P. LIQ′UIDÆ, L. _Prep._
(Duhamel.) Bran, 2 pints; tar, 1 pint; honey, 1/2 pint; water, 6 pints;
mix, and gently simmer together for 3 hours; when lukewarm add of yeast,
1/2 pint; let it ferment for 36 hours, and strain. Pectoral,
anti-asthmatic, anti-phthisic, &c.——_Dose._ One wine-glassful before each
meal, in bronchial and chest diseases, and incipient consumption. See
BEERS (In Pharmacy; _above_).

=BEES′WING.= The second or pseudo-crust so much admired in port and a few
other wines, and which forms in them only when kept for some time after
the first or true crust has formed. It consists of minute, glittering,
floating particles or lamellæ of tartar, purer, and freer from astringent
matter, than that deposited in the first crust. See CRUST, WINES, &c.

=BEET= (bēte). _Syn._ BE′TA, L.; BIET, D.; BETTE, Fr.; BEETE, MANGOLD,
M.-KRAUT, Ger.; BIETOLA, It. The common name of plants of the genus
‘beta,’ and the nat. ord. Chenopodæ (DC.). There are said to be only two
distinct species cultivated——_beta vulgār′is_ and _b. horten′sis_——each of
which occurs in several varieties; those of the first, and which we have
chiefly to consider, producing a large fleshy root (BEET′-ROOT,
MAN-GOLD-R.; RA′DIX BE′TÆ, L.; BETTERAVE, Fr.; ROTHE RÜBE, &c., Ger.),
which is both sweet and succulent; those of the other, only succulent
leaves. The varieties most useful, and now the most extensively cultivated
in England, are of comparatively recent introduction; field-beet, the
mangold-wurzel of the Germans, having been only brought under the notice
of our agriculturists towards the end of the last century.

=Beet, Field.= See BEET, HYBRID (_below_).

=Beet, Hy′brid.= _Syn._ COMMON BEET, FIELD′-B.; BE′TA HY′BRIDA, B.
VULGAR′′IS, H.; L.; BETTE COMMUNE, BETTERAVE C., RACINE D’ABONDANCE, R. DE
DISETTE, &c., Fr.; MANGOLD, M.-WURZEL, MANGEL-W., &c., Ger. A variety of
_beta vulgaris_ (Linn.), and that usually cultivated by English farmers.
Root red on the outside, white inside; chiefly grown as winter-food for
cattle, being vastly superior to turnips. It has been used in Germany as a
substitute for bread in times of scarcity. Leaves dressed and eaten like
spinach.

=Beet, Red.= _Syn._ CU′LINARY BEET, GARDEN B., BEET′-RADISH, BEET′-RAVE,
&c.; BE′TA RU′BRA, B. VULG′′ARIS R., L.; BETTERAVE, &c., Fr.; ROTHE RÜBE,
&c., Ger. Root tender, well-flavoured, and of a rich red colour
throughout, and hence much used in salads, pickles, and cookery; also made
into a conserve, jam, or confection. The kinds most esteemed for salads
are the small red and the yellowish-red varieties of Castelnaudari.

=Beet, Sea.= _Syn._ BE′TA MARIT′IMA, L. Said to be the best variety for
dressing as spinach.

=Beet, White.= _Syn._ BE′TA AL′BA, B. VULGA′′RIS A., B. CI′CLA, L.; BETTE
BLANCHE, POIRÉE, &c., Fr. A sub-variety of the red beet. Root white, and
hence preferred for making sugar; that with a purple crown being the most
esteemed.

_Obs._ The preceding varieties of beet resemble each other in their
general properties. They are all antiscorbutic, detergent, emollient, and
nutritious; and their roots contain about 8% of sugar, which, by proper
treatment, may be obtained from them of excellent quality. The grated root
is sometimes used to dress blisters and foul ulcers. When sliced, and
dried in a malt-kiln, a very palatable beer may be brewed with it. The
leaves of each variety are dressed and eaten like spinach. The roots, for
the table, after being carefully washed, are dressed whole——neither
scraped nor cut——and, according to their size and age, require from 1 to 4
hours’ simmering or baking. They are mostly served in slices, cold,
intermingled with other winter salad vegetables. See BREWING, CATTLE,
SALADS, SUGAR, &c. (also _antè_).

=BEET ROOT.= See BEET.

=BEE′TLE= (bē′tl). _Syn._ SCAR′AB†*, SCAR′ABEE†* (-bē); SCÄRABÆ′US, L.;
ESCARBOT, SCARABEÉ, Fr.; KÄFER, Ger.; BETEL, Sax. In _zoology_, the common
name of an extensive genus of insects (_scarabæ′us_, Linn.), of numerous
species. It is also popularly applied to all coleopterous insects, or such
as have hard or shelly wing-cases, especially to those of a dark or
obscure colour. The common pests of our kitchens and basement floors which
pass familiarly under the name of beetles, black beetles, or cockroaches,
belong to the order orthoptera, and not to the coleoptera or beetle tribe,
as the name implies. See INSECTS, &c.

=Black Beetle=; Domes′tic beetle. See BLATTA, COCKROACH, &c.

=Blis′tering Beetle.= See CANTHARIDES.

=BELL.= _Syn._ CAMPA′NA,[128] CAMPAN′ULA,[129] NO′LA*,[130]
TINTINNAB′ULUM,[131] L.; CLOCHE, CLOCHETTE,[132] GRELOT,[133] Fr.; GLOCKE,
SCHELLE, &c., Ger.; BELL, BELLA, BELLE, Sax. A hollow vessel or body,
usually of cast metal, with a wide cup-like mouth expanding outwards, so
formed as to emit sound when suspended and struck with a hard substance.
The word is also applied, either alone or in composition, to substances
having the figure of a bell; as bells (of flowers), bell-animal,
b.-flower, b.-glass, &c.

[Footnote 128: Appropriately, a large bell suspended or adapted for
suspension; as that of a church, &c.]

[Footnote 129: A small bell.]

[Footnote 130: Id.]

[Footnote 131: Id.; appr., one suspended as a door-bell, servants’ bell,
&c.]

[Footnote 132: A little bell, a hand-bell.]

[Footnote 133: A little round-bell.]

_Form, Manuf., &c._ Bells of “the common and well-known shape, with a
thick lip or sound-bow, are the most effective known instruments for
producing a loud and musical sound, such as you want when you erect a
large public clock, or put up a peal of church-bells.” “After trying a
number of experiments, at Messrs Warner’s, I am quite satisfied that there
is nothing to be gained by deviating materially from the established
proportions of the best old bells.”[134] This view is borne out by the
researches of the Government commissioners[135] who visited the Paris
Exhibition, who report, that among the ‘founders’ of France and Belgium,
there are no traditions of the art, nor any discoveries or appliances of
modern science, tending to the improvement of bells, or to provide
efficient substitutes for them; nor is there any known improvement on the
established mode and usual material (BRONZE or BELL-METAL) for casting
them. Sir C. Barry, indeed, according to Mr Dennison, “seemed rather
impressed with the merits of cast-steel bells;” but both Prof. Wheatstone
and Mr Dennison differ from him in opinion. Undoubtedly some cast-steel
bells, of small size, have been produced, capable of yielding sounds of
extraordinary clearness and richness, but, in most cases, owing to the
difficulty in giving the peculiar molecular condition to the metal
essential to a high degree of sonorousness, their tones are comparatively
harsh and disagreeable. Well-annealed glass offers a cheaper and better
material than steel for large bells up to a certain size, whilst its tones
are exquisite. As the depth of the tone of a bell depends chiefly upon the
dimensions and weight of the sound-bow, it appears likely that by
directing our experiments to the increase of these, and the diminishing of
the thickness of the metal in the other parts, the quantity of metal
required to produce large bells might be very greatly reduced. The sound
of an Indian gong that may be easily held suspended by the hand is always
rich and usually as loud and deep as a bell of ordinary construction which
it would take several men to lift. The Chinese often use bells made of
porcelain. Small hand-bells for the toilet and boudoir are often made of
silver, and then yield tones which are remarkably soft, clear, and
pleasing. The tongue, clapper, or hammer, of bronze bells should be of
iron; and steel bells, of bronze. Glass and porcelain bells require the
striking part of the tongue to be of box-wood, the proper weight being
given by a ball of iron cast on the rod immediately above it, and a
similar one screwed on the end of the rod immediately below it. In all
cases the hammer-head, preferably globular, should strike the bell near
the verge, and should be free from projections or asperities.

[Footnote 134: Lecture on the ‘Form of Bells,’ deliv. at the Royal
Institution, by Mr B. Dennison, to whom the Government intrusted the
construction of the ‘great bells’ for the New Houses of Parliament.]

[Footnote 135: Prof. Wheatstone and Sir Charles Barry.]

The casting, &c., of bells is essentially similar to that of other
articles in bronze, of corresponding size, and particularly of cannon. See
BELL-METAL, BRONZE, &c.

=BELL′-METAL.= _Syn._ ÆS CAMPANA′′RUM, L.; MÉTAL DE CLOCHE, Fr.;
GLOCKENGUT, GLOCKENSPEISE, Ger. The alloy, usually bronze, of which bells,
&c., are made.

The composition of bell-metal varies considerably, as may be seen below:——

1. (Standard.) Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts;[136] fused together and
cast in the manner described under BRONZE. The most sonorous of all the
alloys of copper and tin. It is easily fusible, and has a fine compact
grain, and a vitreous-conchoidal and yellowish-red fracture. According to
Klaproth, the finest-toned Indian gongs have this composition.

[Footnote 136: The resulting alloy probably contains 7 Cu + Sn.]

2. (Founder’s Standard.) Copper, 77 parts; tin, 21 parts; antimony, 2
parts.[137] Slightly paler and inferior to No. 1.

[Footnote 137: More antimony, or some other metal, is often added, as
subsequently noticed; but always to the injury of the alloy as
bell-metal.]

3. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts.[138] Very deep-toned and sonorous.
Used in China and India for the larger gongs, tam-tams, &c.

[Footnote 138: Equal to about 8 Cu + Sn. In some gongs the proportion of
tin is so low as 22, or even 20 parts, to 100 parts of copper.]

4. Copper, 78 to 80 parts; tin, 22 to 20 parts. Usual composition of
Chinese cymbals, tam-tams, &c.

5. Copper 75 (= 3) parts; tin, 25 (= 1) parts.[139] Somewhat brittle. In
fracture, semi-vitreous and bluish-red. Used for church and other large
bells.

[Footnote 139: Nearly equal to 6 Cu + Sn.]

6. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10-1/4 parts; zinc, 5-1/2 parts; lead, 4-1/4
parts. English bell-metal, according to Thomson. Inferior to the last; the
lead being apt to form isolated drops, to the injury of the uniformity of
the alloy.

7. Copper, 68, parts; tin, 32 parts.[140] Brittle; fracture conchoidal and
ash-grey. Best proportions for house-bells, hand-bells, &c.; for which,
however, 2 of copper, and 1 of tin, is commonly substituted by the
founders.

[Footnote 140: Equal to about 4 Cu + Sn.]

8. Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26-1/2 parts; iron, 1-1/2 part. Used by the
Paris houses for the bells of small clocks or pendules.

9. Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used, like the last,
for very small bells.

10. Copper, 70 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used for the bells of
repeating watches.

11. Melt together copper, 100 parts; tin, 25 parts. After being cast into
the required object, it should be made red hot, and then plunged
immediately into cold water in order to impart to it the requisite degree
of sonorousness. For cymbals and gongs.

12. Melt together copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. When cold it has to be
hammered out with frequent annealing.

13. Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts. This is superior to the former, as it
can be rolled out. For tom-toms and gongs.

14. Melt together copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 to 56 parts; iron, 1·44 part.
Used in making the bells of pendules or ornamental Parisian clocks. For
clock-bells.

_Concluding remarks._ Castings in bell-metal are all more or less brittle;
and, when recent, have a colour varying from a dark ash-grey to
greyish-white, which is darkest in the more cupreous varieties, in which
it turns somewhat on the yellowish-red or bluish-red. The larger the
proportion of copper in the alloy, the deeper and graver the tone of the
bells formed of it. The addition of tin, iron, or zinc, causes them to
give out their tones sharper. Bismuth and lead are also often added to
modify the tone, which each metal affects differently. The addition of
antimony and bismuth is frequently made by the founder to give a more
crystalline grain to the alloy. All these additions are, however,
prejudicial to the sonorousness of bells, and of very doubtful utility.
Rapid refrigeration increases the sonorousness of all these alloys. Hence
M. D’Arcet recommends the ‘pieces’ to be heated to a cherry-red after they
are cast, and after having been suddenly plunged into cold water, to be
submitted to well-regulated pressure by skilful hammering, until they
assume their proper form; after which they are to be again heated and
allowed to cool slowly in the air. This is the method adopted by the
Chinese with their gongs, &c., a casing of sheet-iron being employed by
them to support and protect the pieces during the exposure to heat. In a
general way, however, bells are formed and completed by simple casting.
This is necessarily the case with all very large bells. Where the quality
of their tones is the chief object sought after, the greatest care should
be taken to use commercially pure copper. The presence of a very little
lead or any similar metal greatly lessens the sonorousness of this alloy;
whilst that of silver increases it. This last metal has been detected in
many old church bells remarkable for the richness of their tones——articles
of silver plate having been cast into the crucibles of the founders, as
votive offerings, by the pious Christians of former ages.

The specific gravity of a large bell is seldom uniform throughout its
whole substance; nor can the sp. gr. from any given proportion of its
constituent metals be exactly calculated owing to the many interfering
circumstances. The nearer this uniformity is approached, or in other
words, chemical combination is complete, the more durable and finer toned
will be the bell.

In general it is found necessary to take about 1-10th more metal than the
weight of the intended bell, or bells, in order to allow for waste and
scorification during the operations of fusing and casting. See BELL,
BRONZE, COPPER, &c.

=BELLADON′NA= (-dŏn′ă), [It., Sp., Port.; Eng., L., Ger.;[141] B. P.]
_Syn._ DEAD′LY NIGHT′SHADE, DWALE; BELLEDAME, BELLADONNE, &c., Fr.;
TÖDTLICHER NACHTSCHATTEN, TOLLKERSCHE, TOLLKRAUT, WOLFSKIRSCHE, &c., Ger.;
AT′ROPA LETHA′LIS*, SOLA′NUM FURIO′SUM*, S. LETHA′LE*, S. MANIA′CUM*, S.
MELANOCER′ASUS†, &c., L., Bot. var. Literally, fair lady; in _materia
medica, botany, &c._, the usual name (adopted from the Ital.) of _at′ropa
belladonn′a_ (Linn.), an indigenous, poisonous, perennial, herbaceous
plant, of the nat. ord. Solanæ (DC); Solanaceæ, Endl., (Lind.). It flowers
in June and July, and its drooping, purple blossoms are common ornaments
of our hedges and wastes where the soil is calcareous. It is supposed to
be the ‘insane root’ of Shakespeare.[142]

[Footnote 141: As a borrowed word.]

[Footnote 142: ‘Macbeth,’ Act I, Scene 3.]

The parts of this plant used in medicine and pharmacy are the “fresh
leaves and branches to which they are attached; also the leaves separate
from the branches, carefully dried, of _atropa belladonna_; gathered, when
the fruit has begun to form, from wild or cultivated plants in Britain”
(B. P.).

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Every part of this plant contains ATRO′PIA, and is
consequently highly poisonous. Every part, except the berries, is fœtid
when bruised, and of “a dark and lurid aspect, indicative of its deadly
narcotic quality.”[143] Its berries, which are of a glossy violet-black,
and of the size of a small cherry, are sweet-tasted, and not at all
nauseous. Children and tired travellers and soldiers, allured by their
beauty and the absence of disagreeable flavour, have frequently been
induced to eat them; but in all cases poisoning, often fatal, has followed
the indulgence.[144] Belladonna is, however, in qualified hands a safe and
most valuable medicine. Its chief use is as an anodyne, antispasmodic,
sedative, and discutient, and particularly to diminish sensibility and
allay pain and nervous irritation in a variety of diseases——neuralgia,
arthritic and migratory rheumatic pains, painful ulcers, cancer, spasmodic
rigidity, strictures, and contractions (especially of the bladder and
uterus), angina pectoris, iritis, epilepsy, chorea, hooping-cough,
hysteria, mania, fevers, phthisis, asthma, &c.; also as a prophylactic of
scarlet-fever,[145] hydrophobia, and salivation, as a resolvent in
enlarged and indurated glands (particularly when painful), as an agent to
produce dilation of the pupil during surgical examinations and operations,
&c., &c. It is employed both internally and externally, and in various
forms, as is noticed under its ‘preparations’ elsewhere. _Dose._ Of the
powder, 1/2 to 1 gr. twice a day, gradually and cautiously increased until
dryness of the throat or dilation of the pupil occurs, or the head is
affected.

[Footnote 143: Pereira, 4th ed., vol. ii, 545.]

[Footnote 144: One hundred and fifty French soldiers were thus poisoned at
Pirna, near Dresden. (Orfila, ‘Tox. Gén.’)]

[Footnote 145: Of 2027 persons who took it, and were exposed to the
contagion of scarlet fever, 1948 escaped. (Bayle, ‘Bibl. Thérap.,’ t. ii.
p. 504.) Of 1200 soldiers who took it only 12 became affected. (Oppenheim,
‘Lond. Med. Gaz,’ vol. xiii, 814.) In this country, however, except among
homœopaths, it has not found much favour as a prophylactic.]

_Pois., &c._ Belladonna and its preparations are poisonous to _all_
animals, but very much more so to the carnivora than to the herbivora. It
also acts as a poison on vegetables.

_Treatm. Ant., &c._ These may be the same as those employed in poisoning
by aconite, atropia, and opium. The stomach must be cleared as soon as
possible, followed by active purgation. Unfortunately emetics have
scarcely any action, and, therefore, must be given in large doses,
assisted by tickling the fauces, &c. If copious vomiting does not rapidly
follow, the stomach-pump may be had recourse to. When the poison has been
removed from the stomach, copious and continued draughts of astringent
vegetable solutions (weak decoction of galls or oak-bark, or strong coffee
or green-tea), should be persisted in for some time; followed by like
draughts of water soured with any mild vegetable acid (as vinegar,
lemon-juice, citric or tartaric acid, &c.) _Detec._ The contents of the
stomach or vomited matter may be searched for the berries, leaves, seed,
or portions of the root; all of which are easily recognisable. The usual
physiological and chemical tests of atropia may also be applied to these
and to the organic liquids supposed to contain the poison. See ALKALOID,
ATROPIA, EXTRACTS, OINTMENTS, TINCTURES, VEGETABLE JUICES, &c.

=BELLADONNINE.= _Syn._ ATROPIA, which see.

=BELL′Y= (-e). The abdomen (which _see_).

=BELTS.= In their connection with health and disease, _see_ BANDAGE,
DRESS, STAYS, &c.

=BENEDICTINE’S HEALING-PLASTER= (Hauber). 35 grammes of a dark brown
plaster, prepared by digesting together 1 part litharge with 2 parts olive
oil until they become blackish-brown, then adding 4 parts yellow wax,
containing the heat for a short time, and then pouring out. (Wittstein.)

=BENGAL′= (-gawl′). A thin fabric of silk and hair interwoven, originally
from Bengal.

=Ben′gal Light.= A firework used as signals. See FIRES (coloured).

=Ben′gal Stripes.= Cotton cloth, woven with coloured stripes, orig. from
Bengal; gingham.

=BEN′JAMIN†*.= Benzoin.

=BEN′ZENE.= See BENZOL.

=BEN′ZINE= (-zĭn). Benzol.

=BEN′ZOATE= (-zo-āte). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BEN′ZOÄS, L. A salt in which one
atom of benzoic acid is replaced by a metal or other basic radical. The
benzoates may, in general, be easily prepared by either neutralising the
acid with the base, or by double decomposition. Most of them are more or
less soluble in water, and crystallisable. Those of the alkalies and
ammonia are very soluble, and rather difficult to crystallise. See BENZOIC
ACID and the respective bases.

=BEN′ZOENE*.= See TULUOLE.

=BENZO′IC ACID= (-zō′-ĭk). HC_{7}H_{5}O_{2} _Syn._ FLOWERS OF BENZOIN′;
HY′DRATED BEN′ZOYL; ACIDUM BENZO′ICUM (B. P.); ACIDE BENZOÏQUE, FLEURS DE
BENJOIN, &c., Fr.; BENZOESÄURE, &c., Ger. A substance which is commonly
stated to be the characteristic constituent of the two balsams. Pure oil
of bitter almonds suffers gradual conversion into this acid by exposure to
the air.

_Prep._ The acid of commerce is principally obtained from gum-benzoin,
either by sublimation (dry way), or by dissolving it out by means of an
alkali, or an alkaline earth in the form of a salt (moist way); but
chiefly by the first method.

1. By SUBLIMATION:——

_a._ Good benzoin, crushed small or in the state of coarse powder, is
placed in a cylindrical iron pot with a flat bottom, and from 8 to 9
inches in diameter, so as to form a layer of from 1 to 2 inches deep. The
open end of the pot is next covered with a sheet of soft and loose
blotting-paper,[146] which is attached to the rim with paste. A cone, cap,
or cylinder formed of strong thick paper (cartridge paper), open at its
lower end, is then placed over the top of the pot, including the
blotting-paper; and this is also attached with paste and string. The
apparatus, thus prepared, is then placed on a sand bath,[147] and exposed
for 4 to 6 hours to a gentle and uniform heat. It is next removed from the
sand bath, and, when it has sufficiently cooled, inverted, and the string
detached, when crystals of benzoic acid are found in the paper cone. If,
owing to want of care in manipulating, the product is either coloured or
empyreumatic, it must be enveloped in several folds of bibulous paper,
then submitted to powerful pressure, and afterwards resublimed. The simple
form of apparatus figured in the engraving answers well on the small
scale, and is that recommended by Dr Mohr.

[Footnote 146: Felt——Liebig.]

[Footnote 147: On an iron plate on which sand has been spread——Ph. Bor.]

[Illustration]

_b._ (Ph. D. 1850.) The subliming pot is ordered to be of sheet-iron. It
is to be fitted into a circular hole in a sheet of pasteboard, and a
collar of tow interposed between it and the flange, so as to produce a
nearly air-tight junction. The paper receiver or cap is to be cylindrical,
open at one end and about 18 inches high, with a diameter at least twice
that of the pot; and it is to be secured in an inverted position on the
pasteboard, and fastened to it by slips of paper and flour-paste. A couple
of inches of the pot is to be passed through a corresponding hole in a
plate of sheet-tin, which is to be kept from contact with the pasteboard
by the interposition of a few corks; and a heat[148] only just sufficient
to melt the benzoin is to be applied for at least six hours.

[Footnote 148: That of a gas-flame is recommended. A ring of very small
gas-jets answers better.]

_c._ (Process adopted at Apothecaries’ Hall, London.) The best gum-benzoin
is put into an iron pot, set in brickwork over a suitable small fire-place
(or flue),[149] and communicating by a conical metal neck, with a wooden
box (technically termed a ‘house’) lined with white blotting-paper, as a
receiver for the flowers. A piece of fine muslin, or of bibulous paper, is
interposed between the top of the subliming-pot and the receiver, to
prevent the sublimate falling back into the former. The sublimation is
conducted rather rapidly, and the acid condenses in beautiful white, soft,
flexible crystals, which are at once ready for the market. When the
process is conducted more slowly, the product is proportionately scaly.

[Footnote 149: A pan with a steam-jacket answers well, and is very
manageable.]

_Obs._ Good samples of benzoin yield from 10 to 12%, or even 12-1/2%, of
‘flowers’ or ‘acid of the first sublimation.’ This, after being pressed in
blotting-paper and again sublimed, gives 8-1/2 to 10% of nearly pure
benzoic acid. The loss arising from a second sublimation is thus so great
that the utmost care should be taken to avoid its necessity.

2. In the MOIST WAY:——

_a._ (Ph. D. 1826; Scheele’s Process.) Equal parts of benzoin and hydrate
of lime, in fine powder, are intimately mixed together and boiled for
about an hour, with 40 parts of water; the liquor, after filtration, is
evaporated to 1/5th, and the lime saturated with hydrochloric acid; the
benzoic acid crystallised out as the liquor cools, and is then either
washed with very cold water, and dried by a gentle heat, or it is dried
and sublimed in the manner already explained. The product of the
sublimation is extremely white and pure.

_Obs._ An economical and productive process; but, to ensure success, a
perfect mixture of the dry ingredients must be first made; as otherwise
the benzoin runs into a solid mass in the boiling water, and the operation
fails. _Prod._ “1 lb. of (gum) benjamin yields 1 oz. 6 dr. 2 scr. of
flowers.” (Gray.)[150]

[Footnote 150: A quantity which, in our own experiments, we were never
able to obtain.]

_b._ (Process of Stoltze.) The benzoin is dissolved in 3 times its weight
of alcohol, the solution introduced into a retort, and a solution of
carbonate of soda in weak spirit-and-water, is gradually added, until all
the free acid present is neutralised; water, equal to about twice the
weight of the benzoin employed, is next poured in, and the alcohol removed
by distillation. The floating resin is now skimmed off the residual liquid
and washed with a little water, and the washings added to the contents of
the retort, which will deposit crystals of benzoate of soda on cooling,
and more by subsequent evaporation. From this salt the benzoic acid is
obtained by saturating the alkali with an acid (as the hydrochloric), and
by subsequent sublimation of the crude precipitated crystals.

3. Other Methods:——

_a._ Ordinary hippuric acid is very gently boiled, for about 15 minutes,
in nitric acid[151] (sp. gr. 1·42); water is then added, and the solution
allowed to cool and crystallise. The crystals are collected on a filter,
washed with a little very cold water, dried by pressure in bibulous paper,
and lastly, purified by sublimation, as before.

[Footnote 151: Hydrochloric acid as well as sulphuric acid also convert
hippuric acid into benzoic acid; as does likewise a sufficient degree of
heat. See HIPPURIC ACID.]

_b._ From the urine of horses, cows, and other graminivorous animals, in a
similar way to that by which hippuric acid is obtained, only allowing the
urine to acquire a slight degree of putridity before evaporation, which
last should be effected by a heat slightly under that of ebullition. The
crude acid thus obtained is purified as previously directed.

_Obs._ Large quantities of benzoic acid are said to be obtained in this
way on the Continent; but, owing to the process being clumsily conducted,
it is generally of inferior quality, and hence unsaleable. It may,
however, by skilful purification, be rendered quite equal to that obtained
from gum benzoin.[152]

[Footnote 152: “A manufactory of sal-ammoniac, near Magdeburgh, which uses
urine, is able to supply flowers of benjamin by the cwt.” (Gray.)]

_Prop._ When obtained by sublimation benzoic acid forms soft, light,
feathery, white, flexible crystals, which are transparent or
semi-transparent, with more or less of a mother-of-pearl lustre; when by
slowly cooling its aqueous solution, or by precipitation from a solution
of a benzoate, it forms either thin plates or scales, or a dazzling white
crystalline powder. It is inodorous when cold,[153] but acquires a faint
balsamic odour when gently warmed; fuses at about 212° Fahr., and begins
to sublime freely at a temperature a little above it, but does not boil
until heated to about 460°; burns with a bright yellow flame; is very
soluble in alcohol, dissolves in about 200 parts of cold water, and about
25 parts of boiling water; resists the action of ordinary nitric acid even
when boiling; and forms salts (BEN′ZOATES) with the bases. Sp. gr. 0·667.
Its vapour, which is very suffocating and irritating, has a density of
4·27. Added to fat and fatty substances it either prevents, or greatly
retards, the accession of rancidity.

[Footnote 153: That of the shops usually smells slightly of benzoin, owing
to the presence of a trace of volatile oil.]

_Test, &c._ It may be recognised——1. By its physical properties
(appearance, fusibility, volatility, odour, &c.) already enumerated:——2.
By its ready solubility in solutions of the alkalies; and by being
precipitated from these solutions, on the addition of one of the stronger
acids, under the form of a dazzling white powder, which is only sparingly
soluble in cold water:——3. By its neutral salts with the alkalies, or its
neutral solution in an alkali, giving a bulky, flesh-coloured precipitate
with perchloride of iron, which is insoluble in water:——4. By its solution
not being precipitated by acetate of lead until after neutralisation with
a fixed alkali, when the acetate produces a white, flocculent
precipitate:——5. By a mixture of alcohol, ammonia, and solution of
chloride of barium, neither disturbing a solution of the free acid, nor
that of one of its salts with the alkalies.

It is chemically distinguished from cinnamic acid by not yielding
essential oil of almonds when it is distilled with oxidising agents, as
chromic acid or a mixture of bichromate of potassium and sulphuric acid;
and from succinic acid, by its different deportment with sesquichloride of
iron (_Test 3, antè_), and with a mixture of alcohol, ammonia, and
solution of chloride of barium (_T. 5, antè_).

_Estim._——1. By weighing it as benzoic acid, obtained either by
precipitation, or by very careful sublimation in a glass apparatus:——2. By
neutralising its alcoholic or aqueous solution, by the usual method of
acidimetry:——3. By precipitating its neutral solution with acetate of
lead, or with sesquichloride of iron, and weighing the carefully washed
and dried precipitate either as benzoate of lead, or as ferric benzoate.

_Pur., &c._ White crystalline silky plates and needles, have an aromatic
odour. Solubility in cold water, 1 in 300; in boiling water, 1 in 12; in
spirit, 1 in 4. Also soluble in caustic alkalies and lime. Borax
considerably increases its solubility in water; 1 of benzoic acid and 1 of
borax are soluble in 100 of water. It sublimes without residue when
heated. It is sometimes met with adulterated with hippuric acid, which may
be easily detected by its altered form, by its diminishing solubility in
cold water, and by its exhaling an odour of tonquin-beans, and afterwards
of hydrocyanic acid, when sublimed. The presence of succinic acid may be
readily detected by its greatly increased solubility in cold water; that
of sugar, not only by its increased solubility, and partial volatility,
but also by the odour of caramel being evolved on the application of
sufficient heat, and the residuum being black and carbonaceous; that of
camphor, by its peculiar odour when gently heated. Spermaceti, specially
prepared for the purpose, is also an occasional adulterant, easily
detected by its insolubility and other well-known properties. All these
substances either destroy or lack the proper crystalline form of benzoic
acid, which is one of the best proofs of its purity. They also greatly
increase its sp. gr.

_Uses, &c._ Its chief use in _medicine_ is as a stimulant and expectorant.
It is an ingredient in the compound tincture of camphor (paregoric elixir)
of the pharmacopœia.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., dissolved in water by the aid
of a little ammonia or potassa; in old coughs, &c.

=BENZOIC AL′COHOL.= A peculiar oily fluid, discovered by M. Cannizzaro,
and obtained by the action of an alcoholic solution of potassa on pure oil
of bitter almonds.

=BENZOIN′=, B. P. (-zoyn′; zō′-ĭn). _Syn._ GUM-BENZOIN*‡, BEN′JAMIN†*,
GUM-B.†*; BENZÖI′NUM, L., B. P.; BENJOIN, Fr.; BENZÖE, Ger. The balsamic
resin exuded from incisions made in the stem of the _styrax benzoin_, a
native of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Laos, and Siam. Several varieties of
benzoin are in the market; two only, however, are chiefly used in
medicine, one in agglutinated masses, the other (from Siam), in tears,
being the purer and having the stronger odour.

_Prop., &c._ Odour agreeable, and somewhat like that of vanilla, but more
balsamic; fracture conchoidal; lustre greasy; sp. gr. 1·063 to 1·092. It
fuses at a gentle heat and exhales white fumes, which, on condensation,
are found to be benzoic acid contaminated with a little volatile oil.
Alcohol dissolves the larger portion of it, ether much less, and the
volatile and fixed oils only a little. It contains from 9% to 18, or
(occasionally) nearly 20%, of benzoic acid, according to the quality. It
burns with an agreeable odour. The resin and its alcoholic solution strike
a bright red colour with oil of vitriol, and a green colour with chloride
of iron.

Benzoin has occasionally been sold by fraudulent dealers after its benzoic
acid has been removed by the wet method. When the gum has been thus
treated it will not show the agglutinated tears, upon fracture, which
commonly distinguishes it when intact.

_Uses, &c._ It is chiefly employed in perfumery, and as an ingredient in
incense, fumigating pastilles, &c.; also in court-plaster, in certain
cosmetics, and to scent the varnish used for snuff-boxes, walking-sticks,
&c. As a medicine, its general effects resemble those of the other true
balsams, and of benzoic acid.——_Dose_, 5 or 6 to 20, or even 30 gr., in
powder, and usually in combination with some other remedy; chiefly in
chronic pulmonary and bronchial affections, when occurring in torpid
habits, and unaccompanied by inflammatory symptoms or gastric irritation.
Also as a fumigation in the same diseases, hooping-cough, &c. Like benzoic
acid, it is used to prevent rancidity in ointments, pomades, and other
fatty preparations.

=BENZOINUM.= See BENZOIN.

=BEN′ZOL= (-zōle). C_{6}H_{6}. [_benz_(oin)-_oleum._] _Syn._ BEN′ZENE*,
BEN′ZĬNE, BEN′ZŌLE*, HYDRĬDE OF PHE′NY̆̆L*, PHE′NE†, &c.; BENZO′LEUM, L.;
BENZINE, Fr.; BENZÖL, Ger. A peculiar ethereal hydrocarbon discovered, by
Faraday, among the products of the destructive distillation of whale oil
and other organic substances (A.D. 1825); and subsequently shown, by
Mitscherlich, to form the principal ingredient in the distillate procured
by the action of heat on a mixture of benzoic acid and hydrate of lime. In
1849, Mr C. B. Mansfield[154] discovered its presence in coal-tar naphtha,
from which the benzol of commerce is now chiefly, if not wholly, obtained.

[Footnote 154: This unfortunate chemist lost his life (Feb. 25, 1855), in
consequence of being severely burned whilst experimenting on benzol.]

_Prep._ 1. PURE:——_a._ A mixture of benzoic acid, 1 part; fresh-slaked
lime, 3 parts; is submitted, in a coated glass or earthenware retort, to a
heat slowly raised to redness; the oily portion of the resulting
distillate is then separated from the water, and carefully rectified, with
the proper precautions, at a temperature not exceeding 190° Fahr. The
product is usually stated to be pure benzol; but to ensure this it may be
submitted to one refrigeration and rectification, in the manner and at the
temperature noticed below.

_b._ From good commercial benzol, agitated with 1-4th or 1-5th of its
weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, and, after repose and decantation,
rectified at a temperature under 195° Fahr.; the resulting distillate is
exposed to a temperature below[155] 32° Fahr., and the mass of crystals
that form are thrown on a funnel, kept at the same temperature, to drain,
after which they are pressed between folds of bibulous paper,[156] and
then allowed to liquefy by simple exposure, in a close vessel, to the
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. The product, after rectification
at a temperature not exceeding 190,° is nearly pure benzol. It may be
rendered absolutely pure by repeating the refrigeration a second and a
third time, followed by a final rectification at 180-185° Fahr.

[Footnote 155: Preferably considerably below. If the distillate be not
rich in benzol, a temperature so low as 8 or 10°, or even 4-5°, Fahr. may
be necessary or, at all events, advantageous.]

[Footnote 156: Filtration under pressure is thought by some chemists to be
preferable. For this purpose a ‘Beart’s Coffee-pot’ (or a similarly
constructed apparatus), was often employed by Mansfield, and is
recommended by Prof. Muspratt.]

2. COMMERCIAL:——By submitting light coal-tar naphtha to distillation,
either at once, or after it has been agitated with a little oil of
vitriol, and decanted, care being taken that the temperature does not
exceed 200° Fahr.

A drawing and description of the apparatus invented by Mansfield for the
preparation of benzol from coal-tar naphtha is given below.

[Illustration]

A is the still placed on a furnace R; C is filled with cold water. As soon
as the oil in the still boils, the vapours are condensed in B, and flow
back into A; this continues until the water in C has been heated to a
certain temperature, when the vapours are condensed in the cooler D, the
liquid flowing at _n_ into the carboy S. As soon as the water in C begins
to boil, all the substances contained in the coal-tar naphtha and volatile
at 212° Fahr. are condensed and collected in S. A very pure benzol is
obtained by this apparatus. By opening the tap _m_, the hydrocarbons which
boil over 212° Fahr. can be rectified. The stopcock _i_ is used for
opening the still.

In the benzol works the apparatus shown below is employed.

A is the still, B the condenser, C a water-tank. At the commencement of
the operation the water in C is heated by means of the steam-pipe D which
communicates with the steam boiler. The tube G is attached to the still;
_i_ is a contrivance for filling, _b_ for emptying it. The condensed water
is carried off by means of H. By freezing benzol and pressing the solid
substance obtained, it may be rendered quite pure.

[Illustration]

_Prop._ Pure benzol is a clear, colourless, very mobile liquid, having a
strong, characteristic, and rather agreeable ethereal odour. It is neutral
to test-paper; exceedingly volatile at all temperatures; insoluble in
water; miscible with alcohol and with ether; highly inflammable; burns
with a brilliant flame, emitting clouds of smoke, which rapidly condense
and fall as a shower of fine sooty, carbonaceous matter; boils at 176°
Fahr.;[157] solidifies, at 32°, to a snowy white camphor-like mass, or
when very slowly refrigerated, to beautiful transparent cruciform
leaflets, which aggregate together into forms resembling fern-fronds;
remelts at 40-1° Fahr.; and when solidifies burns, like camphor, without
previous fusion. Sp. gr. ·850;[158] sp. gr. of vapour, 2·770.[159] It is
unaffected by the ordinary hydrated acids, and has no action on the
alkaline metals. Highly concentrated nitric acid readily dissolves it, and
from this solution nitrobenzol is precipitated on the addition of water.
Its vapour is dangerously inflammable, and, when mixed with the air, is
highly explosive. Its solvent power extends over a numerous list of
substances. Commercial benzol has a less agreeable odour, and not
unfrequently a slight colour, with other modifications of the properties
just enumerated, depending on the relative amount of impurities contained
in it.

[Footnote 157: Fownes, Mansfield, Muspratt, and others; 186°——Mitscherlich
187°——Mr C. G. Williams (in Ure’s ‘Dict. of A. M., & M.,’ 5th ed.). (See
next note.)]

[Footnote 158: Williams, Ure, Muspratt; ·885——Fownes, Mitscherlich. The
different sp. gr. and boiling-points assigned to benzol, by authors, can
only be accounted for by samples of different degrees of purity having
probably been examined. The numbers given in the text are those not
usually adopted; but we are not prepared to say, that they are definitely
settled. On the contrary, we think it not unlikely that further
investigations may show that the apparently greater levity of the benzole
obtained from naphtha may arise from the presence of some other
hydrocarbon which has hitherto escaped detection.]

[Footnote 159: Theoretically, 2·738.]

_Pur._——1. It should be colourless, without action on either litmus or
turmeric paper, and have the boiling-point, sp. gr.,[160] &c. already
indicated:——2. A few drops thrown on a slip of glass or a piece of white
paper should rapidly and entirely evaporate by simple exposure to the air
without leaving a stain behind, or evolving any disagreeable or foreign
odour:——3. Agitation with a little sulphuric acid should not discolour
it:——4. It should not perceptibly lose weight or volume by agitation with
a little cold water.

[Footnote 160: If it has a less sp. gr. than ·850, it is probably
adulterated with the naphtha obtained from the Torbane-hill mineral or
Boghead-coal, of which the sp. gr. is only ·750.]

_Detec._——1. From the physical and other properties already
enumerated:——2. By converting it into aniline and then testing it
accordingly. For this purpose a little of it is dissolved in concentrated
nitric acid, and the nitrobenzol thus formed is precipitated by the
addition of water. The fluid is then agitated with ether, to dissolve out
the nitrobenzol, and the resulting ethereal solution is mixed with an
equal bulk of alcohol and hydrochloric acid and a little granulated zinc
at once added. Hydrogen is evolved, and by its action the nitro-compound
is converted into aniline. The liquid is next alkalised with potassa in
excess, and the alkaline fluid agitated with ether. The ethereal solution,
on evaporation, leaves a residue (aniline), which, after the addition of a
little water, may be tested with a few drops of solution of chloride of
lime, when a characteristic purple colour will be developed, provided the
original liquor was benzole, or contained it. In this way very minute
traces of benzol may be detected.

_Uses, &c._ In its impure or commercial form, chiefly as a solvent for
gutta percha and india rubber; but it leaves the first in a spongy,
friable state, and the latter glutinous or sticky, unless heat is applied
to it for some time; also as a solvent in the manufacture of varnishes, as
a diluent in lieu of oil of turpentine, for oil-paints, as a material for
the production of artificial light, &c., &c. In the pure or nearly pure
form it is largely employed in the laboratory and in chemical analysis as
a solvent of many resins,[161] mastic, wax, camphor, fat, the fixed and
essential oils, sulphur, phosphorus, iodine, several of the
alkaloids,[162] &c., &c. Under the name of BENZINE and BENZINE-COLLAS it
has been recently extensively vended for the removal of spots of grease,
paint, &c., from woven fabrics, which it does most readily and completely,
without detriment to the material. As a source of artificial light it has
been the subject of innumerable applications and patents. It may be burned
in a ‘wickless’ lamp, provided a proper cap-burner be employed. Alcohol or
pyroxilic spirit containing 1-3rd, or even 1-4th of it, burns with a rich
white flame. Air driven through it becomes sufficiently inflammable to
serve as illuminating gas; whilst ordinary coal-gas by merely passing over
it yields a flame of greatly increased brilliancy; but in all these
applications the greatest possible care is necessary to prevent
accidents.[163] See NAPHTHA (Coal-tar).

[Footnote 161: Anime and copal are scarcely affected by it in the fluid
state, but readily dissolve in its vapour at the point of condensation.]

[Footnote 162: Particularly quinine, which it dissolves readily, but not
cinchonine. Hence it is invaluable for the separation of them. It may be
economically and conveniently substituted for ether in the preparation of
many alkaloids, with the advantage of being applicable in many cases in
which ether cannot be employed.]

[Footnote 163: Workmen constantly exposed to the vapour of benzol are very
subject to nervous irritability, and, where the apartment is
ill-ventilated, even fits of nervous prostration and trembling, of a truly
alarming character. In two or three cases which we have seen, the
symptoms, to the inexperienced eye, closely resembled those occasionally
resulting from the long-continued use of very minute doses of strychnia,
or of the alcoholic extract of nux vomica.]

=Benzol, Nitrate of.= See NITRO-BENZOL.

=BENZOLINE.= A product of the fractional distillation of American rock
oil. If used for burning purposes, care should always be taken to use a
sponge lamp, so as to ensure the benzoline vapour (which is extremely
inflammable) being well diluted with air when burnt.

=BENZOYL.= C_{7}H_{5}O. The radical of an extensive series of compounds,
of which the hydride, C_{7}H_{5}OH (essential oil of bitter almonds), and
benzoic acid, HC_{7}H_{5}O_{2} are the most important members.

=Benzoyl, Hy′dride of.= C_{7}H_{5}OH. _Syn._ ESSENCE OF BITTER ALMONDS,
ESSENTIAL OIL OF BITTER ALMONDS, VOLATILE OIL OF BITTER ALMONDS.

_Prep._ 1. The crude oil of bitter almonds is agitated with a moderately
dilute solution of protochloride of iron which has been previously mixed
with fresh hydrate of lime in excess, and the whole, after having been
placed in a retort connected with a suitable receiver, is subjected to
distillation. The oil passes over mixed with water, from which it is
easily separated after repose. By subjecting it to a second agitation and
distillation with a fresh mixture of the protochloride and hydrate, and,
after careful separation from the water which distils over with it,
allowing it to remain for some hours in contact with fragments of fused
chloride of calcium, to free it from all traces of adhering water, the
product will be nearly chemically pure, provided the whole process has
been conducted with as little access of air as possible.

2. (Liebig.) Agitate the crude oil of bitter almonds with mercuric oxide
in slight excess, and, after a few days’ contact, rectify the oil from a
little fresh oxide. The product is quite pure when the process is properly
managed. The bicyanide of mercury thus formed may be either employed as
such, or reconverted into oxide of mercury and hydrocyanic acid.

_Prop., &c._ A rather thin, colourless liquid, of great refractive power
and characteristic and agreeable odour; soluble in 35 parts of water;
miscible in all proportions with alcohol and ether; it boils at 356°
Fahr.; on exposure to the air it rapidly absorbs oxygen, and becomes
converted into a mass of crystallised benzoic acid; heated with solid
hydrate of potassa hydrogen is evolved, and benzoate of potassium formed;
with the alkaline bisulphites it forms beautiful crystalline compounds.
Its flame, and that of its vapour, is bright but very smoky. Sp. gr.
1·043. It differs from the crude or common oil of bitter almonds chiefly
in the absence of hydrocyanic acid, and consequently in not being
poisonous. It has hence been proposed as a substitute for the crude oil as
a flavouring ingredient in cookery, confectionery, liqueurs, &c.; but is
unfitted for the purpose, owing to the rapid deterioration it suffers
unless it be kept absolutely excluded from the air.

_Formiate of Hydride of Benzoyle._ See FORMOBENZOIC ACID.

=BER′BERINE= (-een).[164] C_{20}H_{17}NO_{4}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._
BAR′BERĬNE*, BER′BERITE* (of Thomson); BERBERI′NA, L. A substance
discovered by Buchner and Herberger in the root of the common barberry
shrub (_ber′beris vulga′ris_, Linn.); and subsequently, by Bödecker, in
calumba-root; and more recently by Mr Perrins, in the calumba-wood
(_menispermum fenestratum_) of Ceylon, which contains a considerable
quantity of it.

[Footnote 164: This substance must not be confounded with BEEBERINE or
BIBERINE (which _see_).]

_Prep._ 1. A soft watery extract of the root, or of the wood, is digested
in rectified spirit, with trituration, as long as anything is taken up;
the resulting tincture, after repose, is filtered, and the alcohol
gradually distilled off until the residuum has the consistence of a thin
syrup. The crystals which form as the liquid cools are drained in a
funnel, washed with a few drops of ice-cold water, pressed dry in bibulous
paper, and then purified by solution and crystallisation, first in
rectified spirit, and next in distilled water.

2. By digesting the root, or the wood (coarsely powdered) in rectified
spirit, and then proceeding as before.

_Prop._ Berberine may be classed with the azotised colouring substances;
or, from its composition and its possessing feeble basic properties, with
the alkaloids. It crystallises in fine needles, or in stellated prisms,
which are yellow, odourless, very bitter-tasted, neutral to test-paper,
and contain 12 equiv. of water. At 212° Fahr. it acquires a red colour;
but recovers its normal yellow on cooling. A much higher temperature
decomposes it, yellow vapours being evolved. It is freely soluble in
boiling water and in alcohol, from either of which solutions it may be
readily obtained in crystals. It requires 500 parts of water at 60° to
dissolve it, and very much more at lower temperatures. Its solutions are
yellow; that in alcohol appears green by reflected light. The concentrated
mineral acids destroy it. Its salts are more or less soluble.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly in medicine, in similar cases to those in which the
use of calumba-root is indicated. It has been highly recommended in
dyspepsia and heartburn, in disturbed action of the liver, and, combined
with iron (lactate, phosphate, or hyposulphite), in chlorosis, anæmia, &c.
According to M. Altin, it is an effectual remedy for the mucal, colourless
diarrhœa, and the derangement of the urinary secretions which commonly
follow cholera.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr.; in larger doses it proves laxative.
See CALUMBA, &c.

=BERENIZON= (Dr Charles Wortley). A preparation for promoting the growth
of the hair. Balsam of Peru 3 grammes, castor oil 3 grammes, tinct.
cinchona 4 grammes, spirit 85 grammes, rosewater 40 grammes. (Schädler.)

=BERG′AMOT.= _Syn._ BERGAMO′TA, L.; BERGAMOTE, Fr.; BERGAMOTTE, Fr., Ger.
The bergamot-lemon, or fruit of _cit′rus ber′ga′mia_; also sometimes,
colloquially, the fragrant oil obtained from its rind. See OILS
(Volatile).

=BERGBALSAM——MOUNTAIN BALSAM= (of G. Schmidt, Berlin). Recommended for
hemorrhoids, want of appetite, headache, constipation, &c. Rhubarb 2
parts, cortex frangulæ 10 parts, milfoil flowers (_Achillea millefolium_)
1 part, tansy 1 part, crystallised soda 1-1/2 parts; be digested for some
hours in warm water, the fluid expressed made up to 26 parts, 30 parts of
sugar dissolved in it, and lastly mixed with 17 parts of rectified
spirit. (Hager.)

=BER′RY= (bĕr′-re). _Syn._ BAC′CA (pl. _bac′cæ_, -sē), L.; BAIE, Fr.;
BEERE, Ger. Any small succulent or pulpy fruit containing several naked
seeds or granules. In _botany_, an indehiscent pericarp or seed-vessel,
pulpy, many-celled, and many-seeded, the seeds being naked, and for a time
connected by a slender membrane, from which they become detached at
maturity, and then remain dispersed through the pulp. It is distinguished
by its figure, &c., into several varieties.

The leading berries employed in domestic economy and the arts are noticed
in their alphabetical places (which _see_).

=BER′YL= (bĕr-rĭl). _Syn._ AQUAMARINE′ (rēne); A′QUA-MARI′NA, BERYL′LUS,
L.; AIGUE-MARINE, BÉRIL, Fr.; BERYLL, &c., Ger.; SMARAGD, It. A beautiful
mineral, which, in its richer forms, is classed with the gems. It is
usually of a green colour of various shades, passing into honey-yellow and
sky-blue. It is allied in composition to the emerald; but occurs in much
larger crystals than that gem, and owes its colour to oxide of iron
instead of oxide of chromium. According to Gmelin its composition
is——Silica, 68·7%; alumina, 17·6%; glucina, 13·4%; red oxide of iron,
·24%. Other (previous) authorities state that it contains fully 14% of
glucina, 2% of lime, and 1% of oxide of iron.

The finest beryls come from Dauria on the frontiers of China, from
Siberia, and from Brazil. Some of gigantic size have been found in the
U.S., at Ackworth and Grantham, New Hampshire, and at Royalston, Mass. One
of these measured 32 × 22 × 15 inches, and weighed 2900 _lbs._; another,
12 × 24 × 45 inches, and weighed 1076 _lbs._

Apatite or Saxony beryl, chrysolite or pierre d’asperge, coloured
fluor-spar, and even natural crystals of phosphate of iron, are often
worked up by the lapidaries and passed off as beryls, or false beryls,
emeralds, topazes, &c. See GEMS, PASTES, &c.

=BERYL′LA*.= See GLUCINUM, OXIDE OF.

=BERYL′LIUM*.= See GLUCINIUM.

=BETAINE.= C_{5}H_{11}NO_{21}. An alkaloid occurring in the juice of the
mangold-wurzel. Scheibler prepares it as follows:——The expressed juice of
the mangold-wurzel, strongly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, is mixed
with a solution of sodium phosphotungstate;[165] the resulting precipitate
containing albumen, colouring matter, woody fibre, and a small quantity of
the base, is filtered as quickly as possible, and the filtrate, mixed with
a fresh quantity of the precipitant, is left to itself for eight or ten
days. It then gradually deposits on the bottom and sides of the vessel a
crystalline precipitate, which is rinsed with a little water and treated
with milk of lime, whereby insoluble calcium phosphotungstate is produced,
while the betaine remains in solution. The filtered liquid freed from lime
by carbonic acid, and evaporated, leaves impure betaine, which may be
purified by recrystallisation from alcohol, with help of animal charcoal.

[Footnote 165: Prepared by dissolving sodium bitungstate in ordinary
phosphoric acid, adding hydrochloric acid, and decanting the clear
solution from the precipitate thereby produced.]

A hydrochlorate, a sulphate, an aurochloride, and a platinic chloride of
betaine have been prepared.

=BE′TEL= (bē′tl). [Eng., Ger.] _Syn._ BE′TLE, BE′TEL-TREE, B. PEPPER-TREE;
BÉTEL, Fr.; WASSERPFEFFER, &c., Ger.; PI′PER BE′TEL (Linn.), CHAVICA BETLE
(Miquel), L. A climbing plant of the nat. ord. Piperaceæ, common in India
and the East. Its leaves, which somewhat resemble those of the citron, are
bitter, stomachic, tonic, stimulant, and sialogogue.

=Betel.= A common masticatory in the East, where it is chewed in the same
way as tobacco is by Europeans and Americans, but much more generally,
being regarded by the Malays, Sumatrans, &c., as an absolute necessary of
life. It is commonly formed by dividing areca-nuts[166] into four or six
equal parts or slices, one of which is rolled up, with a little
chunam,[167] in a sirih or leaf of the piper-betel,[168] and then
constitutes a ‘quid’ ready for use.

[Footnote 166: In many cases suitable pieces of the whole fruit, including
the husk, are used; and in others only the husk (PINANG); there being
different strengths and qualities of ‘betel’ employed.]

[Footnote 167: Lime made by burning shells.]

[Footnote 168: In some cases, the leaf of chavica siriboa (Miq.), which
possesses similar properties, is employed.]

_Prop., &c._ Betel, in those accustomed to its use, produces a species of
pleasing excitement or intoxication, stimulates the action of the salivary
glands, stomach, and kidneys, corrects acidity, diminishes cutaneous
perspiration, restrains excessive discharges, increases the power of
physical exertion and endurance, moderates the effects of climate, and
appears to act as a general tonic on the system. It darkens the teeth, and
tinges the saliva as well as the mouth and lips of a bright red colour. In
those unhabituated to its use it causes giddiness, astringes and
excoriates the mouth and fauces, and temporarily deadens the sense of
taste. The Indians conceive that it preserves and fastens the teeth,
cleanses and strengthens the gums, sweetens the breath, cools the mouth,
assists respiration, and acts as a general aphrodisiac on both sexes.
Peron states that he preserved his health during a long and very trying
voyage by the habitual use of betel, whilst his companions, who did not
use it, died mostly of dysentery.[169]

[Footnote 169: ‘Voyage aux Terres Australes.’]

=BE′TEL-NUT.= _Syn._ ARE′CA-NUT; NUX ARE′CÆ CAT′ECHU, N.-BE′TEL, &c., L.
The seed of the catechu-palm (_are′ca_, _cat′echu_, Linn.), divested of
the husk or fibrous pericarp. The whole fruit (ARECA-NUT of commerce) is
about the size of a small egg; the husked nut is of the size of a large
nutmeg. The whole fruit is remarkable for its narcotic or intoxicating
power. It has, however, been thought doubtful whether its intoxicating
effect is not owing to the piper-leaf in which it is wrapped when eaten
(chewed), rather than to any special property of its own. See ARECA
CATECHU.

=BETTNASSEN, Remedy for Incontinence of Urine= (prepared by Dr
Kirchhoffer, in Kappel by St. Galle). Thirty powders, each consisting of 2
grammes ferri carbonas, 4 grammes ergotæ pulv., ·03 grammes extract. sem.
strychni. aquos. The prescription for the embrocation runs——Spirit
serpylli 120 grammes, tinct. sem. strychni. 60 grammes, liq. ammon. 15
grammes. (Hager.)

=BET′ULINE= (-ū-lĭn; bē-tū). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BETULI′NA, L. A
crystalline substance obtained from the bark of the white birch (_be′tŭla
al′ba_, Linn.).

=BE′ZOAR= (-zōre). [Eng., L. indecl.; prim. Pers.[170]] _Syn._
BE′ZOAR-STONE; BEZOÄR′DUS, LA′PIS BEZOÄR′DICUS, &c., L.; BÉZOAR, BÉZOARD,
Fr.; BEZOARSTEIN, Ger. The name of preternatural concretions found in the
stomach, intestines, &c., of certain animals, and formerly supposed to
possess the most extraordinary antidotal power and medicinal virtues. So
far, indeed, did this belief extend, that other substances regarded as
antidotes were called BEZOAR′DICS†, or otherwise named after them; whilst
the adj. BEZOAR′DIC† (bĕz-) and BEZOAR′TICAL† (bézoardique, Fr.;
bezoar′dicus, L.), came to be synonymous with antidotal. Certain bezoars
were once valued at even ten times their weight in gold. They were not
only taken internally, but also worn as amulets. They have, however, long
since fallen into disuse in this country.

[Footnote 170: Some authorities derive this word from _badzahr_ or
_pazahar_, Persian compounds implying ‘antidote to poison,’ others, from
_paseng_, or _pasahr_, the name of the goat in Persia. Mayne’s
notation——_bez oar_, is unusual; and several of his analogues, synonymes,
&c., are incorrectly given (? misprinted).]

Among the leading bezoars of old medicine are——

=Bezoar, Ger′man.= _Syn._ BE′ZOÄR GERMAN′ICUM, B. CAPRI′NUM, L. From the
Alpine goat.

=Bezoar, Hu′man.= _Syn._ B. HOM′INIS, L. Falsely stated to be found
occasionally in man.

=Bezoar, Microcos′mic.= _Syn._ B. MICROCOS′MICUM, L. Human urinary
calculi.

=Bezoar, Mon′key.= _Syn._ B. SIM′Æ, LA′PIS S., L. From certain species of
ape or monkey, obtained by giving an emetic.

=Bezoar Occiden′tal.= _Syn._ WEST′ERN B.; B. OCCIDENTA′LE, L. Found in the
fourth stomach of the chamois or wild goat of Peru, &c.; or, according to
others, of a species of antelope.

=Bezoar, Orien′tal.= _Syn._ EAST′ERN B.; B. ORIENTA′LE, LAPIS B.
ORIENTA′LIS, L. From the fourth stomach of _ca′pra æga′grus_, a species of
goat inhabiting the mountains of Persia, &c.

=Bezoar, Ox.= _Syn._ B. BOVI′NUM, L. From the ox, and other bovine
animals.

=Bezoar, Por′cupine.= _Syn._ B. HYS′TRICIS, B. HYS′TRICUS, LA′PIS H., L.
PORCI′NUS, &c., L. Said to be found in the gall-bladder of the Indian
porcupine. Chiefly from Malacca. Has an intensely bitter taste, which it
imparts to water.

=Bezoar, West′ern.= See OCCIDENTAL BEZOAR (_antè_).

Of the preceding, those from the stomach of ruminants vary in size from
that of a bean to that of a hen’s egg, and have a composition and
appearance closely imitated by the following formula, the product of which
is commonly sold for them:——

=Bezoar, Facti′′tious.= _Prep._ From pipe-clay, or clay and chalk, equal
parts, made into a stiff paste with ox-gall; a little hair or wool being
added, and the resulting mixture pressed by the hands into small masses of
a flattened spheroidal or egg-like form. These give a yellow tint to paper
rubbed with chalk, and a green one to quick-lime, which tests are used for
genuine bezoars. Like the latter, they are antacid or absorbent, which is
probably the only virtue they possess.

Amongst ‘chemical bezoars’ now obsolete even on the Continent were——

=Bezoar, Ar′gentine†=; B. LUNA′′RE, L. Made by distilling butter of
antimony with a solution of nitrate of silver. Once highly esteemed in
epilepsy and head diseases.

=Bezoar, Min′eral=; B. MINERA′LE, L. Powder of algaroth deflagrated with
nitre in a red-hot crucible, and then well washed with water. Once used as
a diaphoretic. Other similar preparations were B. JOVIA′LE (from tin), and
B. MARTIALE (from iron).

=Bezoar, Sat′urnine=, B. OF LEAD; B. SATUR′NI, L. Made by distilling a
mixture of oxide of lead, butter of antimony, and nitric acid. Once highly
esteemed in diseases of the spleen.

=BHAURTA.= In Indian cookery, a dish made of mashed potatoes and onions,
strongly spiced with capsicum, and sometimes also with curry-powder,
shaped in a mould, and then slightly baked.

=BIBAS′IC.= _Syn._ BIBAS′ICUS, L.; BIBASIQUE, Fr. In _chemistry_, having
two bases, or two atoms of the base or basic radical in its composition.
See ACID, NOMENCLATURE, SALT, &c.

=BIB′ERON= (bĭb′-rōn_g_). [Fr.] A sucking-bottle or ‘artificial mother.’
See BOTTLES.

=BI′BIRINE= (bē′-). See BEBEERINE.

=BIB′ULOUS= (-ū-). _Syn._ BIB′ULUS, L.; SPONGIEUX, Fr. Absorptive; spongy.

=BICAR′BONATE.= A salt in which only half the hydrogen in (hypothetical)
carbonic acid (H_{2}CO_{3}) is replaced by a metal, _e.g._ bicarbonate of
sodium, NaHCO_{3}.

=BICE= (bīse), _Syn._ BLUE BICE. See BLUE PIGMENTS.

=Bice, Green.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=BICKEL′SCHER THEE=, for constipation, flatulence, hemorrhoids, loss of
appetite, stomach complaints, and similar diseases. Cassia lignea and
anise, of each 3 parts; cumin and fennel seed, each 4 parts; senna leaves,
20 parts; to be bruised together. (Selle and Hager.)

=BI′DERY= (bē′-). _Syn._ VI′DRY. An alloy of which the chief seat of the
manufacture is the city of Bider′, near Hyderabad, India. It was first
brought under the notice of the British public at the International
Exhibition of 1851, where many articles made of it were greatly admired
for the elegance of their forms, and the gracefulness of their engraved
and enchased patterns.

_Prep._ 1. Zinc, 31 parts; copper and lead, of each 2 parts; melted
together, with the usual precautions, under a mixture of resin and
beeswax, to prevent oxidation.[171]

[Footnote 171: These are very nearly the proportions which Dr Hamilton
says he saw used in India.]

2. (Dr Heyne.) Copper, 8 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part; melted
together, as before. For use, the resulting alloy is remelted, and to
every 3 parts of it 16 parts of zinc are added.

_Prop., &c._ Colour between that of pewter and zinc; does not corrode by
exposure to air or damp; yields little to the hammer, and can only be
broken by extreme violence. It possesses a convenient degree of
fusibility, above that of zinc and tin, but much lower than that of
copper. For the turner it is usually cast in moulds of baked clay; but
otherwise in moulds of iron or other hard metal. The beautiful black
colour which the finished articles possess is imparted by dipping them
into a solution of sal-ammoniac, saltpetre, sea-salt, and blue vitriol.
See BRASS, BRONZE, PEWTER, &c.

=BIDET′= (bĭd-ĕt′; -ā′——Fr.). An article of bedroom furniture conveniently
formed for laving the lower part of the body. Besides the value of its use
as an instrument of personal cleanliness and health, it offers a ready
means of medicating the parts, often highly serviceable in piles,
prolapsus, affections of the scrotum and prostate gland, strangury,
ischuria, suppressed or difficult menstruation, &c. See ABLUTION, BATHS,
&c.

=BIELEFELDER TROPFEN——BIELEFIELDER DROPS= (Bansi). A spirituous extract of
wormwood, unripe oranges, rhubarb, cascarilla, cloves, and gentian.
(Hager.)

=BIEN′NIAL= (bī-ĕn′-y′ăl). _Syn._ BIEN′NIS, L.; BIENNAL, BISANNUEL, DE
DEUX ANS, Fr.; ZWEIJÄHRIG, Ger. Occurring once in, or lasting, two years.
In _botany_ and _gardening_, applied to plants that do not produce flowers
and seed until the second year or season of their growth, and which then
die; subst., a biennial plant.

The existence of the biennials, like that of the annuals, may be prolonged
by art; indeed, many of them, by carefully removing the flowers ere the
seed-vessels begin to form, may be made to bloom a second season, and even
for several seasons following, like perennials. See ANNUALS, FLOWERS,
PLANTS, &c.

=BIFF′IN.= A baked apple, flattened by pressure.

_Prep._ The apples are placed in a cool oven 6 or 7 times in succession,
and flattened each time by gentle pressure, gradually applied, as soon as
they are soft enough to bear it; after which they are taken out, and as
soon as cold put on clean dishes or glass plates. The sour or tart variety
of apples is the best for baking. If the process be well managed, the
appearance of the prepared fruit is very rich and the flavour delicious.

=BIL′BERRY.= The whortleberry.

=Bilberry, Bear’s.= Uva ursi.

=BILE.= _Syn._ BI′LIS,[172] CHO′LE,[173] FEL,[174] L.; BILE, FIEL, GALLE,
Fr.; GALLE, &c., Ger. A bitter fluid secreted by the liver, from venous
blood; in part flowing from the intestines, and in part regurgitating into
the gall-bladder. Its composition is of a very complex character; and its
uses in the animal economy appear to be——to separate the chyle from the
chyme, to promote the digestion and assimilation of oleaginous substances,
and to assist in exciting the peristaltic action of the intestines. The
fæces appear to owe their colour chiefly to the presence of bile; as,
without it, they possess a dirty pipe-clay colour. Several of the
substances which enter into its composition, or which are formed from
those which do so, are noticed elsewhere, under their respective names.
Its analysis, detection, and uses in the arts are given under GALL.

[Footnote 172: Properly, the ‘gall’ after it leaves the ‘gall-bladder’——a
sense retained in its English analogue.]

[Footnote 173: Χολη, Gr.]

[Footnote 174: Strictly, the gall-bladder with the gall.]

=Bile= (of Animals). See GALL.

=BILE, Bil′iousness.= Under these terms are popularly included all those
slight affections of the stomach usually accompanied with derangement of
the head and bowels, apparently arising from excess of bile. Persons
subject to attacks of this description should be particularly careful to
avoid excess in both eating and drinking, and should more especially shun
those articles of food and those liquors which, from experience, they find
are apt to disagree with them. A mutton chop, slightly under-dressed, is
an excellent article for the breakfast, or the lunch, of bilious patients;
and good beef or mutton, either broiled or roasted, so that the gravy be
retained, is better for dinner than many dishes apparently more delicate.
These, with fresh game and venison, form a good variety from which to
choose a bill of fare. New beer and porter should be particularly avoided,
as well as boiled meat, stews, soups, greasy or rich puddings, much butter
or fat, and most articles of pastry, as they are very indigestible, and,
by overtasking the powers of the stomach, very apt to derange it. Strong
cheese,[175] salads (particularly cucumbers), over-ripe or unripe fruit,
new bread and rolls, cabbages and green vegetables, and especially peas,
beans, nuts, almonds, and the like, are also objectionable for parties
with delicate stomachs or a bilious tendency. The bread eaten by such
persons should be perfectly free from alum, and preferably prepared with
meal retaining the whole of the bran in it; and should be two days, or at
the least one day old. The quantity of animal food per day, except for the
laborious, should be limited to from 6 or 8 to 12 _oz._; and warm slops of
all kinds, except moderately strong tea and coffee, should be taken as
seldom as possible, and, in general, avoided altogether. Even cocoa and
chocolate prove injurious to the delicate and bilious. Out-door exercise
and plenty of fresh air are essential to the health of such persons. Those
who indulge in them freely are never attacked with affections of this
kind, unless it be after gluttonising or heavy drinking. Above all things
heavy and late suppers should be abandoned; indeed, the better plan is to
take nothing more than a hard biscuit, or dry crust, after tea.

[Footnote 175: Rotten cheese is absolute poison to the bilious.]

In general, attacks of bile may be prevented by the exercise of moderate
judgment and temperance in living; and in those hitherto subject to them
by the occasional use of an aloetic, mercurial, or saline aperient; and
they may be generally rapidly removed by an emetic, followed by a dose of
castor oil, Epsom salts, or Seidlitz powder. A tumbler of pure cold water
taken on retiring to rest, and another (or even two) on rising in the
morning, will often remove both the tendency and the fit, when all the
usual remedies have failed. See ABERNETHY MEDICINES, ANTIBILIOUS,
DYSPEPSIA, STOMACH AFFECTIONS, &c.

=BILHARZIA HÆMATOBIA.= A fluke-like parasite. It is bisexual. The body of
the male is thread-shaped, round, white, and flattened anteriorly. The
female is thin and delicate. This creature was discovered in the portal
vein and bladder of man by Bilharz, of Cairo, after whom it was named. It
is especially prevalent in those who dwell by the banks of the Nile, and
is also very frequently met with amongst the inhabitants of the Cape of
Good Hope. It is the cause of very serious disturbance in the human
economy, and not infrequently of death.

The main symptoms of the disease this dangerous parasite sets up are those
which point to derangement of the urinary organs; but its effects are not
confined to these, since there seems little room to doubt that it is the
chief cause of the dysentery so prevalent in Egypt, the eggs of the
diatoma being found deposited within the intestinal vessels, or beneath
the exudations of the swollen mucous membrane. Dr Harley has found the ova
in the urine of persons affected with hæmaturia at the Cape of Good Hope.
When death ensues from the presence of this parasite the post-mortem
appearances are various. In the bowels, congestion, deposits upon the
mucous membrane, and extensive ulcerations, degeneration and atrophy of
the kidneys, dependent upon an infiltrated state of the ureters, and
blocking of the portal vein, due to the presence of myriads of the
parasites, are some of the most important pathological changes.

=BIL′IARY AFFECTIONS= (-yăr-e). See BILE (_antè_), CALCULI, JAUNDICE,
LIVER, &c.

=BI′LINE= (-lĭn). _Syn._ BILI′NA, L. This name has been loosely applied to
two substances:——1. Bile, or pure bile, freed from the mucus of the
gall-bladder, and gently evaporated to dryness. A gummy pale yellow mass,
white when powdered:——2. Tauro-cholalic or choleic acid. See GALL, &c.

=BIL′IOUS= (-yŭs). _Syn._ BILIO′SUS, L.; BILIEUX, Fr.; GALLIG, GALLICHT,
&c., Ger. Pertaining to, caused by, full of, or having excess of bile. See
BILE, BILIOUSNESS.

=BILIPH′EINE= (-e-ĭn). Cholepyrrhine.

=BILIV′ERDINE= (-dĭn). A green colouring matter, identical with
chlorophyll, found in bile, and in the green dejections of children.

=BILL OF FARE.= In _cookery_, _domestic economy_, &c., a list of things
ready dressed or prepared for the table (CARTE, C. D’UN RESTAURANT, MENU,
&c., Fr.); also a list of articles of food in season. For Tables of the
latter, see FOOD.

=BI′NARY.= _Syn._ BINA′′RIUS, L.; BINAIRE, Fr. Consisting of two parts. In
_chemistry_, compounded of two elements, or of two bodies performing the
function of elements.

BINOC′ULAR (-ū-). Having two eyes. In _optics_, of or with two eyes, as
binoc′ular vĭ′′sion; or formed with two eye-pieces or tubes, so as to be
used with two eyes, as a b. mi′croscope, b. tel′escope, &c.

=BIRCH.= _Syn._ BE′TULA, L.; BOULEAU, Fr.; BIRKE, Ger. The common name of
trees of the genus _be′tula_; appr., _b. al′ba_ (Linn.), or white birch;
also its wood. See BETULINE, and _below_.

BIRCH, BLACK. _Syn._ CHER′RY B., SWEET B., MOUNT′AIN MAHOG′ANY;
BETULEN′TA, L. A forest tree of N. America. Wood used for cabinet work;
bark yields a volatile oil similar in odour and taste to that of
gualtheria; juice obtained by tapping, saccharine, and yields BIRCH-SUGAR.

=Birch, White.= _Syn._ BIRCH, (or) COMMON B.; BE′TULA, L. A tree found in
the woods of England. Wood neither very hard nor durable; leaves formerly
used in itch and dropsy; bark febrifuge, yields a pyroligneous oil by
distillation. See OILS (and _above_).

BIRD[176] [Eng., Sax.] _Syn._ A′VIS, L.; OISEAU, Fr.; VOGEL, Ger. Any
fowl or animal of the feathered kind. In fashionable and gourmandic cant,
appr. a partridge. See BIRDS (_below_).

[Footnote 176: Properly, a ‘chicken’ or ‘young flying animal,’——It is
remarkable, as observed by Webster, that a nation should lay aside the
proper generic name of flying animals——‘fowl’ (_fugel_, _fugl_, Sax.;
_vogel_, Ger., Dut.; _fugl_, Dan.; _fogel_, Sw.; from the root of the
Lat., _fugio_, _fugo_), and substitute the name of the young of those
animals as the generic term.]

=BIRD′LIME.= _Syn._ VIS′CUS, L.; GLU, Fr.; VOGELLEIM, Ger. _Prep._ The
middle bark of the holly (gathered in June or July) is boiled for 6 to 8
hours in water, or until it becomes quite soft and tender; the water is
then drained off, and it is placed in a heap, in a pit underground
(commonly on layers of fern), and covered with stones. Here it is left to
ferment for 2 or 3 weeks, and watered, if necessary, until it assumes a
mucilaginous state. It is next pounded in a mortar until reduced to a
uniform mass, which is then well kneaded with the hands in running water,
until all the refuse matter is worked out. It is, lastly, placed in an
earthen vessel, and covered with a little water; in which state it may be
preserved from season to season. In about a week it is fit for use.

_Prop._ Greenish coloured: very gluey, stringy, and tenacious; when
air-dried, brittle and pulverisable, but capable of gradually assuming its
previous viscosity when moistened.

_Uses._ To cover twigs to catch birds, and other small animals. It is said
to be discutient, but is now never employed in medicine.

_Obs._ Birdlime may also be made from mistletoe berries, the young shoots
of the elder, the bark of the wayfaring-tree, and some other vegetables,
by a similar process to that above described. Should any of it stick to
the hands it may be removed by means of a little oil of turpentine.

A kind of factitious birdlime is made by boiling linseed oil either with,
or without, a little yellow resin, until it forms a viscid, stringy paste
when cold. This is chiefly used, spread on paper or cloth, to catch
insects. See FLY-PAPERS, &c.

=BIRDS.= _Syn._ A′VES, L. Birds, besides their value as food, play an
important part in the economy of organic nature, and particularly in that
of the vegetable kingdom. They are the best friends of the agriculturist
and the gardener; and their presence, in numbers, appears essential to
keep down the innumerable races of insects that prey upon our cereals,
fruits, and culinary vegetables. M. Florent Prevost, who has for fifty
years presided over the Natural History Museum of Paris, and who has, like
the ancient Roman augurs, examined the entrails and stomach of fowls with
scientific curiosity, avers, as the result of his long experience, that
birds, of whatever sort, are an unmitigated blessing to the farmer, and
that the detritus and organic particles found by inspection of them in
whole hecatombs, which, by the assistance of the Royal Forest Rangers, he
has sacrificed on the altar of utility, show an immense preponderance of
insect corpuscula in their digestive organs, whilst the traces of cereal
or other valuable products are infinitesimal in comparison. It is found
that even sparrows, rooks, and owls——three of the feathered tribe the most
persecuted by the farmer——are, in reality, the faithful and vigilant
conservators of his fruits and crops. In one of the smaller states of
Germany, where, owing to public rewards being given to their destroyers,
the whole race of sparrows were exterminated, the crops failed to such an
alarming extent that it became necessary to offer large premiums for the
reintroduction of these useful birds from other parts. In some of the
agricultural districts of France, where the destruction of small birds has
been carried on with relentless activity for years, insects have so
prodigiously multiplied as to attack everything green around them. Even
the forest trees are, in many cases, denuded of leaves by them, and are
rapidly perishing. Venomous species of caterpillars, previously scarcely
known except to entomologists, have now become common; and cases of
children losing their lives from attacks of them whilst birdnesting have
been published in newspapers.[177] In our own country the extension of
sparrow-clubs——associations disgraceful to the boasted intelligence of the
nineteenth century——threatens similar results. Already the gardener finds
his fruit-crops lessening year by year; and that many of them,
particularly of the smaller and sweeter fruits, have become so precarious,
that they now scarcely pay for cultivation. In our own neighbourhood,
where small birds have for some years been destroyed by bushels at a time,
it is almost impossible to raise a currant, gooseberry, cherry, or plum;
whilst seedling flowers and culinary vegetables often entirely disappear
on the first night after being planted, or are so completely deprived of
the succulent portion of their leaves and stems, that the remaining
skeleton of network in a few days withers and dies. But this is not
all——the columns of our diurnals bring us continual reports of failing
grain-crops in the neighbourhoods in which these bird-clubs have existed
for any length of time, and that even on land previously remarkable for
its fertility.[178] Did this loss fall only on the benighted beings who so
wilfully cast back the blessings of an all-wise protecting Providence, it
would be a just retribution; but, unfortunately, it affects the whole
nation, and threatens, ere long, unless arrested by legislation, to prove
a national calamity. The only apparent remedy for the evil, at present, is
the diffusion of information tending to show that the farmer and the
gardener, in destroying small birds, destroy their best friends.

[Footnote 177: A striking fatal case of this description is given in the
‘Times’ of June 12, 1862.]

[Footnote 178: See the ‘Times’ and other leading ‘journals’ for 1862.]

[For further information respecting birds, see AVES, BIRD (_antè_), GAME,
GERMAN PASTE, NESTS (Edible), POULTRY, PUTREFACTION, TAXIDERMY, TRUSSING,
&c.]

=BIRKENBALSAM——BIRCH BALSAM= (Dr Friedreich Lengiel). A cosmetic against
wrinkles, small-pock marks, freckles, mole spots, red noses, acne, &c. 5
grammes water glass, 2 grammes potash, 1 gramme soap, 5 grammes gum
arabic, 10 grammes glycerin, 400 grammes water. (Schädler.)

=BIS′COTIN.= [Fr.] A small biscuit. In _cookery_, &c., a species of
confection made of eggs, flour, marmalade, and sugar, variously compounded
and flavoured according to the taste of the operator.

=BIS′CUIT= (-kĭt). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BUCCELLA′TUM, PA′NIS BIS COC′TUS,
L.; SWIEBACK, Ger.; BISCOTTO, It.; BIZCOCHO, Sp. Literally, ‘twice-baked,’
appr., a well-known variety of hard, dry, unleavened bread, made in thin
flat pieces. Those prepared for seamen (SEA′-BISCUITS, CAP′TAIN’S B.[179])
are composed of flour and water only. When made of fine flour and a few
caraway seeds are added, they are commonly called AB′ERNE′THY BISCUITS.
Fancy biscuits generally contain a little sugar and butter, to which
almonds, caraways, mace, ginger, lemon, and other articles, technically
called ‘flavourings,’ are frequently added.

[Footnote 179: A captain’s biscuit differs from a common ‘sea biscuit’ in
being made of finer flour.]

_Prep._ On the small scale, biscuits are made by forming the flour and
water into a dough by the common process of hand-kneading, occasionally
assisted with a lever, as in making ordinary bread. The dough is then
rolled into a sheet, and cut into pieces of the desired size and form.
These, after being stamped, are exposed to the heat of a moderately quick
oven, when a few minutes (12 to 18, according to their size) are
sufficient to bake them.

On the large scale, the whole manual process, from preparing the dough to
the point at which the newly-made biscuits are ready for baking is now
generally performed by machinery. The articles so prepared are commonly
known in trade as ‘MACHINE-MADE BISCUITS,’ and are not only much cheaper,
but of fully equal quality to those ‘made by hand.’ In the bakehouses of
her Majesty’s Victualling Yards at Deptford, Gosport, and Plymouth, the
ingenious machinery invented by Mr T. T. Grant is employed. These
establishments are said to be capable of producing annually above 8000
tons of sea-biscuits, at a saving of upwards of 12,000_l._ a year, from
the cost that would have been incurred for the purpose on the old system.
Under the latter it is stated that wages, and wear and tear of utensils,
cost about 1_s._ 6_d._ per cwt. of biscuit; whilst under the new system
the cost is only 5_d._

The allowance of biscuit to each seaman in the royal navy is 1 _lb._ per
day; or, on the average, six biscuits.

=Biscuits Depuratifs= (Olivier) are made with meal, milk, and sugar. Each
biscuit contains 1 centigramme corrosive sublimate. (Foy.)

=Biscuits, Fancy.= The varieties of these are almost innumerable. In a
printed list now before us we observe the names of upwards of one hundred
different kinds. These are produced by varying the number and proportions,
of the ingredients used in their composition, and the form and size in
which they are turned out of hand. They are further modified by the
relative heat of the oven, as well as the length of time they are allowed
to remain in it. It would, therefore, be waste of space to give particular
directions for the preparation of each. The proportion of butter and
sugar, or either of them, may be from 1 _oz._ and upwards, to flour, 1
_lb._; according to the degree of richness desired. In a few cases milk,
or eggs, or both, are introduced. The ‘flavourings’ embrace a wide range
of substances——bitter almonds, caraways, cassia, cinnamon, ginger, mace,
nutmeg, lemon, orange-peel, orange-flower water, essence of peach
kernels, vanilla, &c., &c.; many of which give their name to the
biscuit.——AR′ROW-ROOT BISCUITS are usually made of equal parts of
arrow-root and flour; MEAT′-BISCUITS, from about 1 part of lean meat
(minced small and pulped) beaten to a dough with about 2 parts of flour,
and a little seasoning, no water being added;[180] SODA BISCUITS, by
adding 1 to 2 _dr._ of carbonate of soda to each _lb._ of flour. In most
other cases, the mere inspection of the biscuit will convey to the
experienced biscuit-baker and cook sufficient information to enable him to
produce an exactly similar one, or at least a very close imitation. The
richest kind of SPONGE-BISCUITS, as we are informed, are made as
follows:——Add the whites and yelks of 12 eggs, previously well beaten, to
1-1/2 _lb._ of finely powdered sugar, and whisk it until it rises in
bubbles, then add 1 _lb._ of the finest pastry-flour, and the grated rind
of 2 lemons. Put it into ‘shapes,’ sift a little sugar over them, and bake
them in buttered tin moulds, in a moderately quick oven, for nearly half
an hour.[181]

[Footnote 180: For the MEAT-BISCUITS used in the navy, and by travellers,
see MEAT.]

[Footnote 181: A few fancy biscuits will be found noticed in their
alphabetical places. See CRACKNELS, MACAROONS, &c.]

=Biscuits Purgatifs= (Caroz). Each biscuit contains 2 decigrammes
scammony. (Reveil.)

=Biscuits Purgatifs= (Sulot). Each biscuit contains 6 decigrammes
scammony.

=Biscuits Purgatifs et Vermifuges= (Ferd. Gräf, Aschbach) contain 1/4
gramme resina scammonii in each.

=Biscuits Purgatifs et Vermifuges au Calomel= (Sulot). There are 3
decigrammes of calomel in each. (Reveil.)

=Biscuits Vermifuges à la Santonine= (Sulot.) Each biscuit contains 5
centigrammes of san tonin. (Reveil.)

BISCUITS, DEV′ILED, in _cookery_, are captain’s biscuits (or any similar
kind) buttered on both sides, peppered well, and then covered on one side
with a slice of good cheese formed into a paste with made mustard; the
whole being seasoned with a little cayenne pepper is, lastly, grilled.
Chopped anchovies, or essence of anchovies, is a good addition.

=BISMUTH.= Bi. BISMUTH, ETAIN DE GLACE, Fr.; BISMUTH, WISMUTH, W.-METALL,
Ger. One of the metals.

[Illustration: Bismuth furnace in section.

  _a_, Eliquation-tube.[182]
  _b_, End at which it is charged.
  _c_, End from which the metal flows.
  _d_, Receiving-pan.
  _e_, Water-trough.
  _f_, Grate, &c.[183]
  _g, g_, Draught-holes.]

[Footnote 182: Several of these tubes are usually set side by side
together.]

[Footnote 183: Usually one to each eliquation-tube.]

_Sources._ Bismuth occurs in the mineral kingdom in the metallic state
(NA′TIVE BISMUTH), and in combination with sulphur (BIS′MŬTHĬNE), and with
oxygen (B. O′CHRE, &c.). That of commerce is mostly imported from Saxony,
where it is chiefly obtained from native bismuth by the simple process of
eliquation. The ore, sorted by hand from the gangue, and broken into
pieces of about the size of nuts, is introduced into the ignited iron
pipes of the furnace (see _engr._) until these latter are filled to about
one half their diameter and to three fourths of their length. From these
the liquefied metal is allowed to flow into iron pans containing some
coal-dust, and from these into a trough of water, in which it is
granulated and cooled. It is subsequently remelted and cast into moulds so
as to form ‘bars’ varying in weight from 25 to 56 _lbs._ each. In this
state it usually contains a small admixture of arsenic, iron, lead, and
sulphur; from the first of which it may be freed by exposure for some
time, under charcoal, at a dull red heat. It is best obtained in a pure
condition by heating to redness, in a covered crucible, a mixture of
oxide, or subnitrate of bismuth, with half its weight of charcoal.

_Prop._ Colour greyish-white with a reddish tint; crystalline; very
brittle (may be powdered); melts at about 480° Fahr., and does not
re-solidify until cooled to 6 or 7° below this point; it volatilises at a
strong heat, and, in close vessels, the fumes condense unchanged in
crystalline laminæ; little acted on by the air, but when exposed to it at
a high temperature burns with a faint blue flame, emitting yellow fumes
which condense into a yellow pulverulent oxide; when slowly cooled, in
large masses, it forms large cubic crystals or octahedrons of great
beauty; nitric acid, somewhat dilute, dissolves it freely. It is highly
diamagnetic. Sp. gr. 9·8 to 9·83, which, by careful hammering, may be
increased to 9·8827. A bar of bismuth, when heated from 32° to 212°,
expands exactly 1/710 in length.

_Uses, &c._ Bismuth enters into the composition of STEREOTYPE-METAL,
SOLDER, PEWTER, FUSIBLE METALS, and several other alloys. Added to other
metals it renders them more fusible. An alloy of tin, nickel, bismuth, and
silver is said to hinder iron from rusting. A mixture of bismuth, lead,
and tin is much employed for taking impressions from dies, forming moulds,
and for other purposes.

Bismuth salts are usually insoluble, or decomposed by any quantity of
water into free acid and a basic salt. They are nearly all colourless,
and, except the chloride, more volatile. They are easily recognised by the
following reactions:——

Their saturated or concentrated solutions giving a white precipitate on
dilution with water:——Sulphuretted hydrogen blackens them, or gives a
black precipitate:——The nitric solution is unaffected by the addition of
sulphuric acid:——Chromate of potassium gives a yellow precipitate, which
differs from that from lead, by being soluble in nitric acid, and
insoluble in potassa.

Von Kobbell takes a mixture of potassium iodide and flowers of sulphur in
equal proportions, and heats the whole on charcoal before the blowpipe;
the production of bright scarlet, very volatile bismuth iodide ensues,
even when only traces of bismuth are present.

For a method of volumetrically estimating bismuth, consult a paper by Mr
Pattison Muir, in the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society,’ April, 1876.

=Bismuth, Car′bonate.= (Ph. B.) Mix nitric acid, four fluid ounces, with
three fluid ounces of distilled water, and add in successive portions
purified bismuth, in small pieces, two ounces. When effervescence has
ceased apply for ten minutes a heat approaching ebullition; then decant
the solution from any insoluble matter. Evaporate to two fluid ounces, and
add this in small quantities at a time to a cold filtered solution of six
ounces of carbonate of ammonia, in two pints of distilled water,
constantly stirring. Collect precipitate on a calico filter; wash till
washings pass tasteless. Remove water by slight pressure of the hands, and
dry at a heat not exceeding 150°.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 grains.

=Bismuth, Chlorides of:=

=Basic Chlo′′ride.= Bi_{3}Cl_{8}. _Syn._ SUBCHLO′′RIDE OF BISMUTH,
PEARL′-POWDER; BISMU′THI SUBCHLORI′DUM, L. _Prep._ A dilute solution of
hydrochloric acid is dropped into another of bismuth (prepared by
dissolving that metal in nitric acid); and the resulting precipitate,
after being well washed in pure water, is dried in the shade.——_Prop.,
Uses, &c._ Similar to those of the subnitrate.

=Chlo′′ride.= BiCl_{3}. _Syn._ TERCHLO′′RIDE OF BISMUTH. _Prep._ A mixture
of corrosive sublimate, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part; (both in powder) is
exposed to heat until all the ‘mercury’ present is expelled, after which
it is at once put into bottles. A greyish-white, granular substance.

=Bismuth, Nitrates of=:

=Basic, Nitrate.= BiONO_{3}. _Syn._ PEARL-WHITE, BISMUTH SUBNITRATE;
BISMUTHI SUBNITRAS, B. BISMUTHI NITRAS, L.; BLANC DE FARD, B. D’ESPAGNE*,
&c., Fr.; PERLWEISS, SCHMINKWEISS, &c., Ger. _Prep._ Bismuth, 1 oz.;
nitric acid, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 3 pints; mix 1 fl. oz. of the
water with the acid, and dissolve the bismuth in the mixture; throw the
solution into the remainder of the water, and, after repose, pour off the
supernatant liquor, drain the powder that has subsided on a linen cloth,
wash it with distilled water, and dry it with a gentle heat.

_Prop._ A pearly white, inodorous powder, insoluble in water, but freely
soluble in nitric acid; long exposure to a strong light turns it greyish.
When prepared from a neutral solution, it consists of very fine
microscopic crystalline laminæ; but when prepared from acid solutions,
with less water, the crystals are acicular, and more silky and lustrous.
When moistened it exhibits an acid reaction with litmus paper.

_Pois., &c._ Like the other salts of bismuth, it causes vomiting, purging,
giddiness, cramp, insensibility, &c. No certain antidote is known. The
treatment may consist of an emetic, followed by the copious use of
emollient drinks, as weak broth, barley water, milk and water, &c.; and
subsequently, when necessary to prevent inflammation, by a low diet and
aperients.

_Uses, &c._ In _medicine_, as a sedative, an astringent, or tonic, and an
antispasmodic, in chronic affections of the stomach unaccompanied by
organic disease of that organ, and apparently of a nervous character;
particularly in gastrodynia, troublesome sickness and vomiting, pyrosis or
waterbrash, and generally in gastro-intestinal affections attended with
fluxes; also in intermittent fever, spasmodic asthma, &c.——_Dose_, 5 to
10, or even 20 gr.

Externally, made into an ointment with 4 parts of lard, it has long been
employed in certain chronic skin diseases. Under the name of PEARL-WHITE
it is commonly used by ladies as a cosmetic; but it is stated that it
injures the skin, producing, after a time, paralysis of its minute
vessels, rendering it yellow and leather-like——an effect which,
unfortunately, it is usually attempted to conceal by its freer and more
frequent application. In very large doses it is poisonous.

Both the basic nitrate and the basic chloride of bismuth pass under the
names of PEARL-WHITE and PEARL-POWDER, owing to their extreme whiteness
and beauty. That of the druggists, however, is usually the former; that of
the perfumers usually the latter, but not unfrequently both.

=Bismuth Powder=, for beautifying the skin and removing freckles. (From
North America.) Consists of calcium carbonate, with much clay, and is free
from injurious metals. (Chandler.)

=Bismuth, Purified.= (Ph. Br.) Put bismuth, 10 ounces, and 1 ounce of
powdered nitrate of potash, into a crucible, and heat them until both are
fused. Continue the heat, constantly stirring, for fifteen minutes, or
till the salt has solidified into a slag above the metal. Remove the salt,
add nitrate of potash, 1 ounce, to bismuth in crucible, and repeat the
process. Pour the fused bismuth into a suitable mould, and let it cool.

=Nitrate.= Bi(NO_{3})_{3}. _Syn._ NEUTRAL NITRATE, TERNITRATE. Purified
bismuth (in small fragments), 2 oz.; nitric acid, 6 oz.; dissolve with
heat, adding more acid, if necessary, to effect entire solution of the
metal; to the resulting solution add half its volume of distilled water,
filter through powdered glass, and evaporate until crystals form.

_Use._ Chiefly in chemistry, and as a source of the pure oxide and the
subnitrate.

=Bismuth Oxides=:——

=Bismuthous Oxide.= Bi_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ TEROXIDE OF BISMUTH, PROTOXIDE OF
BISMUTH. From either the neutral or the basic nitrate, by exposure, in a
crucible, to gentle ignition. Pure. A straw-yellow powder, of rather
difficult solubility.

HY′DRATED:——By gradually dropping an acid solution of bismuthous nitrate
into a concentrated solution of potassium hydrate perfectly free from
carbonic acid, and washing and drying the resulting precipitate. Pure. A
rich-looking white powder.

_Prop., &c._ Fuses at a high temperature, and then acts as a powerful flux
on siliceous matter without itself imparting colour, a property of which
the enameller and gilder has long availed himself. Like the basic nitrate,
it has been used as an antispasmodic and as a cosmetic. Sp. gr. 8·211 to
8·355.

=Bismuthic Oxide.= Bi_{2}O_{5}. _Syn._ BISMUTHIC ANHYDRIDE, BISMUTHIC
ACID. Suspend teroxide of bismuth in a strong solution of potassa, and
pass chlorine through the mixture until decomposition is complete; treat
the powder with dilute nitric acid (to remove any undecomposed teroxide),
after which wash it in cold water, and dry it.

_Prop., &c._ A reddish powder, soluble in water. Its salts, of which
little are known, are called BIS′MUTHATES. When heated it loses oxygen,
and a bismuthate of bismuth is formed.

=Bismuthous Sulphide.= Bi_{2}S_{3}. This compound occurs native
(BIS′MŬTHĬNE), and may be easily prepared artificially by either fusing
its elements together, or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a
solution of nitrate of bismuth.

=Bismuthous Valerianate.= _Syn._ BISMU′THI VALERIA′NAS, L. _Prep._ An acid
solution of nitrate of bismuth is decomposed with a solution of
valerianate of soda in water containing a little free valerianic acid; the
precipitate is carefully washed in distilled water, and dried in the
shade. Recommended as superior to the subnitrate in some forms of
gastrodynia, dyspepsia, intermittents, &c.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 gr., or more.

=BIS′TRE= (-ter). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BISTER, Ger. _Prep._ 1. The most
compact, best coloured, and well-burnt portions of the soot of beechwood,
or of peat,[184] are selected, reduced to powder and sifted through a very
fine lawn sieve. It is then digested in clear warm water for several
hours, with frequent stirring; after which it is allowed to settle, when
the liquid portion is decanted from the sediment. This process is repeated
a second, and even a third time. The paste is next poured into a tall
narrow vessel, which is then filled with pure cold water, and well
agitated. The grosser parts only are now allowed to subside,[185] and the
supernatant liquor, containing the finer portion of the BISTRE in
suspension, is poured off into another vessel, where it is left to deposit
its contents. The deposit is next collected, and carefully dried and
powdered; or it is only partially dried, and at once made into cakes with
gum-water or isinglass-size, and then allowed to dry and harden for sale.

[Footnote 184: The first is usually employed in England.]

[Footnote 185: Two or three minutes suffice for this purpose.]

2. (Dr MacCulloch.) The tar-like liquid obtained from the dry distillation
of wood is again carefully distilled until all volatile matter has passed
over, and a brittle, pitch-like residuum is obtained, which is either
brown or black according to the time and temperature employed; after which
the heat is still further prolonged, but with increased care, until the
brittle substance becomes pulverulent and carbonaceous. It is then ground
and elutriated with pure cold water, as before.

_Uses, &c._ As a water colour to tint drawings, in the same way as Indian
ink, to which it is esteemed superior when the subjects are intended to be
afterwards tinted with other colours. It occupies the same place among
water colours that brown-pink does in oil.

According to Dr MacCulloch, bistre from wood-tar, when carefully prepared,
has great depth and beauty of colour, with all the fine properties of
sepia; but that if the whole of the oils and acids have not been removed
by the process, it is apt to collect in little flocks which interfere with
its use.

=BITES= and =STINGS=. _Syn._ MOR′SŪS (-SŪS, _sing._) ET IC′TŪS (-TŬS,
_s._), L. The treatment of the bites of non-venomous and non-rabid animals
is the same as that of ordinary lacerated or punctured wounds, as the case
may be; that of the bites and stings of venomous and rabid animals,
serpents, insects, &c., often require, in addition, the use of special
antidotes to destroy the virus or to prevent its absorption, or to
neutralise its effects when absorbed and to promote its elimination from
the system.

The bites and stings of ANTS, BEES, WASPS, HORNETS, and similar insects
common to this climate may be treated by washing the part with spirit of
hartshorn or dilute liquor of ammonia or eau de luce, or a weak solution
of chloride of lime. Should considerable inflammation ensue, and the part
become much swollen, a thing that rarely occurs, leeches may be applied,
and a cooling purgative given. The stings of venomous reptiles may be
similarly treated, excepting that the strength of the solutions of
ammonia, chloride of lime, &c., should be stronger than in the former
case, so as to produce some pain and smarting. In cases where the venom is
of a very poisonous description, the wound should be first well washed
with water of ammonia, and afterwards seared with lunar caustic in every
part, including the interior and deep-seated portions. In extreme cases
the surface of the wound, both internal and external, may be removed with
the knife; or, in the case of a small joint, as a finger, the injured
portion may be amputated. Prior to the use of the washes or caustic,
dry-cupping or suction with the mouth may be had recourse to with great
advantage. A ligature placed on the limb, above the wound, as soon as
possible after the accident, will impede the absorption of the poison
whilst the other treatment is in progress. A similar plan may be followed
after the bite of a dog supposed to be mad. It has, indeed, been lately
asserted by one of our most celebrated veterinarians that he and his
colleagues have been repeatedly bitten by dogs that have afterwards been
proved to be mad, but from having fearlessly applied caustic to the parts
they have escaped uninjured.

The poison inserted by the stings and bites of several venomous reptiles
is so rapidly absorbed, and of so fatal a description, as frequently to
occasion death within a very short space of time, and before any remedy or
antidote, under ordinary circumstances, can be applied. But even in these
extreme cases it is probable that absorption, and consequently the
rapidity of the action of the poison, might be considerably impeded or
lessened by the immediate application of a ligature above the part, as
before described, the patient accompanying the treatment by swallowing a
large quantity of liquid, by which partial plethora would be produced, and
the functions of the absorbents for a time nearly-suspended. A few minutes
thus gained would permit of the application of appropriate antidotes, by
which the poison might be neutralised before it would become necessary to
remove the ligature, whilst the kidneys would be in full action.
Unfortunately, these wounds are generally inflicted in parts of the world
where precautionary measures are seldom thought of, and generally at times
when people are least prepared to meet them, as well as so suddenly and
unexpectedly as to stagger even those observers who may be in no absolute
danger themselves. Such is the bite of the East Indian CO′BRA DI CAPEL′LO,
against which two Asiatic (arsenical) pills are often prescribed by the
Hindoos; but which are generally scarcely swallowed before the poison of
the serpent has rendered the patient a stiffened corpse. Eau de luce, a
favorite remedy in India, when liberally employed both internally and
externally, is said to prove sometimes more successful. The bite of the
PUFF-ADDER is of a similar, or even a more fatal description than that of
the cobra. When the venom of any of these animals or of a rabid dog is
once fully absorbed into the system, there appears to be no treatment that
can save the patient. A bottle of Madeira wine or 1/2 a pint of brandy or
rum diluted with twice its weight of water, drank in two doses about 3 or
4 minutes apart, is a popular remedy in India in such cases. Its effect is
to impede absorption.

The secret antidote so long successfully employed by Mr Underwood, the
‘snake-king’ of Australia, for the bites of the WHIP-SNAKE and the
DIAMOND-SNAKE, two of the most venomous of that region, is now positively
asserted to be the common male fern (_polypo′dium fi′lix mas_, Linn.). Of
the powdered root, or preferably, of the green leaves of this plant
nearest the root, he prepares a sort of decoction, or broth, which he
takes or administers liberally. A more convenient preparation would,
perhaps, be a tincture prepared by digesting 1 _oz._ of the dried, or 3
_oz._ of the fresh leaves (bruised), in a pint of proof spirit or strong
brandy or rum for a fortnight; as in this state it could be kept for any
length of time, if well corked, without deterioration.

For HORSES AND CATTLE. Mr Finlay Dun recommends ammonia solution; solution
of caustic potash; carbolic acid; prussic acid and chloroform.

[See HYDROPHOBIA, POISONS, SNAKE-BITES, STINGS, VENOM, WOUNDS, &c.[186]]

[Footnote 186: Notices of several chemical and neurotic antidotes, of
great promise, will also be found in different parts of this volume. The
names of the respective animals may likewise be referred to.]

=BITT′ER.= [Eng., Ger.] _Syn._ AMA′′RUS, L.; AMER, Fr. Tasting like
wormwood, quassia, or other similar vegetables; subst., a bitter plant,
bark, or root (= AMA′′RUM, L.; see _below_).

=Bitter App′le‡.= Colocynth.

=Bitter Cup.= A cup or tumbler formed by the turner out of quassia wood.
Liquor, by standing in it a short time, becomes bitter and stomachic. They
are now common in the shops.

=Bitter Earth*.= Magnesia.

=Bitter Herbs.= See BITTERS (_infrà_) and SPECIES (Bitter).

=Bitter Salt†=, Bitter Pur′′ging-salt. Sulphate of magnesia.

=Bitt′er-sweet.= Woody nightshade.

=Bitt′er-wort‡= (-wŭrt). Gentian.

=BITT′ERN.= The ‘mother-water’ or ‘bitter liquor’ of salt-works from which
the chloride of sodium (sea-salt) has been separated by crystallisation.

=Bittern.= An intoxicating poisonous mixture sold by the brewers’
druggists, composed of 1 part each of extract of quassia and powdered
sulphate of iron, with 2 parts of extract of cocculus indicus, 4 parts of
Spanish liquorice, and about 8 parts of treacle; the liquorice being first
boiled with a little water until dissolved, and the solution evaporated to
a proper consistence before adding the other ingredients. Used by
fraudulent brewers and publicans to impart a false bitter and apparent
strength to their liquors.

=BITT′ERS= (-ĕrz). _Syn._ AMA′′RA, &c., L. Vegetable bitters are commonly
regarded as tonic and stomachic, and to improve the appetite when taken
occasionally and in moderation. The best time is early in the morning, or
half an hour or an hour before a meal. An excessive, or a too prolonged
use of them, tends to weaken the stomach, and to induce nervousness. They
should not be taken for a longer period than about 8 or 10 days at a time,
allowing a similar period to elapse before again having recourse to them.

Among the most useful and generally employed bitters are——calumba,
cascarilla, chamomiles, gentian, hops, orange peel, quassia, and wormwood.

=Bitters.= In the liquor-trade, a compound prepared by steeping vegetable
bitters, and some aromatics as flavouring, in weak spirit, for some 8 or
10 days; a little sugar or syrup being subsequently added to the strained
or decanted tincture. In that of the taverns and gin-shops the menstruum
is usually gin, or plain spirit reduced to a corresponding strength.
BRAN′DY-BITTERS and WINE′-BITTERS are prepared in a similar way with
common British brandy, or some cheap white wine (Cape or raisin), as the
case may be. Each maker has usually his own formulæ, which he modifies to
suit the price and the palate of his customer.——This class of liquors has
been justly charged with being the fertile cause of habitual intemperance,
of disease, and even of death! Their occasional use as tonics or
stomachics is also objectionable, owing to the trash, and even deleterious
substances, which so frequently enter into their composition. See
LIQUEURS.

=BITU′MEN.= [Eng., L.] _Syn._ BITUME, Fr.; ERDPECH, ERDTHEER, &c., Ger. A
term of a very comprehensive character, and, in general, very loosely
applied, including a variety of inflammable mineral substances,
consisting of varying proportions of hydrocarbons, having a strong smell
and differing in consistence, all the varieties being found in the earth,
of which asphaltum, naphtha, and petroleum may be mentioned as examples.

Asphalt is very extensively disseminated throughout Europe, Asia, and
America. Considerable quantities are exported from the West Indian
Islands, and from the Dead Sea, in Judæa; hence its commercial name,
‘Jewish bitumen,’ or ‘Jew’s pitch.’ The different kinds vary greatly in
quality, according to the amount of earthy matter and other impurities
contained in them; they may all, however, be reduced to a state of equal
purity by boiling or macerating them in hot water, by which means the
earthy and siliceous matters are more or less completely removed. These
latter fall to the bottom of the vessel, and the bitumen rises to the
surface, or forms clots on the sides of the boiler, when it is skimmed
off, and thrown into a large cooler, where more water separates. At the
Seyssel and Bechelbronn bitumen works the bitumen so obtained is thrown
into large cauldrons and boiled for some time, by which means the volatile
products and water accompanying it are driven off, and the remaining sand
and impurities fall to the bottom of the cauldron, leaving the purified
asphalt in the form of a thick fatty pitch, in which state it comes into
the market or is applied to various purposes. In the following table we
give the composition of a few bitumens:

                             Carbon,   Hydrogen,  Oxygen,    Nitrogen
                             per cent. per cent.  per cent.  per cent.

  Viscous bitumen
      of Bechelbronn           88·0       12·0       ——         ——

  Virgin bitumen
      of Bechelbronn           88·0       11·0       ——        1·0

  Liquid bitumen from
      Hatten, Lower Rhine      88·0       11·6       ——        0·4
                                                   |_______________|
  Solid bitumen of Coxatambo,                             |
      near Cuença, in Peru     88·7        9·7           1·6

        _Annexed is a table of the analysis of several
        asphalts, centesimally represented_:——

                                    Bitumen of                        Bitumen of
                      Bitumen of    Pont de Chateau,   Bitumen of     Monastier,
                      Bastennes.    Auvergne.          Abruzzi.       Haute Loire.

                                   _______|_______    _______|_______
                                  |               |  |               |
                                    Crude.   Pure.     Crude.   Pure.

  Oily matters }         {20·0       ——       ——         ——      ——       7·0
  Carbon       } Bitumen { 3·7       76·13   77·5        77·64  81·8      3·5
  Hydrogen                 ——         9·41    9·6         7·86   8·4      ——
  Nitrogen                 ——      }       { 12·4         1·02   1·0      ——
  Oxygen                   ——      } 12·66 {  0·5         8·35   8·8      ——
  Water                    ——        ——       ——         ——     ——        4·5
  Gas and vapour           ——        ——       ——         ——     ——        4·0
  Quartz sand and mica  }       {    ——       ——         ——     ——       60·0
  Clay                  } 76·3  {    ——       ——         ——     ——    Ferrug. 21·0
  Ashes                   ——          1·80    ——          5·13  ——        ——
                         —————      —————    —————      —————  —————    —————
                         100·0      100·0    100·0      100·0  100·0    100·0

The solid bitumens are now extensively employed in the manufacture of
bituminous mastic or cement and similar compositions, which are used for
the lining of water-cisterns, and for various other hydraulic purposes; as
also for roofs, floors, roads, pavements, &c. For the last purpose the
native varieties of ‘asphaltic rock,’ consisting of a mixture of bitumen
and calcareous earth, when tempered with a proper quantity of crushed
granite, or calcareous sand or gravel, is found to be the most substantial
and durable. The plan followed in laying down such pavements in Paris,
where they have been the most extensively adopted, is——The ground having
been made uniformly smooth, is edged, in the usual manner, with
curb-stones rising about 4 inches above its level, and then covered, to
the depth of 3 inches, with concrete (made with about 1-6th part of good
hydraulic lime), which is well pressed upon its bed, the surface being
subsequently smoothed over with a very thin coating of hydraulic mortar.
On this, when perfectly dry,[187] the ‘bituminous mastic,’ rendered
semi-fluid by being cautiously heated in a suitable iron cauldron,[188] is
evenly spread over so as to form a layer three quarters of an inch, or for
less solid work, half an inch thick. Some coarse sand is lastly sifted
over and pressed down on the surface, when the work is complete; and in a
few days the pavement becomes sufficiently compact and solid to be thrown
open to foot passengers.

[Footnote 187: On this point depends the success of the work. Absolute
dryness is a _sine quâ non_ in the process. The mastic must also be laid
down in dry weather. If laid in wet, damp, or even foggy weather, it will
be liable to separate from its bed, and gradually to break up. This is why
so much of the asphalt and bituminous pavement laid down in London has
proved a failure.]

[Footnote 188: It is here that the mixture of the bitumen (previously
crushed sufficiently small to pass through meshes 10 to the inch) is made
with the sand or gravel; a small portion of mineral tar or coal-tar (3 to
7 or 8%) being commonly added to promote their fusion and complete union.]

An important precaution to be observed in making asphalt pavements or
roads is to boil the bitumen which is employed thoroughly, so as to expel
the water and volatile oils, which if allowed to remain are found to
render the mastic more liable to be affected by the extremes of heat and
cold, as well as less able to stand the wear and tear of traffic.

_Claridge’s Process._ This consists in fusing the blocks of mastic in a
suitable boiler, similar to that seen in fig. 1, and in adding a quantity
of mineral tar, in the proportion of 1 _lb._ to every _cwt._ of the
mastic. The tar is first fused in the boiler, 56 _lbs._ of the mastic are
then introduced, and the whole repeatedly stirred so as to prevent the
formation of a deposit. When the contents of the boiler are melted, the
cauldron is covered over for a quarter of an hour, after which the
remainder of the mastic is added, and its fusion proceeded with as before,
the process being repeated until the boiler is full, allowing an interval
of from ten to fifteen minutes between each operation.

When the mastic is sufficiently fluid it will drop freely from the
stirrer, and jets of light smoke are observed to issue from it. If stiff
mastic be required, the proportion of tar is lessened, and a quantity of
coarse grit or river sand, to the amount of 20 or 30 _lbs._ to the _cwt._,
is added.

[Illustration: 1.]

In laying the asphalt the greatest attention and care must be paid to the
preparation of a solid and dry foundation.

This is usually accomplished by removing or ramming the loose earth, and
placing upon the bed a layer of coarse sand mixed with powdered limestone,
in the proportion of seven parts of the former to one of the latter, and
the whole is pressed or beaten solid; upon this a second layer of finer
materials is laid compacted and levelled; the bed thus prepared is allowed
to dry before coating it with mastic.

Fig. 2 shows the manner in which ordinary asphalting is laid down. In this
figure C is the bed of coarse concrete, B the second and finer layer of
the same material, and A the superior layer of asphalt.

[Illustration: 2.]

The base or concrete must be perfectly dry when the mastic is poured on,
or the work will be a failure, for the moisture will be converted into
steam, which, issuing through the fluid mastic, will cause the formation
of holes in the latter or blister it, and ultimately the surface will
crack. To counteract in some measure the evil arising from the formation
of steam, fine cinder dust is sifted over the bed of concrete previous to
the application of the mastic.

When asphalting suspension bridges, a sheet of canvas is usually spread
over the concrete.

In asphalting damp places, such as cellars and foundations, a brick invert
is always laid in asphalt beneath the concrete. This is done by placing
the bricks in rows, at the proper depth and slope, and pouring a coating
of asphalt about a quarter of an inch thick upon them. Before the mastic
solidifies, the bricks are separated a little by passing a knife between
them, thus affording the mastic an opening by which to seal up more
thoroughly the connection. The concrete is afterwards laid upon this bed,
and the layer of mastic upon this in the usual way. The thickness of the
layer of mastic varies according to the attrition to which it is to be
subjected; but the usual depth is from a quarter to one and a quarter
inch.

_Artificial Asphalt._ This is prepared from coal tar by distilling off the
volatile oils which hold the tar in solution, the result being that a kind
of fatty pitch is left, which must be boiled until a sample, when cooled,
becomes nearly solid. The operation may be accomplished in the open air,
but if this means of evaporation be adopted, the process is attended with
a very unpleasant odour, and the volatile oils are dissipated. These
volatile oils are used for the preparation of varnish, for lubricating
machinery, and for the manufacture of a superior kind of lampblack. They
have also been employed to increase the illuminating power of coal-gas,
which purpose they accomplish by imparting their vapours to gas passed
over them when they are placed in shallow vessels. Various forms of
patent apparatus have been designed for this purpose.

When it is required to collect the oils, the coal tar is placed in a
retort made of sheet iron, with a convex bottom, which is placed
immediately over a fire. The products of the combustion after striking the
bottom of the retort circulate round it, then proceed under a second
boiler to heat the tar contained in it, and from which the retort is
replenished when necessary. This vessel, when three quarters full,
contains nearly 24 _cwts._ of tar; it should be perfectly embedded in
masonry; the capital itself by which the volatile products escape should
be surrounded with materials that are bad conductors of heat, such as
ashes. But for this precaution the volatile oils would become condensed,
and fall back into the evaporating vessel.

The volatile oils are collected by being made to pass through a tube
cooled by a current of water, this tube running in a direction the reverse
of that pursued by the vapours, and terminating in a closed vessel, which
acts as the receptacle for the oils. A tube branching from the boiler
conducts the uncondensed products outside the building in which the
distillation is conducted.

When the tar has been boiled sufficiently long to give it the requisite
consistence, it is removed by means of a pipe into a third hemispherical
boiler of cast-iron. To prepare the bituminous mastic directly from this
fatty pitch, the latter is kept in a state of fusion, and chalk in
sufficient quantity is then added. If the chalk be previously heated,
ground to a coarse powder, and sifted, the mixture is effected more
rapidly and satisfactorily.

The asphalt becomes the more solid the greater the proportion of chalk
added; on the other hand, it becomes less elastic and more brittle. The
asphalt is moulded as follows:——A long table is covered with cast-iron
plates, surrounded with a framework, which is subdivided into eight or ten
equal compartments by means of rules of about six inches in height,
introduced vertically into grooves formed at equal intervals in the long
sides of the frame. The eight or ten moulds obtained by this means are
coated internally with a paste composed of sixty parts of water and forty
of chalk. This compound prevents the mastic adhering to the sides of the
mould, and ensures its being easily detached.

Two barrels, or 9 _cwts._ of tar, lose by distillation one fourth of their
weight, the loss consisting of 1 _cwt._ 3 _qrs._ 15 _lbs._ of volatile
oils, and 1 _qr._ 13 _lbs._ of water.

Sometimes ground or fine sand enters into the composition of asphalt in
proportions equal to the chalk; but in some cases only half as much sand
as chalk is used.

In the manufacture of asphalt it is very important that the contents of
the cauldron should be stirred during fusion, not only to prevent the tar
adhering to the bottom, and so getting burnt, but to ensure the
ingredients being brought into intimate combination, and a homogeneous and
smooth compound being produced.

As soon as the whole is thoroughly incorporated, the proper consistence
attained, and the vapours of the volatile oils and water come off in very
minute quantities, the asphalt is run off into the moulds before
described, and when sufficiently set may be removed, and is ready for use.

Dr G. H. Smith has patented a process for making artificial asphalt,
waterproof concrete, &c., which promises to become of great value in the
construction of sea walls, docks, and harbour works, &c. Dr Smith’s
invention consists in filling up the interstices of any porous substance,
such as brick, burned or unburned clay, soft stones, plaster of Paris,
&c., with pitch or tar which has been boiled to such a consistence that
the pores or cells of the material used are completely filled with solid
matter when cold.

Other hydrocarbons, resins, or gums may be used instead of pitch or tar;
but it is essential that the saturating substances, though naturally fluid
or semifluid, can be so changed by boiling that they lose their fluidity
when cold; or they must be, though hard under all ordinary temperatures of
the atmosphere, capable of reduction by heat or otherwise to a fluid
condition, so that they will penetrate the porous materials.

The asphalto-bitumen mine of the Val de Travers, in the Canton of
Neufchâtel, is said to be the richest and most extensive in the world of
its particular class. The calcareous bitumen which it yields contains 20%
of nearly pure bitumen, and 80% of carbonate of lime; and it has a sp. gr.
(2·115) approaching that of ordinary bricks.

The ‘Val de Travers Company,’ and the ‘Bastenne and Gaujac Company,’ are,
it is said, those which have hitherto been the most successful in laying
down asphalto-pavements. See ASPHALTUM, PETROLEUM, &c.

=Bitumen, Elastic.= _Syn._ MIN′ERAL CAOU′TCHOUC (kōō′-chŏŏk), EL′ATERITE.
A rather rare species of bitumen, differing chiefly from the other solid
varieties in being elastic.

=Bitumen, Liq′uid.= Petroleum.

=BITU′MINOUS.= _Syn._ BITUTMĬNO′SUS, L.; BITUMINEUX, Fr.; ERDPECHIG, Ger.
Of bitumen, or resembling or containing it.

=BIX′EINE= (-e-ĭn). The red colouring-principle of annotta. It is obtained
by treating bixine with liquid ammonia, with subsequent free contact of
air.

_Prop., &c._ When pure, a rich deep-red powder, soluble in alcohol and in
alkalies, and turned blue by sulphuric acid. It appears to be oxidised
bixine.

=BIXIN.= The red resinous colouring matter of annatto. Bolley and Mylius
prepare it by digesting the dried alcoholic extract of annatto with ether;
repeatedly treating the least soluble portion (which contains the greater
part of the colouring matter) with hot ether; dissolving the remainder in
alcohol; precipitating the alcoholic solution with lead acetate;
decomposing the washed precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen; extracting
the colouring matter therefrom by hot alcohol; and precipitating the
alcoholic solution with water.

=BIX′INE= (-ĭn). The yellow colouring-principle of annotta.

_Prep._ A solution of annotta is precipitated with a solution of acetate
of lead; the precipitate, after having been washed in cold water, is
decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen; the decanted liquor or filtrate
yields crystals by cautious evaporation.

_Prop., &c._ Yellowish white, turning full yellow by exposure to air;
soluble in water, and freely so in alcohol and in alkaline solutions; by
oxidation it is converted into bixeine. For a correct knowledge of both of
these substances we are indebted to M. Preisser.

=BLACK.= _Syn._ A′TER,[189] NI′GER, L.; NOIR, Fr.; SCHWARZ, Ger.; BLAC,
BLÆC, Sax. In _dyeing_, &c., of the colour of lamp-soot, or of night;
subst., a black colour.

[Footnote 189: Black, deep black; as opposed to _albus_, white.]

=Black Ash.= The waste lye of the soapmakers is evaporated in large iron
boilers, the salt separated as it falls down, and then heated in a
reverberatory furnace, until it is partially decomposed and fused, when it
is run into iron pots to cool. It is used in the manufacture of alum and
common soap.

=Black Col′ours= (kŭl′-). See BLACK PIGMENTS.

=Black Draught.= See MIXTURE, SENNA (Compound).

=Black Drop.= See DROPS, PATENT MEDICINES, &c.

=BLACK DYE.= _Syn._ TEINTE NOIRE, Fr.; SCHWARZE FARBE, Ger. The following
are the processes and materials now commonly employed in dyeing black:——

_a._ For COTTON:——

1. The goods, previously dyed blue, are steeped for about 24 hours in a
decoction of gall-nuts or sumach, then drained, rinsed in water, and
passed through a bath of acetate of iron for a quarter of an hour; they
are next again rinsed in water, and exposed for some time to the air;
after which they are passed a second time through the bath, to which a
little more iron-liquor is previously added. The whole process is
repeated, if necessary, according to the intensity of the shade of black
desired.

2. The goods are steeped in a mordant of acetate of iron, worked well, and
then passed through a bath of madder and logwood for 2 hours. Less
permanent than No. 1.

_Obs._ About 2 _oz._ of coarsely powdered galls, or 4 _oz._ of sumach, are
required for every pound of cotton, in the process of galling. The first
should be boiled in the water, in the proportion of about 1/2 gal. of
water to every lb. of cotton. The sumach-bath is better made by mere
infusion of that dye-stuff in very hot water.

3. (For 10 lbs. of cloth.) The goods are put into a boiling bath made of 3
lbs. of sumach, and allowed to steep, with occasional ‘working,’ until the
liquor is perfectly cold; they are next passed through lime water, and,
after having drained for a few minutes, immediately transferred to and
worked for an hour in a warm solution of 2 lbs. of copperas; after free
exposure to the air for about an hour they are again passed through lime
water, and, after draining, ‘worked’ for an hour in a bath made with 3
lbs. of logwood, and 1 lb. of fustic; they are then ‘lifted,’ and 1/4 lb.
of copperas being added, they are returned to the bath, ‘worked’ well for
about 30 minutes, and finished. Good and deep.

_Obs._ Instead of copperas iron-liquor may be used, observing to take
1-1/2 pint of the latter (of the ordinary strength) for every lb. of the
former ordered above.

_b._ For FLAX and LINEN:——

This, for the most part, closely resembles that employed for cotton; but,
in some cases, a mordant of iron-liquor, or of copperas, followed by
passing the goods through lime-water, and exposure to the air, precedes
the dye-bath.

_c._ For SILK:——

Silk goods are dyed much in the same way as woollens, but the process is
conducted with less heat:——

1. A bath of nut-galls is given for 12 to 36 hours, occasionally working
the goods therein; they are next taken out, rinsed, and well aired, after
which they are passed for a few minutes through a bath containing sulphate
of iron, and are then again drained, rinsed, and aired. The steep in the
nut-gall bath may be repeated, if necessary, followed, as before, by the
iron-bath previously replenished with a little fresh copperas. The whole
quantity of galls to be taken for 1 lb. of silk varies with their quantity
from 1/2 to 3/4 lb., that of the copperas (for the first bath), from 3 to
4 _oz._

2. (For 1 cwt. of silk.) Boil 22 _lbs._ of bruised Aleppo galls, for 2
hours, in 90 to 100 galls. of water, observing to add boiling water from
time to time, to compensate for that lost by evaporation; to the clear
bath add 32 lbs. of copperas, 7 lbs. of iron-filings, and 21 lbs. of gum;
digest with agitation for 1 hour, and when the ingredients are dissolved,
pass the silk (previously prepared [‘galled’] with 1/3rd of its weight of
gall-nuts) through the bath for about an hour; then rinse and air it well;
next leave it in the dye-bath for 6 to 12 hours; and this immersion or
steep may be repeated, if necessary, at will. This is said to be the
process commonly adopted for velvet at Genoa and Tours.

3. (For 5 lbs. of silk.) Turn the goods for an hour through a mordant
formed of 1 lb. of copperas and 2 oz. of nitrate of iron (dyer’s), with
sufficient water; after rinsing in cold water and airing them, ‘work’ them
for an hour in a decoction made of 5 lbs. of logwood and 1 lb. of fustic;
then lift them from the bath, add 2 oz. of copperas, reimmerse, and ‘work’
them well for 10 or 15 minutes longer; lastly, rinse, air, and finish. A
full deep black.

4. (For 5 lbs.) For the mordant use 1/2 lb. of copperas; rinse, and air;
for the ‘dye-bath,’ a decoction of 4 lbs. of logwood to which 1/2 pint of
stale urine has been added; after ‘lifting’ the goods add 2 _oz._ more of
copperas to the bath, and work for 15 minutes, as before. A good black. By
adding 2 _oz._ of dyer’s nitrate of iron to the mordant the same
ingredients will give a deep black; and by substituting a little white
soap for the urine, and omitting the addition of copperas to the
logwood-bath, it will give a blue-black. The last may also be produced by
first dyeing the goods deep blue as with ‘prussiate,’ and omitting the
urine and soap, in which case one half only of the logwood will be
required.

_d._ For WOOL:——

To produce a good permanent black on wool or woollen goods, they must be
first dyed of a deep blue in the indigo-vat, or, more cheaply, by the
Prussian-blue process. When the goods are coarse or common, and price is
an object, they are generally ‘rooted’ instead of being ‘blued.’ This
consists in giving them a dun or brown colour with the husks of walnuts or
the roots of the walnut-tree, or with other like cheap astringent
substances.

1. (For 1 _cwt._ of wool.) Good logwood-chips, 20 _lbs._, and
Aleppo-galls, 18 _lbs._; are inclosed in a coarse bag, and boiled with
water, q. s., for 5 or 6 hours; 1/3rd of this decoction is then
transferred into another copper, with verdigris, 2 _lbs._, and a
sufficient quantity of water having been added, the goods (previously dyed
dark blue) are passed through the liquor for two hours, at a heat slightly
below the boiling-point. The goods are next lifted and drained, another
1/3rd of the decoction of logwood and galls, with copperas, 9 _lbs._,
added to the boiler, after which the fire is lowered, and as soon as the
copperas is dissolved, the cloth is returned to the bath, and again well
‘worked’ for at least an hour. It is then taken out, thoroughly aired, and
the remaining 1/3rd of the decoction added, with sumach, 20 _lbs._ The
whole is then brought to a boil, and sulphate of iron, 2 _lbs._, together
with a pailful of cold water, thrown in; after which the goods are put in
a third time, and ‘worked’ for one hour; they are then taken out, rinsed,
aired, and again passed through the bath for another hour. After being
thoroughly rinsed, the goods are at once either ‘fulled,’ dried, and
folded, or are further softened and beautified by passing them for 15
minutes through a hot weld-bath (not boiling), when they are rinsed, &c.
(but not ‘fulled’), as before. A beautiful though expensive dye. With
management the above quantities of the ingredients will dye 1-1/4 or even
1-1/2 _cwt._ of wool.

2. (For 1 _cwt._) The cloth (previously dyed blue) is ‘galled’ with 5
_lbs._ of nut-galls, and then dyed in a bath made with 30 _lbs._ of
logwood, to which about 5 _lbs._ of copperas has been added; after which
it is rinsed, aired, and ‘fulled,’ as before. This is said, by Lewis, to
be the usual proportions and plan adopted by the English dyers.

3. (For 1 _cwt._) Make a bath, as before, with fustic, 2 _lbs._; logwood,
5 _lbs._; and sumach, 10 _lbs._; work the (blued) cloth for 3 hours at the
boiling heat, or near it; lift it out, add sulphate of iron, 10-1/2
_lbs._, and when dissolved, pass the cloth through it for 2 hours; rinse,
air well, and again pass the goods through the bath for an hour; lastly,
rinse until the water runs clear. Inferior to the last, but less
expensive.

4. (For 1 _cwt._, without previous blueing or ‘rooting,’)——_a._ Work the
goods at about 200° Fahr. for 1 hour, in a bath made with 6 to 7 _lbs._ of
cam-wood; lift, add 6-1/2 _lbs._ of copperas, and again work the goods for
an hour, after which withdraw the fire, and allow them to steep for 10 or
12 hours; next drain and rinse them, and work them in a second bath made
with 60 _lbs._ of logwood for 1-1/2 hour; lift, add 3 _lbs._ of copperas,
and again work for an hour; lastly, rinse, air, and finish:——_b._ The
goods are first worked, for about two hours, in a bath of 3 _lbs._ of
fustic, in which 5 _lbs._ of bichromate of potash and 4 _lbs._ of alum
have been dissolved; after exposure to the air for about an hour and
thorough rinsing they are worked for a second two hours in a bath made
with 45 _lbs._ of logwood, 3-1/2 _lbs._ of barwood or cam-wood, and 3
_lbs._ of fustic; they are then lifted, and 3 _lbs._ of copperas having
been added to the bath, are again immersed and worked for half an hour to
an hour.

5. (For 10 _lbs._ of wool or w. cloth.) Work the goods for 1/2 an hour in
a bath of 1/2 _lb._ of cam-wood; lift, add 7 or 8 _oz._ of copperas, and
after working them for 20 minutes, withdraw the fire, and leave them in
the liquor for 10 or 12 hours; next rinse them in cold water, drain, and
then work them for an hour in a bath made with 5 _lbs._ of logwood, to
which 1 pint of urine has been added; lift, add 4 _oz._ of copperas, work
them for half an hour longer, and, lastly, wash and dry them.

6. (For 7 _lbs._) Take of galls (bruised), 1/4 _lb._; logwood chips, 1-1/2
_lb._; for the bath; boil or work the goods for 2 hours, take them out,
add of copperas, 1/4 _lb._; and when it is dissolved, work the goods
through the liquor for at least 2 hours, keeping the bath nearly boiling;
again take them out, wash, and air; then add 1 _oz._ more of copperas to
the bath, and pass the cloth through it for another hour; lastly, air,
rinse, and finish.

7. (For 5 _lbs._) For the first bath——bichromate of potash, 8 _oz._;
alum, 6 _oz._; fustic, 4 _oz._; for the second bath——logwood, 4 _lbs._;
barwood and fustic, of each 4 _oz._; to which add, after the lift,
copperas, 4 _oz._; the process being conducted as in 4, _b_. This, as well
as the two formulæ immediately preceding it, is particularly suited to
articles of dress dyed in the small way, at home. When the articles are
only re-dipped, as it is called, a proportionately smaller quantity of the
ingredients may be taken.

_Concluding Remarks._ In dyeing black, particularly on wool, it is
absolutely necessary to take the goods out of the dye-bath several times,
and to expose them to the air. This is called “airing” them, and is done
to allow the oxygen of the atmosphere to act upon the ingredients of the
dye, and especially on the iron; as without this action of the air a good
colour cannot be produced. The usual proportions employed by the dyers of
England are 5 _lbs._ each of galls and copperas and 30 _lbs._ of logwood
for every _cwt._ of cloth; but these weights are frequently increased for
choice goods, just as they are always lessened for common ones. The other
astringent substances used as substitutes for galls in dyeing black are
taken in quantities proportionate to their respective strengths, that of
good Aleppo gall-nuts being referred to as a standard.

The German wool-dyers usually commence their process with a mordant of
Salzburg vitriol (3 parts) and argol (1 part); and after exposure of the
goods in a cool place for 24 hours, work them in a bath of logwood (5 to 6
p.) and fustic (2 p.); after which the bath is restored by the addition of
verdigris (1/4 p.) dissolved in vinegar and the goods again worked through
it for about 1/2 an hour. This is for 20 parts weight of wool or cloth.

Black marinos are usually mordanted (hot) with about 1/10th of their
weight of copperas, and then aired for 24 hours; after which they are dyed
in a boiling bath made with about 1/2 their weight of logwood with the
addition of about 2% of argol or tartar.

As black is the shade most commonly attempted by amateur dyers, it may be
here necessary to call their attention to what is said on mixed fabrics in
our article on DYEING; since an inattention to this point will inevitably
cause the failure of their efforts.

According to Muspratt, a mixed fabric of silk and woollen may be dyed
black by one process, as follows:——Work the goods an hour in a solution of
8 _oz._ each of tartar and copperas, and wash out; work for 15 minutes in
a decoction of 4 _lbs._ of logwood; lift, add 1 _oz._ of bichromate of
potash, work for 1/2 an hour, and dry. And a mixed fabric of cotton, silk,
and woollen:——Steep for six hours in a bath made of 2 _lbs._ of sumach;
then work for an hour in a solution of 6 _oz._ each of tartar, sulphate of
copper, and copperas; wash, and work 1/2 an hour in a decoction of 4
_lbs._ of logwood; lift, add to the bath 1 _oz._ of copperas; work ten
minutes, wash, and dry. If a very deep black be required, 1 _lb._ of bark
is to be added with the logwood. See DYEING, MORDANTS, &c.

=BLACK JACK.= This term is applied to burnt sugar, which is used to colour
beverages, and more particularly for the adulteration of coffee. It is
also known under the name of “coffee refined,” and as such is vended in
tin canisters. It is moreover employed to give colour to vinegar, brandy,
and rum. Butter, with which water has been largely incorporated, is also
known as “Black Jack.” See CARAMEL.

=BLACK LEAD= (lĕd). See PLUMBAGO.

=BLACK PIG′MENTS.= _Syn._ PIGMEN′TA NI′GRA, L. The principal black
pigments of commerce are obtained by carbonising organic substances
(particularly bones), by exposure to a dull red heat, in covered vessels
out of contact with the air; or by collecting the soot formed during the
combustion of unctuous, resinous, and bituminous matters. Artists and
amateurs also prepare, on the small scale, a variety of blacks, many of
which are not procurable at the colour-shops. This they effect either by
the carbonisation of substances not usually employed for the purpose, or
by simply reducing to powder certain mineral productions selected on
account of the peculiar shades of colour which they respectively possess.
Some of the last might, however, be more appropriately classed with
browns. The following list embraces most of these articles:——

=Black, An′imal.= Bone-black.

=Black, Aniline.= See TAR COLOURS.

=Black, Beech′.= Carbonised beech-wood.

=Black, Blue′.= Vine-twigs dried and then carefully carbonised, in covered
vessels, until of the proper shade. That of the ancients was made of
wine-lees. Pit-coal, carefully burnt at a white heat, then quenched in
water, dried and well-ground, forms a cheap, good, and durable blue-black,
fit for most ordinary purposes. See FRANKFORT-BLACK.

=Black, Bone′.= _Syn._ I′VORY-BLACK (of _commerce_); CAR′BO OS′SIS, OS
US′TUM NI′GRUM, E′BUR U. N. (vena′le), &c., L.; NOIR D’OS, &c., Fr.;
KNOCHENSCHWARTZ, &c., Ger. Carbonised bones reduced to powder. That of
commerce is usually the residuum of the distillation of bone-spirit.
Inferior to true ivory-black; having a slight, but peculiar reddish tinge,
from which the latter is quite free. Besides its use as a pigment, it is
extensively employed in making blacking, as a material for the moulds of
founders, as a clarifier and bleacher of liquids, &c. See IVORY-BLACK and
CHARCOAL, ANIMAL.

=Black, Cas′sel=, Cologne′-Black. Ivory-black.

=Black, Coal′.= See BLUE-BLACK and NEWCASTLE-BLACK.

=Black, Composi′′tion= (zĭsh′-ŭn-). The selected portion of the residuum
of the process of making prussiate of potash from blood and hoofs. Used
both as a pigment and to decolour organic solutions, which it does better
than bone-black.

=Black, Cork′.= Spanish-black.

=Black, Flo′′rey=, FLORÉE D’INDE. The dried scum of the dyer’s wood-bath.
A superior blue-black.

=Black, Frank′fort=, NOIR DE FRANCFORT. From vine-twigs dried, carbonised
to a full black, and then ground very fine. An excellent black pigment;
also used by the copper-plate printers to make their ink. See BLUE-BLACK.

=Black, Harts′horn.= Resembles ivory-black, which is now usually sold for
it. It was formerly prepared by carbonising the residuum of the
distillation of spirit of hartshorn.

=Black, I′vory.= _Syn._ CAR′BO EB′ORIS, E′BUR US′TUM NI′GRUM, L.; NOIR
D′IVOIRE, &c., Fr.; ELFENBEINSCHWARTZ, KOHLE VON ELFENBEIN, Ger. From
waste fragments and turnings of ivory, by careful exposure in covered
crucibles, avoiding excess of heat or over-burning. The whole having been
allowed to become quite cold, the crucibles are opened and their contents
reduced to fine powder. For the first quality only the richest coloured
portion of the charcoal is selected, and this, after being powdered, is
ground with water on porphyry, washed on a filter with warm water, and
then dried. A very rich and beautiful black. It is brighter than even
peach-stone black, and is quite free from the reddish tinge of bone-black.
With white-lead it forms a rich pearl-grey. See BONE-BLACK.

=Black, Jamai′ca= (-mā′-). Sugar-black.

=Black, Lamp′.= _Syn._ FULI′GO LUCER′NÆ, F. PI′NEA, &c., L.; NOIR DE
FUMÉE, &c., Fr.; KIENRUSS, &c., Ger. _Prep._ 1. (On the small scale.) A
conical funnel of tin-plate furnished with a small pipe to convey the
fumes from the apartment, is suspended over a lamp fed with oil, tallow,
coal-tar, or crude naphtha, the wick being large and so arranged as to
burn with a full smoky flame. Large spongy, mushroom-like concretions of
an exceedingly light, very black, carbonaceous matter, gradually form at
the summit of the cone, and must be collected from time to time. The
funnel should be united to the smoke-pipe by means of wire, and no solder
should be used for the joints of either.

2. (_Commercial._) On the large scale, lamp-black is now generally made by
burning bone-oil (previously freed from its ammonia), or common coal-tar,
and receiving the smoke in a suitable chamber. In the patented process of
Messrs Martin and Grafton the coal-tar is violently agitated with
lime-water until the two are well mixed, after which it is allowed to
subside, and the lime-water having been drawn off, the tar is washed
several times with hot water. After subsidence and decantation it is put
into stills, and rectified. The crude naphtha in the receiver is then put
into a long cast-iron tube furnished with numerous large burners,
underneath which is a furnace to heat the pipe to nearly the boiling
point. Over each burner is a sort of funnel which goes into a cast-iron
pipe or main, which thus receives the smoke from all the burners. From
this main the smoke is conveyed by large pipes to a succession of boxes or
chambers, and thence into a series of large canvas bags arranged side by
side, and connected together at top and bottom alternately. Fifty to
eighty of these ‘bags’ are employed; the last one being left open to admit
of the escape of the smoke, which has thus been made to traverse a space
of about 400 yards. As soon as the bags contain any considerable quantity
of black they are removed and emptied. The black deposited in the last bag
is the finest and best, and it becomes progressively coarse as it
approaches the furnace.

_Obs._ The state of minute division in which the carbon exists in good
lamp-black is such as cannot be given to any other matter, not even by
grinding it on porphyry, or by ‘elutriation’ or ‘washing over’ with water.
On this account it goes a great way in every kind of painting. It may be
rendered drier and less oily by gentle calcination in close vessels, when
it is called burnt lamp-black, and may then be used as a water-colour; or
its greasiness may be removed by the alkali-treatment noticed under Indian
ink. It is the basis of Indian ink, printer’s ink, and most black paints.

Russian lamp-black is the soot produced by burning the chips of resinous
deal. It is objectionable chiefly from being liable to take fire
spontaneously when left for some time moistened with oil.

=Black, Manganese′= (-nēze′-). Native binoxide of manganese. Durable and
dries well.

=Black, New′castle.= From the richer-looking varieties of pit-coal by
grinding, and elutriation. Brown black or, in thin layers, deep brown. It
is, perhaps, “the most useful brown the artist can place on his palette;
being remarkably clear, not so warm as Vandyke-brown, and serving as a
shadow for blues, reds, and yellows, when glazed over them. It seems
almost certain that Titian made large use of this material.” See
BLUE-BLACK (_antè_).

=Black, Opor′to.= Carbonised wine-lees.

=Black, Pa′ris=, NOIR DE PARIS. From turner’s bone-dust, treated as for
ivory-black. Works well both in oil and water. It is commonly sold for
real ivory-black, and for burnt lamp-black.

=Black, Peach-stone.= From the stones or kernels of peaches, cherries, and
other similar fruits, treated as for ivory-black. A bright, rich black;
works well with oil; with white-lead and oil it makes old grey.

=Black, Pit′coal.= Newcastle-black.

=Black, Prus′′sian= (prŭsh′-ăn). Composition-black.

=Black, Rice′.= Rice-charcoal. Inferior.

=Black, Rus′′sian.= See LAMP-BLACK.

=Black, Soot′= (sŏŏt′-). The soot of coal-fires, ground and sifted. Used
in common paint, and to colour whitewash; with Venetian-red and oil, it
makes chocolate-colour; also used to make grey mortar.

=Black, Span′ish.= From cork-cuttings carbonised, as bone-black. Resembles
Frankfort-black, but works softer.

=Black, Sug′ar= (shŏŏg′-). Carbonised moist sugar. Has little body, but
for washing drawings is equal in mellowness to Indian ink and bistre.

=Black, Sun′derland.= Newcastle-black.

=Black, Tur′ner’s.= Paris-black.

=Black, Vine′-twig.= Frankfort-black.

=Black Wheat′= (hwēte′-) Carbonised wheat. It has a good colour, a full
body, and dries hard and quickly with oil.

=BLACK′BERRY.= The popular name of _ru′bus frutico′sus_ (Linn.) or the
common ‘bramble.’ Fruit (BLACK′BERRIES; MÛRES DE RONCE, Fr.),
antiscorbutic and wholesome, but in excess apt to sicken; twigs used in
dyeing black; root astringent, formerly used in hooping-cough.

=Blackberry, Amer′ican.= The _ru′bus villo′sus_ (Ait.). Root astringent
and tonic; officinal in the Ph. U. S.

=BLACK PUDDING.= A pudding made of the blood of the pig, mixed with groats
and fat. It contains about 11 per cent. of nitrogenous matter.

=BLACK′ING.= _Syn._ CIRAGE (des bottes), NOIR (pour les souliers), Fr.;
SCHWÄRZE, SCHUHSCHWÄRZE, Ger. An article too well known to require
description.

_Hist., &c._ Blacking, and other polishes for leather, were undoubtedly in
common use among the ancients; but the compound to which we now more
particularly apply the name is of comparatively modern invention. The
latter appears to have been first introduced into England from Paris,
during the reign of Chas. II, but was not in common use among the masses
of our population much before the middle of the 18th century.

The general and still increasing use of blacking as a polish for boots and
shoes by all classes of the inhabitants of civilised countries, has given
an extent and importance to its manufacture which a stranger to the
subject would scarcely be led to suspect. The princely establishments of
some of the firms who compound this sable article cannot fail to have
arrested the attention of the passenger through the streets of this great
metropolis; whilst the enormous fortune acquired by one of their late
members, and, for the most part, bequeathed by him for purposes of charity
and philanthropy, has invested both the donor and his craft with an
interest and notoriety which they did not previously possess. At the
present time the consumption of blacking is greater than at any former
period; and of this, as of many other articles, England is the principal
manufactory for the world, alike distinguished for the extent of her trade
and the excellent quality of this product of her industry. In truth,
England excels all other nations in the manufacture of common
shoe-blacking; and perhaps in no other country is an equal attention paid
to the cleanliness and appearance of the external clothing of the feet.

_Prep._ I. LIQUID BLACKING:——

1. Take of bone-black, 16 parts; treacle, 12 parts; oil of vitriol, 3
parts; sperm oil,[190] 2 parts; gum-arabic, 1 part; strong vinegar, or
sour beer, 48 to 50 parts[191] (all by weight); place the bone-black in a
capacious wooden, stone-ware, or enamelled iron vessel,[192] add the oil,
and rub them well together; next gradually add the treacle, and actively
and patiently grind or rub the mass, after each addition, until the oil is
perfectly killed, and finally for some time afterwards, to ensure complete
admixture; then cautiously dilute the vitriol with about three times its
bulk of water, and add it, in separate portions, to the former mixture,
observing to stir the whole together, as rapidly as possible, on each
addition of the acid, and for some minutes after the whole is added, so as
to render the mass thoroughly smooth and homogeneous; let it stand,
covered over, for two or three days, or longer, stirring it, in the mean
time, for 15 or 20 minutes daily; lastly, having dissolved the gum in the
vinegar, add the solution gradually to the rest, and stir the whole
together briskly for some time, and again daily for 3 or 4 days. It may be
further diluted, at will, with a little more vinegar or beer, or with
water; but unnecessary or excessive dilution should be avoided, as the
richness and quality of the blacking become proportionately reduced. If
all the ingredients (except the vitriol) be made hot before admixture, the
shining quality of the product will be greatly improved, and the process
may be shortened.[193]

[Footnote 190: Sperm oil is commonly regarded as the best for blacking;
but pale seal oil is thought by some to be quite as good. The cod-liver
oil of the curriers, if clear, is less expensive, and probably better than
either of them. Common olive oil, and refined rape oil, are, however,
those most generally used by the blacking-makers.]

[Footnote 191: That is, 3 to 3-1/2 times the weight of the ivory-black.]

[Footnote 192: Metallic vessels must be avoided.]

[Footnote 193: By taking the ‘parts’ ordered in this and the other formulæ
as so many 1/4 _lbs._, _lbs._, 1/4 _cwts._, or _cwts._, the proportions of
each ingredient for any quantity of blacking, from a 1/4 of a _lb._, or a
1/4 _pint_, up to 2 _tons_, or nearly 450 _galls._, will be at once seen;
and so on of even larger quantities. See Concluding Remarks (_infrà_).]

2. Ivory-black, 16 parts; treacle, 8 parts; oil of vitriol, 4 parts;
(diluted with) water, 2 parts; oil, 2 parts; gum-arabic, 1 part; soft
water (for the final dilution, instead of vinegar), 64 parts; mixed, &c.,
as before. Excellent.

3. As the last; but taking only 6 parts of treacle, 1 part of oil, and
omitting the gum-arabic. Good. A commoner article of liquid blacking does
not sell.

4. (Bryant and James’s INDIA-RUBBER LIQUID BLACKING. Patent dated 1836.)
Take of india rubber (in small pieces), 18 _oz._; hot rape oil, 9 _lbs._
(say 1 _gall._); dissolve; to the solution add of ivory-black (in very
fine powder), 60 _lbs._; treacle, 45 _lbs._; mix thoroughly; further add
of gum-arabic, 1 _lb._, dissolved in vinegar (No. 24), 20 galls.; reduce
the whole to a perfect state of smoothness and admixture by trituration in
a paint-mill; throw the compound into a wooden vessel, and add, very
gradually, of sulphuric acid, 12 _lbs._; continue the stirring for 1/2 an
hour, repeating it daily for 14 days; then add of gum-arabic (in fine
powder), 3 _lbs._;[194] again mix well, and repeat the stirring for 1/2 an
hour daily for 14 days longer, when the liquid blacking will be ready for
use or for bottling. The quality is very excellent; but this, probably,
does not depend on the presence of the india rubber, but on the general
correctness of the proportions, and the care and completeness with which
they are mixed.

[Footnote 194: This should be gently rubbed through a sieve, held over the
blacking by one person, whilst another stirs the mass assiduously with the
spatula.]

5. (_Without Vitriol._) Take of ivory-black (in very fine powder), 2
_lbs._; treacle, 1-1/2 lb.; sperm oil, 1/4 pint; mix, as before; then add
of gum-arabic, 1 _oz._; (dissolved in) strong vinegar, 1/2 pint; mix well;
the next day further add of good vinegar, or strong sour beer, 3 to 4
pints (or q. s.); stir briskly for a 1/4 of an hour, and again once a day
for a week. Excellent. A cheaper, but inferior article, may be made by the
reductions and omissions noticed above.

6. From paste-blacking (see _below_), by reducing it with sufficient
vinegar, sour beer, or water, to give it the liquid form.[195]

[Footnote 195: It is sometimes convenient to prepare liquid blacking in
this way from a stock of ‘paste-blacking’ already on hand.]

II. PASTE BLACKING:——

1. Qualities from good to super-excellent may be made from any of the
preceding formulæ, by simply omitting the final dilution with the vinegar,
sour beer, or water, therein ordered at the end of the process.

2. (Bryant and James’s INDIA-RUBBER PASTE BLACKING.——Patent dated 1836.)
Of india-rubber oil, ivory black, treacle, and gum-arabic, the same as for
their liquid blacking (see I, 4, _above_), but dissolving the last in only
12 _lbs._ (say 5 quarts), instead of 20 galls. of vinegar; grinding to a
smooth paste in a colour-mill, and then adding of oil of vitriol, 12 lbs.
as before. The mass is to be stirred daily for a week, when it will be fit
for use, or potting.[196] Excellent.

[Footnote 196: The final addition of the 3 _lbs._ of powdered gum, ordered
in the formula of their liquid blacking, is not mentioned by the
patentees; and we therefore presume they do not intend it to be made. If
made, it should be at the end of the week, and the daily stirring must
then be continued for another week. This addition, or omission, enables us
to produce two qualities from the same formula.]

3. Ivory-black, 1 cwt.; treacle, 28 lbs.; rape oil (or other cheap oil), 1
gall.; mix, as before; then add of oil of vitriol, 21 _lbs._; (diluted
with) water, 2 _galls._; mix them quickly and thoroughly by forcible
stirring with a strong wooden spatula, and as soon as admixture is
complete, but whilst still fuming, put the cover on the tub, and leave it
till the next day, when (without further stirring) it will be fit for use
or sale.[197] Good ordinary. Used for packets and tins.

[Footnote 197: The object here is to make the product as spongy and light
as possible, so that the purchaser may fancy he has a great deal for his
money.]

4. As the last; but adding with the ivory-black, &c., 14 to 28 _lbs._ of
coal-soot[198] (sifted), omitting one half of the oil, and diluting the
vitriol with an extra gall. of water. Inferior. Chiefly used for 1_d._ and
1/2_d._ packets.[199]

[Footnote 198: This is also to give bulk.]

[Footnote 199: A still more common article is vended in the north of
England, and in Scotland, in which the oil is omitted altogether. The sale
of such blackings (?) is disreputable, when it is remembered that a really
good article may be made for 2_d._ to 2-1/2_d._ per _lb._]

5. (GERMAN BLACKING). Ivory-black, 1 part; treacle, 1/2 part; sweet oil,
1/8 part; mix, as before; then stir in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, 1/8
part; oil of vitriol, 1/4 part (each separately diluted with twice its
weight of water before mixing them). This forms the ordinary
paste-blacking of Germany, according to Liebig.

6. (_Without Vitriol._) As I, 5 (_antè_); but with the omission of the
last 1/2 gall. of ‘vinegar.’

_Concluding Remarks._——To produce a first-rate article of blacking it is
absolutely necessary that the ingredients be of the best quality, and used
in the proper proportions; and that the order of their admixture, and the
general manipulations, be conducted under ordinary circumstances, in the
manner described in the first of the above formulæ. The proportions of the
treacle and the oil (the most expensive of the ingredients) should not be
stinted; and, indeed, that of the latter may be safely increased in
quantity, without materially affecting the polish, and with manifest
advantage as far as the softness and durability of the leather to which it
is applied is concerned. The manipulations required in the manufacture of
both paste-blacking and liquid blacking are essentially the same; the
difference between the two articles, when the same materials are used,
depending entirely on the quantity of liquid added. Thus, as noticed
before, by diluting paste-blacking with water, vinegar, or beer-bottoms,
it may be converted into liquid blacking of a nearly similar quality; and,
by using less fluid matter, the ingredients of liquid blacking will
produce paste blacking. One thing must, however, be observed, and that is,
that the ivory-black used for liquid blacking should be reduced to a much
finer powder than for paste blacking; as, if this is not attended to, it
is apt to settle at the bottom, and to be with difficulty again diffused
through the liquid. Persons who object to the use of blacking containing
oil of vitriol may employ formula I, 5, or II, 6 (_above_). The vitriol,
however, greatly contributes to promote the shining properties of the
blacking; and, in small quantities, or in the proper proportion, is not so
injurious to the leather as some persons have represented; as it wholly
unites itself to the lime of the bone-phosphate contained in the
ivory-black, and is thus neutralised, insoluble sulphate of lime, and an
acid phosphate or superphosphate, being formed. It is the latter that
gives the acidity to a well-made sample of blacking, and not the sulphuric
acid originally added to it. In this way the larger portion of the
ivory-black is reduced to a state of extremely minute division, and with
the other ingredients forms a strongly adhesive paste, which clings to the
surface of the leather, and is susceptible of receiving a high polish by
friction when in a scarcely dry state. This is the reason why lamp-black
should never be employed for blacking to the exclusion of the necessary
proportion of bone-black, as it has no earthy base to absorb or neutralise
the acid, which, if left in a free state, would prove very hurtful to the
leather. Oil of vitriol is now employed in the manufacture of all the more
celebrated and expensive blackings; and that simply because no other
substance is known so efficient, and so little injurious to the leather.
In the common blackings of Germany, hydrochloric acid is often used to the
entire exclusion of oil of vitriol; but blacking so prepared possesses
several disadvantages from which that of England is free. In the best
German blackings only a small portion of this acid is used, as may be seen
by reference to formula II, 5 (_above_). The addition of white-of-egg,
isinglass, and similar articles[200] to blacking, always proves injurious,
as they tend to stiffen the leather and to make it crack, without at all
improving its polishing properties. Even gum-arabic, in quantity, is on
this account objectionable. Oil has an opposite tendency, and, as already
stated, the quantity commonly used may be increased with advantage. Resin
oil should be particularly avoided.

[Footnote 200: In Scotland, flour-paste soured by keeping is often
substituted for part of the treacle in the common blackings; with the
effect, however, of greatly impairing their polishing qualities, and
causing the leather to rapidly become stiff and to crack. Further, such
blacking will not keep, often growing mouldy and hard in two or three
weeks.]

Dr Ure has recommended the use of a little copperas[201] in blacking; with
the object, we presume, of striking a black with the tan in the leather;
but except with new, or nearly new leather, this effect would not occur,
whilst its presence, if not objectionable, would otherwise be useless.

[Footnote 201: The proportion recommended by Dr Ure is 1/4 _oz._ to each
_lb._ of bone-black, dissolved in 10 parts of water, and to be added with
the vitriol.]

The only improvement that has been introduced in the manufacture of
blacking since the early days of the celebrated Day & Martin is, a few
hours after the conclusion of the mixture of the ingredients (but before
adding the vinegar, if any), to simmer the whole very gently, for about 8
or 10 minutes, observing to stir it assiduously all the time. The fire
must then be withdrawn, and the pan covered over until it is quite cold,
when half an hour’s lusty stirring will finish the process.[202] In this
way a degree of maturity and brilliancy will be imparted to the product,
which, without the application of heat, it would take months to acquire,
if, indeed, it ever reached it.

[Footnote 202: A capacious enamelled cast-iron boiler, with a concave
bottom, should be used for this purpose; in which case the ingredients can
be mixed in it, and thus the trouble of removal avoided. If a common
copper or cast-iron boiler be employed, the blacking must not be allowed
to remain in it longer than necessary to give it the ‘simmer,’ at the
conclusion of which it should be turned out into a wooden tub or vat to
cool.]

As it is generally more convenient to measure than to weigh liquids, it
may be useful to remind the reader that, in round numbers,

  1 gal. of oil           weighs   9-1/4 _lbs._
  1   ”       sour beer     ”     10-1/4   ”
  1   ”       vinegar }     ”     10       ”
  1   ”       water   }

We may here further remark that the blackings of different houses vary
considerably in some of their properties; as also do those of even the
same maker by age. Some blackings dry off rapidly and give a very
brilliant polish with very little labour; whilst others take a little
longer to ‘dry off,’ and somewhat more labour to polish them. The former
are best adapted to hasty use, and when a very brilliant surface is
desired; the latter when depth of polish, without extreme brilliancy,
satisfies the wearer. The first best meets the requirements of fashionable
life; the last those of the middle classes and pedestrians exposed to
dirt, mud, and the various vicissitudes of travelling and weather. To the
one belong the ‘blackings’ of Everett, Day & Martin, &c.; to the other,
those of Warren, Bryant & James, and most of the smaller manufacturers,
with nearly all the paste-blacking of the more respectable shops. Time,
however, equalises the qualities of these two classes. Blackings which are
crude, moist, and oily lose these properties, and become drier and more
brilliant by age. The practice of several of the first-class West-end boot
and shoe makers is never to use a blacking which they have not had in
their stock at least a twelvemonth.

Blacking, both liquid and paste, should be stored in a cool and moderately
dry cellar; and when in use should be kept corked or otherwise excluded
from the air. Exposure or desiccation destroys most of its best qualities.

The present annual value of the blacking consumed in the United Kingdom is
estimated at 562,500_l._, or about 4-1/2_d._ per head for the whole
population; while the collective yearly value of that exported is about
35,000_l._

[See BALLS, BLACKING, BONE-BLACK, BOOTS AND SHOES, LEATHER, SULPHURIC
ACID, &c.; also _below_.]

=Blacking, Automat′ic.= _Syn._ SELF-SHI′′NING BLACKING, SPAN′ISH JAPAN,
&c. _Prep._ 1. Gum-arabic, 4 _oz._; treacle or coarse moist sugar,
1-1/2_oz._; good black ink, 1/4 pint; strong vinegar, 2 _oz._; rectified
spirit of wine and sweet oil, of each 1 _oz._; dissolve the gum in the
ink, add the oil, and rub them in a mortar or shake them together for some
time, until they are thoroughly united; then add the vinegar, and lastly
the spirit.

2. Lamp-black, 3/4 _oz._; indigo (in fine powder), 1 _dr._; put them in a
mortar, or basin, and rub them with sufficient mucilage (made by
dissolving 4 _oz._ of gum in 1/4 pint of strong vinegar) to form a thin
paste; add very gradually of sweet oil, 1 _oz._; and triturate until their
union is complete, adding toward the end the rest of the mucilage; then
further add of treacle, 1-1/2 _oz._; and afterwards, successively, of
strong vinegar, 2 _oz._; rectified spirit, 1 _oz._; lastly, bottle for
use.

3. Mix the whites of 2 eggs with a table-spoonful of spirit of wine, 2
large lumps of sugar (crushed), and sufficient finely powdered ivory-black
to give the required colour and thickness, avoiding excess.

_Obs._ The above are chiefly used for dress boots and shoes. The first two
are applied to the leather with the tip of the finger, or a sponge, and
then allowed to dry out of the dust. The third is commonly laid on with a
sponge or soft brush, and when almost dry or hard may have its polish
heightened with a brush or soft rubber, after which it is left for a few
hours to harden. It may also be used to revive the faded black leather
seats and backs of old chairs. They all possess great brilliancy for a
time; but are only adapted to clean, dry weather, or indoor use. They
should all be applied to the leather as thinly as possible, as otherwise
they soon crack off.

=Blacking, Har′ness.= Good glue or gelatine, 4 _oz._; gum-arabic, 3 _oz._;
water, 3/4 pint; dissolve by heat; add of treacle, 6 _oz._; ivory-black
(in very fine powder), 5 _oz._; and gently evaporate, with constant
trituration, until of a proper consistence when cold; when nearly cold put
it into bottles, and cork them down. For use, the bottle may be warmed a
little to thin it, if necessary. Does not resist the wet.

2. Mutton suet, 2 _oz._; bees-wax (pure), 6 _oz._; melt, add of sugar
candy (in fine powder), 6 _oz._; soft soap, 2 _oz._; lamp-black, 2-1/2
_oz._; indigo (in fine powder), 1/2 _oz._; when thoroughly incorporated,
further add of oil of turpentine, 1/4 pint; and pour it into pots or tins.

3. Bees′-wax, 1 _lb._; soft soap, 6 _oz._; ivory-black, 1/4 _lb._;
Prussian blue, 1 _oz._; (ground in) linseed oil, 2 _oz._; oil of
turpentine, 1/2 pint; to be mixed, &c., as before.

_Obs._ The above are used by laying a very little of them on the leather,
evenly spreading it over the surface, and then polishing it by gentle
friction with a brush, or a soft-rubber. The last two are waterproof.
Numerous compositions of the class are vended by the saddlers and oilmen,
but the mass of them are unchemical mixtures, badly prepared, and cause
disappointment to those who use them. Such is not the case with the
products of the above formulæ, if we may rely on the statements of those
who have employed them for years. The last two are suitable for both
harness and carriage leather. See BALLS, HEEL, &c.

=BLADD′ER.= _Syn._ VES′ICA, L.; VESSIE, Fr.; BLASE, BLATTER, Ger. In
_anatomy_, &c., a thin membranous sac or bag, in an animal, serving as a
receptacle for some secreted fluid; appr., the urinary bladder. See
CALCULUS, INFLAMMATION, RUPTURE, &c.

=Bladd′ers.= (In _commerce_.) The better qualities of these articles are
prepared by cutting off the fat and loose membranes attached to them, and
washing them first in a weak solution of chloride of lime, and afterwards
in clear water; they are then blown out and submitted to strong pressure
by rolling them under the arm, by which they become considerably larger;
they are next blown quite tight, dried, and tied up in dozens. Commoner
qualities are merely emptied, the loose fat removed, and then blown out,
and strung up to dry. Used chiefly by druggists and oilmen to tie over
pots, bottles, and jars, and to contain pill-masses, hard extracts, and
other similar substances; also in surgery, to cover wounds, sore heads,
&c.——_Obs._ Bladders should never be purchased unless perfectly dry and
air-tight; as, if the reverse be the case, they will neither keep nor
prove useful, but will rapidly become rotten and evolve a most offensive
odour. If purchased whilst damp, they should be at once hung up in a
current of air, so as to dry as soon as possible.

=BLAIN*= (blāne). A boil; a sore; a pustule.

=BLANC= (blŏng). [Fr.] In _cookery_, a dish which, according to Mrs
Rundell, is formed of grated bacon and suet, of each 1 _lb._; butter, 1/2
_lb._; 2 lemons; 3 or 4 carrots (cut into dice); 3 or 4 onions; and a
little water; the whole being simmered for a short time, with or without
the addition of a glass of sherry or marsala, before serving.

=BLANCH′ING.= _Syn._ CANDICA′TIO, DEALBA′TIO, &c., L.; BLANCHIMENT, &c.,
Fr.; BLEICHEN, &c., Ger. A whitening, or making white; a growing white. In
some cases it means decortication. See ALMONDS, BLEACHING, DECOLORATION,
&c.

=Blanching.= In _cookery_, an operation intended to impart whiteness,
plumpness, and softness, to joints of meats, poultry, tongues, palates,
&c. It is usually performed by putting the articles into cold water, which
is then gradually raised to the boiling point, when they are at once taken
out, plunged into cold water, and left there until quite cold. They are
subsequently removed and wiped dry, ready for being dressed.

_Obs._ The operation of blanching meat, although it renders it more
sightly according to the notions of fashionable life, at the same time
lessens its nutritive qualities, by abstracting a portion of the soluble
saline matter which it contains, especially the phosphates, and thus
deprives it of one of the principal features which distinguish fresh meat
from salted meat. Animal food, before being dressed, may be washed or
rinsed in cold water without injury, provided it be quickly done; but it
cannot be soaked in water at any temperature much below the boiling-point
without the surface, and the parts near it, being rendered less
nutritious. Washing meat when first received from the butcher is, indeed,
a necessary act of cleanliness; but soaking it for some time in water is
unnecessary, and for the reasons stated should be avoided.

Strong acetic acid (concentrated vinegar) poured on or rubbed over hard
lean meat gradually renders it soft and gelatinous. Ordinary household
vinegar has the same effect, but in a less degree. Tough meat thus treated
for a short time before dressing it becomes more tender and digestible,
though somewhat less nutritious; whilst the taste and flavour of the
vinegar is removed by the heat subsequently employed in dressing it.

=BLANCMANGE′.= (blo-mŏn_g_zh′‡.) _Syn._ BLANCMANGER (blŏn_g_-mŏn_g_-zhā),
Fr. _Literally_, white food; in _cookery_, a confected white jelly. It is
commonly prepared by simmering 1 _oz._ of isinglass, 2 or 3 _oz._ of lump
sugar, and a little flavouring,[203] in about a pint of milk, until the
first is dissolved, when the whole is thrown into a jelly-bag, and the
strained liquor is allowed to cool and solidify; it is next remelted by a
gentle heat, and, when nearly cold, poured into moulds, which have been
previously rubbed with a little salad oil and then wiped out again.

[Footnote 203: This may be 5 or 6 bitter almonds (grated), or a little
cinnamon, orange, or lemon peel, &c., at will. Sometimes these are
omitted, and a little orange-flower water, rose-water, or essence of
vanilla, added to the remelted jelly.]

_Obs._ Good gelatine, or strong calves’ feet jelly, is often substituted
for the isinglass. At other times the jelly is made with about 1/2 pint of
water (instead of milk), when 1/2 pint of almond-milk, or of cream, is
added to the remelted jelly. Sometimes ground rice or arrow-root is
employed in lieu of isinglass, when the product is called RICE-BLANCMANGE,
or WEST-INDIAN B., as the case may be. TRANSPA′′RENT BLANCMANGE[204] is
merely clarified isinglass-jelly, flavoured. See CREAM (Stone), ISINGLASS,
and JELLY.

[Footnote 204: A misnomer of the confectioners and cooks.]

=BLANQUETTE′= (blan_g_-ket’). [Fr.] In _cookery_, a species of white
fricasee. It is also the name of a delicate species of white wine, and of
a particular sort of pear.

=BLAST′ING.= In _civil_ and _military engineering_, the disruption of
rocks, &c., by the explosion of gunpowder, or other like material.

=BLAST′ING POWDERS= (Melville and Callow’s). _Prep._ 1. (POWDER NO. 1.)
Chlorate of potassa, 2 parts; red sulphuret of arsenic, 1 part; to be
separately carefully reduced to powder, and lightly mixed together,
scrupulously avoiding the use of iron instruments, percussion, much
friction, the slightest contact with acids, or exposure to heat.

2. (POWDER NO. 2.) Chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; red sulphuret of arsenic,
2 parts; ferrocyanide of potassium (prussiate of potash), 1 part; as No.
1.

3. (POWDER NO. 3.) Chlorate of potassa and ferrocyanide of potassium,
equal parts.

_Obs._ These compounds are not permanently injured by either salt or fresh
water, merely requiring to be dried to regain their explosive character.
They possess fully eight times the force of ordinary powder. One of their
advantages, especially to the underground miner, is the very trifling
amount of smoke produced by their explosion. On the other hand, the
extreme facility with which they explode by attrition, contact with a
strong acid, and a slight elevation of temperature, render them unsuited
to most of the purposes of ordinary gunpowder. On this account they should
only be prepared in small quantities at a time, and with the utmost
caution. Mr Callow, the inventor of them, lost several of his fingers, and
was rendered a cripple for life, by an explosion of the kind referred to,
which occurred only a few weeks after the sealing of his patent. A straw,
or small strip of wood, only slightly wetted with oil of vitriol, and
applied to a small heap of the powder, produces instantaneous explosion.
Captain Wynand’s ‘Saxifragine’ is composed of nitrate of baryta, 76 parts;
charcoal, 22 parts; and nitre, 2 parts. Schultze’s wood-gunpowder is
composed of granulated wood treated with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric
acid, afterwards impregnated with a solution of nitre. M. Bäudish has
invented a method by which this wood-gunpowder may be compressed into a
solid substance, exerting great power and free from danger by transport.
Lithofracteur, a white blasting powder used in Belgium, is a substance
similar to gun-cotton.

Messrs Nenmayer and Fehleisen’s haloxylin is composed of charcoal, nitre,
and yellow prussiate of potash. See GUN-COTTON, GUNPOWDER, MINING, &c.

=BLATTA ORIENTALIS.= The common cockroach, originally imported from the
East, belongs to the family of orthopterous insects; and may be classed
amongst the most offensive and objectionable of domestic pests. It is
extremely voracious, not only devouring all kinds of provisions, but
attacking and consequently destroying silk, flannel, and even cotton
fabrics, in the absence of anything more eatable. The cockroach is
nocturnal in its habits, and exceedingly active and swift of movement. Its
flattened form enables it to insinuate itself easily into crevices, and so
to escape detection. The American cockroach (_Blatta Americana_) is larger
than the above. A still larger species (_Blatta gigantea_) is found in the
West Indies where it is known by the name of the drummer. It is so called
from the tapping noise it makes on wood, the sound so produced, when
joined in by several of the creatures (as it usually is) being sufficient
to destroy the slumbers of a household.

Cockroaches may be poisoned by means of wafers made of red lead, or caught
by smearing a piece of wood with treacle, and floating it on a broad basin
of water. When the fires and lights are extinguished they issue from their
holes, and fall into the basin in their efforts to reach the bait. The
chinks and holes from which they come should also be filled up with
unslaked lime, and some lime should also be sprinkled about the ground.

Old Gerrard says they avoid any place in which the leaves of the mullein
are strewn about.

The _Blatta Orientalis_, which was formerly supposed to possess remedial
powers, and was hence employed in medicine by the more ancient
therapeutists, has lately found advocates for his readmission into the
animal materia medica. He is reported, when made into a tincture, to act
as a diuretic, and to yield a crystalline body possessed of similar
properties, but in a more concentrated form. Some of the American journals
report that he may be given in the form of powder or infusion (from 15 to
30 gr.) 3 or 4 times a day, in dropsy, and to increase the secretion of
urine as well as of perspiration.

=BLEACH′ING=, (blēche′-). _Syn._ DEÄLBA′TIO (-sh′o), INSOLA′TIO,[205] &c.,
L.; BLANCHIMENT, BLANCHISSAGE, Fr.; BLEICHEN, Ger. The process by which
the colour of bodies, natural or acquired, is removed, and by which they
are rendered white or colourless. It is more particularly applied to the
decolorisation of textile filaments, and of cloths made of them.

[Footnote 205: Bleaching by exposure in the sun.]

_Hist._ Bleaching is a very ancient art, as passages referring to it in
the earlier sacred and profane writers fully testify. It had probably
reached a high degree of excellence among the inhabitants of the first
Assyrian empire, and was certainly practised in Egypt long before the
commencement of written history. We may fairly assume that fine white
linen formed part of the “raiment,” which, together with “jewels of gold,
and jewels of silver,” and “precious things,” Abraham sent as presents to
the beautiful Rebekah and her family,[206] fully three centuries and a
half before the Exodus. Subsequently, in Scripture, we have special
mention of “fine linen, white and clean.” Herodotus, the earliest Greek
historian, tells us, that the Babylonians wore “white cloaks;”[207] and in
Athenæus we read of “shining fine linen,” as opposed to that which was
“raw” or unbleached.[208] At this early period, and for many centuries
afterwards, the operations of washing, fulling, and bleaching were not
distinctly separated. The common system of washing followed by drying in
the sun, adopted by the ancients, is a process which of itself, by
frequent repetition, decolorises the raw materials of textile fabrics, and
thus must inevitably have taught them the art of ‘natural bleaching’ of a
character similar to that practised in Europe up to a comparatively very
recent period. And this appears, according to the authority of ancient
authors, to have been the case. Washing or steeping in alkaline and
ammoniacal lyes, or in milk of lime, followed by exposure in the sun,
formed the chief basis of their system; whilst woollens, then as now, were
treated with soap and fuller’s earth, or with potter’s clay, marl,
Cimolian earth, or other like mineral. Urine was highly esteemed among
them; and we are told that in the time of the emperor Vespasian,[209] and
undoubtedly long before it, cloths were sulphured. Indeed, according to
Pliny, sulphuring was often had recourse to in ordinary washing, as well
as in the bleaching process.[210]

[Footnote 206: Gen. xxiv, 53; B.C. 1857.]

[Footnote 207: Herod., i, 195.]

[Footnote 208: Athen., ix, 77.]

[Footnote 209: ‘Hist. Nat.,’ xxv, 57, &c.]

[Footnote 210: {Transcriber’s note: Footnote omitted by publisher.}]

Bleaching continued to be practised with no essential change of its
principles until the discovery of chlorine, to which we shall presently
refer. In the last century Holland obtained the best name for bleaching.
The process passed then to Ireland and Scotland, and thence into England.
It was even customary to send goods from this country to be bleached in
Holland. The first attempt to vie with Holland was made, in Scotland, in
1749.

The first steps towards the modern or chemical system of bleaching were
the investigations of Berthollet on chlorine, in 1784, but which were not
communicated to the French Academy until the year 1787. The knowledge of
the use of chlorine as a bleacher was soon afterwards brought to this
country by the Duke of Gordon, and by Prof. Copeland of Aberdeen, and
through them was practically applied by Messrs Milnes of that place. About
the same time James Watt, a correspondent of Berthollet, successfully
introduced its use in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, and then generously
laid a statement of the results before the Manchester manufacturers. In
enforcing the importance of the new substance and process on these
gentlemen, he was ably followed and seconded by Dr Henry. In 1798, Mr
Charles Tennant, of Glasgow, obtained a patent for a new bleaching liquor
prepared by saturating lime water with chlorine; and another, in 1799, for
dry chloride of lime, a substance which is still preferred as a bleacher
to all other preparations of chlorine. The new or continuous process of
bleaching, as it is called, and that which is at present in general use in
all the chief bleach-works of Lancashire, was introduced by Mr David
Bentley, of Pendleton, and patented by him in 1828.

_Proc._ Bleaching is commonly said to be natural when exposure to light,
air, and moisture forms the leading part of the process; and to be
chemical when chlorine, chloride of lime, sulphurous acid, or other like
substances are employed. In some cases, as with linen, the two processes
are combined. The subject requires to be noticed under separate heads,
depending on the material operated on:——

I. BLEACHING of =Cotton=:——Cotton is more easily bleached, and appears to
suffer less from the process than most other textile substances. On the
old plan it was first (1) thoroughly washed in warm water, to remove the
weaver’s paste or dressing; then (2) ‘bucked’ or ‘bowked’ (boiled) in a
weak alkaline lye, or in milk of lime, to remove colouring, fatty, and
resinous matters, insoluble in simple water; and after being (3) again
well washed, was (4) spread out upon the grass, or bleaching ground, and
freely exposed to the joint action of light, air, and moisture
(technically called ‘crofting’). The operation of ‘bucking’ in an alkaline
lye, washing, and exposure was repeated as often as necessary, when the
goods were (5) ‘soured’ or immersed in water acidulated with sulphuric
acid, after which they (6) received a final thorough washing in clean
water, and were (7) dried, finished, and folded for the market. From the
length of the exposure upon the bleaching ground this method is apt to
injure the texture of the cloth; and from the number of operations
required is necessarily expensive and tedious. It is therefore now very
generally superseded by the system of chemical bleaching briefly described
below.

In the CHEMICAL SYSTEM of bleaching the goods are ‘washed’ and ‘bucked’ as
on the old plan, then submitted to the action of a weak solution of
chloride of lime, and afterwards passed through water soured with
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, when they have only to be thoroughly
washed, and to be dried and finished, for the entire completion of the
process.

The new or continuous process, before referred to,[211] is the method of
chemical bleaching at present in the most general use; and, indeed, it has
nearly superseded all other methods. In this system the pieces, previously
tacked together endwise so as to form a chain, are drawn, by the motion of
rollers, in any direction, and any number of times, through every solution
to the action of which it is desired to expose them, and this entirely and
completely under the control of the operator.

[Footnote 211: See ‘Hist.’ (_antè_).]

The following _Table_ exhibits an outline of the several operations in the
improved form of the continuous process as practised by Messrs McNaughten,
Barton, and Thom, at Chorley, and in most other large bleach-works:——

1. Preliminary operations:——_a_. The ‘pieces’[212] are separately stamped
with the printer’s name, a solution of silver, or sometimes coal-tar,
being employed for the purpose.

[Footnote 212: Usually about 30 yards each.]

_b._ They are tacked together endwise either by hand or a machine, so as
to form one continuous piece of 300 to 350 yards in length, according to
the weight of the cloth.

_c._ They are singed.[213]

[Footnote 213: Generally on one side only; but for goods to be
subsequently finely printed, on both sides. For very fine printing the nap
is sometimes removed by shearing instead of ‘singeing,’ an ingenious and
effective machine being employed for the purpose.]

_d._ They are crushed into a rope-like form by drawing them through a
smooth aperture,[214] the surface of which is generally of glass or
porcelain——the rope-form being given them to enable the water and other
liquids to penetrate the goods more easily, and to allow them to be laid
in loose coils in the kiers.

[Footnote 214: Such apertures are also used instead of pulleys, in the
transfer of the rope from place to place.]

2. The pieces are bucked or boiled in milk of lime[215] for 12 to 14
hours,[216] followed by rinsing or cleansing in the washing-machine.

[Footnote 215: The common proportions are about 1 lb. of quick-lime slaked
and reduced to milk, with 2 galls. of water, for every 14 or 15 lbs. of
cloth.]

[Footnote 216: This is done in a large iron boiler furnished with a
perforated false bottom of wood, and technically termed a ‘kier.’]

3. They are soured in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid,[217] and
again washed; similar machines being employed for each.

[Footnote 217: This dilute acid or acidulated water has usually the sp.
gr. 1·010 or 2° Twaddle.]

4. They are bucked or boiled for 15 or 16 hours in a solution of resinate
of soda,[218] and then washed as before.

[Footnote 218: Made with about 17 _lbs._ of soda-ash and 3 _lbs._ of
resin, with water, 50 galls., to every 20 or 21 _lbs._ of cloth.]

5. They are chemicked by being laid in a wooden, stone, or slate cistern,
when a solution of chloride of lime[219] is pumped over them, so as to run
through the ‘goods’ into a vessel below, from which it is returned on them
by continued pumping, so that the cloth lies in it for 1 or 2 hours; it is
then washed.

[Footnote 219: Technically called ‘chemick.’ The strength of the solution
is usually of the sp. gr. 1·0025, or 1/2° Twaddle.]

6. They are bucked or boiled, for 4 or 5 hours, in a solution of 1 _lb._
of crystallised carbonate of soda, dissolved in 5 galls. of water, to
every 35 _lbs._ of cloth; and washed.

7. They are again ‘chemicked,’ as before; and washed.

8. They are soured in very dilute hydrochloric acid;[220] and then left on
‘stillages’[221] for 5 or 6 hours.

[Footnote 220: Sp. gr. 1·0125, or 2-1/2° Twaddle.]

[Footnote 221: Low stools or props to keep them from the ground.]

9. They are, finally, thoroughly washed, well squeezed between rollers,
dried over steam-heated tin-cylinders, starched or dressed, and finished.

This is the usual process for good calicos, Muslins, and other light
goods, are handled rather more carefully; whilst for commoner ones the
sixth and seventh operations are generally omitted. The whole usually
occupies 5 days; but by using Mr Barlow’s high-pressure steam kiers, it
may be performed in two days. Yarns, &c., may be bleached in a similar
manner by first looping the skeins together.

_Obs._ According to the most reliable authorities, the strength of
cotton-fibre is not impaired by its being boiled for two hours in milk of
lime, under ordinary pressure, out of contact with the air; nor, according
to the bleachers, even by sixteen hours boiling at the strength of 40
_lbs._ per 100 galls. It is said that lime is less injurious than ‘soda.’

Solution of caustic soda, sp. gr. 1·030, does not injure it, even by
boiling under high pressure; but, in practice, soda-ash, or carbonate of
soda, is used, and this only in the second bucking, and in the third, if
there be one. The strength now never exceeds 25 _lbs._ of the crystals to
the 100 _galls._, and is usually less.

Experiments have shown that immersion for 8 hours in a solution of
chloride of lime containing 3 _lbs._ to the 100 galls., followed by
souring in sulphuric acid of the sp. gr. 1·067, or for 18 hours in acid of
1·035, does not injure it.

By the improved method of previously treating the goods with lime or
alkalies, little chloride of lime is required. Indeed, it is said that
where 300 _lbs._ were formerly employed, 30 to 40 _lbs._ only are now
used. At the same time it is right to mention, that though a solution at
1/2° Twaddle is usually regarded as the best and safest strength, yet in
some bleach works, particularly for inferior and less tender goods, this
is greatly increased, even up to 5°, the period of immersion being
proportionately reduced, as it is not safe to expose the goods long to the
action of such powerful solutions. With the higher strengths they are
passed rapidly through the liquid with the calender, sufficient time only
being allowed to soak them thoroughly; then immediately through the acid
or souring, followed by washing as before.

In Scotland and Ireland the washing is generally performed by wash-stocks;
whilst in Lancashire, dash-wheels, or washing machines with squeezers, are
almost always used for the purpose.

Cotton loses about 1-20th of its weight by bleaching.

II. BLEACHING of =Linen=:——Linen may be bleached in a similar way to
‘cotton,’ but the process is much more troublesome and tedious, owing to
its greater affinity for the colouring matter existing in it in the raw
state. Under the old system, several alternate buckings with pearlash or
potash and lengthened exposure on the field, with one or two sourings, and
a final scrubbing with a strong lather of soft soap, constituted the chief
details of the process. In this way a high degree of whiteness, though not
an absolutely pure or snow white, was ultimately produced. Grass-bleaching
or crofting is still extensively used for linen; but it is more generally
employed only for a limited time, and in combination with a modification
of the system at present almost universally adopted for cotton goods;
whilst, in some cases, crofting is omitted altogether, and the bleaching
conducted wholly by the latter process. The following _Tables_ exhibit the
outlines of the new system as at present practised in Ireland and
Scotland:——

_a._ For plain sheetings:——

1. They are bucked for 12 or 15 hours in a lye made with about 1 _lb._ of
pearlash (or soda-ash) to every 56 _lbs._ of cloth, and washed.

2. Crofted for about 2 days.

3. Bucked in milk of lime.

4. Turned, and the bucking continued, some fresh lime and water being
added; and washed.

5. Soured in dilute sulphuric acid at 2° Twaddle.

6. Bucked with soda-ash for about 10 hours, and washed.

7. Crofted, as before.

8. Bucked again with soda-ash, as before.

9. Crofted for about 3 days.

10. Examined, the white ones taken out, and the others again bucked and
crofted.

11. Scalded or simmered in a lye of soda-ash of about only 2-3rds the
former strength, and washed.

12. Chemicked, for 2 hours, at 1/2° Twaddle, washed, and scalded.

13. Again chemicked, as before.

14. Soured for 4 hours, as in No. 5; washed, and finished.

This occupies 13 to 15 days, according to the weather.

_b._ For shirtings, &c.:——As the preceding, but with somewhat weaker
solutions.

_c._ For goods to be subsequently printed:——

1. Bucked in milk of lime for 10 or 12 hours.

2. Soured in dilute hydrochloric acid of 2° Tw., for 3 to 5 hours, and
washed.

3. Bucked with resinate of soda for about 12 hours.

4. Goods turned, reboiled as before, and washed.

5. Chemicked at 1/2° Tw., for 4 hours.

6. Soured at 2° Tw., for 2 hours, and washed.

7. Bucked with soda-ash for about 10 hours, and washed.

8. Chemicked as in No. 5.

9. Soured, as at No. 6, for 3 hours; washed, and dried.[222]

[Footnote 222: The strengths of the solutions, when not otherwise stated,
are about the same as those given under COTTON (_antè_).]

_Obs._ The chief difficulty in bleaching linen arises from the fact that
its colouring matter is insoluble in acid or alkaline solutions until it
has been long acted upon by light, air, and moisture, as in the common
process of grass-bleaching. Chlorine hastens the operation; but,
unfortunately, it can only be employed towards the end of the process; as
when earlier used, the colour of the raw cloth becomes set, and
irremovable. To obviate this difficulty Mr F. M. Jennings, of Cork, has
lately[223] introduced the joint use of an alkali and an alkaline
hypochlorite (chloride) in the place of the ordinary chloride of lime. He
prepares a bath of solution of soda at 5° Twaddle, which he raises by the
addition of chloride of soda (or of potash) to 6 or 7°, and in this he
steeps the cloth (after the first bucking and souring) for some hours,
heat, or constant squeezing between rollers, being had recourse to, to
facilitate the action. Souring and washing follow, when the goods are
again put into the alkaline and chloride bath, as before; after which they
are soured, and bucked again with soda. These last three operations are
repeated until the cloth is almost white, when crofting for one half to
one fourth the time required by the usual method renders it fit for the
final bucking, and finishing. Indeed, it is said that if the process be
very carefully managed it renders crofting unnecessary.

[Footnote 223: Patent dated 1859.]

Raw linen loses about 1-3rd of its weight in bleaching.

III. =Silk=:——Silk is usually bleached by first steeping it, and then
boiling it in solutions of white soap in water, after which it is
subjected to repeated rinsings, a little indigo-blue, or archil, being
added to the last water to give it a pearly appearance. When required to
be very white (as for gloves, stockings, &c.), the goods are cautiously
submitted, for 2 or 3 hours, to the action of the fumes of burning
sulphur, and then finished by rinsing, as before.

_Obs._ Boiling or sulphuring is not required for the white silk of China.
Raw silk loses from 4 to 5 _oz._ per _lb._ by bleaching.

IV. =Wool=:——In bleaching raw wool it is first deprived of the yolk or
peculiar natural varnish with which it is covered. For this purpose it is
steeped and stirred for about 20 minutes in rather warm water (135°——140°
Fahr.), either with or without the addition of 1-4th part of stale urine;
after which it is placed in baskets to drain, and soon afterwards
thoroughly rinsed in a stream of water, when it is again allowed to drain,
and it is hung up to dry. The further operations depend on circumstances,
wool being sometimes whitened in the fleece, or in the yarn, but still
more frequently and extensively not till woven. When it is intended to
send it in the first two forms white to market, it is hung up or spread
out, whilst still wet, and sulphured (see _below_); after which it is
either at once rinsed for some time in cold water, or is previously
treated with a very weak bath of soft soap.

In the case of woollen fabrics the operations of purifying or whitening
the wool, beyond the removal of the yolk, are, for the most part, mixed up
with the weaving and working of it. The pieces leave the hands of the
weaver of a dingy grey colour, loaded with oil, dirt, and dressing. They
then pass to the fulling-mill, where they are treated with fuller’s earth
and soap, often preceded with ammonia or stale urine, after each of which
they are well washed out or scoured with cold water, and are then ready
for the dyer. When it is intended to obtain them very white, or to dye
them of a very delicate shade, they are commonly sulphured; after which
they are washed or milled in cold water for some hours, a little finely
ground indigo being added towards the end, to increase their whiteness; an
addition also made when the cloth is sufficiently white without the
sulphuring process.

The usual mode of SULPHURING woollen goods is to hang them up on pegs or
rails, or, in the case of fleece-wool, to spread it about, at the upper
part of a close, lofty room or chamber, called a sulphur-stove. In each
corner of this room is set a cast-iron pot containing sulphur, which,
after the introduction of the goods, is set on fire, when the door at the
lower part of the chamber is shut tight and clayed. This is commonly done
over-night; and by the morning, the bleaching being finished, the goods
are removed, washed, and azured.

Sulphuring, unless very skilfully managed, imparts a harsh feel to woollen
goods, which is best removed by a very weak bath of soap-and-water
(lukewarm); but the action of soap in part reproduces the previous
yellowish-white tinge. Milling with cold, or lukewarm water, tinged with
indigo, is the best substitute.

_Obs._ Raw wool loses from 35 to 45% of its weight by scouring, and 1 to
2% more in the subsequent operations of the bleacher; the loss being in
direct proportion to the fineness of the staple.

⁂The above are the four principal applications of the art of bleaching;
but, in technical language, the words bleaching, bleacher, bleachery,
bleach-works, &c., when employed alone, are understood to have reference
only to cotton and linen. This has arisen from the enormous extent of
these manufactures, and from the process of bleaching them forming a
business entirely distinct from that of weaving, dyeing, or printing them.
The following, with the exception of the first, are of comparatively minor
importance and interest:——

V. =Materials for Paper=:——Old rags for the manufacture of paper, and
paper-pulp, are now almost universally bleached with chlorine or chloride
of lime; the former being generally used in France, and the latter in
England. The process usually consists in (1) boiling in an alkaline lye to
remove grease and dirt, (2) washing, (3) pressing, (4) deviling or
tearing up the pressed cake into fine shreds or pulp, (5) chemicking, with
agitation, for about an hour, in a clear solution of chloride of
lime,[224] followed by (6) washing, (7) souring with dilute hydrochloric
acid at 1 or 2° Tw., or treatment with a solution of some antichlor, or
both, and (8) a final washing and pressing. For the common kinds of paper,
the operations included in No. 7 are omitted; but unless the whole of the
lime-salt be removed from the pulp, the paper made of it is liable to turn
brown and become rotten by age. In some cases rags are bleached before
being divided and pulped. Cotton-waste is bleached in a similar way to
rags.

[Footnote 224: The ‘strength’ varies with the colour and quality of the
rags. From 2 to 4 _lbs._ per _cwt._ of rags is a common proportion; but
for dyed and printed rags as much as 7 or even 8 _lbs._ per _cwt._ are
often employed. It is better, however, to prolong the process with a
weaker solution, than to hasten it by using the chloride in excess. Large
rectangular cisterns of wood, or of slate, are commonly employed as the
bleach-vessels. Cisterns of wood, or brick-work lined with gutta percha or
with asphalto-bitumen, are employed in some paper-mills, and answer
admirably.]

In France, the chlorine, in a gaseous form, is passed from the generators
into the bleach-cisterns containing the pulp, which in this case must be
fitted with close covers.

=VI. Printed Paper=, as Books, Engravings, Maps, &c.——These when stained
or discoloured may be whitened by (1) wetting them with pure clean water,
(2) plunging them into a dilute solution of chloride of lime, (3) passing
them through water soured with hydrochloric acid, and then (4) through
pure water until every trace of acid be removed. This process may be
further improved by further dipping them into a weak solution of some
antichlor, and again washing them, before finally drying them. It is only
rare and valuable original works or specimens of art that are worth this
treatment, which, owing to the very nature of paper, requires considerable
address to manage. In many cases a sufficient degree of renovation may be
effected by simply exposing the articles, previously slightly moistened,
to the fumes of burning sulphur, followed by passing them through a vessel
of pure water.

=VII. Straw, Straw-plait=, and articles made of them, are, on the large
scale, usually bleached by (1) a hot steep or boil in a weak solution of
caustic soda, or a stronger one of soda-ash, followed (2) by washing and
(3) by exposure to the fumes of burning sulphur. To effect the last, the
goods are suspended in a close chamber connected with a small stove, in
which brimstone is kept burning. On the small scale, a large chest or box
is commonly employed. A piece of brick, or an old box-iron heater, heated
to dull redness, is placed at the bottom of an iron crock or earthen pan,
a few fragments of roll sulphur thrown on, the lid instantly closed, and
the whole left for some hours. Care should be taken to avoid inhaling the
fumes, which are very deleterious as well as disagreeable and annoying.
Straw goods are now also frequently bleached by the use of a weak solution
of chloride of lime, or of water strongly soured with oxalic acid or even
oil of vitriol, followed by very careful rinsing in clean water; but here,
as in the former case, the natural varnish, dirt, grease, &c., must be
first removed by alkalies or soap, to enable the chlorine or acid to act
on the fibres.

=VIII. Wax.= Wax is bleached by first melting it at a low temperature in a
cauldron, from whence it is allowed to run out by a pipe at the bottom
into a capacious vessel filled with cold water.

This vessel is fitted with a large wooden cylinder, which turns upon its
axis; and the melted wax falls upon this cylinder. The surface of the
cylinder being always wet, the wax does not adhere to it, but becomes
solid, assuming the form of ribbons as it does so, and in this shape
becoming distributed through water in the tub. The wax is then removed and
placed upon large frames stretched upon linen cloth, which are supported
about 18 inches above the ground, and erected in a situation exposed to
the air, dew, and sun. The several ribbons thus placed on the frame should
not exceed an inch and a half, and they ought to be so moved about from
time to time as that each part may be equally exposed. If the weather be
favorable the wax will become white in a few days. It is again remelted,
formed into ribbons, and exposed as before. These operations are continued
in until the wax is completely bleached, after which it is melted and run
into moulds.

_Concluding Remarks._ The theory of bleaching, notwithstanding the giant
strides of chemistry during the last 20 years, remains still unsettled;
and hence the processes employed are still, for the most part, empirical.
It appears probable that chlorine acts by uniting with the hydrogen of the
water, or of other compounds present, or probably with that of both, and
that it is the oxygen thus liberated, and whilst in the nascent state,
that is the true operative agent. Hence bleaching by chlorine, or by the
hypochlorites, may be regarded as an oxidation of the colouring matter;
but whether the chlorine or the oxygen effects this oxidation is of little
practical importance——the result being the same——the destruction of the
compound, and the removal of the colour that depends on its existence. It
is doubtful whether the bleaching power of sulphurous acid is due to it as
an oxidising or a deoxidising agent; but the last is probably the case,
with a like destruction of the compound constituting the colouring matter.
It may, however, be supposed that sulphurous acid acts as an oxidiser, as
it appears to do when it decomposes sulphuretted hydrogen; or it may act
by simply altering the compound by inserting itself, a view receiving some
support from the fact that wool whitened by sulphuring may be restored to
nearly its previous colour by merely treating it with soap or alkalies.

The bleaching power of light depends on its actinic or chemical rays,
which, like chlorine, appear to act as an oxidising agent.

Chlorates, chromates, chromic acid, manganates, &c., have been proposed as
bleaching agents for textile filaments and fabrics, but without success or
practical advantage. Immersion in water more or less strongly impregnated
with sulphurous acid has, however, been successfully substituted for the
common sulphuring process, particularly for silk.

To avoid the injury of the goods by sparks, and by drops of water highly
saturated with sulphurous acid falling from the roof, Mr Thom has invented
a method of passing them rapidly through, or keeping them in constant
motion in the sulphuring chamber. His apparatus is constructed on the
principle of the washing-machine, the fumes of burning sulphur being used
instead of water.

M. Tessie du Motay has proposed a new method for bleaching. He takes about
equal parts of permanganate of soda and sulphate of magnesia, and
dissolves them in lukewarm water. The tissues, previously freed from
grease, are to be plunged into this bath until they are covered with a
brown coating. They are then to be placed in a bath of sulphuric acid at 4
per cent., and rinsed after the brown matter is removed. They may be
finally passed through sulphurous acid. Mr Ramsay’s method consists in
sprinkling with water equal parts of chloride of lime and sulphate of
magnesia, when hydrochlorate of magnesia is formed. It may be remarked
that none of the more modern methods of bleaching have been found, when
reduced to practice, to be cheaper, better, or more advantageous to work
than those sanctioned by long experience and use.

[Further information in connection with bleaching will be found under the
heads ACTINISM, BLANCHING, CALICO-PRINTING, CHARCOAL, CHLORIDES
(Bleaching), CHROMATES, CHROMIC ACID, HYPOCHLORITES, HYPOCHLOROUS ACID,
LIGHT, RINSING, SPOTS and STAINS, SULPHURATION, WASHING, &c.; also under
BONES, ENGRAVINGS, FAT, FEATHERS, HORN, IVORY, OIL, PAPER, PRINTED BOOKS,
RAGS, SPONGE, STRAW-PLAIT, TALLOW, WAX, &c.[225]]

[Footnote 225: An accurate description of the apparatus and machinery
employed in bleach-works, with numerous engravings, will be found in Ure’s
‘Dict. of Arts, Manuf. & Mines,’ 5th ed., i, 318-351, &c.]

=Bleaching Liq′uid.= Solution of chloride of lime.

=Bleaching Pow′der.= Chloride of lime.

=Bleaching Salts.= The commercial hypochlorites.

=BLEAR′-EYE= (blēre′-ī). _Syn._ LIPPITU′DO, L.; CHASSIE, LIPPITUDE, Fr. An
exudation of a puriform matter from the margins of the eyelids, which are
red, tumid, and painful; and frequently, during the night, glued together
by the discharge.

_Treatm._ Mild astringent collyria, as those of sulphate of zinc or alum
(6 or 8 gr. to 1 oz. of water). An ointment formed of 1 part of the
ointment of nitrate of mercury (Ph. L.), diluted with 11 parts of sweet
washed lard, may be advantageously applied nightly, by means of a
camel-hair pencil, the smallest quantity possible only being used. Excess
in eating and drinking should be avoided, and some aperient medicine
taken.

=BLEAK= (blēke). _Syn._ BLAY‡, BLEY‡, (blā). The _cypri′nus albur′nus_
(Linn.), a small river-fish, the scales of which are used in making
artificial pearls (which _see_).

=BLEB.= A vesicle or blister. In some states of general derangement of
health this arises spontaneously. It should be treated in the same way as
scalds.

=BLEED′ING= (blēde′-). In the sense of a flow or loss of blood, see
HÆMORRHAGE; in that of bloodletting, see CUPPING, LEECHING, VENESECTION,
&c.

=Bleeding Piles.= Take every morning aperient doses of milk of sulphur,
then a small teaspoonful of confection of black pepper every day. Wash
externally with a sponge and cold water. Apply compound gall. ointment to
the piles if external.

=Bleeding from the Air Passages and Lungs.= Let the patient at once go to
bed, and keep perfectly quiet, avoiding movement of any kind as much as
possible. Administer dilute acids in frequently repeated doses, with five
drops of tincture of digitalis. The bowels should be kept open by means of
Epsom salts in infusion of roses. Give iced drinks and let solid ice be
sucked. Mustard plasters may be applied to the chest. A morphia lozenge
may now and then be sucked gradually away, as well as a small piece of sal
prunella. The cough must be allayed by the administration of small doses
of morphia in gum water or barley water. All food should be taken cold.

The treatment that we have indicated in the last two forms of hæmorrhage
is intended for the exclusive guidance of emigrants or of others so placed
as to be unable to summon prompt medical aid. Wherever this can be
obtained no time should be lost in at once seeking it.

=Bleeding from the Nose.= Apply cold water containing ice, if obtainable.
It should be so applied to the nose as to cause a shock. A cold piece of
metal, such as a key, placed on the naked back sometimes stops the
hæmorrhage. If neither of the above means succeed inject with a syringe a
solution of alum or sulphate of zinc (ten grains to the ounce), or snuff
up the nostrils some gallic acid, powder of pomegranate, kino, or catechu,
mixed with starch. A plug of lint may also be dipped in either of the
above solutions, or rolled in the powders, and pushed up the nostrils, or
some tincture of perchloride of iron, properly diluted and applied on a
piece of lint, may be tried.

=Bleeding from the Stomach.= _Syn._ HEMATEMESIS. In this case the blood is
vomited usually in clots of a dark colour. It should be noticed whether it
comes from the back of the nose or throat. The treatment consists in
perfect repose in bed, and in the administration of dilute sulphuric acid
in infusion of roses, with saline aperients. If these fail to give relief,
tannin and krameria may be tried, and small doses of laudanum or five
grains of alum may be given every four hours. If in pain, add to it 1/4
grain of acetate of morphia. All food and drinks should be taken cold, the
latter iced. Pernitrate of iron in from 10 to 30 minim doses is a valuable
remedy.

=BLENDE= (blĕnd). A name applied to several minerals; appr., zinc-blend,
or native sulphuret of zinc——the black jack of miners.

=BLIGHT= (blīte). See MILDEW, and PLANTS (Diseases of).

=BLIND′NESS= (blīnd′-). _Syn._ ABLEP′SIA, CÆ′CITAS, &c., L.; AVEUGLEMENT,
CÉCITÉ, Fr.; BLINDHEIT, Ger. Deprivation or want of sight.

Blindness may be congenital, or born with a person; or it may arise from
accident, external violence, or disease. In the latter it may frequently
be relieved by medical and surgical treatment. See AMAUROSIS, CATARACT,
EYES, OPHTHALMIA, VISION, &c.

=Blindness, Day.= _Syn._ NIGHT′-SIGHT; NY̆̆CTALO′PIA, L. A disease of the
eye in which vision is painfully acute or more or less extinct in a strong
light, as that of day; but clear and pleasant in the dusk of evening and
at night. Its chief causes are excessive exposure of the eyes to the
direct influence of very strong or glaring light, or to heat, or both of
them together; and is often one of the sequelæ of ophthalmia (which
_see_).

=Blindness, Night.= _Syn._ DAY′-SIGHT; HEMERALO′PIA, L. An affection of
the eye, the reverse of the preceding, in which objects are clearly seen
only in broad daylight. In the beginning of the complaint the patient
continues to be able to see, though less clearly, for a short time after
sunset, and even by moonlight, and perhaps distinctly by bright candle
light; but after a short time this power is lost. It most frequently
occurs in hot climates, and low latitudes at sea. Its chief causes are
fatigue and exposure of the eyes to the glare of the tropical sun,
probably coupled with gastric derangement. In some cases it is congenital,
and is then generally incurable. The treatment consists in avoiding
exciting causes, and endeavouring to restore the tone of the stomach, and
the general health, by the usual methods. The eyes at the same time should
be topically medicated by the frequent use of cold water, or mild
astringent collyria. See OPHTHALMIA (Chronic).

=BLIS′TER.= _Syn._ PAP′ULA, PUS′TULA, L.; PUSTULE, VESSIE, &c., Fr.;
BLASE, BLATTER, Ger. A bladder or vesicle caused by the deposition of
serous fluid between the cuticle and the derma or true skin, occasioned by
the application of a vesicant, or by a burn, scald, or friction.

=Blister.= _Syn._ VESICATO′′RIUM, L.; EPISPASTIQUE, VESICATOIRE, Fr.;
BLASEN-PFLASTER, B.-STOFF, Ger. A substance which vesicates or raises
blisters; in pop. lang., a vesicating plaster or similar application.

The use of blisters is very ancient, and appears to date back long prior
to the time of Hippocrates. Indeed, their value as cutaneous stimulants
and counter-irritants appears to have been recognised by the medical
faculty of all nations down to the present time. It is a principle
sufficiently established with regard to the living system, that where a
morbid action exists, it may often be removed by inducing an action of a
different kind, as a state of excitement or irritation, in the same or a
neighbouring part. In this way is explained the utility of blisters in
local inflammation and spasmodic action, and it is this principle which
regulates their application in pneumonia, gastritis, hepatitis, phrenitis,
angina, rheumatism, colic, spasmodic affections of the stomach,
&c.——diseases in which they are employed with the most marked advantage. A
similar principle exists with respect to pain; exciting one pain often
relieves another. Hence blisters frequently give relief in neuralgia,
toothache, and other like painful affections. Lastly, blisters, by their
operation, communicate a stimulus to the whole system, and raise the
vigour of the circulation. Hence, in part, their utility in fevers of the
typhoid kind, though in such cases they are used with still more advantage
to obviate or remove local inflammation.

Blisters are commonly prepared with cantharides plaster, or with some
other preparation of cantharides; and, in the former case, usually have
their surface sprinkled over with powdered Spanish fly; whilst the
blistering surface is surrounded with a margin spread with common adhesive
plaster, for the purpose of causing them to adhere to the part to which
they are applied. In order to prevent the action of the cantharides upon
the mucous membrane of the bladder, or urinary organs, they are also often
sprinkled with a little powdered camphor, or better still, are moistened
with camphorated ether, which, on its evaporation, leaves a thin layer of
camphor on the surface; but care must be taken that the layer be not too
thick, as in that case the plaster would not take effect. With a like
object, a piece of thin book-muslin or tissue-paper (silver-paper) is
frequently placed between the blistering surface of the plaster and the
skin; the efficacy of which may be still further heightened by first
soaking the muslin or paper in olive or almond oil.

The usual time an ordinary blister of cantharides plaster is allowed to
remain in contact with the skin is from 10 to 12 hours. It is then gently
removed. The subsequent treatment depends on the object in view. When it
is not wished to maintain a discharge from the blistered surface, the
vesicle is cut with the point of a pair of scissors at its most depending
part, to let out the fluid which it contains, followed by a dressing of
spermaceti or other simple ointment; but when the case requires the
blister to be kept open, or to be converted into a perpetual blister, as
it is sometimes called, the whole of the detached cuticle is carefully
removed with the scissors, and the part is dressed with either the
ointment of cantharides or of savine, at first more or less diluted with
lard or simple ointment, with an occasional dressing of resin cerate.
According to Mr Crowther, the blistered surface is best kept clean by
daily fomentation with warm water.

Of late years, to obviate the unpleasant effects occasionally arising from
the common blister, various compounds having cantharides for their base,
as well as fabrics spread with them, have been brought before the public.
These are noticed hereafter. See PLASTER, VESICANTS, &c.

=Blisters, Extempora′′neous.= Among the best of these may be mentioned the
following:——

1. A piece of lint dipped in the strongest vinegar of cantharides, and
immediately after its application to the skin, covered over with a piece
of strapping, or preferably a piece of sheet gutta percha or oiled silk,
to prevent evaporation. Raises a blister in from 5 to 8 minutes.

2. Concentrated acetic acid, applied in the same way, has a similar
effect.

3. (Dr Darcq.) Into a flat watch glass pour from 8 to 10 drops of highly
concentrated liquor of ammonia; cover the liquid with a small piece of
linen of rather less diameter than that of the glass, and at once apply
this little apparatus to the previously shaved skin. The whole must be
kept in its place by means of moderate pressure with the fingers, until a
red ring, about 2 centimètres in breadth, is observed round the glass,
when it is certain that vesication is effected. Sometimes scarcely 30
seconds are necessary for obtaining the result. The apparatus may then be
removed, and the blistered part treated in the usual manner; the dressing
being according to the object in view.

4. (Trousseau.) Bibulous paper slightly wetted with a little of the
ethereal extract of cancharides, and instantly applied to the skin, the
whole being covered with a piece of common adhesive plaster to prevent
evaporation.

5. Boiling water applied by means of a suitably shaped tube, the adjacent
parts being at the same time protected from injury. Instantaneous.

=Blister, Horse.= See VETERINARY MEDICINES.

=Blister*, Perpet′ual.= See BLISTER (_antè_).

=BLIS′TERING.= _Syn._ VES′ICANS, VESICATO′′RIUS, L.; EPISPASTIQUE,
VÉSICANT, VÉSICATOIRE, Fr.; BLASENZIEHEND, &c., Ger. In _medicine_, &c.,
that vesicates or raises blisters when applied to the skin.

=Blistering Pa′per, Plas′ter, Tis′′sue= (tĭsh-ū), &c. See PLASTERS,
VESICANTS, &c.

=BLOAT′ER.= See BLOTE.

=BLONDE.= [Fr.] _Syn._ BLOND′-LACE. Silk-lace. The name is now also
applied to cotton-lace edged with silk. For the mode of cleaning it and
getting it up, see LACE and MUSLIN.

=BLOOD= (blŭd). _Syn._ SAN′′GUIS, L.; SANG, Fr.; BLUT, Ger. The general
circulating fluid of animals, and that on which the nourishment and growth
of their bodies depend, and from which all the secretions are formed. It
is warm and red in vertebrated animals; and, for the most part, cold and
white in the invertebrata. In man and all other mammals, and in birds——the
two highest classes of the animal kingdom——the blood, though collectively
forming but one circulating stream, varies considerably in appearance
according to the part or vessels in which it is found. That contained in
the left side of the heart, and in the arteries, possesses a very
brilliant scarlet colour, and is called arte′′rial blood; whilst that
found in the right side of the heart, and in the veins, has a darkish
purple colour, and is called ve′nous blood. The two, however, differ
little from each other in their chemical properties and composition; the
most marked point of difference being that venous blood holds carbonic
acid in solution, whilst oxygen predominates in the blood of the arteries.
The fibrine of venous blood is also soluble in a solution of nitrate of
potassa; whilst that of arterial blood is insoluble in that menstruum.

_Comp._ Blood consists of a transparent and nearly colourless fluid
(plas′ma, se′′rum, sĕralbu′men), in which float about a countless
multitude of microscopic round red bodies (blood-discs, blood-corpuscles),
to which its colour is due, accompanied by a few colourless globules
(white blood-corpuscles) of a somewhat larger size. The red corpuscles are
found, on more minute examination, to consist of an envelope containing a
solution of hæmatosin.

_Prop._ These are, for the most part, well known. It has an alkaline
reaction, a saline and rather disagreeable sweetish taste, and when newly
drawn evolves a peculiar odour or halitus, which almost immediately
disappears. As it cools and on repose it coagulates, owing, according to
some, to the spontaneous solidification of the fibrine.

The following table, based upon the observations of Schmidt and the
analysis of Lehmann, is given by the latter, as representing the average
quantitative relation of the principal constituents of normal blood. It
will be noticed that the blood is here regarded as composed of two
portions, one consisting solely of the red particles, and the other of
the liquid, in which these red corpuscles are suspended, termed the
_liquor sanguinis_, which consists of the serum holding fibre in
solution:——

        _Sp. gr. of Blood-corpuscles, 1·0885._

  1000 parts blood-corpuscles contain——

  Water                           688·00
  Solid constituents              312·00
    consisting of——
  Hæmatin (with iron)              16·75
  Globulin and cell membrane      282·22
  Fat                               2·31
  Extractive matters                2·60
  Mineral substances (without
    iron)                           8·12
  Chlorine                          1·686
  Sulphuric anhydride (SO_{3})      0·066
  Phosphoric anhydride (P_{2}O_{5}) 1·134
  Potassium                         3·328
  Sodium                            1·052
  Oxygen                            0·667
  Calcium phosphate                 0·114
  Magnesium phosphate               0·073

        _Sp. gr. of Liquor Sanguinis, 1·028._

  1000 parts of liquor sanguinis contain——

  Water                           902·90
  Solid constituents               97·10
    consisting of——
  Fibrin                            4·05
  Albumen                          78·84
  Fat                               1·72
  Extractive matters                3·94
  Mineral substances                8·55
  Chlorine                          3·644
  Sulphuric anhydride (SO_{3})      0·115
  Phosphoric anhydride (P_{2}O_{5}) 0·191
  Potassium                         0·323
  Sodium                            3·341
  Oxygen                            0·403
  Calcium phosphate                 0·311
  Magnesium phosphate               0·222

The ash of blood contains about 6·84 per cent. of ferric oxide. (Lehmann.)

The following table gives the results of the average composition of human
blood in man and woman, according to the analyses of Becquerel and Rodie:

                                              Male.      Female.
  Specific gravity of defibrinated blood      1·0600        1·0575
     ”        ”    of serum                   1·0280        1·0274
  Water                                     779·00        791·00
  Fibrin                                      2·20          2·20
                 { Serolin          }       { 0·02 }      { 0·02
                 { Phosphorised fat }       { 0·49 }      { 0·46
  Fatty Matters  {                  } 1·60  {      } 1·62 {
                 { Cholesterin      }       { 0·09 }      { 0·09
                 { Saponified fat   }       { 1·00 }      { 1·05
  Albumen                                    69·40         70·50
  Blood-corpuscles                          141·10        127·20
  Extractive matters                          6·80          7·40
                                           ———————       ———————
                                           1000·10       1000·02
                                           ———————       ———————
           { Sodium chloride                  3·10          3·90
  Salts    { Other soluble salts              2·50          2·90
           { Earthy phosphates                0·33          0·35
  Metallic iron                               0·57          0·54
                                             —————         —————
                                              6·50          7·69

The blood also contains, in solution, oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, as
well as a free alkaline carbonate, urea, and small traces of alcohol have
also been detected in normal blood.

The following report of a commission composed of MM. Mialhe, Mayel,
Lefort, and Cornil, appointed to devise the best method for the
examination of blood stains, was published in 1873. The following
translation of the report appeared in the ‘Chemical News’ of December 5th,
1873.

1st. When the stain is of recent date, or supposed to be so, the red
corpuscles should be particularly examined, and every care taken to
preserve them without change. The stains must not be washed with water, so
that the hæmatin may not be altered. After insisting on the microscopic
characters of the blood stains, isolated or compared with those of various
animals, the commission enumerates with care the fluids which are
destructive or preservative of blood-corpuscles. Among the first, water,
and particularly hot water, acetic, gallic, hydrochloric, and sulphuric
acids; and of alkalies, potash and soda, even in weak solution, and ether
and chloroform, also many other reagents, so alter the blood-corpuscles as
to cause them to entirely disappear. Alcohol, chromic and picric acids,
and bichromate of potash, preserve the corpuscles, though they alter their
form. The preservative fluids are those whose composition approaches
nearest to serum, such as the iodised serum of Schultze, an excellent
preparation made with amniotic fluid, to which are added a few drops of
the tincture of iodine, so as to give it the colour of white wine; or,
better, a fluid composed thus; white of egg, 30 grams; distilled water,
270 grams; and chloride of sodium, 40 grams; or even a fluid containing
0·5 per cent. of chloride of sodium, or 5 or 6 per cent. of sulphate of
sodium. If the stains be wetted and softened by these fluids, and then
examined, white and red corpuscles and fibroid particles will be observed.

2nd. In more difficult cases, when the microscope, owing to the
alterations which time has effected in the hæmatin, can give but vague
information, examination by the spectroscope and chemical analysis enables
us to arrive at precise results. The use of these means being less known,
and also more delicate, requires special study.

1. _Spectrum analysis._ Colouring matters have the power of absorbing
certain coloured rays of white light——the same always for the same
substance. This is the principle upon which spectroscopic examination is
based. If into any analysing tube filled with water a few drops of
solution of hæmoglobin be introduced, till it has the colour of
peach-blossoms, the luminous rays of the spectrum passing through this
fluid present two bands of absorption, in the lines D and E of
Frauenhofer, in the yellow and the green. The same fact would be observed
if a few drops of blood were substituted for hæmoglobin in the analysis.

In a case of doubt the hæmoglobin of the blood could be reduced by adding
to this latter a reducing body. Destroyed hæmoglobin has a different
spectrum from oxygenated hæmoglobin, a single absorption band as large as
the two former bands united, and a little to the left of Frauenhofer’s
line D.

2. In blood in a state of decomposition, or which has been treated with
acids or caustic alkalies, hæmoglobin is changed into a new substance;
hæmatin is formed, which, combined with hydrochloric acid, gives definite
crystals.

In order to obtain them we must proceed thus:——A small fragment of dried
blood is placed on a glass slide; it is dissolved in a drop of water, and
a minute portion of sea-salt added. It is covered with a thin slide, and
pure acetic acid is made to pass between the two slides, and it is heated
over a spirit-lamp to boiling-point; acetic acid is again added, and it is
heated afresh; and this is repeated till the crystals are obtained.

They are rhomboidal, of a dirty brown colour, quite characteristic, and
require to be seen with a magnifying power of three hundred or four
hundred diameters. With the smallest quantity of blood these two reactions
can always be produced——the spectrum examination and the crystals of
hydrochlorate of hæmatin; and they are so certain that the existence of
one alone enables one to affirm the presence of blood.

3. The third process, though not so exact as the preceding, ought,
nevertheless, never to be neglected. If to a very small quantity of blood
dissolved in a little water be added a few drops of tincture of guaiacum
and of binoxide of hydrogen, a persistent blue colour is immediately
produced; but this very sensitive reaction can be obtained with other
organic matter, such as nasal mucus, saliva, &c.; it therefore only gives
a probability. We must proceed in the following manner:——A tincture of
guaiacum is prepared with alcohol at 83 degrees, and guaiacum resin; a
mixture of sulphuric ether and binoxide of hydrogen is also made, and
enclosed in a stoppered bottle, and kept under water in the dark. This
preparation is less liable to change than pure oxygenated waters. The
object stained with blood, if it be white, is put into a little cup, then
moistened with water to dissolve out the blood stain, and washed in
distilled water; this water is then submitted to the action of these
reagents.

If the thing stained be coloured, and the stain little or not at all
visible, it must be moistened, and then pressed between two or three
sheets of white blotting-paper, and tried first with the guaiacum. If the
stain be of blood a reddish or brown spot will form on the paper.

One of the sheets should be treated with ammonia, and the stain will
become crimson or green. A second sheet treated with tincture of guaiacum
and ozonised ether will give a blue colour more or less intense, according
to the quantity of the blood.

To recapitulate:——1. If the stains or scales of blood appear recent, the
corpuscles may, after the necessary precautions, be examined under the
microscope, and their presence, diameter, &c. observed, which will enable
one to diagnose the origin of the blood, whether human or animal. 2. If
the stains be old and the blood changed, the reaction with the tincture of
guaiacum would make the presence of blood probable; but its actual
presence cannot be affirmed without spectrum examination or the production
of crystals of hydrochlorate of hæmatin; one of the two is sufficient. It
is unnecessary to add that these reactions do not show whether the blood
is human or animal.

Bullocks’ blood has of late years, more especially in France, come into
use as a remedy for anæmia and pulmonary phthisis. A correspondent,
writing from Paris to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ in 1872, says: “It
is a curious sight to see the number of patients of both sexes and of all
ranks and ages, who flock to the slaughter-house every morning to drink of
the still fuming blood of the oxen slaughtered for the table. I was struck
with the facility with which young ladies take to it, and I have heard
many say that they prefer it to cod-liver oil.”

In a paper read in 1872 before the Academy of Sciences in Paris by M.
Boussingault, detailing his researches into the composition of blood, the
author expressed his surprise that bullock’s blood was not more generally
used as a food, as it contains all the constituents of a perfect aliment.
According to the above chemist, of all nutritive substances the blood of
animals contains the largest amount of iron. In man, Boussingault found in
100 grammes of blood 51 milligrammes of iron; in that of the ox, 55
milligrammes; of the pig, 59 milligrammes; and in that of the frog, 42
milligrammes. But it was not only in red blood that iron was found,
Boussingault detected it in white blood also; and he found the blood of
snails to contain as much iron as that of the ox or calf.

A simple and ingenious method for the therapeutic administration of the
serum of the blood of sheep and oxen has been lately devised by Dr Francis
Vacher, the medical officer of Birkenhead. Dr Vacher takes the blood of
these animals, allows it to stand until it clots, removes the clot, and
dries it at a gentle heat in a hot-air chamber. By this means he obtains a
nearly odourless and comparatively tasteless powder, which is ten times
the strength of fresh serum. To this preparation he gives the name “_serum
sanguinis exsiccatum_.” He believes that his dried serum will prove a
valuable nutrient in consumption, scrofula, diabetes, and loss of flesh.

_Uses, &c._ That of bullocks is employed for the clarification of wines
and syrups; also in the preparation of adhesive cements, as the vehicle in
coarse paint for outdoor work, as a manure, as a bleaching powder, to make
pure animal charcoal, and for several other purposes. The blood of sheep,
pigs, and bullocks, mixed with flour or oatmeal, and seasoned, is eaten by
the common people, but it is rather indigestible, and apt to induce
disease. Gut-skins stuffed with this mixture form “black puddings.”

Bullock’s blood, dried by exposure in thin layers to a current of air, at
a heat under 125°, and then reduced to powder, is exported in large
quantities to the colonies, where it is used, as a ‘clarifier,’ in the
sugar-works. Dried at a temperature ranging between 212° to 220°, then
coarsely powdered, and the dusty portion sifted off, it is much used by
fraudulent dealers to adulterate grain-musk. See CHARCOAL (ANIMAL),
GLOBULIN, HÆMATOSIN, PLASMA, SERUM, STAINS, VISION, &c.

=Blood-purifying Tea, Gout and Rheumatic= (Franz Wilhelm, Neunkirchen).
Equal parts of senna leaves, sarsaparilla root, liquorice, rad. tritici,
red sandalwood, bittersweet stalks, cut small and mixed. (Hager.)

=Blood-purifying Tea= (F. Köller, Graz). Senna leaves, 32 parts; guaiacum
wood, 10 parts; juniper wood, restharrow root, rad. tritici, dandelion
root, chicory root, of each 8 parts; alder bark, 3 parts; sassafras, 2
parts; star-anise, 5 parts, dirty and worm-eaten, roughly chopped, and
mixed. (Hager.)

=Blood, Spit′ting of.= See HÆMOPTYSIS.

=Blood, Vom′iting of.= See STOMACH DISEASES.

=BLOOD′-ROOT.= _Syn._ RED′-ROOT, PUCCOON′; SANGUINA′′RIA, L. The
_sanguinār′ia Canaden′sis_ (Linn.), a papaveraceous plant of North
America; also its root (SANGUINA′′RIA, Ph. U. S.), which is the part used
in medicine. Juice, blood-red, used in dyeing. In small doses (3 to 5 gr.)
it is stimulant, diaphoretic, and expectorant; in large ones (10 to 20
gr.), narcotic, emetic, and purgative. The powder is sometimes used as an
escharotic. See SANGUINARINE.

=BLOOD′STONE.= A hard compact variety of hæmatite used to form burnishers.
The name is also applied by lapidaries to the heliotrope.

=BLOOM.= In _perfumery_, &c., a name given to several calorific
skin-cosmetics, of which the following are examples:——

=Bloom of Almonds= (ah′-mŭndz). _Syn._ AL′MOND-BLOOM. _Prop._ Boil 1 _oz._
of ground Brazil-wood in 2-1/2 _pints_ of soft water for 30 minutes,
adding the juice of two lemons towards the end; strain, and add 3/4 _oz._
of isinglass, 1/4 _oz._ of powdered cochineal, 1 _oz._ of alum, and 1/2
_oz._ of borax; boil again for 4 or 5 minutes, and strain through muslin.
Glass or earthenware vessels must be used, as metals injure its colour.

=Bloom of Roses.= _Prep._ 1. Dried red rose leaves, 1-1/2 _oz._; boiling
water, 1 _pint_; infuse in glass or earthenware for 2 hours, press out the
liquor, and add the juice of 3 large lemons; the next day filter, or
decant the clear portion. Both the above should be kept in a cool place,
otherwise they soon spoil. A little spirit of wine (3 or 4 _fl. oz._ to
the pint) is sometimes added to them to remove this objection. They are
greatly inferior to the following:——

2. Carmine, 1/4 _oz._; strong liquor of ammonia (not weaker than ·900), 1
_oz._; put them into a stoppered bottle, set it in a cool place, and
occasionally agitate it for two or three days, to effect a solution; then
add of rose-water, 1 pint; and, after admixture, further add of esprit de
rose, 1/2 _fl. oz._; pure rectified spirit, 1 _fl. oz._; again well
agitate, and set the whole aside for a week; lastly, decant the clear
portion from the dregs (if any), for use or sale. Very fine. A cheaper
article is made by omitting a portion of the carmine, and the whole of the
esprit and spirit; and a still inferior one by substituting 1-1/2 _oz._ of
silver-grain cochineal (in powder) for the carmine, with digestion for a
week in the ammonia previously diluted with one half of the water.

=Bloom of Youth, or Liquid Pearl= (G. W. Laird, New York). A colourless
liquid holding in suspension 34 per cent. of zinc oxide entirely free from
lead. (Chandler.)

=BLOTE.= To prepare or cure by drying and smoking; now only applied to
fish.

=BLO′TER.= _Syn._ BLOAT′ER. A bloted fish; appr., a herring slightly
salted, and only very slightly dried and smoked.

=BLOW′PIPE= (blō′-). _Syn._ CHALUMEAU, Fr.; LÖTHROHR, Ger. An instrument
by means of which the flame of a candle or lamp, or a gas-jet, is directed
upon any substance placed to receive it, which is thus subjected to an
intense heat. The blowpipe is to the artist and the experimentalist what
the wind-furnace is to the artisan; but it is proportionately more
powerful, convenient, and economical.

Beginners are usually unable to maintain a continued stream of air from
the jet of this instrument, although the doing so is really a very simple
affair. The operation merely depends on a little artifice in using it,
which is more difficult to describe than to acquire. The effect intended
to be produced is a continual stream of air for many minutes, if
necessary, without interruption, even for an instant. This is done by
simply applying the tongue to the roof of the mouth, so as to interrupt
the communication between the mouth and the passage of the nostrils; by
which means the operator is at liberty to breathe through the nose, at the
same time that by the muscles of the lips he forces a continued stream of
air from the anterior part of the mouth through the blowpipe. When the
mouth begins to be empty it is replenished by the lungs in an instant,
while the tongue is withdrawn from the roof of the mouth, and replaced
again in the same manner as in pronouncing the monosyllable tut. In this
way the stream of air may be continued for a long time without fatigue,
provided the flame be not urged too impetuously; and even should it be so
urged no other inconvenience will be felt than that of slight fatigue of
the muscles of the lips.

The hottest portion of the flame produced by the action of the blowpipe is
at the tip of the outer white flame, which has also the property of
rapidly burning or oxidising substances placed in it which are susceptible
of such a change; and it is hence commonly called the OXIDISING FLAME. The
interior blue flame is, for a like reason, called the DEOXIDISING or
REDUCING FLAME, as it possesses the property of extracting oxygen from
most bodies capable of being so affected.

Substances to be submitted to the action of the blowpipe-flame are placed
on a support, which is either a piece of charcoal, or a wire or small
spoon of platinum, gold, or silver, as the case may require. Sometimes a
plate of cyanite is used. Pine-wood charcoal is preferred for this
purpose; and the sides, not the ends of the fibres, are presented to the
flame. When a very intense heat is required, the substance operated on
should not exceed the size of half a peppercorn.

Several characteristic colour reactions may often be obtained in the
examination of a substance for analysis, by fusing a small portion of it,
with a bead of microcosmic salt, and exposing it for some time to the
outer flame of the blowpipe. If the substance dissolve readily in the salt
and rather copiously to a clear bead _whilst hot_, and is of a blue colour
by candle light inclining to violet, it denotes COBALT. If it be green,
upon cooling blue; in the reducing flame after cooling, red——COPPER. If
green, particularly fine on cooling, unaltered in the reducing flame,
CHROMIUM. If brownish red, on cooling light yellow or colourless; in this
reducing flame, red whilst hot, yellow whilst cooling, then
greenish——IRON. If reddish to brownish red, on cooling yellow to reddish
yellow or colourless; in the reducing flame unaltered——NICKEL. If
yellowish-brown, on cooling light yellow or colourless; in the reducing
flame almost colourless, and blackish-grey on cooling——BISMUTH. If light
yellowish to opal, when cold, rather dull; in the reducing flame
whitish-grey——SILVER. If amethyst-red, especially on cooling; colourless
in the reducing flame, not quite clear——MANGANESE. If the bead remains
clear on cooling, ANTIMONY, ALUMINA, ZINC, CADMIUM, LEAD, LIME, and
MAGNESIA are indicated, the latter five when added in somewhat large
proportion to the microcosmic salt, give enamel white beads. The bead of
oxide of LEAD saturated is yellowish. If the bead becomes enamel-white on
cooling, even where only a small portion of the powder has been added to
the microcosmic salt——BARYTA and STRONTIA are indicated.

If the substance dissolves in the microcosmic salt slowly and only in
small quantity, the bead being colourless and remaining so after cooling,
the undissolved portion looking semi-transparent, and if upon the addition
of a little sesquioxide of iron it acquires the characteristic colour of
an iron bead——this denotes SILICIC ACID.

For producing extreme degrees of heat the flame is blown with a jet of
oxygen gas, the instrument being then called an OXYGEN BLOWPIPE; or a
mixture of oxygen and hydrogen is burned, when it is called an
OXY-HYDROGEN BLOWPIPE. The heat produced by the last is so great that no
substance can stand exposure to it, even the most refractory native
compounds being immediately fused. Gold is volatilised, and iron is
rapidly consumed the instant it is placed in the flame.

[Illustration:

  1. Hemming’s safety-jet for the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe.
    _a_, Pipe conveying oxygen gas.
    _b_,     ”          hydrogen gas.
    _c_, Ball
        stuffed with fine wire-gauze.
    _e_, Jet (internal diameter 1-80th of an
        inch).
  2. Black’s blowpipe.
  3. Bergman’s   ”
  4. Pepy’s      ”
  5. Wollaston’s ”
  6. Oxy-hydrogen blowpipe.]

The principal varieties of the blowpipe in general use are figured in the
engravings above.

Beside the above there are several other varieties of the blowpipe
occasionally employed; one in which the air is expelled by the pressure of
a column of water, and hence called the HYDROSTATIC BLOWPIPE; another, in
which the flame is blown with the vapour of boiling alcohol, is named the
SPIRIT-BLOWPIPE.

=Blowpipe, Herapath.= For sealing and bending glass tubes and constructing
glass apparatus of various forms, it is convenient to have the blowpipe
mounted on a fixed support, and when a flame of considerable power is
required, the blast must be supplied by bellows worked with the foot. A
very convenient form of blowpipe for these purposes is that invented by
Herapath, and represented in the following figure, _a_ is a flexible tube
attached to a stop-cock (_b_), which communicates with a tube (_c d_),
bent at right angles at _d_, where a T-shaped tube (_e f g_) slips on by
means of the piece _f_. The blow-pipe jet (_h i_) passes into the longer
arm of the T-piece, and fits somewhat tightly; _k l_ is a second piece of
flexible tube, terminating in a mouthpiece, or connected with a blowing
apparatus. On turning on the gas, it passes in the direction marked by the
arrows, and is to be inflamed at _e_. On blowing with the mouth, or by
means of a pair of bellows, into the tube _k l_, the ignited gas takes the
form of a blow-pipe flame of great power, the nature of which is entirely
under control by means of the stop-cock _b_, and also by regulating the
quantity of air supplied through the tube (_k l_). The T-shaped piece is
movable at _f_, so that the jet may be directed to any position. The
apparatus may be mounted on a heavy foot, and connected with the
gas-supply, by means of the flexible tube, so that it can be placed in any
required position on the laboratory table; or it may be permanently fixed
on a table specially devoted to the purpose, and having beneath it a pair
of bellows worked by a treadle.

[Illustration]

A simple and inexpensive apparatus for supplying a continuous blast of air
for blowpipe or other purpose is figured below.

It consists essentially of a tin tube (to which is fixed a branch tube
open to the air), through which water may be driven from a supply tap into
a properly fitted bottle. Air becomes thus entangled with the water in its
course through the tube, and carried with it into the bottle. The water is
then got rid of by means of a syphon, and the air is conducted by an
elastic tube to the blow-pipe.

[Illustration:

  _A_, _B_, Tin tube, eighteen inches long, half-inch diameter.
  _C_, _D_, Tin tube, three inches long, one third-inch diameter, inserted
      at right angles.
  _E_, _F_, Tin tube, long enough to reach the level of A, one third-inch
      diameter, inserted at an angle of 45°.
  _G_, _H_, _I_, Siphon, half-inch diameter.
  _K_, _L_, Air tube, one third-inch diameter.
  _M_, India-rubber tube to convey away the air.]

To set the apparatus in action, connect the tube C D with a water tap by
means of a piece of elastic tubing, and turn on the water; pinch the tube
M for a few moments between the thumb and finger until the syphon has
begun to act. A blast of air will at once be felt at the extremity of M.

=BLUB′BER.= _Syn._ AD′EPS BALÆNA′′RUM, L.; GRAISSE DE BALEINE, Fr. The
soft fat of whales, and of other large sea-animals, from which the oil
(TRAIN′ OIL, WHALE′ OIL) is obtained by heat.

=Blubber, Sea.= The popular name of several species of marine animals of
the genus _medusa_, having a body resembling a large mass of jelly. They
are very plentiful in some parts of the coast of England, and are said to
form a rich and cheap manure for pasture and arable land. They are used at
the rate of about 1 _ton_ to every 20 or 30 loads of mould, together with
a chaldron of lime, per acre. In 3 or 4 months the land is usually found
in prime condition. Pilchards, and other fish that swarm upon our coasts,
and for which there is not a ready market, may be used in the same way,
and are much richer, being, when properly managed, but little inferior to
guano.

=BLUE= (bl′ōō). _Syn._ CÆRU′LEUS, L.; BLEU, Fr.; BLAU, Ger. Of the colour
of the clear sky, or of any shade of it, whether lighter or darker;
subst., a blue colour, blueness (COL′OR CÆRU′LEUS, L.); or a blue,
colouring material or pigment (CÆRU′LEUM, L.).

=Blue Dye=. _Syn._ TEINTE BLEUE, Fr.; BLAU FARBE, Ger. The most permanent
blue is that given by indigo, and particularly by what is called the
‘indigo-vat.’ A variety of shades, of great beauty, and considerable
permanence, may also be given by the ‘Prussian-blue process.’ Cheaper
blues are commonly dyed with logwood. Each of these is noticed at length
under their respective heads. The following are also employed, and are
well adapted for common goods, on the small scale and for domestic use.

1. Give the goods a mordant of alum, or of acetate of alumina (‘red
liquor’), then rinse them well, and boil them in a bath of logwood, to
which a small quantity of blue vitriol has been added; lastly, rinse and
dry.

2. Boil the goods for a short time in a bath of logwood; then add to the
liquor tartar and verdigris, in the proportion of 1 oz. of each to every
lb. of logwood employed; and again boil for a short time.

3. Give the goods a mordant of tartar; lift, add a little chromate of
potash; again work for 15 or 20 minutes, and rinse; next boil in a bath of
logwood, adding towards the last a few grains more of the chromate; again
boil, and finish. The whole quantity of chromate used should not exceed
1/4 oz. to each lb. of logwood taken for the bath. Very dark.

4. Bilberries, elder-berries, mulberries, privet-berries, and several
other like vegetable substances, may be used to dye blue, as above,
instead of logwood.

_Obs._ By increasing the proportion of alum or red-liquor the colour
verges on purple; and by employing a little acetate of iron or green
copperas, the darker shades of blue are produced. Verdigris, blue vitriol,
and alkalies, turn it more on the blue; whilst a mordant of tin imparts a
violet cast. If much more chromate be used than that ordered the result is
a blue-black. See DYEING, INDIGO, LOGWOOD, MORDANTS, PRUSSIAN BLUE, &c.

=Blue Pig′ments=. _Syn._ CÆRU′LEA, &c., L. The preparation of the
principal blue pigments of commerce is described under their respective
names. In the following list those for which directions are given are of a
miscellaneous and less usual character.

=Az′ure.= _Syn._ Azure Blue. A name frequently given to smalts. That of
the oil-painter is ultramarine; that of the ancients is noticed below. See
ULTRAMARINE, &c.

=Blue, Barth’s=. See INDIGO, SULPHATE OF.

=Blue, Berlin.= Prussian blue.

=Blue, Bice.= Native blue carbonate of copper, prepared by grinding and
elutriation. That of the shops is generally a factitious compound made
from smalts.

=Blue, Carmine.= See CARMINE and INDIGO, SULPHATE OF.

=Blue, Char′coal.= Carbonised vine-stalks are triturated with an equal
weight of salt of tartar or pearlash, the mixture put into a crucible, and
heated over the fire until it ceases to swell, the mass being kept well
stirred all the time; when cold, it is dissolved in water, and the excess
of alkali saturated with dilute sulphuric acid. The liquid becomes blue,
and a dark precipitate falls down, which turns of a brilliant blue colour
when dried and cautiously heated.

=Blue, Chi′na.= _Syn._ Roy′al Smalts. The crude oxide of cobalt, or
zaffre, is ground with an equal weight of potash, and about eight times
its weight of felspar, the mixture submitted to fusion in a crucible, and
when cold reduced to an impalpable powder. Used to paint pottery, and as a
blue pigment.

=Blue, Co′balt.= _Syn._ Cobalt′ic Az′ure. This is commonly prepared by one
or other of the following formulæ:——

1. Zaffre, 1 lb., is dissolved in nitric acid (diluted with an equal
weight of water), 3/4 lb., by digestion for some hours; the solution is
evaporated nearly to dryness, and the residuum redissolved in warm water;
to this solution, after filtration, a solution of phosphate of soda is
added as long as a precipitate forms; this last is collected on a filter,
washed with cold water, and mixed, whilst still moist, with 8 times its
weight of fresh-precipitated hydrate of alumina; the paste is then dried,
and exposed to a cherry-red heat in a crucible, after which the mass is
cooled and reduced to a very fine powder.

2. A solution of nitrate of cobalt is precipitated with ammonia-alum, and
the precipitate washed, dried, and exposed to a cherry-red heat, as
before. The products of the above formulæ are very beautiful and
permanent. See COBALTO-ULTRAMARINE.

=Egyp′tian Az′ure.= Alexan′drian Frit, Azure of the Ancients. A mixture of
carbonate of soda, 1 _lb._; calcined flints, 1-1/2 _lb._; copper filings,
1/4 _lb._ (all in fine powder); fused together in a crucible for 2 or 3
hours, and when cold, reduced to an impalpable powder. A beautiful and
unchangeable sky-blue colour. Used in both oil and fresco painting; and as
a substitute for smalts, of which, indeed, it is a variety.

=In′digo= (which _see_).

=Blue, I′ron.= Fer′ric blue. Ordinary phosphate of iron prepared by
precipitating a solution of protosulphate of iron with another of
phosphate of soda, the resulting powder being washed, and dried at a
gentle heat. A lively sky-blue colour, but without much depth or body.

=Blue, Lake.= See LAKES and INDIGO, SULPHATE OF.

=Blue, Molybde′num.= From sulphuret of molybdenum, dissolved in nitric
acid, and some tin filings and a little muriatic acid added. After
digestion for some time the clear liquid is poured off, and evaporated to
dryness. The resulting powder is then mixed with moist hydrate of alumina
(as in making cobalt blue), heated to a very dull red, and when it has
again become cold, reduced to powder. Used both as a paint and an
enamel-colour.

=Blue, Moun′tain.= Native carbonate of copper, mixed with more or less
earthy matter, reduced to fine powder. That of the shops is often
factitious.

=Blue, Par′is.= Prussian blue.

=Blue, Pow′der.= Smalts.

=Blue, Prus′′sian= (which _see_).

=Blue, Queen’s.= See THUMB-BLUE (_below_).

=Blue, San′der’s.= Ultramarine-ashes.

=Blue, Sax′on.= Saxon Az′ure. A compound of hydrate of alumina and
Prussian blue, prepared as follows:——

1. To sulphate of iron, 1 _oz._; and alum, 8 _oz._; dissolved in water, 1
gall.; add, simultaneously, separate solutions of prussiate of potash and
common pearlash, until they cease to produce a precipitate; after repose
collect the deposit, wash it well with water, and dry it.

2. A solution of sulphate of iron is precipitated with another of
prussiate of potash, and instantly mixed with the precipitate which has
just been obtained by treating a solution of alum with a solution of
pearlash; the mixed precipitates being finally treated as before.

=Smalts= (which _see_; also CHINA-BLUE and EGYPTIAN AZURE, _above_).

=Blue, Thénard’s.= See ULTRAMARINE (Cobaltic).

=Blue, Thumb′.= Cake′-blue, Crown′-blue, Fig′-blue, Knob′-blue,
Mech′lenburg-blue, (mēk′-), Queen’s-blue, Stone-blue, &c. Names given to
the lump-blue used in laundries, which vary according to the quality and
the particular form given to it.

_Prep._ 1. A mixture of powdered starch with sufficient indigo (in
impalpable powder) to give the necessary colour, made into a stiff dough
with starch-paste, and then formed into lumps or cakes of the desired size
and shape, and dried. This forms the ordinary ‘washerwoman’s blue’ of the
shops.

2. As the last, but substituting cæruleo-sulphate of potassa or blue
carmine[226] for the ‘powdered indigo’ ordered in the last formula. Very
fine.

[Footnote 226: See INDIGO (Sulphate of).]

3. As No. 1, but substituting whiting for the powdered starch and weak
size, or a decoction of Irish moss for the starch-paste. Inferior.

_Uses, &c._ Employed by laundresses to impart a faint blue tinge to linen,
in order to increase its apparent whiteness. The common forms given to it
are that of small balls of about 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter; the same, but
rather larger, and pinched with the thumb and finger in three directions,
so as to leave corresponding depressions (THUMB-BLUE); and cakes, which
are cut out of the mass, previously rolled into a sheet, by a suitably
shaped cutter.

=Blue, Turnbull’s.= Ferridcyanide of iron (which _see_; also TURNBULL’S
BLUE).

=Blue Verditer.= See VERDITER.

=Ultramarine′= (-rēne′), _U.-blue._ See ULTRAMARINE.

=BLUSH′ING.= _Syn._ RU′BOR, RUBE′DO, L. In _physiology_, &c., the red glow
on the cheeks or face occasioned by confusion, bashfulness, surprise, or
shame.

Blushing is caused by a sudden increase in the quantity and velocity of
the blood in the capillaries, occasioning their turgescence; and,
consequently, a heightening of the natural pale-reddish hue of the skin.
It is referable to sudden mental emotions of an exciting character, such
as surprise, confusion, consciousness of slight, injury, or indignity, and
the like. Emotions of a depressing character frequently produce an
opposite effect. This is termed pallor, and depends on the rush of blood
from the skin and surface of the body upon the internal organs. The first,
though often unpleasant, is never dangerous; the last always so. The cure
of the habit of blushing consists in persisting efforts to maintain a
sufficient degree of presence of mind and self-confidence to permit of
reflection, or a calm view of the exciting circumstance, instead of
sinking into a state of temporary mental imbecility and helpless
confusion.

‘=BLUTANDRANG UND LUFTROHREN-VERSCHLEIMUNG=’ (remedy for congestion and
obstruction of the air-vessels), manufactured and sold by the inventor, C.
Tänzer, 18, Kesselstrasse, Berlin,’ is the title of a twelve-page
pamphlet. For cold in the head, the apparatus, which consists of a small
linen cushion to bind over the mouth, is moistened with 10 to 15 drops of
the fluid. The fluid (150 grammes) is a mixture of spirit of wine and
acetic ether, in which some arnica, milfoil, &c., have been macerated.
(Hager.)

=BLUTHENHARZ——FLOWER RESIN= (Kwizda, Kornenburg). Against barrenness in
domestic animals. A mixture of 9 parts powdered Bergundy pitch with 1 part
pine pollen, 3/4 oz. (Hager.)

=BOARDS, to make White.= Boards may be rendered white and clean by
scrubbing them, instead of with soap, with a mixture composed of one part
of freshly slaked lime and three parts of white sand.

=BOCKBIERESSENZ=, for the artificial imitation of bockbier. A tincture of
1 part lupulin, 2 parts pyroligneous acid, and 8 parts spirit of wine.
(Hager.)

=BOG SPAVIN.= In horses, a distension of the bursa or sheath of the true
hock joint. Mr Finlay Dun prescribes rest; high-heeled shoe, fomentation,
cold water, spring truss, counter-irritation, firing-iron; seton.

=BOIL= (boyl). _Syn._ FURUN′CULUS, L.; FURONCLE, Fr.; BEULE, EITERSTOCK,
Ger. In _surgery_, a well-known inflammatory tumour, of a superficial and
more or less temporary character, which generally terminates by
suppuration.

Boils (_furun′culi_) generally attack the healthy and robust during the
period of youth and early manhood, and seldom trouble persons who have
arrived at the middle age of life.

_Treatm., &c._ When boils begin to appear, and exhibit persistency by
daily enlargement and increasing pain, suppuration should be promoted by
warm poultices of bread and linseed-meal, to which a little fat or oil may
be added, to prevent their getting hard. If poultices are inconvenient,
warm and stimulating embrocations, or exposure to the vapour of hot water,
or the application of stimulating plasters, may be adopted instead. When
the tumour is sufficiently ‘ripe,’ the matter should be evacuated by
gentle pressure, and the wound dressed with a little simple ointment
spread on a piece of clean lint or linen. The diet may be full and liberal
until the maturation of the tumour and the discharge of the matter, when
it should be lessened, and the bowels kept gently open by saline
purgatives, as Epsom-salt or cream of tartar. When there is a disposition
in the constitution to the formation of boils, the bowels should be kept
at all times regular, and tonics, as bark or steel, had recourse to, with
the frequent use of sea-bathing when possible. An occasional dose of the
Abernethy medicines (which _see_) also often prevents their recurrence. A
course of sarsaparilla may be likewise taken with advantage. See ABSCESS,
TUMOURS, &c.

Dr Sydney Ringer prescribes a 1/16th grain of sulphide of sodium, mixed
with sugar of milk, three or four times a day on the tongue; but this
should only be administered under medical supervision.

_Treatment_ for HORSES and CATTLE.——Fomentations; poultices containing
belladonna, cold water, carbolic acid dressing, counter-irritants,
laxatives, sulphites, and chlorates.

=BOIL′ERS.= See INCRUSTATION and STEAM.

=BOIL′ING.= In _cookery_, the operation of dressing food in water at the
point of ebullition, or one very closely approaching it. The practice of
cooking animal food by boiling, although exceedingly simple, and often
most convenient, is neither judicious nor economical when the broth or
liquid in which it has been dressed is to be rejected as waste; as in this
way the most nutritious portion of the flesh of animals, consisting of
soluble saline and other matter required for the formation of bone, and
the nutrition of the muscular tissues, &c., is to a great extent lost.
This particularly applies to small pieces so dressed, and to those
presenting a large surface to the action of the water in proportion to
their weight. Large pieces of meat suffer less in proportion than smaller
ones, for the same reason; but even with them the outside should be
rejected, as it is both insipid and innutritious compared with the
interior portion. To reduce the solvent and deteriorating action of the
water to the lowest possible point, the articles to be boiled should not
be put into the water until it is in a state of full ebullition, which
should be maintained for 5 or 6 minutes afterwards, by which time the
surface and the parts lying immediately beneath it will have become, to a
certain degree, hardened, and will then act as a protective shield to the
inner portion of the mass. The boiling being continued for 5 or 6 minutes
cold water is added, until the temperature becomes about 150° F., and the
cooking of the joint is carried on at this heat until the meat is done:
meat loses nearly a fourth of its weight in boiling, salt meat, which is
intended to be eaten cold, should be allowed to cool in the water in which
it has been boiled. The practice of dressing meat by putting it into cold
water, which is then gradually raised to the boiling-point, cannot be too
much censured. A 1/4 of an hour per lb. for dressing young meat, poultry,
and small pieces, and 20 minutes per lb. for old, tough, and larger ones
are the usual times allowed by cooks for the purpose. See BOUILLI, FOOD,
&c.

=BOIL′ING-POINT.= See EBULLITION.

=BOIS DURCE= (bwah dŭr-sā). [Fr.] The substance invented in France, and to
which this name is given, is made from sawdust, which, under the influence
of a high temperature and the enormous pressure of 600 tons, acquires a
degree of hardness very much exceeding that of ordinary wood. It has a
very fine grain, and is unaffected by atmospherical variations; but its
principal merit is its adaptation to moulding, so that by the most
economical processes forms and impressions are given to it which it would
require, in any other way, considerable labour and workmanship.

=BOLAS.= Sweet light cakes which, according to Mrs Rundell, are prepared
as follows:——Into flour, 2 lbs., pour of warm milk, 3/4 pint, a small
teacupful of yeast, and 6 eggs; make a dough, add of butter 1 lb. (by
degrees), and set it in a warm place to rise for an hour; then mix in of
powdered sugar 1 lb.; and make the mass into cakes; put these into cups or
tins previously well buttered, and ornament the top with candied orange or
lemon peel; lastly bake them. See CAKES.

=BOLDO= (nat. ord. Monimiaceæ). A shrub growing in the Chilian Andes. The
bark is used in tanning, and the wood makes a good charcoal. It is
reported to be useful in affections of the liver and digestive organs. It
has been employed as a tonic in cases where quinine is inadmissible. In
large doses it provokes vomiting. The powder of the dried leaves is a
sternutatory. See a paper by M. Claude Verne, translated into the ‘Pharm.
Journ.,’ 3rd series, v, 405.

=BOLE.= _Syn._ BO′LUS, L.; TERRE BOLAIRE, &c., Fr. The name of several
argillaceous minerals, varying in colour from white to yellow, red, and
brown, which they owe chiefly to iron. See OCHRES and RED and BROWN
PIGMENTS.

=BOLOG′′NA PHI′AL= (-lawn′-yă). See PHIALS.

=BO′LUS=, [L., Eng.] _Syn._ BOL, Fr. Boluses, in _pharmacy_ and
_medicine_, are small, roundish masses of medicinal substances, which are
taken in the same manner as pills, which they resemble, except in their
larger size. Those persons who object to swallowing them in their common
state may wrap them in soft paper, or introduce them into the emptied
husks of raisins or grapes.

Boluses (bo′lī, L.) are prepared with the same ingredients, and in a
similar manner to pills (which _see_).

=Bolus, Guaiacum= (HORNE). Guaiacum resin 1/2 drachm, elder rob, enough to
make into a bolus. Formerly given in quinsy.

=Bolus for Ague.= (The _bolus ad quartanum_ of the French Hospital).
Peruvian bark 1 ounce; carbonate of potash 1 drachm; tartarised antimony
15 grains; syrup, a sufficient quantity, one to be taken every four hours
during the intermission.

=Bolus, Vermifuge= (Dr Campbell). Basilie powder one scruple, conserve of
wormwood, a sufficient quantity to make into one bolus for an adult.
(FOY.) Powdered pomegranate root 1 drachm, assafœtida half a drachm,
croton oil 3 or 4 drops, syrup sufficient. Divide into 15 boluses; 5 daily
for tapeworm. (FRENCH HOSPITAL.) Wormseed 1 scruple, calomel 5 grains,
camphor 15 grains, syrup sufficient. Make into 3 doses; one, two, or three
in the day.

=BON′-BON= (bōn_g_′-bōn_g_). [Fr.] A sugarplum. See CONFECTIONERY and
SUGARPLUMS.

=BONBONS VERMIFUGES OF GAROZ.= A bonbon containing 15 centigrammes of
scammony, and 2 centigrammes of santonin. (Reveil.)

=BONE.= _Syn._ Os, L., Fr.; BEIN, KNOCHEN, Ger.; BÁN, Sax. The hard
substance forming the interior skeleton of animals, or any single part of
it.

  _Comp._ According to Berzelius:——

                        Human bones.  Ox bones.

  Animal matter soluble in
    boiling water            32·17}   33·30

  Vascular substance          1·13}

  Phosphate of calcium,
    with a little fluoride of
    calcium                  53·04    57·35

  Carbonate of calcium       11·30     3·85

  Phosphate of magnesium      1·16     2·05

  Chloride of sodium and
    other salts              1·20      3·45
                         --------  --------
                           100·      100·

The soluble animal matter is chiefly fat and gelatin.

_Uses, &c._ The bones of animals are employed for various purposes in the
arts, manufactures, and domestic economy. Those of good meat form most
excellent materials for making soups and gravies, as is well known to
every cook. In France, soup is extensively made by subjecting bruised
bones to a steam heat of 2 or 3 days’ continuance. In England the same is
commonly effected in an iron Papin’s digester. When the earthy matter of a
bone is dissolved out by digesting it in a large quantity of very dilute
hydrochloric acid, a lump of gelatine is obtained, which, after being well
washed with water, is equal to isinglass for all the purposes of making
soups and jellies. The following is the process recommended by Proust for
making the best of bones, in hospitals, gaols, and similar
establishments:——

The bones, crushed small, are to be boiled for 15 minutes in a kettle of
water, and the fat (which is fit for all common purposes) skimmed off as
soon as cold. The bones are then to be ground, and boiled in 8 to 10 times
their weight of water (of which that already used must form a part), until
half of it is wasted, when a very nutritious jelly will be obtained. Iron
vessels should alone be used in this process, as the jelly and soup act
upon copper, brass, and the other common metals. The bones of fresh meat
are the most productive; those of boiled meat come next, whilst those of
roasted meat scarcely afford any jelly. As ‘boning’ meat before cooking is
now a very general practice, a quantity of fresh bones may always be
obtained.

Bones are, for the most part, WROUGHT, TURNED, BLEACHED, and DYED in a
similar manner to ivory, but with less care, owing to their inexpensive
and coarser character. Before being submitted to any of these operations
they are, however, first submitted to long boiling, to deprive them of
grease.

The bones of living animals may be dyed by mixing madder with their food.
The bones of young pigeons may thus be tinged of a rose colour in 24
hours, and of a deep scarlet in 3 days; but the bones of adult animals
take a fortnight to acquire even a rose colour. The bones nearest the
heart become tinged the soonest. In the same way extract of logwood tinges
the bones of young pigeons purple. See BLEACHING, DYEING, IVORY, &c.

In all manufacturing processes in which bones are operated upon, foul
vapours, unless special precautions are observed, will be thrown off, to
the great annoyance and discomfort of those living near the building where
the operations are performed.

To avoid this the offensive vapours should always be carried by a flue
made for the purpose into the furnace-fire, and there consumed. But this
will not remedy another source of annoyance which arises from the
disgusting stench caused by the putrefaction of the flesh adhering to the
bones, which lie in heaps about the premises.

The trade of a bone-boiler comes under the head of offensive trades (see
‘Public Health Acts,’ s. 112-114), and is under the control and regulation
of an urban sanitary authority, which has also the power of preventing the
bone-boiling being carried on within its district if it thinks proper.

=BONE′-ASH.= Impure triphosphate of calcium, obtained by calcining bones
to whiteness, and reducing the ash to fine powder. Used to make pure
phosphate of calcium, to form cupels, &c.; also sold for burnt hartshorn.

=BONE′-DUST.= _Syn._ BONE-MANURE. Bones (previously boiled for their
grease) ground to different degrees of coarseness, in a mill. It is sown
along with the seed in a drill. Wheat thus treated is said to yield 30 to
50 per cent, more weight in straw and grain than by the common methods.
Turnip and other light soils it renders more than ordinarily productive.
Bone manure is much used in the west of Yorkshire, Holderness, and
Lincolnshire. The usual quantity per acre is 70 bushels, when used alone;
but when mixed with ashes or other common manure, 30 bushels per acre is
said to be enough. When coarse, and applied in the same manner as other
manures, it has been found to remain upwards of seven years in the ground,
the productiveness of which it has increased during the whole time.

=BONE′-GLUE.= See GELATIN.

=BONE′-GREASE.= From refuse bones, bruised, boiled in water, and the broth
skimmed when cold. _Prod._ 1/8th to 1/4th of the weight of the dry bones.
(Proust.) Used for making soap and candles. See CHARCOAL, ANIMAL.

=BONE′-PHOSPHATE.= See TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF LIME.

=BONE′-SHAVINGS.= _Syn._ BONE′-DUST (Turners’), BONE-TURNINGS. This, by
boiling with water, yields a beautiful jelly, which is nearly equal to
that produced from hartshorn and ivory shavings, for which it is very
frequently sold. Used to make jellies and blancmanges, to stiffen straw
bonnets, &c.

=BONE-SPAVIN.= A bony enlargement on the antero-internal parts of the hock
in horses. In recent cases it is best to apply cold applications, but in
protracted and chronic cases, hot fomentations will be found best. In case
of these failing, recourse should be had to blistering or firing, or if
need be to a seton.

=BOOK′BINDING= (-bīnd-). Although a full description of the various
operations of this well-known art, or handicraft, does not properly fall
within the province of this work, a brief notice of them will probably, in
many cases, prove useful to the amateur and the emigrant:——

The process of binding books is divided into several distinct operations,
which, in large establishments, are usually performed by different
persons; such a method being found to produce greater expedition, and
better work, than when the whole is done by one person.

The sheets received from the hands of the printer are——

1. _Folded_, which is done correctly by observing the ‘marks’ or
‘signatures’ at the bottom of the pages. As the sheets are folded they are
laid upon each other in proper order, and are ready to undergo——

2. The operation of beating. This is performed by either laying them upon
a large stone and striking them with a heavy smoothed-faced hammer, or by
passing them through a rolling-press. The former method is usually adopted
in the small way, and the latter on the large scale.

[Illustration]

3. The sheets are next fastened to bands, which is done by taking them up
one by one, and sewing them to pieces of cord, stretched in a little frame
screwed or fastened to the counter or table, called the sewing press. (See
_engr._) The number of bands used is generally 6 for a folio, 5 for a
quarto, and so on proportionally, less than 4 being seldom employed even
for small sizes. The ends of the cords being cut off to within about 2
inches of the back, the sheets are ready for——

4. _Glueing._ The back being knocked into shape with a hammer, and the
sheets placed in the cutting-press, which is then slightly screwed up,
melted glue is thinly and evenly applied. After a short time, to permit it
to become sufficiently set and hard, the book is removed from the press,
and the back properly adjusted with a hammer, when it is again put into
the cutting-press, where it is screwed up very tight, and is then ready
for——

5. _Cutting._ The instrument employed for this purpose is of a peculiar
shape, and called a plough or plough-knife, which consists of a stout flat
knife, double-edged at the ‘cutting point,’ firmly set in a kind of frame,
in which it may be adjusted by screws.

6. _Affixing the boards._ The bands are now scraped out fine at the ends,
and fastened to the pasteboard intended to form the covers, which is then
properly adjusted, and further shaped, if necessary, with a large pair of
shears. The edges now undergo the operation of——

7. _Sprinkling_, _gilding_, or other adornment. The first is performed
with a stiff brush made of hog’s bristles, dipped in the colour; the brush
being held in the one hand, and the hairs moved with the other, so as to
scatter the colour in minute drops equally over the surface.

8. The external covering of leather, fancy cloth, or paper, is now
applied, having been previously soaked in paste, to make it properly
adhere. One or more of the blank leaves of the book are next pasted
against the inside of the cover, to screen the ends that are turned over
when the book is finished; or for choice work, is handed to a ‘finisher’
for——

9. _Lettering_, _gilding_, &c. Ordinary gold-leaf is applied by means of
white of egg, the pattern being given by pressure with heated brass tools,
having the design or letters on their surfaces. The whole is then glazed
over with white of egg and polished.

10. _Burnishing book edges._ This is performed with a wolf’s or dog’s
tooth, or a steel burnisher. Place the books in a screw press, with boards
on each side of them, and other boards distributed between each volume.
First rub the edges well with the tooth to give them a lustre. After
sprinkling, or staining, or when the edges have become dry, burnish the
front; then turning the press, burnish the edges at the top and bottom of
the volume. Burnish the gilt edges in the same manner, after having
applied the gold; but observe in gilding to put the gold first upon the
front, and allow it to dry; and on no account commence the burnishing
until the gold is quite dry.

The succession of the above operations sometimes slightly varies with the
workmen, and with the nature of the binding. The examination of a bound
book during their perusal will, however, render the whole quite familiar
to the reader.

There are several varieties of binding, of which only the following
deserve notice here:——

BOARDS. A book rather loosely done up, without cutting the edges, and
covered with coloured paper or cloth, is said to be in ‘boards.’

CLOTH, CLOTH-BINDING. This is the style of binding in which the majority
of works are now issued. It admits of great neatness and even beauty, is
cheap, and when well executed is very durable.——The prepared cloth
(hard-glazed or varnished calico), cut by a pattern to the proper size, is
passed rapidly between the engraved cylinders of a rolling-press, by which
the design is given to it. Paste is now applied to each piece of cloth,
which is then placed over the volume previously prepared to receive it. In
many cases the covers are prepared separately before being embossed, and
are afterwards fastened in the finished state to the book by means of a
piece of canvas or calico previously affixed to its back for the purpose,
when all that is required is to paste the ends of it to the inside of the
boards, with the last blank leaf over it. Books in cloth are seldom cut at
the edges, unless they are otherwise highly finished.

HALF-BINDING. Books forwarded in boards, and finished with leather backs
and corners, are said to be ‘half-bound.’

LEATHER-BINDING. A book is only said to be ‘bound,’ or ‘fully-bound,’ when
both its backs and sides are wholly covered with one piece of
leather.——The leather is wetted by immersion in water, wrung or squeezed,
stretched on a smooth board, cut to the proper size, pared thin on the
edges, and covered with paste. It is then applied to the book (previously
forwarded in boards, and cut), drawn tightly over it, turned down on the
inside, rubbed smooth with a folding-stick, and otherwise adjusted; after
which it is placed in some suitable situation, at a distance from a fire,
to dry.

Rough calf requires to be damped on the grain side with a sponge and water
before pasting and covering.

Russia-leather is well soaked in water for an hour, taken out, beaten, and
rubbed; after which the paste is well worked into the flesh side before
covering.

Morocco is first ‘grained’ by rubbing it on a board, with the grain side
inside, and, after being pasted, left to soak for about a quarter of an
hour; after which it is drawn on with a piece of woollen cloth, to
preserve the grain.

Roan is either soaked in water, or left to soak when pasted.

SCHOOL-BINDING. Originally applied to school-books strongly sewn and ‘done
up’ in sheep-skin, which was either left of a plain brown, or sprinkled or
marbled with copperas water. Similar works of a cheaper class are now
often ‘done up’ in canvas, brown-holland, and even coarse and strong
coloured glazed calico.

_Concluding Remarks._ Numerous patents for improvements in binding books,
several of which possess very great merit and usefulness, have been
obtained during the last 30 years. Among these, one known as ‘Hancock’s
Patent Binding,’ from its extreme novelty, simplicity, durability, and
inexpensiveness, deserves a passing notice here. By Mr Wm. Hancock’s
method the sheets are folded in double leaves, and by being properly
placed together and adjusted (by setting them vertically, with the edges
forming the back of the book downwards, in a concave mould so formed that
whilst giving shape it may leave the whole breadth, and nearly the whole
length exposed), and firmly secured by a few turns of packthread, the book
is subjected to the action of a press, and a strong and quick-drying
solution of india rubber is smeared over the back with the finger, when
the whole is left for 3 or 4 hours, or longer, to dry. The operation is
repeated as often as necessary, after which fillets of cloth are cemented
on with the same varnish, and the book is ready to have the boards
attached. The sheets of books that cannot be folded in ‘double leaves’ may
be strongly stitched through, separately, before adjusting them in the
mould. In this way several of the usual operations of binding are
dispensed with. We most willingly bear testimony to the strength and
durability of this method, as well as to the great convenience it affords
in allowing the books to open perfectly flat upon a table, or to be
distorted in any possible manner, without injury to their backs. It is,
undoubtedly, the best way of binding books for travellers. The Editor of
the last edition of this work once had a large trunk of books, among which
was a massive volume bound on Hancock’s plan. All the rest were nearly
torn to pieces by a few months’ journey, but this one remained uninjured
even after five years, during which time it accompanied him in his
travels, extending, collectively, to upwards of 23,000 miles. See GILDING,
MARBLING, SPRINKLES, STAINS, &c.

=BOONEKAMP OF MAAGBITTER.= Dried orange berries, 100 grammes; bitter
orange peel, 30 grammes; gentian root, 60 grammes; cascarilla bark, 30
grammes; turmeric, 15 grammes; cinnamon, 25 grammes; cloves, 15 grammes;
rhubarb, 7-1/2 grammes; 90 per cent. spirit, 750 grammes: water, 1650
grammes; star-anise oil, 40 drops; sugar, 250 grammes; digested,
expressed, and filtered. (Hager.)

=BOOTS and SHOES.= The cleaning of boots and shoes forms no unimportant
part of the domestic duties of a large establishment; as on it being
properly performed depend both their appearance and durability. A votary
of St Crispin, in whom we place considerable reliance, assures us that to
effect this object in the best style, all that is necessary is to employ
very little blacking (merely enough to moisten the surface of the
leather), and to brush it off whilst still damp. Never make the surface
wet, nor allow the blacking to dry before applying the polishing brush.
For this purpose a portion only of the boot or shoe should be attended to
at a time. The dirt is, of course, to be carefully brushed off before
applying the blacking. When it is desired to restore the shape of a boot
or shoe, as well as to clean it, boot trees may be used. Of the brushes,
we are told that there should be at least three——one (dirt brush) with
bristles stiff, but not wiry nor scratchy, to remove mud and dirt; another
(blacking-brush), with fine, flexible hair, and plenty of it, for applying
the blacking; and a third (polishing-brush), covered with long, fine,
springy, and slightly stiff hair, for giving the polish. The employment of
inferior or worn-out brushes is said to be false economy, and proves
particularly destructive to the lighter classes of leather.

The occasional use of a little oil or grease to the uppers of boots and
shoes increases their softness and durability, as well as the ‘depth,’ but
not the brilliancy of the polish, from common blacking. For this purpose
some good tallow or ‘dubbing’ may be used; the absorption being aided by a
very gentle heat. The soles or bottoms of new boots and shoes may be
thoroughly saturated with similar substances, by which means their
durability will be fully doubled. The common practice among the shoemakers
is to moisten the surface of the leather with a wet sponge before applying
the oil or grease; by which (they say) its pores are opened and its
absorbent powers increased.

_Varnish for Boots and Shoes._——1. Boil together in a pipkin one pint of
linseed oil; 1/2 _lb._ of mutton suet, the same quantity of beeswax, and a
small piece of resin; and when the mixture becomes milk-warm, apply it
with a hair brush. After two applications the articles will become
waterproof. Great caution must be exercised in melting the above
ingredients, lest the mixture boils over, and so give rise to a
conflagration.

2. Common tar may be made warm and brushed over the soles of boots or
shoes. These latter are then put near the fire so that the tar may be
absorbed. When the absorption has taken place, a second or third
application may be given with advantage. This application is not suitable
for the upper leathers.

3. India-rubber varnish will be found very useful for anointing the upper
leather of boots and shoes; but the lower parts, which are exposed to the
wear and tear caused by friction with the ground, are but little benefited
by its application.

Patent-leather boots and shoes are best cleaned with a little sweet oil or
milk (preferably the first), the dirt having been previously removed in
the usual way.

India-rubber goloshes and overshoes may be cleaned with a sponge or brush,
and water, care being taken not to wet the linings. The same applies to
gutta percha. See BLACKING, LEATHER, WATERPROOFING, &c.

The reasons why boots and shoes so commonly cause corns, and fatigue, and
give pain in wear, are explained in our article on the FEET (which _see_).

Paramount in importance to the appearance of boots or shoes on the wearer
is the desideratum, not only of having them so made as to ensure personal
comfort in walking, but additionally to have them so constructed as to
protect the feet from wet during damp and rainy weather. The evils arising
from getting the feet damp cannot be overstated; amongst them are to be
included——cold, cough, bronchitis, inflammation of the lungs, and
rheumatism. In those inheriting a constitutional consumptive taint, a cold
caught from wearing damp or leaky boots has very frequently been known to
have precipitated the disease, that has ended in more or less speedy
death. Hence arises not only the duty of changing damp boots or shoes as
soon as ever the opportunity offers, but the wisdom of adopting the
preventive precaution of wearing them of such stout construction as to be
impervious to water during rainy weather. If the dangers arising from a
neglect of this advice are visited with such serious consequences upon
adults and grown persons, they affect infants and children with even far
greater intensity, because of the much more tender and sensitive
organisation of the latter. It therefore behoves every mother not only to
see that her children are shod with good thick boots or shoes, but to take
especial care that whenever these are damp they are removed at once.

Mr Chavasse, in his excellent work, ‘Counsel to a Mother,’ recommends
“boots for walking out of doors and shoes for the house.” He adds, “that
the constant wearing of boots in the house is weakening to the ankles, as
weakening as tight lacing is to the waist; indeed it acts much in the same
way, namely, by wasting away, by pressure, the ligaments of the ankles, as
stays waste away the muscles of the waist.” In support of his argument he
quotes Dr Humphrey, who says, “The notion is in both instances fortified
by the fact that those persons who have been accustomed to the pressure
either upon the ankle or upon the waist, feel a want of it when it is
removed, and are uncomfortable without it. They forget, or are
unconscious, that the feeling of the want has been engendered by the
appliance, and that had they never resorted to the latter, they would
never have experienced the former. The deduction to be drawn from Dr
Hutchinson’s opinion is that no more fertile source of weak ankles exists
than that of wearing laced boots during childhood. Boots with elastic
sides, as exerting much more equal pressure, and allowing full scope for
the ankles to play, are far preferable to tightly laced-up boots.

=BOOT-POW′DER.= French chalk reduced to powder by scraping or grating.
Used to facilitate the ‘getting on’ of new or tight boots, a little of it
being rubbed on the insides of the backs, heels, and insteps.

=BOOT-TOP LIQ′UID.= _Syn._ BOOT′-TOP COMPOSI′′TION. There are numerous
articles of this class extant, but, with few exceptions, they are most
unchemical mixtures, not infrequently containing ingredients which are
either unnecessary, or opposed to the action of the rest. The following
are examples:——

_Prep._ _a._ WHITE-TOP:——1. Oxalic acid and white vitriol, of each 1
_oz._; water, 1-1/2 pint; dissolve. It is applied with a sponge, the
leather having been previously washed with water; after a short time it is
washed off with water, when the boot-tops are either dried in a current of
air or by a gentle heat; they are lastly either polished with a brush, so
as to appear like new leather, or they are left rough, as the case may
require.

2. Sour milk, 1 quart; butter of antimony, cream of tartar, tartaric acid,
and burnt alum, of each 2 oz.; mix.

3. Sour milk (skimmed), 3 pints; cream of tartar, 2 _oz._; alum and oxalic
acid, of each 1 _oz._

4. Alum, cream of tartar, magnesia, and oxalic acid, of each 1 _oz._; salt
of sorrel and sugar lead, of each 1/4 _oz._; water, 1 quart. The preceding
are for white tops.

_b._ BROWN-TOP:——Alum, annatto, and oxalic acid, of each 1 _oz._;
isinglass and sugar of lead, of each 1/2 _oz._; salt of sorrel, 1/4 _oz._;
water, 1 quart; boil for 10 minutes.

_c._ Saffron, 15 grains; boiling water, 2 _oz._; infuse and strain. Add
tincture of rhubarb 1-1/2 _oz._; concentrated infusion of rhubarb, to make
up to 4 _oz._

=BORACIC ACID= (-răs′-). H_{3}BO_{3}. _Syn._ BORIC ACID, SEDATIVE SALT†,
S. S. OF VIT′RIOL†; ACIDUM BORACICUM (-răs′-), L.; ACIDE BORACIQUE, A.
BORIQUE, Fr.; BORAXSÄURE, &c., Ger. The pure acid is obtained from common
borax. That of commerce is extracted from the boracic acid lagoons of
Tuscany.

_Prep._ 1. Borax, 1 part; boiling water, 4 parts; dissolve, and add
sulphuric acid until the solution acquires a distinctly acid reaction, for
which purpose about 1/2 the weight of the borax will be required. As the
solution cools, crystals of BORACIC ACID will be deposited. These may be
purified by placing them on a filter, and washing them with a little very
cold water, followed by re-solution, in boiling water, and
recrystallisation. Nearly pure.

2. As the last, but substituting hydrochloric acid for the sulphuric acid,
there ordered. Very nearly pure.

3. By exposing the product of the first crystallisation of either of the
preceding formulæ to heat in a platinum crucible, and redissolving and
recrystallising the residuum. Chemically pure. Used in analysis.

_Prop., &c._ Odourless; bitter-tasted; dissolves in 25 times its weight of
cold water, and in 3 times its weight of boiling water; very soluble in
alcohol, which then burns with a bright green flame; reddens litmus;
browns turmeric-paper (properties characteristic of this substance); when
strongly heated it forms a brittle glass (VITRIFIED BORACIC ACID) on
cooling. The crystallised acid contains 3 atoms, or 43·5% of water. Its
salts are called BO′′RATES.

_Uses._ Boracic acid was once administered internally, in large doses, as
an anodyne, antispasmodic, and sedative, but is now scarcely ever employed
as a medicine. The crude acid is used in the manufacture of borax; the
pure acid in the manufacture of certain chemicals.

Boracic acid is extensively used in Sweden and other countries for the
preservation of milk. Meat which has been soaked in a solution of the acid
for a few seconds, and milk to which a small quantity has been added, will
keep much longer than they would otherwise do. In Sweden alone boracic
acid to the amount of 75,000_l._ was consumed in one year. It is said to
be a perfectly harmless antiseptic.

=BORACIC ANHYDRIDE.= See BORIC ANHYDRIDE.

=BORATE.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BO′′RAS, L.; BORAXSÄURE SALZE, Ger. A salt in
which the hydrogen of boracic acid is replaced by a basic radical. The
borates may be formed by either digesting the hydrate of the base in a
solution of the acid, with the assistance of heat, or from a solution of
borax and a soluble salt of the base, by double decomposition. They are
all decomposed by the stronger acids.

_Tests._ The borates may be tested by digesting them in a slight excess of
oil of vitriol, evaporating the resulting solution to dryness, powdering
the residuum, and dissolving it in alcohol; the resulting solution
possesses the property of burning with a green flame if the sample
examined was a borate, or contained a notable quantity of one. See BORACIC
ACID.

=BORAX.= [Eng., Fr.; Ger., L., B. P.] 2NaBO_{2}.B_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._
BIBO′′RATE OF SO′DA, BO′′RATE OF S*, SUBBO′′RATE OF S.†, GOLD SOLDER†*,
REFINED′ TINC′AL†*; SO′DÆ BIBO′′RAS, S. BO′′RAS, L.; CHRYSOCOLLE, &c.,
Fr.; BORAXSAURES NATRON, &c., Ger. COMMERCIAL BIBORATE OF SODA. Borax is
obtained either by purifying native borate of soda (TINC′AL, TINC′AR), or
by saturating crude boracic acid with the alkali. It is never prepared on
the small scale unless for chemical analysis.

_Prop._ Crystals, six-sided prisms, which contain 10 equiv. of water, and
effloresce in dry air; soluble in 20 parts of cold, and in 6 parts of
boiling water; solution has an alkaline reaction on test-paper; by heat it
loses its water of crystallisation, and at a higher temperature fuses to a
glass-like substance (see _below_).

_Pur._ This may be ascertained by determining the quantity of sulphuric
acid required to neutralise a given weight of the sample under
examination, as indicated by litmus paper. Common salt and alum are
frequently mixed with borax to lower the value. The first may be detected
by a solution in hot water giving a curdy-white precipitate with nitrate
of silver, soluble in ammonia; the last, by water of ammonia, giving a
bulky-white pulverulent precipitate. The former must be distinguished from
the white pulverulent precipitate of borate of silver, which is thrown
down from pure borax.

_Uses, &c._ Borax is extensively employed as a flux for metals, for
soldering, and in medicine. Internally it is diuretic, sedative,
emmenagogue, and refrigerant, in doses of 15 to 40 gr.; externally, made
into a gargle for sore throat, and in powder as a detergent in aphthæ, and
ulcerations of the month. Dissolved in rose-water, it is used as a
cosmetic; and mixed with about 8 times its weight of lard, forms a useful
ointment in piles and sore nipples.

The ‘Comptes Rendus’ (lxxx, 473) contains the results of some experiments
made by M. Schnetzler, with the view of testing the antifermentative and
anti-putrefactive properties of borax.

When the leaves of the _Elodea Canadensis_ were plunged into a
concentrated solution of borax, the living matter of the cell was killed,
and the same result followed with the fresh leaves and spores of the
_Vaucheria clavata_, the spores of the grape fungus (_Oidium sacchari_),
and of yeast moulds, &c. Infusoria, rotifera, and _entomostraca_, placed
in water containing borax, quickly ceased to move and then died. The larvæ
of frogs placed in a solution of borax were killed in less than an hour
after immersion. M. Schnetzler thinks the deduction to be drawn from these
facts is that borax ought to act antagonistically to fermentation, if this
latter be a chemical phenomenon accomplished under the influence of the
life of the yeast. To test the correctness of this hypothesis experiments
were undertaken with a view of determining the action of borax upon
fermentable matters.

Ripe grapes and currants after being kept two years in a concentrated
solution of borax, in a closed vessel, presented no trace of fermentation,
although, however well preserved, they were not eatable. As a counter test
grapes were placed in a well-closed vessel filled with ordinary water,
when after a time, according to the temperature, fermentation took place,
with evolution of carbonic acid. Thirty cubic centimètres of fresh milk
were placed in a test tube with one gram of borax. The cream quickly
formed a rather thick layer on the upper portion. Although the test tube
was closed by a cork a mould was formed upon the cream, but the remainder
of the liquid underwent no acid fermentation, and retained during several
months the appearance of very clear creamed milk, and although afterwards
under the influence of summer heat the liquid became perfectly limpid, and
deposited the casein as a soft white matter, neither the deposit nor the
liquid had an acid taste, and after three months they still had the odour
of fresh milk. Fresh milk put into a well-closed tube without borax
underwent fermentation in two or three days. A piece of sheep’s brain
treated with powdered borax, after eight days, although it evolved
sulphuretted hydrogen, gave no indications of putrefaction, and after
retaining a soft consistence during some months, became hard and almost
horny without any disagreeable smell.

A pound of beef was placed in a concentrated solution of borax, in a tin
case not hermetically sealed.

The liquid into which the colouring matter of the blood, and some of the
soluble nitrogenous substances of the meat had diffused, was three times
removed during a year and a half, and the meat washed with cold water; but
at the end of the above time it had not the least odour of putrefaction.
It was of a yellowish colour, but soft and tender as fresh meat. Removed
from the borax solution the meat remained in the same state in the air.
Beef, veal and portions of sheeps’ brains were placed in a vessel which
was filled with solution of borax and hermetically sealed. The liquid soon
became clear red, and this colour remained during several months without
alteration. The meat presented not the least disagreeable smell as long
as excess of air was prevented. Meat placed in water in a flask
hermetically sealed became rotten in a few days.

The peculiar odour of the meat preserved in borax in contact with air the
author considers to be due to the decomposition of matters which result
from the metamorphosis of substances that constitute the muscular and
intermuscular fibre. Although probably the use of borax will not be
applicable to the preservation of meat for culinary purposes, the author
considers that it may be economically substituted for alcohol in the
preservation of anatomical specimens. Moreover, its power of suspending
life in the lower organisms would seem to indicate its probable
utilisation in the treatment of wounds, &c.

In support of the above views as to the antiseptic properties of borax, M.
Schnetzler refers to a letter from an English traveller in California, who
there observed that in a soil containing borax the carcass of a horse had,
for four months, remained without decomposition, the flesh continuing
perfectly fresh, and the eye retaining its clearness and brightness. For
most of the proposed applications of salicylic acid to the preservation of
milk, and the products derived from it, it is affirmed that borax is
equally efficacious, and has the advantage of being cheaper and more
convenient.

=Borax, Glass of.= Borax dried at a gentle heat, and then melted by
increasing the heat until it forms a vitreous mass on being cooled. Used
in soldering, and as a flux, particularly in blowpipe experiments.

=BO′′RIC ACID.= See BORACIC ACID.

=BORIC ANHYDRIDE.= B_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ ANHYDROUS BORACIC ACID, BORACIC
ANHYDRIDE, BORIC OXIDE. The only known oxide of boron. It can be produced
by burning boron in oxygen, in the air, or in nitrous oxide, but is most
easily and economically prepared by strongly heating boracic acid so as to
deprive it of water. It is a brittle vitreous solid, not volatilised by
heat except in the presence of water. Dissolves in water, forming boracic
acid. Its alcoholic solution burns with a green flame, like that of
boracic acid.

=BO′RON.= B. The base of boracic acid. It was discovered by Homberg in
1702; but, from attracting little notice, was soon forgotten. It was
rediscovered, almost simultaneously, by Sir H. Davy and by Gay-Lussac and
Thénard, in 1807-8.

_Prep._ Boron is prepared by a process similar to that employed to obtain
silicium:——Potassium and perfectly dry boracic acid, or, preferably,
boro-fluoride of potassium, intimately mixed together, are placed in a
glass adopter-tube, and submitted to a low red heat. When cold, the loose
cork that fastened its mouth is removed, and hot water poured in, in
successive portions, until the whole matter is detached and all its
soluble portion dissolved; the liquid is next allowed to settle, and the
precipitate washed first with a solution of sal-ammoniac, and afterwards
with alcohol; the residuum (boron) is lastly dried in a capsule, and put
into a well-stoppered phial.

_Prop., &c._ A solid, tasteless, and inodorous powder, of a dark
greyish-brown colour. With sulphur it unites at high temperatures, forming
sulphurets (sulphides of boron); and when placed in chlorine gas it
spontaneously inflames, and a gaseous chloride of boron is formed. The
compounds of boron with basic radicals are termed BORIDES.

_Obs._ Among the most remarkable of the recent discoveries in chemistry
are those of MM. Wohler and Deville, relative to silica and boron. Each of
these substances is now proved to exist in three very different states,
analogous to the three known states of carbon, namely, charcoal, graphite,
and diamond. The last of these states is, of course, the most interesting.
Crystallised boron possesses a hardness, brightness, and refractive power
comparable to those of the diamond; it burns in chlorine, without residue,
and with circumstances resembling those of the combustion of diamond in
oxygen; it is not acted on by any of the acids, and appears to be the
least alterable of all the simple bodies. Its powder is already used in
the arts, instead of diamond-dust; and it seems not improbable that, when
obtained by the chemist in crystals of a larger size, it may rival even
the diamond as a gem.

Some late experiments by Wohler and Deville seem to have established the
fact, that the so-called “graphitoidal” boron is really a boride of
aluminium. Its formation on fusing aluminium with amorphous boron or boric
oxide appears to take place more particularly when the heat applied is
neither very strong nor long continued.

=Boron, Terflu′oride of.= See FLUOBORIC ACID.

=BOTHRIOCEPHALUS CORDATUS.= Leuckart was the first to describe this
creature, which is a parasitic worm infesting the human intestines. It is,
however, much more commonly met with in dogs than in man. The annexed
engraving depicts——_b_, the head (back view), magnified five diameters;
_b′_, upper part of body and head, magnified two diameters; _a_ is a
portion of the worm, natural size. See BOTHRIOCEPHALUS LATUS.

[Illustration]

=BOTHRIOCEPHALUS LATUS.= A parasitic worm infesting the human intestines.
Although classed with the tapeworms, it differs essentially from _tænia_.
The head is of an elongated form, compressed with an anterior obtuse
prominence into which the mouth opens.

[Illustration]

The animal has the power of elongating and contracting the neck, so that
it appears sometimes short, sometimes long. The joints or segments
commence about three inches from the head; the anterior ones are nearly
square, but the remainder are much elongated transversely. Each segment
contains on its flat surface two orifices, the anterior connected with a
male, the posterior with a female organ of generation. The parasite is of
a brown colour, and from six to twenty feet in length.

Those who are affected by this worm never pass the single segments from
the bowels, but void them in chains of many links. The ova are also
frequently to be met with in the fæces; they are of an ovoid shape; the
capsule is perfectly translucent, and the yolk is distinguishable. The
yolk undergoes segmentation, and ultimately develops an embryo with six
hooks at the anterior extremity, cased in a mantle studded with vibratory
cilia, and the lid of the capsule then opens up; and the embryo escapes.
If they do not obtain access to the intestines of an animal within a week,
they lose their ciliated mantle and perish. Drinking-water is supposed to
be the chief if not the only medium through which the parasite gains
admissions to the intestines in man. It seems to be unknown in England,
except when imported; but is common in Russia, Sweden, Norway, Lapland,
Finland, Poland, and Switzerland.

=BOTS.= The larvæ of the gad-fly. The eggs are deposited by the female fly
on the horse’s shoulder and on parts of the body within reach of the
tongue, by which they are carried to the mouth and find their way to the
stomach. They usually resist all attempts to expel them. The most
promising treatment consists in rubbing down in hot water about 2 or 3
_drms._ each of aloes and assafœtida; and when the solution has cooled,
adding to it 1 _oz._ each of turpentine and ether. Repeat this dose two or
three times a week, omitting the aloes if necessary.

=BOT′TLES= (bŏt′lz). See GLASS, INFANCY, LACTATION, PHIALS, &c.

=BOTT′LING= (bŏt′l-ĭng.) See CORKS, MALT LIQUORS, WINE, &c.

=BOUGIE= (bōō′-zhē). [Fr.] _Syn._ CE′REUS, CERE′OLUS,[227] CANDE′LA
PROBATO′′RIA*, L. In _surgery_, a long slender instrument, originally of
wax,[228] introduced into the urethra, œsophagus, or rectum, in stricture
and other diseases of those organs.

[Footnote 227: Properly, a ‘little bougie.’]

[Footnote 228: Hence the name.]

_Prep._ 1. (Prof. Pickel’s.) Amber (melted), 1 part; boiled oil, 3 parts;
mix, cool a little, and further add of oil of turpentine, 1 part; spread
the mixture, at 3 successive intervals, upon loose spun-silk cord or web;
dry in a heat of 150° Fahr., and repeat the process until the instrument
has acquired the proper size; lastly, polish it, first with pumice-stone,
and afterwards with tripoli and oil. This is the original receipt of the
once celebrated French professor Pickel, and is still generally used,
slightly modified, on the Continent. At the present time, in Paris, a
little caoutchouc, equal to about 1/20th of the weight of the oil
employed, is generally added. For the best ELAS′TIC BOUGIES the process
usually occupies from 6 to 8 weeks, to allow full time for the drying and
hardening of the composition. When the bougie is required to be hollow, a
piece of polished metallic wire is introduced into the axis of the silk;
or tin-foil is rolled round the wire and the composition applied as
before. When dry and hard the wire is withdrawn.

2. (Hunter’s.) Yellow wax, 2 parts; red lead, 3 parts; olive oil, 6 parts;
slowly boiled together until combination takes place; strips of soft linen
(rather wider at the one end than the other) are then dipped into the
composition, rolled up firmly, and finished off on a polished slab.

3. (Piderit’s.) Olive oil, 1 part; wax, 6 parts; as before.

4. (Bell’s.) Lead-plaster, 11 parts; yellow wax, 4 parts; olive oil, 1
part.

5. (St. B. Hosp.) Wax, 12 parts; Chio turpentine, 4 parts; red sulphide of
mercury, 1 part.

6. CAOU′TCHOUC BOUGIES:——In France, where ether is comparatively
inexpensive, these are made by applying an ethereal solution of india
rubber to the silk or foil prepared as before. In England, naphtha was,
until recently, employed instead of ‘ether,’ but it furnishes a very
inferior product. Now bisulphuret of carbon is generally used as the
solvent. Sometimes strips of india rubber, previously boiled in water, or
that have had their edges softened by moistening them with a little ether,
or bisulphuret of carbon, are wound round the ‘wire or foil,’ and kept in
their place by a piece of tape applied over them. They are afterwards
carefully smoothed off and polished.

7. GUTTA-PER′CHA BOUGIES:——These are formed of gutta percha (previously
softened by immersion in boiling water), by rolling it between plates of
polished glass or marble. When skilfully prepared from the best
(uncoloured) gutta percha, they are admirable instruments. A bougie of
this description, of moderate size, and slightly oiled, or wetted with
glycerin or gum-water, may be passed through the whole length of the
urethra of a healthy person without causing the slightest pain.
Gutta-percha catheters (hollow bougies) are still more flexible and easily
introduced, and may remain in the urethra for a long time without causing
irritation; an important advantage in such matters. The reader cannot,
however, be too careful to avoid those made of coloured gutta percha,
which, unfortunately, rapidly become very brittle by age. Those originally
manufactured in this material were coloured black, and were constantly
breaking whilst in use——a disaster from which several serious and even
fatal cases ensued. There is no such danger to be dreaded from those made
of the uncoloured material when of good quality.

=BOULES DE NANCY.= See BALLS (Martial).

=BOUILLI.= [Fr.] A name frequently applied by cooks to dishes of boiled or
stewed meat, as a refinement on its plain English synonymes. Thus, beef
bouilli, beef in bouilli, &c., mean stewed or boiled beef, &c. As,
however, the name is à la français, so must be the ‘accompaniments,’ which
generally consist of herbs and vegetable seasoning in greater quantity and
variety than is usually deemed essential for an humble dish of English
boiled or stewed meat.

=BOUILLON= (bōōl′-yon_g_). [Fr.] In _cookery_, broth, soup.

=BOUQUET′= (bōō-kā′). [Fr.] A nosegay. In _perfumery_, highly scented
spirits (esprits) adapted for the handkerchief are commonly called
bouquets. The following are examples:——

=Bouquet d’Amour.= _Prep._ From esprits de rose, jasmin, violette, and
cassie (flowers of _acacia farnesiana_), of each 2 parts; essences of musk
and ambergris, of each 1 part; mix, and filter.

=Bouquet de la Reine.= _Prep._ 1. Essence of bergamot, 1 dr.; English oil
of lavender, 25 drops; oil of cloves, aromatic vinegar, and essence of
musk, of each 10 drops; alcohol, 1 fl. oz.; mix.

2. Oils of bergamot and lavender, of each 30 drops; neroli, 15 drops; oils
of verbena and cloves, of each 5 drops; essences of musk, ambergris, and
jasmin, of each 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit of wine (strongest, scentless),
2 fl. oz.; mix. A much-esteemed perfume.

=BRA′GRAS.= Tar, black resin, and the dregs of strained resin, melted
together.

=BRAIN= (brāne). _Syn._ BRAINS‡; CER′EBRUM, L.; CERVEAU, Fr.; GEHIRN,
HIRN, Ger. The soft whitish mass of nerve-matter contained in the skulls
of animals, and, in man, supposed to be the seat of the soul and the mind.

=Brains.= (In _cookery_.) There appears to be scarcely anything which is
at all eatable that the ingenuity and taste of the modern cook does not
appropriate to his purposes, and clothe with delectability, or transform
into something execrable. We observe that our chef de cuisine——no
unimportant personage——has taxed every viscera and brought together every
novelty and dainty to humour and excite the appetite. Animals which were
guiltless of brains whilst living, are found by him to possess excellent
ones when dead, from which he prepares a variety of miniature dishes which
are truly novel and inviting. Let frugal housewives for the future
carefully value their brains, and apply them to useful purposes in a
double sense. When cleaned, washed, blanched, and flavoured with the
necessary seasoning, they may be formed into a variety of hors-d’œuvres
creditable to any table. Mrs Rundell tells us that “beat up with a little
white pepper and salt, a sage-leaf or two (scalded and finely chopped),
and the yelk of an egg, and fried, they make excellent cakes, fritters,
&c.”

=BRAMAELIXIR——GENUINE ASIATIC STOMACH BITTER= (Ch. Rama Ayen, Hamburg).
Cardamoms, cinnamon, cloves, of each 15 grammes; galangal, ginger,
zedoary, pepper, of each 30 grammes; wormwood oil, 15 drops; 90 per cent.
spirit, 830 grammes; water, 330 grammes; digest and filter. (Hager.)

=BRAN.= _Syn._ FUR′FUR, L.; BRAN, SON, Fr.; KLEIE, Ger. The inner husk or
proper coat of the cereal grains, sifted from the flour; appr., that of
wheat. _Comp._ 100 parts of bran contain albuminoid bodies, 13·80; oil,
5·56; starch, fibre, &c., 61·67; ash, 6·11; water, 12·85.

_Uses, &c._ The bran of wheat, diffused through hot water, is largely
employed by the calico-printers to remove the colouring matter from those
parts of their goods which are not mordanted. A handful mixed with a pail
of warm water forms an excellent emollient foot-bath. Infused in hot water
(bran-tea), and sweetened, it forms a popular demulcent, much used in
coughs and hoarseness, and which, taken in quantity, proves gently
laxative. It also forms an excellent manure, and, from containing the
ammonio-magnesian phosphate, is especially adapted as a ‘dressing’ for
potatoes. It is frequently mixed with flour, and made into bread
(bran-bread), which is eaten by the poorer orders for economy, and by the
higher classes because it is recommended by the faculty as being more
wholesome than white wheaten-bread.

=Bran Mash.= Put half a peck of bran or pollard into a bucket and pour on
to it enough scalding water to wet it thoroughly; stir well with a stick
or work with the hands; and let it stand, covered up, till new-milk warm.
If a horse is not in work on Sunday, it is a good custom to give it on
Saturday evening a bran mash in lieu of a feed of corn. Bran mash is
cooling and slightly laxative. The bran should always be freshly ground.
When intended to be nutritive, oats should be scalded with the bran.

=BRANDISH’S ALKALINE= (Liqueur de potasse des Anglais, Solutio Alkalina
Anglica), used in England to add to meat and vegetables about to be
cooked, to help in “drawing” tea and coffee, and as a medicine to
neutralise acidity of the stomach and lubricate the digestive passages
[die Verdanungswege schlüpfriger zu machen]. Preparation:——Crude carbonate
of potash 3 parts, wood ashes 1 part, quicklime 1 part, warm water 40
parts. Add to the water the lime, carbonate, and ashes, digest one day,
and filter. (Hager.)

=BRANDRETH’S PILLS=, much used as a purging pill in North America, consist
of gamboge, podophyllin, the inspissated juice of pokeberries, saffron
adulterated with turmeric, powdered cloves, and peppermint oil. Gamboge is
stated to be present in Brandreth’s pills on the authority of two American
druggists and one dealer. The action of the pills does not, however,
correspond with that ingredient, for in two persons five pills produced no
loose stools. (Hager.)

=BRAN′DY.= _Syn._ SPIR′ITUS GAL′LICUS, S. VI′NI GAL′LICI (-sī; B. P.),
A′QUA VI′TƆ*, L.; EAU-DE-VIE, Fr.; BRANNTWEIN, COGNAC, Ger.;
BRAN′DYWINE†. A well-known spirituous liquor obtained by the distillation
of the wine of grapes. The name is also often, though improperly, given to
the spirit distilled from other liquors, and particularly from the
fermented juice of fruits; but in this case usually with some qualifying
epithet.

When first distilled, brandy, like other spirituous liquors, is colourless
(WHITE BRANDY), and continues so if kept in glass or stoneware; but if
stored in new oak casks, as is usually the case, it gradually acquires a
yellowish tint from the wood (PALE BRANDY). The deep colour that this
spirit frequently possesses when it reaches the consumer is imparted to it
by the addition of a little burnt sugar (caramel). Catechu, or terra
japonica, in powder or solution, is also sometimes added to give a
roughness to the spirit. The original intention was merely to imitate the
appearance acquired by brandy from great age, when kept in wood; but in
process of time the thing has come to be overdone. The natural colour
which the spirit receives from the cask, however long it may be kept in
it, never exceeds a light amber tint, about equal to that of pale Jamaica
rum. Nothing, however, will now please the public taste but a spirit of
lively and full ‘brandy-colour,’ as it is called. The consequence is that
more colouring is commonly added than is compatible with a rich appearance
or a very fine flavour.

The brandies most esteemed in England are imported from France, and are
those of Cognac and Armagnac, the preference being generally given to the
former. The brandies of Rochelle and Bordeaux come next in quality; while
those obtained from Portugal, Spain, and Italy are very inferior.

The constituents of pure brandy are alcohol and water, together with small
quantities of a volatile oil, acetic acid, acetic ether, œnanthic ether,
colouring matter, and tannin. It is from the presence of the two ethers
that the spirit derives its characteristic smell and flavour. The amount
of absolute alcohol in brandy varies from 45 to 55 per cent. When first
imported it is generally 1 or 2 over-proof, but its strength decreases by
age, and by the time it is taken from the bonded store for sale, it is
seldom stronger than 3 or 4 under-proof. Pure brandies of the best
quality, even when new, seldom exceed proof, and are generally a little
below it. The reason of this is that they are but slightly rectified, as
redistillation tends to injure the ethereal oils, upon which the flavour
of the brandy depends.

The quality and flavour of the brandy imported from France vary, and often
considerably, from that which is drunk at the best tables on the
Continent; this principally arises from it being prepared, or, as it is
technically termed, ‘made up,’ for the London market; which means lowering
it by the addition of plain spirit, colouring, &c. This is done to any
extent desired by the English purchaser, and the quantity and prices of
the substances so added are regularly set out in the invoice. The strength
at which foreign brandy is sold in England varies from proof to 33
under-proof. In large quantities, and from bond, the strength, of course,
depends much upon the age and quality of the spirit; a fine old brandy
being, perhaps, 15 or 17 u. p., while one of the last year’s vintage, of a
commoner quality, may be as strong as 2 u. p., or even 1 u. p. These
matters are familiar to every experienced brandy dealer.

In France there are several varieties of brandy, which are known by names
descriptive of their qualities, source, and strengths:——

“Eau-de-vie supérieure” is obtained from pale white wines by skilful
distillation, and is remarkable for its rich and delicate flavour. It
forms the finest variety of COGNAC BRANDY, both ‘white’ and ‘pale,’ of the
English drinker, being seldom artificially coloured. Its deepest tint,
though long kept in wood, never exceeds a pale amber; and hence, even when
thus coloured, it is frequently called ‘white brandy’ by the uninitiated.

“Eau-de-vie ordinaire,” or common brandy, is distilled from inferior or
spoilt white or red wines; average sp. gr. about 0·9476 (from 22 to 27 u.
p.). It forms the ‘ordinary brandy’ of the taverns and hotels; and, after
being ‘made up’ with plain spirit to 1 or 2 u. p., a very large portion of
that which is exported.

Of each of the above varieties there are numerous degrees of qualities,
which are further increased in number by their admixture, and by the
addition to them of plain spirit.

“Eau-de-vie de marc.” From the lees of sour, damaged, and inferior red
wines, the marc or cake of grapes, &c., distilled by a quick fire, to
drive over as much essential oil and flavouring matter as possible. Coarse
flavoured and inferior. Used chiefly to mix with other brandy, or to
flavour plain spirit.

“Eau-de-vie seconde.” The weak spirit that passes over, after the receiver
has been changed. Very weak and inferior.

“Eau-de-vie à preuve d’Hollande.” Sp. gr. ·941 to ·942 (18 to 20 u. p.).
The common strength at which brandy is retailed in France, and that at
which it stands the ‘proof’ or ‘bead.’

“Eau-de-vie à preuve d’huile.” Sp. gr. ·9185 (about 23° Baumé, or 1-1/4
o. p.); pure, olive oil just sinks in it. It is the strongest brandy kept
for retail sale in France.

“Eau-de-vie forte.” From common brandy distilled at a low temperature. It
answers to our spirit of wine. Sp. gr. ·839 (38° Baumé, or 55° o. p.).

“Esprit de vin” is brandy or spirit, carefully rectified to ·861 (28°
Baumé, or 42 o. p., and upwards).

_Pur., &c._ The method of determining the strength of brandy is explained
under ‘ALCOHOLOMETRY,’ Of the large quantity of this liquor consumed in
England, we can assure the reader that a small fraction only escapes
adulteration. Pure French brandy is indeed an article quite unattainable
by the small consumer. The brandy of our shops and taverns is not only
systematically ‘lowered’ a little (with spirit of wine or British brandy)
by the wholesale dealer, but it undergoes a like process, but to a much
greater extent, at the hands of the retailer. The only method to obtain
perfectly pure brandy is either to take it direct from the bond store, or
to buy it of some known respectable party, and to pay a price that offers
no inducement to dishonesty. When this cannot be done, British brandy had
better be at once purchased, by which money will be saved, and a more
wholesome article obtained.

French brandy, as already noticed, is commonly ‘lowered’ with water, malt
brandy, and spirit of wine, by which its original flavour is more or less
weakened and injured. This species of adulteration is best detected by the
palate. Another, and no very uncommon fraud practised by the retailers, is
to reduce their brandy with a large quantity of water. As a natural
consequence their liquor suffers so greatly in flavour, and its deficiency
in alcohol becomes so apparent, that they soon see the necessity of either
abandoning the nefarious practice, or resorting to others of a less
harmless character to disguise it. The latter alternative is commonly
adopted. An excess of burnt sugar is immediately introduced into the
spirit, followed by sundry portions of cayenne pepper, grains of paradise,
horse-radish, acetic ether, &c., to give it a pungency and ‘make-believe
strength’ that “passes muster” with the petty consumer. This fraud may be
detected by gently evaporating a little of the suspected liquor in a spoon
or glass capsule, when the acrid matter, colouring, and sugar will be left
behind, and may be readily detected by their flavour, sweetness,
glutinosity, &c. A little perfectly pure brandy evaporated in a similar
manner (on a watch-glass, for instance), merely leaves a trifling
discoloration on the surface of the glass. Genuine French brandy always
reddens blue litmus paper, from containing a little acetic acid; the old
coloured varieties are also blackened by a solution of a persalt of iron.
Another test for caramel (burnt sugar) is, let a small quantity of the
brandy be well shaken with one sixth of its volume of white of egg, and
the precipitate formed allowed to deposit, or be removed by filtration;
the clear liquid ought to be colourless. Should caramel be present,
however, it will retain its colour. Sometimes brandy is contaminated with
a small quantity of lead or copper derived from the apparatus or utensils
with which it has been prepared or measured. Sugar of lead has also
sometimes been used by the ignorant dealer to clarify it. The presence of
these highly deleterious substances may be detected in the following
manner:——

1. COPPER:——_a._ A small piece of clean polished iron or steel immersed in
the suspected liquid for a short time (with agitation) becomes coated with
a film of metallic copper, when that metal is present. To facilitate the
precipitation of the metal, the sample under examination may be slightly
acidulated with a few drops of pure acetic acid. Minute traces of copper
may sometimes be detected on the surface of the iron with a lens, which
would be passed over unnoticed by the naked eye.

_b._ (Böttger.) A little of the brandy is to be agitated with a few drops
of pure olive oil. The latter will acquire a green colour if copper be
present.

2. LEAD:——_a._ Hydrosulphuric acid and sulphide of ammonium produce a
black precipitate or discoloration in brandy containing lead.——_b._ A
solution of sulphate of soda (Glauber-salts), or water soured with
sulphuric acid, produces a heavy white precipitate, which turns black when
moistened with sulphide of ammonium.

3. Methylated spirit is detected by rubbing a little of the suspected
brandy on the hands, and then drawing a long breath with the hands over
the mouth. The peculiar odour of the methylated spirit, if present, then
becomes evident. This is a test, however, requiring practice and
experience.

4. TO DETERMINE THE ALCOHOLIC STRENGTH.——Put 100 c. c. of the brandy into
a small retort, or into a flask, with a lateral tube, and distil to
dryness, or nearly so, condensing the distillate by means of a suitable
receiver, and let the alcohol by means of the processes detailed under
ALCOHOLOMETRY. The brandy may be roughly tested for fusel oil by burning a
little of it in a dish, and depressing over the flame a saucer or other
cold piece of porcelain. If a black stain is left, some of the lower
alcohols are very probably present, and should be looked for by distilling
half a pint of the spirit, and examining the later for heavier products.
The vinic alcohol being the most volatile comes over first, the heavier
fusel oil remaining until the later stages.

_Concluding Remarks._ In the ‘trade,’ the addition of water (‘liquor’) to
spirit is technically called ‘reducing,’ whilst absolute adulteration is
known under the questionable name ‘improving.’ Both of these operations
have now been so long practised with impunity as to form the leading
qualifications demanded in a cellarman.

The following formulæ for ‘reducing’ brandy are those of two large
wholesale dealers, who consider themselves much more honest than their
brethren in the same line:

1. Cognac brandy (10 u. p.), 20 galls.; British brandy (17 u. p.), 5
galls.; water, 4-1/2 galls. Strength of mixture, 25 u. p.

2. To 72 galls, of full-flavoured French brandy (5 u. p.) are added 10
galls, of spirit of wine (58 o. p.); 25 galls. of water, and 1 pint of
good colouring. The whole is then well ‘rummaged up,’ and allowed to stand
for two days, when it is fit for use. Strength of mixture, 22 u. p.

A liqueur, sold in London under the name of “brandy improver,” or “brandy
essence,” consists of a thin sugar syrup, flavoured with acetic ether and
essence of cayenne, and coloured with burnt sugar. It is said to heighten
the true Cognac flavour, and restore lost alcoholic strength.

=Brandy, British.= _Syn._ MALT BRANDY, &c. For a long time this liquor was
distilled from spoiled wine and the dregs of wine, both British and
foreign, mixed with beer-bottoms, spoiled raisins, and similar substances.
Malt and molasses spirit were afterwards employed, as at the present day,
for the purpose; but it was long considered as “an unpardonable and wicked
misuse of these articles.” Modern experience, however, has proved that
pure malt spirit is, in this country, the most convenient, if not the best
kind, to form the basis of an imitation brandy.

_Prep._ 1. To 12 galls. of malt spirit (finest and flavourless) at proof,
add, of water, 5 galls.; crude red tartar or wine-stone, 3/4 lb.
(previously dissolved in 1 gall. of boiling water); acetic ether, 6 fl.
oz.; French wine-vinegar, 2 quarts; French plums (bruised), 5 lbs.; sherry
wine-bottoms, 1/2 gall.; mix in a sherry or French-brandy cask, and let
them stand for about a month, frequently ‘rummaging up’ the liquor with a
stick; next draw over 15 galls. of the mixture from a still furnished with
an agitator. Put the ‘rectified spirit’ into a clean, fresh-emptied
Cognac-brandy cask, and add of tincture of catechu, 1 pint; oak shavings,
1 lb.; and spirit colouring, 1/2 pint; agitate occasionally for a few
days, and then let it repose for a week, when it will be fit for use.
_Prod._, 15 galls, of BRANDY, 17 u. p. Age greatly improves it.

2. Malt spirit (as before), 99 galls.; red tartar (dissolved), 7 lbs.;
acetic ether, 1/2 gall.; wine-vinegar, 5 galls.; bruised raisins or French
plums, 14 lbs.; bitter-almond cake (bruised and steeped for twenty-four
hours in twice its weight of water, which must be used with it), 1/4 lb.;
water, q. s.; macerate as before, and draw over, with a quick fire, 120
galls. To the distilled spirit add a few lbs. of oak shavings; 2 lbs. of
powdered catechu (made into a paste with hot water), and spirit-colouring
q. s.; and ‘finish’ as in the last. _Prod._, 120 galls, of spirit, fully
17 u. p. Equal in quality to the last.

3. Clean spirit (17 u. p.), 100 galls; nitrous ether, 2 quarts; cassia
buds (ground) 4 oz.; bitter-almond meal, 5 oz.; orris-root (sliced), 6
oz,; powdered cloves, 1 oz.; capsicum, 1-1/2 oz.; good vinegar, 3 galls.;
brandy colouring, 3 pints; powdered catechu, 2 lbs.; full-flavoured
Jamaica rum, 2 galls. Mix in an empty Cognac ‘piece,’ and macerate for a
fortnight, with occasional stirring. _Prod._, 106 galls., at 21 or 22 u.
p.

4. Malt spirit (17 u. p.), 100 galls.; catechu, 2 lbs.; tincture of
vanilla, 1/2 pint; burnt sugar colouring, 1 quart; good rum, 3 galls.;
acetic or nitrous ether, 2 quarts. Mix as the last.

5. Clean spirit (17 u. p.), 89 galls.; high-flavoured Cognac, 10 galls.;
oil of cassia, 2 dr.; oil of bitter almonds, 3 dr.; powdered catechu, 1
lb.; cream of tartar (dissolved), 1-1/4 lbs.; Beaufoy’s concentrated
acetic acid, 1/2 gall.; sugar colouring, 2 to 3 pints; good rum, 1 gall.
When the above mixtures are distilled, the French brandy, colouring, and
catechu, should be added to the distilled spirit.

6. To plain spirit (coloured), at 17 u. p., add a little tincture of
catechu, and a sufficient quantity of eau-de-vie de marc, or of the oil
distilled from wine-lees, to flavour it.

_Obs._ The oil referred to in the last formula is obtained by distillation
from the lees of wine, either dried and made up into cakes, or in their
wet state, mixed with about 7 or 8 times their weight of water. This oil
should be kept dissolved in alcohol, as it is otherwise apt to lose its
flavour. Brandy from any part of the world may be very closely imitated by
distilling the oil from the lees of the wines produced in that particular
district. Where black tea is cheap, as in the United States of America, it
is very commonly employed to impart the roughness of brandy to the
coloured spirit, and the subsequent addition of a little ‘flavouring’
greatly improves it. A really good article of cider-spirit thus treated
forms a passable ‘mock brandy.’ In conclusion, we may remark that, as the
strength and quality of ingredients frequently vary, and success depends
greatly on skill in manipulation, much must be left to the experience,
judgment, and discretion of the operator. In all cases he must recollect
that a certain degree of ‘age’ is absolutely necessary to give a high
character to any spirit. Indeed, to age in the one case, and its absence
in the other, may be referred the reasons why French brandy and British
brandy, apart from mere shades of flavour, so materially differ.

The production of a flavoured British spirit closely resembling French
brandy is a subject well worthy of the attention of the ingenious chemist,
rectifier, and cellarman, as a matter of profit; and of the amateur, as
affording an interesting field for useful and amusing experiment.

=Brandy, Car′away.= A species of cordial commonly prepared as follows:——1.
Caraway-seeds (bruised), 4 oz.; lump sugar, 2 lbs.; British brandy, 1
gall.; macerate a fortnight, occasionally shaking the bottle.——2. Sugar, 1
lb.; caraways (bruised), 1 oz.; 3 bitter almonds (grated);
spirit-colouring, 1 oz.; plain spirit or gin (22 u. p.), 1/2 gall.; as
before. Some persons omit the colouring.

=Brandy, Cher′ry.= _Prep._ 1. Brandy and cherries (crushed), of each 1
gall.; let them lie together for 3 days, then express the liquor, and add
2 lbs. of lump sugar; in a week or two decant the clear portion for use.

2. To the last add 1 quart of raspberry juice, and 1/2 a pint of
orange-flower water. Both the above are excellent.

3. Treacle, 1 cwt.; spirit (45 u. p.), 41 galls.; bitter almonds
(bruised), 1 lb. (or more or less to taste); cloves, 1 oz.; cassia, 2 oz.;
macerate a month, frequently stirring. This is the article now commonly
vended in the shops and at stalls for cherry brandy.

4. German cherry juice 15 galls.; pure rect. spirits, 20 galls.; syrup, 5
galls.; oil of bitter almonds, 1 drachm.

_Obs._ Equal part of fully ripe Morello cherries and black cherries
produce the richest cordial. Some persons prick each cherry separately
with a needle instead of crushing them; in which case they retain them in
the liquor, and serve up a few of them in each glass. The plan named in
the first formula is, however, that usually adopted. On the small scale,
the fruit is commonly bruised between the fingers. A portion only (if any)
of the stones in the cherries should be crushed, to impart a nutty
flavour. See LIQUEURS.

=Brandy, Ci′der.= From cider and perry; also from the marc of apples and
pears fermented. It is very largely manufactured in the United States of
America and Canada, where it may be purchased for about 2_s._ 1_d._ a
gallon. See BRITISH BRANDY (_above_).

=Brandy, Dant′zic.= From rye, ground with the root of _calamus
aromaticus_. It has a mixed flavour of orris and cinnamon.

=Brandy, Guern′sey.= Beet-root spirit flavoured.

=Brandy, Lem′on.= _Prep._ 1. Fresh lemons (sliced), 1 dozen; brandy, 1
gall.; macerate for a week, press out the liquor, and add of lump sugar, 1
_lb._

2. Proof spirit, 7 galls.; essence of lemon, 3 dr.; sugar, 5 lbs.;
tartaric acid, 1 oz.; (dissolved in) water, 2 galls.; turmeric powder or
spirit-colouring, a dessert-spoonful; as before. Sometimes milk is added
to the above, in the proportion of 1 quart (boiling hot) to every gallon.

=Brandy, Malt.= See BRITISH BRANDY.

=Brandy, Or′ange.= As lemon brandy, but employing oranges.

=Brandy, Pale.= This article has been already referred to. (See p. 337.)
That of the gin-shops and publicans is generally a spurious article, made
by mixing together about equal parts of good brown French brandy, clean
spirit of wine, and soft water, and allowing the whole to stand until the
next day to ‘fine down.’ If the first is 9 u. p., and the second 58 o. p.,
the product will be 17 u. p. Any deficiency of strength is made up by
adding a little more spirit of wine.

=Brandy, Pat′ent.= The article so much bepuffed under this name, by
certain houses, is merely very clean malt-spirit mixed with about 1-7th of
its bulk (or less) of strong-flavoured Cognac, and a little colouring.

=Brandy, Peach.= From peaches, by fermentation and distillation. Much used
in the United States, where peaches are very plentiful, and consequently
cheap. A cordial spirit under the same name is prepared as follows:——

1. From peaches, sliced and steeped in twice their weight of British
brandy or malt-spirit, as in making cherry brandy.

2. Bitter almonds (bruised), 3 oz.; proof spirit (pale), 10 galls.; water,
3 galls.; sugar, 5 or 6 lbs.; orange-flower water, 1/2 a pint; macerate
for 14 days. Add brandy-colouring, if required darker.

=Brandy, Rais′in= (rā′zn). See SPIRIT (Raisin).

=Brandy, Rasp′berry= (răz′-). From raspberries, as directed under CHERRY
BRANDY. Sometimes a little cinnamon and cloves are added. The only
addition, however, that really improves the flavour or bouquet is a little
orange-flower water, a very little essence of vanilla, or a single drop of
essence of ambergris.

=Brandy, White.= See BRANDY (p. 337) and PALE BRANDY (_antè_).

=BRASS.= _Syn._ ÆS, Æ′′RIS METAL′LUM, L.; AIRAIN, LAITON, CUIVRE JAUNE,
Fr.; ERZ, MESSING, Ger.; BRÆS, Sax. A well-known alloy of copper and zinc.

_Prep._ Brass is now generally manufactured by plunging copper, in slips,
into zinc melted in the usual manner. The former metal rapidly combines
with the fluid mass, and the addition is continued until an alloy somewhat
difficult of fusion is formed, when the remainder of the copper is at once
added. The brass thus obtained is broken into pieces, and remelted under
charcoal, and a proper addition of either zinc or copper made, to bring it
up to the colour and quality desired. It is next poured into moulds of
granite. Before being submitted to the rolling-press for reduction to thin
plates it undergoes the operation of annealing.

The proportions of the metals forming this alloy are varied according to
the desired colour, and the purposes to which it is to be applied. The
following formulæ are founded chiefly on analyses of standard brasses and
yellow metals, made expressly for this work. Small fractions are omitted;
the nearest whole numbers being generally taken:——

_a._ FINE BRASS:——1. Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part; either combined, as
explained above, or the two metals separately melted, suddenly poured
together, and united by vigorous stirring.

2. Copper, 7 parts; zinc, 3 parts. Bright yellow; malleable.

3. Fine copper, 4 parts; zinc, 1 part. Deeper coloured than the last; an
excellent and very useful alloy.

_b._ MALLEABLE BRASS:——1. Copper, 33 parts; zinc, 25 parts; as before.

2. Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 2 parts. These alloys are malleable whilst hot.

_c._ RED BRASS. This name is commonly applied to all those alloys which do
not contain more than 18 to 20% of zinc. In the deeper-coloured foreign
varieties (RED TOM′BAC) the per-centage of copper occasionally amounts to
88, 90, or even 92%.

_d._ YELLOW BRASS. See FINE BRASS (_above_).

_e._ BUTTON-BRASS:——1. Copper, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts. This is the
‘PLATIN’ of the Birmingham makers.

2. Yellow brass, 16 parts; zinc, 2 parts; tin, 1 part. Paler than the
last.

3. Copper, 25 parts; zinc, 20 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 2 parts. Pale;
used for common buttons.

_f._ FOR FINE CASTINGS:——1. As fine brass, according to the colour
desired. (See _above_.)

2. Copper, 62 parts; zinc, 35 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part.

3. Copper, 60 parts; zinc, 36 parts; tin, 4 parts. Both the last two are
rather pale and brittle.

4. Copper, 90 parts; zinc, 7 parts; tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part. Rich deep
colour.

5. Copper, 91 parts; zinc, 5 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 1 part; as the
last.

_g._ For GILDING:——1. As fine brass (_above_).

2. Copper, 64 parts; zinc, 32 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 1 part.

3. Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 1 part.

_h._ For SOLDER:——1. Fine brass, 12 parts; zinc, 6 parts; tin, 1 part;
melted together.

2. Brass, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part; as before.

3. Brass, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part. Very strong. Used for soldering tubes and
other like purposes requiring great strength. The above alloys form the
‘HARD SOLDER’ of the braziers. For certain purposes a little silver is
added to them, when the compound receives the name of ‘SILVER-SOLDER,’

_i._ For TURNING:——1. Fine brass, 98 parts; lead, 2 parts; melted
together.

2. Copper, 61 parts; zinc, 36 parts; lead, 3 parts.

3. Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 33 parts; lead, 2 parts.

_j._ For WIRE:——1. Copper, 72 parts; zinc, 28 parts; the resulting alloy
being subsequently properly annealed.

2. Copper, 64 parts; zinc, 34 parts; as before.

3. To the last add of lead, 2 parts.

_Anal._ This may be briefly described as follows:——

_a._ 100 gr. of the alloy is digested in nitric acid. The insoluble
portion is peroxide of tin, every 74 gr. of which, when washed and dried,
contain 58 gr. of metallic tin.

_b._ Sulphuric acid is added to the nitric solution as long as a white
precipitate falls; after a time the precipitate is collected on a filter,
washed with a mixture of water and alcohol, and ignited in a porcelain
crucible. Every 152 gr. of the residuum represents 104 gr. of metallic
lead.

_c._ The liquid filtered from the precipitate of sulphate of lead is
treated with a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen; the precipitate is
collected on a filter, washed with water mixed with a little sulphuretted
hydrogen, dried, and digested in pure nitric acid until the sulphur which
separates acquires its natural full yellow colour; the resulting solution
is next diluted with water, and reprecipitated with potassa, the whole
being boiled until the precipitated oxide of copper becomes of a deep
brown or black; it is then collected on a filter, washed, dried, ignited
in a platinum crucible, and weighed therein immediately after it becomes
cold. Every 40 gr. of oxide of copper thus obtained represents 32 gr. of
pure copper.

_d._ The liquid poured from the precipitate of sulphide of copper is
boiled for about a minute, when it is precipitated with a solution of
carbonate of sodium; the whole is then boiled for a few minutes, and the
precipitated oxide of zinc collected, washed, dried, and ignited. Every 40
gr. of this oxide contains 32 gr. of metallic zinc.

_Concluding Remarks._ In the adoption of his formula the operator should
be entirely led by the object he has in view. The larger the proportion of
copper, the deeper will be the colour, and the greater the density, and,
within certain limits, the toughness of the alloy. Zinc lessens the
specific gravity and colour. Tin gives it hardness and grain; whilst lead
toughens it, and renders it fitter for turning. These facts are known to
every experienced brass-founder. See ALLOYS, COPPER, MOSAIC GOLD, PRINCE’S
METAL, TOMBAC, &c.

=BRASS BATH= (FOR ELECTRO-PLATING). _For steel, wrought and cast iron, and
tin; using ordinary cyanide of potassium._ Dissolve together in 14 pints
of distilled or rain water:——Bisulphite of soda, 7 _oz._; cyanide of
potassium (containing 75 per cent. of real cyanide), 17 _oz._; carbonate
of soda, 34 _oz._

To this solution add the following, made up to 3-1/4 pints of
water:——Acetate of copper, 4-1/2 _oz._; neutral protochloride of zinc,
3-1/2 _oz._; the two liquors become colourless when mixed. Ammonia must
not be used for brass electro-plating baths for iron, especially for
solutions worked in the cold.

=BRASS BATH= (FOR ELECTRO-PLATING). _For zinc._ Pure or rain water, 4-1/2
gallons; bisulphite of soda, 24-1/2 _oz._; cyanide of potassium
(containing 75 per cent. of cyanide), 35 _oz._ To this add the following
solution:——Water, 9 pints; acetate of copper and protochloride of zinc,
each 12-1/2 _oz._; liquid ammonia, 14 _oz._

The filtered bath is colourless, and gives, under the action of the
battery, a brass deposit of a very fine shade, varying from red to green,
by increasing the proportion of copper or that of zinc.

=BRASS′-COLOUR.= _Syn._ BRASS-PIGMENT, B.-BRONZE. _Prep._ 1. Grind copper
filings, or the precipitated powder of copper, with a little red ochre.
Red-coloured.

2. Gold-coloured brass, or Dutch leaf, reduced to a very fine powder.
Yellow or gold coloured.

_Obs._ Before application these powders are mixed up with pale varnish, no
more being worked up at once than is wanted for immediate use. They are
also applied by dusting them over any surface previously covered with
varnish to make them adhere.

=BRASS-PASTE.= _Prep._ 1. Soft soap, 2 oz.; rotten-stone, 4 oz.; beaten to
a paste.

2. Rotten-stone made into a paste with sweet oil.

3. Rotten-stone, 4 oz.; oxalic acid (in fine powder), 1 oz.; sweet oil,
1-1/2 oz.; turpentine, q. s. to make a paste.

_Obs._ The above are used to clean brass-work, when neither varnished nor
lacquered. The first and last are best applied with a little water; the
second with a little spirit of turpentine or sweet oil. Both require
friction with soft leather. See BRASS-WORK, PASTES, &c.

=BRASS PLATING.= _By simple dipping._ A colour resembling brass is given
to small articles of iron or steel by a long stirring in a suspended tub
containing the following solution:——Water, 1 quart; sulphate of copper,
and protochloride of tin crystallised, about 1-5th of an _oz._ each. The
shades are modified by varying the proportions of the two salts.

=BRASS-STAIN.= _Prep._ 1. Sheet-brass (cut into small pieces) is exposed
to a strong heat for 2 or 3 days, then powdered, and again further exposed
in a like manner for several days; the whole is then reduced to fine
powder, and exposed, a third time, to heat, testing it occasionally, to
see if it be sufficiently burnt. When a little of it, fused with glass,
makes the latter swell and froth up, the process is complete. It imparts
to glass a green tint, passing into turquoise.

2. Equal parts of plate-brass and sulphur are stratified together in a
crucible, and calcined, until they become friable; the whole is then
reduced to powder, and exposed to heat as before. This imparts a calcedony
red or yellow tinge to glass by fusion; the precise shade of colour being
modified by the mode of using it.

_Obs._ The common practice in the glass-houses is to conduct the
calcination by exposing the metal, placed on tiles, in the leer or
annealing arch of the furnace; a plan both convenient and economical.

=BRASS′-WORK.= Articles of brass and copper, when not varnished or
lacquered, may be cleaned and polished with sweet oil and tripoli,
rotten-stone, or powdered bath-brick, applied with friction on flannel,
and ‘finished off’ with leather; due care being taken to ensure the
absence of anything gritty, which would scratch and disfigure the surface
of the metal. A strong solution of oxalic acid in water gives brass a fine
colour. Vitriol and spirits of salts make brass and copper very bright,
but the polish thus obtained soon tarnishes, and the articles consequently
require more frequent cleaning. A strong lye of roche alum and water also
improves the appearance of brass. In all cases where acids or saline
matter has been used, the metal should be at once well rinsed in clean
water, and then wiped dry, and finally dry polished with soft leather.

BRASS INLAID-WORK may be cleaned with tripoli and linseed oil, applied by
a rubber of felt or leather; the whole being afterwards thoroughly rubbed
off, and then finished with clean soft leather. The ornaments of a French
clock, and similar articles, are said to be best cleaned with bread-crumb,
carefully rubbed, so as not to injure the wood-work. ORMOLU CANDLESTICKS,
LAMPS, and BRANCHES, may be cleaned with soap and water. LACQUERED and
GILDED ARTICLES are spoiled by frequent rubbing, and by acids and alkaline
leys.

1. A fine colour may be given to BRASS ORNAMENTS, when not gilt or
lacquered, with a little sal-ammoniac, in fine powder, moistened with soft
water. The articles must be afterwards rubbed dry with bran and whiting.
Another plan is to wash the brass-work with a strong lye of roche alum (1
oz. to water 1 pint), and after rinsing it in clean water and drying it,
to finish it off with fine tripoli. These processes give to brass the
brilliancy of gold. See BRASS-PASTE.

2. A gold varnish for giving a beautiful gilding to brass and bronze
objects is prepared from 16 grams of shell-lac, 4 grams of dragon’s blood,
1 gram of turmeric-root, and 332 grams of rectified spirit of wine. The
varnish is thinly stroked over the surface with a sponge, the metal being
warmed over a small coal fire.

The surface at first appears dull, but soon after it appears as if most
beautifully gilded. The ready-prepared spirituous varnish must be
preserved in well-stoppered vessels.——_Dingler’s Journal._

=BRASS′ING.= _Syn._ BRASS-COATING. 1. Copper-plates and copper-rods may be
covered with a superficial coating of brass by simply exposing them, in a
heated state, to the fumes given off by melted zinc at a high
temperature. The coated plates and rods are rolled into thin sheets or
drawn into wire. The spurious gold wire of Lyons is said to be made in
this way.

2. Vessels of copper may be coated with brass, internally, by filling them
with water strongly soured with hydrochloric acid, adding some amalgam of
zinc and cream of tartar, and then boiling the whole for a short time.
This plan may be usefully applied in certain cases to copper boilers in
laboratories, and to other purposes.

3. By the electrotype (which _see_).

=BRAUNETINCTUR——QUINSY OR BROWN TINCTURE= (Netsch, Rauschau), an
embrocation for the larynx, is a mixture of 3 parts oil of cloves and 1
part creosote. (Hager.) According to Leimbach 1 part creosote with 3 parts
of a spirituous tincture of cochineal perfumed with oil of cloves.

=BRAWN.= A boar or its flesh. When young, the horny parts feel moderately
tender. If the rind is hard, it is old. (Mrs Rundell.) Also in cookery,
the flesh of the boar, or of swine, collared so as to squeeze out as much
of the fat as possible, boiled, and pickled.

=Brawn, Mock.= _Prep._ (Mrs Rundell.) Take the head and belly-piece of a
young porker, well saltpetred; split the head and boil it; take out the
bones and cut it to pieces; then take 4 ox-feet, boiled tender, and cut
them in thin pieces; lay them in the belly-piece with the head cut small;
roll it up tight with sheet tin, and boil it 4 or 5 hours. When it comes
out set it up on one end, put a trencher on it (within the tin), press it
down with a heavy weight, and let it stand all night. The next morning
take it out of the tin and bind it with a fillet, put it in cold
salt-and-water, and it will be fit for use; it will keep a long time, if
fresh salt-and-water are put into it about once every four days.

=BRAXY.= Inflammation of the bowels in sheep, chiefly affecting young
sheep. It is most frequent during winter, and occurs in exposed wet
localities. The symptoms are restlessness, thirst, tenderness along the
spine or belly, and constipation.

_Treatment._ Bleed early, and give 3 _oz._ castor oil; 8 grains of
calomel; 1/2 _oz._ of laudanum; 3 _oz._ treacle; beat up with two eggs,
and mixed with about 6 _oz._ of warm water; let this be repeated in half
doses every six hours.

This should be combined with clysters and hot fomentations to the belly.
If, after two days, no benefit should be derived, give thrice daily, 5
grains of calomel, 20 grains of carbonate of ammonia, and 1-1/2 dram of
laudanum, in gruel. The animal should be removed to a shed or sheltered
place.

=BRAZIL NUTS.= The particular tree yielding these nuts (the _Bartholetia
excelsa_) is a native of Brazil, whence the nuts are exported to the
yearly annual amount of about 60,000 bushels.

When the kernels of the nuts are submitted to pressure they yield an oil
in great repute for domestic purposes and for export, each pound of the
nuts yielding nine ounces of the oil, valued at two shillings the pound.
According to Martius, this oil consists of 74 per cent. of eldein, and 26
per cent. of stearin. The finely laminated inner bark of the trunks is
also a valuable article of commerce, especially adapted for the caulking
of ships and barges, and is worth about eighteen shillings the cwt.

The following analysis by Corenwinder gives the composition of the kernels
taken from the nuts when in a fresh condition:

  Water                                 8·00
  Oil                                  65·60
  Nitrogenous matters                  15·31
  Non-nitrogenous organic matters       7·39
  Phosphoric acid           1·35 }
  Lime, potash, silica, &c. 2·35 }      3·70
                                      ——————
                                      100·00

=BRAZIL′-WOOD= (-zēle′-). _Syn._ BRAZIL‡; LIG′NUM BRAZILIEN′SE, L.; BOIS
DE BRÉSIL, Fr. A dye-stuff furnished by several species of trees of the
genus _cæsalpin′ia_, and much used in dyeing various shades of red. The
usual practice is to boil it for some hours in hard spring-water, and to
keep the resulting decoction for some time, or until it undergoes a
species of fermentation; as it is thus found to yield more permanent and
beautiful colours than when employed fresh. The following are examples of
its application:——

_a._ For COTTON:——

1. The goods are first boiled in a bath of sumach, next worked through a
weak mordant of solution of tin, and then run through the Brazil bath
lukewarm. This gives a bright red.

2. The goods are alumed, rinsed, next mordanted with solution of tin,
rinsed again, and then turned through the Brazil dye bath. This gives a
rose colour.

_b._ For LINEN:——This, for the most part, is similar to that adopted for
cotton.

_c._ For SILK:——The goods, after being alumed in the same way as wool, but
at a lower temperature, are rinsed, and passed through the Brazil-wood
bath lukewarm.

_d._ For WOOL:——The goods are first steeped or boiled in a weak mordant of
alum and tartar, for 1 hour, and then allowed to lie in the cold liquor
for 2 or 3 days, with frequent moving about; they are lastly boiled in the
Brazil-wood bath for about 1/2 an hour.

_Obs._ The shades of colour given with Brazil-wood may be modified by
varying the strength of the bath, the mordant, &c. The addition of a
little alum turns it on the purple. A little alkali added to the bath, or
passing the goods, after being dyed, through water holding a little alkali
in solution, produces what is called false crimson. A deep crimson is
obtained by adding a little logwood to the Brazil-wood bath. 1 lb. of
Brazil-wood, 1/2 oz. of alum, and 2 oz. of tartar, are sufficient to dye
from 20 to 28 lbs. of cotton, according to the depth of shade required.
See DYEING, RED DYES, &c.

=BRAZI′LIN.= _Syn._ BREZE′′LĬNE, SAPAN′ĬNE. The colouring matter of
Brazil-wood. It forms small orange-coloured needles, soluble in both water
and alcohol. Alkalies turn it violet; acids, yellow. Bolly has shown it to
be identical with the colouring matter of Sapan-wood.

=BRA′′ZING.= The operation of uniting pieces of copper, brass, iron, &c.,
by means of hard solder.

_Proc._ The edges, after being filed or scraped quite clean, are covered
with a mixture of hard solder and powdered borax, made into a paste with
water. The whole is then allowed to dry, and is afterwards exposed, in a
clear fire, to a heat sufficient to melt the solder. See AUTOGENOUS,
SOLDERING, SOLDERS, &c.

=BREAD= (brĕd). _Syn._ PA′NIS, L.; PAIN, Fr.; BROD, Ger.; BROOD, Dut.;
BRÖD, Dan., Swed.; BREOD, Sax. Loaves or cakes made from ground corn, and
constituting the staple article of food of all civilised nations.

This important article of food is made of the flour of different cereal
grains, but only those that contain gluten admit of conversion into light
or spongy bread. In this respect wheat-flour is superior to all others.
When this flour is made into a paste or dough with water, and the dough,
previous to baking, is left for some time in a moderately warm place, a
state of fermentation comes on, owing to the sugar of the flour gradually
undergoing the process of conversion into alcohol, in every respect
similar to that which takes place during the fermentation of wine and
beer. In this process a large quantity of carbonic acid gas is liberated,
and the toughness of the dough preventing its escape, the whole mass
becomes puffed up and spongy, and a light porous paste is formed, the
porosity of which is still further increased by the heat of the oven. The
natural process of fermenting the dough just described is, however,
tedious and uncertain, whilst the dough has a tendency to run into the
acetous fermentation, and to acquire a sour and disagreeable taste, by
which it is rendered less nutritious and less easy of digestion. This has
led to the use of a ferment which produces a similar condition more
speedily, and with greater certainty. Leaven or dough was originally
employed for this purpose, and the bread so made was hence called LEAVENED
BREAD. At the present time barm or yeast is almost universally used for
this purpose. All that is essential to make a loaf of bread is to add a
proper quantity of yeast to the dough, and to allow it to remain for a
short time in a warm place, and as soon as it rises or becomes spongy, to
subject it to the process of baking.

In preparing his dough, the modern baker takes a part of the water needed
for the batch, and having rendered it tepid or lukewarm (80° to 90° Fahr.)
by the addition of boiling water, dissolves his salt in it, and adds the
yeast, together with a portion of the flour. With these he forms a thin
dough, which he sets aside in a moderately warm place provided for the
purpose, and technically called the ‘kneading trough,’ ‘prover,’ or
‘tryer,’ where it soon begins to ferment and swell up. This process is
called ‘setting the sponge,’ and according to the proportion the water in
it bears to the whole quantity that is to be used, it receives the name of
‘whole,’ ‘half,’ or ‘quarter sponge.’ Here the sponge heaves and swells,
and ultimately the surface bursts and subsides, and if not checked swells
again and again in a similar manner and would continue to do so until the
whole of the ‘saccharine matter’ was destroyed, and the dough had become
sour. The baker is careful, however, to stop it before it has communicated
a sourness to the mass. After the first, or, at the furthest, after the
second or third ‘dropping of the sponge,’ he adds the remaining quantity
of flour, water, and salt, necessary to form the ‘batch,’ and then kneads
the whole until it becomes sufficiently tough and elastic to bear the
pressure of the hand without adhering to it. The ‘dough’ is now left to
itself for a few hours, during which the fermentation still goes on. The
inflated mass is then again kneaded, cut into pieces, weighed, and shaped
into loaves. In an hour or two these unbaked loaves swell up to nearly
double their former size, and are then placed in the oven and baked.
During this operation they continue for a time to increase in size, in
consequence of the dilation of the pent-up gas by the heat. At length the
fermentation is checked, and the dough becomes too solid to admit of
further alteration.

Such are the principles and practice of the art of baking. The operations
are precisely the same on both the small and the large scale, and
therefore need not be separately described.

The kneading of the dough by hand is not only a very laborious process,
but it is unhealthy and additionally objectionable on account of its being
uncleanly. Added to this, the uniform quality of the dough is not to be
depended upon. Although it is impossible to perform by machinery any
labour which absolutely requires the touch of the human hand,
bread-kneading machines have been introduced wherever the making of only
one and the same kind of bread is required. Amongst the numerous kinds of
machines devised for bread-making, is Clayton’s. (_See cut._)

The constituents of the dough are placed in the cylinder, _A_, mounted in
the framework, _b b_, and provided with hollow axles, _c_ and _d_,
turning in their bearings at _e_. The interior of the cylinder is fitted
with the framework, _f_, which may be made to revolve by the aid of the
axles, _g_ and _h_. The two halves of this framework are connected
together by the diagonal knives _i_, _i_, which, when the machinery
revolves, work up the dough; the trough or outer cylinder revolves in the
opposite direction to the revolution of the framework. The crank, _o_, is
connected with the axle of the trough or outer cylinder, the crank, _p_,
with that of the inner framework; as the two cranks are turned in opposite
directions, they impart opposite movements to trough and framework. The
revolving of the machinery may be performed by one man by the aid of one
crank, since the axle, _h_, of the crank, _o_, which is fitted to the
inner frame by means of the hollow axle-tree, and revolves along with it,
carries a conically shaped wheel, _m_, fitted to the wheel _k_, which,
being connected with _l_, causes the trough also to revolve; when
therefore the wheel _m_ turns towards the right, the wheel _t_ will
revolve towards the left. Another kneading machine is that of Mr Stevens.
It is employed at the Holborn Union, where more than 5000 _lbs._ of bread
are made every week by one man and two boys.

[Illustration]

_Adult._ The adulteration of both flour and bread is carried to a fearful
extent, more especially in London. The baker’s flour is very often made of
the worst kinds of damaged foreign wheat; and other cereal grains, and
particularly beans, are mixed with them in grinding them into flour. In
this capital no fewer than six distinct kinds of wheaten flour are brought
into the market——fine flour, seconds, middlings, fine middlings, coarse
middlings, and twenty-penny flour.

Among the principal substances which have been proved to have been used to
adulterate wheat-flour and bread are the following:——

  **Alum.
   *Ammonia (Sesquicarbonate).
  **Beans.
   *Bone dust.
   *Chalk.
    Clay.
    Copper (Sulphate).
    Lime (Sulphate from the soda water makers).
   *Magnesia (Carbonate).
   *Plaster of Paris.
   *Potash (Carbonate and bicarbonate).
  **Potatoes.
  **Rice.
  **Soda (Carbonate and sesquicarbonate).
   *Starch (Potato).
  **Water (in excess).
    Zinc (Sulphate).

Of these substances, those marked thus (*) are very frequently used; and
those marked thus (**) almost universally so.

In the absence of chemical analysis the unalumed loaf may be roughly
distinguished from the alumed one by the following characteristics: it is
neither so white, so bulky, nor so symmetrical; it bites shorter, and it
is free from the sour taste which accompanies the presence of alum. Again,
unalumed bread a day or two old will be found to crumble with great
readiness; alumed bread, however old, crumbles, on the contrary, with
difficulty.

According to Mr Accum, the smallest quantity of alum that can be employed
with effect to produce white, light, and porous bread, from the inferior
kinds of flour commonly used by the bakers, is from 3 to 4 oz. to a sack
of flour weighing 280 lbs. But Dr P. Markham states that the ordinary
bread of the London baker is made of one sack or 5 bushels of flour; 8 oz.
of alum; 4 lbs. of salt; 1/2 gall. of yeast; and about 3 galls. of water.
Our own analyses, extending to many hundred samples of London bread, as
well as those of other chemists, show that even this large quantity of
alum is often very much exceeded by the bakers.

Alkaline substances, as the carbonates of ammonia, soda, and potash, are
often employed to realise the important consideration of producing light
and porous bread from spoiled, or, as it is technically called, sour
flour. The first salt becomes temporarily converted into a gaseous state
during the operation of baking, causing the dough to swell up in minute
bubbles, which thus render it light and porous; the salt itself being at
the same time, for the most part, volatilised. Alum is added, not only
with a like intention, but also to enable the dough to carry more water.
There are several instances of convictions on record of millers and bakers
having used gypsum, chalk, and pipeclay in the manufacture of their goods.
A gentleman lately writing from the North of England says that he found
in one sample of flour which he recently examined upwards of 16% of
gypsum; and in another, 12% of the same earth.

A few years since it was discovered that some of the bakers in France and
Belgium added blue vitriol to their dough to make it take more water, in
the same way as the English baker uses alum. 1 oz. of this sulphate was
dissolved in a quart of water, and a wine-glassful of this solution added
to the water necessary to make about 50 4-lb. loaves. This enormous crime
was soon detected, and deservedly caused the ruin of its heartless
perpetrators.

_Exam._ The following are the methods employed for the discovery of the
principal sophisticants of bread, and as the chief of these, and the one
most difficult of identification is alum, we have given prominence to the
processes now generally adopted for the detection of this article:——

1. ALUM:——_a._ (Robine and Parisot.) About 1/4 lb. of the suspected bread
(somewhat stale or dry) is reduced to crumbs, macerated for 2 or 3 hours
in cold water, and then squeezed through a clean piece of white linen. The
liquid is next evaporated to dryness at a steam-heat, the residuum
redissolved in a little hot water, and the solution filtered. Liquor of
ammonia or a solution of sal-ammoniac, and a solution of chloride of
barium added to the filtered liquid, give a white precipitate when ALUM is
present.

When nearly the whole of the alum has suffered decomposition in the loaf,
as is frequently the case, the following process is required:——

_b._ (M. Kuhlman.) 4 or 5 oz. of bread are reduced to ash, which is
powdered and treated with nitric acid, the mixture evaporated to dryness,
and about 1 oz. of hot water added. A little caustic potassa is added to
the last solution (unfiltered), the whole boiled a few minutes, and passed
through a filter. The filtrate is next tested with a solution of
sal-ammoniac, and the whole again boiled for 2 or 3 minutes. If a
precipitate forms it is alumina; every 50 gr. of which are equivalent to
332 gr. of crystallised alum.

_c._ The suspected sample is wetted with a weak solution of logwood, or,
preferably, of cochineal. Pure bread is only slightly stained by this
solution; bread containing alum strikes a lavender, lilac, or purple
colour, according to the quantity of the adulterant present. If it
acquires a pearl-grey or bluish tint, some alkali (potash, soda, or
ammonia) is present.

_d._ (J. A. Wanklyn.) 100 grams of bread are incinerated in a platinum
dish, capable of holding the whole quantity at once. The incineration is
managed at a comparatively low temperature, and takes some four or five
hours; the platinum dish being heated by means of a large Bunsen burner,
abundantly supplied with air. It is well to continue the ignition until
the bread-ash is nearly completely burnt, and it is advisable to weigh the
dish containing the ash. The weight of the ash should not sensibly exceed
2 grams. The ash having been obtained is then moistened with 3 c. c. of
pure strong hydrochloric acid, and then some 20 to 30 c. c. of distilled
water is added, and the whole is boiled, filtered, and the precipitate
washed several times with boiling water. In this manner a precipitate
consisting of a silica, together with some unburnt carbon, is left on the
filter, whilst the filtrate contains the phosphates. The precipitate,
which, after being burnt, consists of silica, is weighed. The filtrate is
mixed with 5 c. c. of ammonia (sp. gr. 0·880), whereby it is rendered
powerfully alkaline and opaque, owing to the precipitation of the
phosphates. It is finally mixed gradually with some 20 c. c. of strong
acetic acid, and as the acid is being poured in, it is to be observed that
the liquid is alkaline and opaque, until some 5 c. c. of the acid have
been added; that when about 10 c. c. have been added the liquid is acid
and much clearer, and that at least 10 c. c. of strong acetic acid are
added after the establishment of a distinctly acid reaction. The liquid is
then boiled and filtered, and the precipitates, consisting of phosphates
of alumina and iron, well-washed with boiling water, ignited and weighed.
The last step is the determination of the iron in the weighed precipitate,
and this is accomplished either by reduction and titration with standard
solution of permanganate in the well known manner, or else by a colour
process, viz., by trituration with ferrocyanide of potassium. Having
ascertained the amount of iron in the precipitate of mixed phosphates, it
is only necessary to calculate it into phosphate of iron, and to subtract
the weight of phosphate of iron from the total weight of the mixed
phosphates, and the difference is the phosphate of alum yielded by 100
grams of the bread. The following results have been obtained by applying
the above-described process to samples of bread presumed to be free from
alum:——

        _From 100 grams of Bread._

                          Precipitate
     Bread-ash.  Silica.  insoluble in
                          acetic acid.
        Grams.    Grams.    Grams.
    A   1·408       ...     0·010
    B   1·378       ...     0·006
    C   1·730     0·018     0·010
    D   1·620     0·032     0·014
    E     ...       ...     0·012
  (1)F  1·383     0·030     0·012
  (2)F  1·324     0·025     0·014

The precipitate insoluble in acetic acid contained in every instance a
large proportion of iron, but in some cases at least did not wholly
consist of phosphate of iron. On deducting the quantity of phosphate of
iron from the total phosphates insoluble in acetic acid, there remains a
residue of some five or six milligrams. It would therefore appear that
unalumed bread is liable to contain a minute trace of alumina, which,
expressed as phosphate of alumina (Al_{2}O_{3}PO_{5}), equals five or six
milligrams per 100 grains of bread, or 0·005 per cent. If the alum
corresponding to this phosphate be calculated, it will be seen that 100
grams of unalumed bread may appear to contain 0·022 grams of alum; or
expressed on the 4-lb. loaf, there may appear to be 6 grams of alum in it.
This agrees very fairly with Dr Dupré’s observation.

_e._ (J. C. Thresh.) The author states that this process requires only a
few hours, and quotes experiments, showing the accuracy of the results:——

Take 1250 gr. of bread (from middle of loaf) or flour, and char thoroughly
in a platinum dish or on foil over a gas lamp. Powder the char and mix it
with sufficient pure strong hydrochloric acid to make a thin cream. Boil
gently for a few minutes, then add 100 c. c. of water, and continue the
ebullition a few minutes longer. Dilute to 150 c. c., stir well, and
filter off 120 c. c., which will contain the alumina from 1000 gr. of the
bread or flour. To this filtrate add a slight excess of solution of
ammonia, boil for a few seconds. Then let the precipitate subside, and
decant the supernatant fluid. Add boiling water to the sediment, and again
set aside to settle, and decant the clear fluid. Pass the fluids through a
small filter to collect any particles of the precipitate which may have
been suspended therein, and throw the filtrate away. Now add to the
partially washed precipitate about a gram of pure caustic potash (or
soda), warm, and pass the solution through the same filter employed for
the previously decanted fluids. Wash the filter with hot water, to which a
little KHO may be added, and proceed to precipitate the alumina in the
filtrate by adding a few drops of dilute phosphoric acid and excess of
pure acetic acid. Heat the solution and precipitate to the boiling point,
and then wash the latter by decantation and filtration. Finally dry,
ignite, and weigh. The weight of the resulting Al_{2}PO_{4} in grams,
multiplied by 400, will give the amounts of ammonia alum in grains present
in one pound of the bread or flour.

_f._ (Mr Crookes.) The bread of which at least 500 grains should be taken
is first to be incinerated on a platinum or porcelain dish, until all
volatile organic matter has been expelled, and a black carbonaceous ash
remains. The temperature must not be raised much beyond the point
necessary to effect this. Powder the coal thus obtained and add about
thirty drops of oil of vitriol, and heat until vapours begin to rise; when
sufficiently cool, add water, and boil for ten minutes. Filter and
evaporate the filtrate until the fumes of sulphuric acid begin to be
evolved, when 10 gr. of metallic tin and an excess of nitric acid must be
added, together with water, drop by drop, until action between the acid
and metal commences. When all the tin is oxidised, add water, and filter.
Evaporate the filtrate until fumes of sulphuric acid are again visible,
when more water must be added, and the liquid again filtered if necessary.
To the clear solution now add tartaric acid, then ammonia in excess, and
sulphide of ammonium. Evaporate the liquid containing the precipitate
suspended to it, in a dish, until all the smell of sulphide of ammonium
has disappeared. Filter, evaporate to dryness, and ignite to get rid of
the organic matter. Powder the black ash, boil it in moderately strong
hydrochloric acid, filter, add a crystal of chlorate of potash, and boil
for a minute. Now add chloride of ammonium and ammonia, and boil for five
minutes. If at the end of that time any precipitate is observed, it will
be alumina. From the filtered solution, if oxalate of ammonia be added,
the lime will be precipitated; and if to the filtrate from this, ammonia
and phosphate of soda be added, the magnesia will come down.

Dr Dupré is of opinion that no baker should be fined in whose bread the
amount of alumina found corresponds with less than 10 grains of potash
alum in the 2-lb. loaf, unless there is direct evidence of adulteration by
alum independent of the result of analysis.

Mr Crookes says, “By treatment with a trace of alum, flour with a doubtful
soundness is endowed with soundness. For this purpose a proportion of alum
is required which does not exceed 20 grains to a 4-lb. loaf.

2. COPPER:——_a._ Moisten the suspected bread with a few drops of a
solution of ferrocyanide of potassium. It will assume a pinkish-brown
colour if copper be present.

_b._ A little of the bread may be steeped in hot water, or, better still,
in water soured with a little nitric acid, and the clear liquor squeezed
or poured off, and tested with ferrocyanide of potassium, as before.

3. MAGNESIA:——Bread adulterated with magnesia, on digestion in hot water
acidulated with sulphuric acid, furnishes a liquid which gives a white
precipitate when tested with a solution of either carbonate of potassa or
of carbonate of soda, especially on boiling.

4. SODA; POTASSA:——Hot water after digestion on the ashes or charcoal
turns turmeric paper brown. The liquid may be evaporated to dryness,
redissolved in distilled water, slightly acidulated with hydrochloric
acid, and tested with bichloride of platinum. If a yellow crystalline
precipitate forms, either at once or after some hours, it is potash;
otherwise the alkali present is soda.

5. CHALK, WHITING, BURNT BONES, PLASTER OF PARIS, and similar substances
are easily detected by calcining a little of the flour or bread in a clean
open vessel, when the amount of ash left will indicate the quantity of
adulteration. The quantity of the ash left by genuine bread or flour is
very trifling indeed, about 2%.

=Microscopic Characters of Bread.= When bread is placed under the
microscope, starch cells, broken up into angular masses, or greatly
enlarged, and stringy masses of gluten are usually visible; besides these,
when a microscope of high power is employed, bacteria of the rod-shaped
variety may frequently be detected, the source of these being, probably,
the yeast. Great caution and diligent observation are necessary to guard
against the falling into the serious error of mistaking the many curious
forms the broken-up wheat starch presents for adulterants. By practice and
the constant examination of the characters of unadulterated bread,
combined with a practical knowledge of the appearance different starch
grains present, after being more or less changed in shape by cooking, the
microscopist may identify rice-flour, bean-flour, and Indian millet.
Barley flour and potatoes, however, are very difficult of detection. There
is very little difference in the shape of the barley-starch granule and
that of the wheat, and in the process of bread-making the potato granules
are so changed as to confuse all their distinctive characters. Bone-dust
and a few other mineral adulterations may be detected by the microscope.

_Concluding Remarks._ A number of processes are used by cooks and
confectioners to make the different varieties of fancy bread, cakes,
puddings, &c., which vary according to the peculiar characteristic it is
desired to communicate to them; but none of these articles properly belong
to the trade of the common baker. Thus, some kinds of cakes and pastes are
made to eat ‘short,’ as it is called, or are rendered less tenacious, and
a species of brittleness imparted to them by the addition of starch,
rice-flour, or sugar. In pastry a similar effect and peculiar lightness is
produced by butter or lard, whilst in some articles white of egg, gum
water, isinglass, and other adhesive substances, are added to produce an
exceedingly light and porous mass.

The chief varieties of bread at present in use in this country are known
according to their shapes, as——BRICKS, COBURG, COTTAGE, BATCH, FRENCH
ROLLS, and RYE BREAD. These vary in their quality, chiefly according to
the flour of which they are formed, and their various flavours depend upon
the heat of the oven in baking. The best WHITE BREAD is made from the
purest wheat-flour; ordinary WHEATEN BREAD, of flour containing a little
of the finest bran; SECONDS, from flour containing a still larger
proportion of bran; and common HOUSEHOLD BREAD, from flour produced by
grinding the whole substance of the grain, without any separation of the
bran. The last variety is undoubtedly the most wholesome and nutritious,
although that least frequently used. SYMNEL-BREAD, MANCHET or ROLL-BREAD,
and FRENCH BREAD are varieties made of the purest flour, from the finest
wheat, a little milk being usually added for rolls, and butter and eggs
for choicer purposes. Several other minor kinds of bread are also made,
varied by the addition of sundry trifles, as sugar, currants, and other
palatable ingredients. The SCOTCH SHORTBREAD is made from a very thick
dough, to which butter, sugar, orange-peel, and spices are added,
according to the taste of the maker.

In the manufacture of white bread from damaged or inferior flour a large
quantity of alum is employed by the fraudulent baker, as already noticed;
but with the ‘best flour’ no alum is required. The utmost beauty,
sponginess, and sweetness may be given to bread without the addition of
one particle of alum, provided the best materials alone enter into its
composition. As such materials are seldom employed by the bakers, the
usual practice is to introduce 4 or 5 oz. of alum to every sack of flour,
or about 1 oz. to each bushel; and very frequently fully double this
quantity of alum is employed. But even this enormous quantity is often not
the whole of the alum present in common bread; for the miller, in order to
cheat the baker, puts in the ‘doctor,’ in the shape of 4 to 6 oz. of alum
to the sack, whilst the baker, unconscious of this victimisation,
subsequently uses a double dose of alum in order to cheat his
customers.[229] The method of detecting this pernicious adulteration has
been already explained. The proper quantity of salt is 4 lbs., and never
more than 5 lbs., to the sack, or 1 lb. per bushel. One sack of the best
flour, with 4 or 5 lbs. of salt, yields about 360 lbs. of good bread; and
a sack of seconds, 345 to 350 lbs. of bread; each being moderately baked.
If the loaves are well-baked or over-baked, the product will be from 345
to 350 lbs. only; but if they are slack-baked or under-baked, from 370
lbs. to 385 lbs. of crumbling bread may be obtained from 1 sack of good
white flour.

[Footnote 229: The common excuse of the bakers for using alum is, that
without it the bread is not sufficiently white to please their customers,
and that the batches are not easily parted into loaves after baking; but
Liebig has shown that clear lime-water, which is perfectly harmless, will
effect the same object if substituted for the simple water used to make
the dough.]

The attention of chemists has, at various times, been directed in search
of some method to rectify or lessen the effects of bad harvesting and
improper storage on grain, so that a damaged or inferior article might be
rendered serviceable, and available for human food. Prof. E. Davy
recommends the addition of 1/4 oz. of carbonate of magnesia to about every
3 lbs. of sour, melted, heated, and similarly damaged flour. This
substance materially improves the quality of the bread, “even when made
from the worst new seconds flour;” whilst it is said to be perfectly
harmless; and the bread so prepared, for temporary use, is certainly
unobjectionable. What effects would arise from the daily consumption of
such bread for several months has not been determined; but it is doubtful
whether it would prove salutary. Indeed there are sufficient reasons for
condemning the adoption of such bread in the general diet of a people for
any very lengthened period.[230] Our own experiments in bread-making,
extending over a long period of years, lead us to prefer carbonate or
bicarbonate of soda for the purpose. Theoretically, the corresponding
salts of potassa would be preferable. A mixture of equal parts of the
bicarbonates of potassa and of soda will, perhaps, ultimately be found to
be more useful than either substance used separately.

[Footnote 230: See GOITURE, MAGNESIA, &c.]

In times of scarcity and famine various substances, besides the flour of
the cereals, have been made into bread, or have been mixed with it, in
order to lessen the quantity of the former required by the people. For
this purpose, almost every amylaceous vegetable at once plentiful and
cheap has, in its turn, been eagerly appropriated. Acorns, beech-mast, the
leguminous seeds, numerous starchy bulbous roots, and similar substances,
have been employed, either in the form of meal, or made into an emulsion
or jelly, which has been used instead of water to form the flour of
bread-corn into a dough. At such times bran, the most nutritious and
valuable portion of the grain, although usually rejected as worthless, has
been retained in the flour, and has even been added to it in excess.
Birkenmayer, a brewer of Constance, during a period of scarcity, succeeded
in manufacturing bread from the farinaceous residue of beer (brewer’s
grains). 10 _lbs._ of this substance, rubbed to a paste, with 1/2 _lb._ of
yeast, 5 _lbs._ of ordinary meal, and a handful of salt, produces 14
_lbs._ of BLACK BREAD, which is said to be “both savoury and nourishing.”
The nutritious quality of brewer’s grains is shown by their extensive
employment at the present day as food for pigs and cattle, and
particularly for milch cows. In like manner Iceland, Carragheen, and other
mosses, have been made into bread, either alone, or mixed with flour or
meal. They are used, in the first case, in the state of meal, in the same
way as flour; in the second case, 7 _lbs._ of moss are directed to be
boiled in 10 or 12 _galls._ of water, and the resulting glutinous liquid
or jelly to be employed to make 70 _lbs._ of flour into dough, which is
then fermented and baked in the usual way. It is said that flour thus
produces fully double its weight of good household bread. A simpler plan
is to mix 1 _lb._ of lichen meal with 3 or 4 _lbs._ of flour; the
bitterness of the lichen having been first extracted by soaking it in cold
water. Bread so prepared has of late been highly recommended for the
delicate and dyspeptic. The modern baker is in the habit of mixing large
quantities of potatoes with his bread, whenever he can purchase them at
paying prices. Mealy potatoes are selected, and are carefully mashed or
pulped, and the dry flour is worked into this pulp or dough, which is then
mixed with the sponge in the usual manner. For inferior bread, equal
weights of potato pulp and dry flour are often used. Bread so prepared
eats ‘short,’ and is deficient in sponginess, and in that fine
yellowish-white tint which forms one of the characteristics of pure
wheaten bread, More recently, rice boiled with water to a jelly has got
into very extensive use among the bakers. A ‘sponge’ is made with a
portion of the jelly thickened with some flour, and the whole process is
conducted in the ordinary manner, except that the fermentation is
generally more slowly conducted and allowed to proceed for a longer
period. Flour so treated yields fully 50% more bread than when merely
mixed up with yeast and water. This constitutes the process of Messrs
Morian, Martin, and Journet, of Paris, which was tested, a few years
since, at Marylebone Workhouse. The experiment succeeded, but the only
result to the public has been, that the common bakers have adopted the
plan, and now very generally surcharge their bread with such an excess of
water that, in many cases, it only possesses two thirds the amount of
nourishment which it did before the publication of the system just
referred to. Unfortunately, the cupidity of dishonest tradesmen appears to
be continually impelling them to avail themselves of the exertions of
philanthropists and the discoveries of science, in order to increase their
profits, regardless alike of the quality of their commodities and the
health of their customers. Bread containing an excess of water rapidly
becomes sour and mouldy, and is apt to disorder the digestive functions of
those who eat it.

From the experiments of Dr Colquhoun, it appears that the starch of flour
is partially converted into sugar during the process of fermenting and
baking the dough, and thus contributes to the sweetness of the bread. He
proposes to add to the flour, arrow-root, the farina of potatoes, and
similar amylaceous substances, made into a jelly with hot water, for this
purpose. Dr Percival has recommended the addition of salep with the same
intention. 1 _oz._ of salep, dissolved in 1 quart of water; 2 _lbs._ of
flour; 80 grs. of salt; and 2 _oz._ of yeast, gave 3 _lbs._ 2 _oz._ of
good bread. The same weight of materials, without the salep, gave only
2-3/4 _lbs._ If too much salep is added, it gives its peculiar flavour to
the bread.

In reference to the above substitutions, and to the relative quantity of
bread produced from any given weight of flour, the reader should remember
that the mere increase of the weight or bulk of the product does not carry
with it a corresponding increase of the nutritive elements contained in
the flour. These remain the same in all cases; and just in proportion as
the product, in bread, is greater, will be the decrease in the value of
such bread as food. So also with potatoes, rice, and other farinaceous and
pulpy substances used as substitutes for wheat-flour. Their poverty in
nitrogenous matter, or flesh-formers, is so great, that the greatly
increased quantity required as food to support the body, apart from mere
inconvenience, more than compensates for their apparent low price. Thus,
good wheaten bread, at 2_d._ per _lb._, is more than twice as cheap as
potatoes at 1_d._; for, assuming 2 _lbs._ of the first as a day’s food, 10
_lbs._ of the last will be required for the same purpose; and even this
large quantity will scarcely effect the desired object. Liebig has
demonstrated that, regard being had to the nutritive power of wheat, it
is, under all ordinary circumstances, the cheapest article of food
provided by nature for man.

We have not entered into particulars respecting oven management, because,
on the large scale, it is thoroughly understood by every practical baker.
For the instruction of the busy housewife, however, we may state that the
oven should always be sufficiently heated before the bread is put into it,
in order that the gas contained in the cells of the ‘sponge’ may be
expanded as rapidly as possible by the heat, and the resulting light mass
quickly rendered sufficiently solid to prevent its subsequent collapse.
The heat should also be maintained at nearly the same temperature during
the whole of the time the bread is submitted to its action. In general,
with ordinary kitchen ovens properly heated, 30 minutes’ baking is
sufficient for one-pound loaves and cakes; and 15 minutes in addition for
every pound after the first for larger ones. Thus, a 1 _lb._ loaf requires
1/2 hour; a 2 _lb._ loaf 3/4 hour; and a 4 _lb._ loaf, 1-1/4 hour.

It is the common ambition of the English baker to give that peculiar tint
to the crust of his bread in the process of baking which is so highly
esteemed by connoisseurs, and so successfully produced by the Viennese and
Parisians. It has been long known at Vienna that if the hearth of an oven
be cleaned with a moistened wisp of straw, the crust of bread baked in it
immediately afterwards presents a beautiful yellow tint. It was thence
inferred that this peculiarity depends on the vapour, which being
condensed on the roof of the oven, falls back on the bread. At Paris, in
order to secure with certainty so desirable an appearance, the hearth of
the oven is generally laid so as to form an inclined plane, with a rise of
about 11 inches in 3 feet; and the arched roof is built lower at the end
nearest the door, as compared with the further extremity. When the oven is
charged the entrance is closed with a wet bundle of straw. By this
arrangement the steam is driven down on the bread, and a golden-yellow
crust is given to it, as if it had been previously covered with the yolk
of an egg.

Pure wheaten bread is one of the most wholesome articles of food, and has
been justly termed the ‘staff of life,’ and a certain proportion of it
should be taken at every meal.

_New and Stale Bread._——As has been just stated, bread which has been kept
for 24 hours after baking is more digestible, and therefore preferable to
that which has been newly baked. This latter exhibits a well-known elastic
appearance, and possesses a certain degree of moisture which renders its
taste more agreeable to most persons than bread which has been kept for a
day or two, and has become firmer and drier in appearance, and which is
commonly termed _stale_. It is very generally supposed that this change in
properties in bread which has been kept for a few days, is owing to the
loss of water.

This, however, is not the case. The crum of newly baked bread when cold
contains about 45 per cent. of water, and that of stale bread contains
almost exactly the same proportion.

The difference in properties between the two is due simply to difference
in molecular arrangement. Boussingault found that a loaf which had been
kept for six days, though it had become very stale, had not lost more than
1 per cent. of its weight when new. The same loaf was then placed in the
oven for an hour, and at the end of that time it had acquired all the
properties and appearance of new bread, although during the second baking
it lost 3-1/2 per cent. of water. In another experiment a portion of bread
was allowed to become stale when enclosed in a tight case, to prevent loss
of water by evaporation; it was then heated, and was thus restored to the
condition of new bread; these effects were produced alternately, many
times in succession, upon the same piece of bread; a heat of about 131° F.
was found to be sufficient to convert stale into new bread. Every person
who has seen a thick slice of stale bread toasted may have satisfied
himself that the crum has during this operation been converted into the
same condition as that of new bread.

_Fungi._ When bread has been kept a few days and has become stale, certain
species of fungi show themselves in it: these are the _penicillium
glaucum_, which is the green mould of cheese; the _fermentum cerivisiæ_ or
yeast fungus; the _oidium auriantiacum_ or orange-red mould; the _puccinia
graminis_ and others. Excess of salt added to the bread prevents the
development of these fungi.

_Diseases arising from the employment of unsound Flour and Bread._——The
flour may be ergotised or grown, and fermenting from the presence of
fungi. All the poisonous symptoms of ergot are induced from continuously
partaking of bread made with ergotised flour. Dry gangrene is one of the
most virulent forms of poisoning caused by partaking of ergotised bread.
Severe intestinal derangement is an accompaniment of the milder forms of
poisoning. Ergot is more frequently present in rye flour than in wheat.
Fermenting bread is a fertile source of dyspepsia, whilst acid bread
causes diarrhœa. This latter malady is also caused by the presence in
bread of the _oidium aurantiacum_. Professors Varnell and Tuson state
that mouldy oats, the mould being caused by a fungus (the _aspergillus_),
have given rise to paralytic symptoms in horses, so that the presence of
these fungi in oats used for making bread should always be regarded with
considerable caution.

It has not been demonstrated that the acarus so common in flour has had
any injurious effect when eaten. When well fermented and baked bread is
very easy of digestion. It should never be eaten until it has stood at
least 24 hours after being taken out of the oven. When newer, bread is apt
to disagree with the stomach, frequently producing indigestion,
biliousness, diarrhœa, dyspepsia, and other like ailments. Bread prepared
from meal containing the whole of the bran is the most nutritious and
digestible, and should alone be given to children and growing persons, and
eaten by the dyspeptic and delicate. Young infants should never be fed
upon bread. See ALEUROMETER, ALUM, FLOUR, WHEAT, &c.

=Bread, Aërated.= The best description of unfermented bread is that
manufactured by the process of Dr DAUGLISH. The method of manufacture has
this advantage:——During the whole of the operation neither the flour nor
the dough comes into contact with the flesh of the workman. For a full
description of the method of preparing this article, _see_ Watts’ ‘Dic. of
Chemistry.’ See BREAD, UNFERMENTED.

=Bread, Amer′ican.= From American barreled flour. “14 _lbs._ of American
flour will make 21-1/2 _lbs._ of bread; whereas the best sort of English
flour produces only 18-1/2 _lbs._ of bread.” (Mrs Rundell.) This arises
from the superior quality of the wheat used in its production; and also
from its being kiln-dried before grinding, by which much water is driven
off.

=Bread, Bee.= The matter collected by bees to form the bottom of the hive.
It resembles a mixture of resin and wax. Its fumes were formerly thought
to be anti-asthmatic.

=Bread, Bran.= 1. From the whole meal, without sifting out any of the
bran.

2. By adding about 3 _oz._ of bran to every _lb._ of ordinary flour.

=Bread, Cassava=, is made from the root of the _manihot_, by first
expressing the juice, then grinding the residue into a coarse meal, and
baking it in the form of cakes upon thin iron plates. When steeped in oil,
and flavoured with cayenne, and slightly broiled upon a gridiron, it is
not unpalatable.

=Bread, Extemporaneous.= See BREAD, UNFERMENTED.

=Bread, French.= _Prep._ 1. From fine flour, as the best white bread. For
the better kinds, and for those intended for rolls and small fancy bread,
the sponge and dough is commonly wetted with milk and water, and,
occasionally, a very little butter is added. “When the rolls or small
fancy loaves have lain in a quick oven about a quarter of an hour, turn
them on the other side for about a quarter of an hour longer. Then take
them out and chip them with a knife, which will make them look spongy, and
of a fine yellow; whereas rasping takes off this fine colour, and renders
their look less inviting.”

2. FRENCH SOUP-BREAD. From fine flour, but employing fully double the
usual quantity of salt. It is baked in thin loaves, so as to be nearly all
crust, by which means it becomes more soluble in hot soup.

=Bread, Hick’s Pat′ent.= This is ordinary bread baked in an oven so
arranged that the vapours arising during the process are condensed in a
suitable receiver. The condensed liquor is a crude, weak spirit, produced
during the fermentation of the dough, and possesses little commercial
value; indeed, insufficient to pay for the expenses attending its
collection. Besides which, the bread prepared under this patent was
rejected by the vulgar, who flocked to the shops of the neighbouring
bakers, who professed to sell their bread with “the gin in it.”

=Bread, Household.= This name is commonly given to bread made with flour
from which only the coarser portion of the bran has been removed; and to
bread prepared from a mixture of flour and potatoes. The following are
examples:——

1. (Rev. Mr Haggett.) Remove the flake-bran from flour, 14 _lbs._; boil
the bran in 1 _gall._ of water until reduced to 7 pints; strain, cool, and
knead in the flour, adding salt and yeast as for other bread. Very
wholesome.

2. Flour, 7 _lbs._; mealy potatoes (well mashed), 3 _lbs._; as before.
Objectionable for the reasons already given.

=Bread, Leav′ened.= (lĕv′-). Using leaven instead of yeast, and in the
same way. About 1 _lb._ to each bushel of flour is usually sufficient. The
more leaven used, the lighter the bread made with it will be; and the
fresher and sweeter the leaven, the less sour will it taste. Leaven,
except among the Jews and sailors, is now superseded by yeast.

=Bread, London White.= The common proportions of the London bakers
are——Flour, 1 sack; common salt, 4-1/2 lbs.; alum, 5 oz.; yeast, 4 pints;
warm water for the sponge (about), 3 galls. The process has been already
noticed.

=Bread, Paris White.= The following has been handed to us as the plan
commonly adopted by the Paris bakers for their best white bread:——On 80
lbs. of the dough (before the yeast was added) from yesterday’s baking, as
much lukewarm water is poured as will be required to make 320 lbs. of
flour into a rather thin dough; as soon as this has risen, 80 lbs. are
taken out and reserved in a warm place as leaven for the next day’s
baking; 1 lb. of dry yeast, dissolved in warm water, is then added to the
remaining portion, and the whole lightly kneaded; as soon as it has
sufficiently risen, it is made into loaves, and shortly afterwards baked;
the loaves being placed in the oven without touching each other, so that
they may become crusty all round.

=Bread, Unfermented.= _Syn._ EXTEMPORANEOUS BREAD. _Prep._ 1. From Jones’s
patent flour. Very wholesome and excellent; indeed, when skilfully made
and baked, almost equal to French bread.

2. From Sewell’s patent flour. Slightly inferior to the last.

3. To each lb. of flour add, separately, 1-1/4 dr. of bicarbonate of soda,
and 1 dr. of tartaric acid (both perfectly dry, and in very fine powder);
rub them well together with the hands until thoroughly incorporated; then
form the whole into a dough with water, as quickly as possible, and at
once bake in a quick oven. About 8 or 9 oz. of water are required for
every lb. of flour. Answers well when expertly managed.

4. Flour, 1 lb.; bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; mix; make a dough with water,
q. s., to which 1 dr. of hydrochloric acid (commercial) has been added,
and further proceed as before.

5. Whiting’s PATENT BREAD:——This closely resembles the last. The
proportions are——Flour, 7 lbs.; carbonate of soda and hydrochloric acid,
of each 1 oz.; water, 2-3/4 pints. This method was suggested by Dr Henry
in 1797, and was patented by Dr Whiting in 1836. If the proportions be not
observed, or the mixture be not perfect, the quality of the bread suffers.
The action of the acid on the soda forms common salt in the loaf.

6. AMMONI′ACAL BREAD:——Carbonate of ammonia, 3/4 to 1 oz.; cold water, q.
s.; dissolve, add of flour, 7 lbs.; and make a dough, which must be formed
into loaves and baked immediately, as before.——_Obs._ To ensure success
the carbonate should be recent, and free from bicarbonate, the presence of
which is known by its being white and powdery, and of inferior pungency.
If any of the last salt be present, the bread will have a yellowish
colour, and a slightly alkaline or urinous flavour. The process answers
best for small loaves, cakes, and fancy bread. By employing pure carbonate
of ammonia instead of the commercial sesquicarbonate, the process succeeds
admirably, and the resulting bread is most wholesome. A late writer
recommends the use of bicarbonate of ammonia, but evidently does so in
ignorance, as in practice it is inapplicable, as the author verified by
numerous carefully conducted experiments.

7. It has been at various times proposed to knead the dough with water
highly charged with carbonic acid, on which Dr Ure observes that “the
resulting bread will be somewhat spongy.” He states that he endeavoured to
make bread in this way, but never could succeed in producing a light
spongy loaf. The quantity of gas in the water is much too trifling for the
purpose, and the greater part of it escapes in the process of making the
dough, even though all the materials be well cooled, and the operation
conducted in a cold place. The only way of obviating the difficulty is to
conduct the kneading in a trough under considerable atmospheric pressure,
and at a very low temperature, by means of machinery, as is done by Dr
Dauglish, whose method is now protected by letters patent. This method is
not, however, adapted either to domestic use or the small scale.[231]

[Footnote 231: For a full description of Dauglish’s process, see Watts’
‘Dic. of Chemistry.’]

_Obs._ Unfermented bread has been strongly recommended as being more
wholesome, and generally better adapted to bilious and dyspeptic patients,
than fermented bread. It must, however, be confessed, that the unfermented
bread commonly met with has a slight ‘raw-grain’ taste, which is very
disagreeable to some persons. But this taste is not necessarily present,
being chiefly dependent on bad manipulation, the use of inferior flour,
and insufficient baking. The process of fermentation doubtless modifies
the condition of the starch and gluten of the dough, and renders them
easier of digestion. This species of bread is sadly adulterated with a
variety of indescribable messes. See BISCUITS, BREAD (_antè_), FLOUR,
GINGERBREAD, &c.

=Bread Fruit= (_Artocarpus incisa_, nat. order Graminaceæ). The tree
yielding the bread-fruit is a native of Central America, the South Sea
Islands, and the Islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is principally
composed of starch, sugar, and water, every 100 parts containing 80 of
water. The fruit is gathered when the starch is in a mealy condition; it
is then peeled, wrapped in leaves, and baked by placing it between hot
stones. It then has the taste of sweetbread.

The natives of the countries where this fruit is found practise a method
for preserving it, which consists in allowing the nitrogenous parts of the
fruit to putrefy in water-tight pits. They thus obtain a mass resembling
soft cheese in consistence, and this, when required to be eaten, is baked
in the same manner as the fresh fruit.

=BREAK′FAST= (brĕk′-). _Syn._ JENTACULUM L.; DÉJEÛNER, DÉJEÛNÉ, Fr.;
FRÜHSTÜCK, Ger. The first meal of the day; or the food served at it.

The morning meal——the ‘early bit’ of the Germans——is perhaps the most
important one of the day. According to Erasmus Wilson, it is usually
“taken at eight or nine.” The proper time for the purpose must, however,
depend upon that at which the party rises. About an hour, to an hour and a
half, after leaving the bed, will generally be found the most appropriate
time for breakfast, and appears to be the one pointed out by nature, and
the most conducive to health. By that time the powers of the system have
fully recovered from the inactivity of sleep, and the functions of the
stomach and other viscera have again come into full play. The appetite is
excited and seeks appeasing, and both instinct and reason direct us to the
social board. If abstinence be now prolonged, the physical and mental
energies, unsupported by the supply of food which indirectly gives them
birth, gradually lessen, and incipient exhaustion ensues. The fluids of
the stomach and the smaller intestines begin to act upon the coats of
those viscera instead of on the food, and an unpleasant feeling of hunger
or a loss of appetite comes on, with all its depressing consequences. When
breakfast cannot be taken within a reasonable period after rising, the gap
should be filled up by chewing a crust, a biscuit, or the like. A raw egg
or two, sucked from the shell, or broken into a teacup and drank, will be
found most valuable for this purpose. Raw milk, cheese, salted food, and
other indigestible matter, should be particularly avoided at this early
period of the day.

The articles of food to be chosen for the breakfast-table must depend
entirely on the state of the health, the occupations, &c., of those
assembled round it. Coffee appears to be, by common consent, the favourite
beverage. For the delicate, the bilious, and the young, it should neither
be taken too strong, nor very weak, and should be softened down with milk
or cream, and well sweetened with sugar. Tea is more apt to affect the
nerves and stomach than pure unchicoried coffee. Green tea, taken thus
early in the day, often acts as an absolute poison, though a slow one. We
have seen severe fits of vomiting and exhaustion follow its use.

The solid food for breakfast should be easy of digestion, and nutritious.
Females, children, and persons leading a sedentary life, should confine
themselves to a sufficient quantity of good meal-bread with only a
moderate quantity of butter, to which an egg, or a small rasher of mild
bacon, may be advantageously added. For very young children there is no
better breakfast, where it agrees with them, than scalding-hot new-milk
poured on sliced bread, with a slice or two of bread and butter to eat
with it. Parties engaged in active occupations may extend their exploits
somewhat farther, and add to this bill of fare a little ham or cold meat.
When an undue time will elapse before the luncheon or dinner, and
particularly during the colder season of the year, the broiled leg of a
fowl, an under-dressed mutton chop, or a little tender beef-steak, will be
found, by the parties last referred to, most useful; nay, in many cases,
invaluable. But excess must be particularly avoided. The object is to take
enough food to maintain the system in full energy and vigour, and
particularly to avoid offending the stomach by overloading it; a
misfortune easily effected at the breakfast table. Old commercial
travellers——men wise in the mysteries of life and its enjoyments——are
scrupulously careful to make a good, but not a heavy breakfast, before
commencing the arduous duties of the day. See DÉJEÛNER, MEALS, &c.

=Breakfast Pow′der.= _Syn._ RYE′-COFFEE, DILLEN′IUS’S C., HUNT’S
ECONOM′ICAL BREAKFAST POWDER, &c. Rye, roasted along with a little fat,
after the manner of coffee. It was once sold at 2_s._ 6_d._ the lb., and
was formerly extensively used as a substitute for foreign coffee, of which
it is one of the cheapest and best. Since the reduction of duty on coffee
it has nearly fallen into disuse, unless it be by the grocers to
adulterate that article.

=BREAST (Sore).= See NIPPLES.

=Breast Pang.= _Syn._ ANGINA PECTORIS. _Symptoms._——A sudden pain
occurring in the parts covered by the breast-bone and the throat,
accompanied with a feeling of suffocation, and the apprehension of
immediate death. The pain sometimes extends down the arms and through the
back. Summon a medical man without a moment’s loss of time. Pending his
speedy arrival give a drachm of ether with one third of a grain of acetate
of morphia. Apply hot applications to the chest and stomach; likewise
friction to the chest, back, and sides with spirits. If the relief be only
partial, the dose of ether may be repeated after twenty minutes.

=BREATH (Fetid).= Scarcely anything is more disagreeable or disgusting
than a stinking breath. Various means have been proposed to remove this
annoyance, depending principally on the administration of aromatics, which
by their odour smother it for a time; but these require continual
repetition, and are liable to interfere with the functions of digestion.
The real cause of stinking breath may generally be traced to a diseased
stomach, or to decayed teeth. When the former is the case, mild aperients
should be administered; and if these do not succeed, an emetic may be
given, followed by an occasional dose of the Abernethy-medicines. When
rotten teeth are the cause, they should be thoroughly cleansed, and then
‘stopped,’ or if this is impracticable, they should be removed. When this
is impossible or inconvenient, the evil may usually be lessened by keeping
them scrupulously clean. Dirty teeth also often cause the breath to smell;
and hence the use of the tooth-brush should be a daily habit. Occasionally
rinsing out the mouth with a little clean water to which a few drops of
solution of chloride of lime, or of chloride of soda, has been added, is
often an effective method. Mouth-washes of Condy’s fluid, and also of
carbolic acid, both very greatly diluted, form useful remedies; as do also
chlorate of potash and tannic acid in the form of mouth-washes. As a
tooth-powder, fresh-burnt charcoal, and particularly areca-nut charcoal,
is without comparison the best. Lozenges, such as the following, have been
strongly recommended to sweeten and purify the breath:——Gum-catechu, 2
oz.; white sugar, 5 oz.; orris powder, 1 oz.; neroli, 5 or 6 drops; make
them into a paste with mucilage, and divide the mass into very small
lozenges. 20 or 30 drops of oil of cloves may be substituted for the orris
and neroli, at will. One or two may be sucked at pleasure. When the breath
of a child or infant, usually so sweet and fresh, smells unpleasantly, it
indicates stomach derangement of some sort. Very frequently it is
indicative of worms. See CACHOU AROMATISÉ, PASTILS, &c.

=BREW′ING.= The art of making beer.

The only ingredients allowed by law to enter into the composition of beer
are malt, sugar, hops, or any substitute for hops, and water, together
with a little yeast.

The apparatus and utensils required under the common system, in brewing
beer, are——

1. A copper or boiler capable of holding fully two thirds of the quantity
proposed to be brewed; with a gauge-stick to determine the number of
gallons of fluid at any given depth therein; and a wooden cover to place
over it before the boiling commences, or when not in use. A copper capable
of holding not less than 140 galls. is a convenient size for brewing a
quarter of malt, and is commonly known as a one-quarter copper.

2. A mash-tub or mash-tun capable of containing one third more than the
copper.

3. One or more tuns or vessels, to ferment the beer in.

4. Three or four shallow coolers, to reduce the wort as rapidly as
possible to a proper temperature for fermentation.

5. One or two copper or wooden bowls, for baling, &c.

6. A thermometer with a scale reaching from below 32° to a few degrees
above the boiling-point of water (say to 225° or 230° Fahr.).

7. A saccharometer, for taking the density of worts and beer.

8. A suitable number of casks (clean and sweet), to contain the beer.

9. One or more large funnels or tunners.

10. Two or more clean pails.

11. A hand-pump of a size proportionate to the brewing.

12. A mill, for crushing the malt. Brewers, for sale, are restricted by
law to the use of mills with plain metal rollers.

These articles will vary in value from £10, upwards to many hundreds, or
even thousands, according to the extent of the brewing; but the whole of
them necessary for a private family may be bought for less than the former
amount, as the mill, pump, &c., may then be dispensed with, and the rest
may be of the simplest and least expensive character possible. By proper
care they will last for 30 or 40 years, and still continue in a useful
state.

Preliminary proceedings:——

The malt is chosen according to the intended character of the
brewing——pale, amber, roasted, or any mixture of them, as the occasion may
require. It is bruised or crushed in a mill (malt-mill) before employing
it in brewing, that it may be the more readily acted on by the water. It
should not be ground too small, as it would then make the wort thick, and
cause it to run with difficulty from the mash-tun. The crushed malt may
advantageously lie for a few days in a cool situation, by which it will
attract a considerable quantity of moisture from the air, and be the more
easily exhausted by the water used in mashing. Pale malt may be used
coarser than amber or brown malt. A bushel of good malt should measure
1-1/4 bushel when ground; and a quarter should yield between 9-1/2 and 10
bushels, the quantity slightly varying according to the degree of bruising
it has undergone. On the large scale, malt is ground in crushing mills
furnished with plain iron rollers; on the small scale, by wooden rollers
or mills worked by hand. For private brewing, the malt is generally bought
ready crushed or ground, for convenience sake.

The hops, after being taken from the ‘pockets’ or ‘bag,’ are crumbled with
the hands ready to be thrown into the copper. For general purposes those
grown in Kent, and of the present season, are preferred. For the finer
sorts of ale, East Kent hops are commonly used; and when it is intended to
keep the liquor for a long time, those known by the names of Country’s,
Alton’s, or Farnham hops, are employed.

The quantity of hops required by a given measure of malt varies from 2
lbs. to 22 lbs. per quarter, according to the strength or gravity of the
wort, the character of the beer intended to be brewed, and the climate
which the beer may have to sustain. Export beer requires, as a rule, an
exceptionally large amount of hops to enable it to bear without injury the
heat of the country to which it is shipped. The following are the usual
proportions:——

  Table beer                      2 lbs.  1 qr.
  Mild ale or porter              4 ”     1 ”
  Brown stout                     5 ”     1 ”
  Scotch ale (best)               5 ”     1 ”
  Strong ale (ordinary)           5-1/2 ” 1 ”
  ”          (keeping)            8 ”     1 ”
  Bitter ale               10 to 14 ”     1 ”
  East India ale (export)  12  ” 22 ”     1 ”

When a strong, coarse hop is used, a less quantity suffices for the same
strength brewed, but the flavour is always inferior.

The water, which should be clear, and free from all traces of decomposing
animal and vegetable matter, must be provided in abundance. Of late years
hard water has been preferred by many brewers, on the ground that beer
brewed with it is self-fining, and hence requires no artificial
clarification either in the vat or cask.

Hard water is also much to be preferred to soft in brewing stock beers;
since by its rendering the albuminous matters contained in the mash
insoluble, it prevents the fermentation to which these would otherwise
give rise, and so assists in the preservation of the beer, and in keeping
it free from acidity.

The German brewers, however, who do not brew beverages intended to be kept
for any time, on the contrary, employ a soft water, by which means the
albuminous substances contained in the malt are rendered soluble, and
become diffused throughout the beer, and possibly add in some measure to
its nutritive qualities. Hard waters are said to have the property, over
soft ones, of enabling the beer to retain more saccharine matter, and
hence to improve its flavour and to give it more body. The ales of Burton
are pre-eminent for their excellent quality and keeping properties. In the
neighbourhood of Burton there are extensive beds of new red sandstone and
gypsum, by sinking wells into which the Burton brewers obtain the water
from which they make their beers. From the subjoined analyses of Burton
well waters it will be seen that this water is a very hard one, and
contains, besides other salts, a very large quantity of sulphate of lime.

Analysis of the water used in Messrs ALLSOPP’S brewery (Dr Böttinger):——

                       Amount of ingredients
                          in the imperial
                        gallon, represented
                            in grains.

  Chloride of sodium           10·12
  Sulphate of potash            7·65
  Sulphate of lime             18·96
  Sulphate of magnesia          9·95
  Carbonate of lime            15·51
  Carbonate of magnesia         1·70
  Carbonate of iron             0·60
  Silica                        0·79
                              ——————
                               65·28

Analysis of water from a well at the brewery of Messrs BASS (Cooper):——

  Carbonate of lime             9·93
  Sulphate of lime             54·40
  Chloride of calcium          13·38
  Sulphate of magnesia          0·83
                              ——————
                               78·54

The whole of the water used in the Burton breweries is obtained from
wells, and not from the river Trent, as was at one time erroneously
supposed. A factitious Burton water may, it is said, be obtained by adding
sulphate of lime and salt to any soft water, in the proportions stated in
the above analyses.

Dr C. Graham is of opinion that, although the properties of the Burton
well waters are very greatly due to the large quantity of sulphate of lime
contained in them, the chlorides of sodium and calcium are also important
constituents.

The yeast must be fresh and good; and all the vessels and utensils
perfectly sweet and clean. If the latter be neglected, even the most
skilful brewing will prove a failure.

Process of brewing:——

1. MASHING:——The ground or bruised malt placed in the mash-tun is
macerated for some time in hot water, and the infusion (_wort_) drawn off
from a hole in the bottom, over which a strainer or false bottom is
placed, to prevent the malt passing out along with the liquor. During the
process of mashing a peculiar principle contained in the malt, called
diastase, reacts upon the starch with which it is associated, and converts
it into grape-sugar. The more completely this conversion is effected the
richer will be the resulting wort in sugar or “_saccharine_,” and the
stronger and more alcoholic the beer produced by its fermentation. It is,
therefore, a desideratum with the brewer to mash at the temperature which
most fully promotes this important object. The best temperature for this
purpose ranges between 150° and 170° Fahr. When more than one mash is
made, the first should be something lower than the first-named
temperature; the second may be from 175° to 185°; and the third as high as
200° Fahr.

If the first mashing has been rightly conducted, the whole of the starch
will be converted into sugar, and the action of the second and third
mashings is merely to wash out any of the remaining saccharine matter
still existing in the crushed grain.

In practice, as soon as the water in the copper acquires the temperature
of 170°, 45 galls. are run into the mash-tun, and 1 quarter of crushed
malt gradually added to it. The whole is now thoroughly mixed with the
mash liquor, by means of oars, or machinery, the agitation (_mashing_)
being continued for 30 or 40 minutes, when 36 galls. more water from the
copper are added, and the whole again well agitated, as before. The
mash-tun is now closely covered up, and the mash allowed to repose for
about two hours, in order that the diastase may exert its saccharifying
power upon the unconverted starch of the malt. At the end of this time the
tap is set, and the wort run into the ‘underback.’ It generally amounts to
about 50 galls. The second mash is then made with about 60 galls. of
water, at 185° F., and the whole process repeated as before. After an hour
the liquor is drawn off, and the malt drained ready for the third mash.
This time only 35 galls. of water are added at 200° F., and the whole is
seldom allowed to stand longer than half an hour. It is then run off, and
the malt allowed to drain as dry as possible.

In some cases the worts of the first and second mashes only are used for
strong beer; that of the third mashing being kept for table beer, or as
liquor to mash a fresh quantity of malt.

Pale malt and mixtures of malt and raw grain should be mashed for a longer
time, and at a somewhat lower temperature than brown or high-dried malt.

Instead of making second and third mashes as above described, it has long
been the practice in Scotland, and is now becoming common in England, to
sprinkle the surface of the grains in the mash-tun with water, at or about
the temperature of 180° Fahr., by means of a simple revolving instrument
termed a ‘sparger,’ and to let the liquor drain through the goods and run
off by the tap with the last portions of the first wort. By this means the
whole surface of the grain is continuously and regularly sprinkled with
hot water.

When sugar is used it may be either mixed with the malt in the mash-tun,
at the time of mashing, or put into the underback, just before setting the
taps, and the hot wort run upon it. The proportions of malt and sugar vary
according to the quality of the latter, but, on an average, from 170 lbs.
to 200 lbs. of good raw sugar may be taken as the equivalent of a quarter
of malt.

2. BOILING:——The wort is next transferred from the underback to the
copper, and heated to the boiling-point as soon as possible, the object of
this expedition being to prevent the formation of acid in the wort, by
exposure to the air, before undergoing the changes which take place in the
copper. As soon as the boiling of the wort commences the hops are added,
and the boiling is continued for about 2 or 2-1/2 hours. A longer boiling
is highly objectionable, owing to the extraction of a heavy, resinous
bitter from the hop, and the danger of losing the volatile oil upon which
the aroma depends. For mild beers the worts are seldom boiled so long; for
strong keeping ales, sometimes a little longer. The boiling is known to be
completed when the liquor ‘clears,’ as it is called, and albuminous flocks
sink to the bottom of the copper.

The hops, strained from each wort, are returned into the copper with the
following one.

The average loss by evaporation in the process of boiling varies from
1/6th to 1/7th of the original bulk of the wort. The gravity increases at
the same time in about the ratio of 5 to 4; so that if the gravity be, at
first, say 32 lbs. per barrel, it will at the end of the operation have
risen to about 40 lbs.

3. COOLING:——The wort, under the common system, is ‘run off’ from the
copper into the ‘hop-back,’ through a strainer which keeps back the hops.
It is then pumped into large square shallow vessels called ‘coolers,’
where it is freely exposed to a current of air to reduce its temperature
as quickly as possible, in order to avoid acidity or ‘souring.’ In 6 or 7
hours, or sooner, the temperature should fall to about 60° Fahr. In warm
weather the depth of the liquor in the coolers should not exceed 3 or 4
inches; and in cold weather not more than 5 or 6 inches. As soon as the
temperature has fallen to about 60° the liquor is ‘tunned’ and ‘yeasted.’

The loss by evaporation and condensation in the coolers varies from 13 to
18 galls. per quarter.

4. FERMENTATION:——The cooled wort is next run into the fermenting tuns or
vessels (gyle-tuns). In small brewings these may be casks with one of
their heads removed; but under any form they must not be more than 2/3rds
filled. The yeast, previously mixed with a little wort, and kept until the
whole has begun to ferment (technically termed ‘_lobb_’), is now added,
and after agitation the vessel is covered up, and kept so, until the
fermentation is well established. By this time the temperature has risen
from 9° to 15°.

The quantity of yeast employed, and the temperature of the wort when it is
added, differ in different breweries and for different kinds of beer. It
seldom exceeds 2 lbs. per barrel unless the weather is unusually cold, or
the yeast old or stale, when a larger proportion is required. The Scotch
brewers generally take only 1 gall. of yeast to fully 4 hhds. of wort.

In England, the temperature at which the yeast is added varies from 55° to
65° Fahr. In Scotland, the common temperature is 51° to 52°. In cold
weather the heat may be 5° or 6° higher than in mild and warm weather, and
a little more yeast may also be advantageously employed. In cold weather
ale is commonly tunned at 60°, porter at 64°, and weaker beers at 65° or
70° Fahr. In ‘warm weather’ strong beer should be 4° or 5°, and other
beers 7° or 8° cooler than the ‘heats’ just mentioned. On the small scale,
1 to 1-1/4 pint of yeast may be used to every barrel of strong-beer wort,
and 3/4 pint to every barrel of mild-beer wort.

The commencement of the fermentation is indicated by a line of small
bubbles forming round the sides of the tun, and in a short time extending
over the whole surface. A ‘crusty head’ soon forms, and then a ‘fine rocky
head,’ followed by a ‘light frothy’ one. At length the head assumes a
yeasty appearance, the colour becomes yellowish brown, and a vinous odour
is developed. As soon as this last head begins to fall, the tun is skimmed
every 2 or 3 hours, until no more yeast is formed. The object of this is,
not only to check the violence of the fermentation, but also to remove a
peculiar bitterness, with which the first portion of the yeast is
impregnated. The beer is then put into casks, or ‘cleansed,’ as it is
called. A minute attention to every stage of this process is necessary to
secure a fine flavour and a brilliant beverage.

It may be regarded, as a rule, that the lower the temperature, and the
slower, more regular, and less interrupted the process of fermentation,
the better will be the quality of the brewing, and the less likely to
change by age. A little more yeast is required in winter than in summer.
When the fermentation becomes slack in the ‘gyle-tun,’ a little more
‘lobb’ is generally added, and the whole is well ‘roused up,’ On the
contrary, if the temperature rises considerably, or the fermentation
becomes too brisk, the wort is cooled a little and skimmed, or at once
cleansed.

5. CLEANSING:——This consists in running the beer from the gyle-tun into
casks, or other vessels, set sloping, so that the yeast as it forms way
work off the one side of the top, and fall into a vessel placed below to
receive it. In small brewings the beer is often at once transferred from
the gyle-tun to the ‘store-casks,’ which are sloped a little until the
fermentation is over, when they are skimmed, filled, and bunged.

The process of cleansing is generally commenced as soon as the
‘saccharine’ in the fermenting wort falls to about 10 lbs. per barrel, a
degree of attenuation which it usually reaches in about 48 hours. Some
brewers add a little wheat-flour or bean-flour (about 1/4 lb. per barrel)
to the beer in the gyle-tun, shortly before cleansing, to quicken the
discharge of yeast; but it is not clearly ascertained whether such a plan
is advantageous, or the contrary.

6. STORING:——As soon as the fermentation is concluded, which generally
takes from 6 to 8 days, or longer, the clear liquor is pumped into the
store-casks or vats, which are then closely bunged, and deposited in a
cool cellar, if not already there, to mature. The preference, which at
present exists in most parts of the United Kingdom, is for mild,
freshly-brewed malt liquors; the good old or mature-vatted beer being now
seldom met with. This, of course, is a source of increased profit to the
brewer, as it enables him to turn over his capital more rapidly, and saves
the risk and expense attendant on long storage.

7. RIPENING:——After a period varying from one to twelve months or longer,
according to the nature of the brewing, and the condition of the cellar,
the liquor will have become fine, and sufficiently mature for use. During
this period the casks, &c., should be occasionally examined to see that
there is no leakage, and to open the vent-holes, should any oozings appear
at the joints. As equable a temperature as possible should be maintained
in the cellar, by ventilation, on the one hand, and the employment of
artificial heat on the other, as circumstances and seasonal changes may
render necessary.

8. FINING or CLARIFYING:——Beer which has been badly brewed or badly
stored, or which from other causes may be thick or muddy, requires
clarifying by artificial means. For a barrel about 1 to 1-1/2 pint of
brewer’s finings (isinglass or fish-gelatin dissolved in sour beer) is put
into a bucket, and some of the beer being gradually added, the whole is
violently agitated with a whisk until a frothy head is formed. The mixture
is then thrown into the cask of beer, and well ‘rummaged up,’ after which
the bung is replaced, and the liquor allowed to repose for a week or ten
days.

Sometimes the above method is found to fail with weak and bad-conditioned
beer. When such is the case, the addition of a teaspoonful of sulphuric
acid, or a table-spoonful of powdered catechu (previously dissolved in 1/2
a pint of boiling water), followed by agitation for a quarter of an hour,
will generally cause the ‘finings’ to clarify the liquor; 2 or 3 oz. of
tincture of catechu (mixed with a little water) may be used in the same
way. A handful of hops, previously boiled for five minutes in a little of
the beer, and then added to the barrel, and the whole allowed to stand for
a few days, before proceeding to clarify it, will generally have a similar
effect, and cause the ‘finings’ to act with certainty. It is the absence
of the proper quantity of astringent matter in beer that usually renders
them ineffective.

M. Brescius employs tannin for the clarification of beer. To 1000 litres
of beer he adds 140 grains of tannin dissolved in 3/4 of a litre of water,
which is thoroughly stirred up. After three or four days he adds one litre
of isinglass or two of gelatin in the proportion of 1 kilo. to 100 litres.
The complete clarification requires about eight days.

_Gen. commentary._ The preceding is a concise account of all the essential
operations of the system of brewing at present practised in this country.
On the large scale, extensive and costly apparatus and machinery are
employed for the purpose. On the small scale, various modifications, of a
minor character, or the several processes herein detailed, are frequently
adopted according to the circumstances or ingenuity of the operator. The
principles and practice of brewing beer are, however, essentially the same
under all the conditions here referred to. In Scotland, only one mash is
made, and that at a temperature of about 180° Fahr., with one third of the
quantity of the water required for the brewing. The ‘mash-tun’ is then
covered up for about half an hour, when the wort is drawn off, and the
operation of ‘sparging’ begun. This operation is continued until the
density of the mixed worts becomes adapted to produce the quality of the
ale then under process of manufacture. The ‘gyle-tun’ (fermenting-tun) is
set at from 50° to 60° Fahr., the fermentation being continued slowly for
fifteen to twenty days; and the ale is not ‘cleansed’ before the degree of
attenuation falls to about 1/2 lb. per day, and not more than one fourth
of the original gravity of the wort remains. Scotch ale is justly
celebrated for its superior quality. Its usual original gravity is from 34
to 45 lbs. per barrel.

In Bavaria, a country remarkable for the excellence of its beer, the wort
is made to ferment at a low temperature, until all the substances which
favour acetification have been rendered insoluble, and have separated
from the liquor. The fermentation is conducted in wide, open, shallow
vessels, which afford free and unlimited access to atmospheric oxygen; and
this in a situation where the temperature does not exceed 45° to 60° Fahr.
A separation of the nitrogenous constituents thus takes place
simultaneously on the surface, and within the whole body of the liquid.
The clearing of the fluid is the sign by which it is known that these
matters have separated. The fermentation usually occupies three or four
weeks, and is conducted during the cooler portion of the year only, and in
a situation removed as much as possible from the influence of
atmospherical changes of temperature. The sedimentary yeast (unterhefe),
and not the surface yeast (oberhefe), of the Bavarian fermenting backs is
employed.

The beers of England and France, as well as most of those of Germany,
become gradually sour by contact with the air. This defect, as observed by
Liebig, does not belong to the beers of Bavaria, which may be preserved,
at pleasure, in half-full casks, as well as in full ones, without
suffering any material alteration. This precious quality must be ascribed
to the peculiar process employed for fermenting the wort, called by the
German chemists ‘untergährung,’ or fermentation from below; and which “has
solved one of the finest theoretical problems that had long taxed the
ingenuity and patience of both the scientific and practical brewer.”
(Liebig.)

The ‘Comptes Rendus,’ lxxvii, 1140-1148, contains a paper by M. Pasteur on
the manufacture of an ‘unalterable beer.’ In this communication he states
that the liability of beer to turn sour, ropy, &c., is due to the presence
of special ferments derived from the air, and from the materials used. By
boiling the infusion of malt and hops, cooling out of contact with air,
and fermenting with pure yeast[232] in vessels to which only carbonic acid
or pure air is admitted, a beer is produced of superior quality, which may
be preserved without trouble for any time. Even a partial adoption of
these precautions is attended with valuable results. In preparing pure
yeast to start with, the author makes use of the fact that oxygen favours
the growth of true yeast, but hinders the propagation of the other
ferments. Pure yeast being obtained, the beer is afterwards fermented in
an atmosphere nearly destitute of oxygen, as its quality is thereby
improved. Pure yeast when kept in pure air undergoes no change, even at
summer temperature. The _mycoderma vini_ does not, as the author once
thought, become changed into beer-yeast on submersion in a nutritive
fluid; under these circumstances it acts as an alcoholic ferment, but does
not propagate itself.

[Footnote 232: M. Pasteur does not state how this is to be obtained.]

“In the ordinary fermentation of grape-juice and worts these liquids do
not furnish a quantity of alcohol equivalent to the sugar which they
contain; and this because a certain portion of the sugar serves for the
oxidation of the gluten, and is not transformed like the rest. But
wherever the liquor has arrived at the second period of transformation,
the product in alcohol ought to be equivalent to the quantity of sugar
present, as actually happens in all fermentations (sedimentary) which are
not accompanied with a formation, but a disappearance of the yeast.
According to Dr Ure, worts furnish, in the Bavarian breweries, from 10% to
20% more alcohol than they do by the ordinary process of fermentation
(obergährung), or that excited by the use of ‘oberhefe’ or top-yeast.”

East-India Ale or Pale Ale, for exportation, is brewed from worts of a sp.
gr. of from 1·063 to 1·070. For the best varieties, 15 to 16 lbs. of the
finest East Kent hops are used to every quarter of pure malt. The pale ale
or bitter beer of the publicans is commonly a very weak liquor (mere table
beer), highly bittered with the hop, and too often with quassia, wormwood,
and other still more objectionable substances. The process now adopted by
the great brewers of pale ale at Burton-on-Trent combines all the most
admirable points of both the Bavarian and Scotch systems of brewing.

Berlin White ale or Pale beer is brewed from wheat-malt mixed with about
1/6th part of barley-malt, the ‘wort’ being boiled with hops, 1/2 lb. to
the bushel, and slightly fermented with ‘top-yeast,’ at a rather higher
temperature.

The desire of evading the duty led to the discovery of its being only
necessary to employ 1/3rd, or less, of the grain, in the form of malt;
this portion being sufficient to convert into sugar, in the process of
mashing, the starch of the unmalted grain forming the other part. This
plan answers well when the wort is merely intended for the production of
‘grain spirit,’ but beer so made is insipid and inferior in quality to
that brewed wholly of malt. Inferior kinds of beer have also been made
from other ingredients than barley-malt, among which may be named the
grain of the cheaper cereals, bran, potatoes, turnips, beet-root, carrots,
parsnips, pea-shells, and other vegetable substances rich in starch and
sugar, all of which will produce beer by being mashed with water in the
common way, with about 9% or 10% of barley-malt.

One quarter of the best barley-malt yields, by skilful mashing, fully 84
lbs. of ‘saccharine,’ or soluble sweet extractive matter. This
concentrated within the compass of one barrel (33 galls.) gives a sp. gr.
of 1·234. In the process of mashing about 4/7ths of this quantity of
saccharine (or 48 lbs.) is generally carried off in the first wort; 2/7ths
(or 24 lbs.) in the second wort; and 1/7th (or 12 lbs.) in the third wort;
the strengths of the worts being to each other respectively as 4, 2, 1.
The average gravity obtained by the common brewers from malt of current
quality ranges from 80 to 81 lbs. Sugar may be used as a partial
substitute for malt, with, in most cases, some degree of saving to the
brewer, and without injury to the quality of the beer. The kind of sugar
to be used will depend on the quality of the beer to be brewed, but it
should be remembered that a bad sugar will not, any more than bad malt,
yield a sound palatable beer. From 170 lbs. to 200 lbs. of good raw sugar
may be taken as the average equivalent of a quarter of malt.

When the process of mashing has been properly conducted, the wort, after
leaving the cooler, should not be turned blue by tincture of iodine, or by
iodide of potassium mixed with a few drops of nitric acid. If it turns
blue some of the starch has escaped conversion into sugar, and is
dissolved in the liquor.

By multiplying the decimal part of the number representing the specific
gravity of a wort by 360 (the weight in pounds of a barrel of pure water),
we obtain the quantity of saccharine per barrel, corresponding to the
given sp. gr.; and by dividing the joint weight of saccharine and water,
per barrel, by 360, we obtain the specific gravity. Thus——

Suppose a sample of wort to have a specific gravity of 1·055, then——

Decimal of sp. gr. ·055 × 360 = 19·8 lbs. per barrel.

Again, a barrel of wort weighs 379·8 lbs., that is, 360 lbs. for the
weight of a barrel of water, and 19·8 lbs. for the weight of saccharine in
the water, then——

297·8 ÷ 360 = 1·055 specific gravity.

It is usually stated in works on brewing that certain temperatures must be
reached by each variety of beer, during the progress of the fermentation,
in order for the liquor to acquire its characteristic flavour. Thus, it is
stated that mild beer begins to acquire flavour when the heat of
fermentation arrives at 75° Fahr., increases at 80°, and is highest at
90°, but sometimes even reaches 100°. Old ale is said to obtain its best
flavour at a temperature not exceeding 75°; and porter at 70° Fahr. In
order to reach these temperatures the worts are directed to be set at from
10° to 15° lower, the rise being due to the heat generated during the
fermentation. That these statements refer principally to the old methods
of brewing is shown by the fact that some of the brewers of Bavaria,
Scotland, and Burton-on-Trent produce rich and high-flavoured liquors at
temperatures vastly below those above enumerated. Still, however, the fact
must not be concealed, that since the introduction of the new German
system of brewing into England the general character of its beers, as they
reach the consumer, are inferior in strength and flavour to those of a
former period. We may now seek almost in vain for the fine vinous,
high-flavoured, invigorating old beers vended in our early days by the
common publicans and tavern-keepers, of whom the larger majority were
their own brewers. Under the new system of chemical brewing, as worked by
those huge monopolists, the ‘great brewers,’ the only object appears to be
to obtain the largest quantity possible of saccharine out of the quarter
of malt, and to convert this into the largest possible quantity of beer,
with little regard to flavour or quality, but an excessive one for their
own profits. In due course this liquor is forced on their helpless tenants
the publicans, who, in their turn, ‘reduce’ and ‘doctor’ the liquor,
until, by the time it reaches the consumer, its insipidity and low
strength would have led even a brewer’s drayman of the last century to
cast it into the kennel.

The best times for brewing are the spring and autumn; as at those periods
of the year the temperature of the air is such as to permit of the easy
cooling of worts sufficiently low, without having recourse to artificial
refrigeration, or to the use of machinery for the purpose. Old ale cannot
be conveniently brewed in summer.

Beers are classed by the brewers into——

  _Small beers_——made from worts not exceeding the sp. gr. 1·025, or 9
      lbs. per barrel.
  _Middlings_——made from worts of the sp. gr. 1·030 to 1·050, and
      averaging about 14 lbs. per barrel.
  _Strong beers_——made from worts of the sp. gr. 1·040 to 1·080, extending
      from about 35 lbs. per barrel upwards.

The densities of the worts employed for different kinds of beer vary
considerably, as will be seen by the following table:——

        TABLE _of the Densities of Beers_.

  |----------------------------------------------------|
  |                     | Pounds  |                    |
  |    Description.     |  per    |  Specific Gravity. |
  |                     | barrel. |                    |
  |----------------------------------------------------|
  |Burton ale, Class 1  |40 to 43 |   1·111 to 1·120   |
  |    ”         ”   2  |35 ”  40 |   1·097 ”  1·111   |
  |    ”         ”   3  |28 ”  33 |   1·077 ”  1·092   |
  |Ordinary ale         |25 ”  27 |   1·070 ”  1·075   |
  |Common    ”          |   21    |   1·058            |
  |Scotch ale, Class 1  |40 to 44 |   1·111 to 1·122   |
  |    ”         ”   2  |33 ”  40 |   1·092 ”  1·111   |
  |Porter (ordinary)    |   18    |   1·050            |
  |  ”    (good)        |18 to 21 |   1·050 to 1·058   |
  |  ”    (double)      |{?} to 22|   1·055 ”  1·060   |
  |Brown stout          |   23    |   1·064            |
  |      ”    (best)    |   26    |   1·072            |
  |Table beer           |12 to 14 |   1·033 to 1·039   |
  |Small  ”   (com.)    |    6    |   1·017            |
  |----------------------------------------------------|

EXPORTATION OF BEER:——When beer is exported from any part of the United
Kingdom, either as merchandise or ships’ stores, the brewer or exporter of
such beer is allowed a certain drawback of duty. The amount is
proportional to the quantity of malt or sugar inferred to have been used
in the brewing of the beer. Thus, if the original specific gravity of the
worts from which the beer was brewed were not less than 1·040, a drawback
is granted of 4_s._ 3_d._ per barrel. This is equivalent to a return of
the duty on 1-1/2 bushels of malt, with an allowance of 3_d._ for licence
duty, now charged in lieu of the abolished hop duty. For every additional
5 degrees of specific gravity, from 1040° to 1125° inclusive, a further
sum of 5_d._ per barrel is allowed.

[For further information connected with the above subject the reader is
referred to the separate articles——ALE, BEER, DEXTRINE, DIASTASE,
FERMENTATION, MALT LIQUORS, PORTER, SACCHAROMETER, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WORT,
YEAST, &c.]

=Brewing Uten′sils.= The cleansing and preservation of brewing utensils,
beer casks, &c., has frequently engaged the attention of practical men and
brewers’ chemists. To preserve them sweet they should always be thoroughly
cleaned before setting them aside. Contact with soap, or any greasy
material, should be carefully avoided. A scrubbing-brush and scalding-hot
water are generally sufficient to clean them. Great care should be taken
to remove every particle of yeast or fur on the sides and bottom; and
after being well drained they should be stowed away in some clean and cold
situation, properly exposed to the fresh air. Should they become tainted
or mouldy, a strong lye of pearl-ash, common salt, or quick-lime, may be
spread over them, scalding hot, with a broom or scrubbing-brush. Washing
them with oil of vitriol diluted with about 7 or 8 times its bulk of
water, is another excellent and very effective method. Fresh-burnt
charcoal has also been employed for the same purpose. In each case the
vessels must be subsequently thoroughly washed out with clean water, as
before. Steam, assisted by the action of a chain, has been successfully
applied to clean casks in several breweries. Bisulphite of lime has,
within the last few years, been highly recommended for sweetening and
cleaning vats, casks, &c. It is also said to prevent beer from developing
acidity. See CASKS, VATS, SPOROKTON, &c.

=BRICKS.= Brick-making scarcely comes within the province of this work. In
connection with hygiene, however, we may call the reader’s attention to
the superior advantages of both hollow and waterproof bricks; the first,
for ventilation and lightness; the last, for preserving the dryness and
integrity of our homes under all the vicissitudes of climate, season, and
weather, either on damp soils or dry ones. Workman’s “Patent Waterproof
Bricks” received a strong commendatory notice from the Commissioners of
the “Great International Exhibition” of 1851.

=BRILLIANTINE.= 1. Castor oil, 1 part; eau de Cologne, 4 parts. Mix. 2.
Honey, 1 _oz._; glycerin, 1/2 _oz._; eau de Cologne, 1/2 _oz._; spirit of
wine, 2 _oz._ Mix.

=BRINE= (for Meat). _Prep._ 1. A nearly saturated solution of common salt,
1 lb.; and saltpetre, 1 oz.; in soft water.

2. To the last add of sugar or treacle, 1/2 lb. Bay-salt is recommended
when the meat is to be kept for a very long period. Meat preserved in
brine that has been used for curing several times is said to become
poisonous. See PICKLING, &c.

=Brine, Red-Cabbage.= Red-cabbage leaves steeped in a strong solution of
common salt. Used as a test for acids and alkalies.

=Brine, Vi′olet.= From the petals of the blue violet, as the last. Used as
a test for acids.

=BRIOCHE PASTE= (bre-ōsh′). In _cookery_, a species of paste, or crust,
prepared of eggs and flour, fermented with yeast, to which a little salt,
a large quantity of sugar, and about half as much butter as the weight of
the flour used, are afterwards added, and well worked in. Used as an
addition to soup, and as a casing for lobsters, patties, eggs, &c.

=BRISK′NESS.= The natural briskness and sparkling of fermented liquors
depends on the gradual evolution of carbonic acid gas within the body of
the fluid, by the process of fermentation. See MALT LIQUORS, PORTER,
WINES, &c.

=BRIS′TLES= (brĭs′lz). The stiff hair of swine, &c. They are commonly
stiffened by immersion for a short time in alum-water; and are dyed by
steeping them for a short time in any of the common dyes used for cotton
or wool.

=BRITAN′NIA METAL.= _Syn._ TUTANIA. A superior species of pewter, used for
teapots, spoons, &c.

_Prep._ 1. Plate-brass, bismuth, antimony, and tin, equal parts, melted
together, and the resulting alloy added at discretion to melted tin, until
it acquires the proper degree of colour and hardness.

2. To the first alloy, prepared as in No. 1, add one fifth of its weight
of metallic arsenic, before mixing it with the melted tin.

3. Antimony, 1 part; brass, 4 parts; tin, 5 or 6 parts; melted together.
See QUEEN’S METAL (ALLOYS), PEWTER, &c.

4. Tin, 150 parts; copper, 3 parts; antimony, 10 parts.

5. Tin, 46-1/2 parts; copper, 1 part; antimony, 3 parts.

=Britannia Metal for Casting.= _a._ Tin, 100 parts; hardening (see
_below_), 5 parts; antimony, 5 parts. _b._ Tin, 105 parts; copper, 2
parts; antimony, 12 parts.

=Britannia Metal (Best) for Handles.= Tin, 140 parts; copper, 2 parts;
antimony, 5 parts.

=Britannia Metal, Hardening for.= Tin, 1 part; copper, 2 parts.

=Britannia Metal (Best) for Lamps, Pillars, and Spouts.= Tin, 75 parts;
copper, 1 part; antimony, 3-3/4 parts.

=Britannia Metal for Registers.= Tin, 25 parts; antimony, 2 parts;
hardening, 2 parts.

=Britannia Metal for Spinning.= Tin, 25 parts; antimony, 1 part;
hardening, 1 part.

=Britannia Metal (Best) for Spoons.= Tin, 20 parts; antimony, 2 parts;
hardening, 1 part.

=Britannia Metal for Spouts.= Tin, 46-1/2 parts; copper, 1 part; antimony,
2 parts.

=BRITANNIA SILVER.= Under this name there is, or was, offered to the
public at Vienna, and probably elsewhere, under the misleading
recommendation that it is a perfect substitute for silver, a heterogeneous
metallic composition, in the form of spoons, forks, candlesticks, cups,
&c. The Britannia silver is sometimes, or always, light, silvered,
Britannia metal (an alloy of 86 tin, 10 antimony, 3 zinc, 1 copper; or of
2 copper, 6 zinc, 21 antimony, 71 tin; or of 1·84 copper, 81·90 tin, 16·25
antimony, and 1 zinc). One firm announces that Britannia silver is
silver-white throughout, a colour which can only be obtained in similar
alloys by the addition of arsenic. Another firm sells candlesticks of
inferior packfong as Britannia metal, and another actually sells tinned
Bessemer steel-plate cups as guaranteed Britannia silver. (Ackerman.)

=BRIT′ISH GUM.= See GUM.

=BRITISH WINES.= See WINES.

=BROC′COLI.= [Eng., L., Ger.] _Syn._ BROCOLI, Fr.; BROCCOLO, It. A
well-known sub-variety of cauliflower. The qualities, and the mode of
dressing broccoli, are similar to those of cabbages, noticed elsewhere.
See VEGETABLES (Culinary), &c.

=BROKEN KNEES= (IN HORSES). The wound should first be thoroughly washed,
and then sewn up, and fomented with tepid water. Afterwards cold-water
dressings containing a little carbolic acid may be applied. Perfect rest
is essential, and, where necessary, splints and slings must be had
recourse to. After the wound has thoroughly healed blisters are
recommended for restoring the hair.

=BROKEN WIND= (IN HORSES). Of the many remedies said to be useful in this
malady few, if any, appear to exercise any permanent advantage. There is
no reason, however, why a horse affected with broken wind should not be
made serviceable if the precaution be taken to put him to moderately slow
work, if the following precautions be followed. His food should be given
him in small quantity and at frequent intervals. The oats should be
bruised and the hay cut small, and both be slightly damped before he
partakes of them. This dietary may be varied by small doses of carrots or
turnips.

The amount of fluids should be restricted, and he should be fed and
watered at least an hour before going to work. A mild physic ball should
also be occasionally administered.

Dogs suffering from asthma should be subjected to the same treatment. To a
full-sized dog ten drops each of ether and tincture of belladonna may be
given every hour during an attack of spasm until the breathing becomes
easier.

=BRO′MA.= _Prep._ 1. Pure cocoa, 1 lb.; sugar and sago-meal, of each 4
oz.; mix. British arrow-root (_i. e._ carefully prepared potato-starch) is
often substituted for the sago.

2. As the last, but using fine wheat flour in lieu of sago-meal. Made into
a beverage in a similar way to cocoa.

=BRO′MAL.= C_{2}Br_{3}HO. A colourless, oily liquid, obtained by the
action of bromine on alcohol. Sp. gr. 3·34; boiling point above 212° F.
Like chloral it yields a solid hydrate with water. Because of its powerful
irritant properties it seems unlikely to prove useful, either as a
hypnotic or as an anæsthetic.

=BRO′MIDE= (-mĭd). _Syn._ BRO′MURET*, HYDROBRO′MATE*; BROMI′DUM,
BROMURE′TUM, HYDROBRO′MAS, L.; BROMIDE, BROMURE. Fr. A chemical compound
of bromine with another radical.

_Prop._, _&c._ The soluble bromides give white precipitates with nitrate
of silver, acetate of lead, and protonitrate of mercury. That from the
first of these is insoluble in dilute nitric acid and in ammonia water
unless concentrated; and it has a slight yellowish tinge, changing to a
violet on exposure to the light. A few drops of liquid chlorine poured
upon a bromide, followed by agitation of the mixture with a little
sulphuric ether, furnishes an ethereal solution of bromine. [For the other
bromides see the respective bases.]

=BRO′MINE= (-mĭn), (_bromos_, a stink). Br. _Syn._ BROME*; BRO′MIUM,
BROMIN′IUM, L.; BRÔME, Fr. An elementary substance, discovered by M.
Balard, of Montpellier, in 1826.

_Prep._ 1. A current of gaseous chlorine is passed through the
uncrystallisable residuum of sea-water called bittern, which then assumes
an orange tint, in consequence of bromine being set free from its
combinations; sulphuric ether is then agitated with it, and the mixture is
allowed to stand, in a close vessel, until the ethereal portion floats
upon the surface. This is a solution of crude bromine, and for common
purposes the ether may be at once evaporated by a very gentle heat. To
render it pure, caustic potassa is added in excess to the ethereal
solution, or the latter is agitated with a solution of potassa, by which
means bromide and bromate of potassium are formed. The whole is evaporated
to dryness, and submitted to a dull red heat. The residuum is next
powdered and mixed with pure peroxide of manganese; the mixture having
been placed in a retort, sulphuric acid (diluted with half its weight of
water) is poured in. Red vapours immediately arise, and condense into
drops of bromine, which are collected by plunging the neck of the retort
nearly to the bottom of a small receiver containing a little very cold
water. The bromine forms a stratum beneath the water, and may be collected
and at once put into a stoppered bottle; or it may be further purified by
distillation from dry chloride of calcium.

2. Leisler’s patent for a method of obtaining bromine consists in
decomposing the lye containing the bromine salt by heating it with
hydrochloric acid and bichromate of potash in a leaden still having an
earthenware head. The volatilised bromine with the vapour of water is
conducted into a receiver containing iron turnings, bromide of iron, which
dissolves in the water contained in the receiver, being formed. The
bromide of iron so produced is either converted into other metallic
bromides by the usual processes, or the bromine is obtained in a separate
state from the iodide by treatment with sulphuric acid and bichromate of
potash.

3. Large quantities of bromine are extracted from the mother liquor of
carnallite, a double chloride of magnesium of potassium occurring in
enormous quantities in a bed of clay in the neighbourhood of Stassfurt,
near Magdeburg. The mother liquid of the carnallite at 35° B. is first
freed as much as possible from the chloride of calcium it contains, by
means of refrigeration. It is next evaporated down until it acquires a
density of 40° B. Frank says it cannot be concentrated to the above
extent, because of a waste of bromine resulting from the formation of
hydrobromic acid produced by the decomposition of the lye, owing to its
being overheated at the bottom of the pan. Upon being cooled to 25° C. a
quantity of chloride of magnesium crystallises out, whilst the remaining
liquor contains from 0·3 to 0·5 of bromine as bromide of magnesium. The
liquor is then put into a sandstone apparatus such as is used for the
preparation of chlorine, and the requisite quantity of manganese and
hydrochloric acid being added, steam is poured into the apparatus. After
about a quarter of an hour the bromine is evolved in the form of vapour,
which becomes condensed by being made to pass through a leaden worm cooled
in water, and is finally collected as liquid bromine in Woolff’s bottles.

The crude bromine so obtained is purified by redistillation in glass
retorts. It is stated that the sandstone apparatus can be charged six
times in 24 hours. In order to free the bromine from the presence of any
chloride it is shaken up with a solution of bromide of potassium.

The chlorine unites with the potassium, forming chloride of potassium and
liberating an equivalent quantity of bromine in so doing. Dr Frank
suggests the use of earthenware worms in preference to leaden ones, these
latter being acted upon and corroded by liquid bromine. In Dr Frank’s
bromine works at Stassfurt the distillation is conducted in cubic
stoneware vessels, having a capacity of about three cubic metres. These
vessels are surrounded with belts of iron, in case of the occurrence of
fracture. It was found that few stones answered the purpose required of
them, as by reason of their porous nature they permitted the chloride of
manganese formed during the distillation to ooze through. To remedy this
the stones had to be coated with tar, a process which entailed a very
serious loss of bromine, from the formation of bromine compounds with the
hydrocarbons of the tar, as well as a contamination of the bromine with
the tar. Subsequently Dr Frank found in the neighbourhood of Porta
Westphalia a stone which answered the purpose without requiring the
previous objectionable and expensive preparation with tar.

It seems that the workmen discard the respirators which are provided for
their use in the bromine works, and merely tie a cloth over the mouth and
nose (sometimes neglecting this precaution) when decanting the bromine.

To lessen the evil effects of the vapours upon the health of the workmen
under these circumstances, the building is rendered as airy as possible by
being thoroughly ventilated throughout. No workmen afflicted with asthma
or with any catarrhal affection are employed, whilst those engaged are
strictly prohibited from taking spirituous liquids in any form, a custom
which begets an irritability of the mucous membranes, which is found to be
exceedingly dangerous; on the contrary, a generous diet, and one
consisting of an abundant use of bacon and butter, was found very
beneficial.

Bromine is sometimes contaminated with chlorine, iodine, and occasionally
bromide of carbon. A small quantity of the bromine agitated with a
solution of soda, in such proportion that the fluid is made very slightly
alkaline, forms a colourless solution, which, if coloured by the further
addition of a small quantity of the bromine, does not become blue on the
subsequent addition of a cold solution of starch. This shows the absence
of iodine. Chlorine may be detected by adding a small quantity of the
suspected bromine to some warm solution of potash in a capsule,
evaporating, drying the residue, and distilling with bichromate of potash
and sulphuric acid. Bromide of carbon has a higher boiling-point than pure
bromine.

_Prop., &c._ A dark, reddish-coloured, volatile liquid, having an odour
intermediate between that of chlorine and iodine, but much more
suffocating and offensive. It solidifies at about 19°, and boils at about
145° Fahr. It is slightly soluble in water, more so in alcohol, and
abundantly so in ether. Its aqueous solution bleaches like chlorine, but
less powerfully. With hydrogen it forms HYDROBRO′MIC ACID; and with the
bases, compounds called BRO′MIDES. Its sp. gr. is 2·976; that of its
vapour, 5·39.

_Tests._ It is readily recognised by its colour, odour, and volatility,
and by the colour of its vapour; by its giving a yellowish-white
precipitate with nitrate of silver, which is turned violet by the action
of light; and by its solutions giving an orange or yellow colour to
starch, and a red tinge to solution of chloride of gold.

_Uses, &c._ Bromine possesses very similar medicinal properties to iodine,
and has been administered in goitre, scrofula, &c., in the form of an
aqueous solution composed of 1 part of bromine to 40 of water, of which 5
or 6 drops is the dose; but it is more usually given under the form of
bromide of potassium (which _see_). The compounds of bromine are also
largely used in photography in the manufacture of certain coal-tar
colours, and in scientific chemistry the solution has also been used as a
lotion. Bromine is a good disinfectant. It is very poisonous; the
antidotes, &c., resemble those for iodine. See BROMIDE, SOLUTIONS, &c.

=BROMOCHLORALUM= (Tilden & Co., New York), for the removal of bad smells,
as a disinfectant, and antiseptic. A fluid, sp. gr. 1·43, containing 27·5
per cent. of solid matter. The latter consists of 18·5 per cent. of
aluminium chloride, with chalk and a considerable quantity of alkaline
salts. Free bromine is not present. (H. En{?}demann.)

=BROMOFORM= (CHBr_{3}). A colourless liquid obtained by distilling bromide
of calcium with alcohol. It has a sp. gr. of 2·90; and boils at 305·6° F.,
emitting a vapour having a density 8·632. It is somewhat similar in
properties to chloroform, but much more irritating; hence it has been
rarely employed medicinally.

=BROMTHEE——BRAMBLE TEA= (?)——is a mixture of 5 parts lime flowers _cum
bracteis_, 5 parts senna leaves, 5 parts acacia flowers, 8 parts cort.
frangulæ, and 2 parts sassafras chips. (Hager.)

=BROHCHI′TIS= (brŏng-kī′). [L.; prim. Gr.] In _pathology_, inflammation of
the mucous lining of the bronchia or smaller ramifications of the
windpipe. In its milder form it is popularly called a ‘cold on the chest.’

_Symp._ The usual symptoms are hoarseness, dry cough, and a slight degree
of fever, followed by expectoration of mucus, at first thin, and
afterwards thick and copious. In the severer forms there is more fever,
cough, and oppression at the chest, &c.

_Treatm._ It generally yields to small and repeated doses of ipecacuanha
and antimonial diaphoretics; a light diet and mild purgatives being at the
same time adopted, but in every case it is safer to have recourse to
medical aid.

HORSES.——Finlay Dun prescribes the following:——Tincture of aconite,
inhalation of the vapour of water, ether and belladonna, carbolic acid,
sulphurous acid, mash diet, salines, chlorate of potash, the salts of
ammonia, chloral hydrate, mustard externally, warm clothing, but cool air.
Symptoms very similar to those of bronchitis are frequently caused in
calves and young cattle by the presence in the bronchii of threadworms or
filaria. The cause is generally removed by the administration of a dose or
two of oil of turpentine, given at intervals of a day or two.

=BRON′CHOCELE= (brŏng′-ko-sēle). See GOITRE.

=BRONZE.= [Eng., Fr., Ger.] _Syn._ ÆS, L.; BRONZO, It. An alloy of tin and
copper, remarkable for the exactness of the impressions which it takes by
moulding and stamping, as well as for its great durability. It has hence
been always extensively employed in the casting of buts, medals, statues,
&c. In ancient times, when the manufacture of steel was ill-understood,
cutting instruments were commonly made of it. It was also the general
material of coins of small value; a use which, of late years, has been
revived in several of the states of Europe, and still more recently in the
coinage of these realms. Bell-metal, gun-metal, and speculum-metal are
mere varieties of bronze.

_Prep._ On the small scale this alloy is prepared in crucibles; but for
statues and larger works on reverberatory hearths. The fusion of the mixed
metals is conducted as rapidly as possible under pounded charcoal, and the
melted mass is frequently stirred together to produce a perfect mixture
before casting.

The proportions of the materials so vary in different castings that it is
almost impossible to say precisely what quantities are the best. The
following are given as examples:——

_a._ For EDGE-TOOLS:——Copper, 100 parts; tin, 14 parts. When skilfully
hardened and tempered this alloy is capable of receiving an edge nearly
equal to that of steel.

_b._ For GILDING:——1. Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts; tin, 3 parts;
lead, 2 parts.

2. From copper, 83 parts; zinc, 17 parts; tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part.

_c._ For MEDALS:——1. Copper, 89 parts; tin, 8 parts; zinc, 3 parts. This
alloy assumes a beautiful antique appearance by age, and takes a sharp
impression by stamping.

2. (M. Chaudet.) Copper, 95 parts; tin, 4 or 5 parts. This is also
excellent for any small castings.

_d._ For MORTARS:——Copper, 93 parts; lead, 5 parts; tin, 2 parts.

_e._ For STATUARY:——1. Copper, 88 parts; tin, 9 parts; zinc, 2 parts;
lead, 1 part.

2. Copper, 82-1/2 parts; zinc, 10-1/2 parts; tin, 5 parts; lead, 2 parts.
These are very nearly the proportions of the celebrated statue of Louis
XV.

3. Copper, 90 parts; tin, 9 parts; lead, 1 part.

4. Copper, 91 parts; tin, 9 parts.

For a gold varnish for bronze objects refer to BRASS.

_Obs._ Several analyses have been made of ancient cutting instruments,
from which it appears that the proportion of tin varies from 4% to 15%; a
fact which tends to prove that more depends upon the exact mode of
tempering the alloy than on the relative proportions of the ingredients.
Lead and zinc are inadmissible in bronze for this purpose. One or two per
cent. of iron may, nevertheless, be added with advantage. The ancient
bronze used for springs contained only 3% to 4% of tin. The edges and lips
of bronze mortars must be carefully tempered by heating them to a cherry
red, and then plunging them into cold water, as unless so treated they are
very apt to be broken in use. See BELL-METAL, BRASS, GUN-METAL, &c.

=Bronze′-powder.= _Syn._ BRONZE. A name given to various powders having a
rich metallic appearance, which they retain when applied on varnish, or
when mixed with it, as in surface bronzing.

_Prep._ 1. GOLD-COLOURED:——_a._ From Dutch-foil, reduced to an impalpable
power by grinding. Cheap and looks well, and is very durable when
varnished.

_b._ From gold-leaf, as the last.

_c._ Precipitated powder of gold.

_d._ From verdigris, 8 oz.; tutty powder, 4 oz.; borax and nitre, of each
2 oz.; bichloride of mercury, 1/4 oz.; grind them together, make the
mixture into a paste with oil, and then fuse it; when cold, roll it into
thin sheets or leaves, and grind it as in No. 1.

2. IRON-COLOURED:——Plumbago, in fine powder.

3. RED:——Sulphate of copper, 100 parts; carbonate of soda, 60 parts; mix,
and apply heat until they unite into a mass; then cool, powder, and add of
copper filings, 15 parts; again well mix, and keep the compound at a white
heat for about twenty minutes; lastly, when cold, reduce the ‘residuum’ to
an impalpable powder, wash it in pure water, and dry it.

4. SILVER:——Bismuth and tin, of each 1 oz.; melt them together, and add of
quicksilver, 1 to 1-1/2 oz.; when cold, powder it.

_Obs._ The above are used by painters, japanners, &c. See BISULPHIDE OF
TIN (TIN), POWDERS, &c.

=BRONZ′ING.= The process of giving a bronze-like, or an antique metal
appearance, to the surface of copper, brass, and other metals. The
following methods are recommended for this purpose:——

1. To the surface of the article, first thoroughly cleaned and polished,
evenly apply with a brush the common crocus powder (‘jewellers’ rouge’),
previously made into a smooth paste with water. When dry, place it in an
iron ladle, or on a common fire-shovel, and expose it over a clear fire
for about one minute; lastly, when sufficiently cold, polish it with a
plate-brush. This gives a very rich appearance, similar to that on
tea-urns; the shade depending on the duration and the degree of heat
employed.

2. As the last, but substituting finely powdered plumbago for crocus
powder. Equally beautiful, but deeper coloured and more permanent than
that produced by No. 1.

3. As the preceding, but employing mixtures of plumbago and crocus in
various proportions according to the shade desired.

4. A dilute solution of liver of sulphur (sulphurated potash), or of
hydrosulphate of ammonia is applied with a camel-hair pencil to the metal
previously slightly warmed; when dry, the surface is either left rough or
brushed off. If liver of sulphur has been used, it will be better to wash
it first in clean hot water; but without the slightest friction. This
gives the appearance of very antique bronze.

5. Verdigris, 2 oz.; and sal-ammoniac, 1 oz.; are dissolved in vinegar, 1
pint; and the mixture is diluted with water until it tastes only slightly
metallic, when it is boiled for a few minutes, and filtered for use.
Copper medals, &c. (thoroughly clean) are steeped in the liquor at the
boiling-point until the desired effect is produced. Care must be taken not
to keep them in it too long. When taken out they are carefully washed in
hot water, and dried. Effect as the last.

6. Verdigris and vermilion, of each 2 oz.; alum and sal-ammonia, of each 5
oz. (all in fine powder); vinegar, q. s. to form a thin paste. This is
spread over the surface of the copper, which is then uniformly warmed by
the fire, and afterwards well washed and dried. The tint may be deepened
by repeating the process. The addition of a little blue vitriol inclines
the colour to a chestnut-brown; and a little borax to a yellowish-brown.
Used by the Chinese for copper tea-urns, &c.

7. Sal-ammonia, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 3 oz.; common salt, 3 oz.; hot
water, 1 pint; dissolve; then add of nitrate of copper, 2 oz., dissolved
in 1/2 a pint of water; mix well, and with it repeatedly moisten the
article (placed in a damp situation) by means of a soft brush. Produces a
very antique appearance.

8. Salt of sorrel, 1 oz.; sal-ammoniac, 3 oz.; distilled vinegar, 1 quart;
dissolve. As the last. Much used for bronze figures.

9. A very weak solution of bichloride of platinum, applied with a hair
pencil or by immersion. Used for binding screws, holders, and other small
articles of copper and brass.

10. Sulphate of iron and sulphate of copper, of each 1 oz.; water, 1 pint;
dissolve; wash the surface of the articles with it; let them dry; then
apply a solution of verdigris, 2 oz. dissolved in strong vinegar, 1/4
pint; when dry, polish them with a soft brush, and either some plumbago or
colcothar. Used for tin castings.

11. The articles (properly cleaned) are either immersed in, or washed
over, with a solution of sulphate of copper or of verdigris. In a short
time they acquire a coating of pure metallic copper, and are then washed.
This only answers with iron and steel goods. It is admirably suited for
iron castings.

12. An antique appearance may be given to silver by either exposing it to
the fumes of hydrosulphate of ammonia, or immersing it for a very short
time in a solution of hydrosulphate of ammonia, or in dilute nitric acid.

=Bronzing, Sur′face.= A term commonly applied to the process of imparting
a bronze-like or metallic appearance to the prominent portions of the
surfaces of figures made of paper, wood, plaster of Paris, &c. It is
effected by first giving them a coat of oil-varnish or size, and when this
is nearly dried, applying, with a ‘dabber’ of cotton, or a camel-hair
pencil, any of the ordinary metallic bronze-powders before referred to.
Sometimes the powder is placed in a little bag of muslin, and dusted over
the surface. The articles should be afterwards varnished.

Paper is bronzed by mixing the bronze-powders up with a little weak
gum-water, and burnishing the surface when dry and hard.

=Electrotypes, to Bronze. Green.= Steep the medal or figure in a strong
solution of common salt, or sugar, or sal-ammoniac, for a few days; wash
in water, and allow to dry slowly; or suspend it over a vessel containing
a small quantity of bleaching powder, and cover over. The length of time
it is allowed to remain will determine the depth of colour.

=Brown.= Add four or five drops of nitric acid to a wine-glassful of
water. The object is rubbed over with this gently, and allowed to dry, and
when dry subjected to a gradual and equal heat; the surface will be
darkened in proportion to the heat applied.

=Black.= Wash the surface over with a little dilute solution of
hydrosulphate of ammonia, and dry at a gentle heat.

=BROOM.= The common name of the plant _spar′tium scopa′′rium_. A useful
diuretic; of great service in dropsy. See DECOCTION.

=Broom Ashes.= From broom-stalks burnt. Formerly used as a diuretic in
dropsy.

=Broom, Salt of.= Obtained by dissolving broom ashes in water, and
filtering and evaporating the solution. It consists principally of
carbonate of potassa. It was formerly used in dropsy, and as an antacid,
&c.

=BROSSÉ DE CORAIL.= [Fr.] The root of lucerne (_medicago sativa_),
cleaned, dried, and hammered at the end. Used as a tooth-brush.

=BROTH.= _Syn._ JUS (coctis carnibus), JUS′CULUM, L.; BOUILLON, JUS, Fr.;
FLEISCHBRÜHE, Ger. In _cookery_, the liquor in which flesh has been
boiled. Broth is distinguished from soup by its inferior strength and
quantity of seasoning, &c. It contains much of the nutriment of the meat.
We extract the following from Dr Letheby’s work ‘On Food’:——

“A nutritious broth, containing the albumen of the meat or chicken, may be
obtained by infusing a third of a pound of minced meat or chicken in 14
oz. of _cold_ water, to which a few drops (4 or 5) of muriatic acid and a
little salt (from 10 to 18 grains) have been added. After digesting for an
hour or so, it should be strained through a sieve, and the residue washed
with five ounces of water, and pressed, The mixed liquids thus obtained
will furnish about a pint of _cold extract of meat_, containing the whole
of the soluble constituents of the meat (albumen, creatin, creatinin,
&c.), and it may be drunk cold, or slightly warmed, the temperature not
being raised above 100° F., for fear of coagulating the albumen.”

=Broth, Scotch.= This, which is in very general use amongst the middle and
working classes of Scotland, is made as follows:——Put into a pot three
quarts of cold water along with a cupful of Scotch barley, and let it
boil; add two pounds of neck of mutton. Allow it to stew gently for an
hour, skimming occasionally. Then add turnips cut in squares, and onions
sliced, and carrots and turnips uncut. The half of a small cabbage chopped
in moderately fine pieces may be put in instead of all these vegetables;
and leeks may be used instead of onions. Stew the whole for an hour
longer. The broth is now ready. Season with salt and serve in a tureen.
The meat is served in a separate dish, with the uncut pieces of turnip and
carrot and a little of the broth as gravy. Any meat may be employed in the
same way. Broths and soups contain the greater part of the saline matter
of the meat, the crystalline principles, viz. creatin and creatinin, some
of the albumen and fat, and an amount of gelatin, dependent upon the
duration of the boiling process. They also contain nearly all the odorous
matters of the meat. Cold water extracts from one sixth to one fourth of
the solid ingredients of meat. The presence of a large quantity of highly
nitrogenous crystalline principles in broths and soups accounts for their
restorative powers. These, which are the _creatin_ and _creatinin_, bear a
close resemblance to the thein of tea and coffee, and the _theobrominæ_ of
cocoa, in their physiological effects.

Broth is contra-indicated for children at the breast, as it not
unfrequently induces sickness, disorders the bowels, and induces fever.
The same applies to beef tea. When, however, broth and beef tea are used
as clysters in such quantities that can be retained, they act most
beneficially. See BOILING, SOUP, &c.

=BROWN DYE.= Every shade of brown may be produced, almost at will, by
mixtures of reds and yellows with blues and blacks; or directly by simple
dyes. The following are examples:——

_a._ For COTTON:——

1. Give the goods a mixed mordant of acetate of alumina and acetate of
iron, followed by a bath of madder or of madder and fustic. Excess of
acetate of alumina turns it on the AMARANTH TINT; the acetate of iron
darkens it.

2. First ‘gall’ the goods, then turn them for a short time through the
black bath; next give them a mordant of sulphate of copper, then pass
them through a decoction of fustic, afterwards through a bath of madder,
and again through the solution of sulphate of copper; drain, dry, rinse
well, and finish with a boil in soap and water. This gives a
CHESTNUT-BROWN.

3. First give the goods a mordant of alum, then a bath of madder, and next
a bath of fustic to which a little green copperas has been added. This
gives a CINNAMON-BROWN.

_b._ For LINEN:——This varies little from that commonly employed for
cotton.

_c._ For SILK:——

1. One of the above mordants is followed by a bath made by mixing equal
parts of the decoctions of logwood, fustic, and Brazil-wood. The shade may
be varied by altering the proportions of the decoctions; Brazil-wood
reddening, logwood darkening, and fustic yellowing, the tint.

2. Annotta, 4 oz.; and pearlash, 1 lb.; are dissolved in boiling water, q.
s.; the silk is passed through it for two hours, then taken out, and
squeezed dry; it is next passed through a mordant of alum, and then
through a bath of Brazil-wood, followed by another of logwood to which a
little green copperas has been added.

_d._ For WOOL:——

1. Boil the cloth in a mixed mordant of alum, common salt, and water, then
dye it in a bath of logwood to which a little green copperas has been
added. 2 oz. of alum, and 1 oz. of salt, are required for every lb. of
wool.

2. Boil the goods in a mordant of alum and sulphate of iron, then pass
them through a bath of madder. The more copperas the darker will be the
dye. Good proportions are 2 parts of alum and 3 of copperas.

3. Give a mordant of alum and tartar, then pass the goods through a madder
bath; next run them through a bath of galls and sumach or logwood to which
a little acetate or sulphate of iron has been added.

4. Mordant the cloth as last, dye in a madder bath, remove the cloth, add
a little acetate or sulphate of iron, and again pass it through the bath
as long as necessary.

5. Give the cloth a light blue ground with indigo, and then a mordant of
alum; rinse, and lastly run it through a bath of madder.

6. A mordant of alum and tartar, followed by, first a bath of madder, and
afterwards a bath of weld or fustic to which a little iron-liquor has been
previously added. In this way every shade, from MORDORÉ and CINNAMON to
DARK CHESTNUT, may be produced.

7. Boil fustic-chips, 1 lb., for 2 hours; pass the cloth through the bath
for 1 hour; take it out and drain; add of green copperas, 1-1/4 oz.; good
madder, 4 oz.; boil for a short time, and again pass the cloth through the
bath, until it acquires the proper tint. BRONZE-BROWNS, and every similar
shade, may be thus given by varying the proportions.

_e._ The following are called SUB′STANTIVE or DIRECT BROWNS:——

1. Decoction of oak-bark. It dyes wool of a fast brown of various shades,
according to the quantity employed. A mordant of alum brightens it.

2. Infusion or decoction of walnut-peels. Dyes wool and silk a brown,
which is brightened by alum.

3. Horse-chestnut-peels. A mordant of chloride of tin turns it on the
BRONZE; and sugar of lead, on the REDDISH-BROWN.

4. Catechu or Terra Japonica. For cottons. Blue vitriol turns it on the
BRONZE, and green copperas darkens it, when applied as mordants. Acetate
of alumina as a mordant brightens it. The French colour, CARMELITE, is
given with 1 lb. of catechu, 4 oz. of verdigris, and 5 oz. of
sal-ammoniac.

5. Sulphate or chloride of manganese. Dissolved in water with a little
tartaric acid, it gives the bronze tint called SOLITAIRE. The stuff, after
being passed through the solution, is turned through a weak lye of potash,
and afterwards through another of chloride of lime, to heighten and fix
it.

6. Prussiate of copper. This gives a fine BRONZE or YELLOWISH-BROWN to
silk. A mordant of blue vitriol is commonly first given, followed by a
bath of prussiate of potash.

=BROWN PIG′MENTS.= The principal and most useful of these are——umber,
terra di Sienna (both burnt and raw), Spanish brown, and some of the
ochres. Brown, of almost any shade, may be made by the admixture of blacks
with reds and yellows, or with greens, in different proportions. See
BISTRE, BLACK, NEWCASTLE,[233] OCHRES, SEPIA, &c.

[Footnote 233: Under BLACK PIGMENTS.]

=Brown, Span′ish.= See OCHRES.

=BROWN PINK.= See YELLOW PIGMENTS.

=BROWN′ING.= In _cookery_, a fluid preparation used to colour and flavour
gravies, soups, &c.

_Prep._ 1. Sugar, 4 oz.; and butter, 1 oz.; are melted in a frying-pan or
ladle with about a tablespoonful of water, and the heat is continued until
the whole has turned of a deep brown; the heat is then lowered a little,
and some port wine (about 1 pint) is gradually poured in; the pan is now
removed from the fire, and the mixture well stirred until the roasted
sugar is entirely dissolved; it is then put into a bottle, and 1/2 oz.
each of bruised pimento and black pepper, 5 or 6 shalots (cut small), a
little mace and finely grated lemon peel, and 1/4 pint of mushroom catsup,
added. The bottle is shaken daily for a week, and the clear liquid, after
5 or 6 days’ repose, decanted into another bottle. Rich flavoured, but
expensive.

2. As the last, but using strong beer, or water, instead of wine. A
glassful of spirit may be added after bottling it.

3. Sugar-colouring, 1 pint; salt, 1/4 lb.; mushroom-catsup, 1/2 pint;
spice, q. s. Excellent for all ordinary purposes.

4. Lump sugar (powdered), 2-1/2 lbs.; salad oil, 1/2 lb.; heat as before;
then add, of port wine, 1 quart; Cape wine, 3 quarts; shalots, 6 oz.;
mixed spice, 4 oz.; black pepper, 3 oz.; mace, 1 oz; salt, 1 lb.; lemon
juice, 1 pint; catsup, 1 quart; mix well.

5. Good spirit-colouring or sugar-colouring and mushroom catsup, of each 1
gall.; Jamaica pepper, black pepper, and shalots, of each 4 oz; cloves,
cassia, and mace, bruised, of each 3/4 oz.; boil in a covered vessel for 5
minutes; digest for 14 days, and strain.

6. Colouring, 3 pints; mushroom catsup, 1 pint; common salt, 3/4 lb.;
Chili vinegar (strongest), 1/2 pint; spice, q. s. Half a pint of British
brandy or rum may be added.

_Obs._ The above are excellent additions to gravies, soups, &c.; and of
themselves form most admirable sauces for fish, meat, and game.

=Browning= (for Gun-barrels). _Prep._ The following are current formulæ:——

1. Blue vitriol, 4 oz.; tincture of chloride of iron, 2 oz.; water, 1
quart; dissolve, and add aquafortis and sweet spirit of nitre, of each 1
oz.

2. Blue vitriol and sweet spirit of nitre, of each 1 oz.; aquafortis, 1/2
oz.; water, 1 pint; as last.

3. Butter of antimony and sweet oil, equal parts; well shaken together. To
be applied to the iron previously warmed.

_Obs._ The above fluids are rubbed on the barrel (previously well polished
and cleaned off with whiting to remove the oil), and allowed to remain on
for some hours, or until the next day, when they are rubbed off with a
stiff brush. The process may be repeated, if necessary. The barrel is next
washed in water in which a little pearlash or soda has been dissolved, and
afterwards well rinsed in clean water; it is then polished, either with
the burnisher, or with a brush and beeswax. Sometimes a coat of tough
shell-lac varnish is applied.

=BRUCEA= (-sh′ă). False cusparia (which _see_).

=BRUCHBALSAM——RUPTURE BALSAM= (Dr Tänzer).——No. 1. Compound rosemary
cerate, nutmeg cerate, red Johannis oil, yellow wax, of each 1 part; fat,
5 parts. No. 2. Mixture of nutmeg cerate, 50 parts; tallow, butter, of
each 10 parts, melted and mixed with 25 parts strongest liquor potassæ.
No. 3. Compound rosemary cerate, oil of bayberries, of each 2 parts;
nutmeg cerate, 4 parts; red Johannis oil, 6 parts; yellow wax, 3 parts;
tincture of myrrh and tincture of aloes, of each 1/2 part; tr. opii, 1/4
part, melted and heated until the spirit has evaporated. (Hager.)

=BRUCHPFLASTER——RUPTURE PLASTER= (Krüsi Altherr). A spread plaster, the
mass consisting of 5 parts Bergundy pitch and 2 parts turpentine. (Walz
and Hager.)

=Bruchpflaster——Rupture Plaster= (Caspar Menet). Machine-made paper
covered with thin gauze, and thinly spread with a mass of 9 parts wax, 3
parts turpentine, and 1 part elemi. (Hager.)

=BRUCHSALBE——RUPTURE CERATE= (Gottlieb Sturzenegger, Herisau, Canton
Appenzell). A mixture of 50 parts fat and 1 part oil of bayberries.
(Hager.)

=BRUCHE=, ruptures cured without medicine, operation, or pain, by Lavedan,
chemist. A pelotte containing in it zinc and copper plate on which a
solution of the “poudre electrochimique” (common salt) is dropped.
(Hager.)

=BRU′CIA.= C_{23}H_{26}N_{2}O_{4}. Aq. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BRU′CINE;
BRU′CINA, L. An alkaloid discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, in the bark
of _bru′cia antidysenter′ica_, and afterwards associated with strychnia,
in _nux vomica_.

_Prep._ Ground nux vomica, or the bark of brucia antidysenterica, is
boiled in dilute sulphuric acid, and the resulting decoction mixed with
hydrate of lime (in excess); the crude precipitate thus obtained is boiled
in alcohol (sp. gr. ·850), and the tincture filtered whilst hot. A mixture
of crude strychnia and brucia is deposited as the fluid cools, and the
remainder is obtained by evaporation. This is powdered and digested in
cold alcohol, which dissolves out the brucia; the solution furnishes
crystals on spontaneous evaporation. It may be further purified by
recrystallisation from alcohol.

_Prop._ Soluble in 850 parts of cold, and about 500 parts of hot water;
freely soluble in alcohol; added to the dilute acids until they are
neutralised, it forms crystallisable salts, easily obtained by
evaporation.

_Tests._ It is distinguished from strychnia, which in many respects it
resembles, by its ready solubility in both dilute and absolute alcohol,
and its insolubility in ether. With nitric acid it strikes a fine red
colour, which is removed by sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid.
Iodic acid, chloric acid, and chlorine, also turn it red.

Professor Sonnenschein has succeeded in converting brucia into
strychnia. He says——“Brucia C_{23}H_{26}N_{2}O_{4} and Strychnia
C_{21}H_{22}N_{2}O_{2} differ apparently considerably in their
composition; but the former may easily be converted into the latter.
Referring to the formulæ it will be seen that strychnia is produced by
combining brucia with 4O, and eliminating 2H_{2}O_{1} and 2CO_{2}. This is
effected as follows:——Brucia is moderately heated with 4 to 5 times its
weight of diluted nitric acid, when a red colouration will be produced and
gases evolved, which cause in a mixture of barium chloride and ammonia a
white precipitate of carbonate of barium.

The red solution is concentrated in a water-bath, super-saturated with
potassa, and agitated with ether, which, on spontaneous evaporation,
leaves a reddish mass, containing a red colouring matter, a yellowish
resin, and an alkaloid which is obtained pure by dissolving in an acid and
crystallising. This base has the intensity, bitter taste, and other
properties of strychnia, gives the characteristic reactions with potassium
chromate, cerium oxide, and sulphuric acid, and yields with chlorine the
sparingly soluble compound. The muriate crystallises in fine silky
needles, from which 9·20 per cent. of chlorine was obtained.

The conversion of brucia into strychnia is not only highly interesting,
but it is likewise of great importance in forensic analysis, proving again
that in such cases the employment of oxidising agents is admissible only
with great caution. A student who had received for analysis a mixture
containing, among other substances, brucia and nitrate of lead, employed
the process of Stas and Otto for the separation of the alkaloids, and
found strychnia instead of brucia which had been oxidised by the liberated
nitric acid.

“If strychnia is heated with a strong base like potassa, soda, or baryta,
for some time, in a sealed glass tube placed in a water-bath, a body is
obtained which no longer shows the reactions of strychnia, but resembles
brucia in its reactions. The experiments on this decomposition, which is
likewise of importance in forensic analysis, are not yet concluded.”

=BRUISE= (brōōze). _Syn._ CONTU′SIO, CONTU′SUM, L.; CONTUSION,
MEURTRISSURE, Fr.; BRAUSCHE, QUETSCHUNG, &c., Ger. A contusion; but in
popular language applied chiefly to cases in which there is an
extravasation of blood owing to the rupture of the minute vessels, with
consequent discoloration or tumefaction of the part.

_Treatment._——In common cases, sufficiently serious, bruises may be rubbed
with a little opodeldoc or soap-liniment; or, if the inflammation be
considerable, they may be bathed with a little weak goulard water, or with
vinegar and water. In more severe cases leeches may be applied. See
CONTUSION.

_Treatment for Animals._——The same as for man.

=BRUNS′WICK BLACK.= See VARNISHES.

=BRUNS′WICK GREEN.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=BRUSHES.= Brushes may be best washed in a moderately cold weak solution
of borax. They should afterwards be rinsed in cold water and dried.

=BRUSTBONBONS——PECTORAL BONBONS= (Fr., Stollwerck, Cologne). Carageen, 3
parts; Iceland moss, 2 parts; red poppy petals, 1-1/2 parts; coltsfoot, 1
part; liquorice, 2 parts; marshmallow root, 2 parts; daisy (_Bellis
perennis_), 1-1/2 parts; Souchong tea, 1 part; boiled with 24 parts of
water till reduced to half, and the fluid afterwards mixed with refined
sugar.

=BRUSTGELEE——PECTORAL JELLY= (Daubitz, Berlin). A yellowish-brown nearly
clear jelly, with a sweet, weak anise, followed by a somewhat bitter
taste, made of gelatin, 12 grammes; sugar, 60 grammes; and a herbal
infusion, 120 grammes; the latter made from anise, star-anise, Iceland
moss, &c.

=BRUSTPULVER——PECTORAL POWDER= (Beliol, Paris). For chronic pains in the
chest. A mixture of 75 parts milk-sugar, 20 parts gum arabic, 5 parts
Rochelle salt. (Mayer).

=BRUSTSAFT PRAPARIRTER——PREPARED PECTORAL JUICE= (Rudolph Büttner,
Berlin). For coughs, hoarseness, tightness of the chest, &c. An ordinary
pectoral tea made of an infusion of red poppy petals, which is boiled to a
syrup with sugar (Hager).

=BRUSTSYRUP WEISER MAYERSCHER——WHITE PECTORAL SYRUP= (G. A. W. Mayer,
Breslau). 4 parts powdered radish extracted with 5 parts water (according
to others rose-water), the liquor expressed and filtered. 6 parts of the
clear liquor digested with 10 parts of sugar to make a syrup. (Hager.)
Frequently nothing but a simple solution of sugar.

=Brustsyrup——Pectoral Syrup= (Dr Moth). A mixture of syrup of marshmallow,
1000 parts; extract of horehound, 30 parts; oxymel of squills, 50 parts;
aq. amygd. amar., 25 parts; aqua. foenic, 100 parts; spirit of ether, 10
parts.

=BRUSTWARZEN——MITTEL ZUR HEILUNG WUNDER.= Miraculous remedy for healing
sore nipples. (From Paris.) A dirty brownish-yellow, somewhat turbid
liquid, smelling of vinegar, and with a taste both sour and sweet. A
solution of 1-1/4 parts litharge in 100 parts vinegar. (Wittstein.)

=Brustwarzen——Mittel Gegen Wunde.= Sore nipple preventive. (From Paris.)
Acetic acid, 1 part; sugar of lead, 3 parts; camphor, 5 parts; water, 100
parts. (Terreil.)

=BRUSTWARZENBALSAM, RIGAER——RIGA’S NIPPLE BALSAM.= A mixture of the yolk
of one egg with 10 to 12 grammes balsam of Peru.

=BRY′ONIN= (-nĭn). A peculiar bitter principle extracted from the root of
white bryony (_bryonia dioica_, Jacq.). It is obtained from the dry
extract of the expressed juice, by solution in alcohol, filtration, and
cautious evaporation.

_Prop., &c._ A yellowish-white mass. It is a drastic purgative; and, in
large doses, poisonous. It enters into the composition of several quack
medicines.

=BUBBLE-AND-SQUEAK.= In _cookery_, a species of olla podrida variously
prepared, as the materials and fancy of the maker dictate.

_Prep._ (Rundell.) Take slices of cold meat, fry them quickly until brown,
and put them into a dish to keep them hot. Then clean the pan from the
fat; put in it greens and carrots (previously boiled and chopped small);
add a little butter, pepper, and salt; make them very hot, and put them
round the beef with a little gravy. Cold boiled pork is a better material
for bubble-and-squeak than beef. In either case the slices should be very
thin and lightly fried.

=BUB′BLE FEVER‡.= See PEMPHIGUS.

=BU′CHU= (-kū). The plant _dios′ma crena′ta_ (which _see_).

=BUCK′BEAN= or =BOG′BEAN=. The _menyanthes trifoliata_. See INFUSIONS.

=BUCKINGHAM’S DYE= for the whiskers; manufactured by R. E. Hall & Co.,
Nashua, N.H. This whisker dye is an ammoniacal solution of nitrate of
silver, and consists of 1/2 gramme nitrate of silver, 2-1/2 grammes
solution of ammonia, and 40 grammes distilled water. (Dr Schacht).

=BUCK′THORN.= _Syn._ RHAM′NUS, L. The _rham′nus cathar′ticus_ (Linn.).
Berries (BAC′CÆ RHAM′NI, L.), cathartic; juice of the berries (SUC′CUS R.,
L.) is officinal in the B. P. See RHAMNINE, SYRUPS, &c.

=BUCK′WHEAT.= See WHEAT.

=BUG.= _Syn._ CI′MEX, L.; PUNAISÉ, Fr.; WANSE, Ger. A name popularly and
very loosely applied to a vast number of insects that infest houses and
plants; in _zoology_, hemipterous insects of the genus ‘cimex,’ of which
there are many hundred species; appr., the bed-bug.

=Bug.= _Syn._ BED′-BUG, HOUSE′-B., WALL-B., WALL′-LOUSE*, &c.; CI′MEX
DOMES′TICUS, C. LECTULA′′RIUS (Linn.), L.; PUNAISE, Fr.; BETTWANZE,
HÄUSWANSE, Ger. An insect too well known in all the larger towns of Europe
and America, and in the huts of squalid poverty everywhere, to require a
description here. It is almost the only species of the bug kind that has
undeveloped wings. Its introduction to England is believed to have
occurred soon after the great Fire of London (A.D. 1666). Human blood
appears to be its favourite food; but it will also eat grain, seed, flour,
dried paste, size, soft deal, beech, osier, &c. Cedar, mahogany, and the
odorous and harder woods are usually avoided by this insect. Aromatics,
perfumes, and strong odours generally are unfavorable to its propagation.

_Exterm., &c._ Various means have been adopted to prevent the accession,
and to destroy or drive away, these enemies of “tired nature’s sweet
restorer, balmy sleep.” Among the most certain of these is thorough
cleanliness and ventilation. The furniture brokers put articles infested
with these insects into a room with doors and windows fitting quite close,
and subject them to the fumes of burning sulphur or chlorine gas. In the
small way poisonous washes are commonly resorted to. For this purpose
nothing is more effective than chloride of lime or chloride of zinc; the
latter being preferable to the other on account of its being comparatively
scentless.

The following mixtures are in common use, or have been recommended for
this purpose:——

1. Corrosive sublimate (in powder) and hydrochloric acid, of each 1 oz.;
hot water, 3/4 pint; agitate them together until the first is completely
dissolved. It is applied with a paint-brush, observing to rub it well into
the cracks and joints. This is the common ‘bug-wash’ of the shops. It is a
deadly poison!

2. As the last, but substituting 2 oz. of sal-ammoniac for the
hydrochloric acid.

3. Oil of turpentine, 1 pint; camphor, 2 oz.; dissolve. Very cleanly and
effective.

4. Tobacco-water, made by steeping 2 oz. of good shag in 1 pint of warm
water for a few hours.

5. Crude pyroligneous acid.

6. Coal-tar naphtha. This, as well as No. 3 (_above_), should never be
used by candle-light, as it is excessively inflammable. When the smell of
the common naphtha is objectionable, benzol or benzine may be used
instead. The celebrated nostrum vended under the name of ‘Insecticide’ is
said to be nothing but benzol.

7. Sulphurated potash (in powder), 6 oz.; soft soap, 1/2 lb.; oil of
turpentine, 1/4 pint or q. s. to make a species of soft ointment. The
odour of the last three (Nos. 5, 6, 7) is rather persistent and
disagreeable; but they are very effective.

8. Strong mercurial ointment, soft soap, and oil of turpentine, equal
parts, triturated together. Rather greasy and dirty.

9. Scotch or Welsh snuff, mixed with twice its weight of soft soap.

10. Sulphur, or squills, in impalpable powder, blown into the cracks or
joints, or scattered in a fine cloud, by means of a hollow ball or balloon
of vulcanised india rubber filled with it and furnished with a small
wooden jet or mouth-piece, or in any other convenient manner. Very cleanly
and effective. Dumont’s ‘Patent Vermin Killer,’ as well as the whole host
of imitations of it, is of this kind.

_Obs._ Out of the above list there is ample room for selection. The common
practice is to take the bedstead or other piece of furniture to pieces
before applying them.

These pests exist only in dirty houses. A careful housewife or servant
will soon completely destroy them. The surest method of destruction is to
catch them individually when they attack the person in bed. When their
bite is felt, instantly rise and light a candle and capture them. This may
be troublesome, but if there be not a great number a few nights will
finish them. When there is a large number, and they have gained a lodgment
in the timbers, take the bed in pieces, and fill in all the apertures and
joints with a mixture of soft soap and Scotch snuff. A piece of
wicker-work, called a BUG-TRAP, placed at the head of the bed, forms a
receptacle for them, and then they may be daily caught till no more are
left. Oil-painting a wall is a sure means of excluding and destroying
them. It has been asserted that these insects are so fond of narrow-leaved
dittany or pepperwort (_lepidium ruderale_), that if a bunch of it be
suspended near their haunts they will settle in it, and may be thus easily
captured. It is said to be commonly used as a bug-trap in some of our
rural districts. Water, poured boiling from the spout of a kettle into the
cracks and joints, is a cleanly and certain remedy, which we have often
seen employed; so also is a jet of steam; they are both destructive to all
insects, and will be found particularly so to beetles.

The proper time for attacking these pests is early in March, or shortly
before they are revived from their dormant state by the warm weather. See
INSECTS.

=Bug, Harvest.= See ACARI.

=BU′GLE= (bu′gl). An elongated cylindrical glass bead. See BEAD.

=BUILDING STONES.= Amongst the calcareous and magnesian stones used for
building many of the fine-grained and porous varieties are liable to split
into flakes after a few years’ exposure to the atmosphere, owing to the
absorption by the stone of water, which, becoming frozen during severe
weather, fractures the stone by its expansion. Brard invented a simple
means of ascertaining whether a building stone is liable to this defect,
which consists in taking a smoothly-cut block of the stone, one or two
inches square, and placing it in a cold saturated solution of sodic
sulphate. The temperature of the solution is gradually raised to the
boiling point; it is allowed to boil for half an hour, and then the stone
is left to cool in the liquid. When cold it is suspended over a dish, and
once a day for a week or a fortnight plunged for a few moments into a cold
saturated solution of sodic sulphate, and it is then again freely
suspended in the air. The sulphate crystallises in the pores of the stone
and splits off fragments of it. A similar experiment is made upon an
equal-sized mass of stone which is known to be free from this defect. By
the comparative weight of these fragments in the two cases the tendency of
the stone to the defect in question may be estimated.

A stone that is placed in a building in a position similar to that in
which it is found in the quarry, that is, with its seams lying
horizontally, is found to resist the weather much more successfully than
one that has not been so placed.

=BUN.= A well-known kind of light, sweet cake.

_Prep._ 1. BATH-BUNS:——As 6, but adding a little candied lemon and orange
peel, and putting a little grated peel and a few caraway comfits on the
top of each.

2. CROSS-BUNS:——Flour, 2-1/2 lbs.; sifted sugar 1/2 lb.; coriander seeds,
cassia, and mace, of each (powdered) a sufficiency; make a paste with
butter, 1/2 lb.; (dissolved in) hot milk, 1/2 pint; work with three
table-spoonfuls of yeast; set it before the fire for an hour to rise, then
make it into buns, and set them before the fire on a tin for half an hour;
lastly, brush them over with warm milk, and bake them to a nice brown in a
moderate oven.

3. MADEIRA-BUNS:——Butter, 8 oz.; 2 eggs; flour, 1 lb.; powdered sugar, 6
oz.; half a nutmeg (grated); powdered ginger and caraway seeds, of each
1/2 teaspoonful; work well together, then add as much milk as required,
and ferment; lastly, bake on tins in a quick oven.

4. PLAIN BUNS:——Flour, 2 lbs.; butter, 1/4 lb.; sugar, 6 oz.; a little
salt, caraway and ginger; make a paste with yeast, 4 spoonfuls, and warm
milk, q. s.; as before.

5. PENNY-BUNS:——To the last add of currants, well washed, 1/2 lb.; and
water, stained by steeping a little saffron in it, q. s., to give a light
yellow tinge to them.

6. RICH BUNS:——Fine flour, 3 lbs; sugar, 1 lb.; butter, 2 lbs. (melted and
beat with) rose water, 4 oz.; currants, 1 lb.; yeast, 1/4 pint; as before.

_Obs._ The great secret in producing good buns is the use of sweet yeast
and the best currants only, and thoroughly washing these last in a sieve
or colander, to remove grit, before adding them to the dough.

=BUNION= (-yŭn). A species of corn or swelling on the ball of the great
toe, resulting from pressure, and irritation by friction. The treatment
recommended for corns applies also to bunions; but in consequence of the
greater extension of the disease, the cure is more tedious. A bunion may
often be effectually stopped and removed by poulticing it, and, at the
proper time, carefully opening it with a lancet. See CORNS.

=BURETTE.= A graduated glass vessel employed in volumetric analysis for
measuring liquids.

1. The first burette was invented by Gay-Lussac, a drawing of whose
instrument is given below.

It rarely, if ever, has a capacity greater than 50 cubic centimetres, and
consists of a narrow tube fused on to a wider one. The larger tube is
about 33 centimetres long, the graduated portion occupying about 25
centimetres, and its internal diameter measures 15 millimetres; the narrow
tube has a diameter of 4 millimetres, which in the upper bent end
decreases to 2 millimetres. When used the instrument should be held in the
left hand, the bottom part being allowed to lean a little against the
chest. The operation is aided by giving the instrument from time to time a
slight turn in the direction of its longitudinal axis, thereby placing the
curve of the stout alternately in a more vertical, alternately in a more
horizontal position. The volume must not be read off before the surface of
the liquid has attained a constant height.

2. Geissler’s burette. This instrument differs from Gay-Lussac’s in having
the narrow tube inside, instead of outside the wider one. It is found very
convenient in use, and is less liable to fracture than Gay-Lussac’s.

3. Mohr’s burette, which can be more easily and readily managed than
either of the two preceding ones, is described and figured under
ALKALIMETRY.

[Illustration: Gay-Lussac’s Burette and Geissler’s Burette.]

In volumetric analysis the method of taking the readings of the burette is
an operation of great importance, requiring considerable method and
practice.

The first proceeding is to bring the eye to a level with the fluid, and to
adopt a fixed and unalterable standard of what is to be considered the
surface.

If you hold a burette partly filled with water between the eye and a
strongly illumined wall, the surface of the fluid presents the appearance
shown in fig. _a._ If you hold close behind the tube a sheet of white
paper with a strong light falling on it, the surface of the fluid will
present an appearance similar to that shown in fig. _b._

In both cases you have read off at the lower border of the dark zone, this
being the most distinctly marked line. Its distinctness may be heightened
by adopting Mohr’s contrivance which consists in pasting on a sheet of
very white cardboard a broad strip of black paper, and when reading off
holding this close behind the burette in a position to place the border
line between white and black from 2 to 3 millimetres below the lower
border of the dark zone as shown in figure _c._

[Illustration: _a._ and _b._]

[Illustration: _c._]

Great care must be taken to hold the paper invariably in the same
position, since if it be held lower down, the lower border of the black
zone will move higher up.

To test the correctness of the graduation of a burette proceed as
follows:——Fill the instrument up to the highest division with water at
60·8° F., then let the cubic centimetres of the liquid flow out into an
accurately weighed flask, and determine the weight of these ten cubic
centimetres in the usual way; then let another quantity of ten cubic
centimetres flow out, and weigh again, and repeat the operation till the
contents of the burette are exhausted. If the instrument is correctly
graduated, every ten cubic centimetres of water at 60·8° F. must weigh
9·990 grammes.

=BURG′LARIES.= The common precautions of locks and bolts, alarum-bells and
fire-arms, are frequently found useless in preserving houses from
burglars; but a light in the upper part of the house, or a small dog on
the ground-floor, with the means of running into a place of safety from
its enemies, has been seldom known to fail. A combination of the two would
undoubtedly be doubly effective. The bark of the dog and the fear of
detection by the approach of the light would deter the majority of rogues
of common pluck and feeling. A dog out of doors, and consequently
accessible, however large and fierce, is easily pacified or silenced by
men of the class referred to.

=BURLS, REMOVAL OF, from Cloth and Wool.= Introduce the wool or the
woollen goods into 100 litres of sulphuric acid at 6° B., in which 500
grams of alum and 250 grams of salt have been dissolved. Work in this bath
for one or two hours, drain in the centrifugal, and hang up at 100° to
120°. Wash for an hour and a half in clear water, treat for two hours with
fuller’s earth, soda and lime, and wash again for two hours. Sulphuric
acid is adapted only for whites and indigo blues. For coloured goods
solutions of chloride of tin, and chloride of manganese at 6° B., are
recommended.

=BURNS[234] and Scalds.[235]= _Treatm._ When the injury is superficial and
slight, a little creosote may be applied to the part. If a scald, the
vesicle should be first pierced with a needle, or what is better, snipped
with a pair of scissors, and the water which it contains should be then
gently squeezed out. When creosote is not procurable, a liniment formed of
equal parts of soft soap, basilicon ointment, oil of turpentine, and
water, may be used instead. When the part feels very hot and painful, a
poultice may be applied, on the surface of which a few drops of creosote,
or of the liniment, should be spread with a knife. This treatment will
generally succeed in allaying the pain. It may be followed by a dressing
of zinc ointment, or any other like simple emollient or unctuous
preparation. Creosote, contrary to what is commonly asserted, produces
scarcely any smarting or pain; whilst it rapidly removes the burning
sensation, and the charred surface soon assumes a dry scabby appearance,
which, by dressing with simple ointment, soon comes off and leaves the
part beneath in a sound and healthy state. If a poultice be applied it is
best to keep it on until the next day. Plunging the part into very cold
water immediately after the receipt of an injury of this kind will
frequently prevent any further remedy being required. Flexible collodion
painted over a burn forms a good protective envelope. In all cases cooling
laxatives should be administered; and the diet should be rather low until
the inflammatory symptoms subside.

[Footnote 234: BURN, s. sing.; AMBUS′TIO, L. BRÛLURE, Fr.; BRAND,
BRANDMAHL, Ger.]

[Footnote 235: See SCALDS (under _S_).]

_Treatment for Animals._ Carbolic dressing, exclusion of air, cotton wool,
linseed oil and lime water.

=BURNING-GLASS.= See LENS.

=BUTEA FRONDOSA=, _Roxb._ (Ind. Ph.) _Syn._ BENGAL KINO TREE. _Habitat._
Common all over India.——_Officinal part._ The inspissated juice obtained
from the stem by incision (_Buteæ Gummi_, _Kino Bengalensis_, _Bengal
kino_). It occurs in the form of irregular shining fragments, seldom as
large as a pea; more or less mixed with adherent pieces of greyish bark;
of an intense ruby colour and astringent taste; soluble, but not freely
so, in water and in alcohol. Its astringency is due to the presence of
tannic and gallic acids.——_Prop. & Uses._ Similar to those of kino, for
which it has been found an efficient substitute.——_Prep._ Same as those of
kino.

=BUTTER.= [Eng., Ger.] _Syn._ BUTY′RUM, L.; BEURRE, Fr.; BUTER, BUTERA,
Sax. The fatty matter obtained from cream by churning it.

_Manuf._ The process of making butter by the common operation of churning
is extremely simple, and is well known. The chief objects to attend to are
maintaining a proper temperature, and a certain degree of exposure to the
air. Extreme cleanliness must also be observed; the churn and other
utensils being frequently scalded out with water. When the butter is
‘come,’ it should be put into a fresh-scalded pan, or tub, which has been
standing in cold water, cold water poured on it, and after it has acquired
some hardness, it should be well beaten with a flat board until not the
least taste of the butter-milk remains, and the water, which must be often
changed, becomes quite colourless and tasteless. A little salt may then be
worked into it; after which it may be weighed and made into ‘forms,’ which
should then be thrown into cold water contained in an earthen pan provided
with a cover. In this way nice and cool butter may be obtained in the
hottest weather.

At Dumbarton the newly separated butter is put into a clean vessel, and a
corn sickle is drawn several times crosswise through it, to extract any
hairs that may adhere to it. This operation is performed in very cold
spring water, and is followed by thoroughly washing it therein. 10 oz. of
salt are now added to every stone-weight of the butter, and well mixed in.

In Devonshire the milk is generally scalded in copper pans over a charcoal
or wood fire, and the cream collected as soon as it rises, or, and more
frequently, when the whole has got cold. It is then churned in the usual
way. On the small scale the butter is commonly obtained from this cream by
patiently working it with the hand in a shallow pan or tub. Without care
the cream is apt to absorb some of the fumes from the charcoal, which
impart a peculiar taste to the butter. This is the reason why some of the
Devonshire butter has a slight smoky flavour. It may be removed by
thorough washing in cold water. Of late years, in the large dairy-farms of
Devonshire, covered flues, with openings to receive the bottoms of the
pans, have superseded open fires, by which the danger of contamination
from the fumes is removed.

_Choice._ Fresh butter has a pleasant odour and is of an equal colour
throughout its substance. If it smells sour, the butter-milk has not been
well washed out; and if it is streaked or veiny, it is probably mixed with
stale butter or lard. A good way to try butter is to thrust a knife into
it, which should not smell rancid and unpleasant when withdrawn. Rancid
and stale butter, when eaten in quantity, is capable of producing
dangerous symptoms.

_Pur._ The cheaper kinds of butter are frequently adulterated with common
wheat-flour, oatmeal, pea-flour, lard, and is sometimes mixed with suet
and turnips, as well as with a large quantity of salt and water. The trick
is concocted between the Irish factors and the London dealers. The higher
priced article is seldom mixed with anything beyond an excess of salt and
water, notwithstanding the assertions of alarmists to the contrary. The
presence of lard may be detected by the flavour and paleness of the
colour. A little of the sample adulterated with the other substances
named, if melted in a glass tube or phial, will separate into strata,
which are very marked when cold.

_Quantitative Analysis of Butter._——1. The following process for the
analysis of butter, by Mr A. H. Allen, is extracted from the ‘Chemical
News’ (xxxii, 77):——The Society of Public Analysts has adopted 80·00 per
cent. as the lowest limit of fat contained in a genuine butter.

The amount of water is best ascertained by heating 5 grams of the butter
in a small weighed beaker to a temperature of about 110° or 120° C. for an
hour or so. Some chemists merely heat the butter on a water bath.
According to the author’s experience, perfect drying is next to impossible
at that temperature.

The dried butter is next treated in the beaker with anhydrous ether, or
commercial benzoline. The former liquid is expensive and inconveniently
volatile, while it must be used in a perfectly anhydrous condition (to
avoid solution of the salt), and except when boiling has but a limited
solvent power for butter, especially when adulterated. Benzoline dissolves
fat more readily than ether; it does not volatilise so rapidly at ordinary
temperatures, it is always anhydrous and has the advantage of low price.
The “benzoline” employed by the author is made by redistilling the
commercial article from a retort immersed in a bath of boiling water.
About one third of the original bulk usually comes over readily at 100°
C., and has a gravity of 0·689.

On warming the beaker containing the benzoline the dry butter readily
dissolves. The liquid is poured on a small dry filter and washed with warm
benzoline, the filtrate being collected in a small wide beaker. If the
filter had been previously weighed, its increase of weight, after careful
drying, will of course give the quantity of curd and salt in the 5 grams
of butter taken. Except in cases in which extreme accuracy is desired, it
is preferable to scrape the residue off the filter and weigh it
separately.

The error (owing to imperfect removal) only amounts to one or two tenths
per cent. of the butter taken. As the salt is accurately estimated
afterwards, the loss falls on the curd. The salt may be determined by
careful ignition of the filter and residue, the incombustible matter
consisting almost wholly of common salt, while the curd is ascertained by
loss of weight. This method is not to be recommended; for without great
care some of the salt will be volatilised and lost, the error causing the
amount of curd to appear excessive.

Ignition also renders any further examination of the curd an
impossibility. A far preferable plan is to return the weighed curd and
salt to the filter, and to wash them with cold water. The filtrate is made
up to 100 c. c., and the salt is estimated in a half of it by titrating
with decinormal nitrate of silver. The remaining portion of the solution
can be employed for the estimation of sugar, if desired. This is effected
by inverse titration with Fehling’s copper solution, in the same way as
grape sugar. The estimation of sugar may sometimes be of interest, as a
means of ascertaining whether the aqueous portion of the butter consisted
of mere water or of serum of milk. In other words, the estimation of the
sugar may furnish a means of ascertaining whether an excess of water in
the butter is due to insufficient removal of the butter-milk, or to
subsequent incorporation of water. Every 0·001 gram of milk sugar
represents about 0·022 of average milk serum.

The residue insoluble in cold water usually consists almost wholly of
casein. If, however, the butter has been adulterated with mashed potatoes,
flour, or other starchy matters——said to be occasionally employed——they
will be found here. The presence of starch in the residue will, of course,
be readily indicated by treating it with hot water, and testing the cooled
liquid with solution of iodine. By pressing out a small portion of the
butter between two slips of glass, so as to obtain a thin film, and
observing it under the microscope (or by observing the caseous residue
after treatment with cold water), the nature of the starch may be
ascertained.

The solution of the fatty matter in benzoline is evaporated at 100° C.
till it no longer decreases in weight. The average proportion of fatty
matter in butter is about 85 per cent. If less than 80 per cent. the
butter must be considered adulterated. It is evident that a careful
estimation of the per-centage of fatty matter would often render separate
estimations of the water, curd, and salt unnecessary; for unless the sum
of the three latter constituents exceeded 20 per cent. the butter could
not be considered as adulterated, unless by an admixture of other fats.

An easy and rapid method of estimating the fat in the undried butter is
therefore a great desideratum; but unfortunately no satisfactory method is
at present known. The indirect estimation of the fat, by subtracting the
sum of the per-centages of water, curd, and salt from 100·00, ought to
agree with the direct estimation of fat within 0·5 per cent., and the
variation is often much less.

2. Dr Dupré adopts the following method: About 5 grams of the dry filtered
butter fat are weighed in a small strong flask; 25 c. c. of a normal
alcoholic soda solution are added; the flask is closed by means of a
well-fitting cauotchouc stopper, firmly secured by a piece of canvas and
string, and heated in a water-bath for about an hour. When cool the flask
is opened, the contents——which are semi-solid——carefully liquefied by
heat, and washed into a flask with hot water. This flask is now heated for
some time on a water-bath to expel the alcohol, some more hot water is
added, and 25 c. c. of diluted sulphuric acid somewhat stronger than the
alkali used, are run in. The contents are allowed to cool, and the acid
aqueous solution below the cake of fatty acids is passed through a filter.
The fatty acids in the flask are washed by hot water in the manner
recommended by Dr Muter, _i.e._, each time allowed to cool; all the
washings are passed through a filter.

The author uses no cambric, but passes everything through paper. With care
scarcely any of the fatty acid will find its way into the filter. After
the washing with water is completed and the flask drained, he washes any
fatty acid that may be on the filter into the flask by means of a mixture
of alcohol and ether on a water bath, and finally dries the fatty acids in
the flask at a temperature of 105° C. The drying can be done readily if
the melted fat is now and then shaken briskly, so as to subdivide the
water as much as possible. In this way the acids when once in the flask
are not taken out until their weight has been taken, thus reducing the
risk of loss to a minimum. Meanwhile the acidity of the aqueous filtrate
and washings is estimated by decinormal soda solution. Subtracting from
the amount required to the proportion necessary to neutralise the excess
of acid added in decomposing the soap, the rest represents the soluble
fatty acids contained in the butter taken, and on the assumption of its
being butyric acid, we can, of course, calculate the amount of this acid
present. When once the equivalent of the soluble acids present in butter
is fairly determined, this, of course, will have to be substituted for
that of butyric acid. The results thus obtained are very accurate, and the
process is very simple in execution.

The author has satisfied himself by repeated experiments that the
alkalinity of the alcoholic soda solution by itself is not altered by the
process. The author places no reliance on the specific gravity test, as he
finds that mutton dripping, and other fats likely to be used as
adulterants of butter, may acquire a specific gravity above ·911 by being
strongly and repeatedly heated. He thinks, however, that any sample of
butter below ·911 may safely be pronounced adulterated.

In a subsequent note Dr Dupré states that he has effected the
saponification, decomposition of the soap, and the washing and drying of
the fatty acids at ordinary temperature, thus still further reducing the
risk of breaking up the higher into lower acids. The saponification is
readily effected by using a sufficiency of alcoholic soda. Between four
and five grams of the dry butter fat were shaken up for several minutes
with 100 c. c. of normal alcoholic soda. The butter soon dissolves, but
after a time the solution gelatinises to a clear transparent mass. (The
temperature of the laboratory at the time of these experiments ranged
between 22° and 50°.) This jelly is now allowed to stand over night,
during which time the smell of butyric ether, very strong at first,
entirely disappears. In one of the experiments the alcohol was allowed to
evaporate spontaneously before the acid was added; in the other (made with
a different sample of butter) the soap was dissolved in about half a litre
of water, and at once decomposed by the addition of hydrochloric acid.

The fatty acids which separated in white curdy masses were thoroughly
washed on a filter with cold water, about four litres, dried in vacuo over
oil of vitriol, and weighed. The results of experiment show that butter
fat yields the same proportion of insoluble fatty acids when saponified
with or without the aid of heat.

3. Mr Gatehouse. _Rapid Method of Detecting the Adulteration of Butter
with other Fats._ The following comparative method is based upon the
insolubility of potassium stearate in alkaline solutions when the stearate
has been produced at high temperatures:

Before applying the test it is essential to remove all curd, butter-milk,
and salt, by washing with hot water or dissolving in ether. Twenty grains
of the butter are placed in a large test-tube one third full with water
boiled thoroughly and allowed to stand till the fat separates. The fat is
either dissolved in ether, and after evaporation saponified, or the lower
layer of the liquid is drawn off by a pipette as follows:——A thin glass
tube is drawn out to a fairly fine point and bent at the top to an obtuse
angle. Whilst the butter is still liquid this nozzle is inserted into the
bottom of the test-tube, placing the finger over the upper end to prevent
any liquid from getting in till it reaches the bottom. When fairly cold
the liquid may be withdrawn by a pipette attached to the tube. This
process can be repeated till the washings are free from chlorides.

The saponification is effected by heating the purified butter with 1/3-1/2
of its own weight of pure solid potassium hydrate (purified by alcohol) to
a temperature above 420° F.; applying the heat gently at first, and when
the frothing ceases, heating it more strongly, till no further apparent
action occurs. The ultimate temperature during saponification must be kept
above 400° for some minutes, otherwise the sterate formed will be soluble
instead of insoluble in the alkaline solution.

If the butter is pure, the colour of the residue will be at the utmost
light yellow, but should the butter be adulterated to any extent, it may
be almost black. Too much reliance must not, however, be placed on the
colour.

After allowing the tube and its contents to cool, the mass is boiled with
successive portions of distilled water till 6 oz. (or 200 c. c.)
altogether have been used. If the butter is pure, a portion of this
solution poured into a test-tube will present only a faint opalescence;
if, on the other hand, the butter is impure, a decided opacity will be
perceived, the degree depending upon the amount of adulteration.

The amount of adulteration in any sample is determined by first obtaining
pure butter and adding to separate portions of it known per-centages of
lard, &c. Each of these can be saponified as stated above; they are then
corked up in tubes of equal diameter and labelled with the per-centage of
lard they contain. On comparing them it will be seen that 2 per cent. of
lard can be clearly indicated.

When a butter is analysed all that is wanted is to saponify, make up to
the correct strength, and after cooling pour into a test-tube and compare
with the specimen tubes.

4. Dr Redwood. _The Determination of the Melting Points of Butter and
other Fats._ The apparatus in the form best suited for general use
consists of a basin, two small beakers, and a thermometer. The author uses
an enamelled iron basin about six inches in diameter, and three and a half
inches deep. In this is placed a beaker four and a half inches deep and
three inches in diameter, and within this beaker is placed another much
smaller one, supported by its projecting rim on a disk of tinplate or
copper, the outer edge of which rests on the mouth of the larger beaker.
Some mercury is put in the smaller beaker to the depth of about an inch,
and cold water into the larger beaker, so that its surface shall be half
an inch or an inch higher than that of the mercury.

A small drop of the fat which has been previously melted and heated to
several degrees above its melting-point, but has been allowed to cool
again to near its setting point, is put on the surface of the cold
mercury. This is best done by means of a thin glass rod about one eighth
of an inch in diameter, the end of which has been rounded off in the
blow-pipe flame.

It is important that the drop should be very small, and its temperature
when placed on the mercury not much above its melting point, for if it be
too hot it will spread over the surface of the mercury, which is not
desirable.

If the rounded end of the rod be slightly dipped into the melted fat, and
then brought to the surface of the mercury, a small hemispherical particle
will attach itself there and speedily congeal, becoming more or less
opaque in doing so. The weight of one of these hemispherical masses, which
should not be more than the eighth of an inch in diameter, will be from
1/50 to 1/10 of a grain. Having placed the drop of fat upon the mercury,
the bulb of a thermometer, with sufficiently minute graduations, is
introduced into the mercury and hot water poured into the basin. The heat
is thus communicated to the contents of the small beaker slowly through
the water in the larger beaker, and the rise of temperature in the mercury
may be easily regulated, and should take place at the rate of about one
degree per minute.

The mercury, by virtue of its comparatively good conducting power,
acquires a uniform temperature throughout, which is indicated by the
thermometer, and at the same time communicated to the fat. The fat when
the temperature approaches its melting point becomes partially
transparent, and if the stem or elongated bulb of the thermometer be now
brought up against it, the moment fusion takes place the liquid fat will
run into the channel formed by the repulsion of the mercury and the
outside of the thermometer tube. This process presents the following
advantages:——

1. The heat-conducting power of the mercury, on which the fat is placed,
ensures the equalisation of the temperature as indicated by the
thermometer, and at the same time communicated to the fat.

2. The direct contact of the fat with the mercury, without the
intervention of a bad conducting medium, such as glass, ensures a more
immediate and correct indication of the temperature at which liquefaction
takes place than would otherwise occur.

3. The minuteness of the quantity of fat operated upon reduces to a
minimum the time occupied in its melting, and thus facilitates the
determination with exactness of its melting point.

4. The time occupied in preparing small tubes and charging them with the
fat is saved, and several experiments in succession may be easily and
rapidly made with the same apparatus. The author observed that in butter
as well as other fats, such as tallows, there were at least two melting
points, dependent upon the way in which the fat had been previously
subjected to the action of heat, and that they may differ in butter to the
extent of 3° or 4° F.; the low melting point being that of the fat after
it has been heated to several degrees above its first melting point, and
the higher melting point being that of fat which has been previously
melted to the lowest possible temperature, and then immediately allowed to
congeal.

5. Professor Wanklyn carefully weighs one gram of butter, and heats it in
a platinum dish of the size shown in the accompanying figure, from four to
six hours or even more——in short, until it ceases to lose weight. The loss
of weight is the water, which should be calculated and expressed in
per-centages.

_Fat._ The dried butter is now to be heated with ether (the ether should
be made to boil by floating the dish in hot water). Several successive
portions should be taken, the whole passed through a filter, the filter
well washed with ether, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness and
weighed.

_Caseine and Ash._ The residue from which the fat and water have been
extracted is now to be taken, carefully weighed, then burned down to a low
red heat; the residue remaining is the ash, the loss the caseine.

[Illustration: Butter-analysing dish.]

The amount of ash, practically speaking, is the salt, but if there be any
doubt as to its composition, the chlorine maybe estimated by a volumetric
solution of nitrate of silver, and further examined.

The following table shows the composition of a few genuine and other
butters, examined according to the same, or at least to a similar process
to the one described:——

  --------------------+------+-----------+------+--------+-----------------+------------------
                      |      |   Ash,    |      |        |                 |
                      | Fat. |principally|Water.|Caseine.|    Quality.     |
                      |      |   Salt.   |      |        |                 |
  --------------------+------+-----------+------+--------+-----------------+------------------
  Fresh Devonshire    |82·7  |   1·1     |16·2  | 16·2   |Good.            |WANKLYN.
    butter.           |      |           |      |        |                 |
  Normandy butter.    |82·1  |   1·8     |16·1  | 16·1   |   ”             |   ”
  Jersey butter.      |78·491|   8·528   |10·445|  2·536 |   ”             |ANGELL AND HEHNER.
  Normandy butter.    |82·643|   2·915   | 9·305|  5·137 |   ”             |
  Butter from Ventnor.|86·280|   6·600   | 3·831|  3·289 |Found to be      |        ”
                      |      |           |      |        |  adulterated    |
                      |      |           |      |        |  with foreign   |
                      |      |           |      |        |  fat.           |
  Butter from London. |87·50 |   1·559   |23·981| 6·880  |Adulterated  with|        ”
                      |      |           |      |        |  water.         |
      ”       ”       |47·119|   2·689   |42·358| 7·834  |Adulterated with |        ”
                      |      |           |      |        |  water, and     |
                      |      |           |      |        |  contains an    |
                      |      |           |      |        |  excess of curd.|
  --------------------+------+-----------+------+--------+-----------------+-----------------

6. _A Method of Detecting Meat Fats in Butter._ Mr Horsley, writing to the
‘Chemical News,’ September, 1874, says:——“My starting point is, that fresh
butter is permanently soluble in methylated ether, sp. gr. 0·730 at the
temperature of 65° Fahr. But with the view of seeing if any other
substance it may contain could be precipitated from it, I took, say, 20 or
25 grains of fresh butter, placed it in a small test-tube, and poured over
it one drachm of methylated ether, and on corking the tube it readily
dissolved after a few minutes’ agitation. I then added 30 drops of
methylated alcohol, 63° o. p., and agitated again, but nothing was
precipitated. I, therefore, made another experiment with 15 grains of
butter and 10 grains of prepared mutton fat, dissolved them in 1 drachm of
ether first, and added 30 drops of alcohol, when in less than half an hour
the fat was precipitated in a room heated to 68° Fahr. Next, in order to
see the effects upon mixtures of known fats, such as lard, beef, mutton,
and tallow fats properly melted together in proportions of 60 grains of
butter and 40 of fat, and stirring till cold, I found that each of them
could, by a similar procedure, be precipitated in a few minutes. In one
case, that of mutton, I filtered off the ethereal liquid, and collected
the residue, and obtained as much as 30 per cent. of what had been used;
so that there is no longer any doubt about easily detecting fatty
adulterations in butter. Lastly, I would observe that crystallisation of
butter, out of the ethereal solution at a lower temperature than 65°, must
not be mistaken for the fats precipitated by alcohol alluded to, as the
butter, besides being so much lighter, occupies the upper layer, and is
different in character and easily remelted by the application of the warm
hand for a minute or so.

“Further experiments have proved that half an hour suffices to effect the
full precipitation of fats from the ethereal solutions by the addition of
20 drops or so of alcohol to the drachm of ether, containing not more than
25 grains of the adulterated butter; after which the tube should be
agitated and its contents projected on to a small double filter, washed
with a little alcohol, and the residue whilst moist scraped off, and
transferred to a watch-glass to dry. In this way loss by melting and
absorption into the paper is obviated.

“The following were the proportions of fats I recovered, viz.——

  Lard             60 per cent.
  Mutton fat       75    ”
  Beef fat         95    ”

The precipitated mutton fat is powdery, and white as snow. Lard and beef
are more adherent and greasy; for that reason mutton makes the firmest
compound.”

7. _On the Cooling of Fats._ At a meeting of the University of Edinburgh
Chemical Society, held on March 13th, 1878, a paper on the above subject
was read by Mr Treharne, M.B.C.M., wherein the author states:——“If equal
bulks of the fats of mutton, beef, pork, and butter, and palm oil be
heated to 100° C. in small flasks fitted with a thermometer through the
cork, and then allowed to cool by radiation under the same conditions for
each, temperature is found to fall regularly to a certain point (which is
different for each of the facts above named) and then to rise to a certain
turning point. These turning points are approximately as follows:——

  For Mutton fat      40° C.
   ”  Beef     ”      28·5° C.
   ”  Pork     ”      26·5° ”
   ”  Butter   ”      23·5° ”
   ”  Palm oil        21·0° ”

The extent of the rise in temperature is different in each fat, being
greatest in that of mutton, and least in that of butter and palm oil. The
extent of the rise is also greater within certain limits the greater the
quantity of fat employed; but as a rule the turning point is pretty
constant for the same fat. There is also a little difference in the
turning points and the extent of rise according to the part of the carcase
from which the fat has been taken. If temperature and time be taken as
co-ordinates, and the rate of cooling be represented by curves, these
latter will be characteristic of the respective fats. A mixture of equal
parts of mutton and butter fats does not give a curve intermediate between
those of its two components; but is such as to indicate that less heat is
given out on cooling (to 20° C say) than in the case of butter, which,
compared with mutton fat, gives off very little heat.”

For further information on the subject of ‘Butter’ the reader is referred
to a Report by Mr Bell——the principal of the Chemical Laboratory at
Somerset House——to the Board of Inland Revenue, included in a return made
to the House of Commons in 1876.

_Preservation._ 1. Melt the butter in a stoneware or a well-glazed earthen
pan set in a water bath at a heat not exceeding 180° Fahr., and keep it
heated, skimming it from time to time until it becomes quite transparent;
then pour off the clear portion into another vessel, and cool it as
quickly as possible by placing the vessel in very cold water or ice. This
is the method employed by the Tartars who supply the Constantinople
market. In this state it may be preserved perfectly fresh for 6 or 9
months, if kept in a close vessel and a cool place. This is the plan so
strongly recommended by M. Thénard. Mr Eaton states that butter melted by
the Tartarian method, and then salted by ours, will keep good and
fine-tasted for two years.

2. Saltpetre and white sugar, of each 1 oz.; best Spanish great-salt (or
Cheshire large-grained salt), 2 oz.; all in very fine powder; mix
thoroughly, and add 1 oz. of this mixture to every lb. of butter, and
thoroughly incorporate them together. The butter thus prepared is then to
be tightly pressed into clean glazed earthenware vessels (or well-seasoned
casks), so as to leave no vacuities. This plan is recommended by Dr
Anderson, who declares that “butter so prepared will keep in a cool place
for years; and will bear a voyage to the East Indies, if packed (stowed)
so as not to melt.” It does not taste well before it has stood for three
or four weeks, after which it acquires a rich marrow-like flavour, which
no other butter ever possesses. A good method to preserve the butter from
the air is to fill the pots to within an inch of the top, then to lay on
it some coarse-grained salt to the depth of a 1/4 to 1/2 an inch, and
lastly to cover each pot with a slate, plate, or other flat article. The
salt by long keeping runs to brine, which forms an air-tight layer on the
top of the butter, and may at any time be very easily removed by turning
the pot on one side.

3. Fresh butter, 21 lbs.; salt, 1 lb.; saltpetre, 1 oz. These are the
common proportions for the best salt butter of the shops.

4. Fresh butter, 18 lbs.; salt, 1 lb.; saltpetre, 1-1/2 oz.; honey or fine
brown sugar, 2 oz. Superior to No. 3.

_Concl. Remarks._ It may be useful to know that rancid butter may be
restored, or, in all cases, greatly improved, by melting it in a water
bath with some fresh-burnt and coarsely powdered animal charcoal (which
has been thoroughly freed from dust by sifting), and straining it through
clean flannel. A better and less troublesome method is to well wash the
butter first with some good new milk, and next with cold spring water.
Butyric acid, on the presence of which rancidity depends, is freely
soluble in fresh milk.

The turnip-flavour arising from the cows being fed on turnips or cabbages
is said to be removed by one or other of the following methods:——1. When
the milk is strained into the pans put to every 6 galls. 1 gal. of boiling
water.——2. Dissolve 1 oz. of nitre in a pint of spring water, and put a
1/4 pint of the solution to every 15 galls. of milk.——3. Keep back a 1/4
pint of the sour cream when you churn, and put it into a well-scalded pot,
into which you are to gather the next cream; stir that well, and do so
with every fresh addition. Each of these methods come on good authority,
but we are bound to say that our own experience does not confirm their
constant success. We have found that the addition of a handful of salt to
the water used to wash the butter is as good a plan as any.

=Butter, Ancho′vy.= From anchovies (boned and beaten to a paste), 1 part;
butter, 2 parts; spice, q. s.

=Butter-colouring= (from Paris). A mixture of 40 per cent. of chrome
yellow with some fat coloured with annatto. (Flückiger and Weil.)

=Butter, Clar′ified.= Fresh butter melted in a water bath, allowed to
settle, and the clear portion poured into an earthenware basin or pot, set
in cold water, so as to cool it as quickly as possible, without allowing
it to crystallise. It keeps a long time without becoming rank. See BUTTER,
No. 1 (_antè_).

=Butter, Hon′ey.= Fine Narbonne honey, 2 to 4 oz.; mixed with good butter,
1 lb. Used as a delicacy for children, and by the sick and aged.

=Butter, Lem′on.= See BUTTER, ORANGE.

=Butter, Melt′ed.= This well-known sauce may be prepared of excellent
quality as follows:——Beat up about 1 oz. of fine flour with 4 oz. of
butter, in the cold, until they are evenly and thoroughly mixed, then add
4 or 5 table-spoonfuls of hot milk, put the whole into a small saucepan,
and continue shaking it, all in one direction, until it simmers very
gently; lastly, remove it from the fire, and pour it into the butter-boats
for use. These last should be filled with hot water, and then emptied and
wiped dry, before putting the melted butter into them. See SAUCES.

=Butter, Or′ange.= _Prep._ 1. From 6 eggs, 2 oz. of powdered sugar, and 4
oz. of butter, well beaten together with a little orange-flower water.
Sometimes 1 or 2 oz. of blanched almonds, or of almond-paste, is added.

2. Butter, 1 lb.; syrup of orange peel, 4 oz. Both are eaten as a
delicacy. LEMON BUTTER, is made in a similar manner.

=Butter of An′timony*‡.= Trichloride of antimony.

=Butter of Caca′o.= See CO′COA, and CO′COA-NUT OIL.

=Butter of Nut′megs.= Collected from the surface of the water in the
still, after the distillation of the essential oil of nutmegs.

=Butter of Ro′ses.= Obtained by distilling damask roses. It separates
slowly from the water in the receiver. It has little smell, and is hence
used to dilute the odour of musk, ambergris, and civet.

=Butter of Wax.= Prepared by distilling bees′-wax. A factitious kind is
also made.

=Butter of Zinc*‡.= Chloride of zinc.

=Butter Powder= (from the Adler-Apotheke Emmerich on the Rhine).
Bicarbonate of soda. (Dr U. Kreusler.)

=Butter Powder= (Lemmel, Schleswig-Holstein). An impure bicarbonate of
soda, coloured with turmeric. (Hirschberg.)

=Butter Powder, Schuhrer’s= (Emil Schührer, Mutzschen, Saxony). This, it
is claimed, will considerably increase the yield of butter, shorten the
process of churning, and yield a product which will be firm even in the
height of summer, well-flavoured, of a handsome colour, and of excellent
commercial value. It consists of a tolerably pure commercial bicarbonate
of soda, with 1/2 per cent. of powdered turmeric. (Dr Peters.)

=Butter Powder, Tomlinson’s= (Tomlinson & Co., Lincoln, England). Ordinary
bicarbonate of soda, coloured with 3/4 per cent. of annatto. (Dr
Karmrodt.)

=Butter-preservative Paste= (from Spaa). Consists of common salt, 52
parts; nitre, 23 parts; syrup, 5 parts. (Wittstein.)

=BUTTERINE.= A substance known under this name, and intended as a
substitute for butter, is imported into this country from New York.

Of butterine Dr CAMPBELL BROWN remarks:——“In general appearance, taste,
and consistence, it is very similar to ordinary butter; but
notwithstanding that its solidifying point is lower than that of some
butters, it retains much of the peculiar crumbly texture and fracture of
dripping.

“It softens at 78° F., and melts at 86°. When heated and slowly cooled it
obscures the thermometer at 62° and solidifies at 60°. It contains——

  Water        11·25  to   8·5
  Salt          1·03   ”   5·5
  Curd          0·57   ”   0·6
  Fat          87·15   ”  85·4
              ——————    ——————
              100·00    100·00

“The fat consists of oleine, palmitine, margarine, a trace of stearine,
and about 5 or 6 per cent. of butter. When dissolved in about four times
its weight of ether, and allowed to evaporate spontaneously, it does not
deposit any fat until more than half of the ether has passed off, and if
the temperature is not below 60° the deposit is not solid.

“The first deposit when dried fuses at 108°; the second deposit fuses at
88°, and solidifies at 64°.

“Under the microscope butterine does not appear to consist of acicular
crystals of fat, but of irregular masses, containing a few butter
globules, particles of curd, and crystals of salt. With polarised light
the irregular crystalline structure is beautifully seen, and is clearly
distinguishable from butter which has been melted and recongealed. When
old and rancid it acquires the odour and taste of dripping, but it keeps
longer undecomposed than butter. When fresh it is a wholesome substitute
for real butter. No one can reasonably take exception to its sale.

“Butterine may be detected by the following characters:——

“1. Its crumbly fracture.

“2. Its loss of colour when kept melted for a short time at 212°.

“3. The behaviour of its ethereal solution.

“4. Its action on polarised light.”

The ‘American Chemist’ for 1876 contains an interesting paper by Mr Henry
Mott on the manufacture of artificial butter, which is too lengthy for
insertion here.

=BUTTER-MILK.= The liquid that remains after the butter is separated from
the cream.

_Qual., &c._ Butter-milk left from the churning of sweet cream is not only
very delicious, but exceedingly wholesome and nutritious. It is eaten with
fruit, puddings, and cakes, and is said to possess the property of
allaying the nervous irritability induced by excessive tea-drinking. It is
an admirable beverage in rickets, diabetes, and many stomach affections.
An American physician has recently asserted that it induces longevity. See
MILK.

=BUTTONS.= See BRASS, GILDING, &c.

=BU′TYRATE.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ BU′TYRAS, L. A salt in which the hydrogen
of butyric acid is replaced by a basic radical.

=Butyrate of Barium.= _Prep._ Saponify butter with a boiling solution of
caustic alkali, and decompose the resulting soap by adding a solution of
tartaric acid; filter and distil; neutralise the distillate with hydrate
of barium, and evaporate; the first crystals that form are caprate of
barium; the next, caproate of barium; and the last, butyrate of barium.
This salt is very soluble in water, and hence is easily separated from the
others.——_Use._ Chiefly for making butyric acid.

=BUTYRIC= (-tĭr′-). _Syn._ BUTYR′ICUS, L.; BUTYRIQUE, Fr. Of or from
butter.

=BUTYRIC ACID.= HC_{4}H_{7}O_{2}. _Syn._ ACIDUM BUTY̆̆R′ICUM, L.; ACIDE
BUTYRIQUE, Fr.; BUTTERSÄURE, Ger. An oily acid, first obtained by Chevreul
from butter.

_Prep._ From butyrate of barium or magnesium, by adding sulphuric acid in
quantity not quite sufficient to decompose the whole of the salt; the
clear liquid, filtered and distilled, yields butyric acid, from which the
water may be removed by digestion with chloride of calcium.

_Prop._ A thin colourless liquid, of pungent rancid odour, and sour taste,
miscible with water and alcohol. It boils and distils unchanged at 327°
Fahr. Sp. gr. ·963. See ETHERS.

=BU′TYRIN= (-in). [Eng., Fr.] An oily substance existing in butter, and of
which it forms the characteristic portion. It was discovered by Chevreul.

_Prep._ Keep clarified butter in a porcelain vessel, at a heat of 66°, for
some days; carefully collect the oily portion which separates, mix it with
an equal weight of alcohol of the sp. gr. ·796, and agitate it frequently
for 24 hours; after repose pour off the clear portion, and evaporate it;
treat the oily residuum with a little carbonate of magnesium, to remove
free acid, and wash off the butyrate of magnesium, thus formed, with
water; lastly, heat the remaining fatty matter in alcohol, filter, and
evaporate, by a gentle heat; the residuum is butyrin.

=BUXINE= (-ĭn). A substance detected by M. Faure in _bux′us
semper′virens_, or the common box-tree.


=CABBAGE.= _Syn._ BRAS′SICA, L.; CHOU, Fr.; KOHL, Ger. This common
esculent, and all its numerous varieties, are merely cultivated specimens
of the wild sea-cabbage of our coasts (_bras′sica olera′cea_, Linn.), one
of an extensive and valuable genus of plants belonging to the nat. ord.
Cruciferæ. After the potato, the cabbage is doubtless more extensively
used by the masses of the people than any other fresh vegetable. When
young, and properly dressed, it forms an agreeable and wholesome addition
to animal food, the grossness of which, it is said, it tends to correct.
It should be eaten only when fresh gathered and fresh cooked; and the
unconsumed portion, as well as the water in which it has been boiled,
should be at once thrown away. Persons troubled with a weak digestion, or
who have a tendency to flatulence, diarrhœa, or worms, would do well to
avoid them. Their use is particularly serviceable in scurvy, and in
numerous skin diseases.

It has been asserted that cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, celery, and
several other culinary vegetables, may be preserved in a fresh state for
some time, by cutting them so that they may have about two inches of stem
left below the leaves, scooping out the pith as far down as a small knife
will reach, and then suspending them perpendicularly by means of a cord,
in an inverted position, in some cool situation, and daily filling up the
bottom part of the stem with clean cold water. In this way it is stated
that a supply of green vegetables may be readily obtained during a severe
winter, and on ship-board. Other methods, including those usually adopted
with the same object, are noticed under VEGETABLES (Culinary).

Cabbages, broccoli, &c., are dressed by simply throwing them into boiling
water, and simmering them until tender. A few minutes is sufficient for
this purpose. A pinch of salt of tartar, or of carbonate of soda, is
commonly added to the water, to preserve the green colour of the
vegetables.

=CACHOU AROMATISE= (kăshoo ărŏmătēzā). [Fr.] A mouth-lozenge intended to
sweeten and perfume the breath. Preparations of this description are much
used by smokers and bacchanals. The form under which they are generally
prepared for sale is that of 1-1/2 to 2 gr. pills, neatly silvered.
Originally they were composed chiefly of catechu and sugar, flavoured and
perfumed with the stronger aromatics; but at the present day the catechu,
from which they derive their name, is not unfrequently omitted. Their
preparation is described elsewhere. See BREATH, LOZENGES, PASTILS, &c.

=CAD′MIUM.= Cd. [Eng., L.] _Syn._ KLAPRO′THIUM. A metal discovered by
Stromeyer and Hermann, in the ores of zinc.

_Prep._ 1. (Stromeyer.) The cadmo-zincic ore is dissolved in an excess of
dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid by heat; a stream of sulphuretted
hydrogen is passed through the solution, the resulting precipitate
(sulphide of cadmium) dissolved in nitric acid, and the solution
evaporated to dryness; the residuum is dissolved in water, the solution
precipitated with carbonate of ammonium in excess, and the precipitate
(carbonate of cadmium) collected, mixed with charcoal, and heated to
redness in a crucible apparatus so arranged as to condense the fumes; the
cadmium sublimes.

2. (Wollaston.) A solution of the ore obtained as above is placed in a
platinum capsule, and a piece of metallic zinc is plunged into it. In a
short time the cadmium is precipitated, and attaches itself to the sides
of the capsule, when it is collected, washed, and dried.

3. (Herapath.) When zinc is obtained by distilling its ores, per
descensum, the first portion of the metallic fumes evolved burn with a
brownish flame, and deposit oxide of cadmium, which is subsequently
reduced by distillation with charcoal. Thousands of pounds of cadmium are
yearly wasted at the zinc works which might be easily collected in a
similar manner.

_Prop., &c._ Resembles tin in most of its physical properties, being
white, soft, and malleable. Sp. gr. 8·61. Stromeyer gives its melting
point as 442° Fahr., but Dr Wood, an American chemist, states that the
metal requires for its fusion nearly the same heat as lead, and gives it
as about 600° Fahr. It volatilises at a somewhat higher temperature,
giving off orange-coloured, suffocating fumes, which, when inhaled too
freely, leave a disagreeable, sweetish, styptic sensation upon the lips,
and a persistent brassy taste in the mouth, with constriction of the
throat, heaviness in the head, and nausea. The alloys of cadmium are said
to be brittle by almost all who have treated of them, but Wood found that
many were extremely tenacious, as, for instance, the combination of 2
parts of silver and 1 part of cadmium, which is perfectly malleable and
very strong. The amalgam of equal parts of cadmium and mercury is also
highly malleable. Like bismuth, cadmium has the property of promoting
fusibility in certain alloys; thus, a remarkable fusible metal may be
formed by melting together cadmium 1 to 2 parts, lead 2 parts, and tin 4
parts.

_Tests._ Its ores and salts are recognised as follows:——1. Mixed with
carbonate of sodium, and exposed on a charcoal support to the reducing
flame of the blowpipe, the charcoal becomes almost instantly covered with
a reddish-yellow incrustation of oxide of cadmium, commonly forming a
circle or zone.——2. Caustic soda and potassa give a white precipitate
(hydrated oxide) in solutions containing cadmium, insoluble in excess of
the precipitant.——3. Ammonia gives a similar white precipitate, freely
soluble in excess.——4. The alkaline carbonates give white precipitates
(carbonate of cadmium), insoluble in excess.——5. Sulphuretted hydrogen,
and sulphydrate of ammonium, give a bright yellow precipitate (sulphide of
cadmium), which is insoluble in dilute acid, alkalies, sulphides, and
cyanide of potassium, but readily soluble in both hydrochloric acid and
nitric acid, especially with heat.——6. The salts of cadmium are readily
distinguished from those of arsenic, by the precipitated sulphide being
insoluble in ammonia, and soluble in hydrochloric acid, and being capable
of sustaining a white heat without subliming.

=Cadmium, Car′bonate of.= CdCO_{3}. _Syn._ CAD′MII CAR′BONAS, L. From a
solution of sulphate or chloride of cadmium, and an alkaline carbonate;
the precipitate being collected, washed, and dried by a gentle heat. A
white powder.

=Cadmium, Chlo′′ride of.= CdCl_{2}. _Syn._ HYDROCHLO′′RATE OF CADMIUM,
MU′′RIATE OF CADMIUM; CAD′MII CHLORI′DUM, CAD′MII HYDROCHLO′′RAS, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Pure.) By dissolving carbonate or oxide of cadmium in
hydrochloric acid, and crystallising by gentle evaporation. Prismatic
crystals; very soluble in water.

2. (Turner.) By exposing the product of the last process to heat.
Amorphous.

3. From crude cadmium or its oxide, and hydrochloric acid, as last.

=Cadmium, I′odide of.= CdI_{2}. _Syn._ HYDRI′ODATE OF CADMIUM; CAD′′MII
IODI′DUM, C. HYDRIO′DAS, L.

_Prep._ (Crookes.) Cadmium in filings 1 part, pure iodine 2 parts, are to
be placed together in a capacious flask, with alcohol sufficient to cover
them. Action commences at once, attended with considerable evolution of
heat; when it ceases, heat the mixture till it is colourless; then filter
from a few grains of cadmium which will remain undissolved, evaporate and
crystallise.

_Uses._ In photography this salt has lately been employed with great
success for iodizing collodion. Being very stable, it is not decomposed,
and the collodion iodized with it preserves its sensitiveness undiminished
during many months. (See COLLODION.) In _medicine_ it is used occasionally
as a substitute for iodide of lead.

=Cadmium, Ox′ide of.= CdO. _Syn._ PROTOX′IDE OF CADMIUM; CAD′MII OXY′DUM,
L. _Prep._ 1. (Hydrated.) From sulphate or chloride of cadmium, and a
solution of caustic alkali; observing to well wash and dry the
precipitate. A white powder, freely soluble in acids.

2. (Anhydrous.) By igniting the hydrated oxide, or the carbonate or
nitrate of cadmium. That from the first two has a pale brown colour; that
from the nitrate has a dark brown tint and a semi-crystalline appearance.
The former has been proposed to be used as a pigment.

=Cadmium, Sul′phate of.= CdSO_{4}. _Syn._ CAD′MII SUL′PHAS, CAD′MIUM
SULPHU′RICUM, KLAPRO′THRIUM SULPHU′RICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. From carbonate or
oxide of cadmium and dilute sulphuric acid, as the chloride.

2. (Cottereau.) Oxide of cadmium, 1 oz.; sulphuric acid, q. s.; dissolve,
evaporate, and crystallise.

3. (Pereira.) Sulphuric acid, 6-1/2 parts; water, 15 parts; mix; add
cadmium, 7 parts; dissolve, evaporate to dryness, redissolve in water,
filter, and evaporate by a gentle heat, so that crystals may form.

_Prop., &c._ Efflorescent, rectangular, prismatic crystals; very soluble
in water; tastes astringent. It is about 4 times as strong as sulphate of
zinc, and is used in similar cases. _Dose_, 3 to 10 gr. _Externally_ (1/2
to 3 or 4 gr. to water, 1 oz.); in specks of the eye, opacity of the
cornea, chronic ophthalmia, &c. As an ointment, 10 to 12 gr. to lard, 1
oz.

=Cadmium, Sul′phide of.= CdS. _Syn._ CADMIUM YELLOW. This occurs native as
GREENOCK′ITE. It may be prepared artificially, either by fusing its
elements together, or by passing a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen through
a solution of the chloride, nitrate, or sulphate. When prepared
artificially, it is of a bright yellow or orange colour, and is of great
value to the artist. It has been used in making fireworks. See FIRES,
_Coloured_.

=Cadmium, Yellow.= See CADMIUM, SULPHIDE OF (_above_), and YELLOW
PIGMENTS.

=CÆSALPINA (GUILANDINA) BONDUCELLA.= (Ind. Ph.) _Habitat._ Tropical
portions of both hemispheres.——_Officinal part._ The seeds (_Bonducellæ
semina_, _Bonduc seeds_); of a somewhat irregular sub-spherical or
ovoid form, usually from 5/8 to 6/8 of an inch in diameter, smooth,
hard, and lead-coloured, and contain an amylaceous white nucleus,
having a bitter taste. They contain a fixed oil, resin, and a bitter
principle.——_Properties._ Tonic and antiperiodic.——_Therapeutic uses._ In
intermittent fevers; also in debility, and other cases requiring
tonics.——_Dose_, 10 to 15 grains twice daily.

COMPOUND POWDER OF BONDUC (_Pulvis Bonducellæ compositus_). Take of bonduc
seeds, deprived of their shells and powdered, 1 oz.; black pepper,
powdered, 1 oz. Mix thoroughly, and keep in a well-stoppered
bottle.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 gr., three times a day.

=CÆSIUM.= [Eng., L.] Cæ. A metal belonging to the alkaline group,
discovered by Bunsen in the mineral water of Durckheim by means of
SPECTRUM ANALYSIS (which _see_), and so named by him from _cæsius_,
greyish-blue, the colour of its characteristic ray.

=CAFFE′IC ACID.= _Syn._ CHLOROGE′NIC ACID. A white powder, discovered by
Runge in coffee, in which it exists in combination with potassium
(caffeiate of potassium), and caffeine, and is then very soluble in
alcohol. Pfaff states that the aroma of coffee is dependent on the
volatilisation, or, rather, the decomposition of this acid.

=CAFFE′INE.= C_{8}H_{10}N_{4}O_{2}. _Syn._ CAFFE′INA, THÉINE, GUARANINE. A
peculiar nitrogenised principle, discovered by Robiquet in coffee. It is,
moreover, the essential principle of tea, of Paraguay tea, and of Guarana,
infusions of which are used as beverages in different parts of the world.
The proportion of caffeine to the pound was found by Liebig to be as
stated below in the six descriptions of coffee named:——

  Martinique       32 grains.
  Alexandrian      22   ”
  Java             22   ”
  Mocha            20   ”
  Cayenne          19   ”
  St Dominique     16   ”

In Hyson tea it exists in the proportion of from 2·5 to 3·4 per cent.; and
in gunpowder tea from 2·2 to 4·1. In Paraguay tea, or _maté_ as it is
called in Brazil, and in Guarana, it exists in the proportion of ·13 per
cent.

_Prep._ 1. Coarsely powdered raw or unroasted coffee is boiled in water,
and subacetate of lead added to the filtered decoction to throw down the
extractive and colouring matter; the excess of lead is next precipitated
with sulphuretted hydrogen, and the liquid filtered and evaporated by a
gentle heat; the residuum is dissolved in boiling water, the solution
agitated with freshly burnt animal charcoal, filtered, evaporated, and
crystallised. By redissolving the product in hot alcohol, it may be
obtained in white, shining, silky filaments, as the solution cools.

2. (H. J. Versman.) Quick-lime, 2 lbs.; water, q. s. to form a hydrate;
raw coffee (bruised), 10 lbs.; mix, put it into a displacement apparatus,
and cause alcohol of 80% to percolate through the mixture, until the fluid
obtained no longer contains caffeine; the mass in the percolator is then
roughly ground to powder, mixed with a fresh quantity of quick-lime, and
the process of percolation repeated with fresh alcohol, as before. The
spirit is next distilled from the mixed tinctures in a retort, and the
residuum washed with a little warm water to remove the oil; the
evaporation is then gently conducted until a crystalline mass is obtained,
which is further freed from adhering oil by pressure between folds of
blotting paper. It is purified by redissolving it in boiling water or hot
alcohol, &c., as before.

3. (A. Vogel.) An extract of powdered coffee is made with commercial
benzol; this being distilled off, leaves an oil and caffeine behind; the
oil is then removed by a little ether or by hot water, from which latter
liquid the alkaloid crystallises on cooling.

4. From a hot infusion of tea-leaves by treatment with subacetate of lead
and sulphuretted hydrogen, as in process 1 (_above_).

5. (F. V. Greene.) Powdered guarana is intimately mixed with three times
its weight of finely divided litharge, and the mixture boiled in distilled
water, the ebullition being continued until, on allowing the temperature
to fall below the boiling point, the insoluble portion is found to subside
rapidly, leaving the supernatant liquid clear, bright, and without colour.
The quantity of distilled water required will be found to be about a pint
for every fifteen grams of the guarana used in the experiment, and as the
boiling has to be continued for several hours before the desired and all
essential separation mentioned above takes place, water must be added from
time to time to supply the place of that lost by evaporation. When cool,
the clear liquid is decanted upon a filter, and when it has passed
through, which it will be found to do with facility, the precipitate is to
be transferred to the filter, and washed with boiling water, the washing
to be continued as long as yellowish precipitates are produced with either
phosphomolybdic acid solution, auric, or platinic chloride. A stream of
sulphuretted hydrogen gas is now passed through the filtrate to remove the
small quantity of lead that has been dissolved, and the sulphide thus
formed separated by filtration. The solution is evaporated on a water bath
to expel the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen, filtered to remove a trace
of sulphur, finally evaporated to the crystallising point, and the
caffeine which crystallises out in cooling removed from the mother liquor
and pressed between folds of bibulous paper. After being thus treated the
crystals will be found to be perfectly white. On diluting the mother
liquor with distilled water, filtering, and evaporating, a second crop of
crystals are obtained, which are also perfectly white, after being pressed
as above. The crystals are now dissolved in boiling dilute alcohol,
filtered, and the solution set aside to crystallise by spontaneous
evaporation. The resulting crystals of caffeine are perfectly pure and
colourless.

6. (O. Caillol and P. Cazeneuve.) The following is a process for the rapid
preparation of caffeine:——Black tea is thoroughly softened with four times
its weight of hot water; a quantity of calcium hydrate equal to that of
tea used is then added, and the whole evaporated on a water-bath to
perfect dryness. The dry residue is exhausted with chloroform in a
displacement apparatus, and the chloroform recovered from the percolate by
distillation. The residue left in the retort is a mixture of caffeine and
a resinous substance containing chlorophyll. On treating it with hot
water, filtering and evaporating the filtrate on a water bath, the
caffeine is obtained in perfectly white crystals.

_Prop., &c._ Soluble in 100 parts of cold water; freely soluble in hot
water and in water acidulated with an acid; slightly soluble in cold
alcohol; it fuses at 352° Fahr., tastes slightly bitter, and possesses
feeble basic properties. With the sulphuric and hydrochloric acids it
forms crystallisable compounds. The salts of caffeine may be made by
dissolving it to saturation in the dilute acid, and evaporating the
solution by a very gentle heat. It forms splendid double salts with
bichloride of platinum and terchloride of gold.

_Uses._ Caffeine has been recommended in those pains that affect only one
side of the head (hemicrania); in doses of 1 to 3 gr. Its physiological
action is very trifling, notwithstanding all that has been said to the
contrary. Mr Cooley took 20 gr. daily of pure caffeine, for above a month,
without experiencing any other effect than a very slight elevation of
spirits after each dose, similar to that produced by a small quantity of
spirits of sal volatile. It has been used lately with doubtful success as
an antidote to the poisonous effects of opium. See COFFEE, TEA, &c.

=CAFFE′ONE.= A brown, aromatic oil, formed during the roasting of coffee.

=CAJ′EPUT OIL.= See OILS (Volatile).

=CAKES.= A species of fancy bread or trifle familiar to every one.

Before proceeding to the actual operation of cake-making, the various
materials which are to enter into their composition undergo a certain
amount of preparation. For this purpose every article is got ready about
an hour previously to its being wanted, and is placed before the fire, or
upon a stove, that it may become gently heated. Without these precautions
it is impossible to produce good cakes. The flour is thoroughly dried, and
warmed. The currants are nicely washed in a hair sieve, wiped dry in a
cloth, and then set before the fire. Before use they are dusted over with
a little flour. The sugar is rubbed to a fine powder, and passed through a
sieve. The eggs are well beaten in a basin, and strained. The butter is
melted by being placed in a basin set in hot water, and is afterwards well
beaten up with a little warm milk. The lemon peel is cut very thin, and
beaten in a mortar to a paste or powder, with lump sugar; or for common
purposes, it is grated. The caraways, ginger, and other flavouring
ingredients are preferred in the form of fine powder, or are made into an
essence, by digesting them in spirit of wine; the first is the most common
method. The milk and water is made lukewarm. When all these things are
ready and have stood a sufficient time, they are put into a pan, one after
another, in the proper order, and well beaten together, by which the
lightness of the cakes is considerably increased.

In plum cakes, as well as in some other varieties, a little yeast may be
added after the butter, and the mass allowed to rise a little, and then
again well kneaded, by which not only less butter and eggs may be used,
but the products will be both lighter and more wholesome. Good stale
bread, well soaked in hot milk or water, and then beaten to a paste, and
passed through a fine sieve, forms an excellent thing to mix up the
ingredients with, and produces a very light and nutritious cake. Cakes
“wetted up” with milk are richer, but do not keep so well as those without
it; they get stale sooner, and then in that state are far from agreeable
to the palate. A kind of flour prepared from maize or Indian corn has been
recently introduced to the notice of cooks, but it is better adapted for
puddings than for cakes. See CORN-FLOUR.

Cakes are preferably baked on flat tins or in little “tin shapes,” which
should be first well buttered.

Cakes should be kept for store in tin canisters; wooden boxes, unless very
well seasoned, are apt to give them an unpleasant taste. Brown-paper
linings and wrappers should be avoided for the same reason. See BISCUITS,
BREAD, BUN, ICING, STAINS, &c.

=Cakes, Al′mond.= _Prep._ 1. From sweet almonds (blanched and beaten to a
smooth paste), flour and powdered sugar, of each 1/2 lb.; 7 eggs, and the
outside peel of 4 lemons (shredded small). The almonds, sugar, lemon peel,
and eggs, are beaten together, until as white as sponge paste; the flour
next worked in, and the paste put into buttered moulds, and baked in a
slack oven, with 8 or 10 thicknesses of white paper under them and one or
two over them.

2. Almonds, 1 lb.; sugar, 1/2 lb.; rose water or orange-flower water, 1/4
pint; flour, 3/4 lb.; 3 eggs; as above. Some persons ice these cakes.

=Cakes, Ban′bury.= _Prep._ From butter and dough fermented for white
bread, of each 1 lb., as in making puff paste, then rolled out very thin,
and cut into oval or triangular pieces, or other shapes. On these are
placed a mixture of currants and moist sugar, equal parts, wetted with a
little wine or brandy, and the paste being closed up, they are placed on a
tin with the closed side downwards, and baked. A little powdered sugar,
flavoured with candied peel (grated), or essence of lemon, is sifted over
them as soon as they come out of the oven. In the common cakes of the
shops the brandy is omitted, and lard is used for butter, but less of it.

=Cakes, Bath.= _Prep._ From butter, 1/2 lb., flour, 1 lb., 5 eggs, and a
cupful of yeast; when risen, add powdered sugar, 4 oz., and caraways, 1
oz. Bake them on tins.

=Cakes, Cheese.= _Prep._ 1. Curdle some warm new milk with rennet, drain
the curd in a linen bag, and add 1/4 of its weight, each, of sugar and
butter, 6 eggs, some grated nutmeg, and a little orange flower or rose
water.

2. (_Almond Cheese Cakes._) To the above add as much blanched almonds,
beaten to a smooth paste, as there is butter, and an equal weight of
macaroni.

3. (_Lemon Cheese Cakes._) To the first form add lemon peel (grated fine),
or essence of lemon, q. s.

=Cakes, Di′et.= _Syn._ DIET BREAD. _Prep._ 1. Dissolve sugar, 1 lb., in
milk, 1/2 pint; add 6 eggs, and whisk the mixture to a full froth, then
cautiously stir in flour, 1 lb., beat it for 3/4 hour, and immediately
bake it in a quick oven. It may be baked whole or divided into small
cakes.

2. From fine flour and powdered sugar, equal parts; 6 eggs; and the juice
and rind (grated) of 1 lemon.

=Cakes, Drop.= _Prep._ Eggs, 1 dozen; rosewater, 1 table-spoonful;
powdered sugar, 1/2 lb.; fine flour, 1/2 lb.; and caraways, 1/2 oz. Drop
it on wafer paper, and bake as before.

=Cakes, Gin′ger.= _Prep._ Sugar, 1 lb.; powdered ginger, 4 oz.; flour, 2
lbs.; water, 1 pint; butter, 1/2 lb.; candied orange peel, 8 caps
(grated).

=Cakes, Lem′on.= _Prep._ Flour and sugar, of each 1 lb.; eggs, 1 dozen;
grated peel and juice of 4 lemons; whisk the eggs to a bright froth; then
gradually add the rest.

=Cakes, Marl′borough.= _Prep_. Beat 8 eggs and 1 lb. of pounded sugar 3/4
hour; then add fine flour, 1 lb.; and caraway seeds, 2 oz.

=Cakes, Plain.= _Prep._ 1. From flour, 4 lbs.; currants, 2 lbs.; butter,
1/2 lb.; caraway seeds, 1/4 oz.; candied lemon peel (grated), 1 oz.;
yeast, 1/4 pint; milk, q. s. Let it rise well before baking.

2. Baker’s dough, 2 lbs.; currants, 1 lb.; butter, 1/4 lb.; 3 eggs; milk
(hot), 1/4 pint.

3. (Rundell.) Baker’s dough, 4 lbs.; butter and moist sugar, of each 1/4
lb.; caraway seeds, a small handful. Well work it together, pull it into
pieces the size of a golden pippin, and work it together again. This must
be done three times, or it will be in lumps, and heavy when baked.

4. (Rich) Equal weights of flour, butter, sultana raisins, eggs, currants,
and brown sugar, mixed up with milk, and seasoned with candied peel,
nutmeg, &c., and baked in a quick oven. This resembles “pound cake.”

=Cakes, Plum.= _Prep._ 1. (Good.) From butter, 1/2 lb.; dry flour, 3 lbs.;
Lisbon sugar, 8 oz.; plums and currants, of each 3/4 lb.; and some
pimento, finely powdered; to be “wetted up” with 3 spoonfuls of yeast, and
a Winchester pint of new milk (warmed); bake on a floured tin half an
hour.

2. (Excellent.) From fresh butter, sifted sugar, flour, and currants, of
each 1 lb.; 18 eggs; powdered spices, 2 oz. (viz. cloves, mace, cinnamon,
nutmeg, and allspice); sliced almonds, 4 oz.; raisins (stoned and
chopped), 1/2 lb.; and a large glass of brandy; bake in a hot oven. When
sufficiently baked let the oven cool, and afterwards put in the cake and
allow it to remain for several hours to dry. (Rundell.)

3. (Rich.) Take fresh butter and sugar, of each 1 lb.; flour, 1-1/2 lb.;
currants, 2 lbs.; a glass of brandy; sweetmeats and peels, 1 lb.; sweet
almonds, 2 oz.; 10 eggs; allspice and cinnamon, of each 1/4 oz.; bake in a
tin hoop in a hot oven for 3 hours, and put 12 sheets of paper under it to
keep it from burning. (Mackenzie.)

=Cakes, Port′ugal.= _Prep._ From flour, powdered sugar, and fresh butter,
of each 1 lb.; 10 eggs; currants, 1/2 lb.; and a little white wine; bake
in small tins only half filled.

=Cake, Potato.= A pound of cold potatoes, a quarter of a pound of flour or
oatmeal, half a gill of warm milk (with a quarter of an ounce of yeast
dissolved in it), a little salt and butter. Mash the potatoes, add the
other ingredients, roll out the paste an inch and a half or two inches
thick, place it in a greased tin, and bake it.

=Cakes, Pound.= _Prep._ 1. As plum cake; but using 1 lb. each of all the
ingredients except the spices.

2. Using equal parts of sugar, flour, currants, and sultana raisins, and
half that quantity each of butter, brandy, and candied peel, with spices
as required.

=Cakes, Queen.= _Prep._ From about 1 lb. each of dried flour, sifted
sugar, washed currants, and butter, with 8 eggs; the whole beaten for an
hour, made into a batter, and baked in little tins, teacups, or saucers,
only half filled. A little fine sugar is frequently sifted over them.
Nutmeg, mace, and cinnamon are also sometimes added.

=Cakes, Rat′ifia.= _Prep._ Beat 1/2 lb. of sweet and 1 oz. of bitter
almonds, in fine orange, rose, or ratifia water; mix in 1/2 lb. of pounded
sugar; add the whites of 4 eggs (well beaten); set it over a moderate fire
in a preserving-pan; stir it one way until it is pretty hot, and when a
little cool form it into small rolls, and cut it into thin cakes; shake
some flour lightly on them, give each a light tap, put them on sugar
papers, sift a little sugar on them, and put them into a very slack oven.

=Cakes, Rout.= _Prep._ From flour, 2 lbs.; butter, sugar, and currants, of
each 1 lb.; 3 eggs; 1/2 pint of milk; 2 glasses of white wine; and 1 glass
of brandy; drop them on a tin plate, and bake them.

=Cakes, Savoy.= _Prep._ From flour and sifted sugar, of each 1 lb.; 10
eggs; and the rind of a lemon (grated); form a batter by degrees, put it
into moulds, and bake in a slack oven.

=Cake, Seed.= _Prep._ 1. (Plain.) From flour, 1/4 peck; sugar, 1/2 lb.;
allspice, 1/4 oz.; melted butter, 1/2 lb.; a little ginger; milk, 1/2
pint; yeast, 1/4 pint; add seeds or currants; and bake an hour and a half.

2. (Good.) To the preceding add of butter and sugar, of each 1/2 lb., and
wet it up with milk previously mixed with 6 eggs.

3. (Rich.) Take of flour, 1-1/2 lb.; butter and sugar, of each 1/2 lb.; 8
eggs; 2 oz. of caraway seeds, 1 grated nutmeg, and its weight in cinnamon.
Bake 2 hours in a quick oven.

4. (Scotch.) Nine eggs; sugar and butter, of each 1/2 lb.; mix well
together, then add a little cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves; 1/4 oz. of
caraway seeds; 1/2 lb. of candied citron; 1/4 lb. of candied orange peel;
1/2 lb. of blanched almonds (pounded fine); flour, 3 lbs.; and brandy, 1/4
pint.

=Cakes, Shrews′bury.= _Prep._ From flour, 3 lbs.; sugar, 1 lb.; a little
cinnamon and nutmeg; 3 eggs; a little rose water; and melted butter enough
to make it into a dough.

=Cakes, So′da.= _Prep._ 1. From flour, 1 lb.; bicarbonate of soda, 1/4
oz.; sugar and butter, of each 1/2 lb.; make a paste with milk, and add
candied orange, lemon, or citron peel, or the fresh peels grated, q. s. to
flavour.

2. To flour, 1 lb.; sugar and butter, of each 2 oz.; candied peel, 1/2
oz.; sesquicarbonate of soda, 3 dr.; milk, q. s.

_Obs._ An equal weight of carbonate of magnesia, used instead of the soda,
also makes good cakes. Both are suitable to delicate stomachs, especially
in dyspepsia, with acidity.

=Cakes, Sponge.= _Prep._ From 8 eggs; lump sugar, 3/4 lb.; flour, 1/2 lb.;
water, 1/4 pint; the yellow peel of a lemon; mix as follows:——Put the
lemon peel into the water; when about to make the cake, put the sugar into
a saucepan, pour the water and peel on it, and let it stand by the fire to
get hot. Break the eggs into a deep earthen vessel that has been made
quite hot; remove from the heat, whisk for a few minutes; make the sugar
and water boil up, and pour it very gradually boiling-hot over the eggs;
continue to whisk them briskly until they become thick and white; add the
flour (quite warm), stir it lightly in, put the paste into tins lined with
white paper, and bake them immediately in a moderately hot oven.

=Cakes, Tea.= _Syn._ BENTON CAKES. _Prep._ From flour, 1 lb.; butter, 4
oz.; and milk, q. s.; bake on a hot hearth or slow oven plate.

2. To the last add 2 table-spoonfuls of yeast.

=Cakes, Tip′sy.= _Prep._ Small sponge cakes steeped in brandy, and then
covered with grated almonds and candied peel; or almonds (cut into spikes)
are stuck in them. They are commonly piled on a dish, surrounded with a
custard, and covered with preserves drained as dry as possible.

=Cakes, Wigg.= _Prep._ From 1/2 pint of warm milk; 3/4 lb. of fine flour;
and 2 or 3 spoonfuls of light yeast. Afterwards work in 4 oz. each of
sugar and butter; make it into cakes, or wiggs, with as little flour as
possible, add a few caraway seeds, and bake them quickly.

=Cakes.= (In _medicine_.) Cakes have been used as a form of administering
medicinal substances to children, but have not been extensively employed
in this country for the purpose, unless by quacks and in domestic
practice. In preparing them the active ingredients are added in such
proportions to the common materials of a sweet cake that one or two, as
the case may be, are sufficient for a dose. See GINGERBREAD, WORM-CAKES,
&c.

=CALA′BAR BEAN.= _Syn._ PHYSOSTIGMATIS FABA. The seed of _Physostigma
venenosum_. The plant is a native of Western Africa, where the bean is
used as an ordeal poison. The bean itself is about the size of a large
horse-bean, with a very firm, hard, brittle, shining coat of a
brownish-red, pale chocolate, or ash-grey colour. It has an irregular
kidney shape, with flat surfaces and a rounded border, which is for the
most part boldly curved, and there marked with a broad furrow, with the
central raised raphe in the centre, and ending at one extremity in the
microphyle. The kernel consists of two cotyledons. It yields its
properties to alcohol, and imperfectly to water. Calabar bean has been
used in cases of strychnia poisoning and tetanus, as well as in epilepsy
and St. Vitus’s dance. The dose of the powdered bean, according to Royle,
is one to four grains. Locally applied it produces contraction of the
pupil.

Until the researches of Harnack and Witkowsky the Calabar bean was
supposed to owe its activity, when internally administered, to the
presence of a powerful alkaloid called _esernia_ or _physostigma_. These
chemists, however, have lately succeeded in discovering in the bean, in
addition to eserina, another very potent alkaloid, to which they have
given the name _calabaria_ or _calabarine_.

Calabarine appears to exert a physiological action antagonistic to that of
eserine, and since the commercial preparations of the drug consist,
according to the above chemists, of mixtures of the two alkaloids in
varying proportions, the discordant effects frequently observed to follow
the administration of any of the various preparations of the bean, admit
of ready explanation. Wherever eserine predominated it appeared to
suppress the effects of calabarine; on the other hand, if this latter
preponderated, the paralysing effect on the spinal cord otherwise
exercised by eserine would fail to be produced.

The necessity of having preparations of calabar free from calabarine, in
cases where the drug is administered for tetanus, will be apparent when it
is stated that calabarine itself induces the disease.

We quote the following from ‘New Remedies’ for June, 1877:——

“The well-known manufacturing chemist, E. Merk, in Darmstadt, has
heretofore prepared and sold a substance which was supposed to be the only
active principle of calabar, and which he called calabarine, but which was
really eserine or physostigmine. He now accepts and confirms the results
of Harnack’s and Witkowsky’s researches, and has put both of the active
principles upon the market labelled with their correct name, viz.
‘_Physostigmin_’ (or eserine, being the same substance which he formerly
sold as calabarine), and ‘_Calabarin_,’ distinguished by the addition of
Harnack’s name (Harnack’s ‘Calabarine’). _The attention of physicians and
pharmacists is particularly directed to the change of appellations._”

Calabar bean is a powerful poison. The antidotes are:——Diffusible
stimulants; the hypodermic injection of the 1/50th of a grain of sulphate
of atropia, to be repeated if necessary at the end of two hours; and
artificial respiration. See ESERINE.

=CAL′AMINE.= See ZINC (Carbonate of).

=CALCINA′TION.= The operation of burning or roasting any solid body to
expel its more volatile parts, as the conversion of chalk into lime by the
expulsion of carbonic anhydride. The roasting of the ores in the first
stage of the Welsh process of copper smelting and in the Silesian mode of
extracting zinc is technically termed CALCINATION.

The method of conducting the process of calcination depends on the nature
of the body operated on. Many substances, for delicate experiments, are
calcined over a spirit lamp in a platinum spoon or crucible; others, in
iron vessels or earthen crucibles, placed in a common furnace. When the
action of the air proves injurious, as in the manufacture of charcoal, the
process is performed in close vessels or chambers. In some cases the fuel
is mixed with the articles, and they are both burnt together, as in the
manufacture of lime, the roasting of ores, &c. The process of drying
salts, or driving off their water of crystallisation by heat, is also
frequently called CALCINATION; thus we have calcined copperas, alum, &c.

=CAL′′CINER.= A reverberatory furnace used for the calcination of metallic
ores, particularly those of COPPER and ZINC (which _see_).

=CAL′CIUM.= [Eng., L.] Ca. The metal of which LIME is an oxide. Though it
is a chemical curiosity when isolated, it is one of the most abundant
substances in nature, forming a very large portion of the crust of the
earth. It occurs in combination with fluorine as fluor-spar; with oxygen
and carbonic acid as chalk, limestone, and marble; and with oxygen and
sulphuric acid as gypsum. The metal was first obtained from lime by Sir H.
Davy in 1808; but little was known of its properties until Dr Matthiessen
formed it by the electrolytic decomposition of the chloride of calcium.

_Prep._ 1. By the action of a powerful voltaic current upon a paste of
pure lime in contact with mercury, as in the original method of preparing
barium.

2. By the electrolysis of chloride of calcium in a state of fusion.

3. (Caron.) Fused chloride of calcium in powder, 300 parts; distilled
zinc, finely granulated, 400 parts; sodium, in small pieces, 100 parts;
the whole placed in a crucible and heated to redness in an ordinary
furnace. The action is very feeble at first, but after some time zinc
flames arise. The heat must now be moderated to prevent the volatilisation
of the zinc, but at the same time it must be maintained as high as
possible. When the crucible has remained in this state for about a quarter
of an hour it may be withdrawn. On cooling, a metallic button will be
found at the bottom. This alloy of zinc and calcium, which generally
contains from 10 to 15% of the latter metal, must be placed in a coke
crucible and heated until the whole of the zinc is driven off. The alloy
should be in pieces as large as possible. When proper precautions have
been observed a button of CALCIUM is obtained, only contaminated with the
foreign metals contained in the zinc.

_Prop., &c._ The metal belongs to the group which includes BARIUM,
STRONTIUM, and MAGNESIUM; it is of a light yellow colour; is rather harder
than lead, and very malleable. It melts at a red heat. It tarnishes in a
day or two, even in dry air, and in contact with moist air it breaks up
like ordinary lime. Its sp. gr. is 1·55.

_Tests._ Salts of calcium in solution produce a white precipitate with
carbonate of ammonium; it becomes far less voluminous on heating the
solution, and dissolves very readily in hydrochloric acid. Sulphuric acid,
when added to concentrated solutions, gives an immediate white
precipitate; if the solution is not concentrated, the precipitate may
separate gradually, in minute crystals; and if it is very dilute, no
precipitation will take place, because sulphate of lime is soluble in
about 500 times its weight of water. With neutral solutions, even when
very dilute, oxalate of ammonium gives a copious white precipitate,
soluble in most dilute acids.

=Calcium, Acetate of.= Add prepared chalk to acetic (or purified
pyroligneous) acid till fully saturated; filter and evaporate, that
crystals may form. Diuretic. _Dose_, 10 to 20 grains.

=Calcium, Acid Phosphate of.= _Syn._ SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME, SOLUBLE ACID
PHOSPHATE. CaH_{4},2PO_{4}. This may be procured by treating bone-earth
with two thirds of its weight of oil of vitriol, as in the preliminary
stage of the extraction of phosphorus. It is extensively used as a manure
for turnips.

=Calcium, Bibasic Phosphate.= Ca_{2}H_{2}P_{2}O_{8} + 3H_{2}O. Dissolve
608 grams of crystallised calcium chloride in 1000 grams of distilled
water, and add gradually to this solution 1000 grams of sodium phosphate,
dissolved in 10,000 grams of water. Allow the precipitate to deposit, and
wash it five or six times with 10 litres of water each time; drain the
precipitate on a moistened cloth. As soon as its consistence permits,
detach from it irregular pieces, and place them to dry in the open air
upon filtering paper; the spontaneous desiccation is sufficiently rapid.

From ‘Formulæ for New Medicaments adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical
Society.’

=Calcium, Bro′mide of.= CaBr_{2}. _Syn._ CAL′CII BROMI′DUM, L. _Prep._
(Magendie.) To a solution of bromide of iron add hydrate of calcium in
slight excess; filter, evaporate to dryness, redissolve in water, and
again filter, and evaporate.

=Calcium, Carbonate of.= See CHALK.

=Calcium, Chlo′′ride of.= CaCl_{2}. _Syn._ CAL′CII CHLORI′DUM (B. P.).
_Prep._ Hydrochloric acid and water, of each 10 fl. oz.; chalk, 5 oz.;
evaporate the solution until the salt becomes solid, and dry the residue
at about 400° F.

It is obtained in solution as a residuum in making several preparations of
ammonia, as the liquor and carbonate, and in making carbonic acid by the
action of hydrochloric acid on marble. The residuum is concentrated and
set aside to crystallise, or evaporated to dryness.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ This salt crystallises in colourless, striated,
hexagonal prisms, terminated by very acute points. It is very soluble in
alcohol and water, the latter even at 32° dissolving more than its own
weight, and at 60° three or four times its weight of this salt. When
heated, the crystals undergo watery fusion. When dissolved in water, they
produce great cold; and hence are frequently employed as an ingredient in
FREEZING MIXTURES. These crystals contain nearly half their weight of
water. They are very deliquescent, passing readily into the liquid state,
and forming what used to be called oleum calcis, or oil of lime. The
anhydrous chloride is hard and friable; slightly translucent; totally and
readily soluble in water, and, like the crystallised salt, very
deliquescent. In the laboratory chloride of calcium, either fused or
merely dried, is continually used for drying gases and for absorbing the
water from ethereal and oily liquids in organic analysis. The unfused is
now generally preferred for this purpose, as it is more porous than the
fused. The salt is also used in the rectification of alcohol, and to form
a bath for heating stoneware stills and other apparatus liable to be
cracked on the sand bath. As a chemical reagent it is employed chiefly in
detecting certain organic acids. As a medicine it has been given in some
scrofulous and glandular diseases. _Dose_, 10 to 20 gr. See SOLUTIONS.

=Calcium, Flu′oride of.= CaF_{2}. _Syn._ HYDROFLU′ORATE OF LIME. This
occurs native as the mineral called fluor-spar. It is found in beautiful
crystals in the lead mines of Alston Moor and Derbyshire, and in the
concretionary crystalline masses known as Blue John or Derbyshire spar at
Castleton. It may be prepared by the action of hydrofluoric acid upon
lime, as directed under BARIUM, FLUORIDE OF.

=Calcium Hypophosphite.= CaP_{2}H_{4}O_{4}. Mix milk of lime (1 in 5) in
porcelain capsule placed in a sand bath, with half its weight of
phosphorus in small pieces, and heat it to ebullition, operating in the
open air or under a chimney with a good draught. Spontaneously inflammable
phosphuretted hydrogen is given off, the vapour of which should be
avoided. Add from time to time a little warm water, to replace that which
has evaporated. Discontinue the heat when the phosphorus has
disappeared——that is, when inflammable bubbles cease to be produced. If
the phosphorus remain in excess, add more milk of lime, and continue the
heat until the complete disappearance of the metalloid. Allow the liquor
to cool and then filter; then saturate it with a current of carbonic acid
gas to eliminate any excess of lime remaining uncombined. Filter again,
and concentrate the liquor in a water bath to dryness, keeping the
temperature below 100° C., to avoid detonations. Preserve the salt from
the air in well-closed bottles.

From ‘Formulæ for New Medicaments adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical
Society.’

=Calcium, I′odide of.= CaI_{2}. _Syn._ HYDRI′ODATE OF LIME; CAL′CII
IODI′DUM, CALCIS HYDRIO′DAS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Magendie.) From a solution of
protiodide of iron and hydrate of calcium, as directed under iodide of
barium.

2. Dissolve lime or carbonate of lime in hydriodic acid.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ It is a deliquescent salt, easily soluble in water, and
has a bitterish taste. It has been used in scrofulous affections,
internally, in doses ranging from 1/8 to 2 gr., thrice daily, and
externally in ointments containing 2 dr. or less to the oz.

=Calcium, Lactophosphate.= This product ought not to be employed except in
the state of solution in water or in syrup. In the pasty or solid state
its solubility varies, and it is always an indefinite compound.

_Solution._ Bibasic phosphate of lime, 17 grams; concentrated lactic acid,
as little as possible; distilled water, 964 grams. Suspend the phosphate
carefully in the distilled water, add the lactic acid, allow solution to
go on for some minutes, and filter.

From ‘Formulæ for New Medicaments adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical
Society.’

=Calcium, Oxide of.= See LIME.

=Calcium, Phosphate of.= _Syn._ CALCIS PHOSPHAS (Ph. B.). Digest bone-ash,
4 _oz._, in hydrochloric acid, 6 _fl. oz._, diluted with a pint of water,
until it is dissolved.

Filter the solution, if necessary; add water, 1 pint, and afterwards
solution of ammonia (Ph. B.), 12 _fl. oz._, or a sufficient quantity,
until the mixture acquires an alkaline reaction, and having collected the
precipitate on a calico filter, wash it with boiling distilled water as
long as the liquid which passes through occasions a precipitate when
dropped into solution of nitrate of silver acidulated with nitric acid.
Dry the washed product at a temperature not exceeding 212° F.

=Calcium, Phos′phide of.= _Syn._ PHOSPHU′RET OF LIME; CAL′CII
PHOSPHURE′TUM, C. PHOSPHI′DUM, L. _Prep._ By passing the vapour of
phosphorus over lime (in small fragments) heated to redness in a porcelain
tube. A brownish substance, supposed to be a mere mechanical mixture of
phosphide and phosphate of calcium. Thrown into water, it suffers instant
decomposition, and phosphuretted hydrogen gas escapes.

=Calcium, Sulphides of.= Calcium forms with sulphur at least three
different compounds:——

=1. Calcium, Protosul′phide of.= CaS. _Prep._——_a._ From sulphate of lime,
exposed at a high temperature to a stream of hydrogen gas.——_b._ From
dried gypsum, 25 parts; lampblack or finely powdered charcoal, 4 parts;
calcined together at a strong heat in a covered crucible.

=2. Calcium, Bisulphide of.= CaS_{2}. _Prep._ From sulphur and quick-lime,
equal parts; water, q. s.; slake the lime, add the sulphur, and boil until
a solution is obtained, which on cooling deposits crystals.

=3. Calcium, Pentasulphide of.= CaS_{5}. _Prep._ As the last, but
increasing the quantity of sulphur, and continuing the boiling for a
longer period. Little is known about it.

=4. Calcium, Sulphate of.= See GYPSUM.

=5. Calcium, Commercial Sulphuret of.= _Syn._ COMMERCIAL SULPHIDE OF
CALCIUM. _Prep._——_a._ As 1, _b_ (_above_).

_b._ Sulphur, 1 part; hydrate of lime, 3 parts; water, 2-1/2 pints; boil
it until it solidifies on cooling, then pour it out on a cold marble slab,
and when solid break it into pieces and preserve it in a well-corked
bottle.

_c._ (Guibourt.) Quick-lime, 7 parts; sulphur, 4 parts; mix, and heat the
compound for about 2 hours in a covered crucible.

_d._ (Cottereau.) Quick-lime, 2 parts; sulphur, 1 part; water, 5 parts; as
4, _b_ (_above_).

_Obs._ The precise composition of the last three preparations is
uncertain. They are acrid, caustic, stimulant, and diaphoretic. _Dose_, 1
to 3 gr. Sulphide of calcium has been used as a depilatory by applying it
made into a paste with water, and washing it off in about 1/4 of an hour.
Made into an embrocation, it has been strongly recommended in gout,
scabies, &c. Its solution yields pure sulphur on the addition of
hydrochloric acid.

=CALCULA′TIONS= (Useful). 1. To find the Value of a Dozen Articles. Take
the price in pence as shillings, and if there are any farthings in the
price, add threepence for each. Thus 2s. 8d., or 32 pence per yard, is £1
12s. per dozen.

2. To find the Value of One Hundred Articles. For every farthing take as
many pence and twice as many shillings. Thus, 1-1/4d. each is——5d., and
10s. = 10s. 5d. per hundred.

3. To find the Value of a Pound at any price per Ounce. Take the price in
farthings as shillings, and divide by three. Thus, 5-1/4d. per ounce is 21
farthings; taken as shillings, 21 ÷ 3 = 7s. per pound.

4. To find the Value of an Ounce at any price per Pound. Take the
shillings as farthings, and multiply by three. Thus, at 6s.——6 × 3 = 18
farthings, or 4-1/2d. per ounce.

_Obs._ By reversing Nos. 1 and 2, the price of a single article or pound
may be found from the price per dozen or hundred. For several other
calculations, useful in domestic economy, chemistry, &c., see BREWING,
DECIMALS, EQUIVALENTS, MEASURES, PER-CENTAGE, WEIGHTS.

=CAL′CULUS.= _Syn._ STONE. In _medicine_, a hard concretion formed within
the animal body by the deposition of matters which usually remain in
solution. The concretions most commonly found are those formed in the
kidneys or bladder, and termed urinary calculi, and those formed in the
gall-bladder or biliary ducts, which are called biliary calculi. Urinary
calculi are in most cases composed of substances which are constituents of
healthy urine, such as uric acid, urate of ammonia, and the phosphates of
lime and magnesia; they are, however, sometimes composed of substances
which are met with in unhealthy urine, such as oxalate of lime, cystine,
&c.

Biliary calculi, or gall-stones, usually contain from 50 to 80 per cent.
of cholesterin, a crystallisable fatty body, constituting a never failing
ingredient in healthy bile, the rest of the concretion being made up of
biliary resin and colouring matter, with a small quantity of inorganic
salts.

Calculus or stone in the bladder, which is a prevalent disease in Norfolk,
both among men and sheep, has been attributed to the use of the hard water
of the district.

Both of these give rise to very painful symptoms, and may even threaten
life. See CHOLESTERIN.

=CALEFACIENTS.= Applications that excite warmth.

=CAL′ENDAR.= _Syn._ CALENDA′RIUM, L.; CALEN′DRIER, Fr. A table of all the
days of the year, arranged in the order of days and weeks, to which are
generally added certain astronomical indications and dates of great civil
and religious events. The most remarkable calendars are the Hebrew
calendar, the calendar of the Greeks, the Roman, or Julian calendar, the
Gregorian calendar (now adopted by all Christian peoples except the Greeks
and Russians), and the French Republican calendar, which, having remained
in force about thirteen years, was abolished by Napoleon I on the 1st of
January, 1806.

=Calendar, Perpet′ual.= A table which furnishes the general indications
necessary to construct a calendar for any year, and to resolve, without
error, many difficulties connected with the verification of dates.

=CAL′ENDERING.= The process of finishing by pressure the surface of linen
or cotton goods. It is usually performed by passing the fabric between
cylinders pressed together with great force. It is necessary that one of
the cylinders, at least, shall be of a material combining considerable
hardness with a slight degree of elasticity; for this purpose the paper
cylinder is used. It is made by forcibly compressing a number of circular
discs of thick pasteboard, each with a square hole in the centre, upon an
iron axis, so as to form a solid cylinder, which is turned perfectly
smooth and true in a lathe. The paper cylinder usually works against a
hollow roller of copper or iron, heated by steam or metallic heaters.
Before the final rolling in the calendering machine the fabric is lightly
smoothed by passing over warm cylinders. Cotton goods are starched, and a
fictitious appearance of stoutness is sometimes given to them by employing
starch thickened with plaster of Paris, porcelain clay, or a mixture of
these. Watering is a beautiful effect, produced by means of a hot cylinder
with a pattern raised upon it. Glazing is produced by combined rubbing and
pressure, the rollers being made to move with unequal velocities, so that
one side of the fabric is rubbed as well as pressed by the roller whose
surface moves with the greater speed. A copper cylinder is preferred for
glazing, and is made so hot that if the machine stops it burns the goods.
The old method of glazing consisted in burnishing the surface of the
fabric with a polished flint.

=CAL′ICO.= See COTTON.

=Cal′ico Printing.= The art of producing figured patterns upon calico by
means of dyes and mordants topically applied by wooden blocks, copper
plates, or engraved cylinders. The goods are either directly printed in
colour, or receive their patterns by being run through a colouring matter
or mordant, when the dye is only produced upon that portion of the ground
previously prepared for it. Of late this system of dyeing has been
extended to silk and woollens.

The mordants are thickened with some glutinous substance, as flour,
starch, or gum, to render them adhesive and to prevent their spreading.

The following are the principal styles of calico-printing, each requiring
a different method of manipulation:——

In the madder, fast colour, or chintz style, the mordants are applied to
the white cloth, and the colours are brought out in the dye bath. This is
the method commonly followed for “permanent prints.”

In the padding or plaquage style, the whole cloth is passed through a bath
of some particular mordant, and different mordants are afterwards printed
on it before submitting it to the dye bath. By this means the colour of
the ground and pattern is varied. Like the last, it is much used for gown
pieces, &c.

In the reserve or resist-paste style, white or coloured figures are
produced by covering those parts with a composition which resists the
general dye afterwards applied to form the ground of the pattern. In this
style the dye bath is indigo, or some other substantive colour.

The discharge, or rongeant style, is the reverse of the preceding; it
exhibits bright figures on a dark ground, which are produced by printing
with acidulous or discharge mordants after the cloth has been passed
through the colouring bath.

Steam-colour printing consists in printing the calico with a mixture of
dye extracts and mordants, and afterwards exposing it to the action of
steam.

Spirit-colour printing is a method by which brilliant colours are produced
by a mixture of dye extracts and solution of tin, called by the dyers
“spirits of tin.”

Pigment printing consists in applying such colours as ultramarine,
magenta, or aniline purple, to the cloth, and fixing them by such agents
as casein, albumen, or solution of india rubber. This style of printing
has been developed to a great extent since the introduction of the
splendid mauves and purples obtained from aniline.

For further information on this subject the reader is referred to Ure’s
‘Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,’ Calvert’s ‘Dyeing and
Calico Printing,’ edited by Stenhouse and Groves; Wagner’s ‘Clinical
Technology,’ and Crooke’s ‘Practical Handbook of Dyeing and Printing,’
where he will find the several processes of calico printing fully treated
on, and most ably and accurately described. To enter largely into the
subject in this work might amuse the reader, but would be of no practical
value; as calico printing is an art only practised on the large scale, and
by men who obtain their whole knowledge of it in the laboratories and
printing rooms of the factories.

=CAL′OMEL.= See MERCURY (Chlorides of).

=CALOTRO′PIS PROCE′RA.=, =CALOTRO′PIS GIGAN′TEA.=, (Ind. Ph.). _Syn._
MUDAR.——_Habitat._ One or other of these species, everywhere in
India.——_Officinal part._ The root-bark, dried (_calotropis cortex_).
Small flat or arched pieces, brownish externally, yellow-greyish
internally, peculiar smell, and mucilaginous, nauseous, acrid taste. Its
activity appears to reside in a peculiar extractive matter named
_mudarine_.——_Properties._ Alterative tonic; diaphoretic, and, in large
doses, emetic.——_Therapeutic uses._ In leprosy, constitutional syphilis,
mercurial cachexia, syphilitic and idiopathic ulcerations, in dysentery,
diarrhœa, and chronic rheumatism, it has been used with alleged benefit.

=Powder of Mudar.= (_Pulvis Calotropis._) Take of the roots of mudar,
collected in the months of April and May from sandy soils, a sufficiency;
carefully remove, by washing, all particles of sand and dirt, and dry in
the open air, without exposure to the sun, until the milky juice contained
in it becomes so far inspissated that it ceases to flow on incisions being
made in it. The bark is then to be carefully removed, dried, and reduced
to powder. Preserve in well-corked bottles.——_Dose._ As an alterative
tonic, 3 grains, gradually increased to 10 grains or more, thrice daily.
As an emetic, from 1/2 to 1 drachm.

=CAL′OTYPE.= See PHOTOGRAPHY.

=CALUM′BA.= _Syn._ CALUMBÆ RADIX, B. P. CALUM′BA-ROOT; KALUMB, Hind. The
root of a plant of Eastern Africa, extensively used in _medicine_ as a
stomachic and mild tonic. _Dose_, 10 to 20 grains, three or four times a
day. The botanical name of this plant is _Jateorhiza palmata_, or
_Cocculus palmatus_. See CALUMBINE (_below_); also INFUSIONS and
TINCTURES.

=CALUM′BA WOOD.= This wood, which is used as a tonic by the Cingalese, is
not the produce of the true calumba plant, but of _Menispermum
fenestratum_. It contains the alkaloid BERBERINE (which _see_).

=CALUM′BINE.= _Syn._ CALOM′BINE, _Calum′bina_. A bitter substance
discovered by Wittstock in calumba root.

_Prep._ 1. Digest calumba root (in coarse powder) in water acidulated with
acetic acid; express, filter, boil to one half, again filter, add
carbonate of calcium, in slight excess, and evaporate to dryness in a
water bath; reduce the residuum to powder, and digest it in boiling
alcohol; the latter will deposit crystals of CALUMBINE on cooling.

2. (Wittstock.) Evaporate tincture of calumba root (made with rectified
spirit) to dryness; dissolve the residuum in water, and agitate the
solution with an equal bulk of ether; after repose for a short time,
decant the ethereal portion, distil off most of the ether, and set the
liquid aside to crystallise.

_Prop., &c._ Impure calumbine occurs as a yellow-brown mass; when pure, it
forms rhombic prismatic crystals or delicate white needles; it is only
slightly soluble in alcohol, ether, and water; 40 parts of boiling
rectified spirit take up only 1 part of calumbine. Its best solvent is
acetic acid; it is also soluble in acidulated and alkalised water. Neither
nut-galls nor metallic salts affect its solution. Concentrated sulphuric
acid dissolves it, and assumes first a yellow, and then a red colour. Its
properties indicate that weak vinegar or sour wine would be the best
menstruum for extracting the medicinal virtues of calumba root. _Dose_, 1
to 3 gr. twice a day as a tonic and stomachic, in dyspepsia, debilitated
stomach, bilious vomiting, &c.; and in the later periods of dysentery and
diarrhœa.

=CALX.= This term was formerly applied to the residuum of the combustion
of any substance; or to any substance which had been exposed to a strong
heat. See CALCINATION, LIME, &c.

=CAMBOGE′.= See GAMBOGE.

=CAM′ERA LU′CIDA.= [L. and Eng.] When a ray of light (_r_) falls upon a
quadrangular glass prism (_a_), it is bent by two reflections (at _c_ and
_d_), and thrown upwards where it may be received by the eye, to which it
will appear described on the table or sheet of paper (_f_) placed to
receive it. The point of a pencil used to trace any object on the paper
can also be seen, and by its means the picture can be easily copied. When
the prism is mounted on a stand, and a thin brass plate with a small hole
through it for the eyepiece adjusted thereto, it forms the CAMERA LUCIDA
of the opticians. The image may be magnified or lessened by placing a lens
so as either to intercept the rays before they strike the prism, or before
they reach the eye. An ingenious person will readily be able to set up
this instrument, than which a more useful one cannot exist.

[Illustration]

=CAM′ERA OBSCU′′RA.= [L. and Eng.] An optical instrument for producing
upon a screen the image of a field of view more or less extensive. It was
invented by Baptista Porta in the 16th century. The principles and
construction of the camera obscura may be thus described:——A convex lens
(_B_) is placed in a hole admitting the light into a darkened box or
chamber (_A_), which, falling on a white ground (_D_), produces an
inverted picture of every object within its range. The image thus formed
may be restored to its natural position, by allowing the rays of light to
pass through two lenses instead of one, or by receiving the rays on a
mirror placed at an angle of 45°, when the image will be thrown on the
floor in its original position. The picture may be viewed through an
oblong aperture cut in the box, or the experiment may be performed in a
darkened room, by placing the lens in a hole in the shutter, and allowing
the image to fall on the wall, or on a sheet of white paper stretched to
receive it.

[Illustration]

In the simplest form, when intended for taking views or portraits, the
image is thrown upon a mirror placed at an angle of 45°, and resting on
the bottom of the box, by which means it is thrown upwards against a plate
of glass, also placed at a similar angle. On this is laid a piece of
semi-transparent tracing paper, on which the object is distinctly seen
painted, and may be traced out with a pencil. When the camera is used in
photography, slides are provided to retain the sensitive paper in the
proper position in the box or dark chamber to receive the image, and the
whole apparatus is adjusted with screws, and slides of the most delicate
description. Achromatic glasses are also employed. See PHOTOGRAPHY.

=CAM′PHINE.= The name given by the trade to rectified oil of turpentine
when sold for burning in lamps, in order that purchasers may not be aware
of the inflammable character of the liquid. Since the introduction of the
hydro-carbon oils from coal, shale, and petroleum, camphine has been
little used for burning. To rectify the turpentine, it is passed in vapour
through a solution of caustic potash, soda, or lime; or through sulphuric
acid.

=CAM′PHOR.= C_{10}H_{16}O. _Syn._ CAM′PHIRE, LAU′REL CAM′PHOR; CAMPHO′RA,
B. P. A crystalline substance found in many plants; though only obtained
in large quantities from two, namely, _Camphora officinarum_ and
_Dryobalanops aromatica_. The first, commonly known as the laurel camphor
tree of China and Japan, yields the camphor of commerce; the latter, the
Sumatra or Borneo camphor, and the peculiar fluid known as liquid camphor.

It is found that several of the essential oils, by carefully distilling
off about one third their volume, yield a species of camphor. By
collecting this, and redistilling the remainder of the oil 2 or 3 times,
a farther quantity of camphor may be obtained. Oil of rosemary, treated in
this way, yields about 10% of camphor; oil of sweet marjoram the same; oil
of sage yields 13%; oil of lavender, 25%. By keeping the oils loosely
corked, and in a cool place, they produce a larger portion of this
camphor. Aniseed camphor is the congealable portion of oil of aniseed,
separated from the liquid oil, which it resembles in odour and flavour.

=Camphor, Am′ber.= See PYRETINE (Crystallised).

=Camphor, Com′mercial (Crude).= The produce of the laurel camphor tree,
brought to Europe chiefly from China and the island of Formosa, in the
form of greyish grains, aggregated into crumbling cakes.——_Prep._ The
Chinese and Japanese extract the camphor by cutting the wood into small
pieces, and boiling it with water in iron vessels, which are covered with
large earthen capitals or domes, lined with rice straw. As the water
boils, the camphor is volatilised along with the steam, and condenses on
the straw.

=Cam′phor, Commercial (Refined).= _Syn._ WHITE CAMPHOR; CAMPHO′RA, B. P.
_Prep._ 100 parts of crude camphor are mixed with 2 parts each of
quick-lime and animal charcoal, both in powder, and the mixture is placed
in a thin, globular, glass vessel, sunk in a sand bath. The heat is then
cautiously applied, and the vessel gradually and carefully raised out of
the sand as the sublimation goes on. When the process is complete, the
subliming vessel is removed and allowed to cool.

_Obs._ The whole process of refining camphor requires great care and
experience to ensure its success. If conducted too slowly, or at a heat
under 375° Fahr., the product is found to be flaky, and consequently
unsaleable, without remelting or subliming. An improvement on the common
method is simply to sublime the above mixture in any convenient vessel
furnished with a large and well-cooled receiver, and to remelt the product
in close vessels under pressure, and to cool the liquid mass as rapidly as
possible.

_Prop., &c._ A white, semi-crystalline solid, very volatile at common
temperatures; freely soluble in alcohol, ether, bisulphuret of carbon,
benzol, oils, and acetic acid, and sufficiently so in water (about 1-1/4
gr. to 1 oz.), to impart its characteristic smell and taste; 100 parts of
alcohol (sp. gr. ·806) dissolve 120 parts of camphor; concentrated acetic
acid dissolves twice its weight of camphor; average sp. gr. ·990. It fuses
at 347°, boils at 400° Fahr., and when set fire to, burns with a bright
flame. It evaporates slowly at ordinary temperatures, and crystallises on
the inside of bottles. While floating on water it undergoes a curious
rotatory movement.

_Uses, &c._ Camphor is sedative, narcotic, anodyne, diaphoretic, and
anaphrodisiac. _Dose_, 2 to 10 gr. in the form of pill or bolus, or made
into an emulsion with yolk of egg, mucilage, or almonds. In overdoses it
is poisonous. The best antidote is opium or wine, preceded by an emetic.
It is also used externally in ointments, liniments, and embrocations.

Camphor is frequently put into wardrobes and clothes-trunks, to keep away
insects; it is used to make the white stars and fire of the pyrotechnist;
and by the varnish-maker to increase the solubility of copal and other
gums. Mixed with six times its weight of clay, and distilled, it suffers
decomposition, and yields a yellow, aromatic, volatile oil, smelling
strongly of thyme and rosemary, which is much used by the wholesale
druggists and perfumers to adulterate some of the more costly essential
oils, and by the fancy soap-makers to scent their soaps.

Camphor may be beaten in a mortar for some time, without being reduced to
powder, but if it be first broken with the pestle, and then sprinkled with
a few drops of rectified spirit of wine, it may be readily pulverised. By
adding water to an alcoholic or ethereal solution of camphor, this drug is
precipitated under the form of an impalpable powder of exquisite
whiteness.

_Tests._ Pure camphor is entirely soluble in rectified spirit, oils, and
strong acetic acid; a fragment placed on a heated spoon or in a warm
situation will wholly disappear, and the evolved fumes will be highly
fragrant (camphoraceous), and be free from an acid or terebinthinate
odour. In an alcoholic solution of natural camphor ammonia gives but a
slight precipitate, which is dissolved on shaking the mixture; a similar
solution of artificial camphor under the like treatment gives a flocculent
precipitate, which remains undissolved. See CAMPHOR, FACTITIOUS (_below_).

=Camphor, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ HYDROCHLORATE OF TUR′PENTINE,
HYDROCHLORATE OF CAMPHENE, ARTIFICIAL CAMPHOR. Prepared by passing dry
hydrochloric acid gas into pure oil of turpentine, cooled by a freezing
mixture or pounded ice. After a time a white, crystalline mass is formed,
which must be drained, and dried by pressure between folds of bibulous
paper. It may be purified by solution in alcohol.

_Prop., &c._ It has a camphoraceous taste and odour; burns with a
greenish, sooty flame, and when blown out evolves a terebinthinate odour;
heated a little above the boiling-point of water, slight fumes of
hydrochloric acid gas are perceptible.

=Camphor, Hydrochlo′′rate of.= _Syn._ MU′′RIATE OF CAMPHOR; CAMPHO′RÆ
HYDROCHLO′′RAS, L. By passing hydrochloric acid gas over camphor, in small
fragments, until it ceases to be absorbed.

=Camphor, Liq′uid.= _Syn._ CAMPHOR OIL; O′LEUM CAMPHO′RÆ, L. A pale
yellowish, limpid fluid, which exudes from _Dryobalanops aromatica_, a
tree growing in Sumatra and Borneo, when deep incisions are made in the
trunk. It is supposed that the crystalline SUMATRA CAMPHOR (see _below_)
is deposited from this fluid. The liquid camphor has somewhat the odour of
CAJEPUT OIL, and might, no doubt, be beneficially employed for the same
purpose. It is sometimes imported into Europe.

=Camphor, Monobromated.= C_{10}H_{15}O_{1}Br. Coarsely powdered camphor is
introduced into a flask of about ten times the capacity of the amount it
is intended to prepare. A fine stream of bromine is then allowed to fall
upon the powder with continual agitation; the addition of bromine ceases
when the camphor is liquefied. A large long abductor tube is then fitted
to the flask, and the other end plunged into an alkaline solution, which
will absorb the vapour that would otherwise incommode the operator. The
flask is placed in a water bath that is raised to ebullition, when the
reaction soon commences. This is at first rather active, there being an
abundant evolution of hydrobromic gas, and some vapour of bromine and
undecomposed camphor. The liquid, which is at first dark brown in colour,
acquires an amber colour and the evolution of gas suddenly slackens. The
operation should be carried out at a temperature between 80° and 90° C.
The amber-coloured liquid that remains in the flask solidifies upon
cooling, and appears then as a slightly citrine-coloured friable mass. It
is purified by treating it several times with boiling 90° to 95° alcohol,
filtering the liquor, and leaving it to crystallise. The crystals are to
be dried in the air upon unsized paper.

Dr Bourneville advises monobromated camphor to be administered either in
the form of pills, made up with conserve of roses, or of a mixture rubbed
up with mucilage of gum arabic and syrup. He gives it in doses varying
from twelve to thirty centigrams daily. Where it cannot be taken by the
mouth he injects the following solution subcutaneously:——Monobromated
camphor 3 gr., alcohol 35 gr., glycerin 22 gr.

=Camphor, Nitrate of.= _Syn._ CAMPHOR OIL; O′LEUM CAMPHO′RÆ FACTI′′TIUM,
L. Prepared by dissolving camphor in nitric acid, in the cold.

=Camphor, Sul′phite of.= From camphor and sulphurous acid gas, as
hydrochlorate of camphor.

=Camphor, Suma′tra.= _Syn._ BOR′NEO CAMPHOR, HARD C., DRAGON’S BRAIN
PERFUME. Obtained from _Dryobalanops aromatica_, being found in natural
fissures or crevices of the wood. It resembles ordinary camphor in most
properties, but its odour is not of so diffusible a nature. This kind is
not seen in European commerce.

=CAMPHOR CAKES.= See BALLS (Camphor).

=CAMPHOR′IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{10}H_{14}O_{4}. _Syn._ ACIDUM CAMPHOR′ICUM, L.
_Prep._ From camphor, 1 part; and nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·33), 4 parts;
distilled together in a glass retort, with a gradually increasing heat,
until vapours cease to be evolved; the camphor that has volatilised is
then added to that in the retort, along with 4 or 5 parts more of nitric
acid, and the process repeated again and again, until 20 parts of acid
have been consumed, when crude camphoric acid crystallises out of the
remaining liquor on cooling. The crystals are purified by washing with
cold distilled water, solution in boiling water, and evaporating the
solution until a pellicle forms; crystals of pure camphoric acid are
formed as the liquid cools.

_Prop., &c._ Small, colourless, lamellar or acicular crystals; acid;
bitter; fusible at 158° Fahr.; sparingly soluble in water; soluble in
alcohol; alcoholic solution not precipitated by water, which distinguishes
camphoric acid from benzoic acid. Its salts are called CAMPHORATES. The
soluble camphorates may be made by digesting the carbonate or hydrate of
the metal in a hot solution of the acid, and the insoluble camphorates by
double decomposition. By distillation, camphoric acid yields a colourless,
crystalline, neutral substance, which has been improperly called anhydrous
camphoric acid.

=CAM′WOOD.= This dye-stuff resembles Brazil wood in its properties, and is
used in a similar manner.

=CAN′ADA BALSAM.= _Syn._ BAL′SAMUM CANADEN′SE, TEREBINTH′INA CANADEN′SIS,
L. A thick, viscid oleo-resin obtained from the _Abies balsamea_
(Lindley), a tree of common growth in Canada and the State of Maine. It is
much employed as a medium for mounting microscopic objects. When pure it
is perfectly transparent, has an agreeable odour (not terebinthinate), and
is wholly soluble in rectified oil of turpentine, with which it forms a
beautiful glassy and colourless varnish, much used for preparing a
semi-transparent copying paper.

A mixture of 3 parts of Canada balsam and one of wax, if added to pile
masses, is said to have the effect of binding together the component parts
of the mass, and of keeping the piles made from it soft and in good shape.

=Canada Balsam, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ BALSAMUM CANADENSE FACTI′′TIUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. Yellow resin, 3 lbs.; oil of turpentine, 1 gall.; dissolve, and
add essence of lemon, 2 dr.; oil of rosemary, 1-1/4 dr.

2. To the last add of nut oil, 1 pint. Both are sold in the shops for
Canada balsam.

=CAN′DIES.= See CANDYING.

=CAN′DLES.= Candle-making, once a rude and noisome trade, has, since the
researches of Chevreul and Branconnot into the nature of the fats,
developed into one of the most important branches of scientific industry,
the progressive improvements in which, accompanied by a corresponding
cheapening and immensely increased efficiency in one of our chief means of
artificial illumination, have added greatly to the comfort and enjoyment
of every civilised community. Candles are either dipped, moulded, or
rolled. The cheaper sorts of tallow candles are formed by the first
process, and wax candles by the last; all the other kinds are moulded. The
moulds are tubes of pewter, well polished on the inside, eight or more
being fitted into a frame, the upper part of which forms a trough to
receive the melted candle material. When in the moulds the candles are
inverted; in other words, the bottom of each mould corresponds to the top
of the candle. The wick passes through a small hole at the lower extremity
of the tube, and is held in the axis by a little bar placed across the
top. At the factories of Price’s Patent Candle Company the frames of
moulds are ranged close together in long benches, and are filled with hot
candle material from cars running along little railways above them. When
quite cold the candles are withdrawn. The plan of pulling them out one by
one with the aid of a bodkin has been superseded at the factories above
mentioned, by the ingenious device of blowing them out with compressed
air.

The wicks of ordinary tallow candles are made of the rovings of Turkey
skein-cotton, 4 or more of which, according to the intended thickness of
the wick, are wound on a reel, from which they are again run off, and cut
into the proper lengths. Of late years the wicks of the best candles have
been made in such a way that they do not require snuffing. This object is
effected by causing the wick to bend over, and its end to fall outside the
flame, where it is exposed to the oxygen of the air. This bending over is
variously brought about.——1. By twisting the wick with one strand shorter
than the rest, which, being slightly stretched during the moulding of the
candle, contracts again and bends the wick when the fat melts. 2. By
plaiting the cotton into a flat wick, which naturally takes the required
curve. Such a wick is generally dipped in a solution of borax, which
preserves it from being acted upon by the flame except at its extreme
point at the edge of the flame. A very fine wire is sometimes included in
the plaited wick. 3. In Palmer’s patent two-wicked candles, which were
formerly much used in lamps, the wicks are saturated with subnitrate of
bismuth ground up with oil; they are then twisted tightly round a wire,
which is withdrawn after the candle is moulded. In burning, the ends
gradually untwist and stand out of the flame on either side. Other devices
are said to be employed.

The wicks of candles should be free from knots and inequalities, as well
as from adhering particles of cotton, the presence of all of which are the
cause of the “guttering” one frequently sees in a burning candle. The
finer the thread of which the wick is composed the more complete will be
the combustion of the melted fatty material. Unless the above precautions
are attended to, in selecting the wick, it will not be so entirely
consumed as it ought to be.

=Candles, Com′posite.= Mould candles formed of a mixture of the hard fatty
acid obtained from palm oil and the stearine of cocoa-nut oil. They were
introduced in 1840. Other compositions are occasionally used, such as a
mixture of spermaceti and hard white tallow, to which a little bleached
resin is added.

=Candles, Med′icated.= These have been proposed as a convenient means of
diffusing the active principles of certain volatile substances through the
atmosphere, and for complete and partial fumigations. They are seldom
employed in England.

=Candles, Mercu′′rial.= From the red sulphide or the grey oxide of mercury
mixed with wax, and a wick of cotton inserted therein. Recommended by Mr
Colles for partial mercurial fumigation. They are burnt under a glass
funnel with a curved neck, the upper orifice of which is directed to the
diseased part.

=Candles, Par′affin.= From the beautiful translucent substance paraffin
(which _see_). These candles surpass all others in elegance, and are
entirely free from odour and greasiness. The light produced by 98 lbs. of
paraffin candles is equal to that of 120 lbs. of spermaceti, or 138 lbs.
of wax, or 144 lbs. of stearic, or 155 lbs. of the best composite candles
(Letheby). They are sometimes delicately tinted with red, mauve, violet,
crimson, and rose colour. Aniline colours will not dissolve in paraffin.
Stearic acid, however, is a solvent for them, and accordingly when the
candles are tinted with the coal-tar colours these are previously
dissolved in the stearic acid, always mixed with the paraffin. This
insolubility of the aniline colours in paraffin has been suggested as a
test for the purity of this hydrocarbon, and of its freedom from stearic
or other fatty acids. For colouring paraffin candles black the paraffin is
heated nearly to the boiling point with anacardium shells or nuts, which
dissolve readily in the heated paraffin. The Belmontine Candles of Price’s
Patent Candle Company are formed of the paraffin of Rangoon tar.

Previous to the paraffin being made into candles, it is necessary that it
should be purified and bleached. Many processes for effecting these ends
have been devised. In the works of Price’s Candle Company the method known
as “Hodge’s” is had recourse to. This consists in first freeing the crude
paraffin from the coarser impurities, melting it, casting it into cakes,
and allowing it to cool sufficiently slowly, so as to form well-defined
crystals. The cakes are then placed upon a bed of some porous and
absorbent material, and subjected to a temperature not sufficient to melt
the paraffin, but only the liquid hydrocarbons and other more easily fused
bodies, the latter running off from between the crystals of the paraffin,
and being absorbed by the porous substance upon which the paraffin rests.
This process is repeated until the removal of the liquid hydrocarbons from
the solid paraffin has been satisfactorily accomplished. If it be
requisite to subject the paraffin to further purification, the following
method is frequently adopted. The paraffin, previously melted by steam, is
placed in a tank, with from 5 to 10 per cent. of strong sulphuric acid,
and the mixture agitated for some hours by means of air (the time
depending on the quality of the paraffin), the sulphurous acid fumes
resulting from the reaction being carried off by a suitable contrivance.
After the agitation is completed, the paraffin, after being allowed to
stand for some time, is decanted into a suitable vessel containing animal
charcoal, with which it is digested for some hours. Upon the subsidence of
the charcoal the paraffin is drawn off if at all turbid, and is passed
through a funnel heated by means of a steam jacket.

Another method, the invention of Messrs Fordred, Lambe, & Sterry, for the
decolorisation of the paraffin employed in candle manufacture, consists in
digesting the paraffin at a temperature of 230° F. with about 12% of
powdered fuller’s earth. Of late this process has supplanted the charcoal
one; and it may be employed, no matter by what means the previous
purification of the paraffin has been carried out. The paraffin and
fuller’s earth are to be well agitated together, and when the latter has
fallen down the clear paraffin is decanted from it. The inventors affirm
that their process answers quite as well if marl clay, or any other
similarly constituted and equally abundant natural substance be
substituted for fuller’s earth; and that no matter which of these bodies
is employed, they may be re-used, and any adhering paraffin be removed by
washing with agitation, or by other suitable contrivances.

Messrs Smith & Field’s patent for the removal of the colouring matters of
the paraffin consists in the employment of silicite of magnesium. The
patentees state that the successful issue of the operation depends not
only upon the careful preparation of the salt used, but upon its being
dried at a temperature of as exactly as possible 212° F. The careful
preparation before insisted on of the magnesium salt, which is procured by
the double decomposition of magnesium, sulphate, and sodium silicate,
includes its thorough washing from adhering sodium sulphate previous to
its desiccation. If this precaution be neglected, the porosity of the
silicate will be impaired, and its bleaching effect more or less
interfered with; and further, the patentees state that if the washed
silicate be heated to redness, its decolourising power will also be lost.

It appears that the paraffin employed in making the candles consists of a
mixture of paraffins having different melting points. The following are
the melting points of some of the chief varieties of paraffin:——

  Paraffin from Boghead coal at     45° to 52° C.
      ”      ”   Brown coal  ”      56° C.
      ”      ”   Peat        ”      46·7° C.
      ”      ”   Rangoon oil or tar 61° C.
      ”      ”   Ozokerit           65·5° C.

Paraffin candles contain from 5{?} to 15 per cent. of stearin, this
addition being made for the purpose of diluting the paraffin as well as
for raising the melting point of the paraffin where this is low. The
stearin, moreover, serves to preserve the rigidity of the candle in the
candlestick, and to prevent its bending out of the upright position.
Paraffin candles are always moulded, but previous to this being done the
moulds must be heated to a temperature above the melting point of the
paraffin; this may vary from 60°, 70°, and 87° C., according to the
paraffin employed. The moulds having been filled with the melted paraffin
are, after one or two moments only, plunged into cold water, when the
candle immediately becomes solid. Unless this were done the candle would
be spoilt, owing to the crystallisation of the paraffin. A thin wick is
required for paraffin candles.

=Candles, Spermace′ti.= From spermaceti (which _see_). These are very
delicate in appearance, but rather expensive. They burn well, but as the
melting point of spermaceti is low, 120° Fahr., they will not bear
carrying about in the hand without guttering. They are generally
adulterated with stearic acid or hard white tallow.

In candle-making “spermaceti is usually mixed with 3 per cent. of wax or
paraffin to destroy its highly crystalline structure; it is moulded in the
usual way with plaited wicks that require no snuffing. Occasionally the
spermaceti candles are cast without any admixture of wax, the moulds being
raised to a higher temperature just as with stearic acid. Some
manufacturers, in order to make the spermaceti appear like wax, use
gamboge to give the desired tint; such candles are known as transparent
wax.”[236] Spermaceti candles are largely consumed in India.

[Footnote 236: ‘Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and Analytical.’]

=Candles, Stear′ic.= Under this head we may place the various sorts of
candles moulded from the hard fatty acids of both animal and vegetable
origin. The principal sources whence British manufacturers derive their
acids are tallow, palm oil, and cocoa-nut oil. The processes employed for
separating them are generally described under Stearic Acid. Candles formed
of the fatty acids can now be prepared so as to imitate and almost rival
those of wax and spermaceti; and they are quite as cheap as the nearly
obsolete mould candles formed of common tallow. They are extremely hard;
they do not grease the hands, and they burn away brightly and steadily,
without giving off any offensive odour. Uncoloured, they are snowy white,
but a yellow tint is frequently given them by gamboge.

=Candles, Tal′low.= From ordinary tallow or from tallow which has been
freed from much of its oleic acid by pressure. These have so unpleasant an
odour and are so apt to gutter, that they will probably ultimately
disappear from use. They are, however, sold at so low a price, that among
the lower classes they must long retain their hold. For dip candles the
wicks are immersed in melted tallow, and after rubbing with the hands are
placed straight and allowed to harden, after which they are arranged upon
the “broaches” ready for dipping. For mould candles the last operation is
omitted. Great care is taken to select a cotton that yields the least
possible quantity of ash after burning.

In the process of “dipping,” the “dipping cistern” being filled with
tallow of a proper temperature from the boiler, one of the broaches
covered with wicks is placed upon the end of the “dipping beam,” and
pressed down gently into the melted fat; it is then withdrawn, the bottoms
of the candles just touched against a board placed on one side of the
cistern for the purpose, and the frame removed to the rack. This operation
is repeated until the candles acquire a sufficient size, when they are
finally cooled, sorted, weighed, and strung in pounds for sale.

The mould candles once in common use were made of the finer kinds of
tallow only; a mixture of 3 parts of sheep, with 1 part of ox suet, being
preferred. See WAX.

=Candles, Wax.= These are most frequently made by pouring melted white wax
on to the wicks, which are hung upon frames and covered with metal tags at
the ends to protect the cotton from the wax in those parts. The frames are
made to turn round, and melted white wax is poured first down one wick,
and then the next, and so on. When the wicks have been subjected to this
operation once and have become sufficiently cooled, they have a second,
and then a third coat given them, until they are of the required
thickness. The candles are next rolled into proper shape on a marble slab
or wooden board. The conical top is moulded by properly-shaped tubes, and
the bottoms are cut off and trimmed. Wax candles are now seldom moulded,
but if so the same processes are followed as for stearic and paraffin
candles. The large altar candles, which frequently weigh from thirty to
forty pounds, are made by hand.

=Wax Tapers.= These, which are of various degrees of thickness, are not
made of pure wax, but of wax (usually vegetable wax) and tallow, the
latter being added to give them flexibility. When they are required to be
coloured, resin and turpentine are added to the tallow. For further
particulars, consult Wagner’s ‘Chemical Technology,’ “CANDLE-MAKING.”

=CANDLE NUTS.= The kernels of the _alearites triloba_, the candleberry
tree, a plant growing in most tropical countries. The nuts when dried, and
stuck upon a reed, are used by the natives of the Polynesian Islands as a
substitute for candles. They contain a large amount of pure palatable oil,
which is sometimes used by artists as a drying oil. After the expression
of this oil the cake has been used as a food for cattle; also as a manure.

The following is the composition of the nuts:——

             _Shells._

  Water                3·71
  Organic matter      89·90
  Mineral matter       6·39

            _Kernels._

  Water               5·27
  Fat                62·97
  Cellulose          28·99
  Mineral matter      2·79

        _Ash of Kernel._

  Lime               18·69
  Magnesia            6·01
  Potash             11·33
  Phosphoric acid    29·30

=CAN′DLESTICKS.= Metallic, earthenware, and porcelain candlesticks,
snuffers, and snuffer-stands, are recommended to be cleaned by pouring
boiling hot water on them (previously placed in an earthen pan), and,
after wiping them quite dry with a cloth, to clean them with a piece of
wash leather; those made of silver, or of plated copper, may be finally
polished with a little plate powder; those of white metal, with a little
whiting or fine chalk, and those of brass, with a little rotten-stone or
one of the polishing pastes. For articles of this kind, made of bronze and
papier maché, the water should be used only hot enough to melt the tallow,
and they should be only gently dabbed or rubbed off with a very soft cloth
or leather. The common practice of placing candlesticks before the fire to
melt off the grease is injudicious, as the solder or japan about them is
almost certain to be injured. Hence the common annoyance of damaged or
“crippled” candlesticks in houses where there are careless servants.

=CAN′DYING.= When the object is simply to form a confection or sweetmeat,
imbued with the aroma, flavour, or medicinal property of any substance,
candies are generally prepared by simply boiling lump sugar with a
sufficient quantity of the infusion, decoction, tincture, expressed juice,
or sometimes even the powder of the particular article, until a portion
taken out and cooled becomes quite solid, when it is either poured out on
a marble slab, or into tin, marble, or paper moulds, dusted with powdered
lump sugar.

When the object is to preserve the form and character of the vegetable in
the candy, the substance is boiled in water until soft, and then suspended
in concentrated syrup (in the cold), until they become transparent; after
which they are either dried in a current of warm air, or in a stove, at a
heat not exceeding 120° Fahr. The syrup must be kept fully saturated with
sugar by reboiling it once or twice during the process.

Another method occasionally employed by confectioners for almonds and the
like is to put the substances into a syrup boiled until it forms a small
thread between the opening fingers, and to stir the whole until it is
nearly set. See SUGAR BOILING.

The following are the principal candied articles kept at the shops:——

=Candied Al′monds.= From blanched almonds, roasted and halved.

=Candied Angel′ica.= _Prep._ 1. From the root. Boil the fresh roots (after
slicing them and removing the pith) in water, to deprive them of part of
their bitterness and aroma; then drain them and put them into syrup boiled
to a full candy height, and boiling hot; let them remain until nearly
cold, when they may be taken out and carefully dried.

2. From the stems. From the tender stems, stalks, and midribs of the
leaves, as last. Used as a sweetmeat and dessert. It is said to be
cordial, stomachic, tonic, and aphrodisiac.

=Candied A′pricots.= From the fruit, scarcely ripe, either whole or cut
into quarters, immersed in the syrup (hot), without any further
preparation.

=Candied Cit′rons.= From the peels.

=Candied Erin′go.= From the roots, slit and washed.

=Candied Gin′ger.= From the roots of green ginger.

=Candied Hore′hound.= From a strong decoction or infusion of the root, and
lump sugar, 1 pint to 8 or 10 lbs. may be used. Boil the mixture to a
candy height, and pour it whilst warm into moulds or small paper cases
well dusted with finely powdered lump sugar; or pour it on a dusted slab
and cut it into squares.

=Candied Lem′on Peel.= As Candied Citron.

=Candied Or′ange Flow′ers.= From the flowers deprived of their cups,
stamina, and pistils (2 oz. to each lb. of sugar), as Candied Almonds, but
poured out on a slab.

=Candied Or′ange Peel.= From the peel of the Seville orange, or common
orange, as Candied Citron.

=Candied Su′gar.= See SUGAR BOILING. The following are articles of a more
special character.

=Candy, Car′away.= 1. From caraway seeds (in fine powder), 1/2 oz.; sugar,
1 lb.

2. Oil of Caraway, 1 dr.; sugar, 1 lb.

=Candy, Diges′tive.= _Syn._ LIVE-LONG CANDY. _Prep._ 1. Rhubarb and
bicarbonate of soda, of each 1 dr.; ginger, 1/2 dr.; cinnamon, 20 gr. (all
in fine powder); heavy magnesia, 1 oz.; powdered sugar, 2 oz.; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s. to form a lozenge mass; to be divided into small squares
of 18 or 20 gr. each.

2. As the last, but adding finely powdered caraways, 1 dr.; oil of
caraway, 15 drops; and sugar, 1 oz. Both are used as heartburn and
digestive lozenges.

=Candy, Gin′ger.= _Prep._ 1. From ginger (in coarse powder), 3 oz.;
boiling water, 1-1/4 pint; macerate in a warm place for 2 hours, strain,
add lump and moist sugar, of each 5 lbs., and boil to a candy.

2. Ginger (in very fine powder), 1 oz.; powdered sugar, 2 lbs.; syrup, q.
s. to make a paste. Stomachic and carminative.

For various sweetmeats which might come under the head of CANDY, see
CONFECTIONS, DROPS.

=CANKER.= This disease consists in a depraved condition of that part of
the sensitive foot of the horse which secretes the horny frog and sole. It
mostly occurs in coarsely-bred animals, and is the result of filth, damp,
and bad ventilation. The treatment consists in first removing all loose
horn, and allowing all pent-up matter to escape; the exuberant
granulations must be carefully cut away, and the parts then washed with a
tepid lotion of sulphate or chloride of zinc; after drying the surface
dust it with oxide of zinc; apply tow dipped in a mixture of tar and lime,
and “keep it in firm contact with the parts by means of a leather sole or
strips of hoop iron underneath a shoe lightly tacked on. Dress in this
manner daily, keeping up the dry pressure for a week.” (Finlay Dun.)

=CAN′NON METAL.= See GUN METAL.

=CANTHAR′IDES.= _Syn._ SPANISH FLIES, BLISTERING F., LYT′TÆ; CANTHAR′IS,
B. P. The _Cantharis vesicatoria_ of Latreille, commonly known as the
Spanish fly, is an insect of the order Coleoptera; it abounds in the south
of France, Spain, and Italy; and has spread into Germany and the south of
Russia. When alive it exudes a strong fetid and penetrating odour.

_Pur., &c._ These insects should be preserved in well-closed bottles or
tin canisters. The addition of a few drops of oil of cloves, or of strong
acetic acid, or even of a few cloves in substance, will preserve them
unchanged for a length of time in closed vessels. The best proof of their
goodness is the smell. The powder is constantly adulterated. The plan of
the wholesale druggists is to sort out the most worthless flies for
powdering, and to compensate for their deficiency of vesicating power by
adding 1 lb. of euphorbium to every 12 or 13 lbs. of flies. When a
superior article is required, liquorice powder is added (4 or 5 lbs. to
every 14 lbs.), along with about 1 lb. of euphorbium, and sufficient blue
black or charcoal to turn the yellow of the liquorice to a greenish
colour. The best mode of detecting this adulteration is by the microscope.
It should be borne in mind that only those flies which have attained their
full growth possess blistering properties. The immature or undersized
insects are destitute of epigastric power.

_Ant._ An emetic of sulphate of zinc, followed by the stomach-pump, if
necessary. The vomiting may be promoted by copiously drinking warm bland
diluents, such as broth, linseed tea, milk, &c. Friction on the spine,
with volatile liniment and laudanum, and the subsequent administration of
draughts containing musk, opium, and camphorated emulsion, have been
strongly recommended.

_Tests._ By the microscope very minute particles may be discovered in the
stomach and intestines, on a post-mortem examination. Orfila thus found
particles of cantharides in a body that had been interred nine months.

_Uses, &c._ Spanish flies are used externally to raise blisters, and
internally as a stimulant and diuretic, generally in the form of tincture.
In excess they produce strangury, bloody urine, satyriasis, delirium,
convulsions, and death. See TINCTURES, VESICANTS, &c.

=CANTHARI′DIN.= C_{5}H_{12}O_{2}. Isomeric with picrotoxin. This substance
is found in, and is the vesicating principle of, the Spanish fly, Chinese
blistering fly, and other coleopterous insects. _Prep._ Pulverised
cantharides are allowed to remain in contact for 24 hours with twice their
weight of chloroform, in a displacement apparatus. The chloroform is then
drained off, and finally displaced by alcohol, and the solution is left to
evaporate. The cantharidin crystallises out, saturated with green oil. In
order to purify the cantharidin it is laid on bibulous paper, which
absorbs the greater part of the oil, and then crystallised out of a
mixture of alcohol and chloroform. (Procter.)

_Prop._ Prismatic crystals, melts at 200° C., volatilises in white fumes,
which strongly irritate the eyes, nose, and throat, and condenses in
rectangular prisms. Cantharidin is insoluble in water, but soluble in
alcohol, ether, chloroform, acetic acid, and in the fixed and volatile
oils. Its solution in any of the liquids above mentioned possesses
vesicating properties, which, however, is not exhibited by solid
cantharidin.

=CAOUT′CHOUC.= _Syn._ INDIA RUBBER, ELASTIC GUM. India rubber is the
concrete juice of the _Ficus elastica_, _Siphonia elastica_, the _Urceola
elastica_, and many other tropical plants. The fresh milky juice is spread
over moulds of unbaked clay, and is then exposed to the heat and smoke of
a fire, or torches, to dry it, whence it derives its dark colour.
Successive coats of juice are laid on, and the operation of drying
repeated until the bottles acquire sufficient thickness. When it has
become thoroughly hard and dry, the clay is beaten out. In this form it is
commonly imported.

_Prop., &c._ The general properties of india rubber, as well as its
numerous applications, are well known. The fresh juice has a cream-like
appearance and consistence, is coagulated by heat, and is miscible with
water, alcohol, and wood naphtha; sp. gr. 1·012 to 1·041; it yields from
18% to 45% of solid caoutchouc, either by heat or evaporation. By
excluding it from the air it may be preserved unchanged for a considerable
period.

Solid caoutchouc has a sp. gr. ranging between ·919 and ·941; it melts at
248° Fahr. into a viscid mass, which does not again harden on cooling; it
is unaltered by chlorine, hydrochloric acid, sulphurous acid, fluosilicic
acid, ammonia, caustic alkaline lyes (even when boiling), and most similar
substances; nitric acid and sulphuric acid act on it only by long contact
when concentrated. Some specimens of caoutchouc are harder than gutta
percha itself, and equally inelastic, whilst others never perfectly
solidify, but remain in a condition resembling that of birdlime or
printers’ varnish.

The best solvents of caoutchouc are rectified sulphuric ether (which has
been washed with water to remove alcohol and acidity), chloroform,
bisulphide of carbon, a mixture of bisulphide of carbon and absolute
alcohol (94 of the first to 6 or 7 of the last), and caoutchoucin. All
these liquids dissolve india rubber rapidly in the cold, and leave it
unaltered on evaporation. The first two are, however, too expensive to be
generally employed. The others have a disagreeable odour, but are much
cheaper than the rest, and possess the advantage of leaving the film of
caoutchouc in a firmer and stronger condition than other solvents.
Pyrogenous oil of turpentine is another cheap and good solvent. Benzol,
rectified mineral or coal-tar naphtha, crude petroleum, and oil of
turpentine dissolve india rubber by long digestion and trituration (with
heat), otherwise they merely form with it a glutinous jelly that dries
very slowly and imperfectly, leaving it much reduced in hardness and
elasticity. The fats and fixed oils also readily dissolve caoutchouc (with
heat), forming permanently glutinous solutions or pastes; so also do most
of the volatile oils, but the solutions with the majority of them dry with
difficulty.

One of the most remarkable properties of india rubber is the great amount
of heat which is disengaged during its condensation by pressure or in the
exercise of its elasticity. During the process of kneading the raw
caoutchouc in the “masticators,” the cold water thrown in to reduce the
temperature soon becomes boiling hot. When no water is added, a
temperature so high is often reached as to occasion the melting of the
rubber. This is particularly the case during the process of “dry kneading”
with quick-lime. A tube 2-1/4 inches in diameter, impactly secured, was
subjected to a force of 200 tons. The result was a compression amounting
to 1-10th; great heat was evolved, and the excessive elasticity of the
substance caused a fly-wheel weighing five tons to recoil with alarming
violence. Mr Brockedon states that he succeeded in raising the temperature
of an ounce of water 2° in about fifteen minutes by collecting the heat
evolved by the extension of a small thread of caoutchouc. He refers this
effect to the change in specific gravity, and contends that the heat thus
produced is not due to friction, because the same amount of friction is
occasioned in the contraction as in the extension of the substance, and
the result of this contraction is to reduce the caoutchouc thus acted upon
to its original temperature.

The edges and surfaces of india rubber are readily and perfectly joined by
mere contact and intense pressure. On the small scale the edges may be
moistened with ether, naphtha, oil of turpentine, or some other solvent,
or by long boiling in water, and immediately pressed tight together and
held in contact for some time.

Elastic tubes are readily formed of india rubber by cutting it into
uniform slips of proper thickness and winding them round rods of polished
glass or metal, so that the edges are in close contact or “overlapping.” A
piece of tape is then wound round outside it, and the whole boiled in
water for 2 or 3 hours, after which time the edges will be found to be
sufficiently adherent. A better plan is to immerse the “rubber” in a
mixture formed of bisulphide of carbon, 95 parts, and rectified spirit, 5
parts, until it swells into a pasty mass, which may then be moulded into
any desired form or passed through the die of a tubing machine. For
chemical purposes, brewing, &c., vulcanised india-rubber tubing has now
taken the place formerly occupied by the unprepared material.

The once celebrated “Mackintoshes” are made by spreading two or more coats
of a paste made of caoutchouc and rectified coal-tar naphtha over the
surface of the stuff or cloth, and, when it has become partially dry,
pressing two such surfaces evenly together by passing the goods between a
pair of cylinders or rollers. The articles are then placed in a stove room
for the composition to harden, and to remove the odour of the naphtha. Of
late years vulcanised or mineralised rubber (coloured) has been used for
this purpose, and being spread on the outside of the stuff instead of the
inside forms an ornamental and thoroughly waterproof material.

India-rubber thread is prepared by stretching it (previously cut into
coarse filaments) to 5 or 6 times its length in boiling water or hot air,
in which state it is allowed to cool slowly. This process is repeated
again and again until it reaches 16,000 or 17,000 times its original
length, when it is glazed by agitating it with powdered sulphur or French
chalk. This thread is readily joined or “pieced,” as it is called, by
paring the ends obliquely with a pair of scissors or a knife, and then
pressing the clean ends strongly together with the fingers. When the
coarse filaments from the cutting machine are simply stretched with the
moistened thumb and finger in the act of “reeling” to about 8 or 9 times
their length, they are said to be “inelasticated,” and are ready to be
made into elastic braces, elastic web, and other like elastic tissues and
fabrics in the braiding machine.

=Caoutchouc, Vul′canised.= _Syn._ VULCANISED INDIA RUBBER, MINERALISED I.
R., SULPHURETTED I. R. The discovery of the singular action of sulphur and
the mineral sulphides on caoutchouc was made by Mr Charles Goodyear, of
New York, in 1842, at which date the manufacture of vulcanised india
rubber may be said to have commenced. In 1843 Mr Thomas Hancock patented a
process for vulcanised india rubber in these countries, founded on that of
Mr Goodyear. A sheet of caoutchouc immersed in melted sulphur absorbs a
portion of it, and at the same time undergoes important changes in many of
its leading characteristics. So prepared, it is no longer affected by
changes of temperature; it is neither hardened by cold nor softened by any
heat insufficient to destroy it. It loses its solubility in the solvents
of ordinary caoutchouc, whilst its elasticity is greatly augmented, and
has become permanent.

The same effect is produced when sulphur is kneaded into caoutchouc in a
masticator, or by means of powerful rollers, as well as when common
solvents (naphtha, spirit of turpentine, &c.) are charged with a
sufficient amount of sulphur in solution to become a compound solvent of
the rubber. In these cases articles may be made of any required form
before heating them for the change of condition technically termed
“vulcanisation.” It is necessary, however, for this purpose that the form
should be carefully maintained both before and during the exposure to the
heat.

“A vulcanised solid sphere of 2-1/2 inches in diameter, when forced
between two rollers 1/4 inch apart, was found to maintain its form
uninjured. In fact, it is the exclusive property of vulcanised caoutchouc
to be able to retain any form impressed upon it, and to return to that
form on the removal of any disturbing force which has been brought to act
upon it.” (Brockedon.)

Caoutchouc combines with from 12% to 15% of sulphur; the quantity of
sulphur added to the naphtha paste should not, therefore, exceed 10% or
12% of its weight.

The temperatures for vulcanisation by the common method range from 320° to
330°; and the period required is one hour or more, according to the
temperature. A much lower temperature is, however, sufficient if the
duration of the exposure is much extended or the compound mass is softened
with any of the common solvents of india rubber.

The process of sulphuring, or mineralisation, is differently conducted in
different manufactories. Under Mr Burke’s patent, oxysulphide or amorphous
sulphide of antimony (formed by decomposing a solution of crude antimony
in a lye of potash or soda with hydrochloric acid) is employed. This
powder he combines with either india rubber or gutta percha, or mixtures
of them, by kneading in a “masticator” for 2 or 3 hours, and after strong
compression in a mould whilst still warm, he exposes the mass to a steam
heat ranging from 250° to 280° Fahr. The block, so prepared, is afterwards
cut into sheets, &c. The advantages possessed by the product are that it
possesses no unpleasant odour, nor does the sulphur effloresce on its
surface, as in ordinary vulcanised india rubber.

Under Mr Christopher Nickel’s patent (1849) 1 part of sulphur is kneaded
with 6 parts of caoutchouc, and then pressed into moulds, as before. He
also vulcanises rubber by exposing it in a cylinder heated in a steam
jacket to the fumes of sulphur or to sulphuretted gases, given off from a
retort connected with the apparatus. The rubber thus prepared he next
subjects to hydraulic pressure in moulds, at a temperature ranging between
220° and 250° Fahr.

Small articles or sheets of india rubber may be extemporaneously
vulcanised at common temperatures by simple immersion, for a minute or
two, in a mixture of bisulphide of carbon, 97-1/2 parts, and protochloride
of sulphur, 2-1/2 parts; after which they must be well washed first in
weak alkaline lye, and next in pure water. Mr Parkes employs 100 instead
of 97-1/2 parts of the bisulphide. This method is termed “cold
sulphuring.”

An excellent method of vulcanisation, recommended by Mr Parkes,
particularly applicable to small articles, consists in immersing them for
about 3 hours in a close vessel containing a solution of polysulphide of
potassium at 25° Baumé (sp. gr. 1·197), and of the temperature of 240°
Fahr. It is afterwards washed in an alkaline lye, then in pure water, and
dried.

Among the many applications of vulcanised india rubber those connected
with its elasticity and its enormous contractile power when extended are
particularly striking. Under Mr E. Smith’s patent, “torsion springs” for
roller blinds, door springs, clock springs, carriage springs, &c., are
made of it. Mr Hodges, in another patent, has availed himself of the same
property as a new mechanical power. Short lengths of caoutchouc, which he
terms “vulcanised power purchases,” are successively drawn down from or
lifted to a fixed bearing, and attached to any weight which it is required
to raise; when a sufficient number of these power purchases are fixed to
the weight, their combined elastic force lifts it from the ground. Thus,
10 purchases of the elastic strength each of 50 lbs. raise 500 lbs. Each
purchase is 6 inches long, and contains about 1-1/2 oz. of vulcanised
caoutchouc. These 10 purchases, if stretched to the limit of their
elasticity (not of their cohesive strength), will lift a weight exceeding
650 lbs.

The same principle has been applied to relieve and equalise the strain on
ships’ cables, especially where several boats are towing one vessel; and
as a projectile force. A number of power purchases, attached to the barrel
of a gun constructed to project harpoons, will exert a power, if suddenly
relieved, proportioned to their aggregate forces. By similar contrivances
balls may be projected 200 yards or more, and a charge of No. 4 shot can
be thrown 120 yards. A bow, in which the string alone is elastic (the
reverse of the usual form), has been contrived which throws a 30-inch
arrow 170 yards.

The last great improvement in the manufacture of caoutchouc is the
discovery that by continuing the process of vulcanisation for a longer
time at an increased heat and under pressure, a hard black substance is
obtained, which can be turned in a lathe like ebony. This substance has
already been applied to an extraordinary number of uses. See VULCANITE.

An exceedingly useful combination of cork and india rubber has lately been
introduced. See KAMPTULICON.

=Caoutchouc, Facti′′tious.= See OIL, CONSOLIDATED.

=CAOUT′CHOUCIN.= An extremely light fluid obtained by distilling india
rubber.

_Prep._ (Barnard’s patent process.) A highly volatile fluid, discovered by
Mr Barnard. India rubber or caoutchouc, as imported, cut into small lumps,
containing about 2 cubic inches each, is thrown into a cast-iron still,
connected with a well-cooled worm-tub (any flat vessel with a large
evaporating surface will do, the entire top of which can be removed for
the purpose of cleaning it out); and heat is applied in the usual way,
until the thermometer ranges to about 600° Fahr., when nothing is left in
the still but dirt and charcoal. The dark coloured fetid oil which has
distilled over is next rectified along with 1/3rd its weight of water,
once or oftener; and at each rectification becomes brighter and paler,
until at about sp. gr. ·680 it is colourless, and slightly volatile. The
product is then shaken up with nitro-hydrochloric acid, or chlorine, in
the proportion of a 1/4 of a pint of the acid to 1 gallon of the liquid.
To enable the dirt to be the more easily removed from the bottom of the
still, common solder, to the depth of about 1/2 an inch, is thrown
in.——_Prod._ 80%.

_Prop., &c._ Mixed with alcohol, caoutchoucin dissolves gums and resins,
especially copal and india rubber, at the common temperature of the
atmosphere, and it speedily evaporates, leaving them again in the solid
state. It mixes with the oils in all proportions. It has been used in the
manufacture of varnishes, and for liquefying oil paints, instead of
turpentine. It is very volatile, and requires to be kept in close vessels.
According to the researches of Himly, Gregory, and Bouchardat, the
caoutchoucin of Barnard consists of several liquids, some of which have
the composition of olefiant gas, and others that of oil of turpentine.

=CA′′PERS.= The flower buds of various species of _Capparis_, particularly
_C. spinosa_, caper tree, preserved in vinegar. They are chiefly imported
from Spain, Italy, and the south of France, where the caper tree is
largely cultivated for the purpose. The flower-buds are picked daily, and
thrown into a cask of strong pickling vinegar, until it becomes full, when
it is sold to the dealers by the collector. The former sort them into
different sizes by means of copper sieves, in a similar way to that
adopted for lead shot and gunpowder. In this way they are divided into
nonpareilles, capuchins, capotes, seconds, and thirds, of which the
former, or smallest, are regarded as the best; but much depends upon the
quality of the vinegar.

The bright green colour of capers, so much valued by the ignorant, arises
chiefly from the presence of copper derived from the sieves used in
sorting them. In many cases, copper coin, as sous and halfpence, are added
for the purpose. Thus the eye is gratified at the sacrifice of the
stomach, and an insidious poison introduced into the system, simply to
give an unnatural appearance to a condiment which tastes better without
it. See COPPER.

=CAPILLAIRE′.= [Fr.] Simple syrup, or a concentrated solution of sugar in
water, flavoured with orange-flower water, or some other similar aromatic.
The name was originally given to a mucilaginous syrup, prepared by adding
to an infusion of maiden-hair (_Adiantum capillus Veneris_) some sugar and
orange-flower water.

=CAP′NOMOR.= See KAPNOMOR.

=CAP′RIC ACID.= HC_{10}H_{19}O_{2}. _Syn._ RU′TIC ACID; ACIDUM CAP′RICUM,
L. An acid discovered by Chevreul, and obtained by decomposing caprate of
barium with dilute sulphuric acid, or primarily by the saponification of
butter or cocoa-nut oil, when it appears combined with butyric, caproic
and caprylic acids. It is also procured by acting upon oleic acid or oil
of rue with nitric acid.

_Obs._ When butter is saponified with caustic potassa or soda, and the
resulting soap decomposed by adding an acid, in excess, and distilling the
mixture, the four acids above named pass over into the receiver, in
combination with water. The mixed acids may be separated by saturating
them collectively with baryta, and by taking advantage of the unequal
solubility of the newly formed barium salts. The less soluble portion
(equal to about 1/20th of the dry mass) contains capric and caprylic acid;
the larger and more soluble portion, butyric and caproic acid. On the same
plan the two groups are resolved into their separate acids. These acids
are deprived of their uncombined water by means of chloride of calcium. It
is advisable to employ the term rutic acid, as the older term is easily
confounded with caproic and caprylic.

_Prop._ Capric or rutic acid crystallises in fine needles, which fuse at
86° Fahr., giving out an odour resembling that of a goat. It is sparingly
soluble in boiling water.

_Prep._ (Miller.) Castor oil is saponified by means of potassa or soda,
and afterwards an excess of the hydrated alkali is added, amounting to one
half the oil used. The mass is heated in a retort, and an oily liquid
covered with water distils over. This oily liquid, which is the octylic
alcohol, is rectified several times with potassa until the residue is no
longer coloured brown.——_Prop._ A colourless liquid, of powerful aromatic
odour; insoluble in water, but dissolving readily in acetic acid, ether,
and alcohol. Its boiling point is 356° Fr., its sp. gr, ·823. The
caprylate of ethyl, erroneously termed caprylic ether, is a colourless
liquid, with an agreeable odour of pine-apples.

=CAPSAICIN.= Until the researches of Mr Thresh proved to the contrary the
active principle of the capsicum fruit, or cayenne pepper, and the one to
which it was thought it owed its acrid and pungent properties, was
believed to be an alkaloid, and was named capsicine in consequence. Mr
Thresh succeeded in obtaining an alkaloid from the capsicum, but this was
entirely wanting in acridity and pungency. Its discoverer states that
capsaicin occurs only in the pericarp of the fruit. The details of the
process by which it may be obtained are given in the ‘Year Book of
Pharmacy’ for 1876-77, from which it will be seen that the substance may
also be procured by preparing a strong tincture of capsicum, and
submitting it to dialysis. Capsaicin when cautiously heated to 138° F.,
melts to a transparent oily fluid, and if then allowed to cool rapidly, it
becomes solid, assuming a crystalline condition in doing so. It
volatilises at 240° F., without suffering decomposition. Strong nitric
acid acts violently on it, decomposing and dissolving it. The crystals
dissolve very readily in ether, amylic, alcohol, acetic ether, benzine,
and fixed oils, and still more readily in alcohol, and in rectified and
proof spirit. In turpentine and carbon disulphide it dissolves much more
slowly. It is not affected by boiling for some considerable time in dilute
sulphuric acid, and the acid liquor shows no signs of glucose.

A specimen of capsaicin which Mr Thresh believes to have been in a pure
condition was sent to Dr Flückiger’s laboratory for analysis, and Dr Buri,
by whom the combustion was made, reports that it gave the following
composition:——C_{19}H_{14}O_{2}, a result which Mr Thresh found to agree
very fairly with some capsaicin derived from a specimen fruit obtained
from a different source from that sent to Dr Flückiger. Administered
internally in doses of the 1/25th of a gram, capsaicin gave rise to
violent griping and purging; and when a lotion consisting of one part
diluted with forty of glycerin and spirit was placed on the arm, it soon
gave rise to such pain, and caused so much inflammation, that the lint
which was wetted with the solution had to be removed very shortly after
being applied.

=CAP′SICUM.= [L. and Eng.] _Syn._ CHIL′I, RED PEPPER. A genus of plants
belonging to the natural order Solanaceæ, species of which yield the
fruits which are used to form Cayenne pepper and Chili vinegar. The
officinal capsicum of B. P. is the fruit of the species _C. fastigiatum_.
See PEPPER, TINCTURES, VINEGARS.

=CAP′SULES.= This term is now commonly applied to small egg-shaped or
spherical vessels, in which medicines are placed, for the purpose of
covering their nauseous taste at the time of swallowing them. They are
commonly made of gelatin, mixtures of sugar and gelatin, or animal
membrane.

=Capsules, Gel′atin.= _Prep._ 1. By dipping the bulbous extremity of an
oiled metallic rod into a strong solution of gelatin. When the rod is
withdrawn, it is rotated, in order to diffuse the fluid jelly equally over
its surface. As soon as the gelatinous film has partially hardened, it is
removed from the mould and placed on pins, furnished with suitable heads,
and fixed on a cork table. When sufficiently dry, the capsules are placed
upright in little cells, made in the table to receive them, and the liquid
with which they are to be filled is then introduced by means of a small
glass tube. They are next closed by dropping some of the melted gelatin on
the orifice of each. Six parts of gelatin, and one part sugar, are now the
common proportions.

2. (Simonin.) Oval balls of wax, of the requisite size, are prepared by
pouring wax, into a wooden mould, consisting of two parts, and arranged
for the reception of a row of these balls. These are afterwards stuck on
iron needles, affixed to rods of convenient size, in rows. The balls are
now uniformly coated all at once by dipping in the usual manner, then
removed from the needles, and are next placed with the needle holes
downwards, on a gently heated plate, when the wax flows out, and a round
capsule is left behind.

=Cap′sules, Gel′atin and Su′gar.= _Prep._ (Giraud.) Gelatin, 6 parts;
solution of gum and simple syrup, of each 1 part; water, 5 parts; melt in
a water bath, remove the scum, and proceed as before.

=Capsules, Glut′en.= These, which form the subject of a French patent, are
said to be formed of the gluten of wheat flour, a substance which is
insoluble, although softened, by water. We have placed these capsules for
twenty-four hours in warm water, and found them, at the expiration of that
time, still unbroken, the enclosed medicine being completely enveloped.
The mode of preparation is kept secret.

=Capsules, Mem′branous.= _Syn._ ORGAN′IC CAPSULES. From gut-skin moistened
and stretched over an oiled bulb of glass or metal, and filled in the
common way. These have been patented, but they do not appear to be an
improvement on the common capsule of gelatin.

_Obs._ The common capsules usually hold about 10 or 12 gr. of balsam of
copaiba. Those of the shops in nine cases out of ten, are filled with
adulterated copaiba, and at least 4-5ths of them are filled with train oil
or linseed oil, to which a few drops only of the balsam are added.

Balsam of copaiba (capivi) and oil of cubebs, or a mixture of them, castor
oil and cod-liver oil, are the substances most usually administered in
this way. _Baccæ copaiferæ factitiæ_ are officinal in the Ph. Castr. Ruth.
Ratier has proposed to grease them and administer them per anum. Ricord
has strongly recommended capsules of copaiba, coated with extract of
rhatany, as much superior to the common ones of copaiba alone, in the
treatment of gleet and gonorrhœa. They may be easily prepared by either of
the following methods:

1. By immersing, for an instant, the common capsule in a mixture of
extract of rhatany (newly prepared from the root), 3 parts; syrup of moist
sugar, 1 part; mucilage of gum Arabic, 1 part; melted together in a water
bath.

2. By forming the bodies of the capsules with the above mixture or
composition, instead of with gelatin, and then following the same
manipulations as for the manufacture of the common gelatin capsules.

These capsules are said to sit well upon the stomach, the tone of which
they contribute to improve, and to act with greater certainty than those
made of copaiba and gelatin alone.

=CAR′AMEL.= A dark-brown substance obtained by heating sugar. It is formed
during the roasting of all materials containing sugar, such as coffee and
malt. It is much used for colouring soups, wines, spirits, and other
liquids.

=Caramel, Crude.= _Syn._ SPIRIT COLOURING, BURNT SUGAR. _Prep._ From cane
sugar, by heating it to from 410° to 428° Fahr., as long as aqueous vapour
is formed; dissolving the product in water, and concentrating the solution
by evaporation.

=Caramel, Pure.= _Prep._ 1. (Graham.) Crude caramel, obtained as above, is
placed on a parchment-paper dialyser. The undecomposed sugar and certain
intermediate compounds diffuse out with considerable facility, and what
ultimately remains on the dialyser possesses five times the colouring
power of the original crude caramel, weight for weight. See DIALYSIS.

2. (Peligot.) Add strong alcohol to a filtered aqueous solution of crude
caramel until it ceases to produce a precipitate; collect the precipitate,
which is caramel, on a filter, wash with alcohol, and dry. Graham
recommends that the product should be dissolved and precipitated four or
five times, or till the mass thrown down, from being plastic at first,
becomes pulverulent.

3. (J. J. Pohl.) Cane sugar is heated in a spacious metallic vessel by
means of an oil bath to 410° or 419° Fahr. as long as aqueous vapours
escape, the mass being occasionally stirred with a spatula. The mass is
then finely powdered and digested with alcohol for two or three hours; the
digestion is repeated until the fluid no longer tastes bitter.

_Prop._ A solution containing 10% of purified caramel is gummy, and forms
a tremulous jelly on standing. Evaporated in vacuo, it dries up into a
black shining mass soluble in water; but if the solution be evaporated to
dryness by the heat of a water bath, the whole matter is rendered
insoluble in hot or cold water. A very small proportion of caramel
suffices to give a rich sepia tint to water.

=CAR′AT.= A weight of 4 grains used in weighing diamonds, which are spoken
of as of so many carats weight. Among assayers, a carat is a weight of 12
grains; but more commonly a proportional weight or term, representing the
number of parts of pure gold in 24 parts of the alloy; pure gold being
spoken of as of 24 carats fine. It is commonly the 24th part of the “assay
pound,” and is nominally subdivided into 4 assay grains, and these again
into quarters. See ASSAYING.

=CAR′AWAY.= _Syn._ CARAWAY SEED; SE′MENA CARUI, L.; CARUI, B. P. The fruit
of the _Carum Carui_ (Linn.), an umbelliferous plant, common in England
and other parts of Europe. These fruits, commonly called “seeds,” form an
agreeable and useful aromatic and carminative, and are especially esteemed
in the flatulent colic of children. They are also largely employed as an
adjuvant or corrective in various officinal preparations; and as a
flavoring ingredient in cakes, biscuits, cordials, confectionery, &c. See
ESSENCES.

=CARBAZOT′IC ACID.= See PICRIC ACID.

=CARBOL′IC ACID.= H.C_{6}H_{5}O. _Syn._ PHENYLIC ACID, PHENIC ACID,
PHENOL, PHENYLIC ALCOHOL, HYDRATE OF PHENYLE, HYDRATED OXIDE OF PHENYLE. A
powerful antiseptic substance obtained from coal-tar oil.

_Prep._ Crude, heavy coal oil is agitated with milk of lime, allowed to
stand, and the aqueous portion separated from the undissolved oil and
decomposed by hydrochloric acid. The oily liquid obtained is purified by
distillation.

1. Crude coal oil is distilled in a retort furnished with a thermometer,
and the portion which passes over when the heat ranges between 300° and
400° Fahr., is collected apart, and mixed with a hot saturated solution of
caustic potassa; after standing for some time, a semi crystalline pasty
mass forms, from which the supernatant liquid is decanted; the pasty mass
is now agitated with a small quantity of water until dissolved; the
solution thus formed separates into two portions, the denser of which
contains carbolate of potassa; this being separated by decantation, is
decomposed by hydrochloric acid. The solution of carbolic acid which rises
to the surface is digested with chloride of calcium, to remove water, and
purified by distillation; the distillate, by refrigeration, furnishes
crystals of the acid, which must be drained, dried, and preserved from the
air.

2. From salicylic acid. Mix intimately together equal weights of salicylic
acid and powdered glass; introduce the mixture into a good German retort,
and heat on a sand bath, gradually raising the heat till it becomes red
hot at the bottom. The vapour is condensed in any convenient receiver. If
the materials are perfectly dry, it solidifies to a mass of crystals as
soon as it condenses, but if there be a trace of water present it remains
liquid. The slower it distils over the lighter will be the colour, while
if a high temperature be employed it comes over nearly black. It may be
rendered colourless and anhydrous by rectification over quick-lime.

Of late years the manufacture of carbolic acid has increased to a great
extent, and is generally found in a pale yellow clear solution, instead of
as a dark hazy liquid. The pure anhydrous acid is in long, colourless,
prismatic crystals, often, however, on keeping turning a beautiful pink,
rose, or crimson, and which rapidly deliquesce in moist air, becoming
converted into a colourless refractive liquid, having a faint odour of
roses and tar. At 95° F. they become an oily liquid, having an odour and
taste like creosote. Sp. gr. 1·065, boiling point 370° F. Exposed to the
air the crystals absorb moisture and liquefy. The acid is slightly soluble
in water, but freely soluble in glycerin, alcohol, and ether. Carbolic
acid is poisonous, and is a powerful antiseptic.

_Tests._——About a grain of hypochlorite of calcium, added to a little
aqueous solution of carbolic acid, placed in a test-tube, produces after
agitation, the addition of a few drops of ammonia, and the application of
a gentle heat, a bright blue colour with a tinge of green. One drachm of
the acid if pure completely dissolves on being shaken with half a pint of
warm water.

_Uses._ The extraordinary antiseptic properties of carbolic acid have long
been known, but its extended use has been delayed, owing to the difficulty
experienced in obtaining it in considerable quantities. It is now,
however, principally owing to the labours of the late Dr F. Crace Calvert,
produced on a large scale, and this chemist has proposed its application
to many valuable purposes. As a medical agent it seems to have all the
useful properties of creosote in an exalted degree, with some peculiar
actions of its own, and is being applied with marked success in the
Manchester Royal Infirmary and similar institutions, in cases of chronic
diarrhœa, obstinate vomiting (even after creosote has failed), and as a
disinfecting wash for ill-conditioned ulcers and gangrenous sores. It has
been said to have been used with marked success internally as a remedy
for hooping-cough. It has also been applied successfully in cases of
foot-rot, a disease which annually carries off large numbers of sheep. It
has been employed for the preservation of gelatin solutions and
preparations of size made with starch, flour, and similar materials, and
of skins and other animal substances. It appears to act strongly as an
antiferment, and Dr Calvert states that it is one of the most powerful
preventives of putrefaction with which he is acquainted. Commercial
creosote is frequently nothing more than hydrated carbolic acid.

Professor Lister, of Edinburgh, adopting the germ theory of putrefaction,
and regarding the putrid discharge from wounds as the result of the
presence of atmospheric organisms which find a suitable nidus in the
decomposing animal tissue exposed by the wound, seeks to exclude the
access of these germs by the use of antiseptics, particularly of carbolic
acid, the destructive action of which on living organisms is well known.
He applies to the wounds dressings of gauze previously prepared with
carbolic acid, additionally using as a lotion the acid, well diluted with
water; whilst during the dressing of the wounds and the performance of
surgical operations carbolic acid is diffused in the form of spray into
the surrounding atmosphere with the object of destroying the germs
floating in it.

_Antidotes._——Calcined magnesia, or bicarbonate of soda, in milk after
short intervals. In the absence of these, chalk, soap and water, or the
plaster from the ceiling. Olive oil additionally. More than fifty per
cent. of the carbolic acid manufactured is used for the purpose of
preparing the following pigments and dye materials:——

1. Picric acid. 2. Phenyl brown. 3. Grenat soluble. 4. Coralline. 5.
Azuline. These will be found described under TAR COLOURS.

=CAR′BON.= C. _Syn._ CARBO′NIUM, CAR′BO, L.; CHARBON, Fr.; KOHLENSTOFF,
Ger. An elementary or simple non-metallic solid body, very widely diffused
through nature. Its purest and rarest form is that of the diamond. Nearly
pure, it occurs very abundantly in the forms of graphite and anthracite.
In combination with oxygen, as carbonic acid, it exists in the atmosphere
and in the waters of most springs, also in limestone, marble, chalk, and
dolomite. Combined with hydrogen, it enters largely into coal, peat, and
lignite. It is an essential constituent of organic matter, and hence it
has been termed the “organic element.” Charcoal, lamp-black, and coke, are
more or less pure forms of carbon. By strongly igniting lamp-black in a
covered crucible the element is obtained sufficiently pure for most
chemical purposes.

It is best obtained purest by burning a jet of pure olefiant gas in an
atmosphere of pure chloride, collecting the amorphous carbon deposited,
and igniting in vacuo at a red heat.

Forms several chlorides, sulphides, &c., of which the following are the
chief:——

=Carbon, Protochloride of.= Obtained from the sesquichloride by subliming
it repeatedly through a tube filled with fragments of glass heated to
redness. A transparent colourless liquid, with aromatic odour.

=Carbon, Sesquichloride of.= C_{2}Cl_{6}. Obtained by exposing Dutch
liquid with chlorine, in a glass vessel, to the direct rays of the sun,
taking care to renew the chlorine as long as it is absorbed. The liquid is
ultimately converted into the sesquichloride of carbon, which is a white
crystalline, volatile substance.

=Carbon, Tetrachloride of.= _Syn._ BICHLORIDE OF CARBON. It may be
obtained by passing chlorine (desiccated by being made to pass through a
tube wetted with strong sulphuric acid), through a bottle containing
bisulphide of carbon, and afterwards through a porcelain tube, wrapped in
sheet copper, and filled with fragments of broken porcelain, maintained at
a red heat, by a charcoal or gas furnace, and condensing the product in a
bottle surrounded by ice. A mixture of tetrachloride of carbon and
chloride of sulphur is thus obtained. By shaking this mixture with
solution of potash, the chloride of sulphur is decomposed and dissolved,
whilst the tetrachloride of carbon separates, and falls to the bottom. The
upper layer having been poured off, the tetrachloride may be purified by
distillation.

Tetrachloride of carbon is a colourless liquid, having a sp. gr. 1·6, and
boiling at 172° F. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in alcohol and
ether. Its vapour, diluted with air, is employed as an anæsthetic.

=Carbon, Oxychloride of.= COCl_{2}. _Syn._ CHLO′ROCARBON′IC ACID, PHOSGENE
GAS, CHLORIDE OF CARBONYL. Equal measures of carbonic oxide and chlorine
are exposed to the direct rays of the sun; they combine, and become
condensed to half their volume. It is a colourless, suffocating gas, which
is immediately decomposed by water into carbonic and hydrochloric acids.

=Carbon, Sulphide of.= CS_{2}. _Syn._ BISULPHIDE OF CARBON, CARBON
DISULPHIDE, SULPHURET OF CARBON. Bisulphide of iron (iron pyrites), 5
parts, and fresh dry charcoal, 1 part, are heated together in a stoneware
retort, furnished with a glass tube, having the end bent, and passing
nearly to the bottom of a bottle or receiver filled with pounded ice. The
bisulphide of carbon collects at the bottom of the receiver, and is then
purified from adhering moisture and sulphur by distilling it, at a low
temperature, from fused chloride of calcium.

By passing the vapour of sulphur over fragments of charcoal, heated to
bright redness in a porcelain tube, and collecting the product as before.

Sulphide of carbon is best manufactured by means of Peroncele’s apparatus
figured in the accompanying drawing.

[Illustration]

A is a fire-clay gas retort supported on the fire-clay block B; E and E
are openings, one being that of a porcelain tube firmly cemented into the
cover of A, serving for the introduction of sulphur; the other opening is
for the introduction of pieces of coke, with which before the operation
commences the retort is filled. The vapours of the sulphide of carbon pass
through the tubes H and I into the vessel J, wherein part of the sulphide
is condensed, and flows through K into the flask L, filled with water,
thence through M into O, finally being run off by the tap N. Any vapours
not condensed in J pass through P P into the worm T, the condensed
sulphide being collected in S. The crude sulphide is rectified by
redistillation over zinc or perchloride of mercury by means of a steam or
water bath. If the perchloride is employed it should remain in contact
with the crude sulphide for at least 24 hours before redistillation.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ A colourless, pungent, fetid liquid, having the sp. gr.
1·27. It is exceedingly volatile, boiling at 118·5° Fahr., and has never
been frozen. It is highly inflammable, burning with a pale-blue flame, and
giving off sulphurous and carbonic-acid gases. It freely dissolves sulphur
and phosphorus, and by spontaneous evaporation deposits the first in
beautiful crystals. The solution of phosphorus is much used in
electrotyping objects, which are coated with a conducting film by its
means. Its refractive power is remarkably high, and on this account it is
employed to fill hollow lenses for spectroscopes and other optical
instruments. It produces intense cold by its evaporation. A spirit
thermometer, having its bulb covered with cotton, if dipped into this
fluid and suspended in the air, rapidly sinks from 60° to 0°, and if put
into the receiver of an air-pump it will fall to -81° Fahr. A mixture of
sulphide of carbon and solid carbonic anhydride forms almost the most
powerful frigorific agent known. Sulphide of carbon is now prepared on the
large scale, and extensively employed as a solvent.

It is thus used for extracting from the cake of fruits and seeds the oil
remaining in them after they have been submitted to pressure. The sulphide
is subsequently separated from the oil by distillation. In Algiers it is
used for obtaining the essential oils contained in the rose, jessamine,
and lavender. It is also employed for dissolving the fat from bones, and
from the crude wool. Furthermore, it is an excellent solvent for
caoutchouc, as well as for the ordinary resins.

Its vapour is employed by agriculturists to kill the larvæ infesting
grain. Latterly, it has been employed as a disinfectant.

_a._ _Carbon Bisulphide as an Antiseptic._ By P. Zöller (‘Deut. Chem. Ges.
Berl.,’ ix, 1080-1084). The author has continued his experiments on this
subject with the object of determining (1) the minimum quantity of
bisulphide required, and (2) whether articles of food preserved by means
of it are fit for human consumption.

As regards the first point, he found that meat of all kinds, and even
entire animals, in quantities up to 20 kilograms, kept perfectly well for
several weeks in vessels of sheet zinc, into which 5 grams of carbon
bisulphide had been introduced, the meat being either simply hung on hooks
or wrapped in cloths and laid on perforated shelves in the vessels.
Probably a smaller quantity of the bisulphide would suffice. Meat also
kept well for 62 days in a vessel in which carbon bisulphide was liberated
by introducing potassium xanthate and dilute sulphuric acid. Freshly baked
bread, vegetables, and fruits of all kinds (asparagus, radishes, young
beans, cucumbers, strawberries, raspberries, currants, cherries, peaches,
apricots, lemons, &c.), and juices of fruits kept perfectly well in glass
vessels, into which carbon bisulphide has been introduced, in the
proportion of 5-10 drops for each litre of capacity.

Bread, vegetables, and fruit thus preserved are fit to eat after simple
exposure to the air, and cannot be distinguished by taste or other
qualities (except a slight loss of colour in some fruits) from fresh
bread, &c. Meat retains even after exposure to air the disagreeable odour
of carbon bisulphide. But besides this odour, which disappears on boiling
or roasting, the meat has a slight smell of the volatile fatty acids and
the taste of game. To most people, however, this taste is not unpleasant.
The presence of fatty acids is to be attributed to decomposition taking
place in the interior of the meat, and not preventable by the carbon
bisulphide, the function of which is merely to kill germs present in the
air or on the surface of substances submitted to its influence.

_b._ By Hugo Schiff (‘Deut. Chem. Ges. Ber.,’ ix, 828). Cocoons of
silkworms which had been killed by exposure to the vapours of carbon
disulphide underwent no change during six months’ keeping in flasks in the
laboratory. The bodies of some pigs which had been used for physiological
experiments were put into a stoppered vessel with a few c. c. of carbon
disulphide in 1869, and have been perfectly preserved without
decomposition. The same result was obtained with a lizard 35-45
centimetres long, which had been suffocated accidentally in 1869, and was
bottled whole. In this case a small quantity of liquid collected at the
bottom of the vessel, and the green hue of the skin became a dirty greyish
green, but not the slightest putrefaction occurred. Similar results were
obtained with the intestines of poultry immersed in water in 1872 with a
little carbon disulphide, in a bottle with a greased stopper; with a lump
of beef weighing 200 grams; and with the body of a finch killed with
paraconine. The beef yielded a normal flesh fluid, and was eaten by a dog
without hesitation even after several months.

_Purification._——1. It is stated that the odour of sulphide of carbon can
be readily removed by allowing it to stand over mercury or corrosive
sublimate for some time, and then redistilling.

2. The following method by Kern is stated by him to be the best for
purifying sulphide of carbon:——The impure product is well mixed in a tall
glass vessel with some lead nitrate, and with a small quantity of metallic
lead. When the salt turns dark the liquid is poured into another vessel
with a fresh quantity of the lead salt; and so on until the salt remains
nearly white while mixed with the liquor. The sulphide of carbon is then
placed in a retort, and distilled over into a well-cooled receiver.

3. M. Yvon proposes a process which consists in adding copper turnings to
the sulphide; no slaking is necessary. The sulphide soon becomes nearly
colourless, and loses its usually unpleasant odour. Miller says reduced
copper produces the same result.

Carbon sulphide is employed therapeutically in doses of 2 drops, gradually
increased to 5, as a sudorific in rheumatism. It is also dropped (40 to 50
drops) on the part, to promote the reduction of strangulated hernia.
Externally, it is employed in liniments for rheumatic pains.

=CAR′BONATE=, a salt in which the hydrogen of (hypothetical) carbonic acid
(H_{2}CO_{3}) is replaced by a metal or other basic radical.

_Prep., &c._ The processes by which the commercial carbonates and many
others are prepared are described under the respective bases. Most of the
earthy carbonates are found abundantly in nature. In general the salts of
this class may be formed by adding an alkaline carbonate to a salt of the
metal in solution by double decomposition.

_Prop._ The carbonates of the alkalies are soluble in water; those of the
other bases are for the most part insoluble, except the water is highly
charged with carbonic acid. From most of them carbonic anhydride or
anhydrous carbonic acid can be easily expelled by heat.

_Tests._ The carbonates are easily distinguished by the following
reactions:——They dissolve with effervescence in hydrochloric acid and in
most other acids; in some cases a gentle heat is required to promote the
disengagement of the gas.——The gas evolved in the last, passed into lime
water and baryta water, occasions white precipitates, which redissolve in
acids with effervescence, and after the solution has been boiled are not
reprecipitated by liquor of ammonia.——Chloride of calcium and chloride of
barium give white precipitates in solutions of the neutral alkaline
carbonates, but in solutions of the alkaline bicarbonates only after
ebullition; and the precipitates are readily soluble with effervescence in
acetic acid.

_Estim._ The quantity of the metal in an alkaline or earthy carbonate may
be easily determined by the ordinary volumetric methods of alkalimetry
(which _see_), and the quantity of carbonic acid, by the method of
Fresenius and Will (see ALKALIMETRY). The apparatus figured on next page,
or preferably that shown in the article on ALKALIMETRY, may be used
instead of the more complicated contrivance of the German chemists.

A weighed sample of the carbonate to be examined is placed in the flask
_a_ along with a little water, and the small tube, _b_, filled with either
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, is carefully introduced. The cork, with
its chloride of calcium tube, _d_, is then fitted to the flask, and the
whole apparatus very accurately weighed.

On inclining the apparatus the acid escapes over the side of the small
tube, and mixing with the liquor in the flask, expels the carbonic
acid of the carbonate, which is then dried by passing over the chloride of
calcium. After effervescence has ceased heat should be applied to the
bottom of the flask, until it be filled with steam, to expel the carbonic
gas it contains. The loss of weight gives the weight of the carbonic acid
gas that was contained in the sample. The quantity of carbonic acid in the
carbonates of the metals that do not contain water may be determined by
heating them to redness in a platina crucible.

[Illustration: _a_, Flask containing the sample of carbonate for
examination, stopped by a closely fitting cork, through which passes the
bent tube _c_.

_b_, A small tube, sufficiently long to maintain a slanting position
without falling, filled with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid.

_c_, A bent tube, connecting the flask with _d_.

_d_, Horizontal tube, filled with small fragments of fused or dried
chloride of calcium, with a fine orifice at the extremity _e_.]

=CARBONIC ACID.= H_{2}CO_{3}. True carbonic acid has not yet been obtained
in any satisfactory condition, although the solution of carbonic anhydride
(often called carbonic acid), or anhydrous carbonic acid, is generally
regarded as such. It forms with bases an important series of salts, called
the carbonates, by double decomposition.

=CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE.= CO_{2}. _Syn._ CARBONIC ACID, CARBON DIOXIDE, FIXED
AIR, CHOKE DAMP; ACIDE CARBONIQUE, Fr.; KOHLEN SÄURE, Ger. A compound
formed by the chemical union of carbon and oxygen.

_Hist._ Van Helmont recognised carbonic acid as a peculiar gas. Dr Black,
in 1757, proved that it was a constituent of limestone, and gave it the
name of fixed air; he also showed that the causticity of alkalies depended
on its absence. Bergmann first described it as an acid, applying to it the
term aërial acid. Lavoisier, in 1776, established its true nature, and
gave it the name it now bears. Faraday, in 1823, by pressure at an
extremely low temperature, reduced carbonic acid to a liquid, and a few
years later Thiloria and Brunel obtained it in the solid form.

_Nat. Hist._ Carbonic acid is a constituent of the atmosphere, its
presence being essential to the existence of vegetable life on the globe.
It issues from the earth in many situations, as the Grotto del Cane in
Italy, the Valley of Poison in Java, and near the Lake of Laach in
Germany. It gives to many mineral springs their sparkling brilliancy, and
is held in solution by all natural waters. Combined with the bases, lime
and magnesia especially, it exists in large quantities in the crust of the
earth. It is the chief product of combustion, and one of the products of
fermentation. It is always being exhaled by animals in the process of
respiration, and in smaller quantities by plants at night or in the shade.
It forms the terrible “choke-damp” or “after-damp” of the coal mines. It
is the gas disengaged during the effervescence of soda water and other
aërated drinks, and the cause of the freshness of newly-drawn beer.

_Prep._ Hydrochloric acid, 1 part, diluted with water, 4 or 5 parts, is
poured upon fragments of white marble, previously placed in a suitable
generating apparatus.[237]

[Footnote 237: A large flask, provided with a bent glass tube for
conveying the gas, and a tube-funnel for introducing the acid, is the most
convenient form of apparatus. A tubulated retort may be used, but the
generating flask or bottle is to be preferred.]

Carbonic acid is rapidly evolved, and may be collected, with some loss,
over water in the pneumatic trough. If required dry, the gas must be
passed over fragments of fused chloride of calcium, placed in a large
tube, or through a small quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid, and
collected by displacement or over mercury.

From oil of vitriol, 1 part; water, 6 parts; and chalk or whiting, 1-1/4
part; mixed in a suitable vessel, applying agitation.

_Prop._ Under ordinary conditions carbonic acid is a colourless,
non-inflammable, irrespirable gas, possessing a slightly pungent odour,
and an acidulous taste. Water absorbs its own volume of this gas, and by
pressure may be made to take up enormous quantities, forming carbonated or
aërated water. Its sp. gr. is 1·520; hence it may be poured from one
vessel to another like water. By a pressure of thirty atmospheres at 32°
Fahr. it is liquefied, the pressure required decreasing as the temperature
gets lower. At -94° Fahr. it solidifies into a vitreous transparent mass.

Carbonic acid, even when greatly diluted with air, cannot be inhaled
without insensibility following. An atmosphere containing more than its
natural quantity of gas (1 part in 2500 parts by measure) acts upon the
system as a narcotic poison; hence the danger of over-crowded rooms. It is
a non-supporter of combustion, at once extinguishing a lighted candle,
gas-jet, or even a piece of burning phosphorus, when these are placed in a
jar of the gas.

_Tests._ It feebly reddens litmus paper, extinguishes the flame of a
burning taper, and forms a white precipitate in aqueous solutions of lime
and baryta, which is soluble in acetic acid. By the last test a very small
quantity of this gas may be easily detected in the atmosphere of rooms,
&c. A lighted candle is generally used to test an atmosphere suspected to
contain carbonic acid: but it is found that air that will support
combustion will contain sufficient of this gas to cause insensibility.

_Ant., &c._ The patient should be immediately removed into the open air,
and placed on his back with the head slightly raised. Cold water should be
dashed over the body, hot water or mustard poultices applied to the feet,
and ammonia (carefully) to the nostrils. Brandy-and-water and other
stimulants may be administered. Continued friction on the surface of the
body is also very useful. If the patient has ceased to breathe artificial
respiration should be attempted. This may be done by gently pressing down
the ribs, and forcing up the diaphragm, and then suddenly withdrawing the
pressure. The inhalation of air, mixed with very little chlorine gas, has
also been recommended. Wells, cellars, or other underground apartments,
containing carbonic acid in poisonous quantities, may be freed from this
gas by pumping it out in the same way as water, observing to allow the
suction hose to fully reach the floor or bottom of the place. Fresh slaked
lime or milk of lime, copiously thrown in, will have a like effect, by
absorbing the gas. Free ventilation, whenever it can be established, is,
however, not only the cheapest, but the most efficient remedy. See
ASPHYXIA.

=CARBON′IC OXIDE.= CO. _Syn._ PROTOXIDE OF CARBON, CARBON MONOXIDE,
GA′SEOUS OXIDE OF CARBON; OXY′DUM CARBON′ICUM, L. A gaseous compound of
carbon and oxygen, containing less oxygen than is contained in carbonic
acid.

_Prep._ 1. From carbonic acid gas passed over fragments of charcoal,
heated to redness in a tube of porcelain or iron.

2. From crystallised oxalic acid, gently heated with 5 or 6 times its
weight of strong sulphuric acid in a glass retort.

3. From ferrocyanide of potassium in fine powder, and 8 or 10 times its
weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, heated together in a glass retort.

_Obs._ All the processes except the last give a mixture of carbonic acid
and oxide. It is therefore necessary to pass the gas through a caustic
alkaline solution or milk of lime to deprive it of carbonic acid. It may
then be passed over dried chloride of calcium, to deprive it of moisture.
It may be collected either over mercury or water, as the latter absorbs
very little of this gas.

_Prop._ Carbonic oxide is colourless, inodorous, neutral, inflammable, and
irrespirable. It is extremely poisonous, 1% mixed with air being
sufficient to cause dangerous drowsiness. The deaths produced by the
combustion of charcoal in close rooms are now attributed to this gas. The
antidotes, &c., are the same as for poisoning from inhaling carbonic acid.

=CAR′BUNCLE.= A larger sized and dangerous form of boil, attended by
extensive sloughing. The treatment consists in lancing, poulticing, and
the adoption of a generous diet, with wine and stimulants. The safer plan,
however, is to seek the advice of a medical man.

=CAR′BURETTED HY′DROGEN.= See HYDROGEN.

=CARD′AMOM.= _Syn._ CARD′AMUM; CARDAMO′MUM, B. P. The seed or fruit of the
_Elettaria Cardamomum_ forms the officinal cardamom. It is warm, pungent,
carminative, and stomachic, and is largely used as a condiment in the
East, and in Europe as an adjuvant in other medicines. Several kinds of
cardamoms used medicinally and as spices are produced by the genus
_Amomum_, belonging to the natural order Zingiberaceæ, the Ginger family.

=CARD′BOARD.= Cardboard, or sized pasteboard, is made of two to fifteen
sheets of sized paper, pressed and stained. There are varieties of
cardboard known as Bristol-board, London-board, the former being largely
used for water-colour drawings, mounting-board, ornamental board, &c.

=CAR′MINATIVES.= Medicines that allay flatulency and spasmodic pains.
Among the principal carminatives are ANISEED, CARAWAY SEED, CARDAMOMS,
CASSIA, CINNAMON, GINGER, PEPPERMINT, and the PEPPERS. To these may be
added ARDENT SPIRITS, and most of the AROMATIC ESSENCES and TINCTURES. See
MIXTURES, PATENT MEDICINES, &c.

=CAR′MINE.= _Syn._ CARMINE RED, VEGETABLE SCARLET; CARMI′NUM, L. A
beautiful red pigment prepared from the cochineal insect.

_Prep._ The preparation of carmine is little understood, but success in
its manufacture depends less on any mystery connected with the process
than on the employment of the purest water and the best materials, and the
exercise of moderate care, dexterity, and patience. The following forms
will produce carmine of the richest hues down to ordinary and common,
according to the skill possessed by the manipulator.

1. (_Madame Cenette’s process._) Cochineal (in powder), 2 lbs., is boiled
in pure river water, 15 galls., for 2 hours, when refined saltpetre
(bruised), 3 oz., is added to the decoction, and the whole boiled for 3 or
4 minutes longer; salt of sorrel, 4 oz., is next added, and the boiling
again renewed for 10 or 12 minutes; the heat is now removed, and the
liquid allowed to settle for about 4 hours, after which time it is
decanted with a syphon into shallow plate-like vessels, and set aside for
three weeks. At the end of this time the film of mould which has formed on
the surface is dexterously and carefully removed, without breaking it or
disturbing the liquid beneath it. The remaining fluid is next very
carefully removed with a syphon, and the adhering moisture, as far as
possible, drained off, or sucked up with a pipette. The residuum, which is
the carmine, is dried in the shade, and possesses extraordinary lustre
and beauty.

2. (Alxon or _Langlois’ process_.) Powdered cochineal, 1 lb., is boiled in
river water, 4 galls., for 10 minutes, when carbonate of soda, 3/4 oz.,
dissolved in water, 1 pint, is added, and the whole again boiled for 1/2
hour longer; when the decoction is cold, alum (in fine powder), 3/4 oz.,
is thrown in, and the liquid agitated rapidly until it is entirely
dissolved; after 20 minutes’ repose it is decanted into another vessel,
and clarified by heating it with the whites of 2 eggs; the perfectly clear
liquid is then allowed to repose for 40 minutes or longer, when it is
decanted, and the carmine which it has deposited is collected, drained on
a filter, and dried on shallow plates covered with silver paper. The
product by either of the above processes varies from 9-1/2 to 10% on the
weight of the cochineal employed in them.

3. (_China_ or _Spirit process._) Cochineal, 1 lb., is boiled for 15
minutes, in water, 3 galls., powdered alum, 1 dr., is next added, and the
whole again boiled for 5 or 6 minutes; when the liquid has become cold,
the clear portion is decanted, and again heated, the solution of tin
(spirits of tin) cautiously dropped in until all the carmine is
precipitated; it is collected, drained, and dried, as before. _Prod._
1-1/2 oz.

3. (_French process._) From cochineal (in powder), 1 lb., boiled for 15
minutes, in water, 3 galls.; cream of tartar (in powder), 1 oz., is then
added, the boiling further continued for 10 minutes, and powdered alum
1-1/2 oz., thrown in; after another 2 minutes’ boil the heat is withdrawn,
and in 5 or 6 minutes more the clear portion is decanted into porcelain
vessels, which are set aside until the carmine falls down.

4. (_German process._) Powdered cochineal, 1 lb., water, 4 galls.; boil 15
minutes, add powdered alum, 1 oz.; boil 3 minutes longer, remove the heat,
allow the liquor to settle for 5 minutes, pour off the clear portion into
porcelain or earthenware vessels, and set them aside for 3 or 4 days. The
carmine is found deposited on the bottom of the vessel, and must be now
carefully drained and dried, as before. The decanted liquor yields more
carmine by standing in fresh vessels. _Product._ About 1-1/2 oz.; besides
1/2 oz., or more, of an inferior quality obtained as a second deposit.

5. (_English process._) From cochineal, 1 lb., and carbonate of potash,
1/2 oz., boiled in water, 7 galls., for 15 minutes; the vessel is then
removed from the fire, and powdered alum, 1 oz., added; the liquor is then
well agitated and allowed to settle for about 15 minutes longer; the clear
liquid is next decanted into a clean copper, and isinglass, 1/2 oz.,
dissolved in water, 1 pint (and strained), added; as soon as a coagulum
forms upon the surface, the heat is removed, and the liquid is strongly
agitated with a bone or silver spatula, after which it is allowed to
repose for 20 or 30 minutes. The deposited carmine must be drained and
dried, as before.

_Obs._ The best black cochineal is generally used for the preparation of
carmine. For ordinary qualities spirits of tin (bichloride) is added to
the decoction as a precipitant, and the liquid being put into suitable
vessels (wash-hand basins answer very well), a deposit of carmine slowly
takes place. Neither exposure to solar light nor artificial heat is
advisable during the drying, but the latter must nevertheless be effected
with all possible expedition. Hence the finer shades of carmine can only
be successfully made during certain states of weather; as in very hot
weather the liquid rapidly sours or ferments, and the deposit is more or
less dissolved; whilst in dull, damp weather it is difficult to dry the
precipitate sufficiently, which is then apt to become mouldy, and to lose
colour. The researches of Pelletier and Caventou tend to show that the
solution of tin used as a precipitant should be at the maximum of
oxidation or chlorination, to produce the richest shades of carmine. That
first deposited is, in all cases, the most beautiful, and the quality
gradually deteriorates as the process proceeds. 6 or 7 dr. only of carmine
of the very finest quality can hence be obtained from 1 lb. of cochineal.

_Prop., &c._ Pure carmine is a very light, lustrous, scarlet powder,
entirely soluble in ammonia, a test by which its purity is readily
determined. Mr Warren De la Rue says the pure colouring principle of
cochineal is carminic acid. By digesting ammonia on carmine until all the
colour is taken up, filtering and adding acetic acid and alcohol, till the
whole is precipitated; and lastly, carefully washing the precipitate with
spirit of wine, at proof, and drying in the shade, carmine of the richest
and most lustrous hue may be obtained even from samples of inferior
quality.

_Uses, &c._ As a pigment in velvet and miniature painting, and for tinting
artificial flowers, and as rouge for the complexion. The powdered
cochineal (carmine grounds), from which the coloured liquor (liquid rouge,
carmine liquor) has been decanted, is used by the paper stainers, and both
are used in the preparation of carminated lake.

=Carmine, Blue.= See INDIGO.

=Carmine, Li′quid.= _Syn._ FLUID CARMINE, LIQUID ROUGE, CARMINE INK.
_Prep._ 1. A solution of carmine in ammonia water, or spirits of
hartshorn. Very rich and beautiful.

2. The residual liquor of the process of making carmine. Inferior. The
first is used in velvet and miniature painting, and for tinting artificial
flowers; the second for common purposes, as a stain or wash.

=Carmine, Pur′ple.= See MUREXIDE.

=CARMIN′IC ACID.= C_{14}H_{14}O_{8}. _Prep._ (W. De la Rue.) The powdered
insect, after treatment with ether to remove the fat, is digested in
water. The decoction of cochineal is precipitated by adding a solution of
acetate of lead, and the impure carminate of lead thus formed, after
being washed with water, is suspended in water, and decomposed by a stream
of sulphuretted hydrogen; the whole process is repeated with the decanted
solution so obtained; the second solution is then evaporated to dryness
(in vacuo over sulphuric acid), dissolved in absolute alcohol, digested on
some washed crude carminate of lead (to separate a little phosphoric
acid), and, lastly, mixed with ether (to precipitate some nitrogenised
matter); the residuum obtained by careful evaporation (in vacuo) is pure
carminic acid.

_Prop., &c._ A purple-brown mass, yielding a rich-red powder; it is freely
soluble in water and alcohol; slightly soluble in ether; and without
decomposition in oil of vitriol; it is feebly acid; its salts are termed
carminates, only two or three of which have been examined. According to Mr
De la Rue, this acid constitutes the pure colouring matter of cochineal.

=CARNAUBA ROOT.= The root of the _corypha cerifera_, a wax-bearing palm,
growing on the shores of the Rio Francisco, in Brazil. Dr C. Symes (see
‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ 3rd series, v, 661) says:——Two bales of this
root have been imported into Liverpool, with the following remarks in
Portuguese:——“This root is recognised by the professor as an excellent
purifying agent, and has been successfully applied in the cure of various
diseases arising from impurity of the blood. We are indeed astonished that
it is not more widely known, as its therapeutic qualities, which are
worthy of full credence, rival those of sarsaparilla. The carnauba root
likewise has a diuretic power, and possesses unusual efficacy, in the cure
of acute and chronic blennorrhœas. It is, furthermore, very cooling, and
displays a vigorous action in purifying the blood.” Mr Cleaver, who
submitted the root to analysis, found it to contain very minute quantities
of an alkaloid, an acrid resinous body, a red colouring matter, a variety
of tannic acid, and a small portion of volatile oil.

=CAROBA.= The leaves of a tree belonging to the family _Bignoniaceæ_,
employed in Brazil as a diaphoretic, diuretic, and alterative tonic. Dr
Alt states that he has used them extensively, and with much success, in
old-standing cases of syphilitic eruptions, and after a course of
mercurial treatment. They are usually administered either in the form of
powder or decoction.

=CAROT′INE.= C_{18}H_{24}O. A crystalline, copper-red substance, obtained
from the root of the _Daucus carota_ (_sativa_) or garden carrot. It is
tasteless; odourless; neutral; fusible; inflammable; insoluble in ether
and water; slightly soluble in alcohol; and very soluble in the mixed and
volatile oils.

=CAR′PETS.= Consideration of cleanliness and economy demand a few words on
carpets and hearth-rugs. We are assured by an experienced person that
before proceeding to sweep a carpet, a few handfuls of waste tea-leaves
should be sprinkled over it (say some five or six minutes before). A stiff
hair broom or hair brush only should be employed unless the carpet be very
dirty, when a whisk or carpet-broom may be used first, followed by another
made of hair, to take off the loose dust. The frequent use of a stiff
“carpet-broom” (those made of cane or birch are here alluded to) soon
wears off the beauty of the best carpet. An ordinary clothes-brush, or a
clean one, resembling the dirt brush used for shoes, is best adapted for
superior carpets. When carpets are very dirty they should be cleaned by
shaking and beating. “If you must have a carpet, take it up two or three
times a year, instead of once. A dirty carpet literally infects the room:
if you consider the enormous quantity of organic matter from the feet of
people coming in, which must saturate it this is by no means surprising.”
(Miss Nightingale.) In laying down carpets it is very advisable, at first,
to cover the floor beneath them with large sheets of thick paper, so as to
prevent dust from rising between the boards. Old drugget, sacking,
matting, or any similar substance, will effect the same purpose, and will,
moreover, materially increase the durability of the carpet, by preserving
it from the contact of the hard floor.

BRUSSELS CARPETS may be cleaned with ox-gall (1 pint to a pailful of
water), and a scrubbing-brush, and floor-cloth; afterwards rinsing them in
fresh water applied in the same way. They should be previously perfectly
freed from dust by beating, and should be nailed down before commencing
the above operations. Great care should be taken to rub them as dry as
possible with a clean dry floor-cloth. A small portion only should be done
at a time, and a dry windy day selected for the purpose. A carpet treated
in this manner will be greatly refreshed in colour, particularly the
greens.

KIDDERMINSTER CARPETS will scarcely bear the above treatment without
becoming so soft as to get speedily dirty again. This may in some measure
be prevented by brushing them over with a hot weak solution of size in
water, to which a little alum has been added. Curd soap, dissolved in hot
water, may be used instead of ox-gall, but it is more likely to injure the
colours if produced by false dyes. When there are spots of grease on the
carpeting they may be covered with curd soap, dissolved in boiling water,
and rubbed with a brush until the stains are removed, when they must be
cleaned with warm water as before. The addition of a little gall to the
soap renders it more efficacious. Some persons employ a mixture of soap,
fuller’s earth, and turpentine, for the same purpose. Benzol rapidly
removes the grease stains, and may be advantageously substituted for
preparations of soap.

=CAR′RAGEEN.= _Syn._ I′′RISH MOSS; CHONDRUS, L. The _Chondrus crispus_ of
botanists, a well-known alga or seaweed. It contains a large proportion of
a peculiar jelly, called carrageen′in or pect′in. This may be purified by
agitation with dilute alcohol and filtration. The jelly forms an agreeable
article of diet. It is used to a limited extent for thickening colours in
calico printing. In _medicine_, carrageen is used in the form of a jelly
and decoction as a demulcent, and is often prescribed in pulmonary
complaints. See FIXATURE, ALGÆ, PASTE, SYRUP.

=CAR′ROT.= _Syn._ CARO′TA, L. The seed is carminative and diuretic; the
expressed juice of the root is anthelmintic. Scraped raw carrot is
sometimes employed as a stimulant application to sore nipples; the boiled
root as a poultice to sores and tumours. As an article of food, unless
young and well dressed, carrots are rather indigestible. Carrots can be
kept for many months if the tops are cut out, and they are then placed in
damp sand.

_Analysis of Carrots._

  Water                         87·30
  Albumenoids                    0·66
  Cellular tissue, gum, and
    non-nitrogenous substance    2·56
  Sugar                          5·54
  Fibre                          3·20
  Mineral matters                 ·74
                               ------
                               100·00

=CAR′THAMIN.= C_{14}H_{16}O_{7}. _Syn._ PURE ROUGE, SAF′FLOWER CARMINE,
SAFFLOWER LAKE. The red colouring matter of _Carthamus tinctorius_ or
safflower, formerly much used as a dye, particularly in the form of pink
saucers for dyeing stockings.

_Prep._ 1. Safflower, exhausted by washing it with water (or with water
acidulated with acetic acid), is dried, coarsely pulverised, and the
powder digested in a weak solution of carbonate of sodium; pieces of clean
white cotton or calico are then immersed in the solution, and acetic acid
gradually added in slight excess; the cotton is next washed, dried, and
digested in a fresh quantity of dilute solution of carbonate of sodium,
and agitation employed until the whole of the colour is again dissolved;
the new solution is filtered and slightly super-saturated with citric acid
(or acetic acid); the carthamin, which falls down in rich carmine-red
flocks, is lastly washed with cold distilled water, and dried.

2. Washed safflower (dried and powdered), any quantity; aqueous solution
of carbonate of sodium (containing 15% of carbonate), q. s. to form a
thick paste; after some hours press out the red liquor, nearly neutralise
it with acetic acid, put in cotton as before, and add acetic acid in
slight excess; the next day remove the cotton and wash it in water holding
in solution 5% of carbonate of sodium, until the colour is dissolved out,
after which precipitate with citric acid, as before.

_Prop., &c._ An amorphous, brilliant, greenish powder; nearly insoluble in
water, soluble in alcohol, forming a gorgeous purple solution, and in weak
alkaline lyes giving an equally beautiful red one.

=CAR′THAMUS.= _Syn._ SAF′FLOWER. In _botany_, a genus of composite plants,
the most important species of which is _Carthamus tinctorius_, the
safflower. The florets of this yield a beautiful pink dye (see _above_),
and are sometimes used to adulterate hay saffron. The “cake saffron” of
the shops consists entirely of safflower and mucilage. The fruits,
commonly called “seeds,” yield by expression the useful oil known in India
as Koosum oil.

=CARUM (PTYCHOTIS) AJOWAN.= Ind. Ph. _Syn._ AJWAIN or OMUM PLANT.
_Habitat._ Tropical Africa? Much cultivated in India.——_Officinal part._
The fruit (_Fructus Ptychotis_, _Ajwain fruit_). Occurs in the form of
minute umbelliferous fruits, which, examined with a lens, are seen to be
covered with prominent tubercles, extremely aromatic, evolving, when
rubbed, a strong odour resembling that of common thyme. Taste somewhat
bitter, and very pungent. Its virtues reside in a volatile
oil.——_Properties._ Valuable stimulant, carminative, and
antispasmodic.——_Therapeutic uses._ In flatulence, flatulent colic, atonic
dyspepsia, and diarrhœa, it is a remedy of much value.

OIL OF AJWAIN, or OMUM (_Oleum Ptychotis_). The oil obtained by
distillation from the fruit. Recently prepared, colourless, but soon
acquires a yellowish tinge. It has the odour of the fruit, and an acrid
burning taste. Sp. gr. about 0·88.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 drops on sugar or in
emulsion.

AJWAIN, OR OMUM WATER (_Aqua Ptychotis_). Take of ajwain fruit, bruised,
20 oz.; water, 2 galls. Distil a gallon.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fluid ounces. A
valuable carminative; also useful in disguising the taste of disagreeable
drugs, especially castor oil, and obviating their tendency to cause nausea
and griping.

=CARYOPH′YLLIN.= C_{10}H_{16}O. _Syn._ CLOVE CAMPHOR, CLOVE RESIN. A
crystalline substance, isomeric with ordinary camphor, which deposits from
oil of cloves in needles.

=CARYOPH′YLLUS.= See CLOVE.

=CASCARIL′LA.= _Syn._ CASCARILLÆ CORTEX (B. P.), L. The bark of _Croton
eleutheria_ or the seaside balsam, a tree growing in the Bahamas and
Jamaica. It is an aromatic bitter, stomachic, and tonic——_Dose_, 10 gr. to
30 gr., in the form of powder, infusion, or tincture; in diarrhœa,
dysentery, dyspepsia, low fevers, intermittents, &c.

=CASCARIL′LINE.= _Syn._ CASCARIL′LINA. _Prep._ (Duval.) Cascarilla is
exhausted with cold water by percolation, precipitated with acetate of
lead, and the filtrate treated with sulphuretted hydrogen; the filtered
liquid, after agitation with animal charcoal and filtration, is gently
evaporated to dryness. The powder is redissolved in boiling alcohol and
crystallised by very slow or by spontaneous evaporation. It has a bitter
taste and acid reaction; its aqueous solution is unaffected by the ferric
salts and tincture of galls.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr.; in dyspepsia, &c.

=CASE-HARD′ENING.= _Syn._ STEEL SUR′FACING. The operation of giving a
surface of steel to iron goods. Tools, fire-irons, fenders, keys, &c., are
usually case-hardened.

_Process._ 1. The goods (finished in every respect but polishing) are put
into an iron box, and covered with animal or vegetable charcoal, and
“cemented” at a red heat for a period varying with the size and
description of the articles operated on: these, when taken out, are
hardened by plunging into water, or oil, if they are of a delicate nature.

2. (Moxon.) Cow’s horn or hoof is baked or thoroughly dried and
pulverised; to this is added an equal quantity of bay salt, and the whole
is made into a paste with stale chamber-lye, or white wine vinegar; the
iron is covered with this mixture, and bedded in it, in loam, or inclosed
in an iron box. In this form it is laid on the hearth of the forge to dry
and harden, then it is put into the fire, and blown till the lump has a
blood-red heat (no higher). It is hardened as before.

3. Coat the goods with a paste made of a concentrated solution of
prussiate of potash and loam; then expose them to a strong red heat, and
when it has fallen to a dull red, plunge the whole into cold water.

4. The goods, previously polished and finished, are heated to a
bright-red, and rubbed or sprinkled over with prussiate of potash. As soon
as the prussiate appears to be decomposed and dissipated the articles are
plunged into cold water.

_Obs._ The process of case-hardening has been well conducted when the
surface of the metal proves sufficiently hard to resist a file. The last
two plans are a great improvement upon the common method. By the topical
application of prussiate of potash (ferrocyanide of potassium) any part of
a piece of iron may be case-hardened without interfering with the rest.

=Case-hardening Powders.= _Syn._ CASE-HARDENING COMPOSITIONS. 1. Prussiate
of potash, dried and powdered.

2. Prussiate of potash, 3 parts; sal-ammoniac, 1 part; mix.

3. Sal-ammoniac and bone-dust, of each 2 parts; prussiate of potash, 1
part. (See _above_.)

=CA′SEIN.= _Syn._ CA′SEUM, CA′SEIN, LACTALBU′MEN, ALBUMEN OF MILK. The
nitrogenous principle of milk. Cheese made from skimmed milk and well
pressed is nearly pure casein. (Liebig.)

_Prep._ 1. The curd obtained by adding dilute sulphuric acid to milk is
well washed and dissolved in carbonate of soda. It is allowed to stand for
24 hours, to let the oil rise to the surface, and when this is properly
skimmed off, the casein is precipitated by an acid. The process is
repeated a second time, and the coagulum digested with alcohol and ether,
and dried. With all these precautions the casein still contains some
saline matter which cannot be removed.

2. Milk is coagulated by hydrochloric acid, and the curd then well washed
with dilute acid, and finally with pure water. The curd so prepared is
dissolved by digestion at 110° Fahr., with a large quantity of water; the
solution, after filtration, is coagulated with carbonate of ammonia; the
coagulum is washed with water, ether, and alcohol, and finally dried.

_Prop., &c._ Coagulated casein is readily dissolved by the alkalies and
alkaline carbonates. The most remarkable property of casein is its
coagulation by certain animal membranes, as in the process of
cheese-making with rennet. See LACTARIN.

=CASKS.= The care and management of casks is an important affair in a
large establishment. It is found that they last longest when stored either
in a dry situation, or in one uniformly very moist. Continual variations
from the one to the other speedily rot them. As soon as casks are emptied
they should be bunged down quite air-tight, with as much care as if they
were full, by which means they will be preserved both sweet and sound.
Should any of the hoops become loose they should be immediately driven up
tight, which will at once prevent the liability of their being lost or
misplaced, as well as the casks fouling or becoming musty from the
admission of air. For this purpose those out of use should be occasionally
hauled over and examined.

Numerous plans are adopted for CLEANING and PURIFYING CASKS, among which
are the following:——

1. Wash them well out with oil of vitriol, diluted with an equal weight of
water.

2. Wash them first with a little chloride of lime and warm water, and then
with water soured with oil of vitriol.

3. Match them with sulphur, or with sulphur mixed with a little saltpetre.

4. Unhead them and whitewash them with fresh milk of lime, made pretty
strong. This plan is commonly followed for brewers’ vats.

5. Remove the heads, and char the insides of the staves by the aid of a
fire of shavings kindled within them.

6. A simpler, safer, and more effectual method of charring them than the
last is to wash the dry casks out with strong oil of vitriol (sp. gr.
1·854). This not only purifies the surfaces of the staves, but penetrates
into all the cracks, some of which might escape the action of the fire.

7. Steam has lately been applied to the insides of casks with great
advantage. High-pressure steam is driven in at the bung-hole, at the same
time that the cask is violently agitated (a heavy chain having been
previously put into it), until all the dirt and bad smell is removed.

8. A lye of pearlash or soda, mixed with milk of lime, as well as strong
hot brine, and other similar liquors, have been adopted by some persons,
and are highly spoken of.

9. The coopers boil the staves for gin casks in a strong lye of alum
before placing them together, to prevent their colouring the spirit, but
washing with oil of vitriol is a better plan.

10. Some persons fill musty casks with water and add 3 or 4 lbs. of
coarsely powdered fresh burnt charcoal, and agitate well for a few days.

11. Wash with bisulphite of lime.

_Obs._ In all the above processes the greatest care must be taken to scald
or soak and well rinse out the casks after the treatment described. See
BREWING UTENSILS, SPOROKTON, MATCHES, &c.

=CAS′SAREEP.= The expressed juice of the sweet cassava, concentrated by
heat and flavoured with aromatics. It is used in the West Indies as a
condiment. (See _below_.)

=CAS′SAVA.= A poisonous shrub cultivated in the West Indies and in many
parts of South America for the sake of the starchy matter contained in its
roots. It belongs to the natural order Euphorbiaceæ, and is known to
botanists under the names _Manihot utilissima_ (Pohl), _Janipha manihot_
(Humboldt), and _Jatropha manihot_ (Linn.), the former being that now
generally adopted. The name “bitter cassava” is commonly given to it in
the West Indies, to distinguish it from another species of the same genus,
_Manihot aipi_ (Pohl), which, from having no poisonous properties, is
named the “sweet cassava.” The roots of both species yield the starch, but
those of the poisonous plant are the richer.

The roots, after being well washed and scraped, are rasped or grated, and
the pulp thus formed is subjected to strong pressure, to expel the
poisonous juice which it contains. The compressed pulp is next thoroughly
dried over the fire, being constantly stirred the whole time, by which any
remaining portion of the noxious juice is either volatilised or
decomposed. It now forms CASSAVA MEAL. When it is further prepared by
grinding, it forms FINE CASSAVA MEAL or CASSAVA FLOUR. When the compressed
pulp is baked on a hot plate, it forms CASSAVA BREAD or CASSAVA CAKES, the
flavour of which greatly resembles that of Scotch oat-cakes. See TAPIOCA.

=CAS′SIA.= In _botany_, a genus of the natural order Leguminosæ, including
several important medicinal plants. The “purging cassia,” _Cassia fistula_
(Linn.), produces pods containing a soft, blackish pulp. (See _below_,
also SENNA.)

=Cassia Pulp.= _Syn._ CASSIA PRÆPARA′TA, CASSIÆ PULPA (B. P.), L. _Prep._
The cassia (pods or fruit), broken lengthwise, are macerated in sufficient
distilled water to cover them for six hours, constantly stirring; and the
purified pulp strained through a hair sieve, and evaporated to the
consistence of a confection in a water bath.——_Dose._ As a mild laxative,
1 to 2 dr.; as a purgative, 3/4 oz. to 1-1/2 oz.

=CAS′SOLETTES= (Scented). See PASTILLES and PERFUMERY.

=CAS′TOR.= _Syn._ CASTO′′REUM, L. (B. P.) “The follicles of the prepuce of
the _Castor fiber_ or _beaver_, filled with a peculiar secretion.” (Ph.
L.) “A peculiar secretion from the præputial follicles.” (Ph. E. and D.)
It is often sophisticated; a fraud readily detected by the “absence of the
membranous partition in the interior of the bags, as well as by the
altered smell and taste.” (Ure.) Russian castor, which is very rare, may
be distinguished by a tincture of 1-16th part in alcohol, being of the
colour of deep sherry, while that with American castor is of the colour of
London porter. (Pereira.)——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr. or more, in powder or made
into pills; in nervous and spasmodic affections, especially in hysteria,
epilepsy, and other like diseases of females.

=CASTOR CAKE.= The crushed and closely-pressed seeds of the _Ricinus
communis_, after the expression of the oil, are said to be sometimes
employed as a cattle food, and have the following composition:——

  Moisture                          9·95
  Organic matter                   81·07
  Phosphate of lime and magnesia    4·49
  Alkaline salts                    1·80
  Sand                              2·69
                                  ——————
                                  100·00

This cake, even when mixed with large quantities of linseed cake, &c., is
intensely poisonous. A pupil of the Editor states, however, that in India
castor cake, after exposure to the sun, is commonly and safely used as a
food for cattle.

=CAS′TOR OIL.= See OILS.

=CAS′TORIN.= _Syn._ CASTORIN′A, CASTOREUM CAMPHOR. When castor is cut into
small pieces and boiled in about 6 times its weight of alcohol,
crystalline substance (_castorin_) is deposited by the filtered tincture
in cooling. By re-solution in alcohol it may be obtained under the form of
colourless, prismatic, acicular crystals.

_Obs._ Genuine Russian castor, although the most expensive, must be
employed in the above process, as scarcely any castorin can be obtained
from the American variety.

_Prop., &c._ Castorin has the odour of castor, and a coppery taste; it is
inflammable, and is soluble both in ether and hot alcohol.

=CASTS.= In preparing casts and moulds with gelatin, wax, fusible metal,
and similar substances, it is important to use them at the lowest
temperature compatible with fluidity; as when only a few degrees hotter
the water which adheres to the things from which the casts are taken is
converted into vapour, and produces bubbles. Fusible metal may be allowed
to cool in a teacup until just ready to set at the edges, and then poured
into the moulds. In this way beautiful casts from moulds of wood, or of
other similar substances, may be procured. When taking impressions from
gems, seals, &c., the fused alloy should be placed on paper or pasteboard,
and stirred about till it becomes pasty, from incipient cooling, at which
moment the gem, die, or seal should be suddenly stamped on it, and a very
sharp impression will then be obtained.

=CATALEP′SY.= _Syn._ TRANCE; CATALEP′SIS, CATALEP′SIA, L. A disease in
which the organs of sense and motion cease to exercise their functions,
and the heart and lungs feebly perform their offices, and in a scarcely
perceptible manner. The paroxysm generally comes on without previous
warning, and its duration varies from a few minutes to several days, and
if medical reports are to be credited, sometimes for a much longer period.
Dr Cullen seriously affirms that this disease is always counterfeited.

_Treat._ Ammoniacal stimulants applied to the nostrils, and spirituous
liquors injected into the stomach, with general friction of the body, and
free access to pure air are the best remedies. Electricity and galvanism
should also be had recourse to when the necessary apparatus is at hand.

=CAT′APLASMS.= See POULTICES.

=CAT′ARACT.= An opaque condition of the lens of the eye. It is a common
cause of blindness. It can only be cured by a surgical operation.

=CATARRH′.= _Syn._ CATARRH′US, L. The “cold in the head,” or “cold on the
chest,” of domestic medicine. Influenza is a severer form of this
complaint, and has been called epidemic catarrh.

The common symptoms of catarrh are a copious discharge from the eyes and
nose, a hoarseness, and generally a cough, more or less severe. The
exciting causes are sudden changes of temperature and exposure to currents
of cold air while the body is heated; hence the frequency of colds in hot
and changeable weather.

_Treat._ A light diet should be adopted, and animal food and fermented and
spirituous liquors should be particularly avoided. Some mild aperient
should be administered; and when the symptoms are severe, or fever or
headache is present, small diaphoretic doses of antimonials, accompanied
by copious draughts of diluents, as barley water, weak tea, or gruel
should be taken. This treatment, except in very bad cases, will generally
effect a cure.

In HORSES catarrh is caused by sudden changes of temperature, draughts,
and faulty ventilation. Let the animal have plenty of cool fresh air, the
body being kept warm by means of horse-cloths and bandages. If necessary,
give a mild physic-ball, or a clyster; keep it on a soft, laxative diet,
and give it an ounce of nitre daily. Should there be sore throat or
troublesome cough apply a mild blister of cantharides or mustard.

The following will be found a serviceable mixture:——Mendererus spirit,
1-1/2 oz.; sweet spirit of nitre, 2 drachms; syrup of sugar, 1/2 oz.;
camphor mixture, enough to make a 6-oz. mixture. An adult may take two
table-spoonfuls of this mixture every 3 or 4 hours. Should the cold in the
head be severe and accompanied with cough, it has been recommended to
inhale the vapour of pure washed ether by drawing it alternately into the
nostrils from a wide-mouthed bottle holding about an ounce, and clutching
it in the warm hand until about a fourth of the ounce has been
volatilised. This repeated two, three, or four times in 48 hours is said
to effect a cure within that time. Persons liable to colds are advised to
use the cold bath.

_Dr Ferrier’s Remedy for a Cold in the Head._——Hydrochlorate of morphia, 2
gr.; powdered gum Arabic, 2 drachms; subnitrate of bismuth, 6 drachms.
Mix. Let a very small quantity be sniffed up the nose every five minutes
for 20 or 30 minutes.

Another remedy: Carbolic acid, 10 drops; tincture iodine; chloroform, of
each 7-1/2 grams. Place a few drops in a test-tube, and heat cautiously
over a spirit-lamp, and when it boils remove, and inhale by the nose.
Repeat after a few minutes. Two inhalations are said to be sufficient to
cure a cold in the head. (‘Year-book of Pharmacy.’)

=CAT′ECHIN.= _Syn._ CATECHU′IC ACID, RESINOUS TAN′NIN. When cubical gambir
or catechu, in powder, is treated with cold water, a portion remains
undissolved. This is catechin. By repeated solutions in alcohol it may be
obtained under the form of white, silky, acicular crystals.

_Prop., &c._ Catechin strikes a green colour with the salts of iron, but
does not precipitate gelatin. When dissolved in caustic potassa, and the
solution exposed to the air, it absorbs oxygen, and japonic acid is
formed. If, instead of caustic potassa, carbonate of potassa is employed,
it is converted into rutic acid.

=CAT′ECHU.= _Syn._ CAS′′HEW, CUTCH, GAM′BIR; CAT′ECHU (Ph. L. E. & D.),
TER′RA JAPON′ICA, L.; CACHOU, Fr. “The extract from the wood of _Acacia
Catechu_, or from the leaf of _Uncaria Gambir_.” (PALE CATECHU, Catechu
Pallidum, B. P.) Also of the “kernels of _areca catechu_; probably, too,
from other plants.” (Ph. E.) The term is now applied to several extracts
similar in appearance and properties to that of _Acacia Catechu_.

There are several varieties of catechu known in commerce, of which the
principal are——

CATECHU, BOMBAY. Firm, brittle, dark brown, of a uniform texture, and a
glossy, semi-resinous, and uneven fracture, Sp. gr. 1·39. Richness in
tannin, 52%.

CATECHU, BENGAL. Rusty brown colour externally; porous, and more friable
than the preceding. Sp. gr. 1·28. Richness in tannin, 49·5%.

CATECHU, MALABAR. Resembles the last in appearance, but is more brittle
and gritty. Sp. gr. 1·40. Richness in tannin, 45·5%.

Of the above varieties the first is the one generally employed in
medicine, and which commonly passes by the name of catechu. The second
popularly passes under the name of _terra Japonica_ (Japan earth), from
the old belief that it was of mineral origin.

CATECHU, PALE, is prepared at Singapore and in the Eastern Archipelago. It
generally occurs in cubical reddish-brown pieces, porous, bitter, and
astringent in taste. Entirely soluble in boiling water; the solution, when
cold, is not rendered blue by iodine. Of 100 parts, only 60 are dissolved
by cold water, and the solution is bright. Thirty parts of isinglass
precipitate the whole of the astringent matter.——_Test._ Sp. gr. 1·39.
“The pale catechu being already in the Edin., the B. P. 1864 retained it
with the black; but the black is the one adopted by all other
pharmacopœias, and is preferred in the arts and manufactures; it is well
known to be far superior to the pale in astringency, and is always to be
had of good quality; it is therefore a matter of surprise and regret that
it has been rejected from the ‘British Pharmacopœia.’” (Squire.)

_Estim._ It is often of importance to the tanner and dyer to determine the
richness of this article in tannic acid or tannin. The following are two
simple methods:——

1. Exhaust a weighed sample (in powder) with ether, and evaporate by the
heat of a hot-water bath. The product, which is the tannin, must then be
accurately weighed.

2. Dissolve the sample (in powder) in hot water, let it cool out of
contact with the air, filter, and add a solution of gelatin as long as a
precipitate falls. The precipitate, after being washed and dried at a
steam heat, contains 40% of tannin.

_Uses, &c._ Catechu is extensively employed in medicine, both internally
and externally, as an astringent. It is used to flavour British brandy,
and by the tanners as a substitute for oak bark. With it the dyer
produces, inexpensively, many of his most pleasing browns. Alum mordants
are mostly employed in dyeing with catechu. “The salts of copper with
sal-ammoniac cause it to give a BRONZE COLOUR, which is very fast; the
protochloride of tin, a BROWNISH YELLOW; the perchloride of tin, with the
addition of nitrate of copper, a DEEP-BRONZE HUE; acetate of alumina,
alone, a REDDISH BROWN, and with nitrate of copper, a REDDISH-OLIVE GREY;
nitrate of iron, a DARK-BROWN GREY. For dyeing a GOLDEN COFFEE-BROWN, it
has entirely superseded madder; 1 lb. of it being equivalent to 6 lbs. of
this root.” (Ure.)——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 30 gr. in solution, in water, or
made into a bolus, or sucked as a lozenge.

=CAT′GUT.= The prepared and twisted intestines of animals. _Prep._ The
guts, taken whilst warm from the animal, are thoroughly cleaned, freed
from adherent fat, and well rinsed in pure water. They are next soaked for
about 2 days in water, after which they are laid on a table and scraped
with a copper plate, having a semicircular notch, beginning the operation
at the smaller end. In this way the mucous and peritoneal membranes are
removed. The guts are then put into fresh water, and soaked until the next
day, when they are again scraped, the larger ends cut off, and after well
washing, again steeped for a night in fresh water, and then for 2 or 3
hours in a weak lye of pearlash or potash (2 oz. to the gall.) They are
lastly washed in clean water, and passed through a polished hole in a
piece of brass to smooth and equalise their surface; after which they are
twisted, and sorted, according to the purposes for which they are
intended. For many purposes the prepared gut is dyed or sulphured, and
rubbed with olive oil. It improves by age. Red or black ink, or any of the
simple dyes or stains, are used to colour it.

_Uses, &c._ Catgut is employed in several of the arts. The strings of
harps, violins, &c., are formed of this material. Whipcord is made from
catgut, which is sewed together while soft with the filandre or scrapings,
after which it is put into a frame and twisted. Bowstrings for hatmakers
are made out of the largest intestines, 4 to 12 of which are twisted
together, until the cord is extended to 15 to 25 feet in length. It is
then rubbed perfectly smooth and free from knots, half dried, sulphured
twice, again stretched and sulphured, and lastly dried in a state of
tension. Clock-makers’ cords are made of the smallest intestines in a
similar manner.

The best fine catgut is made at Venice or Rome, from the intestines of
thin, sinewy sheep. That made in England is formed from the fat sheep
killed for the shamble, and is, hence, inferior. Coarse catgut, for
turning lathes, &c., is made from the intestines of horses, cut into 4 or
5 strips, by forcing a ball furnished with projecting knives placed
cross-wise along them. These strips are next twisted, dried, and rubbed
smooth with fish skin. Gutta percha and vulcanised india rubber are now
applied to many of the purposes formerly exclusively occupied by catgut.

=CATHAR′TICS.= See PURGATIVES.

=CATHAR′TIN.= The purgative principle of senna, first noticed by Lassaigne
and Fenuelle. A strong aqueous infusion of senna leaves is evaporated to
the consistence of a syrup, out of contact with the air; this fluid
extract is then digested in alcohol or rectified spirit, and the
tincture, after filtration, is evaporated to dryness by a gentle heat.

_Prop., &c._ A reddish-coloured, uncrystallisable mass; having a peculiar
odour and a bitter, nauseous taste; freely soluble in both water and
alcohol, and strongly cathartic. Two or three grs. cause nausea, griping,
and purging. It has been proposed to employ it, combined with aromatics,
as a cathartic.

=CATH′ETERS.= Small tubes introduced into the bladder for the purpose of
drawing off its contents. They may be regarded as hollow bougies.

_Prep._ 1. A piece of smooth catgut, or steel wire, bent to the proper
shape, is coated with melted wax. When cold it is dipped repeatedly into
an ethereal solution of india rubber, until a sufficient thickness is
obtained, after which it is dried by a gentle heat, and then boiled in
water to melt out the wax, and to allow the catgut to be withdrawn. A
solution of india rubber in bisulphide of carbon is now generally employed
instead of an ethereal solution.

2. From slips of india rubber, as directed under BOUGIES.

3. A smooth tissue of silk is woven over a bent wire, and then coated with
a surface of india rubber, or elastic varnish, and finished off as before.
See BOUGIES.

=CAUDLE.= Gruel enriched by various additions.

_Prep._ 1. Thick oatmeal gruel mixed with about one half its weight of
good mild ale (made hot), and as much sugar, and mace, nutmeg, or ginger,
as will make it agreeable.

2. To the last add an egg, well beaten.

3. Sugar, 3 or 4 lumps; hot water, a table-spoonful; dissolve; add 1 egg;
beat well together; further add a glass of wine and a little nutmeg or
ginger; mix well, and stir the mixture into good gruel (hot), 3/4 pint.

_Uses, &c._ A nourishing and restorative mixture during convalescence,
much used among certain classes after accouchement. It is an excellent
domestic remedy for colds, &c., unaccompanied with fever; for which
purpose it should be taken on retiring to rest at night, preceded by a
dose of castor oil during the day.

=CAULIFLOWER.= Like the cabbage, the cauliflower forms a very nutritious
article of diet; rich in albumenoids and phosphates. The ash, as will be
seen from the subjoined analysis, contains a large amount of mineral
matter:——

        _Ash of Cauliflower._

  Potash                 34·39
  Soda                   14·79
  Magnesia                2·38
  Lime                    2·96
  Phosphoric acid        25·84
  Sulphuric acid         11·16
  Silica                  1·92
  Phosphate of iron       3·67
  Chloride of sodium      2·78

=CAUS′TIC.= _Syn._ CAUS′TICUM, ESCHAROT′I-CUM, L. A substance that
corrodes or destroys the texture of organised bodies. This action is
popularly termed “burning.”

The principal caustics are nitrate of silver, caustic potassa, a mixture
of caustic potassa and quick-lime, sulphate of copper, red oxide of
mercury, verdigris, tincture of sesquichloride of iron, chloride of zinc,
chloride of antimony, nitric acid, acetic acid, and carbolic acid.

_Use._ Caustics are employed to remove excrescences, morbid growths,
granulations, &c., as corns, warts, and proud flesh; and to open issues,
abscesses, &c. The first, second, and fourth are applied by gently rubbing
them on the part previously moistened with water; the third is commonly
made into a paste, with rectified spirit or glycerin, before application;
red oxide of mercury and verdigris (in the form of powder) are often
sprinkled over foul and indolent ulcers; whilst the acids and other liquid
caustics are applied with a feather, camel-hair pencil, or glass rod. The
same applies to the liquid preparations below. In all cases care should be
taken to confine the application to the affected part.

=Caustic, Ammoni′acal.= See OINTMENTS, and CAUSTIC, GONDRET’S.

=Caustic, Antimo′′nial.= _Syn._ CAUSTICUM ANTIMONIA′LE, L. Chloride of
antimony.

=Caustic, Arsen′ical.= _Syn._ CAUSTICUM ARSENICA′LE, C. ARSENIO′SUM, C. A.
COMPOS′ITUM, L. _Prep._ 1. See CAUSTIC, PLUNKET’S.

2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Calomel, 2-1/2 oz.; red sulphide of mercury, 1 dr.;
arsenious acid, 1 dr. to 2 dr.

3. (Van Mons.) Arsenious acid, 6 dr.; dragon’s blood, 2 dr.; animal
charcoal, 1-1/2 dr.; cinnabar, 3 oz.

4. (Ratier.) Arsenious acid, 1 part; kino, 8 parts; cinnabar, 16 parts.
The ingredients of the last three must be separately reduced to fine
powder, and then carefully mixed. They are favourite applications on the
Continent, in cases of cancer, cancerous sores, obstinate lepra, &c. They
are either dusted over the part, or are made into a paste with mucilage or
the saliva, and applied like an ointment on a piece of rag or lint; due
caution being observed, and the effects watched. The last is much used in
the French hospitals.

=Caustic, Canquoin’s.= See ZINC CAUSTIC.

=Caustic, Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ CAUSTICUM CANTHAR′IDIS, L. _Prep._ 1.
Powdered cantharides made into a paste with concentrated acetic acid.

2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Tannin, 1 oz.; cantharides (powdered), 2 oz.; strong
acetic acid, 8 oz.; digest a week, and strain. Blisters.

=Caustic, Common.= See POTASSA (HYDRATE OF), and CAUSTIC OF POTASSA WITH
LIME.

CAUSTIC, DUVILLE’S. _Prep._ 1. Aloes, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 10 oz.; oil of
vitriol, 6 oz.; mix.

2. Aloes (in powder), 2-1/2 oz.; rum, 1/4 pint; mix, and the next day add,
oil of vitriol, 1 oz. A favourite caustic in veterinary practice;
especially in foot-rot.

=Caustic, Filho’s.= _Prep._ From caustic potassa, 2 parts; quick-lime (in
powder), 1 part; melt together in a ladle, mix well, and pour it into
small leaden tubes, the size of a large swan-quill. When cold, coat each
piece with melted beeswax, to exclude the air. Used as a strong caustic in
veterinary practice. It is applied like nitrate of silver.

=Caustic, Golden.= _Syn._ CAUSTIC OF CHLORIDE OF GOLD; CAUSTICUM AUR′EUM,
C. AUR′′II CHLOR′IDI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Recamier.) Terchloride of gold, 6
gr.; nitro-hydrochloric acid, 1 oz.; dissolve.

2. (Legrand.) As the last, but using nitric acid. Both are recommended as
caustics in syphilitic, scrofulous, and scorbutic ulcers, cancerous
growths, &c.; applied by means of a dossil of lint.

=Caustic, Gondret’s.= _Syn._ GONDRET’S AMMONI′ACAL CAUSTIC; POMMADE DE
GONDRET, Fr.; CAUSTICUM AMMONIACA′LE, L. _Prep._ 1. See OINTMENT,
AMMONIACAL.

2. (Original formula.) Almond oil, 2 dr.; suet, 4 dr.; lard, 6 dr.; melt
together in a wide-mouthed bottle, cool a little, add solution of ammonia,
12 dr.; and agitate until cold. A powerful rubefacient and
counter-irritant; used to produce an immediate revulsion. If covered with
a compress, it raises a blister in 4 or 5 minutes.

=Caustic, I′odine.= _Syn._ CAUSTICUM IODIN′II, L. _Prep._ (Lugol.) Iodine
and iodide of potassium, of each 1 part; water 2 parts; dissolve. Used in
similar cases to iodine paint, and to scrofulous growths and ulcers.

=Caustic, Lu′′nar.= _Syn._ LA′PIS INFERNA′LIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Nitrate of
silver fused and formed into sticks by pouring it into moulds.

2. (E. R. Squibb.) Nitrate of silver fused with a small quantity of
chloride of iron, and formed into sticks or points. The chloride of iron
gives toughness to the caustic.

=Caustic, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ CAUSTIC OF NITRATE OF MERCURY; CAUSTICUM
AC′IDI HYDRAR′′GYRI NITRA′TIS, C. H. DEUTRONITRATIS, L. From mercury, 1
part; commercial nitric acid, 2 parts; dissolve.

2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Mercury, 1 part; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·5), 2 parts.

3. (P. C.) As No. 1, but evaporating the solution to 3/4ths its weight.
These liquids are applied with a pencil or lint, in scrofulous and
syphilitic ulcers and eruptions, and in lupus, psoriasis, lepra, and other
obstinate skin diseases; but their use requires great care.

4. (With arsenic.——Cutan. Hosp.) Mercury, 1/2 oz.; nitric acid, 1/2 oz.;
arsenious acid, 1/2 dr.; as before.

=Caustic, Ni′tric.= _Syn._ SOLID′IFIED NITRIC ACID; CAUSTICUM NI′TRICUM,
L. _Prep._ (Dr Rivallie.) Concentrated nitric acid is gradually dropped on
a piece of lint, placed in a saucer or glass; as soon as the lint is
gelatinised, it is pressed into a suitable shape with a glass rod, and
applied to the part; it must be removed in 15 minutes. In cancerous
tumours, fungoid growths, &c.

=Caustic, O′′piated.= _Syn._ CAUSTICUM OPIA′TUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Common
caustic (potassa with lime), 4 dr.; powdered opium, 1 dr.; soft soap, q.
s. to make a paste. Applied to fungous ulcers.

=Caustic, Plunket’s.= Upright crowfoot and lesser spear-wort, of each 1
oz.; sulphur, 5 scrup.; white arsenic (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; beat
to a smooth paste, form it into balls, and dry them in the sun. In cancer;
a portion of one of the balls is reduced to powder, which is mixed up with
yelk of eggs, and applied on a piece of bladder.

=Caustic of Potassa with Lime.= _Syn._ VIENNA PASTE. Rub together equal
parts of hydrate of potash and quick-lime, and keep the powder in a
well-stoppered bottle.

=Caustic, Poten′tial.= Fused caustic potassa.

=Caustic, Recamier’s.= See CAUSTIC, GOLDEN.

=Caustic, Sulphu′′ric.= _Syn._ CAUSTICUM SULPHU′′RICUM, C. AC′IDI
SULPHU′′RICI, L. _Prep._ 1. Plaster of Paris made into a paste with oil of
vitriol.

2. Saffron, lint, or unsized paper, soaked in oil of vitriol, and
triturated to a plastic mass.

=Caustic, Zinc.= _Syn._ CAUSTIC OF CHLORIDE OF ZINC, DR CANQUOIN’S CANCER
CAUSTIC; CAUSTICUM ZINC′I, C. Z. CHLORID′I, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr
Canquoin.)——_a._ From chloride of zinc, 1 dr.; flour, 2 dr.; made into a
stiff paste with water, q. s.

_b._ From chloride of zinc, 1 dr.; flour, 3 dr.; water, q. s.; as the
last.

_c._ From chloride of zinc, 1 dr.; flour, 4 dr.; water, q. s.; as before.

_d._ From chloride of zinc, 2 dr.; chloride of antimony, 1 dr.; flour, 5
dr.; as before.

Powdered opium may be mixed with either of the preceding to mitigate the
pain.

2. (Alex. Ure.) As above, but substituting plaster of Paris for the flour
there ordered.

_Uses, &c._ As a caustic in cancer, lupus, skin-marks (_nævi_), &c. It is
formed into small cakes or wafers not exceeding 1 or 2 lines in thickness,
one of which is applied to the part, and allowed to remain on from 6 to 12
hours, when it is removed, and the part covered with a poultice. It
produces an eschar, often exceeding a quarter of an inch in depth. The
chlorides must be in the form of powder, and well mixed with the flour
previously to adding the water. The last (No. 1, _d_) is recommended in
nodulated cancerous tumours.

=CAUS′TICS (Ve′terinary).= In _veterinary practice_, any of the substances
enumerated in the forgoing list may be employed; but nitric acid,
sulphuric acid, carbolic acid, chloride of zinc, and nitrate of silver,
are those most commonly used. See VETERINARY MEDICINES.

=CAV′IARE.= _Syn._ CAV′IAR, CAV′IALE. The salted roe of several species of
sturgeon. It is much esteemed by the Russians, as well as by some other
nations of northern Europe, and is occasionally eaten as a delicacy in
this country. It is, however, very oily, indigestible, and unwholesome.

=CAYENNE′.= See CAPSICUM, PEPPERS.

=CEDAR-WOOD (Oil of).= See OILS.

=Cedar-Wood (Tincture of).= See TINCTURES.

=CE′DRAT.= See LIQUEURS.

=CE′DRENE= and =CE′DROLA=. The oil of cedar-wood, by careful distillation,
is separable into two substances——a solid crystalline compound
(_cedrola_), and a volatile liquid hydrocarbon (_cedrene_). The first may
be converted into the other by distillation with phosphoric anhydride.

=CELLULARES.= In _botany_, a name given to cryptogams, or flowerless
plants, upon the supposition that they consist entirely of cells.

=CEL′LULOSE.= See LIGNIN.

=CEMENT′.= _Syn._ CEMENT′TUM, L. Any substance which, when applied to the
surfaces of other bodies, causes them to adhere together when placed in
contact. Those referred to below are amongst the most useful preparations
of this class. The term cement is also applied by builders and architects
to several species of mortars and like compositions employed either to
unite stones and bricks into masses, or as a protective covering against
the weather or water, or to make statues, cornices, and similar ornamental
articles.

In general the thinner the stratum of interposed cement, the stronger is
the junction of the surfaces operated on. This caution is necessary, as in
their anxiety to unite broken articles persons generally defeat themselves
by spreading the cement too thickly on the edges of the fracture; whereas
the least possible quantity should be used, so as to bring the edges as
close as possible together.

=Cement, Al′abaster.= 1. Prom plaster of Paris (in fine powder), made into
a cream with water, and at once applied.

2. Yellow resin, 2 parts; melt and stir in plaster of Paris, 1 part.

3. Yellow resin, beeswax, and plaster of Paris, equal parts.

4. Resin, 8 parts; wax, 1 part; melt and stir in plaster of Paris, 4
parts, or q. s.

5. Sulphur or shell-lac, melted with sufficient plaster of Paris or
colouring matter to give the desired shade. Used to join or mend pieces in
alabaster, white marble, Derbyshire spar, porphyry, and other like
substances; and to fill up cracks, supply chips out of corners, &c. The
last four are applied hot, the surfaces to be united having been
previously warmed. See CEMENT, WATERGLASS.

=Cement, Architect′ural.= 1. From paper (reduced to a smooth paste by
boiling it in water), sifted whiting, and good size, equal parts, boiled
to a proper consistence.

2. Paper paste, size, and plaster of Paris, equal parts; as before.

_Obs._ This is a species of papier-maché. It is used to make architectural
ornaments, busts, statues, columns, &c. It is very light, and receives a
good polish, but will not stand the weather unless it is well varnished or
painted.

=Cement, Arme′nian.= _Syn._ DIAMOND CEMENT, PERSIAN C., TURKISH C.,
JEWELLERS’ C. The jewellers of Turkey, who are mostly Armenians, have a
singular method of ornamenting watch-cases, &c., with diamonds and other
precious stones, by simply gluing or cementing them on. The stone is set
in silver or gold, and the lower part of the metal made flat, or to
correspond with the part to which it is to be fixed; it is then gently
warmed, and the glue is applied, which is so very strong that the parts
thus cemented never separate. This glue will strongly unite pieces of
glass and china, and even polished steel, and may be applied to a variety
of useful purposes.

_Prep._ 1. (Original Armenian formula; Eton.) Dissolve five or six bits of
gum mastic, each the size of a large pea, in as much rectified spirit of
wine as will suffice to render it liquid; and, in another vessel, dissolve
as much isinglass, previously a little softened in water (though none of
the water must be used), in French brandy or good rum, as will make a
two-ounce phial of very strong glue, adding two small bits of gum galbanum
or ammoniacum, which must be rubbed or ground till they are dissolved.
Then mix the whole with a sufficient heat. Keep the glue in a phial
closely stopped, and when it is to be used set the phial in boiling water.

2. (Keller’s ARMENIAN CEMENT.) Soak isinglass, 1/2 oz., in water, 4 oz.,
for 24 hours; evaporate in a water bath to 2 oz.; add rectified spirit, 2
oz., and strain through linen; mix this, whilst warm, with a solution
formed by dissolving gum mastic (best), 1/4 oz., in rectified spirit, 2
oz.; add of powdered gum ammoniac 1 dr., and triturate together until
perfectly incorporated, avoiding loss of the spirit by evaporation as much
as possible.

3. (Ure’s DIAMOND CEMENT.) Isinglass, 1 oz.; distilled water, 6 oz.; boil
to 3 oz., and add rectified spirit, 1-1/2 oz.; boil for a minute or two,
strain, and add, while hot, first a milky emulsion of ammoniac, 1/2 oz.,
and then tincture of mastic, 5 dr.

4. Isinglass soaked in water and dissolved in spirit, 2 oz. (thick);
dissolve in this 10 gr. of very pale gum ammoniac (in tears), by rubbing
them together; then add 6 large tears of gum mastic, dissolved in the
least possible quantity of rectified spirit.

5. Isinglass dissolved in proof spirit (as _above_), 3 oz.; bottoms of
mastic varnish (thick, but clear), 1-1/2 oz.; mix well.

_Obs._ When carefully made, this cement resists moisture and dries
colourless. As usually met with, it is not only of very bad quality, but
sold at exorbitant prices. “Some persons have sold a composition under the
name of Armenian cement in England; but this composition is badly made; it
is much too thin, and the quantity of mastic is much too small.” (Eton.)
Methylated spirit may be used instead of the pure spirit in the above
preparations. Mastic and mastic varnish are also used by jewellers as
cements.

=Cement, Beale’s.= Chalk, 60 parts; lime and salt, of each 20 parts;
Barnsey sand, 10 parts; iron filings or dust, and blue or red clay, of
each 5 parts; grind together and calcine. Patented as a fire-proof cement.

=Cement, Boil′er.= _Prep._ Dried clay in powder, 6 lbs.; iron filings, 1
lb. Make into a paste with boiled linseed oil. Used to stop cracks and
leaks in iron boilers, stoves, &c. See CEMENT, IRON, STEAM-BOILER C.

=Cement, Bot′any Bay.= Yellow gum (Botany Bay gum) and brickdust, equal
parts, melted together. Used to cement coarse earthenware, &c.

=Cement, Bot′tle.= _Prep._ 1. Resin, 1 lb.; tallow or suet, 1/4 lb.; melt
together, and stir in the colouring matter.

2. Resin, 5 lbs.; beeswax, 1 lb.; colouring, q. s.; as last.

3. (Red.) To each pound of the above add whiting (dry), 3 oz., and light
red (burnt ochre), 4 oz.; or red bole, q. s. (all in fine powder).

4. (Black.)——_a._ To each pound of No. 1, or No. 2, add ivory black (bone
black), q. s.

_b._ From black pitch, 6 lbs.; ivory black and whiting of each, 1 lb.;
melted together. Used in the same way as common sealing-wax for bottle
corks, cask bungs, &c. See CEMENT, MAISSIAT’S.

=Cement, Brim′stone.= Melted brimstone, either alone, or mixed with resin
and brickdust. Cheap and useful.

=Cement, Bru′yere’s.= Clay, 3 parts; slaked lime, 1 part; mix and expose
them to a full red heat for 3 hours, then grind to powder. Recommended as
an hydraulic cement.

=Cement, Build′ing.= _Syn._ ARTIFICIAL PUZZOLENE′. From a mixture of clay
or loam, broken pottery, flints, or siliceous sand, or broken bottle
glass, and wood ashes, exposed to a considerable heat in a furnace, until
it becomes partially vitrified; it is then ground to fine powder, sifted,
and mixed with one third its weight of quick-lime, also in fine powder,
after which it must be packed (tight) in casks to preserve it from the air
and moisture. For use it is mixed up with water and applied like Roman
cement.

=Cement, Cap.= _Prep._ 1. Resin, 5 lbs.; beeswax and dried Venetian red,
of each 1 lb.; melted together.

2. (C. G. Williams.) Equal weights of red lead and white lead. Used for
chemical and electrical purposes. For cementing glass tubes, necks of
balloons, &c., into metal mountings. No. 2 is preferable to white lead
alone, and may be depended on for temperature up to 212°.

=Cement, Cheese.= From grated cheese, 2 parts; quick-lime (in fine powder)
1 part; white of egg, q. s.; beat to a paste. Used for earthenware, &c.

=Cement, Chem′ical.= _Syn._ SOFT CEMENT. _Prep._ From yellow wax, 4 parts;
common turpentine, 2 parts; Venetian red (well dried), 1 part; melted
together. Used as a temporary stopping or lute for the ends or joints of
tubes, which are not exposed to much heat; as in alkalimetry, &c. See
CEMENT, ELECTRICAL.

=Cement, Chi′nese.= _Syn._ SHELL-LAC CEMENT, LIQUID GLUE. _Prep._ 1.
Finest pale orange shell-lac (broken small), 4 oz.; rectified spirit
(strongest), 3 oz.; digested together in a corked bottle in a warm place
until dissolved. Very strong and useful; almost odourless. It should have
about the consistence of treacle.

2. As before, but using rectified wood naphtha as the solvent. Inferior to
the last, but excellent for many purposes.

3. (Without spirit.) _Prep._ Borax, 1 oz.; water, 3/4 pint; shell-lac, 3
oz.; boil in a covered vessel until dissolved, then evaporate to a proper
consistence. Cheap and useful, but dries slowly.

4. Macerate for several hours, 6 parts of glue, in small pieces, in 16
parts of water; then add 1 part of hydrochloric acid, and 1-1/2 part of
sulphate of zinc; and let the mixture be kept for 10 or 12 hours at a
temperature of 68° or 70° C.

_Uses, &c._ Employed to mend glass, china, fancy work, jewelry, &c., for
which it is only inferior to Armenian cement. The first formula produces a
cement so strong that pieces of wood may be joined together, cut slopingly
across the grain, and will afterwards resist every attempt to break them
at the same place. In many of the islands of the Indian Ocean, in Japan,
China, and the East Indies, a similar cement is used to join pieces of
wood for bows, lances, &c. The fluid is thinly smeared over each face of
the joint, a piece of very thin gauze interposed, and the whole pressed
tightly together and maintained so until the next day. Joints so made will
even bear the continual flexure of a bow without separating. It is
admirably adapted for fishing rods. The product of the second formula is
commonly sold as LIQUID GLUE. That of the last is much used by the
druggists and oilmen, instead of gum, for fixing paper labels to tin, and
to glass when exposed to damp.

=Cement, Cop′persmiths’.= _Syn._ BLOOD CEMENT. From bullock’s blood
thickened with finely powdered quick-lime. Used to secure the edges and
rivets of copper boilers, to mend leaks from joints, &c. It must be used
as soon as mixed, as it rapidly gets hard. It is cheap and durable, and is
suited for many other purposes.

=Cement, Curd.= _Prep._ 1. The curd of skimmed milk (obtained by the
addition of vinegar or rennet) is beaten to a paste with quick-lime, in
fine powder.

2. Add vinegar, 1/2 pint, to skimmed milk, 1/2 pint; mix the curd with
the whites of 5 eggs; well beaten and powdered quick-lime, q. s. to form a
paste. Used for mending glass and earthenware; they resist water and a
moderate degree of heat.

3. Rub from two to four parts of the curd, with a cold solution of borax,
till a thick liquid is obtained, that becomes clear on standing. This is
an excellent cement for artificial meerschaums, and may be used to give
consistency to silk goods, or to coat artificial flowers, and court
plaster, to the latter of which it imparts more adhesiveness and firmness.

=Cement, Cut′lers’.= _Prep._ 1. Black resin, 4 lbs.; beeswax, 1 lb.; melt,
and add finely powdered and well-dried brickdust, 1 lb.; mix well.

2. Equal weights of resin and brickdust, melted together.

_Use._ To fix knives and forks in their handles. It is put into the hollow
of the handle, and the metal, previously made hot enough to melt the
composition, pressed into its place whilst warm, and the whole kept
upright and still until quite cold.

=Cement, Di′amond.= See CEMENT, ARMENIAN.

=Cement, Egg.= White of egg thickened with finely powdered quick-lime.
Used to mend earthenware, glass, china, marble, alabaster, spar ornaments,
&c. It does not resist long exposure to moisture unless it has been
exposed to heat.

=Cement, Elas′tic.= _Prep._ 1. Caoutchouc (in small pieces), 1 part;
chloroform, 3 parts; dissolve.

2. (Lenher.) Caoutchouc, 5 parts; chloroform, 3 parts; dissolve, and add
gum mastic (powdered), 1 part. Elastic and transparent.

3. Gutta percha, 3 parts; caoutchouc, 1 part (both cut small); bisulphide
of carbon, 8 parts; mix in a close vessel and dissolve by the heat of a
water bath. This is to be gently warmed before it is applied.

4. Gutta percha, 1 lb.; caoutchouc, 4 oz.; pitch, 2 oz.; shell-lac, 1 oz.;
linseed oil, 2 oz.; melted together. This must be melted before being
applied.

_Obs._ The cements 1 and 2 are elastic and transparent, and are applicable
to many uses. The others, 3 and 4, are used for uniting leather, cloth,
&c.

=Cement, Elec′trical.= _Syn._ CHEMICAL CEMENT. From black resin, 7 lbs.;
red ochre, 1 lb.; plaster of Paris, 1/2 lb. (both well dried and still
warm); melted together, and the heat and agitation continued until all
frothing ceases, and the liquid runs smooth; the vessel is then withdrawn
from the fire, and the mixture stirred until cooled sufficiently. Used to
cement the plates in galvanic troughs, join chemical vessels, &c. See
CEMENT, CAP, CEMENT, SINGER’S, &c.

=Cement, Engineers′′.= _Prep._ 1. Ground white lead, mixed with as much
red lead as will make it of the consistence of putty.

2. Equal weights of red lead and white lead, mixed with boiled linseed
oil, to a proper consistence. Used by engineers and others to make
metallic joints. A washer of hemp, yarn, or canvas, smeared with the
cement, is placed in the joint, which is then “brought home,” or screwed
up tight. It dries as hard as stone. It also answers well for joining
broken stones, however large. Cisterns built of squares stones, put
together, while dry, with this cement, will never leak or come to repair.

=Cement, Extempora′′neous.= 1. Shell-lac, melted, and run into small
sticks the size of a quill. Used to join glass, earthenware, &c. The edges
are heated sufficiently hot to melt the cement, which is then thinly
smeared over them, and the joint made while they are still hot. This is
the cement so commonly vended in the streets of London, and which used to
surprise us in our boyhood days.

2. Tears of gum mastic, used in the same way. Commonly employed by
jewellers and others.

_Cement, Fire′proof._ _Prep._ From fine river sand, 20 parts; litharge, 2
parts; quick-lime, 1 part; linseed oil, q. s. to form a thin paste.
Applied to walls, it soon acquires a stony hardness. It is also used to
mend broken pieces of stone, stone steps, &c. See CEMENT, BEALE’S, &c.

=Cement, Flour.= _Syn._ PASTE, FLOUR PASTE. This useful and well-known
article is made by mixing about a tablespoonful of wheat flour with cold
water, (say) 1/2 pint, adding the latter gradually, and thoroughly
stirring in each portion before pouring in more; the vessel is then placed
over the fire, and the whole assiduously stirred until it boils, great
care being taken to prevent caking on the bottom, or burning. Some persons
add about 1/3 of a teaspoonful of powdered alum to the water, which is
said to strengthen the product; the shoemakers add a little quantity of
powdered resin to the flour, with the same intention. The addition of a
little brown sugar and a few grains of corrosive sublimate will prevent it
turning mouldy, and is said to preserve it for years. When too hard or
dry, it may be softened by beating it up with a little hot water.

=Cement, French.= Mucilage of gum Arabic, thickened with starch powder or
farina; a little lemon-juice is sometimes added. Used by naturalists in
mounting specimens; by artificial-flower makers; and by confectioners, to
stick paper, wafer papers, ornaments, &c., on their fancy cakes. Plain
mucilage is often used in the same way.

=Cement, Gad’s.= _Syn._ GAD’S HYDRAULIC CEMENT. From clay (well dried and
powdered), 3 parts; oxide of iron, 1 part; mixed together, and made into a
stiff paste with boiled oil. Used for work required to harden under water.

=Cement, Glass.= _Syn._ GLASS FLUX. _Prep._ Red lead, 3 parts; fine white
sand, 2 parts; crystallised boracic acid, 3 parts; mixed and fused; it is
levigated, and applied with thin mucilage of tragacanth. Used for mending
broken china, &c. The repaired article must be gently heated, so as
partially to fuse the cement.

=Cement, Gibbs’.= Mr Gibbs patented in 1850 various processes for making
admirable building and architectural cements, equal in hardness and
duration, and superior in colour, to the best Roman and Portland cements
at present in use. His materials are obtained from “the vast beds of
(natural) argillaceous marls and marly limestones, or marl stones, which
contain the due admixture of lime, silica, and alumina, from which
hydraulic cements and artificial stones may be manufactured.” These
materials he finds in “the chalk formation, the Wealden formation, the
Purbeck beds, the lias formation, the mountain limestone, and the lowest
strata of the coal-measures.” After duly choosing his materials according
to the particular object in view, he prepares them “by burning in kilns,
and grinding in mills, in the way cement is now manufactured.” Marls and
limestones are to be “first dried in kilns or ovens, at a heat fit for
baking, until all moisture be driven off, and that then the calcination be
prolonged as much as possible; the heat being kept as low as is only just
sufficient to effect complete calcination——this being indispensable, to
avoid the commencement of vitrification, which would destroy the adhesive
properties of the cement.”

=Cement, Glue.= _Prep._ 1. From glue, 1 lb. melted with the least possible
quantity of water, and then mixed with black resin, 1 lb., and red ochre,
4 oz.

2. Glue, melted as above, and mixed with about 1/4th of its weight each of
boiled oil and red ochre.

3. (Ure.) Melted glue (of the consistence used by carpenters), 8 parts;
linseed oil, boiled to varnish with litharge, 4 parts; incorporate
thoroughly together.

4. Glue (melted as last), 4 parts; Venice turpentine, 1 part.

_Obs._ The first three dry in about 48 hours, and are very useful to
render the joints of wooden casks, cisterns, &c., watertight; also to fix
stones in frames. The last serves to cement glass, wood, and even metal to
each other. A good cement for fixing wood to glass may be made by
dissolving isinglass in acetic acid, in such quantities that it becomes
solid when cold. When applied let it be heated. They all resist moisture
well.

=Cement, Grind′ers’.= _Prep._ 1. From pitch, 5 parts; wood ashes and hard
tallow, of each 1 part; melted together.

2. Black resin, 4 lbs.; beeswax, 1 lb. melt, and add of whiting
(previously heated red hot, and still warm), 1 lb.

3. Shell-lac, melted and applied to the pieces slightly heated. Used to
fix pieces of glass, &c., whilst grinding. The last is used for lenses and
fine work.

=Cement, Hamelin’s.= _Syn._ HAMELIN’S MASTIC. From siliceous sand, 60
parts; Bath or Portland stone (in fine powder), 40 parts; lime-marl, 20
parts; litharge, 8 parts; ground together. For use it is mixed up with
linseed oil and used like mortar. When this cement is applied to the
purpose of covering buildings intended to resemble stone, the surface of
the building is first washed with linseed oil.

=Cement, Hensler’s.= Litharge, 3 parts; quick-lime, 2 parts; white bole, 1
part (all in fine powder); linseed-oil varnish, q. s. to make a paste.
Used for china, glass, &c. It is very tenacious, but long in drying.

=Cement, Hœnle’s.= Shell-lac, 2 parts; Venice turpentine, 1 part; fused
together, and formed into sticks. It is used like extemporaneous cement
for glass and earthenware.

=Cement, Hydraulic.= Hydraulic mortars or cements are those which set or
become hard under water. Common lime does not possess this property; but
limestone containing from 8% to 25% of alumina, magnesia, and silica,
yield a lime on burning, which does not slake when moistened with water,
but forms a mortar with it, which hardens in a few days when covered with
water, although it does not acquire much solidity in the air. Puzzolana,
septaria, and argillaceous or siliceous earths, burnt, either with or
without the addition of common limestone, and then ground to powder, form
excellent hydraulic cements. The reniform limestone, commonly called
“cement stone,” which is found distributed in single nodules or lenticular
cakes, in beds of clay, is the substance most commonly used in this
country for the manufacture of the cements in question.

“A very good hydraulic mortar is made by slaking lime with water
containing about 2 per cent. of gypsum, and adding a little sand to the
product. The presence of the gypsum tends to delay the slaking of the
lime, and also to harden the substance formed after the slaking.

“If water containing a little lime in solution be added to burnt gypsum, a
very hard compact mass is obtained. This substance is much used as an
imitation marble, as by polishing it with pumice stone, colouring it, and
again polishing with oil, it may be made to resemble natural marble very
closely. Hardened gypsum treated with stearic acid, or paraffin, and
polished, is used as a substitute for meerschaum, which it much
resembles.”[238] See GAD’S, HAMELIN’S, and PARKER’S CEMENTS, &c.

[Footnote 238: ‘Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and Analytical.’]

=Cement, Iron.= This cement, which is much used for closing the joints of
iron pipes and similar purposes, is formed of the borings or turnings of
cast iron, which should be clean and free from rust, mixed with a small
quantity of sal-ammoniac and flowers of sulphur. For use, it is stirred
up with just enough water to thoroughly moisten it, and it is rammed or
caulked into the joints with a blunt caulking chisel and hammer, after
which the joint is screwed up by its bolts as tightly as possible. If the
turnings and borings are very coarse they are broken by pounding in an
iron mortar, and the dust sifted off before use. The following are good
proportions:

1. Sal-ammoniac (in powder), 2 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 1 oz.; iron
borings, 5 lbs.; water, q. s. to mix.

2. Sal-ammoniac, 2 oz.; sulphur, 1 oz.; iron borings, 12 lbs.; water, q.
s. to mix.

3. Sal-ammoniac, 2 oz.; iron borings, 7 or 8 lbs.; water, q. s. to mix.

4. Iron borings, 4 lbs.; good pipeclay, 2 lbs.; powdered potsherds, 1 lb.;
make them into a paste with salt and water.

_Remarks._ The first of these forms is that generally employed for common
purposes, but formerly much more sulphur and sal-ammoniac were used. We
are told by one of the leading engineers in London that the strongest
cement is made without sulphur and with only 1 or 2 parts of sal-ammoniac
to 100 of iron borings (see the third form); but that when the work is
required to dry rapidly, as for the steam joints of machinery wanted in
haste, the quantity of sal-ammoniac is increased a little, and a very
small quantity of sulphur is added. This addition makes it set quicker,
but reduces its strength. As the power of the cement depends on the
oxidation and consequent expansion of the mass, it is evident that the
less foreign matter introduced the better. No more of this cement should
be made at a time than can be used at once, because it soon spoils. I have
seen it become quite hot by standing even a few hours, when it contained
sulphur; and I have been informed by workmen that when much sulphur is
used, and it has been left together in quantity all night, combustion has
taken place. The last form produces a cement that gets very hard when
allowed to dry slowly, and is excellent for mending cracks in iron
boilers, tanks, &c.

CEMENT, JAPANESE. _Syn._ RICE GLUE. From rice flour, mixed with a little
cold water, and boiling water gradually poured in until it acquires a
proper consistence; when it is boiled for 1 or 2 minutes in a clean
saucepan or earthen pipkin. It is beautifully white, and almost
transparent, for which reason it is well adapted for fancy paper work,
which requires a strong and colourless cement. It is superior to French
cement. (See _antè_.)

=Cement, Keene’s Marble.= Baked gypsum or plaster of Paris, steeped in a
saturated solution of alum, and then recalcined, and reduced to powder.
For use it is mixed up with water, as ordinary plaster of Paris.

_Obs._ This cement has been most extensively applied as a stucco. It is
susceptible of a high polish, and when coloured produces beautiful
imitations of mosaic and other inlaid marbles, scagliola, &c. It is not
adapted to hydraulic purposes, or for exposure to the weather, but it is
admirable for internal decorations, and from its extreme hardness is very
durable. It may be coloured or tinted of any shade, by diffusing mineral
colours (levigated, if in powder) through the water used to mix up the
cement with. A pleasing tint is given to this cement by adding a little
solution of green copperas to the alum liquor.

=Cement, Laboratory.= _Syn._ CHEMICAL MASTIC. From equal parts of pitch,
resin, and plaster of Paris (thoroughly dried), mixed together. Used for
the masonry of chlorine chambers, vitriol works, &c.; and as a lining for
casks intended to hold chloride of lime.

=Cement, Letter-fixing.= _Prep._ Copal varnish, 15 parts; drying oil, 5
parts; turpentine, 3 parts; oil of turpentine, 2 parts; liquefied glue
(made with the least possible quantity of water), 5 parts; melt together
in a water bath, and add fresh slaked lime (perfectly dry, and in very
fine powder), 10 parts. Used to attach metal letters to plate glass in
shop windows, &c.

=Cement, Mahogany.= _Prep._ 1. Melt beeswax, 4 oz.; then add Indian red, 1
oz., and enough yellow ochre to produce the required tint.

2. Shell-lac, melted and coloured as above. Very hard. Both are used to
fill up holes and cracks in mahogany furniture by the cabinet makers. Red
putty is also used for the same purpose.

=Cement, Maissiat’s.= India rubber is melted either with or without about
15% of either beeswax or tallow; quick-lime (in fine powder) is gradually
added; and the heat continued until change of odour shows that combination
has taken place, and until a proper consistence is obtained. Used as a
waterproof and air-tight covering for corks, bungs, &c.

=Cement, Marine.= See GLUE, MARINE, and CEMENT, ELASTIC.

=Cement, Martin’s.= This is manufactured in the same way as Keene’s, only
carbonate of soda or carbonate of potash is used as well as alum, and the
burning is carried on at a higher temperature.

=Cement, Opticians’.= _Prep._ 1. Shell-lac softened with rectified spirit
or wood naphtha. For fine work.

2. Beeswax, 1 oz.; resin, 15 oz.; melt and add whiting (previously made
red hot, and still warm), 4 oz.

3. Resin, 1 lb.; melt and add plaster of Paris (dry), 4 oz. The above are
used to fix glasses, stones, &c., while polishing and cutting them. The
last is a very strong cement for rough purposes.

=Cement, Oxychlo′′ride of Zinc.= (Sorel.) _Prep._ In solution of chloride
of zinc, marking from 50° to 60° of Baumé’s hydrometer (_i.e._ sp. gr.
1·490 to 1·652), dissolve 3% of borax or sal-ammoniac; then add oxide of
zinc which has been heated to redness, until the mass is of a proper
consistence.

_Obs._ This cement becomes as hard as marble. It may be cast in moulds
like plaster of Paris, or used in mosaic work, &c.

=Cement, Parabol′ic.= _Syn._ UNIVERSAL CEMENT. _Prep._ Curdle skim milk
with rennet or vinegar, press out the whey, and dry the curd by a very
gentle heat, but as quickly as possible. When it has become quite dry
grind it in a coffee or pepper mill, and next triturate it in a mortar
until reduced to a very fine powder. Mix this powder with 1/10th of its
weight of new dry quick-lime, also in very fine powder, and to every ounce
of the mixture add 5 or 6 gr. of powdered camphor; triturate the whole
well together, and keep it in wide-mouth 1-oz. phials, well corked. Used
to join glass, earthenware, &c. It is made into a paste with a little
water, as wanted, and applied immediately.

=Cement, Parian.= Is prepared as Keene’s, substituting a solution of borax
(1 part of borax to 9 of water) for a solution of alum.

=Cement, Park′er’s.= This cement is made of the nodules of indurated and
slightly ferruginous marl, called by mineralogists “septaria,” and also of
some other species of argillaceous limestone. These are burnt in conical
kilns, with pit coal, in a similar way to other limestone, care being
taken to avoid the use of too much heat, as if the pieces undergo the
slightest degree of fusion, even on the surface, they will be unfit to
form the cement. After being properly roasted the calx is reduced to a
very fine powder by grinding, and immediately packed in barrels, to keep
it from the air and moisture.

_Uses, &c._ This cement is tempered with water, and applied at once, as it
soon hardens, and will not bear being again softened down with water. For
foundations and cornices exposed to the weather it is usually mixed with
an equal quantity of clean angular sand; for use as a common mortar, with
about twice as much sand; for coating walls exposed to cold and wet, the
common proportions are 3 of sand to 2 of cement, and for walls exposed to
extreme dryness or heat, about 2-1/2 or 3 of sand to 1 of cement; for
facing cistern work, water frontages, &c., nothing but cement and water
should be employed. Under the name of compo’ or Roman cement it is much
employed for facing houses, water cisterns, setting the foundations of
large edifices, &c.

=Cement, Pew’s.= Quick-lime, 1 part; baked clay, 2 parts (both in powder);
mix and calcine; then add gypsum (fresh baked and in fine powder), 1 part,
to powdered baked clay, 2 parts; mix well, add the former mixture, and
incorporate them well together. Used to cover buildings. It is applied
like mortar, and is very hard and durable. See CEMENT, GIBBS,’ &c.

=Cement, Plumb′ers’.= Black resin melted with about an equal weight of
brick-dust. Some times a little pitch or tallow is added.

=Cement, Port′land.= From clay and chalk, or argillaceous river-mud and
chalk or limestone, calcined together, and then ground to powder. See
CEMENT, PARKER’S.

=Cement, Ro′man.= Genuine Roman cement consists of puzzolene (a
ferruginous clay from Pozzuoli, calcined by the fires of Vesuvius), lime,
and sand. The only preparation which the puzzolene undergoes is that of
pounding and sifting. It is generally mixed up with water, like most other
cements, but occasionally with bullock’s blood and oil, to give the
composition more tenacity. That used in this country is now generally
prepared from the septaria of either Harwich or Sheppy, or of the lias
formation, or from the cement stone found in the upper division of the
lias formation, or in the shale beds of the Kimmeridge clay. It is also
prepared from several artificial mixtures of ferruginous clay and lime,
calcined together. It must be kept in close vessels, and mixed with water
when used. See CEMENT, PARKER’S and GIBBS’.

=Cement, Seal Engra′′vers’.= Resembles plumbers’ cement. Used to fix the
pieces of metal while cutting, and also to secure seals and tools in their
handles. It grows harder and improves every time it is melted.

=Cement, Sin′ger’s.= _Prep._ 1. Melt together resin, 5 lbs., and beeswax,
1 lb., and stir in finely-powdered red ochre (highly dried and still
warm), 1 lb., and plaster of Paris, 4 oz.; continuing the heat a little
above 212° Fahr., and stirring constantly till all frothing ceases.

2. Resin, 6 lbs.; dried red-ochre, 1 lb.; calcined plaster of Paris, 1/2
lb.; linseed oil, 1/4 lb. Used to cement the plates in voltaic troughs, to
join chemical vessels, &c. No. 2 is specially applicable to troughs. See
CEMENT, ELECTRICAL.

=Cement, Steam-boiler.= _Prep._ Litharge, in fine powder, 2 parts; very
fine sand and quick-lime (that has been allowed to slake spontaneously in
a damp place), of each 1 part; mix and keep it from the air. Used to mend
the cracks in boilers and ovens, and to secure steam joints. It is made
into a paste with boiled oil before application.

=Cement, Steam-pipe.= _Prep._ Good linseed oil varnish is ground with
equal weights of white lead, oxide of manganese, and pipeclay.

=Cement, Stucco.= This is a compound of powdered gypsum or strong gelatin.
It is used for coating walls, and also for ornamenting ceilings. It takes
a high polish, and coloured designs can be painted on it. When employed on
walls a coarser kind is first laid on, which is followed by a coating made
of choicer specimens of gypsum, or glue, or isinglass. When this latter
and outer coat becomes dry it is polished with pumice, tripoli, and linen.
The colour is incorporated with the outer coatings of the stucco by mixing
the metallic pigments with it, and then applying it to the wall, after
which a very thin coating of gypsum and isinglass, or sometimes of oil, is
given to it, and when the whole is partially dried the tint is brought out
by polishing, as before stated. Generally the finest effect is obtained by
oil.

=Cement, Transpar′ent.= See CEMENT, ELASTIC.

=Cement, Turn′ers’.= _Prep._ Beeswax, 1 oz.; resin, 1/2 oz.; pitch, 1/2
oz.; melt, and stir in fine brickdust, q. s.

=Cement, Univers′al.= See CEMENT, PARABOLIC.

=Cement, Var′ley’s.= _Syn._ VARLEY’S MASTIC. Black resin, 16 parts;
beeswax, 1 part; melt, add whiting (sifted, dried by a dull-red heat, and
allowed to cool), 16 parts; and stir until nearly cold.

=Cement, Water.= _Prep._ 1. From good grey clay, 4 parts; black oxide of
manganese, 6 parts; limestone (reduced to powder by sprinkling it with
water), 90 parts; mix, calcine, and powder.

2. Mix white iron ore (manganese iron ore), 15 parts, with lime, 85 parts;
calcine and powder as above. Both this and the preceding must be mixed up
with a little sand for use. A piece thrown into water rapidly hardens.

3. Fine clean sand, 1 cwt.; quick-lime, in powder, 28 lbs.; bone ashes, 14
lbs. The above are beat up with water for use. See CEMENT, HYDRAULIC, &c.

=Cement, Waterglass.= For glass, earthenware, porcelain, and all kinds of
stoneware, these cements are excellent. A cement for glass and marble is
prepared by rubbing together one part of fine pulverised glass, and two
parts of pulverised fluorspar, and then adding enough waterglass solution
to give it the consistency necessary in a cement.

Waterglass mixed with hydraulic cement to a thick dough makes a good
cement for the edges and joints of stone and marble slabs. It is well to
mix but little at a time, as it hardens very quickly. (‘Journal of Applied
Chemistry.’)

=Cement, Wa′terproof.= Several compounds of this class have been already
noticed. The celebrated “waterproof cement of Dihl” consists of porcelain
clay or pipeclay, dried by a gentle heat, and powdered, mixed up to the
consistence of a paste with boiled linseed oil, and, sometimes, a little
oil of turpentine. It is coloured by adding a little red or yellow ochre,
or any similar pigment. It is used to cover the fronts of buildings, roofs
of verandahs, &c.

_Concluding Remarks._ For mending broken CHINA, EARTHENWARE, GLASS, and
WOOD, the preparations generally used are the cements described above as
ARMENIAN, BOTANY BAY, CHEESE, CHINESE, CURD, EGG, EXTEMPORANEOUS, GLASS,
GLUE, HENSLER’S, HŒNLE’S, MAHOGANY, and PARABOLIC. For SPAR, MARBLE, and
similar materials, the ALABASTER CEMENT is specially adapted; the EGG and
PARABOLIC CEMENTS will, however, answer the same purpose. For CLOTH,
LEATHER, PAPER, CARD, and LIGHT FANCY WORK, the most suitable cements are
the ELASTIC, CHINESE, FLOUR, FRENCH, and JAPANESE. The cements adapted for
CHEMICAL and ELECTRICAL APPARATUS, and for SEALING BOTTLES, are also
termed BOTTLE, BRIMSTONE, CAP, CHEMICAL, ELECTRICAL, LABORATORY,
MAISSIAT’S, and VARLEY’S. The BUILDING and HYDRAULIC CEMENTS are described
under the heads ARCHITECTURAL, BEALE’S, BRUYERE’S, FIREPROOF, GAD’S,
GIBBS’, HAMELIN’S, HYDRAULIC, KEENE’S, OXYCHLORIDE, PARKER’S, PEW’S,
PORTLAND, ROMAN, WATER, and WATERPROOF. The cements used for METAL-WORK,
&c., in different trades, are noticed under the heads COPPERSMITHS’,
CUTLERS’, ENGINEERS’, GRINDERS’, IRON, LETTER-FIXING, OPTICIANS’,
PLUMBERS’, SEAL-ENGRAVERS’, STEAM-BOILER, STEAM-PIPE, and TURNER’S. See
GLUE, LUTE, MORTAR, TOOTH-CEMENT, &c.

=CEMENTA′TION.= The process of imbedding a substance in, or covering it
with, some powder or composition capable of acting on it when heated, and
in this state exposing it to a red heat. Iron is converted into steel, and
glass into Réaumur’s porcelain, by cementation.

=CEN′TAURIN.= _Syn._ CENTAURIN′A. The bitter extractive matter of _Erythæa
centaurium_, or common centaury. Combined with hydrochloric acid, it has
been highly recommended as a febrifuge.

=CER′ASIN.= _Syn._ PRUN′INE. The insoluble portion of cherry-tree gum. It
is identical with bassorin. Dr John applies the term to all those gums
which, like tragacanth, swell, but do not dissolve in water. See BASSORIN.

=CE′RATE.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM, L. A thick species of ointment containing wax.
Cerates are intermediate in consistence between ointments and plasters;
but are less frequently employed than either of those preparations. The
medicinal ingredients which enter into the cerates are very numerous;
indeed, almost every kind of medicine capable of exercising a topical
effect may be prescribed in this form.

It is a general custom with the druggists to use a less quantity of wax
for their cerates than that which is necessary to give them a proper
consistence, and in many cases it is omitted altogether, and its place
supplied by hard suet, or stearine, and frequently by common resin. Lard
is also very generally substituted for olive oil. Indeed, in no class of
pharmaceutical preparations are the instructions of practitioners and the
colleges more commonly disregarded. The operation of melting the
ingredients should be performed in a water bath or steam bath, and the
liquid mass should be assiduously stirred until cold.

All the medicated cerates may be prepared by adding the active
ingredients, in the form of fine powder, soft extract, solution, &c., as
the case may be, to either simple cerate or spermaceti cerate, in the
proportions indicated under the head of “Doses” appended to every article
of importance noticed in this work. The mixture, which must be complete,
may be effected by working the articles together on a marble or glass slab
or tile, or, still better, by trituration in a clean wedgwood mortar. In
some cases the simple cerate is melted by a gentle heat, and the whole
stirred or triturated until nearly solid; in others, digestion with heat
is employed.

=Cerate.= _Syn._ SIM′PLE CERATE, SIMPLE DRES′SING; CERATUM (Ph. L.), C.
SIM′PLEX (Ph. L. 1824). _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Yellow wax, 20 oz.; melt by a
gentle heat; add olive oil, 1 pint; and stir until it begins to solidify.

Used as a simple emollient dressing. The corresponding preparations of the
other colleges will be found noticed under OINTMENTS. The _ceratum
simplex_ of the Ph. E. is SPERMACETI CERATE.

=Cerate, Ac′etate of Lead.= _Syn._ CE′RATE OF SUGAR OF LEAD; CERA′TUM
PLUM′BI ACETA′TIS (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) White wax, 5 oz.; olive
oil, 18 fl. oz.; melt together; add, acetate of lead (in fine powder), 5
dr., previously triturated with olive oil, 2 fl. oz., and stir till they
unite (begin to solidify). Used as a cooling dressing to burns,
excoriations, and inflamed sores.

=Cerate, Ammoni′acal.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM AMMONIACA′LE, L. _Prep._ (Rechoux.)
Simple cerate, 1 oz.; carbonate of ammonia, 1 dr.; mix. As a
counter-irritant in croup, &c.

=Cerate, Arsen′ical.= _Syn._ CER′ATUM ARSEN′ICI, C. A′CIDI ARSENIO′SI, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. U. S.) Arsenious acid (in very fine powder), 20 gr.;
simple cerate, 1 oz.

2. (Sir A. Cooper.) Arsenious acid and sublimed sulphur, of each 1 dr.;
spermaceti cerate, 1 oz. The above ingredients must be very carefully
triturated together. The first is used as a dressing to cancerous sores;
the second is applied on lint as a caustic in like cases.

=Cerate, Belladonn′a.= _Syn._ CERATE OF DEADLY NIGHTSHADE; CERA′TUM
BELLADONN′Æ, L. _Prep._ 1. (W. Cooley.) Extract of belladonna, 3 dr.;
simple cerate, 1 oz.; olive oil, 1 dr.; triturate together in a warm
mortar, until nearly cold. Used in frictions to indolent tumours.

2. (Compound; C. B. COMPOS′ITUM, L.) _Prep._ (W. Cooley.) Belladonna
cerate, 1 oz.; iodide of gold, 12 gr.; carefully triturated together. Used
as a friction to scrofulous and syphilitic tumours, and to remove
syphilitic and rheumatic pains. A most active and excellent preparation.

=Cerate, Brown.= See PLASTERS.

=Cerate, Caca′o.= _Syn._ CACA′O POMMADE. _Prep._ Butter of cacao, white
wax, and oil of almonds, equal parts, melted together and strained. Used
as a cosmetic for chapped hands and lips, &c.

=Cerate, Cal′amine.= _Syn._ TURNER’S CERATE, HEALING SALVE; CERATUM
CALAMI′NÆ (Ph. L. & E.), C. LA′PIS CALAMINA′RIS (Ph. L. 1788), L. _Prep._
1. (Ph. L.) Yellow wax, 7-1/2 oz.; olive oil, 1 pint; melt together,
remove the vessel from the fire, and when they first begin to thicken, add
prepared calamine, 7-1/2 oz., and stir constantly until they cool.

2. (P. E.) Prepared calamine, 1 part; simple cerate (Ph. E.), 5 parts;
mix.

3. (Ph. D.) See OINTMENT.

4. (Commercial.) Hard suet, 5 lbs.; lard, 3 lbs.; melt and sift in,
gradually, calamine, 4 lbs.; agitate well for a few minutes, or until the
whole is perfectly mixed, and after one minute’s repose pour it off into
another vessel, the coarse sediment that has fallen to the bottom being
carefully avoided; lastly, stir assiduously, until it is nearly cold. This
forms the TURNER’S CERATE of the wholesale druggists. In many cases
nothing but lard and calamine are used.

_Uses, &c._ When honestly prepared with genuine calamine, it is a most
valuable desiccant and astringent application to excoriations, ulcers,
burns, scalds, sore nipples, &c. It has long been held in popular esteem
as a drying and healing dressing for sores.

=Cerate, Cal′amine with Mercury.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM CALAMI′NÆ CUM
HYDRAR′GYRO, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Chirur.) Calamine cerate, 1 lb.; red oxide of
mercury, 1 oz.; mix. Used as a stimulant application to foul and indolent
ulcers, psorophthalmia, &c.

=Cerate, Cal′omel.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM CALOMELA′NOS, C. HYDRAR′GYRI
CHLOR′IDI, L. _Prep._ 1. Calomel, 1 dr.; spermaceti cerate, 7 dr. In
herpes, and some other skin diseases.

2. (Compound; C. C. COMPOS′ITUM, L.) Calomel, 2 dr.; calamine cerate, 1
oz.; olive oil, 1 dr.

=Cerate, Cam′phor.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM CAMPHORA′TUM, C. CAMPHOR′Æ, L.;
POMMADE DU FRÈRE COSME, Fr. _Prep._ Olive oil, 1 lb.; white wax, 1/2 lb.;
camphor, 3 dr. As an application to chaps, chilblains, abrasions,
excoriations, and slight wounds. See BALLS, CAMPHOR.

=Cerate, Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ BLISTERING CERATE; CERA′TUM LYTT′Æ, C.
CANTHAR′IDIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Cantharides (in very fine powder), 1
oz.; spermaceti cerate, 6 oz.; mix.

2. (Parrish.) Cantharides, 12 parts; lard, 10 parts; yellow wax and resin,
of each 7 parts; incorporated by fusion. Irritant; used to keep blisters
open, and to stimulate issues, and indolent ulcers and tumours.

=Cerate, Chalk.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM CRE′TÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Chalk (thoroughly
dried, and in fine powder), 2 dr.; simple cerate, 6 dr.; almond oil, 3 dr.
Used in piles and foul ulcers.

2. (Acetated.) See CERATE, KIRKLAND’S NEUTRAL.

3. (Compound; CERA′TUM CRE′TÆ COMPOS′ITUM, L.)——_a._ To simple chalk
cerate, 1 oz., add powdered catechu, 1/2 dr. In piles, and foul and
indolent ulcers.

_b._ (U.S. Hospital.) Lead plaster and olive oil, of each 8 oz.; white
wax, 3 oz.; melt together; add solution of subacetate of lead, 6 oz.;
thoroughly incorporate, and then further add, chalk (in fine powder), 5
oz. Cooling and astringent. Useful in inflamed sores, excoriations, piles,
&c.

=Cerate, Cher′ry-laur′el.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM LAURO-CERASI, C. CALMANS, L.
_Prep._ (Roux.) Simple cerate, 1 oz.; cherry-laurel water, 1/2 oz. As an
application to burns.

=Cerate, Cincho′na.= _Syn._ BARK CERATE; CERA′TUM CINCHO′NÆ:, L. _Prep._
1. Extract of bark, 2 dr.; simple cerate, 1 oz.

2. (Van Mons.) Simple cerate, 8 oz.; camphor, 1-1/2 dr.; melt together by
a gentle heat, then add gradually, decoction of Peruvian bark
(concentrated), 1 oz., and triturate until cold. Used as a dressing for
ill-conditioned ulcers.

=Cerate, Cin′nabar.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM RU′BRUM, C. CINNABA′RIS, C.
HYDRAR′GYRI SULPHURE′TI RU′BRI, L. _Prep._ 1. Camphor, 20 gr.; vermilion,
60 gr.; simple cerate, 1 oz. This is Alibert’s “ANTIHERPETIC POMMADE.”

2. (Ph. Chirur.) Yellow wax and lard, of each 1/2 lb.; yellow resin, 1/2
oz.; red sulphide of mercury, 1 dr. Used as a common dressing.

=Cerate, Cit′rine.= See CERATE, RESIN, NITRATE OF MERCURY C.

=Cerate, Copai′ba.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM COPAI′BÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Spermaceti
cerate, 3 oz.; melt by a gentle heat, then add, balsam of copaiba, 1 oz.

2. (Dr Houlton.) White wax, 1 oz.; balsam of copaiba, 2 oz.; mix, as last.
Both the above have been recommended as topical applications to wounds and
ulcers of the rectum, vagina, and urethra; especially in those of a
fistulous character; and in piles, &c.

=Cerate, Cop′per.= _Syn._ CUPRIA′TED CERATE; CERA′TUM CU′PRI; C. C.
AMMONIA′TI, L. _Prep._ (Swediaur.) Simple cerate, 8 parts; melt, and add
solution of ammoniuret of copper, 1 part. As a stimulant dressing for
indolent ulcers; and in psorophthalmia, &c.

=Cerate, Cosmet′ic.= _Syn._ COLD CREAM, CERATE OF GA′LEN; CERA′TUM
COSMET′ICUM, C. GALENI, CREMOR FRIGIDA, L.; POMMADE EN CRÊME, Fr. _Prep._
1. Oil of sweet almonds, 1 lb.; white wax and spermaceti, of each 2 oz.;
melt, pour the mixture into a marble or wedgwood mortar, which has been
heated by standing for some time in boiling water; add, gradually, rose
water, 10 fl. oz., assiduously stirring until an emulsion is formed; then
further add, oil of bergamot, 1/2 oz.; oil of lavender, 1 dr.; and
continue the stirring or trituration until the whole has become cold.

2. To the last add otto of roses, 1 dr.; oil of rosemary, 15 drops.

3. Oil of almonds, 5 oz.; spermaceti, 5 dr.; white wax, 4 dr.; rose water,
3-1/2 oz.; balm of Mecca (genuine), 8 drops.

4. As the last, with essence of vanilla, 15 drops; essence of ambergris,
10 drops.

5. (P. C.) White wax, 1 part; oil of almonds, 4 parts; rose water, 3
parts; as before.

6. (Van Mons.) White wax and butter of cacao, of each 1 part; oil of
almonds and rose water, of each 4 parts.

_Obs._ The above are used as agreeable and cooling emollients for
irritable surfaces, excoriations, sore nipples, &c. See COLD CREAM and
OINTMENTS.

=Cerate, Cro′ton.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM CROTO′NIS, L. _Prep._ (Caventou.) Lard,
5 parts; wax, 1 part; melt, and when nearly cold add croton oil, 2 parts.
Used as a counter-irritant; but is apt to affect the bowels.

=Cerate, Goulard’s.= See CERATE, LEAD.

=Cerate, Hemlock.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM CO′NII, L. _Prep._ (St. B. Hosp.)
Spermaceti, 2 oz.; white wax, 3 oz.; melt, and add of hemlock ointment, 12
oz. Used for inveterate cancerous, scrofulous, and other sores.

=Cerate, Hon′ey.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM MEL′IS, L. _Prep._ 1. Simple cerate, 3
parts; honey, 1 part; oil of lemon-grass, 6 drops. Used as cold cream.

2. (Ph. Chirur.) Olive oil, 1/2 lb.; wax and lead plaster (or galbanum
plaster), of each 4 oz.; melt, and add honey, 1/2 lb. As a cooling
emollient dressing.

=Cerate of Honey with Turpentine.= (Paracelsus). Common turpentine, 1 lb.;
the yolk of 20 eggs; honey, 1 lb.; beat together the honey and yolk, and
add the turpentine, softened by heat.

=Cerate, Is′sue.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM AD FONTICULOS, L. As issue plaster, but
adding a little almond oil.

=Cerate, Kirk′land’s.= _Syn._ KIRKLAND’S NEUTRAL CERATE; CERA′TUM
NEUTRA′LE, C. CRE′TÆ ACETA′TIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Lead plaster, 8 oz.; olive
oil, 4 oz. melt, sift in chalk, 4 oz.; mix well, then add gradually
Goulard’s extract, 1/2 oz.; distilled vinegar, 4 oz.; and stir until cold.

2. (Paris.) Lead plaster, 8 oz.; olive oil and chalk, of each 4 oz.; sugar
of lead, 3 dr., (dissolved in) distilled vinegar, 4 fl. oz. As a cooling
dressing to irritable ulcers and excoriated parts.

=Cerate, Lead (Compound).= _Syn._ GOU′LARD’S CERATE; CERA′TUM PLUM′BI
COMPOS′ITUM (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Olive oil, 16 fl. oz.; yellow
wax, 8 oz.; melt, remove the vessel from the fire, and when they begin to
thicken, add gradually solution of subacetate of lead (slightly warmed), 6
fl. oz.; and stir constantly until the whole is nearly cold; then add
camphor, 1 dr., dissolved in olive oil, 4 fl. oz. (by heat), and stir
until the cerate is quite cold. Used in similar cases to KIRKLAND’S CERATE
(which _see_). See also ACETATE OF LEAD CERATE.

=Cerate, Mar′shall’s.= _Prep._ 1. Palm oil and calomel, of each 2 oz.;
acetate of lead, 1 oz.; ointment of nitrate of mercury, 4 oz.; triturated
together in a wedgwood mortar.

2. (Paris.) Palm oil, 5 oz.; calomel, 1 oz.; acetate of lead, 1/2 oz.;
citrine ointment, 2 oz.; as the last. Applied to the eyes, &c.

=Cerate, mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM MERCURIA′LE, C. HYDRAR′′GYRI, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Guibourt.) Strong mercurial ointment and simple cerate, equal
parts.

2. (Ph. L. 1746.) Strong mercurial ointment and yellow wax, of each 6 oz.;
lard, 3 oz. Both are used as dressings to venereal ulcers.

3. (Compound; CERA′TUM MERCURIA′LE COMPOS′ITUM, C. HYDRAR′′GYRI, L.)
_Prep._ (Ph. L.) Mercurial ointment (strong) and soap cerate, of each 6
oz.; camphor (in powder), 1-1/2 oz.; triturate together. Alterative and
discutient; used to disperse indolent tumours and swellings, and as a
resolvent in enlarged joints, &c.

CERATE, METO′′PIUM. _Syn._ CERA′TUM METO′′PII, L. _Prep._ (Dr Barham.)
Hog-gum (from _Rhus Metopium_), and lard, of each 4 oz.; white wax and
root of Sweet Aristolochia (powdered), of each 2 oz.; yellow resin, 1 oz.;
in stiff joints and rheumatic pains.

=Cerate, Mez′ereon.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM MEZ′EREI, L. _Prep._ 1. Extract of
mezereon, 1 part; (dissolved in) alcohol, 5 parts; add beeswax, 5 parts;
olive oil, 11 parts; melt together, and continue the heat until all the
alcohol is evaporated.

2. Green oil of mezereon, 1 part; simple cerate, 20 parts; melt together.
Both are used to keep up the discharge from blistered surfaces, and as a
stimulant application to indolent sores.

=Cerate, Neu′tral.= See CERATE, KIRKLAND’S.

=Cerate, Ni′trate of Mer′cury.= _Syn._ CIT′RINE CERATE; CERA′TUM
HYDRAR′′GYRI NITRA′TIS, L. _Prep._ (St. B. Hosp.) Citrine ointment and
simple cerate, equal parts. See OINTMENTS.

=Cerate, O′pium.= _Syn._ LAUD′ANUM CERATE, AN′ODYNE C.; CERA′TUM O′′PII,
C. OPIA′TUM, C. ANODY′NUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Tincture of opium and olive oil,
of each 2 dr.; simple cerate, 1 oz.; digest with heat until all the spirit
and water is evaporated, constantly stirring the mixture all the time.

2. (Gilbert.) Wine of opium, 1 dr.; simple cerate, 1 oz.

3. (Lagneau.) Opium (in fine powder), 1/2 dr.; yolk of 1 egg; mix, then
triturate it with simple cerate, 1 oz.

_Uses._ The above are applied to painful swellings, piles, and ulcers, and
in chronic ophthalmia, &c.

=Cerate, Phosphora′ted.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM PHOSPHO′RI, C. PHOSPHORA′TUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. Phosphorus, 6 gr.; simple cerate, 3 oz.; heat together in a
phial placed in a water bath, with frequent agitation for 2 hours; and
after repose for 10 minutes, pour off the clear portion, and stir it well
until cold.

2. (Foy.) Phosphorated ether, 5 parts; simple cerate, 24 parts.——_Uses._
Both of the above have been recommended as frictions in obstinate
cutaneous affections, and in rheumatism of the joints.

=Cerate, Pitch.= _Syn._ CERATUM PI′CIS BERGUNDI′CÆ, L. _Prep._ (Beral.)
White wax, 3 parts; suet, 4 parts; Bergundy pitch, 6 parts; melted
together. A mild stimulant and detergent dressing. See OINTMENTS.

=Cerate, Quin′ine.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM QUINIÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Sulphate of
quinine, 5 or 6 gr.; simple cerate, 1 dr. Applied to the denuded dermis
(endermically).

2. Sulphate of quinine and olive oil, of each 1 dr.; simple cerate, 6 dr.
As a friction. Both are used in intermittents.

=Cerate, Res′in.= _Syn._ BASIL′ICON, B. CERATE, B. OINTMENT, YELLOW B.,
CIT′RINE CERATE; CERA′TUM CITRI′NUM (Ph. L. 1788), C. RESI′NÆ FLA′VÆ (Ph.
L. 1745), C. RESI′NÆ (Ph. L. 1809 and since), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)
Yellow resin and beeswax, of each 15 oz.; melt, add olive oil, 1 pint;
strain through a cloth, and stir the mixture until cold.

_Obs._ The above is the formula of the London College, but the basilicon
of the shops is seldom, if ever, made in this manner. The following forms
are those commonly used in trade, but the products are much inferior to
that made according to the directions in the Pharmacopœia.

2. (Commercial.)——_a._ Yellow resin, 10 lbs.; beeswax, 2 lbs.; linseed
oil, 7 lbs.; melt together, and stir until cold.

_b._ As the last, but using nut oil instead of linseed oil.

_c._ Nut oil, 1 gall.; beeswax, 5 lbs.; yellow resin, 14 lbs.

_d._ Lard (common) and linseed oil, of each 3 lbs.; yellow resin, 9 lbs.;
as before.

_Uses, &c._ This cerate is a mild stimulant, detergent, and digestive
application; and as such is employed to dress foul and indolent ulcers,
blistered surfaces, burns, &c. For the corresponding preparations of the
other colleges, see OINTMENTS.

3. (Compound; DESH′LER’S CERATE; CERA′TUM RESI′NÆ COMPOS′ITUM, L.) _Prep._
(Ph. U. S.) Resin, suet, and beeswax, of each 1 lb.; turpentine, 1/2 lb.;
flax-seed oil (linseed oil), 1/2 pint; as above. Rather more stimulating
than resin cerate, but used for the same purposes.

=Cerate, Rose.= _Syn._ LIP SALVE; CERA′TUM ROSA′TUM, L. _Prep._ (P. C.)
Oil of almonds, 16 parts; white wax, 8 parts; alkanet root, 1 part;
digest, with a gentle heat, until sufficiently coloured, then strain, and
for every ounce of the cerate, add otto of roses, 2 drops. See LIP SALVE.

=Cerate, Sav′ine.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM SABI′NÆ (Ph. E.; and Ph. L. 1836), L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Beeswax, 1 part; lard, 4 parts; fresh savin (leaves
bruised), 2 parts; boil together until the leaves become crisp, then
strain, with pressure, through a linen cloth.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Lard, 2 lbs.; savin leaves, 1 lb.; beeswax, 1/2 lb.; as
last.

3. (Ph. L. 1851.) In the B. P. this preparation is included among the
OINTMENTS (which _see_); in trade, however, the old name (Ph. L. 1836) is
still generally retained.

_Obs._ The preparation of this cerate requires caution, as the active
principle of the savin, being volatile, is injured by long boiling and a
high temperature. The leaves are usually boiled until they are crisp, but
as this takes some time, the essential oil, and consequently the odour, is
nearly all dissipated. A better plan is to express the juice from the
leaves, and to add it to the wax and oil melted together, and just
beginning to cool. As usually met with in the shops, this cerate has a
lively green colour, and the odour of the fresh plant; but neither of
these is derived from the leaves in the common process of making it. The
first is caused by the addition of powdered verdigris, and the last by
adding a little of the essential oil of savin to the compound when nearly
cold. The preparations of the British Colleges have only a very pale green
colour, and even that rapidly changes by exposure to the air. A uniform
green colour may therefore be regarded as a proof of adulteration; as the
unadulterated compound, however, skilfully prepared, is of a dingy green
colour, of little intensity; and after it has been made a short time, it
fades on the surface, and the under portion becomes streaky and mottled. A
greater quantity of colour is obtained from the leaves by long digestion
in the fat and wax in earthen vessels, at a moderate heat, than by hasty
boiling. In this way a lively green is sometimes produced, but it rapidly
changes in the manner just mentioned.

The following forms are those commonly adopted by the wholesale druggists
for the manufacture of this cerate:——

4. Lard and suet, of each 6 lbs.; yellow wax, 2 lbs.; melt them together
in an earthen vessel; add 2 oz. of distilled verdigris (previously rubbed
down smooth in a mortar with an equal weight of sweet oil); strain, whilst
hot, into a large earthen pot, and when the whole has cooled a little, add
of oil of savin, 1 oz., and stir until cold.

5. Savin leaves, 4 lbs.; yellow wax, 2 lbs.; lard, 8 lbs.; boil until the
leaves become crisp; then strain, and add, of green ointment (lively
coloured), 5 lbs.; when cooled a little, further add, of oil of savin, 3
dr., and stir briskly until cold. _Prod._, 13-1/2 lbs.

_Uses, &c._ Savin cerate and ointment are chiefly employed to keep up the
discharge from blisters (perpetual blisters), for which purpose it is
preferable to preparations of cantharides. The practice of colouring this
cerate with verdigris, which is general in trade, cannot be too severely
censured, as its therapeutic action is thereby altered. The copper may be
detected by burning down a little in a platinum or Hessian crucible,
washing out the ashes with a little dilute nitric acid, placing the liquor
in a glass tube, and applying the usual tests. See COPPER and OINTMENTS.

=Cerate, Sim′ple.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM SIM′PLEX, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.)
Spermaceti, 1 part; white wax, 3 parts; olive oil, 6 parts; melt by a
gentle heat, and stir until cold. This preparation is similar to SIMPLE
OINTMENT (_Unguentum Simplex_), B. P. (which _see_).

=Cerate of Snails.= White wax, 3 parts; spermaceti, 3 parts; oil of
almonds, 32 parts; mucilage of snails, 24 parts; otto of rose, sufficient
to scent it.

=Cerate, Soap.= _Syn._ COMPOUND SOAP CERATE; CERA′TUM SAPO′NIS (Ph. L.
1836), C. SAPONIS COMPOS′ITUM (Ph. L. 1851), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Boil
litharge, 15 oz., in distilled vinegar, 1 gall., until dissolved, stirring
continually; then add of Castile soap, 10 oz.; again boil until all the
moisture is evaporated; then add, gradually, beeswax, 12-1/2 oz., and
olive oil, 1 pint, previously melted together, and stir until nearly cold.
Similar to SOAP CERATE PLASTER (_Emplastrum Cerati Saponis_), B. P. (which
_see_).

2. (Wholesale.) Distilled vinegar, 6 galls.; litharge, 5 lbs.; soap, 3-3/4
lbs.; yellow wax, 4-1/2 lbs.; olive oil, 6 pints. Mix as above. Good nut
or poppy oil may be used instead of olive oil.

_Obs._ Unless the instructions contained in the above formulæ are followed
in every particular, the process is apt to miscarry. When this is the
case, the cerate, on cooling, separates into two portions, and is commonly
full of hard, gritty particles. To prevent this, care should be taken to
use soap of the best quality. This mishap cannot be got over by long
boiling and stirring, as is generally supposed. The only remedy is the
addition of a little more soap, previously melted with some water, and
again evaporating to a proper consistence. A small quantity of solution of
potassa has a similar effect.

The colour and consistence of soap cerate chiefly depends on the length of
time it is kept heated after the addition of the oil and wax. As
evaporation proceeds, so the colour and consistence increase. Its usual
colour is that of a lively, pale chocolate-brown, but occasionally it is
much paler. This arises from its containing an undue quantity of moisture.
When it has been kept heated for a period beyond that usually adopted, it
attains greater hardness, and is then frequently called hard soap cerate
(CERA′TUM SAPONIS DURUM); but by over-boiling it is apt to become gritty.

_Uses, &c._ Soap cerate is resolvent, cooling, and desiccative, and is
chiefly employed as a cooling dressing for scrofulous swellings, &c. It
may be spread on linen and applied like a plaster. It is sometimes used as
a support for fractured limbs, and forms an excellent dressing for soft
corns.

=Cerate, Spermace′ti.= _Syn._ WHITE CERATE, WHITE LIP SALVE, SIMPLE C.;
CERATUM SIM′PLEX (Ph. E.), C. ALBUM (Ph. L. 1745), C. SPERMA′TIS CE′TI
(Ph. L. 1788), C. CETA′CEI (Ph. L. 1809, and since), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph.
L.) Spermaceti, 2 oz.; white wax, 8 oz.; melt by a gentle heat; add, olive
oil (warm), 1 pint, and stir with a spatula until they cool.

2. (Ph. E.) See CERATE, SIMPLE.

3. (Ph. D.) The corresponding preparation of the Ph. D. is classed under
Ointments, and contains lard.

4. (Commercial.) On the large scale lard or suet is substituted for oil,
by which means less wax is required. The following is a good form where a
cheap article is wanted, and is that commonly adopted in the wholesale
trade:——

Clarified mutton suet, 5-1/2 lbs.; white wax and spermaceti, of each 3/4
lb.; as above.

_Obs._ The materials should be melted by a very gentle heat (that of a
water bath is best) in a clean stoneware vessel, and as soon as perfect
liquefaction takes place, the heat should be withdrawn, and the fluid
cerate strained into a clean vessel, and stirred with a clean wooden
spatula until it solidifies. To facilitate the cooling, the vessel may be
placed in cold water or in a current of cold air. In this way the product
is rendered both whiter and finer than when the liquid mass is allowed to
cool by itself. By adding a little flowers of benzoin with the oil, or a
little nitric ether when the cerate is about half cold, this, as well as
other like preparations, will keep for years without becoming rancid or
suffering any material change of condition.

_Uses, &c._ Emollient and cooling. It is commonly employed as a soft,
cooling dressing, as a lip salve, as an application to chaps, chilblains,
&c.

=Cerate, Sul′phur.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM SULPHU′RIS, C. SULPHURA′TUM, L.
_Prep._ (P. C.) Washed sulphur, 2 parts; cerate of Galen, 7 parts; almond
oil, 1 part; mix. In itch, &c.

=Cerate, Sul′phide of Mer′cury.= _Prep._ (Swediaur.) Yellow resin, 1/2
oz.; yellow wax and lard, of each 1/2 lb.; vermilion, 20 gr. As a dressing
to unhealthy ulcers. See CERATE, CINNABAR.

=Cerate, Tobac′co.= _Prep._ Beeswax, 3 oz.; yellow resin, 1 oz.; olive
oil, 6 oz.; tobacco juice, 4 oz.; mix and evaporate to dryness, and when
nearly cold, add bergamot, 2 dr. Used to destroy pediculi, &c.

=Cerate, Touch.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM PRO TEC′TU, L.; CERAT POUR LE TOUCHER,
Fr. _Prep._ (Soubeiran.) Spermaceti and yellow wax, of each 1 part; olive
oil, 16 parts; melt, add caustic soda, 1 part, and stir until cold. Used
in hospitals for practising the touching in accouchements.

=Cerate, Turner’s.= See CERATE, CALAMINE.

=Cerate, Ver′digris.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM ÆRU′GINIS, C. CU′PRI DIACETA′TIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Resin cerate, 19 parts; verdigris (in fine powder), 1 part.

2. (For. Ph.) Wax and resin, of each 6 parts; Venice turpentine, 5 parts;
linseed oil, 2 parts; verdigris, 1 part. Used as a mild escharotic and
stimulant to fungous ulcers, warts, corns, &c.

=Cerate, White.= See CERATE, SPERMACETI.

=Cerate, Zinc.= _Syn._ CERA′TUM ZINC′I, C. Z. OXY′DI, L. _Prep._ 1. Oxide
of zinc, 20 gr., spermaceti cerate, 1 oz. Used in sore nipples,
excoriations, &c.; and in chronic ophthalmia.

2. (Compound; CERA′TUM ZINCI COMPOSITUM, L.)——_a._ To the last add
calomel, 10 gr. Used as the last, and in scrofulous ophthalmia.

_b._ (Mid. Hosp.) Zinc ointment and compound lead ointment, equal parts.
Cooling, astringent; in excoriations, and as a dressing for ulcers.

_c._ (Hufeland.) Oxide of zinc and lycopodium, of each 15 gr.; simple
cerate, 1/2 oz. In sore nipples, ulcerations of the breast, tetters, &c.
It acts best when diluted with half its weight of spermaceti cerate.

_d._ (U. S. Ph.) Precipitated carbonate zinc, 2 oz.; simple cerate, 10 oz.
A substitute for calamine cerate.

=CEREB′RIC ACID.= A peculiar acid compound, first noticed by M. Frémy,
obtained along with oleo-phosphoric acid when the brain and nerves are
treated with hot alcohol. It is solid, white, crystalline; freely soluble
in boiling alcohol, and forms a solid gelatinous mass with hot water;
fusible with decomposition, exhaling a peculiar odour, and leaving much
charcoal behind. It has been found also in the yolk of eggs, in seminal
fluid, and in pus. With the alkalies it forms insoluble salts termed
cerebrates.

=CEREB′ROLEIN.= When oleo-phosphoric acid is boiled in water, it is
resolved into a fluid neutral oil and phosphoric acid, which dissolves.
The former is cerebrolein.

=CE′RIN=, HC_{27}H_{53}O_{2}. (Brodie.) _Syn._ CEROTIC ACID. When pure
beeswax (bleached) is digested in boiling alcohol for some time, a
solution of myricin and cerin is formed. The former is deposited as the
liquid cools, and the latter may be obtained by evaporating the decanted
portion. Cerin is a white, crystallisable substance, soluble in 16 parts
of boiling alcohol; it fuses at 144° Fahr.; and is readily saponified with
caustic alkaline lyes. It greatly resembles white wax, of which, indeed,
it forms from 70%; to 80%.

=CERISIN.= A substance obtained from ozokerit or fossil wax, very similar
in appearance and properties to white wax, for which it has been proposed
as a substitute in pharmaceutical preparations. At present it is chiefly
used in the manufacture of candles. Cerisin appears to be one of the
paraffins. It differs, however, from ordinary paraffin in not being
unctuous to the touch, in being non-translucent and firmer in texture, and
in having a higher fusing point. It seems to be intermediate between
ordinary paraffin and wax.

=CE′RIUM.= Ce. A metal discovered in 1803 by Hisinger and Berzelius in the
mineral named cerite.

=Cerium Oxalate.= (Ph. B.) It may be obtained as a precipitate by adding a
solution of oxalate of ammonia to a soluble salt of cerium.——_Dose_, 1 to
2 gr. Given in the vomiting of pregnancy.

=CE′ROMEL.= _Prep._ (Van Mons.) Beeswax, 1 oz.; honey, 4 oz.; melt
together and stir until cold. An excellent application to irritable
ulcers, abraded surfaces, sore nipples, &c.

=CERO′TIC ACID.= See CERIN.

=CESSPOOLS.= It may be well to point out that the local authorities of any
district in which a cesspool is situated are required by the Public Health
Act——1. To see that it is so constructed and kept as to prevent its
becoming either a nuisance or detrimental to health. 2. That an
examination of any cesspool can be made by the sanitary inspector, or by
any officer appointed by the local authority, after notice of entry has
been served upon those who are the occupiers of the premises on which it
is situated. 3. The local authority may itself undertake the cleansing of
a cesspool, or it may enact bye-laws imposing this duty on the occupiers
of the premises. 4. If the local authority, after having undertaken the
cleansing of a cesspool, fail to do its duty, it becomes liable, after
notice from an occupier, for the payment to the said occupier of a penalty
not exceeding five shillings a day during default. 5. Any person in an
urban district who allows the contents of a cesspool to overflow, or to
soak therefrom, incurs a penalty of forty shillings for each offence, and
a further charge of five shillings a day for the continuance of the
offence after notice. 6. Information of any nuisance under the said Act in
the district of any local authority may be given to such local authority
by any person aggrieved thereby, or by any two inhabitant householders of
such district, or by any officer of such authority, or by the relieving
officer, or by any constable or officer of the police force of such
district.

It does not come within our province to enter into details as to the best
method of building a cesspool.

We may, however, state, that owing to the defective and leaky construction
of a cesspool, it very frequently becomes a serious source of dangerous
contamination to the wells in the neighbourhood, as well as a ready means
of contagion, when it contains the excreta of fever patients. The outbreak
of typhoid fever at the west end of London in 1874, the origin of which
was traced to the milk supply, was owing to the vessels in which the milk
was collected in the country having been washed out with water taken from
a well near a cesspool, into which ran the contents of a privy belonging
to a house, some of the inmates of which were labouring under typhoid
fever.

For a cesspool not to be injurious to health it should be water-tight and
ventilated by a shaft; it should never be allowed to overflow; and should
be sunk at as great a distance from houses or dwellings as possible.

=CE′TIN.= C_{32}H_{64}O_{2}. Chevreul applied this name to pure
spermaceti. _Prep._ Dissolve spermaceti in boiling alcohol, and collect
the crystals that are deposited as the solution cools. Bright pearly
crystals, melting at 120°, and subliming at 670° Fahr. See SPERMACETI.

=CETRAR′IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{18}H_{14}O_{8}. _Syn._ CETRAR′IN. The bitter
principle of Iceland moss (_Cetraria Islandica_). It exists, in the free
state, in the cortical portion of the thallus.

_Prep._ 1. Iceland moss (bruised), 1 part; rectified spirit, 6 parts; boil
in a covered vessel for half an hour; express the liquor whilst hot,
filter, and distil off the spirit; redissolve the residuum in boiling
alcohol, decant the clear, and let the solution cool slowly; lastly,
collect the crystals and preserve them out of contact with air.

2. (Herberger.) Iceland moss (in coarse powder), 1 lb.; alcohol (·883), 4
lbs.; boil as before, cool until vapours cease to rise, express the
tincture, add hydrochloric acid, 3 dr., (dissolved in) water, 2 oz.; let
it rest for a night in a closed matrass; then decant, throw the deposit on
a filter, press it in bibulous paper, and whilst still moist wash it with
both alcohol and ether; lastly, purify it by digestion in boiling alcohol,
as before.

_Prop., &c._ Pure cetraric acid occurs under the form of minute, shining,
acicular crystals; it is intensely bitter, non-volatile, scarcely soluble
in water, ether, and cold alcohol; soluble in alkaline solutions forming
soluble salts, which give a red colour with the persalts of iron, and a
yellow one with acetate of lead. The compounds are called
cetrarates.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 gr. every three hours, as a febrifuge; 1 to 3
gr. thrice daily, as a tonic.

=CHA′BERT’S OIL.= _Syn._ CHABERT’S EMPYREUMAT′IC OIL; O′LEUM
EMPYREUMAT′ICUM CHABERTI, O. CONTRA TÆNIAM CHABERTI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Bor.
1847.) From empyreumatic oil of hartshorn, 1 part; oil of turpentine, 3
parts; mix and distil over three fourths only in a glass retort, and keep
it in well-stopped bottles. In tapeworm.——_Dose_, 2 teaspoonfuls in water,
night and morning, until 4 to 6 or even 7 oz. have been taken; a cathartic
being also administered from time to time.

=CHAFING.= See EXCORIATIONS.

=CHAIRS.= The black leather work of chairs, settees, &c., may be restored
by first well washing off the dirt with a little warm soap and water, and
afterwards with clean water. The brown and faded portions may now be
retained by means of a little black ink, or preferably, black reviver, and
when this has got thoroughly dry, they may be touched over with white of
egg, stained and mixed with a little sugar-candy. When the surface is
nearly dry, it should be polished off with a clean brush.

=CHALK.= _Syn._ SOFT CARBONATE OF LIME, or CARBONATE OF CALCIUM, EARTHY C.
OF L.; CRE′TA, L. Chalk is largely used in the arts and manufactures, and
in medicine. The natural varieties are remarkable for the fossils which
they contain. The COLOURED CHALKS which are used as pigments and for
crayons generally contain both clay and magnesia, as well as oxide of
iron, and are minerals quite distinct from WHITE CHALK, or CHALK properly
so called. The latter is an AMORPHOUS CARBONATE OF LIME. Exposed for some
time to a red heat, it is converted into QUICK-LIME; ground in mills and
elutriated, it forms WHITING; the same process performed more carefully
and on a smaller scale produces the PREPARED CHALK used in medicine. When
prepared artificially (by precipitation), it is the PRECIPITATED CHALK of
modern pharmacy. (See _below_.)

=Chalk, Black.= A variety of drawing slate.

=Chalk, Brown.= A familiar name for umber.

=Chalk, Cam′phorated.= _Syn._ CRETACEOUS TOOTH POWDER, CAM′PHORATED T. P.;
CRE′TA CAM′PHORATA, C. CUM CAMPHO′RA, L. _Prep._ 1. Camphor, 1 oz.; add a
few drops of spirit of wine, reduce it to a very fine powder, and mix it
(perfectly) with precipitated chalk, 7 oz.; lastly, pass it through a
clean, fine sieve, and keep it in a corked bottle. These proportions make
the strongest “CAMPHORATED TOOTH POWDER” of the shops.

2. Camphor, 1 oz.; precipitated chalk, 15 oz.; as before. These are the
best and safest proportions, and those now generally adopted by the
West-end perfumers.

3. As either of the above, but using prepared chalk in lieu of
precipitated chalk. Less white and velvety, but cleans the teeth better
than the softer article.

_Uses, &c._ Camphorated chalk is much esteemed as a dentifrice; especially
by smokers, and those troubled with foul teeth, or offensive breath. It
may be scented with a few drops (3 or 4 to each oz.) of otto of roses, oil
of cloves, or neroli, or of the essences of ambergris, musk, or vanilla;
but care must be taken not to overdo it. When the teeth are much furred or
discoloured, it may be mixed with about one seventh of its weight of
finely powdered pumice stone (sifted through lawn), which will render it
more effective. A little carmine, rouge, light red (burnt ochre), red
coral, or rose pink, is also sometimes added to give it a tinge
approaching that of the gums. The quantity of camphor (1 to 3 or 4)
commonly ordered in certain books is absurdly large, and would render the
compound not only unpleasant in use, but actually detrimental to the
teeth. See DENTIFRICES.

=Chalk, French.= Soap stone or steatite, a soft magnesian mineral,
possessing the property of writing on glass. It is used by tailors for
marking cloths. Its powder (obtained by scraping) is very soft, velvety,
and absorbent of grease. It forms the boot powder of the boot- and
shoe-makers.

=Chalk Mixture.= _Syn._ MISTURA CRETÆ, L. Prepared chalk, 1 part; gum
arabic (in powder), 1 part; syrup, 2 parts; cinnamon water, 30 parts; mix
by trituration.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz., with astringent tinctures and opium.
Care should be taken to use the prepared chalk as directed; the
precipitated chalk has a crystalline character, and is said to occasion
irritation of the bowels. (Squire.)

=Chalk, Precip′itated.= _Syn._ PRECIPITATED CAR′BONATE OF LIME; CRE′TA
PRÆCIPITA′TA, CAL′CIS CARB′ONAS PRÆCIPITA′TUM, L. _Prep._ 1. By adding to
a solution of chloride of calcium, any quantity, another of carbonate of
soda (both cold), and well washing the precipitate with pure water, and
drying it out of the dust.

2. (Ph. D.) Solution of chloride of calcium (Ph. D.), 5 parts; carbonate
of soda, 3 parts; (dissolved in) water, 4 parts.

3. (B. P.) Dissolve chloride of calcium, 5 oz.; and carbonate of soda, 13
oz.; each in two pints of boiling distilled water; mix the two solutions,
and allow the precipitate to subside. Collect this on a calico filter,
wash it with boiling distilled water, until the washing cease to give a
precipitate with nitrate of silver, and try the product at the temperature
of 212° F.

_Uses, &c._ It is chiefly employed for making aromatic confection,
cretaceous powder, and chalk mixture. That of the shops is seldom pure,
the refuse of the soda-water makers (sulphate of lime) being commonly sold
for it. When pure it is wholly soluble, with effervescence, in dilute
hydrochloric acid. (See _below_.)

=Chalk, Prepa′′red.= _Syn._ CRE′TA (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836), CRE′TA
PREPARA′TA (Ph. L. 1851), CRE′TA AL′BA (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D.
1836.) Rub chalk, 1 lb., with sufficient water, add gradually, until
reduced to a smooth cream; then stir this into a large quantity of water,
and, after a short interval, to allow the coarser particles to subside,
pour off the supernatant water (still turbid) into another vessel, and
allow the suspended powder to settle; lastly, collect the chalk so
prepared and dry it. In the same way shells are prepared, after being
first freed from impurities and washed with boiling water.

2. (Commercial; WHI′TING.) On the large scale the chalk is ground in
mills, and the elutriation and deposit made in large reservoirs. It is now
seldom prepared by the druggist.

_Pur._ Almost entirely soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, provided it
contains no sulphate of lime or silica, giving off small bubbles of
carbonic acid gas.

_Test._ The salt formed by dissolving the chalk in hydrochloric acid, if
rendered neutral by evaporation to dryness and redissolved in water, gives
only a very scanty precipitate on the addition of a saccharated solution
of lime, indicating absence of phosphate. (B. P.)

_Uses, &c._ In _medicine_, as an absorbent, antacid, and desiccant; in
acidity, heartburn, dyspepsia, and other like stomach affections, and in
diarrhœa, depending on acidity or irritation; in the latter, generally
combined with aromatics, astringents, or opium. It forms a valuable
dusting powder in excoriations, ulcers, &c., especially in those of
children.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to a spoonful, in a little water or milk, or
made into a mixture with mucilage or syrup.

=Chalk, Red.= A natural clay containing about 18% of protoxide and
carbonate of iron.

=CHALYB′EATES.= _Syn._ CHALYBEA′TA, FERRUGIN′EA, L. The medicinal
qualities of the preparations of iron are noticed under the name of that
metal. Those most frequently employed in medicine are——IRON FILINGS;
QUEVENNE’S IRON; the BLACK OXIDE, MAGNETIC OXIDE, and SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON;
the AMMONIO-CHLORIDE and SESQUICHLORIDE; the CARBONATE and SACCHARINE
CARBONATE; the CITRATE and AMMONIO-CITRATE; the IODIDE, LACTATE, and
SULPHATE; the TARTRATE, AMMONIO-TARTRATE, and POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF IRON;
and the CHALYBEATE MINERAL WATERS. For the doses, &c., see the respective
articles.

=CHAM′OMILE.= _Syn._ ANTHE′MIS, L. The flowers of the _Anthemis nobilis_
(_Anthemidis Flores_, B. P.). They are bitter, stomachic, and tonic; in
dyspepsia, loss of appetite, intermittents, &c. They are an effectual
remedy for nightmare; and, according to Dr Schall, the only certain remedy
for that complaint.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr., or more, in powder or made
into a tea. Fomentations are also made with it. See EXTRACTS, OILS, PILLS,
&c.

=CHAMPAGNE′.= See WINES.

=CHAPS.= These are too well known to require description. Chapped hands
are common amongst persons with a languid circulation, who are continually
“dabbling” in water during cold weather. Chapped lips generally occur in
persons with pallid, bluish, moist lips, who are much exposed to the wind
in dry cold weather; especially in those who are continually moving from
heated apartments to the external air. The application of a little COLD
CREAM, POMATUM, SPERMACETI OINTMENT, LARD, or any similar article, will
generally prevent chaps on the lips, and chaps and chilblains on the
hands. Persons employed in oil and tallow works, or about oil, and who
have consequently their hands continually in contact with greasy matter,
never suffer from these things. A little oil or unguent of any kind, well
rubbed on the hands on going to rest (removing the superfluous portion
with a cloth), will not only preserve them from cold, but tend to render
them both soft and white. See CHILBLAIN.

=CHAR (Potted).= The flesh of the _Salmo Alpinus_ (Linn.), or trout of the
Alps, common in the lakes of Lapland, preserved by the common process of
potting.

=CHAR′BON-ROUX= [Fr.]. See CHARCOAL, WOOD (_below_).

=CHAR′COAL.= Charcoal is made by charring organic substances, such as
wood, bone, blood, &c., and is, in other words, the fixed residuum of
vegetable or animal matter exposed to a high temperature out of contact
with atmospheric air.

There are several different varieties of charcoal, the chief of which,
however, are wood and animal charcoal.

=Charcoal, Animal.= _Syn._ ANIMAL BLACK, BONE BLACK, IVORY BLACK, CARBO
ANIMALIS. The charcoal obtained by igniting bone in close vessels, but
often applied likewise to any charcoal obtained from animal matter.

_Commercial._ Bones (deprived of their grease by boiling) are broken to
pieces, and put into small cast-iron pots, varying from 3/8 to 1/2 an inch
in thickness. Two of these being filled, are dexterously placed with their
mouths together and then luted with loam. A number of these vessels are
then placed side by side and piled on each other, in an oven resembling a
potter’s kiln, to the number of 100 or 150, or even more. The fire is next
kindled, and the heat kept up strongly for 10 or 12 hours, according to
circumstances, until the process is completed. The whole is then allowed
to cool before opening the pots.

A more economical method is by distillation, as under:——

Bones (previously boiled for their grease) are introduced into retorts
similar to those used in gas works, and heat being applied, the volatile
products are conveyed away by iron pipes to cisterns where the condensable
portion is collected. As soon as the process of distillation is finished,
the solid residuum in the retorts, while still red hot, is removed through
their lower ends into wrought-iron canisters, which are instantly closed
by air-tight covers and luted over. These are then raised to the ground by
a crane, and set aside to cool.

The bones, having been carbonised, are ground in a mill, and the resulting
coarse powder, sorted by sieves into two kinds, one, granular, somewhat
resembling gunpowder, for decolorising liquids, and the other, quite fine,
to be used as a pigment. The first is sold under the name of animal
charcoal; the second as bone or ivory black. The latter and other fine
varieties of animal charcoal are fully described under the head of BLACK
PIGMENTS.

_Uses, &c._ This crude animal charcoal possesses the valuable property of
taking lime and other saline matter from syrups and other aqueous
solutions, especially organic ones, at the same time that it decolours
them. Its power as a decoloriser may be tested by adding it to a solution
of brown sugar or of molasses, or to water containing 1/1000 part of
indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid. The test should be made in a small
glass tube. By well washing and carefully reburning it, this charcoal may
be used any number of times. As a decoloriser and deodoriser, animal
charcoal is vastly superior to vegetable charcoal.

Dr Stenhouse has invented a charcoal respirator to cover over the mouth
and nostrils of a person going into an infected atmosphere. Charcoal is
also used with excellent effect to prevent the escape of noxious vapours
and offensive effluvia from the ventilating openings of sewers. The
charcoal condenses and oxidises the escaping sewer gas in its pores. Dr
Garrod has proposed animal charcoal as a general antidote in cases of
poisoning.

PREPARED ANIMAL CHARCOAL. Hydrochloric acid, 1 lb.; water, 1 pint; mix,
add bone black, 7 lbs.; make a paste; in 2 or 3 days stir in boiling
water, 1 quart; and the next day wash it with fresh water until the
washings cease to affect litmus paper or a solution of carbonate of
sodium; then collect it in a cloth, and drain, press, and dry it; lastly,
heat it to redness, as before. Used to decolour syrups, &c.; and
occasionally by the distillers and rectifiers.

The most powerful charcoal is prepared by calcining blood, and well
washing the residue, and which is the method of the last ‘London
Pharmacopœia.’ The B. P. directs it to be made by burning bones in a
closed vessel.

_Concluding Remarks._ Animal charcoal, however prepared, if intended to be
used as a deodoriser or decoloriser, should be kept thoroughly excluded
from the air, as by exposure it loses all its valuable properties, and
becomes absolutely inert. Freshly burnt charcoal is therefore to be
employed whenever it can be obtained.

=Charcoal, Wood.= _Syn._ VEG′ETABLE CHARCOAL; CAR′BO LIG′NI, L. The
residue obtained after heating wood without access of air to about 572°
Fahr. It is extremely porous, and retains the structure of the wood from
which it is derived. It consists essentially of carbon and of the fixed or
inorganic matter which exists in wood; but if carbonisation be imperfectly
effected, it may contain a sensible amount of hydrogen.

Charcoal burning is effected in the open air in piles or stacks provided
with a yielding cover, in pits, in closed chambers of brick or stone, and
in iron retorts heated externally like common gas retorts. The latter
method is only practised by the manufacturers of pyroligneous acid and
gunpowder.

CHARCOAL FOR FUEL, &c. The method of pile burning is that which is most
extensively practised. Pieces of wood of equal length are piled
concentrically round a sort of chimney formed by driving 3 stakes in the
ground; those nearest the centre are almost vertical, and the surrounding
pieces have a slight but gradually increasing inclination; a second row,
and in the case of very large piles even a third, may be stacked in a
similar manner one above the other. The pile is covered with turf and
soil, and kindled by filling the space within the 3 central stakes with
easily inflammable wood, which is ignited. The character of the smoke
which issues from vents made in the piles indicates exactly the degrees of
carbonisation in different parts. When the charcoal is drawn from the pile
it is extinguished by cold water, or if that is not at hand, by charcoal
dust or dry soil. In some parts of Sweden the wood is charred in large
rectangular stacks, and in China the method of charring in pits is
practised.

CHARCOAL FOR GUN′POWDER; CYL′INDER CHARCOAL. The charcoal employed in the
manufacture of gunpowder is burnt in close iron cylinders, and has hence
received the name of cylinder charcoal. For this and other nice purposes
it is essential that the last portion of the tar and vinegar should be
suffered to escape, and the reabsorption of the crude vapours prevented by
cutting off the communication between the cylinders and the condensing
apparatus; as without this precaution, on the fire being withdrawn, a
retrograde movement of the product takes place, and the charcoal is much
reduced in quality. Alder and willow are the woods chiefly used for making
charcoal at Waltham Abbey. The Dutch white willow, and after that the
Huntingdon willow, are said to yield the best charcoal for gunpowder. The
charcoal from the cylinders of the pyroligneous acid (wood vinegar) works
is also called cylinder charcoal, and is that chiefly used for chemical
purposes; but it is inferior to that prepared for gunpowder.

CHARCOAL FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES. The box-wood charcoal, employed in
voltaic electricity, is prepared by putting prismatic pieces of box-wood,
about 1 inch long by 1/2 inch thick, into a crucible, which is then filled
with clean, dry sand, covered up, and exposed to a red heat for about an
hour.

_Uses, &c._ These are numerous and varied. Charcoal is extensively
employed as a fuel; and in metallurgy for tempering metals, making steel,
&c.; reduced to powder, it is used to surround vessels and bodies required
to retain their heat for some time; a coating of charcoal, formed on piles
and stakes of wood by charring them, promotes their preservation. Fresh
burnt charcoal, in coarse powder, restores tainted meat and putrid water,
discolours vegetable solutions, deodorises fetid substances, and withdraws
lime from syrups filtered through it. Exposed on trays it is used as a
disinfectant and deodoriser in the wards of hospitals and in dissecting
rooms, also as a material for water filters.

In _medicine_, charcoal is principally used as a deodoriser and
disinfectant, either in the form of powder or made into a poultice. It has
been given internally in dyspepsia, diarrhœa, dysentery, heartburn, agues,
constipation, sickness of pregnancy, and various other diseases, with
advantage. As a prophylactic of cholera and fevers it is invaluable and
superior to all other substances. It forms the best tooth powder known, as
it both whitens the teeth and deodorises the breath.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to a
teaspoonful, or more _ad libitum_. An ointment made with lard and charcoal
has been successfully employed in some skin diseases. In all cases, to be
useful, the charcoal must be both fresh-burnt and fresh-powdered, and
carefully preserved, out of contact with the air, until about to be
administered. Fresh carbonised bread forms an excellent charcoal, both for
a prophylactic and a tooth powder.

Charcoal varies in its qualities according to the substance from which it
is prepared: that of the soft woods (willow or alder) is best for crayons
and gunpowder; that of the hard woods for fuel, and for blowpipe supports.
That made by a low red heat, not exceeding cherry red, and which has a
dull surface, is the most valuable. If the heat be carried much beyond
this point, the charcoal acquires a brilliant surface, and deteriorates in
quality. Chestnut charcoal is preferred by smiths for forging, as it not
only burns slowly, but deadens as soon as the blast ceases. Areca-nut
charcoal is preferred as a dentifrice; but the willow charcoal or box-wood
charcoal is usually substituted for it by shopkeepers.

_Ant., &c._ Poisoning or suffocation, resulting from respiring the fumes
of burning charcoal, has been already alluded to, and the treatment
briefly pointed out. See CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE.

=CHAR′GES (for Cattle).= See VETERINARY MEDICINE.

=CHAR′RING (Surface).= The operation by which the surface of wood is
carbonised, to prevent its decay from exposure to air and moisture. Stakes
and piles are generally thus treated before they are driven into the
ground. Casks are charred on the inside by coopers when they are intended
to hold water. In both these cases the fire is commonly applied directly
to the wood. A new method has, however, been lately employed with apparent
success. This consists in washing the wood with the strongest oil of
vitriol. In this way not only the outer surface, but the surface of all
the cracks and holes, get carbonised, which is not the case when heat is
employed. It succeeds admirably with musty casks and vats.

=CHATHAM LIGHT.= A flash light used for military signals. It is produced
by blowing a mixture of pulverised rosin and magnesium dust through the
flame of a spirit lamp.

=CHEESE.= _Syn._ CA′SEUM, CA′SEUS, L. The curd of milk compressed into a
solid mass. That of commerce is usually salted and dried, and in some
varieties it is also coloured and flavoured.

The process of cheese-making is one which is eminently interesting and
scientific, and which, in every gradation, depends on principles which
chemistry has developed and illustrated. When a vegetable or mineral acid
is added to milk, and heat applied, a coagulum is formed, which, when
separated from the liquid portion, constitutes cheese. Neutral salts,
earthy and metallic salts, sugar, and gum Arabic, as well as some other
substances, also produce the same effect; but that which answers the
purpose best, and which is almost exclusively used by dairy farmers, is
rennet, or the mucous membrane of the last stomach of the calf. Alkalies
dissolve this curd at a boiling heat, and acids again precipitate it. The
solubility of casein in milk is occasioned by the presence of the
phosphates and other salts of the alkalies. In fresh milk these substances
may be readily detected by the property it possesses of restoring the
colour of reddened litmus paper. The addition of an acid neutralises the
alkali, and so precipitates the curd in an insoluble state. The philosophy
of cheese-making is thus expounded by Liebig:——

“The acid indispensable to the coagulation of milk is not added to the
milk in the preparation of cheese, but it is formed in the milk at the
expense of the milk-sugar present. A small quantity of water is left in
contact with a small quantity of a calf’s stomach for a few hours, or for
a night; the water absorbs so minute a portion of the mucous membrane as
to be scarcely ponderable; this is mixed with milk; its state of
transformation is communicated (and this is a most important
circumstance), not to the cheese, but to the milk-sugar, the elements of
which transpose themselves into lactic acid, which neutralises the
alkalies, and thus causes the separation of the cheese. By means of litmus
paper the process may be followed and observed through all its stages; the
alkaline reaction of the milk ceases as soon as the coagulation begins. If
the cheese is not immediately separated from the whey, the formation of
lactic acid continues, the fluid turns acid, and the cheese itself passes
into a state of decomposition.

“When cheese-curd is kept in a cool place a series of transformations
takes place, in consequence of which it assumes entirely new properties;
it gradually becomes semi-transparent, and more or less soft, throughout
the whole mass; it exhibits a feebly acid reaction, and develops the
characteristic caseous odour. Fresh cheese is very sparingly soluble in
water, but after having been left to itself for two or three years it
becomes (especially if all the fat be previously removed) almost
completely soluble in cold water, forming with it a solution which, like
milk, is coagulated by the addition of the acetic or any mineral acid. The
cheese, which whilst fresh is insoluble, returns during the maturation, or
ripening, as it is called, to a state similar to that in which it
originally existed in the milk. In those English, Dutch, and Swiss cheeses
which are nearly inodorous, and in the superior kinds of French cheese,
the caseine of the milk is present in its unaltered state.

“The odour and flavour of the cheese is owing to the decomposition of the
butter; the non-volatile acids, the margaric and oleic acids, and the
volatile butyric acid, capric and caproic acids are liberated in
consequence of the decomposition of glycerin. Butyric acid imparts to
cheese its characteristic caseous odour, and the differences in its
pungency or aromatic flavour depend upon the proportion of free butyric,
capric, and caproic acids present.” In the cheese of certain dairies and
districts, valerianic acid has been detected along with the other acids
just referred to. Messrs Jljenko and Laskowski found this acid in the
cheese of Limbourg, and M. Bolard in that of Roquefort.

“The transition of the insoluble into soluble casein depends upon the
decomposition of the phosphate of lime by the margaric acid of the butter;
margarate of lime is formed, whilst the phosphoric acid combines with the
casein, forming a compound soluble in water.

“The bad smell of inferior kinds of cheese, especially those called meagre
or poor cheeses, is caused by certain fetid products containing sulphur,
and which are formed by the decomposition or putrefaction of the casein.
The alteration which the butter undergoes (that is, in becoming rancid),
or which occurs in the milk-sugar still present, being transmitted to the
casein, changes both the composition of the latter substance and its
nutritive qualities.

“The principal conditions for the preparation of the superior kinds of
cheese (other obvious circumstances being of course duly regarded) are a
careful removal of the whey, which holds the milk-sugar in solution, and a
low temperature during the maturation or ripening of the cheese.”

Cheese differs vastly in quality and flavour, according to the method
employed in its manufacture and the richness of the milk of which it is
made. Much depends upon the quantity of cream it contains, and
consequently, when a superior quality of cheese is desired, cream is
frequently added to the curd. This plan is adopted in the manufacture of
Stilton cheese and others of a like description. The addition of a pound
or two of butter to the curd for a middling size cheese also vastly
improves the quality of the product. To ensure the richness of the milk,
not only should the cows be properly fed, but certain breeds chosen. Those
of Alderney, Cheddar, Cheshire, Gloucestershire, Guernsey, and North
Wiltshire deserve a preference in this respect.

The materials employed in making cheese are milk and rennet. Rennet is
used either fresh or salted and dried; generally in the latter state. The
milk may be of any kind, according to the quality of the cheese required.
Cows’ milk is that generally employed; but occasionally ewes’ milk is
used; and sometimes, though more rarely, that from goats.

In preparing his cheese, the dairy farmer puts the greater portion of the
milk into a large tub, to which he adds the remainder, sufficiently heated
to raise the temperature to that of new milk. The whole is then whisked
together, the rennet or rennet liquor added, and the tub covered over. It
is now allowed to stand until completely “turned,” when the curd is gently
struck down several times with the skimming-dish, after which it is
allowed to subside. The vat covered with cheese-cloth is next placed on a
“horse” or “ladder” over the tub, and filled with curd by means of the
skimmer, care being taken to allow as little as possible of the oily
particles or butter to run back with the whey. The curd is pressed down
with the hands, and more added as it sinks. This process is repeated until
the curd rises to about two inches above the edge. The newly formed
cheese, thus partially separated from the whey, is now placed in a clean
tub, and a proper quantity of salt added, as well as of annotta, when that
colouring is used, after which a board is placed over and under it, and
pressure applied for about 2 or 3 hours. The cheese is next turned out and
surrounded by a fresh cheese-cloth, and then again submitted to pressure
in the cheese press for 8 or 10 hours, after which it is commonly removed
from the press, salted all over, and again pressed for 15 to 20 hours. The
quality of the cheese especially depends on this part of the process, as
if any of the whey is left in the cheese it rapidly becomes bad-flavoured.
Before placing it in the press the last time the common practice is to
pare the edges smooth and sightly. It now only remains to wash the outside
of the cheese in warm whey or water, to wipe it dry, and to colour it with
annotta or reddle, as is usually done.

The storing of the newly-made cheese is the next point that engages the
attention of the maker and wholesale dealer. The same principles which
influence the maturation or ripening of fermented liquors also operate
here. In England, a cool cellar, neither damp nor dry, and which is
uninfluenced by change of weather or season, is commonly regarded as the
best for the purpose. If possible, the temperature should on no account be
permitted to exceed 50° or 52° Fahr. at any portion of the year. An
average of about 45° is preferable when it can be procured. A place
exposed to sudden changes of temperature is as unfit for storing cheese
as it is for storing beer. “The quality of Rochefort cheese, which is
prepared from sheep’s milk, and is very excellent, depends exclusively
upon the places where the cheeses are kept after pressing and during
maturation. Those are cellars, communicating with mountain grottoes and
caverns, which are kept constantly cool, at about 41° to 42° Fahr., by
currents of air from clefts in the mountains. The value of these cellars
as storehouses varies with their property of maintaining an equable and
low temperature. Giron mentions that a certain cellar, the construction of
which had cost only 480_l._ (12,000 francs), was sold for 8600_l._
(215,000 francs), being found to maintain a suitable temperature, a
convincing proof of the importance attached to temperature in the
preparation of these superior cheeses.” (Liebig.)

It will thus be seen that very slight differences in the materials, in the
preparation, or in storing of the cheese, materially influence the quality
and flavour of this article. The richness of the milk——the addition to or
subtraction of cream from the milk——the separation of the curd from the
whey with or without compression——the salting of the curd——the collection
of the curd, either whole or broken, before pressing——the addition of
colouring matter, as annotta or saffron, or of flavouring——the place and
method of storing——and the length of time allowed for maturation, all tend
to alter the taste and odour of the cheese in some or other particular,
and that in a way readily perceptible to the palate of the connoisseur. No
other alimentary substance appears to be so seriously affected by slight
variations in the quality of the materials from which it is made, or by
such apparently trifling differences in the methods of preparing it.

_Var._ The varieties of cheese met with in commerce are very numerous, and
differ greatly from each other in richness, colour, and flavour. These are
commonly distinguished by names indicative of the places in which they
have been manufactured, or of the quality of the materials from which they
have been prepared. Thus, we have Dutch, Gloucester, Stilton,
skimmed-milk, raw-milk, cream, and other cheeses; names which explain
themselves. The following are the principal varieties met with in
Europe:——

CHEESE, BRICKBAT. From its form; made in Wiltshire of new milk and cream.

CHEESE, CHEDDAR. A fine, spongy kind of cheese, the eyes or vesicles of
which contain a rich oil; made up into round, thick cheeses, of
considerable size (150 to 200 lbs.).

CHEESE, CHESHIRE. From new milk, without skimming, the morning’s milk
being mixed with that of the preceding evening, previously warmed, so that
the whole may be brought to the heat of new milk. To this the rennet is
added, in less quantity than is commonly used for other kinds of cheese.
On this point much of the flavour and mildness of the cheese is said to
depend. A piece of dried rennet, of the size of half-a-crown, put into a
pint of water over night, and allowed to stand until the next morning, is
sufficient for 18 or 20 gallons of milk. In large, round, thick cheeses
(100 to 200 lbs. each). They are generally solid, homogeneous, and dry,
and friable rather than viscid.

CHEESE, COTTENHAM. A rich kind of cheese, in flavour and consistence not
unlike Stilton, from which, however, it differs in shape, being flatter
and broader than the latter.

CHEESE, CREAM. From the “strippings” (the last of the milk drawn from the
cow at each milking), from a mixture of milk and cream, or from raw cream
only, according to the quality desired. It is usually made in small
oblong, square, or rounded cakes, a general pressure only (that of a 2 or
4 lb. weight) being applied to press out the whey. After twelve hours it
is placed upon a board or wooden trencher, and turned every day until dry.
It ripens in about three weeks. A little salt is generally added, and
frequently a little powdered lump sugar.

CHEESE, DERBYSHIRE. A small, white, rich variety, very similar to Dunlop
cheese.

CHEESE, DUNLOP. Rich, white, and buttery; in round forms, weighing from 30
lbs. to 60 lbs.

CHEESE, DUTCH. (Holland.) Of a globular form. 5 to 14 lbs. each. Those
from Edam are very highly salted; those from Gouda less so.

CHEESE, GLOUCESTER. Single Glo′ster; from milk deprived of part of its
cream; Double Glo′ster, from milk retaining the whole of the cream. Mild
tasted, semi-buttery consistence, without being friable; in large, round,
flattish forms.

CHEESE, GREEN or SAGE. From milk mixed with the juice or an infusion or
decoction of sage leaves, to which marygold flowers and parsley are
frequently added.

CHEESE, GRUYÈRE. A fine description of cheese made in Switzerland, and
largely consumed on the Continent. It is firm and dry, and exhibits
numerous cells of considerable magnitude. Its flavour is peculiar, and is
not generally liked by English people.

CHEESE, LINCOLN. From new milk and cream; in pieces about 2 inches thick;
soft, and will not keep over 2 or 3 months.

CHEESE, NEUFCHÂTEL. A much-esteemed variety of Swiss cheese; made of
cream, and weighs about 5 or 6 oz.

CHEESE, NORFOLK. Dyed yellow with annotta or saffron; good, but not
superior; in cheeses of 30 lbs. to 50 lbs.

CHEESE, PARMESAN. (Parma, &c.) From the curd of skimmed milk, hardened by
a gentle heat. The rennet is added at about 120°, and an hour afterwards
the curdling milk is set on a slow fire until heated to about 150° Fahr.;
during which the curd separates in small lumps. A few pinches of saffron
are then thrown in. About a fortnight after making the outer crust is cut
off, and the new surface varnished with linseed oil, and one side coloured
red.

CHEESE, ROQUEFORT. From ewes’ milk; the best prepared in France. It
greatly resembles Stilton, but is scarcely of equal richness or quality,
and possesses a peculiar pungency and flavour.

CHEESE, SLIPCOAT or SOFT. A very rich white cheese, somewhat resembling
butter; for present use only.

CHEESE, STILTON. The richest and finest cheese made in England. From raw
milk to which cream taken from other milk is added; in cheeses generally
twice as high as they are broad. Like wine, this cheese is vastly improved
by age, and is therefore seldom eaten before it is 2 years old. A spurious
appearance of age is sometimes given to it by placing it in a warm, damp
cellar, or by surrounding it with masses of fermenting straw or dung.

CHEESE, SUFFOLK. From skimmed milk; in round, flat forms, from 24 lbs. to
30 lbs. each. Very hard and horny.

CHEESE, SWISS. The principal cheeses made in Switzerland are the Gruyère,
the Neufchâtel, and the Schabzieger or green cheese. The latter is
flavoured with melilot.

CHEESE, WESTPHALIAN. In small balls or rolls of about 1 lb. each. It
derives its peculiar flavour from the curd being allowed to become
partially putrid before being pressed. In small balls or rolls of about 1
lb. each.

CHEESE, WILTSHIRE. Resembles poor Cheshire or Glo′ster. The outside is
generally painted with a mixture of reddle or red-ochre or whey.

CHEESE, YORK. From cream: it will not keep.

_Qual., &c._ Cheese has been objected to as an article of diet, but
without sufficient reason, since it is, when of good quality, eminently
nutritious, wholesome, and digestible. Like all other food, cheese digests
more readily when well masticated, and the neglect of this precaution is
one reason why it frequently disagrees with delicate stomachs. It is
rendered more agreeable to many palates by toasting it, but becomes less
digestible by that operation. The basis of cheese is casein or coagulated
curd, a protein substance; it therefore cannot fail to prove nutritious,
provided it is properly digested. Cheese-curd, carefully freed from water
and milk by expression, and the addition of salt, is a mixture of casein
and butter. It contains all the phosphate of lime and part of the
phosphate of soda of the milk. (Liebig.) When taken as a condiment,
especially when rich and old, it powerfully promotes the secretion of the
saliva and gastric juice, and thereby aids the stomach in performing its
proper functions. Rotten cheese is very unwholesome.

We give below the composition of some of the principal varieties of
cheese:——

                               Cheddar.   Double     Skim.
                                        Gloucester.
  Water                          36·64     35·61     43·64
  Casein                         23·38     21·76     45·64
  Fatty matter                   35·44     38·16      5·76
  Mineral matter                  4·54      4·47      4·96
                                ——————    ——————    ——————
                                100·00    100·00    100·00

                                Stilton. Cotherstone.
  Water                          32·18     38·28
  Butter                         37·36     30·89
  Casein                         24·31     23·93
  Milk, sugar, and extractive }   2·22      3·70
  matters                     }
  Mineral matter                  3·93      3·20
                                ——————    ——————
                                100·00    100·00

                               Gruyère.  Ordinary
                                           Dutch.
  Water                         40·00      36·10
  Casein                        31·50      29·40
  Fatty matter                  24·00      27·50
  Salts                          3·00        ·90
  Non-nitrogenous organic }      1·50       6·10
  matter and loss         }
                               ——————     ——————
                               100·00     100·00

_Concluding Remarks._——It is surprising that cheese is not more frequently
made an article of domestic manufacture, especially by housewives resident
in the country. The operations of cheese-making are all exceedingly
simple, and not laborious, and will, in most cases, amply repay the outlay
for the milk. Besides, cheese is not unfrequently coloured with stains and
pigments which are injurious, and even poisonous, the risk of taking which
is not encountered when it is made at home. Several persons have nearly
lost their lives from eating cheese coloured with annotta, for instance.
This substance, though harmless in itself, is frequently adulterated with
red lead, so that the cheesemonger may very innocently introduce a poison,
when he only intends to improve the colour of his goods.

When a whole cheese is cut, and the consumption small, it is generally
found to become unpleasantly dry, and to lose flavour before it is
consumed. This is best prevented by cutting a sufficient quantity for a
few days’ consumption from the cheese, and keeping the remainder in a cool
place, rather damp than dry, spreading a thin film of butter over the
fresh surface, and covering it with a cloth or pan to keep off the dirt.
This removes the objection existing in small families against purchasing a
whole cheese at a time. The common practice of buying small quantities of
cheese should be avoided, as not only a higher price is paid for any given
quality, but there is little likelihood of obtaining exactly the same
flavour twice running. Should cheese become too dry to be agreeable, it
may be used for stewing, or for making grated cheese or Welsh rare-bits.

=Cheese, Ap′ple.= The pomace or ground apples from the cider press.

=Cheese, Dam′son.= _Prep._ From damsons boiled with a little water, the
pulp passed through a sieve, and then boiled with about one fourth the
weight of sugar, until the mixture solidifies on cooling; it is next
poured into small tin moulds previously dusted out with sugar. Cherry
cheese, gooseberry cheese, plum cheese, &c., are prepared in the same way,
using the respective kinds of fruit. They are all very agreeable candies
or confections.

=Cheese, Facti′tious Roque′fort.= _Prep._ (Roulle.) The gluten of wheat is
kneaded with a little salt, and a small portion of a solution of starch,
and made up into cheeses. It is said that this mixture soon acquires the
taste, smell, and unctuosity of cheese, and when kept a certain time is
not to be distinguished from the celebrated Roquefort cheese, of which it
possesses all the peculiar pungency. By slightly varying the process other
kinds of cheese may be imitated.

=Cheese, Legumin.= The Chinese prepare an actual cheese from peas, called
“tao-foo,” which they sell in the streets of Canton. The paste from
steeped ground peas is boiled, which causes the starch to dissolve with
the casein; after straining the liquid, it is coagulated by a solution of
gypsum; this coagulum is worked up like sour milk, salted, and pressed
into moulds.

=Cheese, Toasted.= This much relished article is seldom well prepared. The
following has been recommended as an excellent receipt:——Cut the cheese
into slices of moderate thickness, and put them into a tinned copper
saucepan, with a little butter and cream; simmer very gently until they
are quite dissolved, then remove the saucepan from the fire, allow the
whole to cool a little, add some yolk of egg, well beaten, add spice, make
the compound into a “shape,” and brown it before the fire. See FONDUE.

=CHELSEA PENSIONER.= _Prep._ From gum guaiacum, 1/4 oz.; rhubarb, 1/2 oz.;
cream of tartar, 2 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 4 oz.; nutmegs, 2 in number
(all in powder); honey, 1-1/2 lb., or q. s.; made into an electuary by
beating them together in a mortar.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, night
and morning, in gout and chronic rheumatism. The name is said to have been
given to it from the circumstance of a Chelsea pensioner having cured Lord
Amherst with it.

=CHEL′TENHAM SALTS.= See SALTS.

=CHEM′IQUE= or =CHEM′IC BLUE=. See INDIGO.

=CHEROOT.= A species of cigar imported from Manilla, in the Philippine
Islands, distinguished by extreme simplicity of construction as well as
delicacy of flavour. The cigars now so commonly sold as cheroots in
England are, for the most part, made of inferior tobacco, and are often
much adulterated articles.

=CHER′RIES= are the fruit of different species of the genus _Cerasus_.
They are regarded as wholesome, cooling, nutritive, laxative, and
antiscorbutic. Brandy flavoured with this fruit or its juice is known as
cherry-brandy. Morello cherries preserved in brandy are called brandy
cherries. See BRANDY, FRUIT, &c.

=CHER′RY LAUR′EL.= _Syn._ LAU′REL. The _Cerasus Lauro-Cerasus_, a shrub
common in every garden in England, and often confounded with the true
laurel or Sweet Bay, which does not possess any of its deleterious
properties. Leaves, occasionally used instead of bay leaves in cookery.
The distilled oil and distilled water are both poisonous. See OIL, WATER.

=CHESTNUT.= Both the horse-chestnut and the edible variety have been
employed for the adulteration not only of coffee, but of chicory.

[Illustration: Microscopic view of the chestnut.]

=CHI′CA.= The red colouring matter deposited by a decoction of the leaves
of _Bignonia Chica_ in cooling. Used by the American Indians to stain
their skin. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, oil, fat, and alkaline lyes,
and slightly so in boiling water.

=Chi′ca.= See MAIZE BEER.

=CHIC′ORY.= _Syn._ WILD SUC′CORY; CICHOR′IUM INTY′BUS (Linn.), L. A plant
belonging to the natural order Compositæ. It is indigenous to this and
many other countries of Europe, and is extensively cultivated for the sake
of its roots, which are sliced, roasted, and ground, to form the chicory
of the shops. Nearly 100 millions of pounds are annually consumed in
Europe. Much of the chicory used in Britain is of home growth; but still
more is imported in a raw state from Holland and other parts of the
Continent. A blue dye has been prepared from the leaves of this plant.

The FRESH ROOT OF CHICORY (_ra′dix chico′rii re′cens_) is reputed to be
alterative, attenuant, diuretic, febrifuge, hepatic, resolvent, and tonic;
and in large doses aperient. It is now seldom used in medicine, although
it appears to possess similar qualities and equal activity to those of
dandelion. “An infusion of the root, mixed with syrup, becomes thick;
forming the GOMME SACCHO-CHICORICE of Lacarterie.” (Fee.)

        _Analysis of Chicory_ (the raw root):——

  Moisture                                  77·0
  Gummy matter (like pectin)                 7·5
  Glucose, or grape sugar                    1·1
  Bitter extractive                          4·0
  Fatty matter                               0·6
  Cellulose, inulin, and woody matter        9·0
  Ash                                        0·8
                                           —————
                                           100·0

The ROASTED ROOT is prepared by cutting the full-grown root into slices,
and exposing it to heat in iron cylinders, along with about 1-1/2% or 2%
of lard, in a similar way to that adopted for coffee. When ground to
powder in a mill, it constitutes the CHICORY of the grocers (CHICORY
COFFEE, SUCCORY C.; RADIX CHICO′RII TORREFAC′TA, R. C. T. CONTRI′TA); so
generally employed both as a substitute for coffee and as an adulterant of
that article. The addition of 1 part of good, fresh roasted chicory to 10
or 12 parts of coffee forms a mixture which yields a beverage of a fuller
flavour, and of a deeper colour than that furnished by an equal quantity
of pure or unmixed coffee. In this way a less quantity of coffee may be
used, but it should be remembered that the article substituted for it does
not possess in any degree the peculiar exciting, soothing, and
hunger-staying properties of that valuable product. The use, however, of a
larger proportion of chicory than that just named imparts to the beverage
an insipid flavour, intermediate between that of treacle and liquorice;
whilst the continual use of roasted chicory, or highly chicorised coffee,
seldom fails to weaken the powers of digestion and derange the bowels.
“There can be no doubt that roasted chicory must, when taken largely, have
a tendency to excite diarrhœa.” (Pereira.)

_Pur., &c._ The ground chicory of the shops, like ground coffee, is almost
universally adulterated. Pigments are added to it to colour it, and
various vegetable substances to lessen its value. The following articles
have been reported to have been detected in roasted chicory, or to have
been known to be used to adulterate it:——Venetian red, reddle, and red
clay; roasted acorns, beans, carrots, damaged dog-biscuits, damaged bread,
damaged wheat, horse-chestnuts, mangel wurzel, parsnips, peas, rye, and
sugar; coffee flights (coffee husks), coffina (roasted lupins), Hambro’
powder (roasted peas coloured with reddle), and the marc of coffee;
exhausted bark (from the tan yards), logwood dust, mahogany dust, &c. It
has also been asserted that the scorched livers of bullocks, horses, and
dogs have been applied to the same purpose; but of this there is not
sufficient evidence. The only way to avoid being thus cheated or poisoned
is to buy the chicory whole, and to grind it at home.

[Illustration: Microscopic appearance of chicory root.]

Roasted chicory is highly absorbent of moisture, and should, therefore, be
always kept in close vessels (bottles or canisters), the same as coffee.
If the lumps become tough or soft, or the powder cakes together, it is
unfit for use; but in some cases it may be recovered, by exposing it on a
plate in an oven until it again becomes perfectly dry or brittle.

_Tests._——1. Powdered chicory thrown on water turns it reddish-brown and
rapidly sinks, leaving light impurities either floating or diffused
through the liquid.——2. The cold decoction tested with tincture, or
solution of iodine, gives a brown colour; if it turns purple, blue, or
black, it indicates the presence of roasted peas, beans, rye, or some
other like substance, containing starch.——3. Persulphate or perchloride
of iron, added in the same way, should not materially affect the liquid;
if it turns it bluish or blackish, it indicates the presence of roasted
acorns, oak-bark tan, or some other substance containing tannin.——4. Water
acidulated with vinegar, digested on the powder, should not be blackened,
or even materially darkened, by tincture of galls or a solution of red
prussiate of potash; the contrary shows the presence of ferruginous
colouring matter.——5. The dry powder, when incinerated, should not leave
more than 4-1/2 to 5% of ash, which should be of a greyish or fawn colour;
the contrary indicates the presence of reddle, red clay, ochre, or the
like.——6. To the above may be added attention to the odour, colour, and
appearance, both to the naked eye and under the microscope; by the latter,
adulteration may be easily detected. See COFFEE.

=CHIL′BLAIN.= _Syn._ PER′NIO, L. An inflammatory swelling, of a purple or
lead colour, produced by the action of cold. Chilblains (PERNIO′NES)
exclusively attack the extremities of the body, and are generally confined
to the fingers, toes, and heels. The common symptoms are itching and
irritation, more or less intense, often accompanied with shooting pains,
and tenderness, and tumefaction of the parts. Children, especially those
of a scrofulous habit, and elderly persons, are generally the most liable
to chilblains. The common cause of chilblains is holding the hands or feet
to the fire after exposure to cold. The sudden change of temperature
partially destroys the vitality of the minute surfacial vessels, and thus
prevents the proper flow of blood through the part. The best preventives
of chilblains are woollen socks or stockings, good waterproof shoes,
woollen gloves, exercise, and friction. These act by promoting the
circulation of the blood in the extremities, and protecting them from
vicissitudes of temperature. When chilblains have once formed, the best
treatment is friction with stimulants, as spirits of wine and camphor, oil
of turpentine, opodeldoc, dilute spirits, camphorated oil, hartshorn and
oil, &c. Linnæus recommends bathing the part with dilute muriatic acid,
just strong enough to faintly prick the skin. When the inflamed parts have
ulcerated, they are commonly called KIBES. In this state they should be
dressed with a little resin cerate or elemi ointment. If fungous
granulations appear, they must be removed by touching them with nitrate of
silver or blue vitriol. See CHAPS, &c.

REMEDIES FOR CHILBLAINS.——The following have been strongly recommended by
different parties, and may all prove useful in their turns, as
circumstances and convenience may suggest:——

1. Sulphate of copper, 1 oz.; rosemary water, 1 pint; dissolve.

2. Sal-ammoniac, 1 oz.; vinegar, 1/2 pint.

3. Sal-ammoniac, 1 oz.; rum, 1/2 pint; camphor, 1 dr. The affected part is
wetted with the above night and morning, and when dry is touched with a
little simple ointment, cold cream, or pomatum.

4. Soap liniment, 2 oz.; tincture of cantharides, 1 oz.; oil of cajeput, 2
dr.

5. Oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; camphor, 3 dr.; oil of cajeput, 1 dr. The
application of the last two is accompanied by gentle friction.

6. (Dr GRAVES’ PREVENTIVE.) Sulphate of copper, 20 gr.; water, 1 oz. As
the first three.

7. (LEJEUNE’S BALSAM.) See CHILBLAIN BALSAM.

8. (LINNÆUS’ REMEDY.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 oz.; water, 11 oz. As No. 3.

9. (MORTON’S LINIMENT.) Calomel and camphor, of each 1 dr.; spermaceti
ointment, 4 dr.; oil of turpentine and cocoa-nut oil, of each 2 dr. As No.
5.

10. (WAHLER’S OINTMENT.) Black oxide of iron, bole, and oil of turpentine,
of each 1 dr.; resin cerate, 1 oz. For broken chilblains. We have found a
mixture of equal parts of calamine cerate and resin cerate answer quite as
well. See CERATE, OINTMENT.

11. (RUSSIAN REMEDY.) The rind of perfectly ripe cucumbers dried, with the
soft parts attached. For use they are placed with the inner side,
previously soaked in warm water, over the soft parts. (Med. Zeitung.)

12. (RHEIN.) Dissolve 1 _oz._ of tannin in a pint of water, and 74 grains
of iodine in 1-3/4 _oz._ of spirit of wine; the solutions are then mixed,
and enough water added to make the whole up to 2-1/2 pints. In applying
it, which is best done at bedtime, the mixture is gently warmed over a
slow fire; the affected part is dipped into it while still cold, and
retained in it till the liquid, on being stirred, feels uncomfortably hot.
The vessel is then withdrawn from the fire, and the affected part dried
over it. The vessel must be of earthenware or porcelain, and care must be
taken not to use too much iodine, especially when abrasions are present.

13. (L′UNION MÉDICALE.) Oxide of zinc, 2 parts; tannic acid, 1 part;
glycerin, 10 parts; balsam of Peru, 8 parts; camphor, 4 parts.

14. (SWEDIAUR’S PASTE.) Bitter almonds, 8 oz.; honey, 6 oz.; powdered
camphor and flour of mustard, of each 1/2 oz.; burnt alum and olibanum, of
each 1/2 oz.; yolks of 3 eggs; beat to a paste. To be applied night and
morning.

15. (VANCE’S CREAM.) Ointment of nitrate of mercury, 1 oz.; camphor, 1
dr.; oil of turpentine, 2 dr.; oil of olives, 4 dr.; mix well together. To
be applied by gentle friction 2 or 3 times daily.

_Obs._ All the preceding preparations are intended for chilblains before
they break. The liniments of ammonia, camphor, opium, soap, and
turpentine, as well as the compound camphor liniment of the British
Pharmacopœia, are also excellent preparations for the same purposes.

=CHIL′DREN (Care of).= See INFANCY.

=Children (Diseases of).= See the respective heads, and DISEASES.

=CHIL′LIES.= See CAPSICUM, PEPPERS.

=CHIM′NEYS= were not introduced into England until the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, and for a considerable period the principles of their
construction were ill-understood. When the air inside and outside a
chimney is at the same temperature, an equilibrium exists; there is no
draught in the chimney, because the downward tendency of that within is
counteracted by the upward pressure of that without. Let a fire be kindled
in the grate; hot air is evolved, the chimney is heated, the air it
contains suffers expansion, and a portion is expelled. The chimney now
contains a smaller weight of air than it did before; the external and
internal columns no longer equibalance each other, the warmer and lighter
air is forced upwards from below, and its place is occupied by cold, and
consequently heavier air. If the fire continues to burn, and the chimney
retains its temperature, the second portion of air is disposed of like the
first, and the ascending current continues, so long as the sides of the
chimney are hotter than the surrounding air. Should the reverse happen to
be the case, as sometimes occurs from sudden atmospheric changes, the
column of air within the chimney rapidly contracts in volume, the
deficiency is filled up from without, the column of air becomes heavier
than one of a corresponding height on the outside of it, or in the
apartment, and, obeying the common laws of gravitation, it falls out of
the throat of the chimney or fire-place just as a heavy body sinks in
water, and has its place occupied by air from above. In this way a
descending current, of more or less intensity and duration, is
established, and, if there is a fire in the grate, the chimney “smokes,”
or, if the grate is empty, perhaps the smoke from neighbouring chimneys
finds its way into our apartments. By the judicious arrangement of the
fire-place, and the throat and flue of a chimney, an upward current may be
constantly ensured so long as there is a fire in the grate, or the air of
the apartment is warmer than the external atmosphere.

Count Rumford was the first who scientifically investigated the
construction of chimneys. He showed that more heat is obtained from the
fire by reflection when the coverings are placed in an oblique position.
He also directed that the fire itself should be kept as near to the hearth
as possible, and that the throat of the chimney should be constructed much
narrower than was then the practice, in order to prevent the escape of so
much heated air as happened with wide throats. By contracting the open
part of the fire-place immediately over the fire, as by lessening the
width of the hobs, or by bringing the throat of the chimney closer to the
fire, and by contracting the throat of the chimney itself, within certain
limits, any desired amount of draught may be obtained. When the space
above the fuel is too small, the throat too near the burning fuel, or the
throat itself too contracted, the draught of a common chimney is often too
strong, and much fuel and heat is wasted. When the reverse is the case,
the draught is commonly too languid, the fire draws badly, a portion of
the smoke escapes into the room, and all the usual annoyances of a smoky
chimney are suffered. By a proper attention to these conditions a common
fire-place may be adapted for the combustion of bituminous or easy burning
coal, or of anthracite, and varieties of coal that require a considerable
draught. It may even be converted into a wind furnace; whilst the
inconvenience of smoky chimneys may be always avoided, and, when existing,
easily cured. This is presuming, however, that a sufficient supply of air
exists in front of the fire-place (_i.e._ in the apartment), not only for
the combustion of the fuel, but also for the upward current of the
chimney. Many chimneys smoke simply from the apartment being so
ill-ventilated that the supply here alluded to is not provided. It may be
further stated, as a rule, that the greater the length of a chimney the
stronger will be the draught. Hence, the chimneys of the upper rooms of a
house often smoke, whilst the fires in the rooms beneath them burn
pleasantly and vigorously. Such cases are commonly relieved by a
chimney-pot or cowl, of which numerous varieties are now before the
public. The more crooked or tortuous the course of a chimney the less
likely is it to be affected by eddies and gusts of wind from neighbouring
buildings or hills. See FIRE, GRATE, SMOKE PREVENTION, STOVE.

=CHI′NA.= In the purchase of china, glass, and earthenware, care should be
taken to select those patterns which in case of breakage can be the most
readily matched. Peculiar or rare patterns should be avoided, for if any
such be broken, it will generally be found very difficult and expensive,
and frequently impossible, to replace them.

China, glass, and earthenware, when very dirty, are best cleaned with
finely powdered fuller’s earth and warm water, followed by rinsing in
clean water. A little clean soft soap may be added to the water instead of
fuller’s earth. See PACKING, PORCELAIN.

=CHIN′OIDINE.= See QUINOIDINE.

=CHINOLINE BLUE.= See CYANINE.

=CHINTZ (to Wash).= Boil 2 lbs. of rice in two gallons of water till soft;
and pour the mixture into a tub; let it stand until it attains a warmth
generally used for coloured linens; then put the chintz in it, and wash it
with the rice instead of soap, until all the dirt has disappeared. Next
boil another 2 lb. of rice, as above, in another two gallons of water, but
strain the rice from the water, and mix it in warm water. Wash the chintz
in this till quite clean, and afterwards rinse it in the water the rice
was boiled in. This will answer the same end as starch, as no wet will
affect it, as it will be stiff while it is worn. If a gown, it must be
taken to pieces; and when dried, it must be hung as smooth as possible,
after which it must be dry-rubbed with a smooth stone, but no iron must be
used.

=CHIRETTA.= CHIRATA. The entire plant (_Ophelia chirata_) is employed in
medicine. Northern India. The plant is pulled up by the root when the
flowers begin to decay, and the capsules are formed. The dried plant,
sometimes with, but more commonly without, the root, is the form in which
the chiretta is generally met with in commerce. The whole plant is
intensely bitter, but is without odour. In its physiological action it
bears a great resemblance to gentian. Instead of a constipating, it
appears to possess a slightly relaxing effect. It is an excellent
stomachic and carminative, and is said to diminish the tendency to
acidity, and to be of great service in the dyspepsia accompanying gout. No
vegetable alkaloid has been obtained from it. If given in powder, the dose
of chiretta is twenty grains. It is, however, more generally given in the
form of an infusion or tincture (which _see_).

=CHI′TIN.= This name has been given to the hard, insoluble matter forming
the shells and elytra of insects. It is obtained by boiling the elytra of
the cockchafer with water, alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and alkalies.

=CHIT′TICK’S REMEDY.= Dr Chittick’s remedy for stone consisted of a fixed
alkali, administered in veal broth. (Paris.)

=CHLORAL.= C_{2}HCl_{3}O. A peculiar liquid first obtained by Liebig, by
the action of chlorine on alcohol. The name was intended to express its
origin from chlorine and alcohol.

_Prep._ (Liebig.) Anhydrous alcohol is placed in a tubulated retort, and
dry chlorine gas passed through it, at first in the cold, but afterwards
with the application of a gentle heat, until the chlorine passes unchanged
through the liquor on raising it to the boiling temperature; on cooling,
the whole forms a crystalline mass of what was at one time thought to be
chloral hydrate, but which subsequent researches have shown to be chloral
alcoholate; this is melted by a gentle heat, and agitated with three times
its volume of oil of vitriol; on increasing the heat a little, an oily
stratum of impure chloral rises to the surface. It is purified by boiling
it for some time (to drive off free hydrochloric acid and alcohol), next
distilling it with an equal volume of oil of vitriol; and lastly,
rectifying it from some powdered quick-lime, the process being stopped as
soon as the surface of the lime becomes dry.

_Prop., &c._ Chloral is an oily liquid, possessing an ethereal smell; it
is soluble in alcohol, ether, and water; with a small quantity of the
latter it rapidly changes into a semi-solid crystalline mass (chloral
hydrate), which is soluble in a larger quantity of water; boils at 201°;
sp. gr. 1·502. It is decomposed by the caustic earths and alkalies. By age
it is converted into a white, solid, translucent substance (insoluble
chloral), which is reconverted by heat and by sulphuric acid into ordinary
chloral.

_Obs._ In operating as above the chlorine is most conveniently introduced
by a tube inserted into the tubulature of the retort, and a long tube,
bent upwards, should be connected with the beak to convey away the
hydrochloric acid gas extricated, and to allow the volatilised alcohol and
chloral to condense, and flow back into the retort.

=Chloral, Camphorated.= Hydrate of chloral and camphor, equal parts. Rub
them together in a warm mortar until they liquefy. It forms clear mixtures
with oil of turpentine and chloroform, but not with solution of ammonia.
It is a counter-irritant, and applied externally it has been found to give
relief in rheumatic pains and neuralgia. It should be painted on the
affected part with a camel’s-hair brush.

=Chloral, Hydrate.= C_{2}HCl_{3}O. Aq. _Syn._ HYDRATE OF CHLORAL. _Prep._
“Pass dry chlorine gas, for several days, through absolute alcohol, sp.
gr. 0·795, until it becomes a thick viscid liquid of sp. gr. 1·57. At the
beginning of the operation the alcohol is well cooled to prevent
inflammation and explosion, but towards the end of the operation the
alcohol is heated nearly to the boiling point. The resulting liquid, which
after a day or two solidifies to a mass of crude chloral hydrate, is
agitated with four times its bulk of concentrated sulphuric acid, and the
anhydrous chloral which floats on the surface is separated and purified by
fractional distillation. The purified anhydrous chloral is placed in a
still, mixed with 11 per cent. of water, and distilled over chalk to
remove any hydrochloric acid that may be present; the resulting solid
distillate is then fused and poured out into shallow vessels to cast into
cakes.” (Squire.) The purest chloral hydrate is said to be that which has
been crystallised two or three times out of pure bisulphide of
carbon.——_Prop._ White opaque solid, having a pungent odour resembling
that of a ripe melon. Soluble in water, glycerin, and alcohol. Gradually
volatilises in the air, and may be distilled without decomposition. From
100 gr. dissolved in 1/2 fl. oz. of water, well shaken with 1 fl. oz. of
solution of potash (B. P.), and allowed to stand for several hours, at
least 46 grain-measures of chloroform should separate.

Chloral hydrate may be obtained in crystals by mixing the cake with about
half its bulk of chloroform, and putting aside in a cool place. When the
crystallisation is complete (which is generally in about 8 or 10 days) the
crystals are freed from the mother liquor by a centrifugal machine, and
afterwards dried at a gentle heat. The mother liquor may be utilised for
future crystallisations.

_Uses._ An excellent sedative, antispasmodic, hypnotic, anodyne. It has
done good service in hypochondriacal and other nervous affections, as well
as in the insomnia of the insane, and of dipsomaniacs; also in asthma,
hooping-cough, and scarlet fever. It has also the reputation of being an
efficient preventive of sea-sickness, especially on short voyages, such as
crossing the channel, which can be accomplished during the sleep
occasioned by the agent.——_Dose_, from 10 to 60 gr.

It was introduced into medical practice by Dr Liebreich, of Berlin.
Immense quantities are imported into this country from Germany.

=CHLORALUM.= An impure aqueous solution of chloride of aluminum, sp. gr.
1·15, 1 fl. oz. of the liquid contains 75 grains of anhydrous chloride.
Introduced by Professor Gamgee as an antiseptic and disinfectant, for
which purposes it is recommended to dilute the article as sold with four
times its bulk of water.

=CHLO′′RATE.= _Syn._ HYPEROXYMU′′RIATE†, CHLO′′RAS, L. A compound in which
the hydrogen of chloric acid, HClO_{3}, is replaced by a metal or other
basic radical, _e.g._ KClO_{3}, chlorate of potassium. Chlorates may be
prepared by dissolving the hydrate or oxide in chloric acid, and
crystallising. The alkaline chlorates, however, are made by passing
chlorine into solutions of the hydrate or carbonate of potassium or
sodium, boiling the resulting liquid, and separating the chlorate from the
chloride, which is also formed by crystallisation. They are very similar
to the nitrates, both in their general properties and composition. They
are all decomposed at a red heat, metallic chlorides being formed and
oxygen gas given off. Like the nitrates, they deflagrate with inflammable
substances, but with greater facility and violence. A mixture of this kind
will detonate with a slight blow or friction. All the chlorates are
soluble in water.

_Char., Tests, &c._ The chlorates are known by their deflagrating when
placed on red-hot charcoal. By evolving a yellow gas when treated with
concentrated sulphuric acid, in the cold, which gas also communicates to
the liquid a red or yellow tinge. By evolving oxygen gas when heated alone
in a test-tube. This test is not characteristic, unless carried a stage
further, by dissolving the residual chloride out of the tube, and adding
to the filtered solution a few drops of nitrate of silver; then the
formation of a white precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid, will show that
the salt treated was a chlorate, and not a nitrate. Pure chlorates give no
precipitate with nitrate of silver.

=CHLORHY′DRIC ACID.= See HYDROCHLORIC ACID.

=CHLO′′RIC ACID.= HClO_{3}. _Syn._ HYPEROXYMURIAT′IC ACID; ACIDUM
CHLO′′RICUM, L. An acid discovered by Chenevix, but first obtained in a
separate form by Gay-Lussac.

=CHLO′′RIDE= (-ĭd). _Syn._ CHLO′′RURET†; CHLORI′DUM, L. A chemical
compound of chlorine with a metal or other basic radical, _e.g._ NaCl,
chloride of sodium; C_{2}H_{5}Cl, chloride of ethyl.

_Prep._ The majority of the metallic chlorides may be made by simply
dissolving the metal or its carbonate, oxide, or hydrate, in hydrochloric
acid (previously diluted with about twice its weight of water), and
evaporating and crystallising the solution in the usual manner. Zinc,
cadmium, iron, nickel, cobalt, and tin, dissolve readily in hydrochloric
acid; copper only in strong boiling acid; silver, mercury, and gold, not
at all. The insoluble chlorides, as those of silver and mercury, may be
readily prepared by precipitating any of their corresponding soluble salts
with hydrochloric acid, or a soluble chloride, such as common salt.
Anhydrous chlorides are generally prepared by the direct action of
chlorine on the bases.

_Char., Tests, &c._ Most of the metallic chlorides are soluble in water.
Many fuse when heated, and volatilise unchanged, but others are completely
or partially decomposed at a red heat. All, with the exception of those of
the alkali and earth metals, are decomposed at a red heat in a current of
hydrogen. They are recognised by the following reactions:——1. Heated with
a little peroxide of manganese and sulphuric acid, chlorine is evolved,
and easily detected by its colour, smell, and bleaching properties:——2.
The soluble chlorides may be readily detected by their solutions, slightly
acidulated with nitric acid, giving with a solution of nitrate of silver a
white, curdy precipitate (chloride of silver), insoluble in nitric acid,
freely soluble in liquor of ammonia, and blackened by the light:——3. The
insoluble chlorides may be tested by digesting them in a little liquor of
potassa, when a solution of chloride of potassium will be formed, which
may be treated as just directed (2); or the chloride may be dissolved in
nitric acid, and tested with nitrate of silver as before.

=CHLORIM′ETRY.= See CHLOROMETRY.

=CHLORINA′TED LIME.= See LIME.

=CHLORINA′TED SO′DA.= See SODIUM.

=CHLO′′RINE.= _Syn._ CHLORIN′IUM, L.; CHLORE, Fr.; CHLOR, Ger. An
elementary substance discovered by Scheele in 1774, and at first supposed
to be a compound body. In 1809 MM. Gay-Lussac and Thénard suggested the
probability of it being a simple substance; but it was reserved for Sir H.
Davy, shortly afterwards, to demonstrate the truth of the suggestion of
these foreign chemists.

_Nat. Hist._ It exists in nature chiefly in the form of chloride of
sodium, which constitutes rock salt when deposited in inland beds, sea
salt when dissolved in masses of water. The sea also contains chlorides of
potassium, calcium, and magnesium. It is a constituent of several
well-known minerals. It has been met with in the air of volcanic
districts, combined with hydrogen, as hydrochloric acid.

_Prep._ Strong hydrochloric acid is poured on half of its weight of
finely-powdered peroxide of manganese, previously placed in a glass flask
or retort; chlorine gas is immediately evolved, even in the cold, but much
more rapidly on the application of a gentle heat, and is collected in
clean, dry bottles by displacement. The tube conducting the gas is so
arranged as to reach to the bottom of the bottle, and the chlorine, being
heavier than the air, displaces the latter without mixing with it. The
bottle is known to be full by the gas, easily perceived by its green
colour, overflowing the top of the vessel. The bottle is then closed up
with an accurately fitting stopper, previously greased, and an empty one
put in its place, which is subsequently treated in like manner. To free
the gas entirely from hydrochloric acid it is passed through a wash bottle
containing a small quantity of water; and to render it quite dry it is
passed over fused chloride of calcium. When the presence of moisture is no
object chlorine may be collected over warm water, or, what is better, a
saturated solution of common salt, in the pneumatic trough. The mercurial
trough cannot be employed, as the chlorine rapidly acts upon the metal,
and becomes absorbed.

_Commercial._——From oil of vitriol and water, of each 7 parts, cautiously
mixed, and allowed to cool; chloride of sodium (common salt), 4 parts,
mixed intimately with peroxide of manganese, 3 parts. The dilute acid is
placed in a retort or other generating vessel, and the powder added. The
gas comes off slowly at first, but the application of a gentle heat causes
it to rush forth in large quantities. Of late years, owing to the general
demand for bleaching agents, numerous new methods and suggestions for
obtaining chlorine have been patented, of which the following are the most
important.

1. Elliott. By this method the reconversion of the chloride of manganese
to peroxide was attempted as follows:——The manganese residues left in the
still are first heated to dryness. They are then roasted in a current of
steam, the result being the formation of hydrochloric acid (which is
condensed), and a residue consisting of a mixture of protoxide and
peroxide of manganese.

2. Gatty. In this process the manganese residues, after evaporation to a
suitable consistence, are mixed with nitrate of soda, and the nitrate of
manganese and chloride of sodium formed, when dried, are strongly heated
in an iron retort, the fumes of nitric acid which come off being employed
in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The residue in the retort,
consisting of peroxide of manganese, being lixiviated, yields the peroxide
in a pure state:

  Mn(NO_{3})_{2} + 2(NaCl) + O_{2} = MnO_{2} + 2NaCl + 2(NO_{3}).

3. Hoffman. This process consisted in the regeneration of the manganese by
means of soda waste. In this process the chloride of manganese is, by the
addition of the yellow ley obtained from the lixiviation of soda waste,
converted into sulphide of manganese. The precipitate so obtained consists
of

  Sulphide of manganese   55·00
  Sulphur                 40·00
  Protoxide of manganese   5
                         ——————
                         100·00

This is dried and then calcined, the sulphurous acid evolved being
conducted into the sulphuric acid chamber.

The residue, which has the following composition——

  Sulphate of manganese   44·50
  Peroxide of manganese   18·90
  Protoxide of manganese  36·60
                         ——————
                         100·00

——is next mixed with nitrate of soda and heated to 300° C., yielding
sulphate of soda and nitrate of manganese, the latter, however, being at
once decomposed into peroxide of manganese, and nitrogen peroxide, thus:——

_a._ MnSO_{4} + 2NaNO_{3} = Mn(NO_{3})_{2} + Na_{2}SO_{4}.

_b._ Mn(NO_{3})_{2} = MnO_{2} + 2NO_{2}.

After the mass has cooled, the sulphate of soda is washed out, the residue
yielding, according to the inventor, a material equal to native peroxide
of manganese.

4. Schlösing. Manganese is acted upon with a mixture of hydrochloric and
nitric acids, the degree of concentration of the acids being so regulated
by the addition of water that the mixture yields only chlorine, whilst
protonitrate of manganese is formed; this salt being calcined yields
peroxide of manganese and nitric acid. The nitric acid aids the oxygen of
the air in decomposing the hydrochloric acid.

The following equation will explain the successive stages of the
reaction:——

_a._ 2HCl + 2HNO_{3} + MnO_{2} = Cl_{2} + Mn(NO_{3}) + 2H_{2}O.

_b._ Mn(NO_{3})_{2} = MnO_{2} + 2NO_{2}.

_c._ 2NO_{2} + H_{2}O + O = 2HNO_{3}.

5. Vogel. By decomposing chloride of copper by heat. The chloride in the
crystalline state is mixed with half its weight of sand and heated in
earthenware retorts to 200° to 300° C., yielding chlorine gas, while the
remaining protochloride of copper is reconverted into perchloride by the
action of hydrochloric acid.

According to Laurens the reaction is as follows:——

  _a._ 2CuCl_{2} = Cl_{2} + 2Cu_{2}2Cl_{2}.
  _b._ Cu_{2}Cl_{2} + 2HCl + O = H_{2}O + 2CuCl_{2}.

6. MacDougal, Rawson, and Shanks. This is effected by decomposing chromate
of lime by means of hydrochloric acid, the result being the formation of
chloride of chromium, chloride of calcium, and the evolution of free
chlorine; thus

2CaCrO_{4} + 16 HCl = Cr_{2}Cl_{6} + 2CaCl_{2} + 8H_{2}O + Cl_{6}

158 parts of chromic acid yield 106 parts of chlorine. The chloride of
chromium is again precipitated with carbonate of lime, and by ignition
converted into chromate of lime. Only three eighths of the chlorine
contained in the hydrochloric acid is given up, whilst manganese yields
one half.

7. Hargreaves proposes to evaporate a solution of protochloride of iron to
dryness, and then to heat the dried substance in a current of air, at a
temperature of about the melting point of zinc, by which means perchloride
of iron and free chlorine would be obtained. Thielbierge’s suggestion
consists in passing air over protochloride of iron, and so giving rise to
peroxide of iron and chlorine. This, like Hargreaves’ proposition,
possesses the disadvantage of furnishing the chlorine very largely diluted
with air and nitrogen.

8. Jessie de Mothney. This chemist has proposed a continuous process which
is as follows:——Peroxide of manganese either alone or mixed with lime is
put into a retort, which, when heated to redness, has a current of
hydrochloric acid gas passed into it. A disengagement of chlorine and
steam takes place, and there remains in the retort a mixture of
undecomposed peroxide of manganese with chlorides of manganese and
calcium. The retort containing the undecomposed peroxide and chlorides
being still kept at a red-heat, air or oxygen is passed over them, the
result being that the manganic chloride is decomposed at once.

The chlorine liberated by this last operation is conveyed into vats
containing a mixture of lime and manganous oxide, which substances have
been previously formed by the decomposition of the manganous chloride by
lime, the soluble chloride of calcium having been run off. Sesquioxide of
manganese and hypochlorite of calcium are formed in the vats, and these
two, reacting on each other, give rise to peroxide of manganese and
chloride of calcium. With fresh hydrochloric acid this latter product
yields more chlorine for use in the chambers. Magnesia may be substituted
for lime.

9. Dunlop. This process, which may be regarded as the first practical
method for utilising the whole of the exhausted manganese residues, and
rendering them capable of reapplication in the production of chlorine, was
devised by Mr Dunlop in 1855, since which time it has been in use in the
alkali works of the Messrs Tennant, at St. Rollox, Glasgow. The operation
consists in precipitating the chloride of manganese in the still liquor by
carbonate of calcium; the resulting manganese carbonate being decomposed
by heat. The liquors are previously mixed with a little milk of lime,
which frees them from ferric oxide, alumina, and silica.

Being allowed to stand until these and all other insoluble matters are
precipitated, the clear solution containing the chloride of manganese is
mixed with finely divided chalk, when the following reaction ensues:——

MnCl_{2} + CaCO_{3} = MnCO_{3} + CaCl_{2}.

The resulting milky liquid is then run into large iron boilers, through
each of which passes horizontally an iron shaft furnished with a number of
projecting arms. This shaft having been put into revolution so as to keep
the contents of the boilers agitated, steam is admitted into them under a
pressure of from two to four atmospheres, and by the combined effects of
heat and pressure the decomposition of the manganese chloride by the
calcium carbonate is accomplished in about four hours. The manganese
carbonate is then allowed to subside, the calcium chloride solution is
drawn off, the precipitate carefully washed, and thrown up in heaps on an
inclined surface to drain. When partially dried the carbonate of manganese
is placed in small low wagons, made of sheet-iron, supported on rollers,
and slowly drawn through a furnace by means of a chain. The furnace holds
forty-eight of these little wagons. The furnace is 50 feet long, 12 feet
wide, and 10 feet high. “A fire-brick flue runs down the centre of the
bottom of the furnace, and is connected at the far end with two return
metal pipes, which lie on each side of the flue. A uniform heat at about
660° F. is maintained in the furnace, in which four lines of rails are
laid for the small wagons to run along. The half-dried substance loses all
its moisture and part of its carbonic acid as the wagons pass along the
first line of rails, and as they return down the second line a further
escape of carbonic acid ensues, and eventually the expulsion of all the
acid, and the peroxidation of the manganese is completed during the
passage of the wagons on the third and fourth lines.” The operation lasts
about forty-eight hours, the substance gradually changing in colour from
white to brown, and lastly to black.

The ends of the furnace are closed by loose hanging doors, so as to ensure
the entrance of a sufficient supply of air. The fire-place is situated
below the floor of the furnace, and requires very careful watching. The
resulting product is a mixture of oxides of manganese, and contains about
72 per cent. of peroxide of manganese.

9_a._ A. Dunlop. Another process designed by Mr Dunlop, and also in use at
Messrs Tennant’s, is as follows:——Nitrate of sodium (Chilian nitre) and
chloride of sodium are decomposed by being heated in cast-iron cylinders
with sulphuric acid. The gaseous products are made to pass through leaden
Woulff’s bottles containing sulphuric acid, which absorbs the nitric
peroxide formed, and allows the passage of the chlorine into the chambers.
The reaction may be represented by the following equation:——

NaCl + NaNO_{3} + H_{2}SO_{4} = Cl + NO_{2} + Na_{2}SO_{4} + H_{2}O.

The sulphuric acid charged with nitric peroxide is used in the manufacture
of chamber acid.

10. Weldon. _a._ The process by which the greater part of the chlorine
employed in the manufacture of bleaching compounds is now obtained and
which has hitherto proved the most practical is that of Mr Walter Weldon.
We have the authority of Mr Kingzett, in his work on ‘The Alkali Trade,’
for the statement, that out of 90,000 tons of bleaching powder made in
Great Britain in 1874, 50,000 were procured by Weldon’s method; and
turning to the Continent we find the process largely adopted in Germany,
France, and Belgium. The utilisation and regeneration of the residual
product left in the still after the evolution of the chlorine which it
will be presently seen is accomplished by the above process, is not the
only advantage accruing from it, since it has also been the means of
removing an extensive source of contamination of many of our streams and
rivers, into which the then useless chloride of manganese was thrown
previous to Mr Weldon’s invention. It is true that the only waste product
formed in the course of the operations, viz., chloride of calcium, is got
rid of by being run into the nearest waters, but it is stated by the
Rivers Pollution Commission, beyond making these harder, no other
objectionable effect is caused by it.

Mr Weldon’s process is based upon the fact, that if protoxide of manganese
be suspended in a solution of chloride of calcium, and an excess of lime
be added, the protoxide will become readily converted into peroxide if air
be forced into the liquor. It had long been known that it was possible to
convert into a peroxide the protoxide of manganese obtained by treating
the residual still liquors with an equivalent of lime, but all attempts to
reduce this knowledge to practical account had proved unsuccessful until
Mr Weldon attempted it.

Mr Weldon made the important discovery, that whilst protoxide of manganese
is by itself, when treated in the wet way with air, only capable of being
converted into peroxide, at the greatest, to the extent of one half; the
addition to the protoxide so treated of a certain quantity of lime
converted the whole of it into peroxide in less than a twentieth the time
required to peroxidise half the protoxide if lime were absent. It will be
seen that it is the employment of an _excess_ of lime which constitutes
the success of Mr Weldon’s process, which is as follows:——

The residual liquors remaining in the still after the chlorine has been
evolved by the action of hydrochloric acid on peroxide of manganese, and
in which chloride of manganese is by far the predominating constituent,
are run into a receptacle termed the _neutralising well_, which is usually
six feet in depth by twenty in diameter. In this well the free
hydrochloric acid of the still-liquor is neutralised by the addition of
limestone or chalk, which at the same time serves to decompose the soluble
ferric and aluminic chlorides present in the liquid, and to precipitate
them as insoluble oxides. During this process the contents of the well are
kept in a state of brisk agitation by means of a suitable stirrer. After
this treatment the now neutral liquor consists of chlorides of manganese
and calcium in solution, of a small quantity of suspended ferric and
aluminic oxides and chalk. It additionally contains also in suspension a
by no means small quantity of sulphate of lime, derived from the sulphuric
acid always present in varying amount in the commercial hydrochloric acid
used.

From the neutralising well the liquor is pumped to a height of some forty
feet into tanks, called the _chloride of manganese settlers_, in which
after from two to four hours it deposits the solid matters suspended in
it, the supernatant clear liquor assuming a pale rose-coloured appearance.

The next operation is to draw off by means of syphons, which can be
lowered or raised in the settlers to any desired level, this clear liquid,
containing the chlorides of manganese and calcium, into a vessel called
the _oxidizer_; this latter being an iron cylinder, of from eight to
twelve feet in diameter, and from twenty-two to thirty-five feet deep. Two
pipes go down nearly to the bottom of the oxidizer; the larger one being
used for conveying a blast of air from a blowing engine, and the smaller
for the injection of steam. The introduction of steam is only had recourse
to in case the liquor when drawn into the oxidizer should not have the
requisite temperature, viz. 130° or 140° Fahr. Immediately above the
oxidizer a reservoir containing milk of lime is placed. A great deal
depends upon the careful preparation of the milk of lime, since on the
degree of fineness in which the lime is added to the manganese chloride in
solution depends the rapidity with which it acts in the oxidizer. The milk
of lime is kept constantly agitated, to ensure its being of uniform
consistency, and should contain from 15 lbs. to 20 lbs. of hydrate of
lime in every cubic foot of the mixture.

A charge of the clear liquor having been drawn into the oxidizer, and
raised if necessary to the requisite temperature, the blowing in of air is
begun, whilst at the same time the milk of lime is run into the oxidizer
as rapidly as possible, the flow of milk of lime being only discontinued
when a sample of the filtrate drawn off, by means of a tap placed near the
bottom of the oxidizer, ceases to give the manganese reaction when mixed
with a solution of bleaching powder. This reaction consists in the
production of a purple colour caused by the formation of permanganate of
calcium. More milk of lime is then added, when the contents of the
oxidizer are found to consist of a thin white mud, composed of a solution
of calcium chloride, holding in suspension a mixture of protoxide of
manganese and lime. The injection of air being continued the white mud
rapidly becomes darker in colour, and soon changes into a thin black mud
composed of solution of calcium chloride, holding in suspension certain
compounds of peroxide of manganese partly combined with protoxide of
manganese, but chiefly with lime, which compounds Mr Weldon terms
“_manganites_.” Mr Weldon suggests that the manganites so formed may be
regarded as salts in which the basic radical is calcium or manganese, and
the acid radical MnO_{3}; and may be represented by the formulæ CaMnO_{3},
and MnMnO_{3}; and possibly also CaMnO_{2} (MnO_{2})_{2}. “The quantity of
lime which has to be put into the oxidizer before the filtrate from a
sample of its contents ceases to yield the manganese reaction varies very
considerably. Recently precipitated protoxide of manganese dissolves very
appreciably in neutral solution of chloride of calcium, its solution
therein comporting itself with reagents exactly like solutions of
manganese salts. It dissolves also in solution of oxychloride of calcium,
that is to say, in solution of chloride of calcium containing dissolved
lime; its solution in oxychloride of calcium not giving the ordinary
manganese reactions.”

“Hence even if all portions of the lime added to the chloride of manganese
in the oxidizer were capable of acting on chloride of manganese equally
readily, manganese could not cease to be so in solution as to be
detectible by ordinary reagents, until more than an equivalent of lime had
been added——that is to say, until enough had been added not only to
decompose all the chloride of manganese, but also to form a certain
quantity of oxychlorate of calcium. It is never the case, however, that
all portions of the lime used are capable of acting on the chloride of
manganese with equal readiness. The lime used always contains a larger or
smaller proportion of particles coarser than the rest, which coarser
portions cannot of course act so rapidly as the finer ones; and as the
decomposition of the chloride of manganese requires to be completed as
quickly as possible, those portions of the lime which will not act upon it
instantly are scarcely allowed time to act upon it at all.

“These coarser portions of the lime thus contribute very little to the
decomposition of the manganese, though they afterwards dissolve completely
in the hot solution of chloride of calcium, and then play their full part
in the reactions which take place during the subsequent blowing. The
proportion of lime which thus does not act on the chloride of manganese
varies with the source of the lime, and with the manner in which it is
prepared, so that the quantity of lime which has to be added to a charge
of chloride of manganese liquor in the oxidizer, before the filtrate from
a sample of the resulting mixture ceases to become coloured on the
addition of solution of bleaching powder, varies from about 1·1 to 1·45
equivalent.

“The further quantity of lime which is added after that point has been
reached is now usually so much as to raise the total quantity to about 1·5
to 1·6 equivalents, being from one half to six tenths in excess of the
quantity which actually takes part in the decomposition of the chloride of
manganese.”[239]

[Footnote 239: ‘Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and Analytical, as
applied to the Arts and Manufactures,’——Mackenzie & Co.]

As previously stated, Mr Weldon found that if only so much lime is
employed as is necessary to precipitate the manganese, not more than half
the protoxide of manganese will be converted into the peroxide, and that
even this result will be accomplished very tardily. And, as has been
already mentioned, a greater and more rapid yield of protoxide can only be
obtained by using a larger proportion of lime. Any excess, however, of
lime over that absolutely required for the peroxidation of the protoxide
of manganese must be sedulously avoided, since a superabundance of lime
leads to the formation of compounds that are not readily peroxidised.
Should such compounds be formed, it is necessary to destroy them, and this
may be done by the addition of a fresh quantity of chloride of manganese.
The objectionable compounds in question are lime and protoxide of
manganese, which are known in the process under the name of “bases;” and
the reason why it is desirable to prevent as much as possible their
formation will become evident when it is remembered that they cannot
furnish chlorine when treated with hydrochloric acid, but that they merely
dissolve in this latter.

The injection of air into the oxidizer, which constitutes the blowing
operation, varies from two to four hours.

The quantity required to be blown in is chiefly dependent upon the depth
of the oxidizer, and upon the amount of protoxide of manganese contained
in a given volume of the charge.

The greater the depth of this latter the more rapidly does the
peroxidation take place; and the greater the number of molecules of
protoxide in a given volume of the charge, the larger is the total surface
presented to the action of injected air, and consequently the greater is
the proportion of the oxygen absorbed.

“In one instance 175,000 cubic feet of air were blown in during five
hours, and of the oxygen contained in this, 14·8 per cent. (equal to
rather more than 4 cwt.) was absorbed in the production of 22 cwt. of
peroxide of manganese.”[240]

[Footnote 240: Weldon.]

The expenditure of mechanical power in forcing the air into the oxidizer
averages between seven and eight horse-power for every 100 lbs. of
peroxide of manganese obtained. In theory, to produce the quantity of
chlorine contained in a ton of bleaching powder containing 37 per cent. of
chlorine, 1020 lbs. of peroxide of manganese would be required; but it is
found in practice that instead of this quantity of peroxide giving the
above result, 1100 lbs. are needed.

“The consumption of lime averages 14 cwt. per ton of bleach. By this
process 1 ton of bleach is made, using 2832 lbs. of hydrochloric acid,
generated by the decomposition of 47·5 cwt. of salt, viz. a quantity which
theoretically yields 3334 lbs. of hydrochloric acid. There is therefore a
loss of acid of 15 per cent. The loss of manganese varies from 4 to 10 per
cent. The whole of the lime is lost, and two thirds of the total chlorine
(in combination with calcium) contained in the acid used.[241]

[Footnote 241: Kingzett.]

When sufficient air has been blown into the oxidizer, the contents which
consist of a solution of chloride of calcium, holding in suspension
peroxide and protoxide of manganese and lime, are run into one of a range
of settling tanks placed below the level of the oxidizer. These tanks are
known as _mud settlers_. In these the manganese mud is left to deposit
until about half its volume has become clear. It generally requires 3 or 4
hours to deposit. The clear part, which consists of chloride of calcium,
being then decanted by means of a swivel-pipe, is usually thrown away. The
mud remaining in the settlers, which contains in a cubic foot from 4 lbs.
to 5 lbs. of peroxide of manganese, is now in a fit condition to be placed
in the still, where it is to be exposed to the action of the hydrochloric
acid. The stills, which are made of slabs of hard siliceous sandstone or
of Yorkshire flagstones, and are usually in the shape of an octagonal
prism, are about 8 feet square, and 10 feet in depth. Mr Kingzett says
“the new Weldon stills are polygonal in shape, about 12 feet across, and 7
feet to 8 feet deep.” Contrary to the course formerly followed, when
native manganese was used in the Weldon process, the still is charged with
hydrochloric acid first, and the manganese mud is run in upon the acid in
a small, steady stream, the flow of which can be regulated by a stopcock.
Steam being carefully admitted into the still at the same time, the mud
dissolves very rapidly in the acid, and the chlorine is evolved in an even
current, the force and flow of which is dependent upon and can be very
accurately regulated by the admission of the mud.

The time occupied before the reaction between the acid and the manganese
is completed varies in different works from two to six hours. At the end
of this time the contents of the still are run off into the well placed
below it, and are afterwards submitted to the various operations already
described, which we have seen to accomplish the regeneration of the
residue and effect its reconversion into peroxide of manganese. The
process is a continuous one, and theoretically the original quantity of
manganese should be capable of being used over and over again for an
unlimited number of operations. In practice, however, there is always
found to be a loss of a small per-centage of manganese, arising from some
of the chloride of manganese being carried down by the sulphate of lime
and the ferric and aluminic oxides in the settlers, and not being
thoroughly recovered when the deposit is washed; for, though an exhaustive
washing of the precipitated matters could be easily managed, the bulk of
the wash waters would render the recovery of the chloride of manganese
from them a non-paying affair. This loss of chloride varies according to
the statements of different manufacturers from 2 to 10 per cent.

It is stated that not only is the chlorine yielded by Mr Weldon’s process
of very pure quality, and the bleaching powder manufactured from it very
high of strength and excellence; but that over from 20 to 25 per cent.
more bleach is obtained from a given quantity of hydrochloric acid, when
artificial peroxide of manganese is used instead of the native. This
advantage is chiefly owing to the artificial manganese (of the manganese
mud) from its physical condition being much more accessible than the
native form of manganese to the action of the hydrochloric acid, and from
its dissolving in the acid so much more readily and thoroughly, and
neutralising as much as from 95 to 99 per cent. of it, a much larger
amount than the native ores are capable of neutralising.

Again, the bleaching powder produced by the above process stands not only
very high in point of strength, but varies very little in the amount of
chlorine it contains, as may be gathered from the following table, which
shows the average strength for thirteen consecutive weeks of the bleaching
powder made at six large and different manufactories:——

  -------------------------------------------------
         |                FACTORY.
   WEEK. |-----------------------------------------
         |  I.  |  II. | III. |  IV. |  V.  | VI.
  -------|------|------|------|------|------|------
    1st  | 36·9 | 37·8 | 36·7 | 36·3 | 36·6 | 36·6
    2nd  | 36·1 | 36·8 | 36·7 | 36·2 | 35·1 | 37·4
    3rd  | 36·5 | 38·0 | 36·6 | 36·1 | 37·2 | 37·9
    4th  | 35·9 | 37·1 | 35·9 | 36·2 | 36·8 | 37·1
    5th  | 35·8 | 36·9 | 36·0 | 36·3 | 36·5 | 37·8
    6th  | 36·0 | 37·0 | 36·2 | 35·9 | 36·5 | 37·2
    7th  | 36·5 | 36·0 | 36·3 | 36·6 | 35·8 | 36·8
    8th  | 36·3 | 36·8 | 36·3 | 36·3 | 35·0 | 37·1
    9th  | 36·4 | 36·3 | 36·8 | 35·7 | 35·2 | 37·0
   10th  | 36·5 | 36·7 | 36·3 | 36·0 | 36·2 | 37·6
   11th  | 36·8 | 36·8 | 36·2 | 35·9 | 36·0 | 37·2
   12th  | 36·8 | 35·9 | 35·6 | 35·6 | 36·1 | 37·2
   13th  | 36·7 | 35·2 | 35·9 | 36·1 | 36·9 | 37·5
  -------------------------------------------------

Spite of the expensive plant required to work Mr Weldon’s process, it is
said to possess very decided advantages over the old methods as far as
regards cost of production.

In connection with Mr Weldon’s process may be mentioned Mr Valentin’s
modification of it, for which a provisional patent was taken out by this
latter gentleman. Instead of adding more lime, after the neutralised still
liquors have been precipitated by an equivalent of lime, as is done in the
above process, Mr Valentin adds a solution of potassium ferricyanide, and
air being blown in, the peroxidation of the manganese is effected much
more quickly than in Mr Weldon’s process. It was also calculated that, by
Mr Valentin’s method, bleaching powder could be produced at a cost of
about ten shillings per ton less than when made by Mr Weldon’s.

For the successful working of Mr Valentin’s process it is necessary that
the ferricyanide should be recovered, not only because of its cost, but
also because its presence gives rise to the production of cyanogen
compounds, which would enter the chamber with the chlorine. Hitherto no
economical plan for the recovery of the salt has been devised, and
consequently Mr Valentin’s proposed modification of Mr Weldon’s process
has failed to be adopted.

_b._ A second process for obtaining chlorine, called “_the magnesia
process_,” has been devised by Mr Weldon. In the previous method, or
“_lime process_,” two thirds of the chlorine contained in the hydrochloric
acid, as we have seen, is lost, passing away in the form of waste chloride
of calcium.

In the “magnesia process” all the chlorine is utilised, the acid employed
being made to yield the whole of its gas in the free state. The
regeneration of the manganese peroxide being likewise accomplished, and
the process being a continuous one, theoretically no loss of material
should take place.

Beyond the employment of liquor pumps, no machinery is requisite for
carrying out the operation, which, being very simple in its details,
requires the employment of little skilled and, consequently, expensive
labour. Further, the inventor claims for it the production of bleaching
powder at a less cost per ton than by any other process. The “magnesia
method” is worked as follows:——

The spent liquors of the still, consisting of chloride of manganese and
free hydrochloric acid, are neutralised with magnesite, or, as it is
sometimes called, Greek stone——a very pure native form of carbonate of
magnesia. Sometimes the magnesite is calcined, and the magnesia thus
obtained used instead.

The neutralisation may be effected either in the still itself, or in a
well made of cast iron. The liquid is next pumped into the settlers, in
which it deposits its ferric and aluminic oxides and sulphate of lime. The
clear liquor containing the chlorides of manganese and magnesia is then
run into an iron evaporating pan, where it is concentrated by boiling
until it reaches a temperature of between 300° and 320° F. At this point
the magnesium chloride begins to be decomposed by the water, and
hydrochloric acid is given off. When it has reached the above degree of
concentration, it is conveyed into a muffle furnace. This furnace is
divided into two compartments, separated by an iron door, which can be
opened or shut by means of a pulley placed outside. The desiccation of the
mass which is accompanied with the evolution of a little chlorine and a
large amount of hydrochloric acid, having been completed in one of the
divisions of the furnace, it is broken up by constant stirring into thin
cakes and raked into the second division, where it is gently heated with
access of air; when the operation is complete the residue which left the
first compartment as a mixture of manganese and magnesium chloride becomes
converted into manganate of magnesia (MgMnO_{3}), its chlorine having been
driven off partly in the free state and partly as hydrochloric acid. “As
long as water is present in the furnace hydrochloric acid is evolved, and
as the main evaporation takes place in the first division of the furnace,
it is chiefly hydrochloric acid that is there generated. In the second
division it is chiefly chlorine which is evolved, but it is, of course,
mixed with some hydrochloric acid. It is, indeed, doubtful whether much
manganese chloride is decomposed by the water so long as there remains
any chloride of magnesium, as this body is far more readily
decomposable.”[242]

[Footnote 242: Kingzett.]

It is stated that all the manganese is not converted into peroxide in the
furnace, but that a certain portion of it is left as protoxide; which,
with the magnesia, constitutes the useless “bases.” The completion of the
process is known when portions of the cake drawn from time to time from
the furnace cease to indicate any increase in the quantity of peroxide of
manganese.

The finely-divided black powder——manganate of magnesium——thus obtained,
after leaving the furnace and when sufficiently cold, is ready for the
stills——where, in contact with hydrochloric acid, it is again employed in
the generation of chlorine.

The chlorine leaves the furnace mixed with much hydrochloric acid,
nitrogen, and air. The gaseous mixture is drawn by a chimney draught
through the coke towers, as in the making of salt-cake. By this
contrivance the hydrochloric acid is recovered, yielding a solution strong
enough to react upon fresh manganese in the still. The diluted chlorine
may be made to ascend leaden towers, where it comes in contact with a
shower of milk of lime, which absorbs the gas and forms ordinary bleaching
liquid, whilst sometimes it is employed in the production of potassium
chlorate.

We have seen that the chlorine yielded by the “magnesia process” is partly
in the concentrated, and partly in the dilute condition. The ratio of
strong chlorine generated in the still to that of weak chlorine produced
in the furnace may be anything between one to one, and one to about four,
at pleasure.

“When working so as to obtain strong chlorine and weak chlorine in about
equal proportions, the quantity of the liquor to be boiled down per ton of
total bleaching powder made was about 105 cubic feet. As the proportion of
the weak chlorine increased, the quantity of liquor to be boiled down
diminished until, when the proportion of the weak chlorine to that of the
strong became as four to one, the quantity of liquor to be boiled down per
ton of total bleaching powder made was only about 40 cubic feet.”[243]

[Footnote 243: ‘Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and
Analytical,’——Mackenzie & Co.]

11. (Deacon.) As we have already seen, Vogel proposed to obtain chlorine
by the decomposition by heat of cupric chloride, and to reconvert the
resulting cuprous chloride into the cupric salt by treatment with
hydrochloric acid.

Chlorine may be produced by passing a mixture of gaseous hydrochloric acid
and air over heated bricks or other porous substances, a reaction which
Oxland unsuccessfully attempted to turn to account for the production of
chlorine for manufacturing purposes. The cause of failure appears to have
been the great heat necessary to effect the decomposition of the acid
atmospheric oxygen.

In the late Mr Deacon’s process both Vogel’s and Oxland’s methods are
combined. He discovered that to be able to generate chlorine and water
from gaseous hydrochloric acid and air, a very much lower temperature than
that employed by Oxland was necessary, and he found that this diminished
temperature could be attained, if the gas and air to be decomposed were
passed over porous bricks saturated with a solution of sulphate of copper,
and heated to a temperature of 700° to 750° F.

Beyond this point he found the heat ought not to be carried; for at 800°
the cupric chloride formed begins to volatilise, and to condense in the
cooler parts of the apparatus (presently to be described), thereby
interfering with the draught through it, and delaying the working, since
its removal becomes necessary. It was found that below 400° the reaction
does not take place. Experience has demonstrated that the best temperature
to effect this decomposition is 625° F.

The hydrochloric acid obtained either from a soda furnace or evolved from
an aqueous solution is immediately mixed with a quantity of air containing
an excess of oxygen over that required for liberating all the chlorine
from the evolved hydrochloric acid, and passed through heated U-shaped
tubes of cast-iron, from which the gaseous mixtures obtain the necessary
temperature. The original plant was so contrived that the heated gases
were conveyed from the U-shaped tubes into a series of nine towers made of
iron or other suitable material. Entering by a pipe at the bottom of the
first tower, and passing on to the second, the gases came into contact
with a series of ordinary agricultural drain pipes of small bore arranged
with vertical spaces, these pipes being saturated with a solution of
sulphate of copper and sulphate of soda, it being subsequently found that
this latter addition increased the efficacy of the copper sulphate, as
well as its power to resist decomposition. From the first two towers of
the series the mixed gases traversed the remaining ones, where they
encountered small pieces of common brick, fire brick, or burnt clay also
impregnated with the copper and soda sulphates, after reacting upon which
they passed out of the apparatus, called the ‘_decomposer_,’

In the more recently made decomposers we believe the nine towers were
abolished, and one chamber substituted for them, the drain-pipes being at
the same time abandoned for pieces of brick and clay marbles.

A decomposer upon this latter principle is said to have been in use for
several months at a factory in Berlin, and to have worked perfectly
satisfactorily. After leaving the decomposer, the gaseous mixture, which
now consists of chlorine, water, nitrogen, unconsumed oxygen, and
undecomposed hydrochloric acid, after being cooled, is passed through
water, by which means it is deprived of its hydrochloric acid.

It is next made to ascend a tower, where, meeting with a stream of
sulphuric acid running over coke, it is deprived of its water. The
chlorine (diluted with nitrogen and oxygen) is now ready for the lime
chamber.

One great objection urged against the adoption of the above process, viz.,
that in consequence of the large volume of the evolved gases enormously
large chambers for the preparation of the bleaching would be
necessitated, seems to have been met by passing the gas through a series
of chambers, in which the first contains nearly finished bleaching powder;
the second, lime in a less saturated condition; and so on, until the last
chamber contains merely slaked lime.

The following table, exhibiting the amount of chlorine contained in
different batches of bleaching powder made by Deacon’s process, is
extracted from ‘Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and Analytical,’
published by Mackenzie:——

  ----------+-----------+----------+-----------
            | Strength. |          | Strength.
  ----------+-----------+----------+-----------
  July  14  |  36·0     | July 22  |  34·3
  ”     15  |  34·8     |  ”   ”   |  36·5
  ”      ”  |  36·1     |  ”   24  |  36·8
  ”     17  |  36·4     |  ”   ”   |  37·5
  ”      ”  |  36·0     |  ”   25  |  36·1
  ”     18  |  37·2     |  ”   ”   |  36·7
  ”      ”  |  37·9     |  ”   ”   |  36·8
  ”     19  |  37·2     |  ”   26  |  36·2
  ”      ”  |  37·0     |  ”   ”   |  36·9
  ”     20  |  37·9     |  ”   27  |  36·9
  ”      ”  |  36·7     |  ”   ”   |  35·5
  ”     21  |  36·0     |  ”   28  |  37·2
  ”      ”  |  35·3     |  ”   ”   |  37·0
  ”      ”  |  37·7     |  ”   ”   |  36·75
  ----------+-----------+----------+-----------

Writing on this process in his late work, ‘The Alkali Trade,’ Mr Kingzett
says:——“The process bearing Mr Deacon’s name was first brought before the
public at the British Association Meeting in 1870.

“It excited at that time much attention, and indeed for some period it was
doubtful whether it would not rival or even displace the Weldon process.
Further experience, however, discovered difficulties in the practical
working of this beautiful method, which exercise a deteriorating influence
on its value, and lessen its applicability. Although several plants have
been erected in connection with this mode of manufacturing chlorine, most
of them have been since abandoned, and at the present time most of the
chlorine is manufactured according to the process of Mr Weldon.”

Dr Jurisch, in a communication to ‘Dingler’s Polytechnic Journal,’ 1876,
remarks that when Deacon’s process was first taken up within a short time
by more than twelve English and two German establishments, the view was
generally entertained that the balls of clay steeped in solution of copper
would ensure an uninterrupted production of chlorine gas for a year or
two, if not longer. Before many months had elapsed complaints were heard
of the action of the balls. He, therefore, undertook to determine what can
be the cause of these balls declining so rapidly in their efficacy. His
conclusion is, that the true cause of this speedy decrease in the
decomposition is due to sulphuric acid, which passes through the
interstices of the clay-balls mixed with the other gases. This injurious
action, according to Hasenclever and Sartori, is probably to be explained
by the following reaction:——The vapour of sulphuric acid in contact with
sulphate of alumina at a dull red-heat, as is found in the balls, is
resolved into sulphurous acid, watery vapour, and oxygen; the sulphurous
acid thus formed is reoxidised at the expense of the free chlorine, is
again decomposed, and thus keeps up a destructive circulation in the
apparatus, which reduces or totally checks the chlorine.[244]

[Footnote 244: Extracted from the ‘Chemical News.’]

_Prices of Bleaching Powder_ (CLAPHAM).

  In 1805    £120  0  0 per ton.
   ” 1810      84  0  0    ”
   ” 1815      80  0  0    ”
   ” 1820      47  0  0    ”
   ” 1825      27  0  0    ”
   ” 1830      23  0  0    ”
   ” 1832      21  0  0    ”
   ” 1835      23  0  0    ”
   ” 1840      21  0  0    ”
   ” 1846      18  0  0    ”
   ” 1850      13 15  0    ”
   ” 1855      10 15  0    ”
   ” 1857      13 10  0    ”
   ” 1860      11  0  0    ”
   ” 1868      10 12  0    ”

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Chlorine is a gas possessing a yellowish-green colour,
and a pungent, suffocating odour. It is one of the heaviest substances
that are gaseous at ordinary temperatures, being nearly 2-1/2 heavier than
atmospheric air; sp. gr. 1·47. It is soluble to a considerable extent in
water, that liquid at 60° Fahr. absorbing about twice its volume. It is
non-inflammable, but its union with some of the elements is attended with
the phenomena of combustion; thus, phosphorus, copper leaf, powdered
antimony and arsenic, and several other substances thrown into chlorine
immediately inflame. Under a pressure of 4 atmospheres it is condensed
into a yellow, limpid liquid. Moist chlorine gas cooled to 32° Fahr.
condenses into yellow crystals, containing 35-1/2 parts of chlorine and 90
parts of water. The most remarkable property of chlorine is its power of
destroying almost all vegetable and animal colours, and the putrid odour
of decomposing organic matter; hence its value as a bleaching agent, and
as a disinfectant and fumigator. When first proposed as a bleaching agent
by Berthollet, it was used much the same way as sulphur is now in
bleaching woollen goods; afterwards a solution of the gas in water was
employed, but the final improvement was Tennant’s patent of combining the
gas with lime to form “chloride of lime.” With the bases chlorine forms an
important series of compounds called chlorides.

_Tests._ Free chlorine is readily distinguished from other gases by its
colour, suffocating odour, and bleaching properties. The aqueous solution
dissolves gold leaf, and with nitrate of silver gives a white, curdy
precipitate.

=CHLORINE STILLS.= The accompanying figure represents a section of one of
the earlier forms of still used in the preparation of chlorine.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

These stills were sometimes made of strong sheet lead, the lower part of
which was enclosed in a jacket of cast iron, into which steam was forced,
by which means the contents of the still were heated. The steam was
injected from an ordinary boiler through the pipe H, and the materials,
after the decomposition had been completed, were drawn off by the pipe G.
The four openings, C, D, E, F, were secured by water lutes, capable of
bearing a pressure greater than that required in the chamber where the
saturation took place. In some cases the lower half of the still was made
of cast iron, and fitted into a groove made in the upper part, the two
sections being united by means of a strong cement. In the latter case the
heating of the still was effected by a naked fire applied to the bottom.
Into the orifice C the said materials employed were introduced, whilst the
acid was poured through the opening F. The gas evolved passed off through
the pipe E to the purifier and chamber, where it was absorbed by the lime,
and converted into bleaching powder, and the shaft of the agitator passed
up through D.

The use of the leaden stills survived for a longer time in France than in
this country. In some parts of Germany large glass globes with long necks
were employed, in which the chlorine was generated from a mixture of
hydrochloric acid and manganese. But these were only applicable in cases
where comparatively small quantities of bleaching powder were to be
manufactured. When the chlorine is obtained from a mixture of manganese,
common salt, and sulphuric acid, the apparatus, being required to
withstand a greater heat, is made entirely of metal.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

In fig. 2. _a a_ represents a shallow iron pan, fitted with the tube _b_,
for the purpose of emptying the contents of the leaden cylinder _d d_.
This iron vessel serves as the lower part of the cylinder _d d_, the top
of which is provided with an opening for a funnel syphon tube, for the
introduction of the acid, and another opening, _f_, for the manganese. The
entire apparatus stands on a flue leading from the furnace.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

The foregoing drawing represents a vessel for the manufacture of chlorine
on a large scale, and is extensively used in Germany.

It consists of a cylindrical vessel of sandstone, the lower half of which,
A, is carved out of a single block; the upper half, B, also of one piece,
fits into the lower by means of a grooved joint, the two parts being
united by means of a cement made of clay and boiled linseed oil. About six
inches from the bottom the cylinder widens by 2 inches, and the rim thus
formed carries a perforated bottom, C, upon which the manganese is
deposited in large lumps. The tube D, likewise of stone, passes beneath
the perforated bottom, and is at the other end joined to the steam-tube E.
The steam must therefore, when introduced, enter the cylinder through the
perforations of the false bottom. The top of the cylinder is closed by a
lead cover, K, which is fastened down by means of iron clamps; this lid
has an aperture, G, and the tubes E, F, H, pass through it; tube E serves,
as already stated, for the introduction of the steam; tube F is for the
delivery of chlorine; the bent tube, H, which ends in a funnel, for the
introduction of the hydrochloric acid; and the opening G for throwing the
lumps of manganese into the cylinder. The solution of manganese chloride,
resulting from the action of the hydrochloric acid upon the manganese, is
removed through I, which is kept closed by a wooden stopper whilst the
reaction proceeds.

See also, under CHLORINE, the description of WELDON’S stills, and of
DEACON’S apparatus.

=CHLORITE.= A salt in which the hydrogen of chlorous acid, HClO_{2}, is
replaced by a metal or other basic radical. See CHLOROUS ACID.

=CHLOROCHROMIC ACID.= CrOCl. _Syn._ CHLOROCHROMIC ANHYDRIDE. _Prep._
Bichromate of potassium, 3 parts; common salt, 3-1/2 parts; are intimately
mixed together, put into a glass retort, and oil of vitriol, 9 parts,
added; heat is next applied and maintained as long as dense, red vapours
are given off. The product in the receiver is a heavy, deep-red liquor,
greatly resembling bromine in appearance. Water resolves it into
hydrochloric and chromic anhydride.

=CHLORODYNE.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Chlorodyne= (Dr Browne’s). Acid muriat. conc., 5 parts; ether,
chloroform, tinct. cannab. Ind., tinct. capsici, of each 10 parts;
morphia, prussic acid, of each 2 parts; oil of peppermint, 1 part; syrup,
50 parts; tinct. hyoscyami, tinct. aconiti, of each 3 parts.

=Chlorodyne, English.= A filtered mixture of 5 grammes tinct. aromat., 4
grammes tinct. opii simp., 1 gramme morph. mur., 10 grammes aq. amygd.
amar., 80 grammes syrup of liquorice, 1 gramme extract of liquorice, 40
grammes 90 per cent. spirit of wine, 5 drops oil of peppermint, 10 drops
ether, 30 drops chloroform.

=CHLOROFORM.= CHCl_{3}. _Syn._ TERCHLORIDE OF FORMYLE, FORMYL-CHLORIDE;
CHLOROFORMYL, TRICHLOROMETHANE, CHLOROFORMUM, L. A remarkable fluid
discovered by Liebig in 1830, and independently by Soubeiran in 1832, and
carefully examined in 1834 by Dumas. In 1842 its action upon animals was
investigated by Dr M. Glover, and in 1847 it was introduced to the medical
profession as an anæsthetic agent by Dr Simpson of Edinburgh.

It was first obtained by the action of caustic alkali upon chloral, but it
is more easily prepared by distilling alcohol or wood spirit with chloride
of lime. It may also be procured from wood spirit, acetone, oil of
turpentine, and several essential oils, as well as from amylic alcohol,
acetic acid, tartaric acid, and phenol; when these different bodies are
severally subjected to the action of chloride of lime. When chlorine is
made to act on marsh gas, or when chloral is treated with an alkali,
chloroform is also produced.

_Prep._ 1. Chloride of lime (in powder), 4 lbs.; water, 12 lbs.; mix in a
capacious retort or still, add of rectified spirit, 12 fl. oz., and
cautiously distil as long as a dense liquid, which sinks in the water it
passes over with, is produced; separate this from the water, agitate it
with a little sulphuric acid, and, lastly, rectify it from carbonate of
barium.

2. Chloride of lime, 4 lbs.; water, 10 pints; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint;
proceed as last, using a spacious retort that the mixture will only 1-3rd
fill, and the heat of a sand bath. When ebullition commences remove the
fire as quickly as possible, lest the retort be broken by the suddenly
increased heat, and let the solution distil into a receiver as long as
there is nothing which subsides, the heat being restored if it be at all
needed. Add to the distilled liquid four times as much water, and shake
the whole well together; next cautiously separate the heavier part as soon
as it has subsided, and to this add chloride of calcium, broken into
fragments, 1 dr.; and shake occasionally during an hour; finally, let the
fluid again distil from a glass retort into a glass receiver.

3. Hydrate of lime, 1 part, is suspended in cold water, 24 parts, and
chlorine passed through the mixture until nearly the whole of the lime is
dissolved; hydrate of lime, q. s. just to restore the alkaline reaction of
the liquid, is then added; and, afterwards, rectified spirit of wine or
wood spirit, 1 part, is mixed in; the whole, after repose for 24 hours in
a covered vessel, is cautiously distilled as before.

4. (B. P.) Take of chlorinated lime 10 _lbs._; rectified spirit, 30 fluid
ounces; slaked lime, a sufficient quantity; water, 3 gallons; sulphuric
acid, a sufficient quantity; chloride of calcium in small fragments 2
_oz._; distilled water, 10 fluid ounces. Place the water and the spirit in
a capacious still, and raise the mixture to a temperature of 100° F. Add
the chlorinated lime, and 5 _lbs._ of the slaked lime, mixing thoroughly.
Connect the still with a condensing worm, encompassed by cold water, and
terminating in a narrow-necked receiver; and apply heat so as to cause
distillation, taking care to withdraw the fire the moment that the process
is well established. When the distilled product measures 50 fluid ounces
the receiver is to be withdrawn. Pour its contents into a gallon bottle,
half filled with water; mix well by shaking, and set it at rest for a few
minutes, when the mixture will separate into two strata of different
densities. Let the lower stratum, which contains crude chloroform, be
washed by agitating it in a bottle with 3 fluid ounces of the distilled
water. Allow the chloroform to subside, withdraw the water, and repeat the
washing with the rest of the distilled water, in successive quantities of
3 oz. at a time. Agitate the washed chloroform for five minutes in a
bottle with equal volume of sulphuric acid, allow the mixture to settle,
and transfer the upper stratum of liquid to a flask, containing the
chloride of calcium, mixed with 1/2 oz. of slaked lime, which should be
perfectly dry. Mix well by agitation. After the lapse of an hour connect
the flask with a Liebig condenser, and distil over the pure chloroform by
means of a water bath. Preserve the product in a cool place in a bottle
furnished with an accurately ground stopper. The lighter liquid which
floats on the crude chloroform after its agitation with water, and the
washings with distilled water, should be preserved and employed in a
subsequent operation. Sp. gr. 1·456.

_Prop., &c._ Liquid; transparent; colourless; odour fragrant, ethereal,
and apple-like; taste ethereal, sweetish, but slightly acrid; soluble in
2000 parts of water; mixes in all proportions with alcohol and ether;
dissolves (readily) bromine, camphor, caoutchouc, gutta percha, iodine,
oils, resins, wax, and several other like substances; boils at 141·8°
Fahr.; kindles with difficulty; burns, when strongly heated, with a
greenish flame; and communicates a dull, smoky-yellow colour to the flame
of alcohol. Sp. gr. 1·48 (1·497, Miller); density of vapour 4·2. The
vapour has the remarkable property of rendering a person breathing it
temporarily insensible to pain.

Chloroform is frequently adulterated with alcohol and ether; and owing to
careless manipulation, is also sometimes contaminated with other
substances, as chloral, hydrochloric acid, free chlorine, aldehyde and
certain chlorinated oils. These latter compounds are not only the most
objectionable and prejudicial of the impurities found in chloroform, but
if present in it to any appreciable extent, they render its anæsthetic
administration not only inefficient, but frequently absolutely dangerous.
These deleterious chlorinated oily compounds may be removed by agitation
with strong sulphuric acid, or by distillation from it. Chloroform made
from wood spirit is said to be more impure than that from alcohol. When
pure it is free from colour, and of a pleasant odour. It is not perfectly
soluble in water; and does not turn the colour of litmus red. Rubbed on
the skin it quickly evaporates, scarcely leaving any odour. Dropped into
water, it falls to the bottom and remains bright and limpid; but if it
contain alcohol the surface of the drop becomes opaline. If the same
experiment be made with diluted sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1·44, the drop of
pure chloroform will fall to the bottom; but that which contains spirit,
if not shaken, will float or remain suspended in the acid solution. When
contaminated with heavy hydrocarbon oils, a drop evaporated from the palm
of the hand leaves behind a strong smell. Hydrochloric acid and free
chlorine are detected by the ordinary tests.

Mr Shuttleworth, writing to the ‘Canadian Pharmaceutical Journal,’
says:——“In regard to the restoration of chloroform which has become
spoiled, I would recommend that the chloroform be well agitated with a
dilute solution of hyposulphite of soda.

“It should then be separated by means of a glass funnel from the
supernatant liquid, and again washed; this time with simple water. After
being separated the chloroform should be passed through filtering paper to
free it from traces of moisture, when it will be found much improved and
comparatively sweet, good enough in any case for external use.

“There are, of course, certain other impurities of chloroform which the
hyposulphite will not remove. These are of a more stable character, and as
they possess a higher boiling point than chloroform, may be separated by
distillation, or by treatment with sulphuric acid in the usual manner.”

_Uses, Action, &c._ Chloroform is anodyne, antispasmodic, sedative,
stimulant, and anæsthetic. In small doses (5 to 12 or 15 drops, in water,
mixed with a little syrup or mucilage) it is employed in spasmodic
disorders, and as a stimulant and diaphoretic. It is now chiefly used as
an anæsthetic to produce insensibility to pain during surgical operations.
The dose for inhalation is 1 fl. dr., which is repeated, in a few minutes,
if no effect is produced, until 3 fl. dr. have been thus exhibited; the
effects being carefully watched, and the source of the chloroform vapour
removed as soon as a sufficient degree of anæsthesia is produced, or any
unpleasant symptoms develop themselves.

Chloroform in large doses depresses the heart’s action, and causes
profound coma, and death. It is therefore dangerous in all cases
complicated with diseases of the heart or brain, or any visceral
affections of a congestive character.

The treatment of asphyxia from chloroform is——the horizontal position,
cold affusion to the head and spine, artificial respiration, and, if
possible, either the application of electricity, or the inhalation of
protoxide of nitrogen or oxygen gas, largely diluted with atmospheric
air.

_Concluding Remarks._ The preparation of chloroform is not unattended with
danger, and frequently miscarries in careless or inexperienced hands. This
arises chiefly from the violent reaction which immediately follows the
application of the heat. The common plan is attended with danger of
explosion, or of the liquid in the still being forced over into the
receiver, owing to the extraordinary rapidity with which the vapours are
eliminated, and the ingredients, in consequence, swell up. A method which
is successfully adopted on the large scale is to employ a very broad and
shallow capsule-shaped still, having a flat rim round it, with a head or
capital furnished with a corresponding rim at its lower part. In use, a
flat, endless band of vulcanised india rubber is placed between the two
rims, which are then held air-tight together by means of small, iron
clamps. The application of heat is also delayed for some time after the
admixture of the spirit with the other ingredients, and the process is
interrupted as soon as the first violence of the reaction has subsided, by
which time the whole product of chloroform will have passed over into the
receiver. If the distillation is continued beyond this point, the
remaining product is water. On the small scale, a very capacious,
flat-bottomed retort or cucurbit should be employed. A similar condenser
may be used to that noticed under ether.

=CHLOROFORMIC ANODYNE= (George Harley) is said to be an alcoholic tincture
of opium with prussic acid and chloroform.

=CHLOROHYPONITRIC GAS= (NOCl) and =CHLORONITROUS GAS= (N_{2}O_{2}Cl_{4}
are two peculiar compounds, formed when nitric acid and hydrochloric acid
are mixed.

=CHLOROMETER.= _Syn._ CHLORIM′ETER. An instrument or apparatus employed in
chlorometry. The chlorometers in common use are graduated measures and
tubes precisely similar to those used in ACIDIMETRY, ALKALIMETRY, &c.

=CHLOROMETRY.= _Syn._ CHLORIM′ETRY. The estimation of the available
chlorine in the bleaching powder of commerce, which is valued and sold in
this country by its per-centage of that element. The plans generally
adopted are applicable to the so-called chlorides of soda and potassa, as
well as to the ordinary bleaching powder, chloride of lime. Most of them
depend on the oxidising effect of water when undergoing decomposition
through the action of chlorine.

_Dalton’s Process._ The test solution is prepared as follows:——Pure
protosulphate of iron (previously dried by strong pressure between the
folds of cloth or bibulous paper), 78 gr., are dissolved in distilled
water, 2 oz., and a few drops of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid added.
This quantity of protosulphate requires for complete peroxidation just the
quantity of oxygen liberated by 10 gr. of chlorine; in other words, the
solution exhibits the indirect effect produced by exactly 10 grains of the
bleaching element.

Exactly 50 gr. of the sample of chloride of lime to be examined are next
weighed, and well mixed in a glass or wedgwood mortar with tepid water, 2
oz.; and the mixture poured into a graduated tube or chlorometer. The tube
is next filled up to 0, or zero, with the washings of the mortar, and the
whole well mixed, by placing the thumb over the orifice and shaking it.
The solution of chloride of lime, thus formed, is next gradually and
cautiously added to the solution of sulphate of iron, previously noticed,
until the latter is completely peroxidised, which may be known when it
ceases to be affected by a solution of red prussiate of potash. When a
drop of the latter test, placed upon a white plate, ceases to give a blue
colour on being touched with the point of a glass stirrer or rod dipped in
the liquor under examination, enough of the solution of the chloride has
been added. The number of measures thus consumed must now be carefully
read off from the graduated scale of the chlorometer, from which the
richness of the sample may be estimated as follows:——As 100 of the
chlorometer divisions contain exactly 50 gr. of the chloride under
examination, each measure will contain only 1/2 gr., and, consequently,
the number of measures consumed will represent half that number of grains
of the chloride examined; and the weight of the chloride thus used will
have contained 10 gr. of chlorine——the constant quantity of that substance
required to peroxide the test solution of sulphate of iron. Thus:——If 80
measures of the liquor in the chlorometer have been consumed, this
quantity will represent 40 gr. of chloride of lime, and 10 gr. of
chlorine. By dividing 1000 by this number, the per-centage of chlorine
will be obtained. In the present instance this would be——

  1000
  ———— = 25%
   40

_Crum’s Process._ Equal weights of water and hydrochloric acid are mixed
together, and cast-iron borings digested in the diluted acid until
saturation is complete; a large excess of iron being purposely employed,
and the liquid kept at the heat of boiling water for some time. One
measure of the solution, marking 40° on Twaddell’s scale (sp. gr. 1·200),
is then mixed with an equal quantity of acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·048). This
forms the test-liquid. When mixed with 6 or 8 parts of water it is quite
colourless, but chloride of lime occasions the production of peracetate of
iron, which gives it a red colour.

The above proof-solution is next poured into 12 two-oz. vials, of exactly
equal diameters, to the amount of 1/9th of their capacity; these are
filled up with bleaching liquid of various strengths; the first at 1/12th
of a degree of Twaddell, the second 2/12ths, and so on up to 12/12ths of
1°. They are then well corked up, and, after agitation, arranged side by
side on a tray, furnished with holes to receive them. (See _engr._) To
ascertain the strength of an unknown sample of bleaching liquor, the
proof-solution of iron is put into a phial, exactly similar to the 12
previously used, and in precisely the same proportion (1/9th). The phial
is then filled up with the bleaching liquor, well shaken, and placed
beside that one of the 12 already prepared which it most resembles in
colour. The number on that phial expresses the strength of the sample
under examination, in twelfths of a degree of Twaddell’s hydrometer.

[Illustration]

_Obs._ The preceding method is admirably suited for weak solutions, such
as are employed for bleaching textile fabrics, and is well adapted (from
its simplicity) to the purposes of practical men. Indeed, it is quite
astonishing to see with what ease and accuracy it is applied by unlettered
operatives. This gives it great practical value. It has been for some time
in extensive use in the bleaching houses of Scotland.

TABLE _exhibiting the quantity of Bleaching Liquid, at 6° on_ TWADDELL’S
_scale_ (_sp. gr._ 1·030), _required to be added to a weaker liquor, to
raise it to the given strengths. Adapted from_ MR CRUM’S _table by_ MR
COOLEY.

  -----------------------------------------------
             |           | Proportions required.
   Strength  | Required  |-----------------------
   of Sample | Strength. |   Given   |   Liquor
   in 1/12°. |           |  Sample.  |   at 6°.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------
             |           |   Parts.  |   Part.
   Water.    |   8/12°   |    8      |     1
     1       |     ”     |    9-1/4  |     1
     2       |     ”     |   11      |     1
     3       |     ”     |   13-1/2  |     1
     4       |     ”     |   17      |     1
     5       |     ”     |   23      |     1
     6       |     ”     |   35      |     1
     7       |     ”     |   71      |     1
   Water.    |   6/12°   |   11      |     1
     1       |     ”     |   13-1/2  |     1
     2       |     ”     |   17      |     1
     3       |     ”     |   23      |     1
     4       |     ”     |   35      |     1
     5       |     ”     |   71      |     1
   Water.    |   4/12°   |   17      |     1
     1       |     ”     |   23      |     1
     2       |     ”     |   35      |     1
     3       |     ”     |   71      |     1
   Water.    |   3/12°   |   23      |     1
     1       |     ”     |   35      |     1
     2       |     ”     |   71      |     1
  ------------------------------------------------

According to Mr Crum, the range of strength within which cotton is “safe”
is very limited. A solution at 1° of Twaddell’s scale (sp. gr. 1·005) is
not more than safe, while one at 1/2° is scarcely sufficiently strong for
the first operation on stout cloth, unless it is packed more loosely than
usual.

_Gay-Lussac’s Indigo Process._ One part of the best indigo is dissolved in
9 parts of strong sulphuric acid by the aid of a gentle heat; this
solution is then mixed with distilled water, in such proportion that 1
volume of chlorine gas shall exactly decolour 10 volumes of this solution.
Each measure so decoloured is called a degree, and each degree is divided
into fifths. 5 gr. of the best chloride of lime, dissolved in 500 gr.
measures of water, possess the above power, and indicate 10° or proof; or
in other words, will decolour 10 times its volume of the indigo solution.

_Obs._ This method of chlorometry is objectionable, and liable to error,
from the indigo solution altering by keeping. When, however, the proper
precautions are used, it may be safely trusted for weak bleaching liquors.

_Arsenious Acid Process._ This depends on the conversion, by oxidation, of
arsenious acid into arsenic acid, in the presence of chlorine and water.

To prepare the test-liquor, pure arsenious acid, 100 gr., are dissolved in
about 4 fl. oz. of pure hydrochloric acid (free from sulphurous acid), and
the solution diluted with water until, on being poured into a graduated
10,000 grains-measure-glass, it occupies the volume of 7000 grains measure
marked on the scale. Each 1000 grains measure of this liquid now contains
14·29 gr. of arsenious acid; corresponding to 10 gr. of chlorine, or
1/10th gr. of chlorine for every division or degree of the scale of the
chlorometer.

100 gr. of the chloride of lime to be examined are next dissolved in water
as before, and poured into a tube graduated up to 2000 grains measure. The
whole is now well shaken, in order to obtain a uniformly turbid solution,
and half of it (1000-grains-measure) transferred to a graduated
chlorometer, which is, therefore, thus filled up to 0°, or the zero of the
scale, and contains exactly 50 gr. of the chloride of lime under
examination; whilst each degree or division of the scale contains only 1/2
gr.

1000 grains measure of the arsenious acid test-liquor are now poured into
a glass beaker, and a few drops of solution of sulphate of indigo added in
order to impart a faint but distinct blue colour to it; the glass is then
shaken so as to give a circular movement to the liquid, and whilst it is
whirling round, the chloride-of-lime solution from the chlorometer is
gradually and cautiously added, until the blue tinge given to the
arsenious acid test-liquor is destroyed; care being taken to stir the
mixture well during the whole process, and to stop as soon as the
decolorisation is completed.

Let us suppose now that, in order to destroy the blue colour of the 1000
grains measure of the arsenious acid test-liquor, 90 divisions or degrees
of the chloride-of-lime solution have been employed. These 90 divisions,
therefore, contained the 10 gr. of chlorine required to destroy the colour
of the test-solution; and since each division represents 1/2 gr. of
chloride of lime, 45 gr. of chloride of lime (10 gr. of chlorine) were
present in the 90 divisions so employed, from which the per-centage
strength may be ascertained. For——

45 : 10 : : 100 : 22·22

The chloride of lime examined, therefore, contained 22-1/4 per cent,
(nearly) of chlorine.

_Obs._ This method is extremely simple and trustworthy when properly
employed; but to ensure accuracy, certain precautions must be adopted.
Instead of pouring the test-liquor into the solution of the sample (as in
alkalimetry), the solution of the sample must be poured into the
test-liquor.

Vogel found that in a normal solution of arsenious acid that had been
prepared for using in the above process, half the quantity of the
arsenious acid became oxidised to arsenic acid in the course of about a
year. He therefore recommends that the standard solution, if kept for some
time, should be tested by a magnesium salt. The formation of a precipitate
would show the solution had undergone such a change, as to render it unfit
for volumetric estimations.

_Penot’s Process._ This is a modification of the previous process. For the
arsenious acid solution arsenite of soda is substituted, and for the
indigo solution a colourless iodised paper, which is turned blue by the
smallest quantity of free acid. The paper is prepared in the following
manner:——1 gram of iodine, 7 grams of carbonate of soda, 3 grams of
starch, and a quarter of a litre of water are mixed. When the solution
becomes colourless it is diluted to half a litre; in this fluid, white
paper is soaked. The arsenical fluid is prepared by dissolving 4·44 grams
of arsenious acid, and 13 grams of crystallised carbonate of soda in 1
litre of water. This solution is added by means of a burette to the
solution of chloride of lime intended to be tested (10 grams of the sample
to 1 litre) the completion of the reaction being known by the paper
remaining uncoloured.

Lunge says that the same piece of moist iodine test paper may be made use
of repeatedly, since the spots produced by testing usually disappear after
about twenty-four hours if exposed to the air. The paper must, however, be
kept away from dust.

_Wagner’s Process._ This method is based upon the fact that a solution of
chloride of lime separates the iodine from a weak (1 to 10) and slightly
acidified iodide-of-potassium solution, the iodine being quantitatively
estimated by means of hyposulphite of soda:——

  Iodine 21,       }         {Iodine of sodium, 2NaI,
  Hyposulphite of  }  yield  {Tetrathionate of sodium, Na_{2}S_{4}O_{6},
  soda, 2Na_{1}SO_{3}  }         {Water, 5H_{2}O.
  +5H_{2}O,

The test is performed as follows:——100 c. c. =1 gram of bleaching-powder
solution, obtained by dissolving 10 grams of chloride of lime in 1 litre
of water, are mixed with 25 c. c. of solution of iodide of potassium
acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid. The resulting clear, deep
brown-coloured solution is treated with hyposulphite of soda solution
until quite colourless. The hyposulphite of soda solution is composed of
24·8 grams of that salt to 1 litre of water; 1 c. c. of this solution
neutralises 0·0127 grams of iodine, and 0·00355 grams of chlorine.

_Otto’s Process._ This method is based upon the following data. Two
molecular weights of protosulphate of iron when brought into contact with
chlorine, in presence of water, and free sulphuric acid, give one molecule
of persulphate of iron, and two molecules of hydrochloric acid, the
process consuming one molecule of chlorine. Two molecules of crystallised
sulphate of iron = 556, correspond to 71·0 of chlorine, or in other terms
0·7839 grams of the crystallised sulphate correspond to 0·1 gram of
chlorine.

_Bunsen’s Process._ This consists in adding iodide of potassium to the
bleaching-powder liquor, acidulating the mixture with hydrochloric acid,
and running the solution of arsenite of soda into it till only a yellow
tint shows itself. A little starch paste is now added, and the arsenite
solution cautiously introduced drop by drop, till the blue colour just
disappears. The solutions must all be standardised. To preserve the starch
paste Mohr advises the addition to it of a little chloride of zinc.

_Mr Davies_ uses glycerin as a solvent for the arsenious acid. He prepares
a standard solution as follows:——13·95 grains of arsenious acid in 40 c.
c. of glycerin and fitted up to 1 litre. Every c. c. corresponds to 0·1
grain of chlorine. Indigo sulphate solution is used as an indicator, and
the bleaching liquor is run into the glycerin solution until the blue
colour of the latter is changed to a brownish yellow.

_Dr Ure’s_ as follows:——Liquor of ammonia, of a known strength, tinged
with litmus, is added to a solution of a given weight of the chloride
under examination, until the whole of the chlorine is neutralised, which
is known by the colour being destroyed. From the quantity of ammonia
consumed the strength of the sample is estimated.

The value of bleaching powder is estimated in England, America, and
Germany by degrees corresponding to the per-centage of available chlorine
contained in a sample of chloride of lime by weight; but in France the
degrees denote the number of litres of chlorine gas at 0° c. and 760° Mm.
Bar., which 1 kilo of bleaching powder can evolve. In the following table
the chlorometrical degrees of France and England are contrasted:——

  French.   English.
  63         20·02
  65         20·65
  70         22·24
  75         23·83
  80         25·42
  85         27·01
  90         28·60
  100        31·80
  105        33·36
  110        34·95
  115        36·54
  120        38·13
  125        39·72
  126        40·04

The per-centage may be calculated by multiplying the French degrees by the
coefficient 0·318.

=CHLOROCARBONIC ACID.= (COCl_{2}). _Syn._ PHOSGENE GAS, CARBONIC
OXYDICHLORIDE. This compound may be produced by the direct combination of
equal volumes of carbonic oxide and chlorine gases under the influence of
sunlight (whence its name of “phosgene gas”), when the mixture gradually
becomes colourless, and contracts to half its original volume.
Chlorocarbonic acid has a peculiar pungent smell, and fumes strongly when
exposed to moist air, the moisture of which it decomposes, producing at
the same time hydrochloric and carbonic acids.

It is sometimes employed in chemical research for the removal of hydrogen
from organic compounds, and the substitution of carbonic oxide, or its
elements for the hydrogen.

=CHLOROPHYLL.= The green colouring matter contained in the leaves, stalks,
unripe fruit, and juices of most plants.

=CHLORO′SIS.= _Syn._ GREEN SICKNESS. A disease which principally affects
young unmarried females.

_Symp._ Languor, listlessness, fatigue after the least exercise,
palpitation of the heart, flatulency, indigestion, acidity of stomach and
bowels, constipation (generally), appetite for unnatural food, general
debility, &c. As the disease advances, the skin at first pale, assumes a
peculiar greenish tint, the respiration becomes affected, the feet and
legs swell, and various organic affections of the viscera ensue. During
the early stages of this disease the catamenia are usually pale and
scanty, and return at irregular intervals, and as it progresses they
disappear altogether.

_Treat._ This should be tonic and restorative. That recommended under
ANÆMIA may be adopted with advantage. See also APPETITE, ATROPHY.

=Chlorosis, Electuary for——Female Electuary.= A greenish-black thick
syrup, consisting of sugar, bayberries, carbonate of iron, iron filings,
and water. (Buchner.)

=Chlorosis Powder——Female Powder=——consists of a mixture of anise, sugar,
and 14 per cent. of iron filings. (Wittstein.)

=Chlorosis Powder——Female Powder=, according to Schott and Strauss, is a
mixture of violet root, gum Arabic, and a tasteless green powder with 33
per cent. of steel filings. According to Hager, it is composed of 2 parts
ferri pulvis, with 3 parts powdered sweet-flag root.

=Chlorosis Powder——Female Powders.= Steel filings, starch powder, and knot
grass, of each 1 part, Florentine orris root, 4 parts.

=Chlorosis Powder——Female Powders.= A mixture of 1 part steel filings and
2 parts of a vegetable powder composed of gum Arabic, Florentine orris,
knot grass, &c. (Egb. Hoyer.)

=Chlorosis Water= (Dr Ewich) contains in 10,000 parts 11 of sodium
carbonate, 9 of sodium chloride, 1-1/2 sodium sulphate, 7 calcium
carbonate, and 1·2 iron carbonate with an excess of carbonic acid.
(Hager.)

=CHLOROUS ACID.= HClO_{2}. _Syn._ ACIDUM CHLORO′SUM, L. _Prep._ From
chlorate of potassium, 4 parts; arsenious anhydride, 3 parts; nitric acid,
12 parts; (diluted with) water, 4 parts; heated together in a glass flask,
furnished with a bent tube, and placed in a water bath. It must be
collected in the same way as chlorine, or passed into water, when it forms
a solution of chlorous acid.

_Prop., &c._ Chlorous acid is a greenish-yellow gas, non-condensable by a
freezing mixture of salt and ice, but liquefiable by extreme cold. The
aqueous solution undergoes gradual decomposition, yielding chloric acid
and chlorine. Chlorous acid possesses powerful oxidising and bleaching
properties; with the bases it forms salts called CHLORITES. These are all
soluble in water, and bleach like the acid. They may be recognised by the
evolution of chlorous acid gas when acted on by an acid. The use of the
arsenious acid is to deoxidise the nitric acid employed in the process.
Tartaric acid, or other deodorising agent, may be substituted for it.

=CHOC′OLATE.= _Syn._ CHOCOLA′TA, L.; CHOCOLLATI, Mexican; CHOCOLAT, Fr. A
beverage or paste made from the roasted seeds of the _Theobroma Cacao_, or
COCOA. Strictly speaking, the term “chocolate” is applicable to all
genuine preparations of cocoa, but it is now generally used to distinguish
those which contain sugar, and, commonly, flavouring substances. Of late
years great attention has been paid to the manufacture of chocolate in
England; our principal makers now import the finest descriptions of cocoa,
and produce varieties of the manufactured article which are scarcely
inferior to those of their French rivals. The different kinds of cocoa,
and the processes of roasting, sweating, &c., are described under COCOA,
to which article we refer the reader also for particulars respecting the
chemistry of chocolate.

_Prep._ The cocoa nibs[245] are ground in a mill consisting of stone or
metal rollers, which are usually heated either by charcoal fires or by
steam, so as to soften or melt the natural fat.[246] The warm, smooth
paste which passes from the mill is then placed in a mixing mill, and
incorporated with refined sugar, and usually vanilla or other flavouring
substance. The trituration is continued until the whole paste is converted
into an entirely homogeneous mass, which is finally shaped, by means of
suitable moulds, into various forms, as blocks, loaves, tablets, lozenges,
&c.

[Footnote 245: The bruised, roasted seeds, freed from husk and membrane.]

[Footnote 246: Cacao- or cocoa-butter.]

_Obs._ Chocolate, prepared as above, without the addition of aromatics, is
known in the trade as PLAIN CHOCOLATE. The Spaniards flavour it with
vanilla, cloves, and cinnamon, and frequently scent it with musk and
ambergris. With these additions it is termed SPANISH CHOCOLATE. In
general, they add too large a quantity of the last four articles. The
Parisians, on the contrary, use little flavouring, and that principally
vanilla. They employ the best kinds of cocoa, and add a considerable
quantity of refined sugar. So prepared, it is called FRENCH CHOCOLATE.

_Proportions._ 1. FRENCH CHOCOLATE:——The proportions used for the best
description are said to be——2 beans of vanilla, and 1 lb. of the best
refined sugar, to every 3 lbs. of the choicest cacao nuts.

2. SPANISH CHOCOLATE:——The following forms are said to be commonly
adopted:——

_a._ Caracas cocoa, 11 lbs.; sugar (white), 3 lbs.; vanilla, 1 oz.;
cinnamon (cassia), 1/4 oz.; cloves, 1/2 dr.

_b._ Caracas cocoa, 10 lbs.; sweet almonds, 1 lb.; sugar, 3 lbs.; vanilla,
1-1/4 oz.

_c._ Caracas cocoa, 8 lbs.; island cocoa, 2 lbs.; white sugar, 10 lbs.;
aromatics, as above.

_d._ Island cocoa, 7 lbs.; farina, q. s. to absorb the oil. Inferior.

3. VANILLA CHOCOLATE. _Syn._ CHOCOLAT À LA VANILLE, Fr. A variety of
French or Spanish chocolate highly flavoured with vanilla. The following
proportions have been recommended:——

_a._ Caracas cocoa, 7 lbs.; Mexican vanilla, 1 oz.; cinnamon, 1/2 oz.;
cloves, 3 in no.

_b._ Best chocolate paste, 21 lbs.; vanilla, 4 oz.; cinnamon, 2 oz.;
cloves, 1/2 dr.; musk, 10 gr.

_Obs._ The vanilla used in making chocolate is reduced to powder by
rubbing it with a little sugar before adding it to the paste.

_Pur., &c._ The chocolate commonly sold in England is prepared from the
cake left after the expression of the oil, and this is frequently mixed
with the roasted seeds of ground peas, and maize or potato flour, to which
a sufficient quantity of inferior brown sugar, or treacle and mutton suet,
is added to make it adhere together. Inferior sweet almonds are also
employed in the same way.

Since the above paragraph was written there has been a vast improvement in
English chocolates, though the cheaper sorts of certain makers are still
much adulterated. Genuine chocolate should dissolve in the mouth without
grittiness, and should leave a peculiar sensation of freshness; after
boiling it with water the emulsion should not form a jelly when cold, for
if it does starch or flour is present. The presence of animal fat may
generally be detected by a cheesy or rancid flavour. See COCOA.

_Qual., &c._ Chocolate is nutritive and wholesome if taken in moderation,
but is sometimes apt to disagree with weak stomachs, especially those that
are easily affected by oily substances or vegetable food. When this is the
case, by adopting the simple plan recommended under BUTTER, chocolate may
generally be taken with impunity, even by the dyspeptic. The quantity of
aromatics mixed with the richer varieties of chocolate improve the
flavour, but render them more stimulant and prone to produce nervous
symptoms and head complaints.

Chocolate is taken in the solid form, or made into a beverage; or,
combined with sugar, is made into various articles of confectionery.

CHOCOLATE FOR THE TABLE is prepared by slicing or scraping very finely the
required quantity into a jug, and adding to it a small quantity of boiling
water. This is worked into a thin, smooth paste, and the jug immediately
filled up with boiling milk-and-water. A froth is produced by the same
means that eggs are beaten up. The operation of “milling,” performed by
rapidly twirling a notched cylinder of wood in the emulsion, raises the
froth very quickly. Sugar may be put in with the scraped chocolate, or
added afterwards at pleasure.

Chocolate should never be made for the table before it is wanted, because
beating it again injures the flavour, destroys the froth, and separates
the body of the chocolate, the oil of the nut being observed, after a few
minutes’ boiling, or even standing long by the fire, to rise to the top.
This is one of the principal reasons why chocolate offends the stomach.

Preparations of chocolate, intended either as nutritious articles of food
for convalescents, or as vehicles for medicine, are common among the
pharmacopœial and magistral formulæ of the Continent. The following are a
few examples:——

=Chocolate, Aromat′ic.= _Prep._ (Weiglebt.) Cocoa beans and sugar, of each
16 oz.; cinnamon, 1/2 oz.; cloves, 2 dr.; cardamoms and vanilla, of each 1
dr.

=Chocolate, Car′rageen.= See CHOCOLATE, WHITE (Nos. 1 and 2).

=Chocolate, Chalyb′eate.= _Syn._ FERRUGIN′EOUS CHOCOLATE; CHOCOLA′TA
CHALYBEA′TA, C. MAR′TIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Trousseau.) Spanish chocolate, 16
oz.; carbonate of iron, 1/2 oz.; mix, and divide into 1-oz. cakes. One at
a time; in anæmia, amenorrhœa, chlorosis, &c.

2. (Pierquin.) Iodide of iron, 2 dr.; chocolate, 16 oz. For 1/2-oz. cakes;
as above, and in scrofulous and glandular affections.

=Chocolate, Guarana′.= _Syn._ PAULLIN′IA CHOCOLATE; CHOCOLA′TA PAULIN′IÆ,
C. GUARAN′Æ, L. _Prep._ From guarana and white sugar, of each 1 oz.,
triturated together, and afterwards thoroughly mixed with good plain
chocolate, 18 oz. Recommended as a restorative in debility, chlorosis, and
other diseases of debility, especially those of a nervous character.

=Chocolate, Ice′land Moss.= _Syn._ CHOCOLA′TA CETRAR′IÆ ISLAND′ICÆ, C.
LICHEN′IS, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. C.) Simple chocolate (P. C.), 32 parts;
sugar, 29 parts; dried jelly of Iceland moss, 11 parts; mix.

2. (Cadet.) Chocolate, 4 lbs.; sugar, 2 lbs.; Iceland moss (freed from its
bitter, and powdered), 1-1/2 lb.; tragacanth and cinnamon, of each 4 oz.;
water, q. s.; to be beaten in a warm mortar, or ground with a muller on a
warm slab to a paste. Recommended in pulmonary affections, general
debility, weakness of stomach, &c. See COCOA (Iceland Moss).

=Chocolate, Pur′gative.= _Syn._ CHOCOLA′TA PUR′GANS, C. CATHAR′TICA, L.
_Prep._ 1. Jalap, 1 oz.; chocolate, 9 oz.; mix, and divide into 1-dr.
cakes.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 cakes, as a purge.

2. Jalap, 2 oz.; calomel and sugar, of each 1 oz.; triturate together,
then add chocolate, 20 oz.; for 1-dr. cakes.

3. Scammony, 2 dr.; chocolate, 3 oz.; for 1 dozen cakes. The last two are
given in worms.——_Dose_ (for an adult), 1 cake, taken fasting.

=Chocolate, Sal′ep.= _Syn._ SAL′OOP CHOCOLATE; CHOCOLA′TA CUM SAL′EP, L.
_Prep._ 1. (P. C.) Chocolate, 16 oz.; powdered salep, 1/2 oz.

2. (Cadet.) Cacao paste and sugar, of each 1 lb.; powdered salep, 1 oz.
Arrowroot chocolate and tapioca chocolate are made in the same manner.
(See _below_.)

=Chocolate, Sim′ple.= _Syn._ HYGIEN′IC C., HOMŒOPATH′IC C.; CHOCOLA′TA, C.
SIM′PLEX, C. SALU′TIS, L.; CHOCOLAT DE SANTÉ, Fr. _Prep._ (P. C.) Caracas
and Maragnan cocoa, of each 96 lbs.; sugar, 160 lbs.; cinnamon, 1 oz. (to
2 oz.); triturated together in the usual manner, and formed into cakes or
powder.

=Chocolate, Vanil′la.= _Syn._ CHOCOLA′TA CUM VANIL′LA, L. _Prep._ 1. (P.
C.) Chocolate (plain,——P. C.), 16 oz.; vanilla, 1/2 dr.

2. (Cotterau.) Cocoa paste, 6 lbs.; sugar, 10 lbs.; vanilla, 11 dr.

See forms previously given.

=Chocolate, Ver′mifuge.= _Syn._ CHOCOLA′TA VERMIFU′GA, L. See CHOCOLATE,
PURGATIVE (Nos. 2 and 3, _above_).

=Chocolate, White.= _Syn._ WHITE COCOA, CAR′RAGEEN C.; CHOCOLA′TA CUM
CHON′DRO, PAS′TA CACA′O CUM CHON′DRO, P. C. C. LICHEN′E CARRAGHEN′O, L.
_Prep._ 1. As Iceland moss chocolate, but employing carrageen moss.

2. (Ph. Dan.) Roasted and decorticated cocoa seeds (reduced to a subtile
mass in a warm iron mortar) and powdered white sugar, of each 2 lbs.;
powdered carrageen (debitterised), 3 oz.

3. (Cottereau.) Sugar, 6 lbs.; rice flour, 1-3/4 lb.; potato starch and
butter of cocoa, of each 1/2 lb.; gum Arabic 1/4 lb. (dissolved); tincture
of vanilla, 1/2 fl. oz.; boiling water, q. s.; triturate to a stiff paste.
The above are highly nutritious, and are recommended as articles of diet
for convalescents and debilitated persons.

=CHOKE-DAMP.= _Syn._ AFT′ER-DAMP. The term applied by miners to carbonic
anhydride (carbonic acid) and other irrespirable gases and vapours evolved
in mines. See CARBONIC ACID, FIRE DAMP, VENTILATION, &c.

=CHOKING.= Threatened choking may occur either in the gullet or
swallow——or in the windpipe. If in the gullet press down the tongue with
the handle of a spoon, and pass the fingers down without any hesitation,
when the substance may generally be dislodged or pulled up. When it is
small, and has got out of reach, it may mostly be removed by filling the
mouth with liquid and swallowing it at a gulp, or by swallowing a large
piece of bread. Foreign bodies thus swallowed generally pass harmlessly
through the bowels.

If the choking occur in the windpipe or trachea, it is usually dislodged
by the paroxysm of coughing which accompanies the act. Should it fail to
be so, and a sense of suffocation ensues, accompanied with blueness of
countenance and difficulty of breathing, place the patient, and follow the
directions given in the article “SUSPENDED ANIMATION,” while a medical man
is immediately sent for.

_Treatment for Horses or Cattle._——Remove any foreign body by hand, as
directed above, or have recourse to the probang. It may perhaps be
necessary to call in a veterinary surgeon, in case the above methods fail,
to extract the obstruction by cutting into the gullet.

=CHOLAGOGUES.= Medicines which promote a flow of bile.

=CHOLALIC ACID.= C_{24}H_{40}O_{5}. _Syn._ CHOL′IC ACID. A non-nitrogenous
acid existing in bile. It is best prepared by boiling the resinous mass
precipitated by ether from an alcoholic solution of ox bile with a dilute
solution of potassa, for 24 to 36 hours, till the amorphous potassa salt
that has separated begins to crystallise. The dark-coloured soft mass is
then removed from the alkaline liquid, dissolved in water, and
hydrochloric acid added. A little ether will cause the deposition of the
CHOLALIC ACID from this solution in crystals. With sulphuric acid and
solution of sugar it strikes a purple-violet colour; this constitutes
Pettenkofer’s test for bile.

=CHOLE′IC ACID.= _Syn._ TAURO-CHOLALIC ACID. A peculiar conjugated
compound of cholalic acid with a substance called taurine, which contains
both nitrogen and sulphur. In combination with soda, choleic acid
constitutes a principal ingredient in bile.

=CHOL′ERA.= This word, which, from its derivation, can be only applied
correctly to a bilious affection of the stomach and bowels, has been of
late years very loosely extended to a malignant disease, the most marked
characteristic of which is a total suspension of the functions of the
biliary organs.

=Cholera, En′′glish.= _Syn._ COM′MON CHOLERA, BIL′IOUS C.; CHOL′ERA
MOR′BUS, L. A disease characterised by bilious vomiting and purging,
accompanied by more or less pain and debility. Diarrhœa is the most common
precursor of the disease, and ought to be attended to without delay,
particularly if the weather be warm. Cholera most frequently occurs
towards the end of the summer and early in the autumn, when the increased
heat of the sun stimulates the liver to an inordinate secretion of bile,
by which the whole system becomes overloaded with it. Among secondary and
accidental causes are sudden changes of temperature, checked perspiration,
and the use of indigestible food, and food and beverages in a state of
incipient decomposition. It is usually accompanied by fever, thirst, and
severe colic, and sometimes by cold sweats, extreme debility, feeble
pulse, &c., under which the patient sinks in 24 hours.

_Treat._ In most cases this complaint is not dangerous, and yields to
proper treatment in a few days. As soon after the commencement of the
attack as possible, some mild aperient should be administered. Opiates may
be employed, both topically and by the mouth. Jeremie’s solution is stated
to be very efficacious in the diarrhœa which so generally precedes
cholera. A teaspoonful or two of laudanum, rubbed over the region of the
stomach and bowels, is a simple application which will generally allay the
pain. 10 to 20 drops of laudanum, mixed with a table-spoonful of good
brandy, or a few grains of cayenne pepper, may also be taken every hour if
the pain is severe. Should the stomach reject the medicine, or the
vomiting be apparently increased by drinking warm diluents, a few
spoonfuls of ice-cold water, or of a mixture of lemon-juice and water, may
be taken instead, until the sickness abates. Dr Copeland recommends spirit
of turpentine in violent attacks, both internally and as an external
application in the form of warm epithems. When the violence of the
symptoms has abated, tonics and bitters (as calumba, gentian, orange-peel,
&c.) may be advantageously had recourse to. Calumba, in the form of a weak
infusion, conjoined, if necessary, with aromatics, is, perhaps, the most
valuable agent we possess for the after-treatment of the disease. See
DIARRHŒA.

=Cholera, Malig′nant.= _Syn._ ASIAT′IC CHOLERA, EPIDEM′IC C, BLUE C,
PESTILEN′TIAL C, SPASMOD′IC C.; CHOL′ERA ASIAT′ICA, C. ASPHYX′IA, C.
MALIG′NA, L. This fearful disease first became known in this country in
the autumn of 1831. The attack usually begins with sickness and purging;
this discharge, however, is not bilious, as in ordinary cholera, but a
thin, colourless fluid, like rice-water; at the same time there is great
prostration of strength, and cold, clammy sweats. In a short time dreadful
cramps assail the extremities and afterwards the abdomen; the body becomes
bent, the limbs twisted, the countenance cadaverous, the pulse almost
imperceptible, and the eyes sunken; the patient sinks into a state of
apathy, and unless a favorable change speedily takes place, soon expires
from exhaustion. When there is a reaction the pulse gradually returns, the
natural warmth of the body is restored, and the spasms and difficulty of
breathing give way. Frequently, however, the reaction is accompanied by
fever closely resembling typhus, and which often terminates fatally in
from four to eight days. The symptoms of epidemic cholera are not always
of this terrible character.

_Treat._ In giving a few of the many remedies that have been recommended
for this terrible disease, we may preface the list, by urgently
counselling the sufferer to lose no time in sending for a medical man, in
case of being attacked by this appalling malady.

1. (American Remedy.) Equal parts of maple sugar and powdered fresh-burnt
charcoal, made into a stiff paste with lard, and divided into pieces the
size of a filbert.——_Dose._ One, occasionally, swallowed whole.

2. (Austrian Specific.) The proportions of the ingredients in the
following formulæ are founded on Mr Herapath’s analysis of this celebrated
preparation, and are given in the nearest available whole numbers:——

_a._ Sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1·845), 20 gr.; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·500),
12 gr,; sugar and gum, of each 15 gr.; distilled or pure soft water, q. s.
to make the whole weigh exactly 1 oz.

_b._ Sulphuric acid, 3 dr.; nitric acid, 2 dr.; simple syrup, 6 dr.;
water, q. s. to make the whole weigh exactly 10 oz. A single drop of
essential oil of lemon may be added.

_Doses, &c._ One table-spoonful is ordered to be taken in water, on the
first appearance of premonitory symptoms, followed by the free use of very
cold water. In half an hour a second dose is to be taken. This (as
asserted) is generally sufficient to arrest the progress of the disease. A
table-spoonful is then to be added to a pint of cold water, and drunk _ad
libitum_. In more obstinate cases it is said that 4 or 5 doses are
generally required to effect a cure. When collapse sets in, double doses
are ordered to be given, and to be repeated after every attack of vomiting
until the sickness and cramp abate. After the vomiting abates the doses
are still to be repeated until 5 or 6 doses are retained by the stomach.
Should quiet sleep or drowsiness come on, it is not to be interfered with.
The free use of cold water or soured water is to be allowed until
perspiration sets in and the warmth of the body returns. According to the
report, the use of warm liquors, wines, spirits, &c., must be carefully
avoided as so much poison.

_Obs._ A bottle of the above remedy was handed to the late Mr Wm. Herapath
by the superintendent of the Birmingham police, who had received it from
the head of the Austrian police, as being in general use in Austria, under
the sanction of the medical department of the government, and being found
to act almost as a specific in cholera. In 1831-2 it was first tried on
some criminals with perfect success, and soon afterwards with similar
results on thousands of the general public. In 1849 the Austrian
government ordered its use in the public establishments of the empire,
since which not a single case of failure had occurred in which it had been
fairly tried.

3. (Mr Buxton’s Remedy.) From dilute sulphuric acid (spirit of vitriol),
25 drops; water, 1 fl. oz. For a draught; as the last.

4. (College of Physicians and Board of Health; for Premonitory Diarrhœa.)
Chalk mixture, 1 oz.; aromatic confection, 10 to 15 gr.; tincture of
opium, 5 to 15 drops; to be repeated every 3 or 4 hours, or oftener, if
required, until the looseness is arrested.

5. (Dr Graves’s Astringent Pills.) Acetate of lead, 20 gr.; opium, 1 gr.;
conserve of roses, q. s.; for 12 pills.——_Dose._ One every 1/2 hour or
hour, at first; then one every two hours.

6. (Homœopathic Preventive.) Camphor, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 6 dr.;
dissolve, and preserve it in a well-corked bottle.——_Dose._ 2 drops on a
lump of sugar, sucked as a lozenge two or three times a day.

7. (Homœopathic Remedy.) As the last, repeating the dose every 10 or 15
minutes, followed by draughts of ice-cold water, until the symptoms abate.

8. (Mr Hope’s Remedy.) (_a._) Red nitrous acid, 2 dr.; peppermint water or
camphor julep, 1 oz.; tincture of opium, 40 drops; mix.——_Dose._ One to
two teaspoonfuls in a cupful of thin gruel every 3 or 4 hours.

_b._ Spirit of wine, 1 oz.; spirit lavender, 1/4 oz.; oil of orizinanum,
1/4 oz.; compound tincture benzoin, 1/2 oz.; spirits camphor, 1/4
oz.——_Dose_, 20 drops on moist sugar. To be rubbed outwardly also.

9. (Liverpool Preventive Powders.) Bicarbonate of soda, 20 gr.; ginger, 10
gr.; for a dose. One to be taken in a glass of water after breakfast and
supper daily.

These powders are said to have been used with good effect among the
workmen in the mining and manufacturing districts during a former
visitation of cholera.

10. (Police Remedy; Mr B. Child’s Remedy.) Rectified sulphuric ether and
tincture of opium, of each 30 drops; for a dose for an adult; especially
during the earlier stages.

11. (Mr Ross’s Astringent Pills.) Each pill contains 1 gr. of nitrate of
silver, made up with crum of bread, q. s.——_Dose._ One pill, to be
repeated after the interval of half an hour or an hour, should the
symptoms continue unabated.

12. (Russian Remedy.) Sumbul, in the form of tincture, concentrated
essence, in decoction, in cold infusion, and in powder in the form of
pill.——_Doses._ Tincture, from 20 to 60 drops; essence, from 5 to 10 or 20
drops; in a little camphor julep or plain water. The physicians of Moscow
and St. Petersburg ascribe to the virtues of this drug the saving of
thousands of lives during the last epidemic. See SUMBUL.

13. (Dr Stevens’ Saline Powders.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1/2 dr.; common
salt, 20 gr.; chlorate of potassa, 7 gr.; for a dose.

14. (Sir M. Tierney’s Remedy.) Cajeput oil, in doses of 20 to 30 drops,
every two or three hours. The oil excites the nervous system and equalises
the circulation. The late Sir M. Tierney and others prescribed it
frequently, it is said, with considerable success.

15. (Common Remedies of the Shops.) These generally consist of chalk
mixture, with a little laudanum, and some aromatic or carminative, as
cassia, cinnamon, cardamoms, nutmeg, or peppermint. In a few, some
astringent, as tincture of catechu, or extract of logwood, is added.

16. (Dr Beaven’s Preventative and Remedy.) _The Preventative._——Sulphite
of magnesia, 2 dr.; sulphurous acid, 2 oz.; water, 2 oz.; tincture of
capsicum, 1/2 oz. Mix and dissolve, a teaspoonful night and morning.

_The Remedy._——Sulphite of magnesia, 2 dr., sulphurous acid, 2 oz.; water,
2 oz.; tincture of capsicum, 1/2 oz.; sulphate of morphia, 2 gr. Mix and
dissolve; a teaspoonful every half hour until relieved.

=CHOLERA MEDICINE.= The expressed juice of dandelion and milfoil mixed
with brandy spirit. (Dr Horn).

=CHOLES′TERIN.= C_{2}_{6}CH_{4}_{4}O.H_{2}O. This substance is found in
the bile, brain, nerves, blood, &c., and forms the principal ingredient of
biliary calculi (gall-stones).

_Note._——The remedies containing astringents are the most efficacious.

=CHOL′IC ACID.= _Syn._ GLYCO-CHOLAL′IC ACID. A peculiar acid, existing as
cholate of sodium, and associated with choleic acid in the bile. It is a
conjugate compound of cholalic acid with a nitrogenised substance called
glycocin.

=CHON′DRIN.= Gelatin obtained from cartilage. It differs from ordinary
gelatin in being precipitable by acetic acid, alum, and acetate of lead.

=CHOREA.= [_Syn._ _St. Vitus’s Dance._] A spasmodic disease affecting
children and young persons, especially girls, between eight and sixteen
years of age. It is caused by a debilitated condition of the nervous
system, as well as by brain disease, scrofula, imprudent diet and worms.

The treatment recommended is the regulation of the bowels by mild
purgatives. If the disease can be traced to worms, these should be removed
by the proper remedies. If worms are not the cause, recourse should be had
to the cold, or shower-bath. The hot hip-bath will be found serviceable in
some cases. Where there is paleness of the skin any of the iron
preparations will prove of great use, the bowels being kept regular. The
best preparations of iron are either the tincture of the perchloride, or
nitrate, or the citrate of iron and quinine. Some practitioners recommend
arsenic——five drops of the solution (for an adult) twice a day after
meals; others valerianate of zinc.

_Treatment for the Horse and other Animals._——Similar to the above.

=CHRISTOFIA= is a stomachic brandy or wine made of 1500 parts white wine,
20 parts cinnamon, 10 parts cloves, 60 parts bitter almonds, digested
several days; 300 parts of sugar and 500 of spirit are then added, and the
whole filtered. (Hager).

=CHROMACOME.= For dyeing the hair black. This is said to be prepared from
harmless vegetable materials, but really consists of pyrogallic acid and
nitrate of silver.

=Chromacome.= This is a French preparation which “contains nothing
injurious to health.” This hair dye consists of two fluids. The first, “Le
chrômacome, teinture supérieure de William W. A. T., No. 1, Bonn,”
weighing about 45 grammes, is tincture of galls. The other, No. 2, is a
solution of acetate of iron with a little nitrate of silver. When grey
hair is moistened first with No. 1, then with No. 2, it becomes
blackish-brown or black.

=CHRO′MATE.= _Syn._ CHRO′MAS, L. A salt in which the hydrogen of
(hypothetical) chromic acid, HCrO_{4}, is replaced by a metal or other
basic radical.

=Chromates=:——

_Prep._ The insoluble chromates, as those of barium, zinc, lead, mercury,
silver, &c., may be made by mixing a soluble salt of those bases with
neutral chromate of potassium. The first three are yellow; the fourth
brick-red; and the fifth reddish-brown, or ruby red when crystallised. The
soluble chromates may all be made by direct solution of the base in the
acid, or by double decomposition. The chromates of commerce are prepared
from either chrome ore or chromate of potassium.

_Prop., Uses &c._ The chromates are characterised by their yellow or red
colour, the latter predominating when the acid is in excess; and except
those with the alkaline bases, they are, for the most part, insoluble in
water. Both the chromate and the bichromate of potassium are extensively
used in dyeing and calico-printing. The former is employed in conjunction
with sulphuric acid in the laboratory as an oxidising agent and in the
manufactory for bleaching sperm oil. The bichromate of ammonium and
potassium are used in photography.

They are readily recognised by the following tests:——

On boiling a chromate in hydrochloric acid mixed with alcohol, chromic
acid is first set free, and then decomposed, forming a green solution of
chloride of chromium. Sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid effect
similar changes. With acetate of lead the chromates give a yellow
precipitate; with nitrate of silver, a reddish-brown; with nitrate of
mercury, a red one.

=CHROME ALUM.= See ALUMS.

=CHROME GREEN.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=CHROME IRON.= See IRON.

=CHROME RED.= See RED PIGMENTS.

=CHROME YELLOW.= See LEAD, CHROMATE OF.

=CHROMIC ACID.= See CHROMIC ANHYDRIDE.

=CHRO′MIUM.= Cr. A metal discovered in native chromate of lead by
Vauquelin in 1797. It is found in the state of oxide, combined with oxide
of iron, in some abundance, in the Shetland Islands, and elsewhere; as
chromate of lead it constitutes a very beautiful material.

Prepared in an impure condition as a white, very infusible, hard metal, by
igniting the oxide with charcoal, at a white heat, in a lime crucible.

=Chromous Chloride.= CrCl_{2}. _Syn._ PROTOCHLORIDE. _Prep._ Ignite the
chromic chloride in a current of dry hydrogen. A white, foliated mass,
soluble in water (evolving much heat), and yielding a blue solution, which
absorbs atmospheric oxygen with astonishing rapidity, acquiring a
deep-green colour, and passing into the state of oxychloride of chromium.
It is the most powerful reducing or deoxidising agent known.

=Chromic Chloride.= Cr_{2}Cl_{6}. _Syn._ SESQUICHLORIDE. _Prep._ Pass dry
chlorine over a mixture of sesquioxide of chromium and charcoal, heated to
redness, in a porcelain tube. The chloride collects as a sublimate, of a
peach or violet colour, in the cool part of the tube.

Dissolve chromic oxide in hydrochloric acid and evaporate to dryness; the
residue is chromic chloride. It forms a dark green mass, containing water,
which is evolved by igniting at a temperature of 400°, turning a purplish
red.

=Chromium Oxides=:——

=Chromous Oxide.= CrO. _Syn._ PROTOXIDE OF CHROMIUM. This oxide has not
yet been obtained in a satisfactory manner, but the hydrate is prepared by
the addition of potassium hydrate solution to a solution of chromous
chloride or sulphate. A brownish-red powder, speedily passing to a deep
foxy-red, with disengagement of hydrogen, and forming pale blue-coloured
salts with the acids, which absorb oxygen with avidity, whilst the metal
passes into a higher state of oxidation.

=Chromic Oxide.= CrO_{3}. _Syn._ SESQUIOXIDE. Prepared by igniting
potassium bichromate at a red heat and well washing the residue, and as
hydrate by cautiously adding equal parts of hydrochloric acid and alcohol
or sugar to a boiling solution of chromate of potassa in water, in small
portions at a time, until the red tint disappears, and the liquid assumes
a green colour; pure ammonia, in excess, is next added, and the
precipitate which subsides is collected and washed with water.

_Prop., &c._ The anhydrous oxide is a rich crystalline, green powder,
insoluble in both water and acids; fused with borax and glass, it imparts
a beautiful green colour.

The hydrate is soluble in the acids and in alkaline lyes; with the first
it forms salts which have a green or purple colour. These compounds may be
made by direct solution of the hydrate in the dilute acids. Chromic
sulphate combines with the sulphates of potassium and ammonium, giving
rise to salts (CHROME ALUMS) which crystallise in magnificent octahedrons
of a deep claret colour. The finest crystals are obtained by spontaneous
evaporation.

These salts of chromium are the most important, the chromous salts being
seldom met with, and are best recognised by the following
reactions:——Caustic alkalies precipitate the hydrate, easily soluble in
excess of the precipitant. Ammonia the same, but the precipitate is nearly
insoluble. The carbonates of potassium, sodium, and ammonium throw down a
green precipitate of carbonate and hydrate, slightly soluble in a large
excess. Sulphuretted hydrogen causes no change.——Sulphydrate of ammonium
precipitates the hydrate of a bluish-green colour.

=Chromic Anhydride.= CrO_{3}. _Syn._ CHROMIC ACID, ANHYDROUS CHROMIC ACID,
CHROMIC TRIOXIDE. _Prep._ By conducting gaseous fluoride of chromium into
a silver or platinum vessel, the sides of which are just moistened with
water, and the aperture covered with a piece of moist paper, the anhydride
will be deposited under the form of red, acicular crystals, which will
nearly fill the vessel. When the process is skilfully conducted, the
product is of exquisite beauty and chemically pure. The fluoride referred
to above is obtained from fluor spar, 3 parts; chromate of lead, 4 parts;
fuming (or the strongest) sulphuric acid, 5 parts; mixed cautiously in a
silver or leaden retort. A red-coloured gas is evolved, which acts rapidly
on glass, forming fluosilicic acid gas, and upon water forming
hydrofluoric acid and chromic anhydride. The moisture of the atmosphere is
sufficient to effect the decomposition last referred to; the former
substance escaping as gas, and the latter being deposited in small
crystals.

It is also prepared nearly pure by adding a cold saturated solution of
potassium bichromate to once and a half its bulk of pure strong sulphuric
acid. As the liquor cools, the anhydrous chromic acid is deposited under
the form of brilliant crimson-red prisms; the mother-liquor is then poured
off, and the crystals, placed between two tiles of glass or porcelain, are
submitted to strong pressure for some time, under a bell-glass or jar,
when the anhydride will be found sufficiently dry. It may be deprived of a
little adhering moisture by placing it over sulphuric acid for a short
time _in vacuo_.

Commercially, it is prepared by one of the two following processes:——

To a saturated solution of chromate of potassium, 100 parts, add oil of
vitriol (sp. gr. 1·845), 49 parts; and let the whole cool. This is the
common process. The product contains sulphate of potassium, but this does
not much interfere with its value as a bleaching agent.

From chromate of barium, decomposed by concentrated nitric acid. The
anhydrous chromic acid is separated from the nitrate of barium by
decantation, or, which is still better, by filtration through glass or
asbestos. It is then evaporated to dryness, when the nitric acid is
volatilised, and pure chromic anhydride left behind. The volatilised
nitric acid may be condensed, and again used for the same purpose. The
only precautions necessary to ensure the purity of the anhydrous chromic
acid prepared by this plan are——to use a sufficient quantity of nitric
acid and to take care that the nitric acid is sufficiently concentrated
and pure.

_Prop., &c._ Forms ruby-red anhydrous prisms, very soluble in water, with
formation of true chromic acid, and extensively manufactured for the
purpose of oxidising and bleaching substances.

=CHROME IRON-STONE.= _Syn._ CHROME IRON-ORE. FeO.Cr_{2}O_{3}. This, which
is the principal ore of chromium, corresponds in composition to brown
oxide of chromium and to the magnetic oxide of iron; part of the iron,
however, is generally displaced by the isomorphous metal magnesium, and
part of the chromium by aluminium.

Chrome iron-stone is often met with in the form of octohedral crystals.
Acids fail to dissolve it, and it cannot be fused in the furnace, but when
heated it absorbs oxygen from the air. This oxidation may be effected very
readily if the chrome ore reduced to very fine powder be mixed with a
carbonate of one of the metals of the alkalies or alkaline earths, a
chromate of the base being formed.

=CHRYSENE.= C_{18}H_{12}. A hydrocarbon found by Laurent in crude
anthracene. It occurs in bright yellow, glistening scales. It may be
obtained colourless by heating the yellow crystals with hydriodic acid and
amorphous phosphorus to 240°. It cannot be sublimed without decomposition.
Chrysene is very slightly soluble in cold alcohol, ether, benzene, and
glacial acetic acid. In carbon disulphide it dissolves somewhat more
readily. Its melting point is from 248° to 250°, and it boils at a
temperature beyond that which can be registered by the mercurial
thermometer.

=CHRYSOPHANIC ACID.= See RHEIN.

=CHYLE.= _Syn._ LYMPH. This is the name given to the nutritious milky
fluid generated during digestion, and absorbed from the intestines by a
set of vessels called the _lacteals_, which carry it to the thoracic duct,
whence it is immediately conveyed into the circulation.

=CHYME.= The pulpy mass formed by the food in its first great change, in
the process of digestion.

=CIDER.= _Syn._ CYDER; POMACEUM, L. Cider is the fermented juice of the
apple, and is a very ancient beverage. Pliny calls cider and perry the
“wine of apples and pears.”

The attention of the cider farmer should be first directed to the culture
of the apple tree. The situation most appropriate for an orchard is one on
rising ground, rather dry than moist, and unexposed to sea air or high
winds. The soil should be strong, but not too heavy, and should be rich in
the alkaline and earthy bases, especially the phosphates. The selection of
the proper varieties of the apple for grafting is also a point on which
particular care should be taken. It is found that the juices of different
kinds of apples vary in the quantity of saccharine matter which they
contain, as well as in other particulars that influence the quality and
flavour of the cider prepared from them. As a general rule, those
varieties should be chosen that yield a juice rich in sugar, and contain
no undue amount of acid, and which, after the period of active
fermentation is past, furnishes a liquor which clarifies itself and keeps
well. This quality of the juice may generally be determined from its
specific gravity. The heaviest and clearest is the best, other points
being equal. The specific gravity of the juice of the different varieties
of apple varies from 1·060 to 1·100.

Cider apples are classed under three heads——bitter, sweet, and sour. The
first are the best; their juice has the greatest specific gravity, is the
richest in sugar, ferments the most freely, clarifies spontaneously the
quickest, and keeps the best after fermentation. They contain a minute
quantity of extractive matter which is not present in other apples. The
juice of sweet apples ferments tumultuously, clears with difficulty, and
the resulting cider does not keep so well as that produced from the first
variety. The juice of sour apples contains less sugar and more acid than
the other two, and consequently not only produces the weakest, but the
worst cider; it, however, “fines” well, although it “stores” badly. Sour
and “rough-tasted” apples are usually preferred by farmers for making
cider. This preference, which is very decided in the West of England, may
be readily accounted for. The sour and rough-tasted apples contain less
sugar and more malic acid than some of the other varieties, and the
presence of this acid impedes the conversion of the alcohol of the cider
into vinegar; a change which their rude mode of operating renders
otherwise inevitable. But cider made with such apples never equals in
quality that prepared at a low temperature, from fruit abounding in sugar,
provided equal skill is exercised in the manufacture as in the process of
converting malt-worts into beer.

The process of making cider varies in different places, but in every case
essentially consists of the collection of the fruit, the expression and
fermentation of the juice, and the storing and management of the fermented
liquor.

The collection of the fruit should not be commenced before it has become
sufficiently mature, and should be performed with greater care than is
commonly bestowed upon it. The apples, after being gathered, are usually
left for 14 or 15 days in a barn or loft to mellow, during which time a
considerable portion of the mucilage is decomposed, and alcohol and
carbonic acid developed. If this “ripening” is allowed to go too far, loss
arises, notwithstanding the vulgar prejudice in its favour. The spoiled
apples are then separated from the sound ones, as they not only impart a
bad flavour to the cider, but impede its spontaneous clarification.

The expression of the juice is the next step in the process of
cider-making. The apples are crushed or ground in mills consisting of two
fluted cylinders of hard wood or cast-iron, working against each other.
The common practice is next to sprinkle the pulp with 1/6th to 1/4th of
its weight of spring or river water, and then to allow it to remain in
tubs or wooden cisterns for 12 or 14 hours, during which time incipient
fermentation commences, and the breaking up of the cells of the membrane
takes place, by which the subsequent separation of the juice is
facilitated. This plan, though general among cider manufacturers, is
prejudicial to the quality of the future liquor; as not only is a portion
of the newly formed alcohol lost, but the skins and pips often impart to
it a disagreeable flavour. By employing more efficient crushing machinery
this system of vatting is rendered quite unnecessary. A machine furnished
with a revolving circular rasp, similar to that used in making potato
starch, is admirably adapted to this purpose.

The pulp of the crushed or ground apples is now placed on a kind of wicker
frame, or in hair-cloth or coarse canvas bags, and after being allowed to
drain into suitable tubs or receivers, is subjected to powerful pressure,
gradually applied, in the cider press. The liquor which runs off first is
the best, and is usually kept separately; whilst that which follows,
especially the portion obtained by much pressure, tastes of the pips and
skins.

The expressed juice or “must,” obtained as above, is next put into clean
casks with large bung-holes, and freely exposed to the air and the shade,
where they are placed on “stillions,” with flat tubs under them to catch
the waste. They are now constantly attended to and kept quite full, in
order that the yeast, as it forms, may froth over and be carried off from
the surface of the liquor. After 2 or 3 days for weak cider, and 8 or 10
days for strong cider, or as soon as the sediment has subsided, the liquor
is “racked off” into clean casks, which have been (according to the common
practice) previously sulphured with a cooper’s match. The casks containing
the “racked cider” are then stored in a cellar, shaded barn, or other cool
place, where a low and regular temperature can be ensured, and are left to
mature or ripen. By the following spring the cider is commonly fit for
use, and may be “re-racked” for sale.

The marc, or pressed pulp, is generally again sprinkled with 1/3 or 1/2
its weight of water, and re-pressed. The resulting liquor, when fermented,
forms a weak kind of cider (cider moil, water moil), which is reserved for
domestic use in the same way as table-beer. The refuse-pulp (apple-marc,
pomace, pommage, apple cheese) is used as food for pigs and store cattle,
and is very acceptable to them.

The storing and management of cider are matters of vast importance to the
cider farmer, the factor, the wholesale dealer, and the bottler. The
principles by which these should be directed are precisely similar to
those which are explained under the heads BREWING, FERMENTATION, and MALT
LIQUORS; and which, indeed, refer, with slight modifications, to all
fermented liquors.

Preparatory to bottling cider it should be examined, to see whether it is
clear and sparkling. If not so, it should be clarified in a similar way to
beer, and left for a fortnight. The night before it is intended to put it
into bottles the bung should be taken out of the cask, and left so until
the next day, and the filled bottles should not be corked down until the
day after; as, if this is done at once, many of the bottles will burst by
keeping. The best corks should alone be used. Champagne bottles are the
variety generally chosen for cider. It is usual to wire down the corks,
and to cover them with tinfoil, after the manner of champagne. A few
bottles at a time may be kept in a warm place to ripen. When the cider is
wanted for immediate use, or for consumption during the cooler portion of
the year, a small piece of lump sugar may be put into each bottle before
corking it; or, what is the same thing in effect, the bottles may be
corked within 2 or 3 hours after being filled. In summer, and for long
keeping, this practice is, however, inadmissible. The bottled stock should
be stored in a cool cellar, when the quality will be greatly improved by
age. Cider for bottling should be of good quality, sound and piquant, and
at least a twelvemonth old. When out of condition it is unfit for
bottling.

_Qual., &c._ Cider, when of good quality, and in good condition, is
doubtless a very wholesome liquor. Cider consumers, living in the cider
districts, appear to enjoy almost an immunity from cholera, and often from
other diseases which are common in other parts of the kingdom. At the same
time, however, it is right to mention, that the dry colic or belly-ache
(_colica pictonum_) is far from uncommon in these districts, but is wholly
confined to those who drink early, hard, or inferior cider, made from
harsh, unripe fruit. We believe that, in most cases, it may be referred to
the acid of the common cider having acted on the lead, pewter, or copper
of the articles or utensils with which it has come in contact, and of
which it has dissolved a very minute portion. The best cider contains from
8% to 10% of absolute alcohol; ordinary cider from 4% to 6%.

_Concluding Remarks._ Much of the excellence of cider depends upon the
temperature at which the fermentation is conducted; a point utterly
overlooked by the manufacturers of this liquor. Instead of the
apple-juice, as soon as it is expressed from the fruit, being placed in a
cool situation, where the temperature should not exceed 50° or 52° Fahr.,
it is frequently left exposed to the full heat of autumn. In this way much
of the alcohol formed by the decomposition of the sugar is converted into
vinegar by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen, and thus the liquor
acquires that peculiar and unwholesome acidity known in the cider
districts by the name of “roughness.” When, on the contrary, the
fermentation is conducted at a low temperature, nearly the whole of the
sugar is converted into alcohol, and this remains in the liquor, instead
of undergoing the process of acetification. The acetous fermentation, by
which alcohol is converted into vinegar, proceeds most rapidly at a
temperature of about 90° Fahr., and at lower temperatures the action
becomes gradually slower, until at 46° to 50° Fahr. no such change takes
place. (Liebig.) It is therefore evident that if the saccharine juice of
apples, or any other fruit, is made to undergo the vinous fermentation in
a cool situation, less of the spirit resulting from the transformation of
the sugar will be converted into acetic acid, and, consequently, more will
be retained in an unaltered state in the liquor, to improve its quality,
and by its conservative and chemical action to preserve it from future
change. This is the principal cause, other circumstances being alike, of
the difference in the quality of the cider made by persons living in the
same district. The one has probably a cooler barn and cellar than the
other to store his liquor in, and is more careful to keep the pulp and
juice cool during the early part of the process. In Devonshire the
pressing and fermentation are conducted in situations where the
temperature varies little from that of the external air, and fluctuates
with all its changes; the result is that Devonshire cider, of the best
class, will rarely keep more than 4 or 5 years, and seldom improves after
the second or third year; whilst the cider of Herefordshire and
Worcestershire, where these operations are more carefully attended to,
will keep for 20 or 30 years.

When the pressing the apples for the juice is deferred until late in the
season, it sometimes happens that the fermentation is sluggish. Though the
juice has been set on the old system, in November or December, the working
hardly commences until March. At this time the cider is sweet; it now
rapidly becomes pungent and vinous, and is soon ready to be racked for
use. If the fermentation still continues, it is again racked into a clean
cask that has been sulphured; or two or three cans of the cider are put
into a cask, and a brimstone-match burned in it. The cask is then
agitated, after which it is nearly filled with the cider. By this process
the fermentation is checked, and the cider in a short time becomes fine.
Great care must be taken that the sulphuring be not overdone, as it is apt
to impart a slightly unpleasant flavour to the liquor. If, on the first
operation, the fermentation is not checked, the process of ‘racking’ is
repeated, until the liquor becomes clear, and is continued from time to
time, till the cider is in a quiet state and fit for drinking.

A common practice in Devonshire is to add a stuff called ‘stum,’ sold by
the wine-coopers, or an article called ‘antiferment,’ sold by the
druggists, for the purpose of checking the fermentation, but a much better
plan is that described above.

To improve the flavour of weak cider, or to render ordinary cider more
vinous, various plans are followed by the cellarmen and bottlers. An
excellent one is to add to each hogshead 1-1/2 gall. of good brandy or
rum, with 2 oz. of powdered catechu (dissolved in water), 10 lbs. of good
moist sugar or honey, 1/2 oz. each of bitter almonds and cloves, and 4 oz.
of mustard seed (all in powder). These must be well ‘rummaged’ into the
liquor, and the whole occasionally stirred up for a fortnight, after which
it must be allowed to repose for 3 or 4 months, when it will usually be
found perfectly ‘bright,’ and no bad substitute for foreign wine. Should
this not be the case, the liquor must be ‘fined’ with a pint of isinglass
finings, or a dozen eggs, and allowed to rest for a fortnight. If the
cider is preferred pale, the catechu must be omitted, and instead of
isinglass, a quart of skimmed milk is to be used as ‘finings.’ When
desired of a pinkish tint, 1 oz. of cochineal (in powder) may be added
instead of the catechu.

About 13 cwt. of November apples commonly yield one hogshead of cider. In
Devonshire about 6 sacks or 24 bushels are the common quantity for the
hogshead of 63 galls.

The best cider made at the present day is that of Normandy, Herefordshire,
and New Jersey (U.S.), and next that of Devonshire and Somersetshire. See
ANTIFERMENT, FERMENTATION, &c.

=Cider, Champagne.= This name is given in the United States of America to
a fine, pale variety of cider, much used for bottling, which has a great
resemblance to inferior champagne. The best variety comes from New Jersey.
The name is also applied in this country in a similar manner. The
following is a good form for a ‘made’ cider of this class:——

_Prep._ Good pale vinous cider, 1 hhd.; proof spirit (pale), 3 galls.;
honey or sugar, 14 lbs.; mix well, and let them remain together in a
temperate situation for 1 month; then add orange-flower water, 3 pints;
and in a few days fine it down with skimmed milk, 1/2 gall. A similar
article, bottled in champagne bottles, silvered, and labelled, is often
sold to the ignorant for champagne.

=Cider, Made.= An article under this name is made in Devonshire, chiefly
for the supply of the London market, it having been found that the
ordinary cider will not stand a voyage to the metropolis without some
preparation. The finest quality of ‘made’ cider is simply ordinary cider
racked into clean and well-sulphured casks; but the mass of that which is
sent to London is mixed with water, treacle, and alum. The cider sold in
London under the name of Devonshire cider would be rejected even by the
farmers’ servants in that county.

=Cider, Raisin.= This is made in a similar way to raisin wine, but without
employing sugar, and with only 2 lbs. of raisins to the gall., or even
more, of water. It is usually fit for bottling in 10 days, and in a week
longer is ready for use.

=CIDER SPIRIT.= See BRANDY.

=CIGAR.= _Syn._ SEGAR; CIGARRE, Fr.; CIGARRO, Span. A small roll of
tobacco-leaf used for smoking. The leaf is stalked or stripped of its
midrib, and damped before it passes into the hands of the cigar-roller.
The envelope or skin is cut from a smooth, unbroken leaf, and is quickly
rolled round sufficient tobacco to form the inside. To secure the loose
end of the envelope a small quantity of paste, coloured brown with
chicory, is generally used. Only those who have had great practice can
make cigars of a good shape. A full account of the manufacture of cigars
does not come within the scope of this work. Although cigars of British
make cannot compete in point of flavour with those manufactured in
tobacco-growing countries, they have obtained a high degree of favour
from the excellent manner in which they are made, and from their
comparative cheapness. For information respecting the adulteration of
cigars, and the influence of their use upon health, see TOBACCO.

=CIGARS.= (In _pharmacy_.) _Syn._ MED′ICATED CIGARS, M. CIGARETTES′. The
administration of medicinal agents in the form of cigars is of recent
introduction, and as yet in only very limited use. The medicinal
substance, if of a suitable description, as the leaves of plants, is made
up into small rolls, like cheroots, and then smoked in the usual manner.
In some cases, common cigars, or paper cigars (cigarettes), are medicated
by moistening them in a preparation of the article to be administered.
When the narcotic property of the tobacco would prove injurious, it is
first exhausted by soaking and washing it in water.

=Cigars, Aromatic.= _Syn._ AROMATIC CIGARETTES; CIGARETTÆ AROMAT′ICÆ, L.;
CIGARETTES AROMATIQUES, Fr. Aromatic spices, lavender flowers, &c., made
into cigarettes. Smoked for their odour; and in tooth-ache, face-ache, &c.
See CIGARS, SCENTED.

=Cigars, Arsenical.= _Syn._ CIGARR′Æ ARSENICALES, L. _Prep._ Dissolve
arseniate of soda, 1 part, in water, 30 parts; dip white, unsized paper
into the solution, and form it into small rolls, 3 or 4 inches long. Used
in pulmonary consumption; 4 or 5 whiffs as many times a day.

=Cigars, Balsamic.= _Syn._ BALSAMIC CIGARETTES; CIGARRÆ BALSAMICÆ,
CIGARETTÆ B., L. Thick, unsized paper is soaked in a solution of saltpetre
and dried; after which it is brushed over first with tincture of
cascarilla, and when again nearly dry, with compound tincture of benzoin;
in about half an hour it is cut into pieces (1-1/2 × 4 inches), and rolled
into cigarettes. Used in hoarseness, loss of voice, asthma, &c.

=Cigars, Belladonna.= _Syn._ BELLADONNA CIGARETTES; CIGARETTÆ BELLADONNÆ,
L. _Prep._ 1. Belladonna leaves made into cigarettes of 1 dr. each.

2. (Compound——C. B. COMPOS′ITUM.) From belladonna leaves, 4 parts;
moistened with tincture of opium (Ph. L.), 1 part; dried and made into 1
dr. cigarettes, as before.

Used as an anodyne and antispasmodic, in troublesome coughs,
hooping-cough, toothache, sore throat, tic douloureux, &c.

=Cigars, Camphor= (Raspail, Paris). A remedy for various chest diseases,
such as catarrh, hoarseness, loss of voice, coughs, spasms, hooping-cough,
phthisis; also, if the saliva be swallowed, for heartburn, pains in the
stomach, and gastritis. They consist either of a straw or quill filled
with broken camphor, or of a bone or horn mouthpiece, furnished at the
outer end with a little capsule for the camphor. (Wittstein.)

=Cigars, Cam′phor.= _Syn._ CAMPHOR CIGARETTES; CIGARETT′Æ CAMPHO′RÆ, L.;
CIGARETTES DE CAMPHRE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. Bibulous paper, moistened with 2 or
3 drops of essence of camphor, and rolled into cigarettes. For use they
are loosely placed in a tubular cigar-holder.

2. (Raspail.) These are made by loosely filling a quill or large straw
with small fragments of camphor, closing the open end with a little cotton
wool or bibulous paper, and piercing the closed end with a pin, to allow
the passage of air.

_Obs._ Both the above are used unlighted by drawing the air through them
into the mouth, which then becomes very slightly charged with the vapour
of camphor. In cold weather the vaporisation is promoted by holding the
cigarette for a few minutes in the warm hand. The homœopathists regard
them as prophylactic of cholera, and the common people hold them to
possess the same virtue in reference to contagious diseases generally, but
especially typhus and scarlet fever. They should not be employed oftener
than 3 or 4 times a day.

=Cigars, Hen′bane.= _Syn._ CIGARR′Æ HYOSCY′AMI, L. From henbane leaves, as
directed under BELLADONNA CIGARS.

=Cigars, Indian Hemp.= The plant is made into cigarettes, which are used
in asthma. They must be used with caution.

=Cigars, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ CIGARR′Æ MERCURIA′LES, L. _Prep._ (Paul
Bernard.) Ordinary cigars are deprived of their narcotic properties by
soaking them in water, and are then wetted with a weak solution of
corrosive sublimate, to which a little opium is generally added. The
proportion may be, of corrosive sublimate, 1 gr.; rectified spirit, 20
drops; dissolve; add laudanum, 15 drops; with this solution 6 cigars are
to be equally moistened to within about 1-1/2 inch of the mouth end, and
then set aside to dry.

Used by persons afflicted with syphilitic affections of the throat and
palate, as a convenient method of mercurial fumigation. For those
accustomed to the use of tobacco, mild cigars, undeprived of their
nicotine, may be employed for the purpose.

=Cigars, Scent′ed.= _Syn._ PERFU′′MED CIGARS; CIGARR′Æ AROMAT′ICÆ, L.
_Prep._ 1. By moistening ordinary cigars with a strong tincture of
cascarilla, to which a little gum benzoin and storax may be added. Some
persons add a small quantity of camphor, or of oil of cloves or cassia.

2. By soaking the tobacco, of which the cigars are to be made, or the
cigars themselves, for a short time in a very strong infusion of
cascarilla, and then allowing them to dry by a very gentle heat.

3. By simply inserting very small shreds of cascarilla bark between the
leaves of the cigar or in small slits made for the purpose.

_Obs._ The above yield a very agreeable odour when smoked; but are said to
intoxicate quicker than unprepared cigars of equal strength and quality.
They lose much of their fragrance by age.

=Cigars, Stramo′′nium.= _Syn._ DATU′RA CIGARS; CIGARRÆ STRAMO′′NII, L.
From the leaves of _Datura stramonium_, or preferably those of the eastern
species, _Datura tatula_. See ASTHMA, DATURA.

=CINCHONA BARKS.= _Syn._ CINCHONÆ CORTEX; PERUVIAN BARK; JESUIT’S BARK.
The native names are _quinquino_ and _quina_, _quina_. Of the nearly forty
different known species of cinchona trees, the barks of about a third are
employed, some either directly in medicine, but by far the larger number
as sources of quinine and the other cinchona alkaloids. The original
habitat of the genus _Cinchona_ is the Andes, where it is found at a
height of between 3000 and 12,000 feet above the sea, growing mostly in
patches, distributed amongst the palms, plantains, and other tropical
trees that form the vast forests, for the most part clothing the eastern
slopes of the Cordilleras, and extending from 10° north to about 19° south
latitude. In this district there is always an abundance of moisture and a
mean temperature of about 62°. In 1853 the Dutch government introduced the
cinchona into Java, and in 1861 the East Indian government, following
their example, introduced it into British India, where it is now
acclimatised, large plantations of it growing on the Neilgherries and in
the valleys of the Himalayas. The cinchona is now also successfully
cultivated in Ceylon and Jamaica.

The method followed in the collection of the bark by the Peruvians is a
very wasteful and destructive one, and consists either in stripping the
bark from the trees when they have attained a sufficient age, or in
felling the tree a little above the roots. If the latter method be
adopted, the roots give out a growth of suckers, which yield a good bark.
The bark is never removed during the rainy season.

Previous to being stripped off, the bark is sometimes cleaned with a
brush, and then peeled off in pieces varying from 15 to 18 inches long,
and from 4 or 5 in width. The thinnest pieces, which are derived from the
branches or the trunks of small trees, are dried in the sun, and thus
acquire the well-known quill-like form. The larger trunks yield the flat
specimens, which are submitted to a kind of pressure as they are being
dried. The inferior specimens being rejected, the dried barks (mostly of
the same kind) are sewed in canvas, and thus conveyed to the nearest
depôt, from whence, previous to being shipped, they are enclosed in
another envelope of fresh hide, the package being then known under the
name of a _seron_.

_Structure of Cinchona Barks._ A few general observations on the structure
of the bark of cinchona will be appropriate here. The epidermis is only
found on the youngest bark, before it has attained sufficient age for
medicinal use; it is then replaced by the corky layer. In most species
this cracks, and is easily separable, but in some it is firmly attached to
the internal layers. These are composed of the middle layer of the bark or
mesophlæum, formed of parenchyma, and the innermost layer endophlæum, or
liber. The middle layer disappears in some barks, which are thus wholly
composed of liber. This is a means of distinguishing them. The liber is
traversed by medullary rays, which project into the mesophlæum. It is,
therefore, composed of woody fibres (prosenchyma) and soft parenchyma.

The arrangement of the woody fibres, their colour, size, and shape, give a
special character to the cinchona barks.

As compared with other barks, the fibres of the liber are shorter and more
loosely arranged, being for the most part separate or united into very
short bundles. The fibres, therefore, are easily isolated; they are
spindle-shaped, sub-quadrangular, rarely exceeding 1-10th of an inch in
length, usually straight, and are very brittle, the cavity of the cell of
which each is composed being reduced by secondary deposits to a fine
canaliculus. This short and loose fibrous structure is not found in other
barks.

In some cinchona bark a system of lactiferous vessels is found between the
liber and mesophlæum.[247]

[Footnote 247: Royle.]

The parenchyma of the barks abounds in starch and oxalate of lime, or else
contains a soft brown deposit.

The ‘British Pharmacopœia’ divides the cinchona barks into the three
classes of——

1. YELLOW CINCHONA BARK. _Syn._ CINCHONÆ FLAVÆ CORTEX. The _Cinchona
Calisaya_ of Weddell.

2. PALE CINCHONA BARK. _Syn._ CINCHONÆ PALLIDÆ CORTEX. The bark of
_Cinchona officinalis_; var. _Condaminea_ of Hooker. This bark is also
known under the name of _Crown-bark_, from its having formerly been used
by the royal family of Spain.

3. RED CINCHONA BARK. _Syn._ CINCHONÆ RUBRÆ CORTEX. The _Cinchona
succirubra_ of Pavon.

The therapeutic properties of the cinchona barks are due to the following
alkaloids:——

Quinia, or quinine, having the composition C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}.

Quinidia, or quinidine, having the composition C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}.

Cinchonia, or cinchonine, having the composition C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O.

Cinchonidia, or cinchonidine, having the composition C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O.

Quinamina, or quinamine, having the composition C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}.

Besides the above, an alkaloid, which has been named _Paracina_, has been
obtained from the bark of the _Cinchona succirubra_; whilst in those barks
which contain only small portions of the more active constituents above
named there have been found two alkaloids, named respectively _Aricia_ and
_Cusconia_, which have lately been accurately investigated by Hesse, who
has determined their chemical constitution (Liebig’s ‘Annalen und Berichte
der Chemische Gesselschaft in Berlin’).

_The following Prospectus of the principal Species of Cinchona is from_
FLÜCKIGER and HANBURY’S ‘_Pharmacographia_,’

  --------------------------------------+---------------------+-------------+--------------------+-------------------------------------
    Species (excluding Sub-species and  |                     |   Native    |      Where         |
    Varieties) according to Weddell.    |   Where figured.    |   Country.  |    cultivated.     |      Product - Cinchona Barks.
  --------------------------------------+---------------------+-------------+--------------------+-------------------------------------
  I. STIRPS CINCHONÆ OFFICINALIS——      |                     |             |                    |
     1. Cinchona officinalis, Hook.     |‘Bot. Mag.,’ 5364    |Ecuador Loxe,|India, Ceylon, Java |Loxa, or Crown Bark, Pale Bark.
     2.  ”       macrocalyx, Pav.       |Howard, ‘N. Q.’      |Peru         |        ——          |Ashy Crown Bark. The sub-species
                                        |                     |             |                    | _C. Palton affords_ an
                                        |                     |             |                    | important sort called _Palton Bark_,
                                        |                     |             |                    | much used in the manufacture of
                                        |                     |             |                    | quinine.
     3.  ”      lucumæfolia, Pav.       |   ”                 |Ecuador, Peru|        ——          |Carthagena Bark, confounded with
                                        |                     |             |                    | Palton Bark, but is not so good.
     4.  ”      lanciolata, R. and P.   |   ”                 |Peru         |        ——       }  |Columbian Bark. Imported in immense
                                        |                     |             |                 }  | quantities for manufacture of
     5.  ”      lancifolia, Mutis.      |Karst., tab. 11, 12  |New Granada  |India            }  | quinine. The soft Columbian Bark
                                        |                     |             |                 }  | is produced by Howard’s var.
                                        |                     |             |                 }  | _oblonga_.
     6.  ”      amygdalifolia, Wedd.    |Wedd., tab. 6        |Peru, Bolivia|        ——          |A poor bark, not now imported.
  II. STIRPS CINCHONÆ RUGOSÆ——          |                     |             |                    |
     7. Cinchona Pityrensis, Wedd.      |Karst., tab. 22 (G). |New Grenada, |India               |Pitayo Bark. Very valuable; used by
                                        | Triane              | Popayan     |                    | makers of quinine. It is the chief
                                        |                     |             |                    | source of quinidine.
     8.  ”      rugosa, Pav.            |Howard, ‘N. Q.’      |Peru         |        ——          |Bark unknown, probably valueless.
     9.  ”      Mutisii, Lamb.          |  ”                  |Ecuador      |        ——          |Bark, not in commerce, contains only
                                        |                     |             |                    | aricine.
    10.  ”      hirsuta, R. and P.      |Wedd., tab. 21       |Peru         |        ——          |
    11.  ”      Carabayensis, Wedd.     |Wedd., tab. 19       |Peru, Bolivia|        ——          |Bark, not collected.
    12.  ”      panudiana, How.         |Howard, ‘N. Q.’      |Peru         |India, Java         |A poor bark, yet of handsome
                                        |                     |             |                    | appearance; propagation of tree
                                        |                     |             |                    | discontinued.
    13.  ”      asperfolia, Wedd.       |Wedd., tab. 20       |Bolivia      |        ——          |Bark not collected.
    14.  ”      umbelluliferæ, Pav.     |Howard, ‘N. Q.’      |Peru         |        ——          |Bark not known as a distinct sort.
    15.  ”      glandulifera, R. and P. |  ”                  |Peru         |        ——          |      ”             ”
    16.  ”      Humboldtiana, Lamb.     |  ”                  |Peru         |        ——          |False Loxa Bark, Jaen Bark. A very
                                        |                     |             |                    |  bad bark.
  III. STIRPS CINCHONÆ MICRANTHÆ——      |                     |             |                    |
    17. Cinchona Australis, Wedd.       |Wedd., tab. 8        |South Bolivia|        ——          |An inferior bark, mixed with
                                        |                     |             |                    | Calisaya.
    18.  ”      scrobiculata, H. and B. |  ”                  |Peru         |        ——          |Bark formerly known as _Red Cusco
                                        |                     |             |                    | Bark_ or _Santa Anna Bark_.
    19.  ”      Peruviana, How.         |Howard, ‘N. Q.’      |Peru         |India            }  |
    20.  ”      nitida, R. and P.       |  ”                  |Peru         |India            }  |Grey Bark, Huanuco, or Lima Bark.
    21.  ”      micrantha, R. and P.    |  ”                  |Peru         |India            }  | Chiefly consumed on the Continent.
  IV. STIRPS CINCHONÆ CALISAYÆ——        |                     |             |                    |
    22. Cinchona Calisaya, Wedd.        |Wedd., tab. 9        |Peru, Bolivia|India, Ceylon, Java,|Calisaya Bark, Bolivian Bark, Yellow
                                        |                     |             | Jamaica, Mexico    | Bark. The tree exists under many
                                        |                     |             |                    | varieties; bark also very variable.
    23.  ”      elliptica, Wedd.        |  ”                  |Peru,        |        ——          |Carabaya Bark. Bark scarcely now
                                        |                     | Carabaya    |                    | imported. _C. cuneura_, Miq.
                                        |                     |             |                    | (flower and fruit unknown), may
                                        |                     |             |                    | perhaps be this species.
  V. STIRPS CINCHONÆ OVATÆ——            |                     |             |                    |
    24. Cinchona purpurea, R. and P.    |Howard, ‘N. Q.’      |Peru,        |                    |Huamalies Bark, not now imported.
                                        |                     | Huamalies   |                    |
    25.  ”      rufinervis, Wedd.       |  ”                  |Peru, Bolivia|        ——          |Bark a kind of light Calisaya.
    26.  ”      succirubra, Pav.        |         ——          |Ecuador      |India, Ceylon, Java,|Red Bark; largely cultivated in
                                        |                     |             |  Jamaica           | British India.
    27.  ”      ovata, R. and P.        |  ”                  |Peru, Bolivia|India (?), Java (?).|Inferior brown and grey barks.
    28.  ”      cordifolia, Mutis.      |Karst., tab. 8       |New Granada, |        ——          |Columbian Bark (in part). Tree exists
                                        |                     | Peru        |                    | under many varieties; bark of some
                                        |                     |             |                    | used in manufacture of quinine.
    29.  ”      Tucujensis, Karst.      |Karst., tab. 9       |Venezuela    |        ——          |Maracaibo Bark.
    30.  ”      pubescens, Vahl.        |Wedd., tab. 16       |Ecuador,     |        ——          |Areca Bark (Cusco Bark from var.
                                        |                     |Peru, Bolivia|                    | _Pelletieriana_). Some of the
                                        |                     |             |                    | varieties contain aricine.  _C.
                                        |                     |             |                    | caloptera_, Miq., is probably a
                                        |                     |             |                    | variety of the species.
    31.  ”      purpurascens, Wedd.     |Wedd., tab. 18       |Bolivia      |        ——          |Bark unknown in commerce.
  --------------------------------------+---------------------+-------------+--------------------+-------------------------------------

The cinchona barks vary greatly in the amount of alkaloids they contain
and in their proportion to each other, these being dependent upon the
species or varieties, and many other circumstances. Of the alkaloids,
quinia and cinchonia were till lately the most abundant, but since the
introduction of cinchona cultivation into India, cinchonidia has been
found in very large quantity. Royle says:——“Good Calisaya bark usually
contains from 5 to 6 per cent. of quinia,” but actually South American
calisaya containing such an amount of quinia is rare in the market. Some
barks, however, derived from cinchonas cultivated in India, such as _C.
Calisaya_, var. _Ledgeriana_, and some varieties of _C. officinalis_,
yield even a still higher per-centage of quinine.

The South American crown, or loxa bark, is very variable, and contains
chiefly cinchonia.

Red bark also varies considerably, yielding from 3 to 10 per cent. of
alkaloids, of which quinia forms only a small fraction, whilst generally
cinchonidia is predominant. The development of the alkaloids is greatly
influenced by cultivation, but particularly by the “renewing process,”
which, applied to the _C. succirubra_, trebles the amount of quinine in
the bark.

In addition to the alkaloids already mentioned, the cinchona barks contain
the following acid principles:——KINIC ACID, CINCHO-TANNIC ACID, and
QUINOVIC or CHINOVIC ACID. The quinovic acid is accompanied by an
amorphous bitter substance, named CHINOVIN or QUINOVIA, which is present
in much greater proportion than the acid, of which generally there are
only traces. A description of these bodies will be found by referring to
them under their respective names. CINCHONA-RED is another amorphous
substance which is the body to which the red hue of the cinchona barks is
due. It is produced when cincho-tannic acid is boiled with dilute
sulphuric acid, sugar being formed at the same time.

When fused with potash, proto-catechinic acid is formed. Cinchona red
dissolves sparingly in alcohol, freely in alkaline solutions, but neither
in water nor ether. Thick red bark contains it to the amount of more than
10 per cent.

Cinchona red is the product of the oxidation of cincho-tannic acid, and is
contained largely in South American red bark, because this is the product
of old trees; but sparingly in Indian red bark, because this is always
collected from trees not more than fourteen years old.

_Medicinal Properties of the Cinchona Barks._ The therapeutic effects of
the cinchona barks are doubtless due to the alkaloids they contain; but
spite of their variability of composition in this respect, which has been
shown to be very great, they are very extensively employed in medical
practice in the forms of powder, decoction, tincture, and extract.

Dr de Vrij, the eminent quinologist, is of opinion that the therapeutic
effects of bark are chiefly due in part to the alkaloids, and in part to
the cincho-tannic acid they contain; and as red Indian bark is rich in
both these constituents, he considers it the best suited for medical
practice. See QUINETUM.

Garrod says:——“Given in small doses, bark causes an increase of appetite,
especially in weak patients, and at the same time improves the condition
of the muscular system; hence the improvement of the blood and general
health. It may, therefore, be well designated a tonic.

Its power in bracing up the system is also seen in the check given to the
colliquative sweating occurring in extreme debility. The pulse is not
quickened by the use even of large doses of quinine, although it is
frequently made stronger, nor does bark itself, in the majority of cases,
increase the heart’s action.

Bark also produces a peculiar influence upon the nervous system, which is
exhibited in the extraordinary power it possesses of arresting the
progress of certain diseases characterised by a periodical recurrence of
their symptoms, as ague, the different forms of neuralgia, and certain
inflammatory affections; how this effect is produced is at present
unknown. Bark acts likewise as an astringent, and this property, combined
with the tonic and antiperiodic powers, is often of much therapeutic
value.”

For the method of estimating the alkaloids in cinchona bark, see
QUINOMETRY, QUININE, QUINIDINE, QUINOIDINE, QUINICONE, QUINAMINE,
CINCHONINE; also the different pharmaceutical preparations of CINCHONA
BARK.

=CINCHONIDINE.= _Syn._ CINCHONIDIA. C_{20}H_{24}N_{20}. This cinchona
alkaloid is isomeric with cinchonine. It occurs in large, shining
striated, rhombic prisms, which are anhydrous. It dissolves in ·76 parts
of ether and 20 of spirit of wine. The solutions are fluorescent, but do
not answer to the chlorine and ammonia tests.

“The great powers and activity of this alkaloid have only of late been
appreciated. As a protoplasm-poison, and probably in every other
physiological action, it comes next to quinine and quinidine, and
decidedly above cinchonine.”[248]

[Footnote 248: Dr C. D. Phillips.]

If it is chemically pure, cinchonidine belongs to the non-fluorescent
alkaloids.

=CINCHONINE.= _Syn._ CINCHONIA. C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O. This alkaloid abounds
most in the paler varieties of the cinchona barks. It occurs in clear,
colourless, four-sided prisms, which are soluble in 30 parts of water, and
in about 400 parts of ether and 120 of spirits of wine. With acids it
forms soluble salts, which do not fluoresce in solution, and are turned
lightish brown-yellow by the chlorine and ammonia tests. Of its salts, the
hydriodate is readily soluble in water, and still more so in alcohol,
whether dilute or strong. Cinchonine may be prepared from its sulphate or
disulphate in the same way as quinine.

=Cinchonine, Sulphate of.= _Syn._ CINCHONIÆ SULPHAS. (Ph. U. S.) Take of
the mother-water remaining after the crystallisation of sulphate of quinia
in the process for preparing that salt a convenient quantity, solution of
soda, alcohol, diluted sulphuric acid, animal charcoal in fine powder,
each a sufficient quantity. To the mother-water add gradually with
constant stirring solution of soda, until the liquid becomes alkaline.
Collect on a filter the precipitate formed, wash it with water, and dry
it. Then wash it with successive small portions of alcohol to remove other
alkaloids which may be present, mix the residue with 8 times its weight of
water, and having heated the mixture, add gradually diluted sulphuric acid
until it is neutralised and becomes clear. Then boil the liquid with
animal charcoal, filter it while hot, and set it aside to crystallise.
Lastly, drain the crystals and dry them on bibulous paper. By evaporating
the mother-liquid more crystals may be obtained.

=CINCHO-TANNIC ACID.= This acid is precipitated from a decoction of bark
by acetate of lead, after the decoction has been freed from cinchona red
by means of magnesia.

If the cincho-tannate of lead thus formed be decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen, and the solution carefully evaporated in vacuo, the acid may be
obtained as an amorphous, hygroscopic substance, readily soluble in water.
A ferric salt added to a solution of this acid imparts a greenish colour
to it.

Cincho-tannic acid is very soluble in water, but not in acids. Therefore a
concentrated watery infusion (1 to 4) of Indian bark gives a precipitate
upon the addition of strong hydrochloric acid. By this means a rough
estimation may be formed of the amount of cincho-tannic acid in a sample
of bark.

=CINCHOVATINE.= The substance known under this name does not exist as an
alkaloid, _sui generis_. It is nothing more than quinidine, or
cinchonidine, or a mixture of both.

=CINNABAR.= _Syn._ NATIVE VERMILLION. This compound, which is one of the
most abundant of the ores of mercury, is a product of considerable
importance in the arts, and some portions of it are sometimes sufficiently
pure in colour to be used after mere levigation. Generally, however, the
factitious kind is employed. See VERMILION.

=CINNAMEIN.= C_{16}H_{14}O_{2}. _Syn._ OIL OF BALSAM OF PERU. A volatile
oil existing in balsam of Peru.

=CINNAMIC ACID.= HC_{9}H_{7}O_{2}. A colourless, transparent, crystalline
substance, obtained from oil of cinnamon, liquid storax, balsam of Peru,
and balsam of tolu. It is freely dissolved by alcohol, but nearly
insoluble in water. At 248° Fahr. it fuses, and at 560° Fahr. it sublimes
unchanged. Distilled with dichromate of potassium and sulphuric acid it is
converted into benzoic acid. Its salts are called cinnamates.

=CINNAMON.= _Syn._ CINNAMON BARK; CINNAMOMI CORTEX (B. P.), L. The inner
bark of shoots from the truncated stock of the _Cinnamomum Zeylanicum_,
imported from Ceylon, and distinguished in commerce as Ceylon cinnamon.
The best is obtained from branches about three years old.

Used in _medicine_ as a carminative and astringent, chiefly as an adjuvant
to other medicines, _e.g._ with chalk, in diarrhœa.——_Dose_, 10 to 20
grains.

_Obs._ Owing to the high price of this drug it has become a general
practice to substitute the bark of cassia (_Cassia_; _Cortex cinnamomi
cassia_) for it, which so closely resembles it in flavour that the
uninitiated regard them as the same. Cassia, however, is not only thicker
and coarser than cinnamon, but its fracture is short and resinous, and its
flavour is more biting and hot, whilst it lacks the peculiar sweetish
taste of cinnamon. The thickness of cinnamon seldom exceeds that of good
drawing paper.

=CISTERNS.= See TANKS.

=CITRATE.= A salt in which the hydrogen of citric acid is replaced by a
metal or other basic radical.

=CIT′RIC ACID.= H_{3}C_{6}H_{5}O_{7},H_{2}O. _Syn._ ACID OF LEMONS,
CONCRETE A. OF L.; AC′IDUM LIMO′NIS, ACIDUM CIT′RICUM (B. P.), L.; ACIDE
CITRIQUE, Fr.; CITRONENSAÜRE, Ger. An acid peculiar to the vegetable
kingdom. It is obtained in large quantity from the juice of lemons and
other fruits of the genus CITRUS; it is also found in gooseberries,
currants, cranberries, whortleberries, cherries, &c.; and Dr Wright has
lately found it in great abundance in unripe mulberries, in conjunction
with malic acid.

When currants or gooseberries are employed as a source of citric acid,
they are first subjected to pressure, and the juice so obtained from them
is then fermented. The fermented liquor is next submitted to distillation,
and the alcohol collected.

The residue in the retort containing the citric acid is saturated with
chalk, and the resulting citrate of lime is decomposed by means of
sulphuric acid.

100 lbs. of the fruit are said to yield 10 lbs. of spirit and 1 lb. of
acid.

_Prep._ The citric acid manufacture consists in separating it from the
mucilage, sugar, and other foreign matter with which it is combined in
the juice of lemons and limes.

1. (Ph. L. 1836,——Scheele’s process.) Take of lemon juice 4 pints;
prepared chalk, 4-1/2 oz.; diluted sulphuric acid, 27-1/2 fl. oz.;
distilled water, 2 pints. Add the chalk by degrees to the lemon juice,
made hot, and mix well; set by, that the powder may subside, and
afterwards pour off the supernatant liquor. Wash the precipitated citrate
of lime frequently with warm water; then pour upon it the diluted
sulphuric acid, mixed with the distilled water, and boil the whole for 15
minutes in glass, stoneware, or lead; press the mixture strongly through a
linen cloth, and filter it. Evaporate the filtered liquor with a gentle
heat, and set it aside, that crystals may form. To obtain the crystals
pure, dissolve them in water a second and a third time; filter each
solution, evaporate, and set it apart to crystallise.

2. (Ph. L. 1851.) Merely placed in the materia medica.

3. (Ph. E. 1841.) Similar to that of Ph. L. 1836, except that the washed
citrate of lime is ordered to be squeezed in a powerful press, and that
the filtered solution of citric acid is ordered to be tested with nitrate
of baryta, and if the precipitate is not nearly all soluble in nitric
acid, to add a little citrate of lime to the whole liquor, till it stands
this test.

4. (Ph. D. 1826.) Same as that of Ph. L. 1836.

5. (Ph. D. 1851.) Included in the materia medica.

6. (P. B. 1867.) Differs from the process of the Ph. L. 1836 in some
unimportant detail only.

7. (Dr Price.) The crude juice is saturated with ammonia, potassa, or soda
(carbonates), or with the ammoniacal product distilled from gas-liquor;
chalk, 150 parts, or hydrate of lime, 90 parts, are then added for every
192 parts of citric acid contained in the liquor, and the whole stirred
well together; heat is next applied, and the ammonia distilled into
another quantity of lemon juice; the citrate of lime thus obtained is then
decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, and the whole process conducted as
before. When potassa or soda is used the distillation is omitted, and the
expressed liquor, after filtration, used to decompose fresh lemon juice.

8. (Ordinary manufacturing process.) To crude lemon or lime juice, mixed
with water, is added ground chalk; the precipitate is washed to free it
from the impurities dissolved in the water, and afterwards decomposed by
sulphuric acid. If the citric acid is not sufficiently white, it is
decolorised by digestion with animal black.

9. (Kuhlman.) This chemist proposes saturating the hot lemon juice as far
as possible with very finely divided barium carbonate, and afterwards
completing the neutralisation with barium hydrate or sulphide. The
precipitated barium citrate is then to be washed, and decomposed with the
requisite quantity of sulphuric acid. The advantage of barium over lime as
a precipitant is the more ready crystallisability of the citric acid from
the solution thus obtained. Sulphate of baryta is absolutely insoluble in
solution of citric acid, whilst sulphate of lime is not; and the presence
of the latter impedes the crystallisation of the acid.

_Obs._ If the lemon or lime juice be allowed to ferment a short time, the
mucilage and other impurities will, to a certain extent, separate and
subside. See _Concluding Remarks_.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Citric acid forms rhomboidal prisms, which are clear,
colourless, odourless, sour, and deliquescent in a moist atmosphere. It is
an agreeable acid, at once cooling and antiseptic. It is much used in
medicine as a substitute for lemon juice, and to form effervescing
draughts, citrates, &c.

  17 gr. citric acid, in crystals, or 1/2 fl. oz. of
  lemon juice,

  \---------------------v--------------------------/
                 are equivalent to
             /----------^---------------\
            25 gr. bicarbonate of potash;
            20 ” carbonate of potash;
            15 ” carbonate of ammonia;
            20 ” bicarbonate of soda;
            35 ” carbonate of soda.

The bicarbonate of potassa is that generally preferred for making saline
draughts with citric acid; and when flavoured with a little tincture of
orange peel and simple syrup, or syrup of orange peel alone, it forms a
most delicious effervescing beverage. Citric acid in pure crystals or in
lime juice is much used by the calico-printer, being the best known
‘resistant’ for iron and alumina mordants.

_Pur._ Citric acid is frequently met with adulterated with tartaric acid;
the fraud is easily detected by dissolving the acid in a little cold
water, and adding to the solution a small quantity of acetate of potash.
If tartaric acid be present, a white, crystalline precipitate of cream of
tartar will be produced on agitation. When pure it is devoid of colour, is
entirely, or almost entirely, decomposed by heat. It is soluble in water
and in spirit, and what is thrown down from its watery solution by acetate
of lead is dissolved by nitric acid. No salt of potassium precipitates
anything with citric acid except the tartrate. When a few drops of a
solution of citric acid are added to lime water, a clear liquid results,
which, when heated, deposits a white powder, soluble in acids without
effervescence. By the action of nitric acid citric acid is converted into
oxalic acid.

When the crystals of citric acid are very deliquescent, the presence of
free sulphuric acid may be suspected. This latter may be detected with
facility by dissolving the citric acid in a little water, strongly
acidifying the solution with hydrochloric acid, and adding chloride of
barium, when, if sulphuric acid be present, an insoluble precipitate of
sulphate of barium will fall down after a short time. Oxalic acid is
sometimes present in citric acid, the cause of its presence being
explained further on. To test for it proceed as follows:

Dissolve a small quantity of the citric acid in water, and add to the
solution an excess of ammonia; acidify with acetic acid, filter, and test
the filtrate with calcium sulphate.

_Estim._ See ACIDIMETRY and LIME JUICE.

_Tests._ See _above_.

_Concluding Remarks._ The preparation of citric acid has now become an
important branch of chemical manufacture, from the large consumption of
this article in various operations in the arts. In conducting the
different steps of the process some little expertness and care are,
however, necessary to ensure success. The chalk employed, which should be
dry, and in fine powder, is added to the juice from a weighed sample,
until the latter is perfectly neutralised, and the quantity consumed is
exactly noted. The precipitated citrate of lime is next thoroughly washed
with water, and the sulphuric acid, diluted with 6 or 8 times its weight
of water, whilst still warm, is poured upon it, and thoroughly mixed with
it. The agitation is occasionally renewed for 8 or 10 hours or longer,
when the solution of citric acid is poured off, and the residuum of
sulphate of lime thoroughly washed with warm water, the washings being
added to the liquid acid. This last is then poured off from the impurities
that may have been deposited, and evaporated in a leaden boiler, over the
naked fire, or by high-pressure steam, until it acquires the gravity of
1·13, when the process is continued, at a lower temperature, until a
syrupy aspect is assumed, and a pellicle appears on the surface of the
liquor. Without great care at this part of the process the whole batch may
be carbonised and spoiled. At this point the concentrated solution is
emptied into warm and clean crystallising vessels, set in a dry apartment,
where the thermometer does not fall below temperate. At the end of 4 days
the crystals are found ready for removal from the pans. They are
thoroughly drained, redissolved in as little water as possible, and after
being allowed to stand for a few hours to deposit impurities, again
evaporated and crystallised.

The acid of the second crystallisation is usually sufficiently pure for
the market; when this is not the case a third, or even a fourth,
crystallisation must be had recourse to. The mother-liquors from the
several pans are now collected together, and a second or third crop of
crystals obtained from them, by evaporation as before.

A frequent cause of difficulty in obtaining crystals from the solutions is
the employment of too little sulphuric acid to decompose the whole of the
citrate of lime; the consequence of which is that a little of that salt is
taken up by the free citric acid, and materially obstructs the
crystallisation. Forty parts of dry sulphuric acid are required to
decompose 50 parts of chalk. Commercial sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) is
usually of the sp. gr. of 1·845, and it therefore requires 49 lbs. of this
acid for every 50 lbs. of chalk employed in the process. In practice it is
found that a very slight excess of sulphuric acid is preferable to a
preponderance of undecomposed citrate of lime.

The first crop of crystals is called ‘brown citric acid,’ and is chiefly
sold to the calico-printers. Sometimes a little nitric acid is added to
the solution of the coloured crystals, for the purpose of bleaching them,
but in this way a minute quantity of oxalic acid is formed. A more general
plan is to bleach the citrate of lime by covering it with a weak solution
of chloride of lime, exposing it in shallow vessels to the sun’s rays, and
rewashing it before decomposing it with sulphuric acid. A safer plan is to
dissolve the crude citric acid, digest with animal charcoal, and again
concentrate the solution to the crystallising point.

When the aqueous solution of citric acid obtained, as already described,
is concentrated by boiling in an open evaporating pan, the acid is not
only liable to suffer partial decomposition by its long exposure to the
air, but it not unfrequently acquires a brown colour from the
carbonisation those portions of the liquid undergo which are in contact
with the bottom of the pan, which being heated by high-pressure steam
frequently reaches a temperature exceeding 200° F. This latter result is
brought about in consequence of the slight movement in the dense acid
liquor in the pan. To remedy the loss and inconvenience arising from the
employment of the open evaporating pan, some years back Mr Pontifex
devised an apparatus which effects the evaporation of acid liquor _in
vacuo_ (and therefore out of contact with air), and at a temperature never
exceeding 130 F°. Moreover, in Mr Pontifex’s boiler the time necessary for
the concentration of the citric-acid liquor is diminished to about an
eighth, and as the strong ebullition keeps the liquid in constant motion
its charring is entirely prevented.

Mr Row says that lemon juice may be purified to a great extent by diluting
it with water until it contains about 12 oz. of acid to the gallon, and
then filtering from the flocculent precipitate of mucilage thus thrown
down. The citrate of lime obtained from juice so treated is comparatively
pure.

Good lemon juice yields about 6-1/2% of crystallised lemon acid; 2 galls.
yield fully 1 lb. of crystals. See LEMON JUICE, LIME JUICE. &c.

=CIT′RON.= The fruit of the citron tree (_Citrus medica_) is acidulous,
antiseptic, and antiscorbutic; it excites the appetite, and stops
vomiting; and, like lemon juice, has been greatly extolled in chronic
rheumatism, gout, and scurvy. Mixed with cordials, it is used as an
antidote to the manchineel poison.

=Citron, Oil of.= See OIL.

=Citron Peel.= This is prepared in the same way as candied orange and
lemon peel, which it for the most part resembles.

=Citron.= _Syn._ LEM′ON COLOUR. The term applied to a pale and delicate
shade of yellow. See YELLOW DYES, &c.

=CIT′RONELLE.= See LIQUEURS and OILS (Lemon-grass).

=CITRUS.= A genus of plants belonging to the natural order _Aurantiaceæ_,
the species of which yields useful fruits. From _Citrus Aurantium_, and
its varieties, all the various descriptions of sweet oranges are obtained.
The species _C. Bigaradia_ or _vulgaris_ yields the bitter or Seville
orange; _C. Limonum_ and its varieties, yield the lemons; _C. Limetta_ is
the source of the lime; _C. medica_ of the citron; _C. Decumana_ of the
shaddock; _C. paradisi_ of the forbidden fruit; _C. Pampelmos_ of the
Pampelmoose; and _C. japonica_ of the kumquat.

=Citrus Bergamia.= (Ind. Ph.) _Syn._ THE LIME TREE. _Habitat._ Commonly
cultivated in India and other tropical countries.——_Officinal part._ The
fruit (lime) closely resembles the lemon, but is smaller, with a smoother,
thinner rind, and of somewhat less fragrant odour. Its juice (lime juice)
has the same pungent acid taste, and contains the same ingredients as
lemon juice, though in somewhat different proportions, that of the citric
acid being larger and that of the mucilage less in quantity. Much of the
article imported into England under the name of lemon juice is obtained
from the lime.——_Properties and Uses._ Very similar to those of the lemon,
the juice being equally refrigerant and antiscorbutic; indeed, it is
preferred by many tropical practitioners.

The fresh juice of the lime is procurable in almost every portion of the
tropics, and is considered more effectual than preserved lemon juice.

Lime juice may be advantageously employed in the manufacture of citric
acid, the proportion of this acid being larger than in lemon juice.

=CIV′ET.= _Syn._ CIVET′TA ZYBETH′UM, L. A perfume obtained from the civet
cat (_Viverra civella_, Linn.), a fierce, carnivorous quadruped, somewhat
resembling a fox, found in China and the East and West Indies. The civet
is secreted in a sort of pouch between the anus and the sexual organs.
“Several of these animals have been brought into Holland, and afford a
considerable branch of commerce, especially at Amsterdam. The civet is
squeezed out in summer every other day, in winter twice a week; the
quantity procured at once is from 2 scruples to 1 drachm or more.”

Civet is frequently adulterated with spermaceti and butter, and a similar
substance to civet, but of a darker colour, obtained from the polecat.
When pure it has an odour intermediate between that of musk and ambergris,
but less refined; a pale-yellow colour; an acrid taste; and the
consistence of honey. It is used in perfumery.

=CLAIRET.= See LIQUEUR.

=CLAR′ET RAGS.= _Syn._ TOURNESOL EN DRAPEAU, Fr.; BEZET′TA CŒRU′LEA, L. 1.
Pieces of clean linen coloured with Auvergne——or ground archil.

2. Pieces of linen dipped into the juice of mulberries, blood-red grapes,
lees of red wine, &c. Used to colour jellies, confectionery, the rind of
cheeses, &c.

=CLARIFICATION.= The act of clearing or making bright; commonly applied to
the process of ‘clearing’ or ‘fining’ the liquids by chemical means,
instead of by filtration. The substances used for this purpose are
popularly known as ‘clarifiers’ or ‘finings.’

The substances employed in the clarification of liquids operate by either
mechanically embracing the feculous matter, and subsiding with it to the
bottom of the vessel, or by inducing such a change in its nature or bulk
that it subsides by its own density, in each case leaving the liquor
transparent. Albumen, gelatin, the acids, certain salts, blood, lime,
plaster of Paris, alum, heat, alcohol, &c., serve in many cases for this
purpose. The first is used, under the form of white of egg, for the
clarification of syrups, as it combines with the liquid when cold, but on
the application of heat rapidly coagulates and rises to the surface,
carrying the impurities with it, forming a scum which is easily removed
with a skimmer. It is also much used for fining wines and liqueurs,
particularly the red wines and more limpid cordials. Gelatin, under the
form of isinglass, dissolved in water or weak vinegar, is used to fine
white wines, beer, cider, and similar liquors that contain a sufficient
quantity of either spirit or astringency (tannin), to induce its
precipitation. Sulphuric acid is frequently added to weak liquors for a
similar purpose, either alone or after the addition of white of egg or
gelatin, both of which it rapidly throws down in an insoluble form. A
pernicious practice exists among some unprincipled manufacturers of using
certain salts of lead and potash to clear their liquors; especially those
that are expected to sparkle in the glass, as ‘cordial gin,’ &c. For this
purpose a little sugar of lead, dissolved in water, is first mixed up with
the fluid, and afterwards a little more than half its weight of sulphate
of potassa, also dissolved in water, is added, and the liquor is again
‘roused’ up. By standing, the sulphate of lead, formed by this mixture,
subsides, and leaves the liquor clear. Bullock’s blood is used in the same
way as isinglass or white of eggs, for fining red wines, beer, and porter.
Lime, alum, alcohol, acids, and heat, act by curdling or coagulating the
feculencies, and thus, by increasing their density, induce their
subsidence. Plaster of Paris acts, partly like the above, and partly like
albumen, or gelatin, by developing and forcing down the suspended matter.
Sand is often sifted over liquors (especially cordials and syrups), for
the simple purpose of acting by its gravity, but appears to be quite
useless, as it sinks too rapidly. The juices of plants are clarified by
heat, which coagulates the albumen they contain. Marl or clay is
frequently used to clear cider and perry. A strip of isinglass is
generally employed to clarify coffee. See WINE, BREWING, CORDIALS, COFFEE,
FININGS, INFUSION, &c.

=CLAY.= Clay is formed from the disintegration of felspathic rocks, by the
combined action of air and water. Its plasticity, when moist, and its
capability of being made hard by heat, are properties which render it
available for many useful purposes. The purest kind of clay is kaolin, or
China clay, which consists almost entirely of silicate of aluminum. It is
found in China; but a precisely similar substance is obtained from
deposits in Cornwall and some parts of France. Pipe-clay, a white clay
nearly free from iron, is found in large quantity in the island of
Purbeck. Potter’s clay is found in many parts of Britain; that of
Devonshire and Dorsetshire is much valued. Brick clay contains varying
proportions of iron; hence the different colours of the bricks used in
different countries. See ALUMINUM, FULLER’S EARTH, OCHRE, &c.

=CLEAN′ING.= In domestic economy the best way to clean a house is to keep
it clean by a daily attention to small things, and not allow it to get
into such a state of dirtiness and disorder as to require great and
periodical cleanings. Some mistresses, and also some servants, seem to
have an idea that a house should undergo regular cleanings, or great
washing and scrubbing matches, once every three or six months, on which
occasions the house is turned almost inside out, and made most
uncomfortable. All this is bad economy, and indicates general slovenliness
of habits. (Chambers.) For hints upon cleaning, see CARPETS, CLOTHES, &c.

=CLEAN′LINESS.= See ABLUTION, BATHING, and SICKNESS.

=CLIPPING= (HORSES). Some horses should be worked in autumn in cloths, or
with their coats on, as, on account of the extra sweating thus caused,
they will be in better condition for the hunting season. Such horses
should be clipped or shaved. The horse’s coat should be fully set before
it is clipped. Those horses which sweat much in autumn should be singed.
Singeing cannot be begun too early. The fresh growth must be removed every
week. Singeing may be best accomplished by means of gas.

=CLOTHES.= Economy and cleanliness require due attention to be paid to
every article of clothing, but more especially to those which are the most
exposed to dirt and the weather. The following remarks, having reference
chiefly to woollen articles, may prove useful to the reader:——If very
dusty, hang them on a horse or line, and gently beat them with a cane;
then lay them on a clean board or table and well brush them, first with a
stiff brush, to remove the spots of mud and the coarsest of the dirt, and
next with a softer one, to remove the dust and to lay the nap properly. If
clothes are wet and spotted with dirt, dry them before brushing them, and
then rub out spots with the hands. The hard brush should be used as little
as possible, and then with a light hand, as it will, if roughly and
constantly employed, soon render the cloth threadbare. Spots of
tallow-grease on the clothes may be taken off with the nail, or, if that
cannot be done, have a hot iron with some thick brown paper, lay the paper
on the part where the grease is, then put the iron upon the spot; if the
grease comes through the paper put on another piece, till it ceases to
soil it. Moths may be prevented attacking clothes by putting a few cloves
or allspice into the box or closet with them. See BALLS, CLOTHES, and
SCOURING, &c.

=CLO′′THING.= In our changeable climate great care should be taken to
clothe the body effectually; for when the skin is chilled the blood is
determined in increased and injurious quantity to the internal organs,
causing colds and inflammations. The ordinary materials for clothing are
cotton, linen, woollen, and silk. Cotton is generally employed for
undergarments, for which its softness and warmth render it well adapted.
Linen is not nearly so warm, but it keeps its colour better; it is more
expensive, and although it wears much longer, it is not so economical as
cotton. Woollen garments are, in cold and variable climates, almost
essential to comfort; the warmth obtained by wearing flannel next the body
is very beneficial, and the slight stimulating effect arising from its
roughness tends to keep the skin in healthy action.

The practice of dressing infants in long clothes is a very objectionable
one, for besides being injurious to health it cramps the action of the
legs, the feet, and the toes, and by so doing prevents their proper and
healthy development.

An infant should be so clothed as to combine sufficient warmth with
perfect freedom of the limbs; hence his garments should be loose instead
of tight, more particularly round his waist.

In the selection of winter clothes for children, if for in-door wear,
choice should be made of a dark woollen frock, and of stockings in
preference to socks. The stockings should be of merino, and made to draw
above the knees and fastened to the dress with a loop and tape instead of
garters, which are very objectionable.

A child’s out-of-door attire in winter should additionally comprise a warm
and properly-lined coat, made of cloth or some woollen fabric. It should
button close to the chin and cover his neck. Mr Chavasse says, for this
latter purpose a woollen neckerchief or scarf is preferable to furs. It is
very important that the child’s feet and legs should be kept warm, but not
too warm. In infancy and childhood——in summer as well as winter——the
wearing of flannel next the skin is more necessary, and beneficial even,
than when practised by adults.

=CLOVE.= _Syn._ CARYOPH′YLLUM (B. P.), L. The flower-buds of the
_Ciryophyllus aromaticus_ (Linn.), or clove tree collected before they
open, dried, and smoked. Cloves are aromatic, stimulant, carminative, and
stomachic; and, according to some, possess febrifuge properties. They are
chiefly used as an adjuvant in compound medicines. A few cloves kept in a
closet or box prevent moths or mould attacking furs, woollens, &c.

It is a common practice to adulterate this spice in the same manner as
cinchona bark. Cloves from which the oil has been distilled are dried and
rubbed between the hands, previously moistened with a little sweet oil, to
brighten their colour, after which they are mixed up with fresh spice for
sale.

=Cloves, Mother of.= The unripe fruit of the clove tree; they are
frequently imported preserved (preserved mother of cloves), and are
reputed stomachic and antispasmodic.

=Cloves, Oil of.= _Syn._ O′LEUM CARYOPH′YLLI (B. P.), L. This possesses
similar virtues to the unexpanded flower-buds, and is esteemed as a remedy
for the tooth-ache. Used to flavour liqueurs and confectionery. Sp. gr.
1·055-1·060.

M. Jacquemin recommends the following as a very delicate test for the
presence of carbolic acid when used as an adulterant for oil of cloves.
One drop of the suspected oil is mixed with a small trace of solution of
aniline by means of a glass rod, and then shaken with 5 or 6 c. c. of
distilled water. By the addition of a few drops of sodium hypochlorite to
the mixture the characteristic blue coloration due to carbolic acid will
be developed in a few minutes, whereas with the pure oil nothing but the
purplish-violet colour of aniline will be perceived. Stirring or shaking
must be avoided after the addition of the hypochlorite.

=CLYS′TERS.= See ENEMA.

=COAL.= The varieties of this valuable substance may be conveniently
described under the three heads ANTHRACITE, LIGNITE, and PIT-COAL (which
_see_). See also FUEL.

=COAL-TAR.= Coal-tar, one of the products of the destructive distillation
of the coal employed in the manufacture of gas, is a very complex
substance, consisting of various hydrocarbons, acids, and bases, together
with certain resinoid and empyreumatic substances. The principal
hydrocarbons yielded by coal-tar on distillation are: benzol, toluol,
propyl, naphthalin, and anthracin; of these the first three are fluids,
and the last two solids; the most important acids are: carbolic, cresylic,
phlorylic, and nosolic; the chief bases are: aniline, chinoline, and
lepidine. The quantity as well as the quality of the tar obtained from the
distillation of coals varies considerably with the kind of coal used, as
well as with the temperature at which the distillation is carried on, the
yield of tar being smaller at very high temperatures than when lower ones
are employed. Coal-tar, from its antiseptic properties (due chiefly to the
carbolic acid it contains), is painted on wood to preserve the latter from
decay when exposed to wind and weather. Mixed with coal-dust, saw-dust,
and peat-dust, it forms a useful artificial fuel, and when incorporated
with pebbles makes an excellent artificial asphalt for pavements. The
chief value of coal-tar, however, consists in its being the source of
those brilliant dye-stuffs, the coal-tar colours. These, together with the
naphtha obtained from its distillation, have converted coal-tar from a
worthless and unwelcome waste product of gas manufacture——for the removal
of which from their premises the gas makers were formerly only too glad to
pay——into a very considerable and important branch of profit and revenue.

The different constituents of the tar are separated from each other by
distillation, the various products so obtained being further purified by
various processes.

See TAR COLOURS, NAPHTHA, BENZOL, ANTHRACENE, &c.

=CO′BALT.= Co. _Syn._ REG′ULUS OF COBALT; COBALT′TUM, L. A metal
discovered by Brandt, in 1733. It generally occurs in the same ore as
nickel, and the separation of the two metals is a task requiring great
patience and expertness. Speiss cobalt and cobalt glance are the ores from
which the metal is commonly extracted.

_Prep._ 1. Dissolve oxide of cobalt in hydrochloric acid, and pass
sulphuretted hydrogen gas through the solution, until all the arsenic is
thrown down; filter, and boil with a little nitric acid, then add
carbonate of potassium, in excess, and digest the precipitate in a
solution of oxalic acid, to remove any oxide of iron; wash and dry the
residuum (oxalate of cobalt), and expose it to great heat, in a covered
crucible lined with charcoal; the product is pure metallic cobalt.

2. Mix equal parts of oxide of cobalt or roasted Cornish cobalt ore, and
soft soap, and expose them to a violent heat in a covered crucible.

3. Pass hydrogen gas over oxide of cobalt strongly heated in a porcelain
tube.

_Prop., Use, &c._ Cobalt is a white, brittle metal; unchanged in the air;
feebly acted on by dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids; has a high
melting-point, and is strongly magnetic; sp. gr. 8·5. It is seldom
employed in the metallic state, from the great difficulty of reducing its
ores, but its oxide (black oxide) is largely employed in the arts. It
forms salts with the acids, which are interesting from the remarkable
changes of colour which they exhibit. See INK, SMALTS, ZAFFRE, and
_below_.

_Char., Tests._ Solutions of the salts of cobalt are known as follows:——1.
Ammonia gives a blue precipitate, slightly soluble in excess, giving a
brownish-red colour.——2. Potassa gives a blue precipitate, turning to
violet and red when the solution is heated.——3. Carbonate of ammonium and
carbonate of sodium give pink precipitates; that from the former is
soluble in excess.——4. Cyanide of potassium gives a yellowish-brown
precipitate, soluble in excess; and the clear solution, after being
boiled, is unaffected when mixed with hydrochloric acid.——5. Sulphuretted
hydrogen produces no change in acid solutions.——6. Sulphydrate of ammonium
gives a black precipitate in neutral solutions.——7. Melted with borax,
before the blowpipe, it gives a bead of a magnificent blue colour, almost
verging on black, if much is present. Phosphate of sodium and ammonium
give a similar bead; but the colour is less intense.

=Cobalt, Ac′etate of.= Co(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}. _Prep._ From the carbonate
or protoxide and acetic acid. It forms a sympathetic ink which turns blue
when heated.

=Cobalt, Arseniate of.= Co_{3}2AsO_{4}, 8H_{2}O. A hydrated native
tricobaltous arseniate of cobalt, known as “cobalt bloom.”

=Cobalt, Car′bonate of.= CoCO_{3}. _Prep._ By adding an alkaline carbonate
to a solution of the nitrate or sulphate. A pale peach-coloured powder,
soluble in acids. It contains some hydrate.

=Cobalt, Chlo′′ride of.= CoCl_{2}. _Syn._ HYDROCHLO′′RATE OF C., MU′′RIATE
OF C. _Prep._ By dissolving the carbonate or protoxide in hydrochloric
acid; the solution deposits deep rose-red crystals on standing, which
contain water. By evaporating the solution by heat, anhydrous blue
crystals of the chloride are obtained. Both of them yield a deep rose-red
solution with water, which is turned green by a little acid. This solution
forms a well-known sympathetic ink, the traces of which become blue when
heated. If the solution contains either chloride of iron or chloride of
nickel, the traces become green. (Klaproth.) The addition of a little
nitrate of copper to the above solution forms a sympathetic ink, which by
heat gives a very rich greenish-yellow colour. (Ure.) The addition of a
very little common salt makes the traces disappear with greater rapidity,
on the withdrawal of the heat. In each case, when the paper is laid aside,
moisture is absorbed, and the writing once more disappears. If, however,
much heat has been used the traces become permanent.

=Cobalt, Ni′trate of.= Co(NO_{3})_{2}. _Prep._ As the last, substituting
nitric for hydrochloric acid; it forms deliquescent crystals.

=Cobalt, Ox′alate of.= CoC_{2}O_{4}. _Prep._ As the acetate, from oxalic
acid and the carbonate or protoxide; or by double decomposition.

=Cobalt, Ox′ides of.= Of these there are two, the protoxide and the
sesquioxide; besides an acid compound of cobalt and oxygen, to which the
name cobaltic acid has been given.

1. =Cobalt, Protox′ide of.= CoO. _Syn._ OXIDE OF COBALT, GREY O. OF C.,
BLACK O. OF C., COBALT BLACK. _Prep._ 1. By precipitating a solution of
sulphate of chloride of cobalt with carbonate of sodium, and washing,
drying, and igniting the powder which subsides.

2. By boiling powdered bright-white cobalt ore (from Cornwall) in dilute
nitric acid, and adding a solution of carbonate of potassium, very
gradually, until the clear liquor, after the impurities have settled,
becomes of a rose colour; and then as long as a precipitate falls; wash
and dry it as before.

_Prop., &c._ A grey powder, turning black on exposure to the air; strongly
basic; and forming salts with the acids, having a fine red tint. It is
remarkable for the magnificent blue colour it communicates to glass, and
by this character its presence may be readily detected before the
blowpipe; the substance to be examined being fused with borax on a loop of
platinum wire. Used to make blue colours for painters, stains and glazes
for enamellers, glass-melters, potters, &c. In _medicine_ it has
occasionally been given as a remedy for rheumatism.

2. =Cobalt, Sesquiox′ide of.= Co_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ PEROX′IDE OF COBALT. A
black, insoluble, neutral powder, obtained by mixing solutions of cobalt
and of chloride of lime; or, by heating the protoxide to redness in an
open vessel.

=Cobalt, Phos′phate of=. Co_{3}(PO_{4})_{2}. _Prep._ As the acetate,
substituting phosphoric for acetic acid. An insoluble purple powder,
which, when heated along with eight times its weight of gelatinous
alumina, produces a blue pigment (COBALT BLUE, COBALT ULTRAMARINE), almost
equal in beauty to ultramarine. (See _below_.)

=Cobalt, Sul′phate of.= CoSO_{4}. By boiling sulphuric acid on the metal,
or by dissolving the oxide in the acid. It forms reddish crystals, soluble
in 24 parts of water.

=Cobalto-Ultramarine.= A fine blue pigment, prepared by mixing freshly
precipitated alumina, 8 parts, with phosphate or arseniate of cobalt, 1
part; drying the mixture, and then slowly heating it to redness. By
daylight the colour is pure blue, but by artificial light it is violet.
See BLUE PIGMENTS.

=COCA. Erythroxylon Coca.= This plant is grown largely in Peru and
Bolivia. The Bolivian coca is said to be much superior to the Peruvian.
The best kind is believed to come from the province of Yungas, and the
most inferior description from Peru. The consumption of Coca in Peru,
Bolivia, and in some of the provinces of the Argentine Confederation
is enormous. In small doses it is supposed to act as a stimulant and to
aid digestion; in large ones it is said to possess dangerous narcotic
properties. The mountaineers in South America state they are enabled to
reach high elevations without difficulty of respiration, and to stave off
the feeling of hunger by chewing the leaves during their ascents. “Good
quality coca should have its leaves unbroken, of a medium size, bright
green in colour, and of an odour somewhat combining that of hay and
chocolate. The taste is bitter, and when masticated, coca is said to yield
easily to the teeth. Infused in hot water, it has a beautiful green
colour, which, however, is much darker from inferior leaves. An infinite
number of varieties are recognised between the best and the lowest
quality, which has a disagreeable smell and a colour resembling roasted
coffee. The leaves are also bent and broken, scarcely a whole leaf being
found amongst them.”[249] The statements as to the effects of coca are
conflicting, as will be seen from what follows:——Sir R. Christison,
writing to the ‘British Medical Journal,’ April 29th, 1876, states he was
hardly sensible of the fatigue of two mountain descents made from Ben
Vorlich after chewing coca leaves. That, as a consequence of his doing so,
hunger and thirst were suspended for a long time, but that eventually
appetite and digestion were unaffected. He made trial during the first
descent of 60 grains, and of the second, undertaken eight days after, of
90 grains of coca.

[Footnote 249: ‘Pharmaceutical Journal.’]

Mr Dowdeswell, in a communication to the ‘Lancet,’ May 6th, 1876, says
that, contrary to the experience of Sir R. Christison, he found no decided
effects produced after consuming nearly a pound of the leaves, which were
taken in all forms and at all hours for nearly a month. They failed to
produce the slightest excitement, not giving rise even to the feeling of
buoyancy and exhilaration which is experienced from mountain air or a
draught of spring water.

In the ‘Canadian Pharmaceutical Journal’ for August, 1877, there is a
paper by Mr Shuttleworth, wherein results the opposite to those of the
last-named gentlemen are recorded. Mr Shuttleworth states that the members
of a club established at Toronto for the purpose of playing at La Crosse,
a very violent and fatiguing pastime, were almost unanimous in ascribing
their invariable success over their numerous adversaries to the use of
coca leaves during their contests; their opponents not employing the
plant. The antagonists of the club were men of stronger build and physique
as well as more accustomed to out-of-door pursuits, and were besides
trained players.

The same writer says that in South America care is taken to procure the
leaves in as fresh a state as possible, and that many writers have
ascribed the want of effect to old leaves.

The ‘British Medical Journal’ of March 10th, 1877, contains a
communication from Dr T. McBean, who states that he has found the
administration of coca leaves useful in typhoid fever, as well as in other
febrile diseases.

=CO′COA= (kō′-ko). _Syn._ CACA′O. An alimentary substance formed of the
roasted seeds of the _Theobroma Cacao_, a tree belonging to the natural
order _Byttneriaceæ_. This definition is equally applicable to chocolate,
but we commonly class the preparations containing sugar and flavouring
substances under that head, and the unsweetened and cheap preparations
under COCOA. The cocoa-seed or berry must not be confounded with the
cocoa-nut, which is the fruit of a palm (_Cocus nucifera_). The cocoa tree
is a native of Mexico, and is now more or less extensively grown
throughout Central America, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, Caraccas, Ecuador,
Grenada, Demerara, Essequibo, Guayaquil, and Surinam; with some of the
West India Islands, foremost among which stands Trinidad. It has also been
introduced with more or less success into Africa, the Mauritius,
Madagascar, Bourbon, the East Indies, Australia, and the Philippine
Islands. The following is a list of the principal kinds of cocoa, in the
order of their commercial value:——Caraccas, Surinam, Trinidad, Grenada,
Jamaica, Dominica, Guayaquil, Venezuela, Bahia, Brazil, St. Lucia. It
seems probable that some of the highest kinds of cocoa do not find their
way into this country, but are consumed by the inhabitants of Spain.

_Prep._ The pods containing the seeds are gathered when ripe, and after
having lain for a day and a night are opened, and the seeds, which are
taken out by hand, are submitted to what is termed the sweating process.
They are first placed on a sloping floor or in baskets, so that the chief
part of the pulp in which they are enveloped may drain off, and are then
shut up in a close box, and left for 24 to 48 hours, according to the
season and weather, after which they are turned out in the sun to dry.
Upon a nice performance of the sweating process, which may be likened to
malting, the value of the cocoa greatly depends. When quite dry, the seeds
are packed in barrels or bags, and are ready for shipment. The process of
roasting is effected in a metal cylinder, with holes at each end, through
which the vapour generated is allowed to escape. When the aroma is
sufficiently developed the seeds are cooled, and then passed to a ‘kibling
mill,’ which removes the husks and skins from the ‘nibs’ (see _below_).

_Prop., Constituents, &c._ Cocoa, when unadulterated, forms a wholesome
and highly nutritious beverage. Its active principle is theobromine, an
alkaloid greatly resembling caffeine, the active principle of coffee and
tea. A peculiar concrete oil, called cocoa-butter, or, more correctly,
butter of cacao, is another important constituent, forming more than half
the weight of the seed. The presence of about 20% of albumen gives to
cocoa its nutritive character.

        _Average composition of cocoa seeds._——(Wanklyn.)

  +-------------------------------+-----------+
  |                               | Per cent. |
  | Fat (cocoa butter)            |  50·00    |
  | Albumen, fibrine, and gluten  |  18·00    |
  | Starch                        |  10·00    |
  | Gum                           |   8·00    |
  | Colouring matter              |   2·60    |
  | Water                         |   6·00    |
  | Theobromine                   |   1·50    |
  | Ash                           |   3·60    |
  | Loss                          |   0·30    |
  +-------------------------------+-----------+
  |                               | 100·00    |
  +-------------------------------+-----------+

Dr Letheby calculated that a pint of cocoa made with 1 oz. of ground nibs
would contain the following proportions of nutritious matters:——

  +-------------------------------+--------------+
  | Nitrogenous matters           |  96·2 grains |
  | Patty matter                  | 218·8  ”     |
  | Gum, sugar, and extractive    |  65·6  ”     |
  | Mineral matters               |  17·5  ”     |
  +-------------------------------+--------------+
  | Total extracted               | 398·1        |
  +-------------------------------+--------------+

_Adult._ Much of the cheap stuff sold as genuine cocoa is shamefully
adulterated. Out of 68 samples of cocoa and chocolate examined by the
‘Lancet’ commission, 39 contained coloured earthy substances, as reddle,
Venetian red, umber, &c. To some, chalk or plaster of Paris had been
added, for the purpose of increasing the weight. Many of the samples
consisted of sugar and starch, with only sufficient cocoa to impart a
flavour. Cocoas containing a moderate amount of arrow-root or other starch
must not be considered adulterated articles, for it is impossible to
render cocoa soluble, or rather emulsive, without the addition of some
diffusible substance.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

By an examination of the ash the presence of any mineral adulterant may be
detected. Mr Blyth says the amounts of ash in genuine cocoa should never
exceed 5 per cent. The seed of the cocoa consists of husk and seed proper.
Under the microscope the husk exhibits on its surface a number of tubular
fibres, filled with granular matter and minute corpuscles. It consists of
three membranes; the first being a single layer of elongated cells; the
second (forming the chief portion of the husk) of angular cells, enclosing
mucilage, and also containing a few spiral vessels and woody fibres. The
third membrane is very thin and delicate, and is made up of small angular
cells containing minute globules of fat. The seed is composed of minute
cells containing starch. The starch corpuscles are very small, with a
trace of inulin. (See cuts on previous page.)

=Cocoa, Flake.= This is formed by grinding the nibs in a mill, consisting
of two cones, working one inside the other. Pure flake cocoa is not a
diluted or amalgamated article; in other words, it contains no sugar, and
but a trace of starch.

=Cocoa Nibs.= The bruised, roasted seeds, freed from husk and membrane.
They ought to be of a dull-red or greyish colour, but are frequently given
a bright-red colour by a coating of Venetian red.

=Cocoa, Sol′uble.= From cocoa nibs and substances which are readily
soluble or diffusible in water, ground together. Sugar and sago or
arrow-root are the diluents used by respectable makers, but all kinds of
starches, coloured with Venetian red, are used for the trashy articles
which are sold to the poor. No form of cocoa is really soluble, but by the
addition of easily diffusible substances an article is produced which is
capable of forming an emulsion with boiling water. The following are the
principal varieties of the so-called soluble cocoa:——

1. COCOA, GRANULATED. From cocoa nibs and sufficient sugar and arrow-root
to keep the fatty particles from forming a pasty mass. As it is impossible
to granulate the nibs without the admixture of some other substance, those
makers who declare that their granulated cocoas are perfectly pure do not
act honestly towards their customers.

2. COCOA, HOMŒOPATHIC. A kind of soluble cocoa prepared with arrow-root,
but without sugar.

3. COCOA, ICELAND-MOSS. From cocoa and Iceland moss, freed from its bitter
principle, cetrarine. This form of cocoa was introduced by Messrs Dunn and
Hewett, and is said to form a very valuable article of diet for invalids.

4. COCOA, MARAVILLA. This is stated to be “the perfection of prepared
cocoa.” It consists of cocoa, sugar, and sago flour, the last two being in
great excess.

5. COCOA, CARACCAS. This is similar to the last, being a mixture of cocoa,
sugar, and sago flour. The cocoa used in its manufacture is said to be
imported from the Caraccas, on the north coast of South America, and to
possess a peculiarly delicious flavour.

The amount of flour or starch in these so-called soluble cocoas frequently
exceeds 40 per cent., and the amount of sugar 20 per cent. They have been
not inaptly called “soups.”

Within the past year or two a new variety of soluble cocoa has been
brought into the market. It is sold under various names, thus,
‘Theobromine, or Concentrated Cocoa,’ ‘Cocoa Essence,’ ‘Cocoatina,’ &c. We
have examined many of these varieties, and find them to consist of pure
cocoa deprived of about two thirds of its fat. It appears very suitable
for people of weak digestion.

_Obs._ No warm drink that we take approaches cocoa in its nutritive
character, because, while performing to a certain extent the exhilarating
work of coffee or tea, it presents to the stomach a very considerable
quantity of nitrogenous and carbonaceous matter; this advantage is partly
due to the fact that cocoa is taken in the form of an emulsion, instead of
an infusion or decoction.

COCOA FOR THE TABLE is readily prepared from the soluble varieties by
simply pouring boiling water upon the powder. From cocoa nibs, or flaked
cocoa, the beverage is prepared by first pouring boiling water upon them,
and then allowing the mass to simmer from 4 to 6 hours. The cocoa must on
no account be allowed to boil, for in that case a coagulum will be formed,
which cannot be dissolved in water.

=COCOA-NUT OIL.= A species of vegetable butter obtained from the common
cocoa nut——the fruit of _Cocos nucifera_, the cocoa palm. It is separated
from the dried kernel by hydraulic pressure. It contains olein, and a
solid fat often used as a candle material. Large plantations of the cocoa
palm, connected with Price’s candle company, exist in Ceylon. Cocoa-nut
oil is often confounded with cocoa- or cacao-butter, which is the produce
of a very different plant, namely, _Theobroma cacao_. See COCINIC ACID,
COCOA, STEARIC ACID, &c.

=COC′CULUS IND′ICUS.= _Syn._ INDIAN BERRIES, INDIAN COCKLES, LEVANT NUT,
LOUSE GRAINS; BAC′CA ORIENTA′LIS, COCOULUS PISCATOR′IUS, &c., L. The fruit
of the _Anamirta paniculata_, a shrub which abounds on the sandy shores of
Malabar, and several other islands in the Indian Ocean. The kernels should
fill at least two thirds of the fruit.

It is a dark, tough, hard, wrinkled berry, about the size of a cherry, and
possesses an intensely bitter taste. The berry consists of two parts, the
husk and the kernel, the former being hard and difficult to bruise, and
the latter soft and containing a large proportion of fatty matter.

_Uses, &c._ Cocculus indicus is poisonous to all animals, and to most
vegetables. It is never employed internally in medicine, but an ointment,
formed by mixing the powder with lard, has been used to destroy pediculi
and in porrigo. Its active principle is picrotoxin, a peculiar
needle-shaped, crystalline substance, possessing all the poisonous
properties of the berry in an exalted degree, and of which it contains
about 2 per cent. Its effects on the system are, to produce giddiness,
convulsions, and insensibility, frequently ending in death. A small
portion of the cocculus indicus imported is used by poachers, and a still
smaller quantity to destroy vermin, the remaining, and by far the greater
part, being employed to adulterate beer and even wine. “In our own
analytical experience we have seldom found this substance in beer
purchased from a respectable house. We have detected it, however, in beers
purchased in the lowest localities in London and elsewhere, but have every
reason to suspect that the adulterants had been added by the publican
himself, in the form of an extract known in the trade by the name of ‘B.
E,’ or black extract.” (Harkness.)

Chemists and druggists are liable to severe penalties if they are found
supplying cocculus indicus, or any extract of the same, to brewers or
publicans. See BEER, PORTER, &c.

=COCH′INEAL.= _Syn._ COC′CUS (B. P.), L. GRANA FINA, Span. The _Coccus
Cacti_ (Linn.), an insect found upon the cactuses of Mexico. It is of
great value as a dye stuff. The female insects, when matured, are brushed
off the plants and dried by artificial heat. The entire insect is used.
There are two varieties known in commerce——silver cochineal, which has a
purplish-grey or silver-grey colour; and black cochineal, which is
smaller, and of a reddish or purplish-black colour. The former is that
commonly met with.

_Adult._ Genuine cochineal has the sp. gr. 1·25. It is commonly increased
in weight by slightly moistening it with gum-water, and then rouncing it
in a bag, first with sulphate of baryta, and then with finely powdered
bone-black. In this way its sp. gr. is raised to 1·35, in consequence of
being loaded by about 12% of useless foreign matter.

Herr Durwell, a German chemist, states that he found a sample of cochineal
adulterated with sulphate of zinc. He thinks the sophistication was
probably effected by immersing the cochineal in sulphate of zinc, and then
in an alkali, whereby the white pulverulent aspect of the genuine article
was imparted, and the weight increased.

The following is a method which has been given for estimating the value of
samples of cochineal:——Grind the samples to be tested to a fine powder,
weigh out 2 or 2-1/2 grammes, and boil this amount in a capacious
narrow-necked flask, with 750 c. c. of water for 1 hour; filter
immediately through dry paper filters, and allow it to cool. To test it 50
c. c. are measured in a flask of that capacity, and poured into another
flask of about 200 c. c., and the measuring vessel rinsed with a definite
quantity of water, say 10 to 15 c. c. A weak solution of permanganate is
then run in from a burette with a glass cock, the flask being shaken after
the addition of every 10 c. c. So much permanganate solution is then added
that the cochineal extract shall be charged from its original colour to a
pink of the faintest shade——almost yellow, in fact, but never reaching a
full yellow. This pink shade should be persistent, that is, it should not
turn yellow after standing fifteen minutes; and after a little practice it
will be found very easy to obtain the tinge, which shows that the
colouring matter is almost but not quite destroyed.

When a number of samples are to be compared, arrange an equal number of
200 c. c. flasks and test-tubes on the table, a tube standing in its rack
in front of each flask. Then the same number of c. c. of the permanganate
solution (which should be, at least, so weak that bulk for bulk of this
and the cochineal solution will be required) is run into each flask,
taking care to use too little to completely destroy the colouring matter
in _all_.

The flasks are well shaken and allowed to stand for ten minutes. Part of
the contents of each is then poured into the corresponding test-tube, and
a glance of the tubes as they stand side by side will show which is the
least affected by the bleaching liquid. This sample having been selected
to serve as a standard, the contents of the test-tube are returned to the
flask, and more permanganate solution is cautiously added, until a very
faint pink tinge, which a fraction of a c. c. will turn to a full yellow,
is obtained. The number of c. c. used having been noted, a fresh trial is
made, in which the c. c. required, minus one, are used, the flask
agitated, and the last c. c. or part of it, as the whole may not be
necessary added.

If the two results agree, the next sample is treated in the same way, and
so until all are tested.

A final trial may be made by measuring 50 c. c. of each solution into its
flask, running in the permanganate in the ascertained amount into each as
quickly as possible, letting the flasks stand ten minutes, and then making
a comparison of all in the test-tubes. If the shades are not exactly
alike, a pretty good guess can generally be made of the fractions of c. c.
required, which should be added, the contents of the tubes being joined to
that in the flasks, and a second or third comparison thus made.

This is a rather long description of what is in practice a very simple and
good process, the three principal points to be borne in mind being——

1st. To use a weak solution of permanganate.

2nd. To have a very faint pink colour as a standard of comparison.

3rd. To let the liquids remain after agitation together ten or fifteen
minutes before comparing them.

_Uses, &c._ Cochineal is principally used to prepare lake and carmine, and
in dyeing. Its colouring principle is freely soluble in water. It imparts
every variety of scarlet and crimson to textile fabrics previously
prepared with alum, tin, and other mordants. It is also used to colour
liqueurs, tinctures, and confectionery. It has been recommended as an
antispasmodic and anodyne, in hooping-cough and neuralgia.——_Dose_, 10 to
60 gr., in powder, confection, or tincture. See CARMINE and CARMINIC ACID.

=COCIN′IC ACID.= _Syn._ COCOSTEAR′IC ACID. A crystalline, fatty acid,
obtained by the saponification of COCOA-NUT OIL. See STEARIC ACID.

=COCK-METAL.= _Syn._ POT METAL. Copper, 20 lbs.; lead, 8 lbs.; litharge, 1
oz.; antimony, 3 oz. Another variety consists of copper, lead, and
sometimes a little zinc.

=COCKROACH.= See BLATTA.

=COD.= _Syn._ GA′DUS MOR′RHUA (Ph. L.), MOR′RHUA VULGARIS (Linn.),
ASEL′LUS (Pliny), L. A fish common in the seas of the northern hemisphere,
from about 40° to 75° of latitude. The flesh forms a most wholesome and
excellent article of food. The best fish are very thick about the neck;
and, when fresh, are marked by the redness of the gills, freshness of the
eyes, and the whiteness and firmness of the flesh. The fish so largely
imported from Newfoundland (NEWFOUNDLAND FISH) are cod beheaded, split
open, gutted, and salted. They are caught by millions on the ‘Grand Bank.’
COD-SOUNDS are pickled in brine and also made into isinglass. The spawn is
made into CAVIARE, and the liver is both pressed and boiled for its oil
(see _below_).

COD IS GENERALLY COOKED by boiling it, but is sometimes baked, or cut into
slices and broiled or fried. Cod’s head and shoulders with oyster sauce is
a favorite dish. Shrimp and anchovy sauce are also good additions.

=COD-LIV′ER OIL.= _Syn._ MOR′RHUÆ O′LEUM, B. P.; O′LEUM JECOR′IS ASEL′LI,
L.; HUILE DE MORUE, Fr. The oil obtained from the liver of the common cod
(_oleum e jecore comparatum_).

_Prep._ 1. The livers, being removed from the fish, are piled on layers of
fir-twigs placed in tubs perforated at the bottom, and are allowed to
remain for a considerable time exposed to the sun and air. As the livers
putrefy, the oil runs out and flows through the holes in the tubs into
vessels placed to receive it.

2. The partially decomposed livers, cut into pieces, are heated in iron
pots without water, and the oil is poured off and set aside to deposit
impurities.

3. (Savory.) The livers taken from the fresh fish are carefully washed.
The large veins are then divided through their whole length, and any blood
in them is carefully rinsed away. The livers are now cut into pieces,
again washed and drained, and afterwards placed with a small quantity of
water in vessels gently heated by steam. As the heat increases, the oil
separates and rises to the surface, from which it is skimmed off; and
after well cooling, to allow the deposit of some of the margarin, it is
repeatedly filtered through flannel bags and finally through paper. This
process gives a fine, clear, straw-coloured oil, having but a slight smell
and taste.

4. (Donovan.) The perfectly fresh livers are placed in a metallic vessel
and heated with constant stirring to 180° Fahr., by which treatment they
break down into a uniform pulpy, liquid mass. This mass is immediately
transferred to calico bags, whence the oil drains out; after filtration,
while still warm, this oil is sufficiently pure for use.

_Obs._ Three kinds of cod-liver oil are usually distinguished——the pale
yellow, pale brown, and dark brown. The latter is the most impure; its
odour and taste are extremely disagreeable. The most conflicting opinions
have been expressed by medical men as to the relative value of the light
brown and yellow varieties. Ozonised cod-liver oil is said to be prepared
by passing oxygen into the oil, and then exposing it to sunlight. Dr
Letheby applied the most delicate tests to this much-vaunted remedy, but
was not able to detect the slightest trace of ozone.

_Prop. and Uses._ Cod-liver oil has acquired much reputation for its
remedial powers in pulmonary consumption, scrofulous and other glandular
affections, chronic gout and rheumatism, certain skin diseases, and
several other ailments. It is generally supposed that the iodine and
bromine, which are present in minute quantities in this fish, are the
substances to which it owes its efficacy. “Dr De Jongh refers its virtues
to the presence of both iodine and the elements of the bile. Our own
researches lead us to infer that one of its most active constituents is
free phosphorus. Good cod-liver oil contains fully ·02 of this substance,
as well as about ·09 of phosphoric acid. Now, the marked action of minute
doses of phosphorus on the nervous, vascular, and secreting organs, is
well known to every experienced surgeon. The difficulty, however, of
bringing it into a form adapted for administration has hitherto prevented
phosphorus being extensively employed as a therapeutic agent. This
obstacle is removed by the employment of cod-liver oil. Nature has here
provided a simple remedy, which the ingenuity of man has failed to produce
artificially. This opinion is borne out by the facts, that cod-liver oil
cures those forms of scrofula and other diseases which do not yield to
iodine, and that those varieties of the oil are the most active which
contain the most free phosphorus. We, therefore, think it reasonable to
conclude, that the efficacy of cod-liver oil depends on the joint action
of the minute quantities of iodine, phosphorus, and the elements of the
bile which it contains, and not on any one separately; and that no
substance, at present known, can be used as a substitute for it.”
(Cooley.)——_Dose_, 1 to 8 dr., in water, syrup, or orange juice; or made
into an emulsion with 1 fl. oz. of peppermint water.

M. Duquesnel states that cod-liver oil flavoured with essence of
eucalyptol, in the proportion of one part of the essence to a thousand,
has neither the taste nor the odour of cod-liver oil. It is taken with
facility, only leaving at the back of the mouth and on the tongue the
taste of the essence. M. Duquesnel adds that the offensive eructations
arising from cod-liver oil are completely corrected.

=Cod-liver Oil Jelly.= Take of cod-liver oil, 85 parts; isinglass, 3
parts; sugar, 8 parts; water, 4 parts. It forms a semi-transparent jelly
of a yellowish-green colour, having a strong odour, but less strong taste
of the oil. The advantages of this preparation are——its easy
administration, complete retention, and assimilation by the weakest
stomach. A teaspoonful is said to be equal to a tablespoonful of the
ordinary oil. A lemon flavour may be imparted to it with advantage if
desired.

=Cod-liver Oil and Lacto-Phosphate of Lime.= (Shinn.) Cod-liver oil, 1
pint; oil of bitter almonds, peppermint, and winter green, of each 10
drops; powder of gum Arabic 4 oz.; sugar, 6 oz.; solution of
lacto-phosphate of lime (60 gr. to 1 fl. oz.), 6-1/2 fl. oz.; lime water,
6-1/2 fl. oz. Mix the gum and sugar in a capacious mortar, and make a
smooth mucilage with the lime water and 3 oz. of the solution of
lacto-phosphate of lime. Add the volatile oils to the cod-liver oil, and
gradually triturate them with the mucilage, until a perfect emulsion is
formed. Finally, add the rest of the solution of the lacto-phosphate of
lime, and mix thoroughly. The solution of lacto-phosphate of lime is made
by saturating a solution of lactic acid with freshly precipitated
phosphate of lime.

=Cod-liver Oil with Iodide of Iron.= Triturate iodide of iron, with
cod-liver oil, 4 gr. to the ounce, until dissolved. HORSLEY’S patent is as
follows:——Dissolve 22 scruples of iodine in a gallon of cod-liver oil, at
a temperature of 140° Fahr., in a water-bath. Add to the solution 8
scruples of iron (reduced by hydrogen), and heat to 180° Fahr., until the
combination is complete.——_Dose_, 1 dr. to 1/2 oz.

=Cod-liver Oil, Phosphorated.= (Lancet.) Pure unoxidised phosphorus, 2
gr.; almond oil, 2 oz. Put into a bottle, stoppered, and immerse the same
in a water-bath; apply heat until the temperature of the oil is about 180°
Fahr., as directed by the B. P., in the preparation of _oleum
phosphoratum_; shake up occasionally, and again put the bottle into the
water if necessary, until a perfect solution is obtained; then add about
10 oz. of cod-liver oil, and again immerse in the water-bath; finally,
make up the measure with cod-liver oil to 25 oz. One drachm so prepared
will contain over the 1/100th of a grain of pure phosphorus.

=Cod-liver Oil, Emulsion of.= Cod-liver oil, 8 fl. oz.; tragacanth, 1 dr.;
powdered white sugar, 4 dr.; oil of gaultheria, 9 drops; oil sassafras, 1
drop; oil bitter almonds, 10 drops, water, 8 oz. Dissolve the tragacanth
and sugar in water, and strain. Add to this first the essential oils, and
then incorporate the cod-liver oil.

=Cod-liver Oil and Hypophosphites, Emulsion of.= (Canadian ‘Pharmaceutical
Journal’). Powder of gum tragacanth, 1/2 oz.; glycerin, 3 oz.; water, 9
oz. Rub the tragacanth with the glycerin, and add the water gradually. To
this mucilage add the following solution:——Hypophosphite of lime, 4-1/2
dr.; hypophosphite of soda, 2-1/4 dr.; hypophosphite of potash, 2-1/4 dr.;
sugar, 3/4 lb.; boiling water, 12 oz. Make the admixture gradually with
brisk trituration. To this medicated mucilage add the following:——Otto of
almonds, bitter, 10 drops; otto of cinnamon, 5 drops; otto of canella, 5
drops; alcohol, 6 oz. The whole will now form a semi-transparent
mucilaginous liquid of about 37 fl. oz. in bulk. To this add gradually an
equal measure of cod-liver oil, and mix thoroughly. In practice it is
advisable to work on small quantities, say half a pint of each in a No. 8
mortar. If care is taken the product will be very satisfactory.

=CODE′IA.= C_{18}H_{21}O_{3}. Aq. _Syn._ CODE′INE. An alkaloid discovered
by Robiquet associated with morphia.

_Prep._ Dissolve commercial hydrochlorate of morphia in water, and
precipitate the morphia with ammonia. Codeia is left in solution, and is
obtained in octahedral crystals by spontaneous evaporation. It may be
further purified by solution in ether. By the addition of a little water
to the ethereal solution and spontaneous evaporation it may be obtained
quite pure and in a crystalline state.

_Obs._ The morphia may be recovered by digesting the precipitate in weak
solution of potassa.

_Prop., &c._ Freely soluble in alcohol and ether; soluble in 80 parts of
cold and 17 parts of boiling water. Its solution in the latter, by slow
evaporation, yields large, transparent octahedra. With the acids it forms
crystallisable salts. These possess the singular property of producing a
general and violent itching of the surface of the body when administered
internally. The same symptoms frequently follow the exhibition of opium
and hydrochlorate of morphia, and are referred to the presence of codeia.
The commercial muriate of morphia frequently contains 3% to 4% of codeia.

_Tests._ It is distinguished from morphia by not becoming blue on the
addition of perchloride of iron, nor turning red with nitric acid; and by
not being precipitated by ammonia, when dissolved in hydrochloric acid and
mixed with a large quantity of water. Unlike morphia, it is insoluble in
weak solution of potash, and is soluble in ether. The salts of codeia are
known by tincture of galls throwing down a copious precipitate from their
solutions; this does not occur with the salts of morphia. It is
distinguished from meconia by its aqueous solution showing an alkaline
reaction with test-paper.

=COFFEE.= The seeds or berries of the _Coffea arabica_ (Linn.) or coffee
plant; a shrub of the natural order Cinchonaceæ, sub-order Coffeæ,
indigenous in the low mountainous districts of Arabia Felix, and largely
cultivated in various other parts of the world. About 40 millions of
pounds of coffee are annually consumed in this country, and the
consumption for the whole world has been estimated at about 600 millions
of pounds. The seeds are roasted and ground, and used in the form of a
decoction or infusion. The term coffee is applied to the prepared beverage
as well as to the seeds. The valuable properties of coffee are mainly due
to the presence of the alkaloid CAFFEIA or CAFFEINE.

Payen gives the following as the composition of the coffee-berry:——

  Water                                  12·000
  Woody tissue                           34·000
  Fixed fatty matters              10 to 13·000
  Gum, sugar, and vegetable acids        15·500
  Nitrogenous matter allied to
      legumin (vegetable casein)         13·000
  Free caffein                            0·800
  Compound of caffein with potash  3.5 to 5·000
  Solid fatty essence                     0·002
  Aromatic essential oil                  0·001
  Saline matters                          6·697
                                        ———————
                                        100·000

_Prep., &c._ The finest kind of coffee is that called mocha, from Aden,
but that in common use is principally supplied from the British
plantations in the West Indies. The selection being made, the berries are
carefully roasted in revolving cylinders by a gradually applied heat,
until the aroma is well developed and the toughness destroyed. Too much
heat is avoided, as the volatile and aromatic properties of the coffee,
and, consequently, the flavour, are thereby injured; whilst, on the other
hand, if the berries are roasted too little, they produce a beverage with
a raw, green taste, very liable to induce sickness and vomiting. When
properly roasted, coffee has a lively chocolate-brown colour, and should
not have lost more than 18% of its weight by the process. If the loss
exceeds 20%, the flavour suffers in proportion. The roasted coffee should
be placed in a very dry situation, and excluded from the air as soon as
possible. It loses flavour by keeping, and also powerfully absorbs
moisture from the atmosphere by reason of its hygrometric power.

_Qual., &c._ Coffee promotes digestion, and exhilarates the spirits, and
when strong, generally occasions watchfulness, but in some phlegmatic
constitutions induces sleep. Drunk in moderation, especially if combined
with sugar and milk, it is perhaps the most wholesome beverage known. The
various qualities that have been ascribed to it by some persons such as
dispelling or causing flatulency, removing dizziness of the head,
attenuating the blood, causing biliousness, &c., appear to be wholly
imaginary. In a medical point of view it has been regarded as a cerebral
stimulant and anti-soporific, and as a corrector of opium. As a medicine
it should be strong, and is best taken only lukewarm.

_Adult., &c._ The principal substances used for the purposes of
adulteration are caramel, roasted chicory, roasted locust beans, roasted
corn, &c. Chicory being now charged with the same amount of duty as
coffee, is not considered in a revenue point of view an adulteration;
nevertheless, when we contrast coffee with chicory, we at once see the
vast superiority of the former over the latter, thus:——

Coffee is the fruit of a tree, whilst chicory is the root of an herbaceous
plant, and it is well known that more virtues exist in fruits and seeds
than in roots.

Coffee contains three active principles, viz. an essential oil, caffeia,
and tannic acid, and these exercise a powerful influence on the system,
retarding the waste of the tissues of the body, exciting the brain to
increased activity, and exhilarating without intoxicating. Chicory
contains none of these constituents.

Coffee exerts on the system highly beneficial physiological effects;
chicory possesses medicinal properties, which are not desirable in an
article of food.

Chicory, therefore, is very objectionable, and when a dealer sells a
mixture of coffee and chicory for pure coffee, as is almost invariably the
case, he is guilty of selling an adulterated article, and ought to be
punished accordingly.

The adulteration with caramel or chicory may readily be detected as
follows:——

1. A spoonful of pure coffee placed gently on the surface of a glass of
cold water will float for some time, and scarcely colour the liquid; if it
contains caramel or chicory, it will rapidly absorb the water, and,
sinking to the bottom of the glass, communicate a reddish-brown tint as it
falls. Another method of applying this test is by expertly shaking a
spoonful of the suspected coffee with a wine-glassful of cold water, and
then placing the glass upon the table. If it is pure, it will rise to the
surface, and scarcely colour the liquid; but if caramel or chicory is
present, it will sink to the bottom, and the water will be tinged of a
deep red as before.

2. The brown colour of decoction or infusion of roasted coffee becomes
greenish when treated with a per-salt of iron; and a brownish-green,
flocculent precipitate is formed. The colour of chicory is only deepened,
but not otherwise altered, and no precipitate is formed, under the same
treatment. A mixture of chicory and coffee retains a brownish-yellow
colour after the precipitate has subsided, and the liquid appears brownish
yellow by refracted light. The addition of a little weak ammonia water
aids the subsidence of the precipitate.

[Illustration]

3. Under the microscope (see _Chicory_) the presence of chicory may be
readily detected by the size, form, and ready separation of the cells of
the cellular tissue, and by the presence and abundance of the pitted
tissue or dotted ducts, which are absent from coffee, and by the size of
the spiral vessels, which are very small in coffee. The most
characteristic structure, however, and that by which chicory can be easily
identified, is the lactiferous tissue. Roasted corn, and other amylaceous
substances, may also be detected, in the same way, by the peculiar size
and character of their starch grains.

Under the microscope the berry is seen to consist of a hard, tough tissue,
that resists even long soaking. The testa covering the berry is made of
lengthened cells with oblique markings resting on a thin membrane, almost
structureless. These oblique markings of the cells are so characteristic
as to render the cells distinguishable from every other tissue. The
substance of the berry consists of angular cells, each one of which
contains minute drops of oil. This oil is in some measure driven off
during the process of roasting, which, however, leaves the structure
unimpaired where it is not charred.

[Illustration]

Roasted corn, beans, &c., may be detected by the cold decoction striking a
blue colour with tincture of iodine. Pure coffee is merely deepened a
little in colour by this substance.

4. (A. H. Allen.) The amount of ash in genuine coffee does not exceed 4·5
per cent.; chicory yields 5 per cent. The silica in coffee ash never
exceeds 1 per cent., while in chicory it varies from 10-36 per cent. The
average soluble ash in coffee is 3·24, while in chicory it is 1·74 per
cent. By determining the soluble ash S, the per-centage of pure coffee C
may be calculated thus:——

         (100 S - 174)
  C = 2 ---------------
               3

The density of coffee-infusion is determined by heating the powder with 10
times its weight of cold water, raising the liquid to the boiling point,
filtering, and taking the gravity at 15·5° C. Taking the density of pure
coffee-infusion at 1008·6, and that of chicory at 1020·6, the per-centage
of pure coffee C in the sample may be calculated from the equation

      100(1020 - D)
  C = ------------
           12

where D represents the density of the infused sample. The relative
tinctorial power of an infusion of a sample of coffee is determined by
boiling a given weight with 20 c. c. of water for a few minutes,
filtering, and again boiling the residue until thoroughly exhausted. An
equal weight of a standard mixture of equal weights of pure coffee and
chicory is treated in a precisely similar manner. The standard solution
is made up to 200 c. c., that of the sample to 100 c. c.; 10 c. c. of the
latter are put into a narrow burette, and some of the standard into a test
tube of exactly equal bore. If the tints are exactly the same, the sample
consisted of pure coffee; if chicory is present, water must be added to
the sample until the tints are the same. Each c. c. of water represents 5
per cent. of chicory. The presence of leguminous seeds or cereals may be
detected by boiling the sample with animal charcoal and water, filtering,
and testing for starch in the cold liquid with iodine. Neither coffee nor
chicory contains starch.

_Obs._ A few years ago the attention of the scientific world was drawn to
the value of roasted coffee leaves, as furnishing materials for a beverage
unexcelled in excellence by the coffee berry itself. It appears that the
leaves, prepared for use, may be purchased for 1-1/2d. per lb., or packed
ready for export at 2d. per lb. “That this preparation contains a
considerable amount of the nutritious principles of coffee is evident from
the analysis; but as the leaves can only be collected in a good state at
the expense of the coffee-bush, it is doubtful whether the coffees
produced by the berries be not, after all, the cheapest, as it certainly
is the best.” (Jury Report, Exhibition, 1851.) Coffee for the table is
best prepared with the aid of a French cafetière, or coffee biggin,
furnished with a percolator or strainer, which will permit a moderately
rapid filtration. To produce this beverage in perfection, it is necessary
to employ the best materials in its preparation——fresh roasted and fresh
ground. “At least 1 oz. of coffee should be used to make 3 common-sized
coffee-cupfuls, with 1 teaspoonful of freshly roasted and ground chicory.
If desired strong, the quantity of both should be doubled.” (Cooley.) Many
habitual coffee drinkers cannot tolerate the use of chicory, which is a
doubtful improver of coffee. The prevailing fault of the coffee made in
England is its want of strength and flavour. The coffee-pot should be
heated previously to putting in the coffee, which may be done by means of
a little boiling water. The common practice of boiling coffee is quite
unnecessary, for all its flavour and aroma is readily extracted by boiling
hot water. Indeed, all the “useful and agreeable matter in coffee is very
soluble, it comes off with the first waters of infusion, and needs no
boiling.” (Ure.) Should prejudice, however, induce the housewife or cook
to boil her coffee, it should be only just simmered for a minute, as long
or violent boiling injures it considerably.

When coffee is prepared in a common pot, the latter being first made hot,
the boiling water should be poured over the powder, and not, as is
commonly the plan, put in first. It should then be kept stirred for 4 or 5
minutes, when a cup should be poured out and returned again, and this
operation repeated 3 or 4 times, after which, if allowed to repose for a
few minutes, it will generally become fine of itself. In all cases, where
a percolator is not used, the liquor should be well stirred up several
times before finally covering it up to settle for use.

Amongst the various descriptions of coffee pots in use we may mention
those of French make, consisting of two cylindrical vessels, the upper
having a metal strainer, on which the ground coffee is placed, and through
which the clear infusion runs into the lower one; Loysell’s——an apparatus
making very good coffee, and as one of the latest, an ingenious and
inexpensive coffee pot, known as the “Kaffee Kanne,” devised by Mr Ash, of
Oxford Street. Ash’s “Kaffee Kanne” consists of an ordinary biggin,
surrounded by a jacket containing boiling water. The coffee is made by
percolation in the inner vessel, and being kept at the point of ebullition
by the surrounding boiling water, yields a beverage of excellent flavour
and aroma.

Coffee is sometimes clarified by adding a shred of isinglass, a small
piece of clean eel- or sole-skin, or a spoonful of white of egg. An
excellent plan, common in France, is to place the vessel containing the
made coffee upon the hearth, and to sprinkle over its surface half a
cupful of cold water, which from its greater gravity descends, and carries
the ‘foulness’ with it. Another plan sometimes adopted is to wrap a cloth,
previously dipped into cold water, round the coffee-pot. This method is
commonly practised by the Arabians in the neighbourhood of Yemen and Moka,
and rapidly clarifies the liquor, unless a very large quantity of chicory
is present. It should be recollected that the use of isinglass, white of
egg, and all like artificial finings, remove much of the astringency and
vivacity of the liquor.

The French, who are remarkable for the superior quality of their coffee,
generally allow an ounce to each large coffee-cupful of water, and they
use the coffee both newly ground and freshly roasted. A shred of saffron,
or a little vanilla, is frequently added, whilst the percolating
coffee-pot is generally employed. When the Parisian uses a common
coffee-pot he generally divides the water into 2 parts. The first portion
he pours on boiling hot, and allows it to infuse for 4 or 5 minutes; he
then pours this off as clear as possible, and boils the grounds for 2 or 3
minutes with the remaining half of the water. As soon as this has
deposited the sediment it is decanted, and mixed with the infusion. The
object of this process is to obtain the whole of the strength as well as
the flavour. The infusion is thought to contain the latter, and the
decoction the former; a plausible, but erroneous idea, since both of them
were carried off by the first water.

A much better method, and one we can recommend from experience, is to
divide the coffee into 2 parts. Boil the first portion in the coffee-pot
for 4 or 5 minutes, then add the other portion, and allow it to infuse
slowly for about 10 minutes, the coffee-pot lid being kept well closed.
This gives a coffee possessing a flavour which even the French cannot
excel.

=Coffee, Essence of.= A highly concentrated infusion of coffee, prepared
by percolation with boiling water, gently and quickly evaporated to about
1/3rd or 1/4th of its bulk, and mixed with a thick aqueous extract of
chicory and syrup of burnt sugar, so as to give the whole the consistence
of treacle. The proportions of the dry ingredients should be——coffee, 4
parts; chicory, 2 parts; burnt sugar (caramel) 1 part. It should be kept
in well-corked bottles in a cool place. This preparation is very
convenient for making extemporaneous coffee; but the beverage so made,
though superior to much of that sold at coffee-houses, is inferior in
flavour, aroma, and piquancy, to that we are accustomed to drink at home.
Much of the so-called ‘Essence of Coffee’ is simply treacle and burnt
sugar, flavoured with coffee.

=Coffee, Searle’s Patent.= This is prepared by mixing condensed milk with
a very concentrated essence of coffee and evaporating at a low temperature
(_in vacuo_, if possible), until the mixture acquires the consistence of a
syrup (coffee syrup), paste (coffee paste), or candy (coffee candy). The
last may be powdered (coffee powder, dry essence of coffee).

=Coffee, Substitutes for.= These are numerous, but are now seldom
employed, owing to the cheapness of the genuine article, and the
stringency of the revenue laws. Among the principal are the following:——

1. COFFEE, ACORN. From acorns deprived of their shells, husked, dried, and
roasted.

2. COFFEE, BEAN. Horse-beans roasted along with a little honey or sugar.

3. COFFEE, BEET-ROOT. From the yellow beet-root, sliced, dried in a kiln
or oven, and ground with a little coffee.

4. COFFEE, DANDELION. From dandelion roots, sliced, dried, roasted, and
ground with a little caramel.

5. COFFEE, GERMAN. _Syn._ SUCCORY C., CHICORY C. From chicory or succory.
Used both for foreign coffee, and to adulterate it.

_Obs._ All the above are roasted, before grinding them, with a little fat
or lard. Those which are larger than coffee-berries are cut into small
slices before being roasted. They possess none of the exhilarating
properties or medicinal virtues of foreign coffee.

COINS. See MEDALS and ELECTROTYPE.

=COKE.= Charred or carbonised coal. The principle of its manufacture is
similar to that of charcoal. There are three varieties of coke:——

1. KILN-MADE COKE; STIFLED COKE. Made by burning pit-coal in a pile, kiln,
or stove. It has a dull-black colour, and produces an intense heat when
used as fuel. By condensing the bituminous vapours which are given off
during the process, about 3% of tar may be obtained from common coal, and
from some strong coal, by careful treatment fully 10% of its weight. The
screenings of dust coal, separated from the better kinds of bituminous
coal, is the sort commonly used for making coke in ovens.

2. GAS COKE; DISTILLED COKE. The cinder left in the gas retorts. Grey;
produces a weak heat, insufficient to smelt iron.

3. SHALE COKE; MINERAL CARBON. From bituminous shale, burnt in covered
iron pots, in a similar way to that adopted for making bone-black; or in
piles. Black and friable. Used to clarify liquids, but is vastly inferior
to bone-black, and does not abstract the lime from syrups. See FUEL,
PIT-COAL, &c.

=COLCHICIN′A.= _Syn._ COL′CHICINE. COLCHICIA. A peculiar principle
discovered by Gieger and Hesse in the seeds of the _Colchicum autumnale_
or common meadow saffron. It also exists in the corms or bulbs.

_Prep._ Macerate the bruised seeds in boiling alcohol, add magnesia, to
throw down the alkaloid, digest the precipitate in boiling alcohol, and
filter. By cautious evaporation colchicine will be deposited, and maybe
purified by re-solution and crystallisation in alcohol.

_Prop., &c._ Odourless; bitter; soluble in water and alcohol; form salts
with the acids. It is very poisonous. 1/10th of a grain, dissolved in
spirit, killed a cat in 12 hours. It differs from veratria in being
soluble in water and crystalline, and in the non-production of sneezing
when cautiously applied to the nose. Strong oil of vitriol turns this
alkaloid of a yellowish-brown; nitric acid turns it of a deep violet,
passing into indigo-blue, green and yellow. It is not used in medicine.

=COL′CHICUM.= _Syn._ MEA′DOW SAF′FRON; COLCHICUM AUTUMNALE (Linn.), L. The
recent and dried corms or bulbs (_colchici cormus_), as well as the seeds
(_colchici semina_), are official in the British Pharmacopœia. The corms
are ordered to be dug up in the month of July, or before the autumnal bud
has projected. The dry coatings having been torn off, cut the corms
transversely in thin slices, and dry, at first with a gentle heat, but
afterwards slowly increased to 150° Fahr.

_Dose_ (of the corms), 2 to 8 or 9 gr.; (of the seeds), 2 to 7 gr., made
into a pill or bolus with syrup or conserve; chiefly, as a specific in
gout, to alleviate or check the paroxysm. This drug forms the base of
almost all the advertised gout nostrums. It is, however, an active poison,
and its administration requires care. “After all that has been said
respecting colchicum in gout, and admitting that it rarely fails to allay
pain and check a paroxysm, I would record my opinion that he who would
wish to arrive at a good old age should eschew it as an _ordinary_ remedy,
and consider that he is drawing on his constitution for a temporary
relief, with a certainty of becoming prematurely bankrupt in his vital
energies.” (Collier.)

_Antidotes._ An emetic consisting of one scruple of sulphate of zinc
dissolved in water, followed by a brisk dose of castor oil, then
stimulants, and also charcoal.

=COL′COTHAR.= See OXIDES OF IRON.

=COLD.= _Syn._ FRI′GUS, L. The privation of heat. The term is also applied
to the sensation and effects which this privation produces.

When the body of an animal is immersed in an atmosphere at a temperature
below the healthy standard, a sensation of coldness is experienced,
produced by the passage of the caloric or heat of the body into the colder
medium. If this extraction of caloric exceeds the quantity produced by the
vital system, the temperature of the body decreases, until it sinks below
the point at which the functions of life can be performed. This
declination of the heat of the body is gradual; the extreme sensation of
coldness changes into a disinclination for voluntary motion; next comes on
drowsiness, followed by numbness and insensibility. At this point if the
sufferer is not rescued, and remedial measures had recourse to, death
inevitably and rapidly ensues.

The prevention of the effects of cold consists in the use of ample food
and clothing proportioned to the inclemency of the weather, the exposure
to be endured, and the habits of the wearer. The circulation of the blood
should be promoted by active exercise, and any disposition to sleep shaken
off by increased bodily exertion. The principal endeavour should be to
keep the extremities and chest warm, as, if this can be accomplished, no
danger need be feared.

In cases of asphyxia produced by intense cold, the patient should be laid
in a room remote from the fire, and bathed with cold salt-and-water, or
water to which some brandy or vinegar has been added; after which the body
should be wiped dry, and friction assiduously applied by the hands of the
attendants (warmed); as many operating at once as can conveniently do so.
Gentle stimulants should be administered by the mouth, and the bowels
excited by some mild, stimulating clyster. The lungs should also be
inflated, and an effort made to re-establish the respiration. As soon as
symptoms of returning animation are evinced, and the breathing and
circulation restored, the patient should be laid in a bed between
blankets, and a little wine-and-water administered, and perspiration
promoted by heaping an ample quantity of clothing on the bed. Should the
patient have suffered from hunger as well as cold, the appetite may be
appeased by the administration of a limited quantity of light food, taking
especial care to avoid excess, or anything indigestible or exciting, &c.
See ASPHYXIA, BRONCHITIS, CATARRH, &c.

=COLD CREAM.= A snow-white, bland ointment, about the consistence of good
lard, and an admirable substitute for that excipient where expense is no
object, especially for applications about the face. It is commonly sold as
a lip-salve and as a healing application to abraded and chapped surfaces
generally. The ordinary receipts are given under the head of COSMETIC
CERATE (which _see_). The following produces a superior article.

_Prep._ (Dr L. Turnbull.) From white wax, 1 oz.; oil of almonds, 4 oz.;
rose-water, 2 oz.; borax, 1/2 dr.; oil of roses, 5 drops. Melt, and
dissolve the wax in the oil of almonds by a gentle heat; dissolve the
borax in the rose-water, which is then to be warmed a little and added to
the heated oil; lastly, add the oil of roses, stirred.

=COL′IC.= _Syn._ COL′ICA, L. The belly-ache or gripes. The name is
popularly given to all severe griping abdominal pains, without reference
to the cause. There are several varieties of this disease, as noticed
below.

=Colic, Accident′al.= Produced by improper food, and poisons. The
treatment may be similar to that recommended for bilious or flatulent
colic.

=Colic, Bil′ious.= In this variety the pain is intermittent and transient,
accompanied by constipation, nausea, and vomiting. The fæces, if any, are
bilious, dark-coloured, and offensive. The common remedies are, a full
dose of blue pill, calomel, colocynth, or aloes, followed by a sufficient
quantity of Epsom salts or Glauber’s salts. Warm fomentations are also
serviceable.

=Colic, Flat′ulent.= Marked by constipation, and the irregular distension
of the bowels by gas, accompanied by a rumbling noise, &c. It is commonly
produced by the use of indigestible vegetables and slops. The remedies
are, a full dose of tincture of rhubarb combined with a few drops of
essence of peppermint. If this does not afford relief, an Abernethy pill
may be taken, washed down with a glass of any cordial water, as
peppermint, cinnamon, or caraway. When the pain is extreme, warm
fomentations to the belly, or a carminative clyster, will generally give
relief. The Editor has found castor oil and Collis Browne’s chlorodyne of
great benefit in this complaint.

=Colic, Paint′er’s.= _Syn._ PLUMB′ER’S COLIC, DEVONSHIRE C., LEAD C.;
COL′ICA PICTO′NUM, L. The dry belly-ache. It is marked by obstinate
costiveness, acrid bilious vomitings, violent pains about the region of
the navel, convulsive spasms in the intestines, and a tendency to
paralysis in the extremities. It is most prevalent in the cider counties,
and amongst persons exposed to the fumes of lead. The remedies are the
same as for the spasmodic variety. Should these fail, after the bowels
have been thoroughly evacuated, small doses of camphor and opium may be
administered, and sulphuric beer or sweetened water very slightly
acidulated with sulphuric acid, had recourse to as a beverage. Mr Benson,
the managing director of the British White-lead Works at Birmingham,
says:——“Although during several weeks after the addition of the sulphuric
acid to the treacle beer, drank at the works, little advantage seemed to
be derived, yet the cases of lead colic became gradually less frequent,
and since October of that year, or during a period of fifteen months, not
a single case of lead colic has occurred amongst the people.” (‘Lancet.’)
See BEER, SULPHURIC ACID, and SULPHURIC ACID.

=Colic, Spasmod′ic.= Marked by a fluctuating pain about the navel, which
goes away and returns by starts, often leaving the patient for some time.
The belly is usually soft, and the intestines may often be felt in lumps,
which move about under the hand, or are wholly absent for a time. It is
unaccompanied by flatulency. The remedies are warm fomentations, warm
clysters, and carminatives, accompanied by small doses of camphor and
opium.

=Colic, Stercora′ceous.= Marked by severe griping pains and constipation
of the bowels. The remedies are powerful cathartics, as full doses of
calomel, aloes, colocynth, jalap, &c., followed by purgative salts, as
sulphate of magnesia, or sulphate of soda.

=Colic in Horses.= First give the horse a sharp trot, and apply friction
over the belly, and follow this up with a drench of warm gruel to which
has been added a glass or two of whisky or gin. Should these fail to give
relief, let 4 dr. of aloes be rubbed down in a pint of hot water, and when
the mixture becomes cool enough, add from thirty to sixty drops of strong
solution of ammonia. Where the spasms and distress continue severe, and
with little intermission, the physic may be followed in an hour with 2 dr.
of tincture of aconite, given with an ounce of spirit of chloroform, in a
little water, and repeated every hour; soap and water clysters should be
administered every half hour, and friction and hot fomentations applied to
the abdomen.

=COLLO′DION.= _Syn._ COLLO′DIUM, L., B. P. A viscid fluid formed by
dissolving pyroxylin (Schönbein’s gun-cotton) in a mixture of ether and
alcohol. In _surgery_ it is used in its natural state, and combined with
certain elastic and medicinal substances. In _photography_ it is used in
combination with agents that render it sensitive to the action of light.

=Collodion.= _Syn._ PLAIN COLLODION. The following are the best methods of
preparing plain collodion for surgical purposes:——

_Prep._ 1. (Ph. U. S.) Nitrate of potassa, in powder, 10 oz.; sulphuric
acid, 8-1/2 fl. oz.; triturate together in a wedgwood mortar until
uniformly mixed; then add of fine carded cotton (free from impurities),
1/2 oz.; and by means of the pestle or a glass rod, saturate it thoroughly
with the liquor for a period of about 3 or 4 minutes; next transfer the
cotton to a vessel containing water, and wash it in successive portions of
pure water, with agitation and pressure, until the washings cease to
affect litmus paper or a solution of chloride of barium; it is then to be
spread out and dried by a very gentle heat, and dissolved by agitation in
a stoppered bottle with rectified sulphuric ether, 1 quart, to which
rectified spirit (alcohol), 1 fl. oz., has been previously added.

2. (Mialhe.) Nitrate of potassa, 40 parts; concentrated sulphuric acid, 60
parts; carded cotton, 2 parts; proceed as last until the dry cotton is
obtained, then take of the prepared cotton, 8 parts; rectified sulphuric
ether, 125 parts; mix in a well-stoppered bottle, and agitate it for some
minutes; then add gradually, rectified alcohol, 1 part; and continue to
shake until the whole of the liquid acquires a syrupy consistency. It may
be now passed through a cloth; but a better way to prevent loss is to let
it repose for a few days, and then decant the clear portion.

3. (Lauras.) This process only differs from No. 2 in the following
particulars:——The cotton is immersed for 12 minutes, then rinsed 2 or 3
times in cold water, and afterwards immersed in a solution of carbonate of
potassa, 4 parts, and water, 200 parts. Lastly, it is plunged again into
simple water, and dried at a temperature of 77° to 86° Fahr.

4. (B. P.) Pyroxylin, 1 part; rectified spirit, 12 parts; ether, 36 parts;
mix the ether and spirit, and add the pyroxylin. Keep in a well-corked
bottle.

5. (Parrish.) Thoroughly saturate clean carded cotton, 1/2 oz., with
fuming nitric acid and sulphuric acid, of each 4 fl. oz., previously mixed
and allowed to become cool; macerate for 12 hours; wash the cotton in a
large quantity of water; then free it from the water by successive
washings in alcohol, and dissolve in ether, 3 pints.

_Obs._ For success in the manufacture of collodion it is absolutely
necessary to avoid the presence of water. The ordinary commercial oil of
vitriol, sp. gr. 1·84, may be used. Professor Procter, of Philadelphia,
gives preference to the process with the mixed acids (No. 5), and directs
that the cotton should be allowed to macerate for four days. In drying the
cotton great care should be taken to prevent an explosion.

_Uses, &c._ In _surgery_ plain collodion is employed as a dressing for
wounds, and as a protection to abraded surfaces. On drying, it unites the
former closely, and preserves the latter from the action of the air. It is
impervious to water, and being transparent, it admits of the progress of
the wound being inspected when necessary. Such is its adhesive power, that
a piece of cloth cemented with it to the dry palm of the hand will support
a weight of 25 to 30 lbs. The parts to which it is applied should be freed
from moisture. See COLLODIONS, COLOURED, ELASTIC, MEDICATED and VESICATING
(_below_).

=Collodion, Blis′tering.= See VESICATING COLLODION.

=Collodion, Col′oured.= _Syn._ COLLODIUM TINCTUM, L. _Prep._ (Cutan.
Hosp.) Collodion, 2 oz.; palm oil, 1 dr.; alkanet root, q. s. to colour
(say 15 gr.); digest and decant the clear. Colour bears a greater
resemblance to the skin than that of common collodion, whilst it is more
flexible; but it is weaker than the latter.

=Collodion, Elas′tic.= _Prep._ 1. (Lauras.) Heat together Venice
turpentine, 2 parts; castor oil, 2 parts; and white wax, 2 parts; add
sulphuric ether, 6 parts; and mix all with the product of No. 3 (_above_),
that is, to the collodion formed with 8 parts of prepared cotton, 125
ether, and 8 alcohol.

2. (C. S. Rand.) Dissolve prepared cotton (No. 5, _above_), 2 dr., in
sulphuric ether, 5 fl. oz.; then add, Venice turpentine, 2 dr., and
complete the solution by slight agitation.

_Obs._ The collodion made by either of the above processes, when applied
to the skin, forms a transparent pellicle, more pliable and more difficult
to remove than that of ordinary collodion.

=Collodion, Flexible.= COLLODION FLEXILE. (B. P.) Mix collodion (B. P.), 6
fl. oz., with Canada balsam, 120 gr.; and castor oil, 1 fl. dr., and keep
in a well-corked bottle.

=Collodion, Hemostatic.= Collodion, 10 parts; carbolic acid, 1 part;
tannic acid, 1/2 part; benzoic acid, 1/2 part; all by weight. To be
applied with a pencil brush.

=Collodion, Iodised.= This may be made at one operation; it should be kept
two days before being used, but is less reliable if kept for any length of
time than the sensitised collodion described below. It is made as
follows:——Place 16 grains of gun-cotton in a bottle, add 18 grains of
iodide of cadmium in powder, 6 grains of bromide of cadmium in powder, and
1-1/2 oz. of spirits of wine (sp. gr. 0·805). Shake the bottle until the
iodide and bromide are dissolved, then add 3 oz. of ether, sp. gr. 0·720,
and shake until the cotton is dissolved. After settling for twenty-four
hours, decant the clear portion into small well-stoppered bottles.

=Collodion, Med′icated.= It has been proposed to medicate collodion in
several ways, but the practice has not found much favour with the medical
profession. The following preparations have been described:——

COLLODION, ACONITE. From aconite root, by a similar formula to that of
BELLADONNA C. (_below_).

COLLODION, BELLADONNA. _Prep._ Macerate select belladonna leaves,
powdered, 8 oz., in ether, 12 fl. oz., with alcohol (95%), 4 fl. oz., for
six hours. Pack in a percolator, and pour en alcohol till a pint of
tincture is obtained; in this dissolve pyroxylin (gun-cotton), 1 dr., and
Canada balsam, 1/2 oz. Used as a substitute for BELLADONNA PLASTER.

COLLODION, CANTHARIDIN. See COLLODION, VESICATING.

COLLODION, IODINE. _Prep._ Dissolve iodine and Canada balsam, of each 1/2
oz., in collodion, 1 pint. Used as a substitute for IODINE OINTMENT.

=Collodion, Morphia.= (L′Union Medicale.) Dissolve 1 part of hydrochlorate
of morphia in 30 parts of flexible collodion, and apply with a camel-hair
brush.

=Collodion, Photograph′ic.= 1. There are so many methods adopted for
preparing photographic collodion, that a large volume might be filled with
notices of them. We have retained Mr Hardwich’s forms, which were formerly
much esteemed by practical photographers, and appended to them modern
formulæ which are now, we believe, in much greater demand, and for which
we are indebted to Mr Ernest Spon’s valuable book ‘Workshop Receipts.’

2. Pyroxylin, and iodide of cadmium, or ammonium, of each 15 gr.; ether,
3-1/2 oz.; alcohol, 1-1/2 oz. Place the two first in a dry bottle, then
pour on the spirits of wine, shake the mixture well, then add the ether,
shake again and let it stand for 12 hours. Decant the clear portion into a
wide-mouthed bottle, keep well stoppered, and in the dark. Avoid shaking
the bottle when about to use the collodion, and never quite use all the
bottle contains, as the sediment which will accumulate at the bottom would
spoil the picture. The preparation of a sensitive collodion, whether
positive or negative, includes three distinct operations, namely, the
formation of the pyroxylin or gun-cotton, the conversion of this into
plain collodion, and the final process of iodising the collodion.

=Collodion, Plain.= Mix in a bottle gun-cotton, 450 gr.; ether, 25 oz.;
spirits of wine, 7 oz. Shake these well together, and leave to settle
several days. Keep well corked.

=Collodion, Pos′itive.= (Hardwich.) To form the PYROXYLIN:——Take sulphuric
acid, sp. gr. 1·845, at 60° Fahr., 12 fl. oz.; nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·45,
at 60°, 12 fl. oz.; water, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; mix, and allow the temperature
to fall to 140°; then immerse cotton, 300 grains. (If the cotton is found
to gelatinise or dissolve in the acid mixture, the quantity of water is
too great, and may be reduced to 3 fl. oz.) The cotton should be well
pulled out in pieces, weighing about 30 grains each; and should be left in
the acid for about 8 minutes, the vessel being covered over. It is taken
out with a glass spatula, squeezed to remove acid, washed for at least 24
hours by a stream of water, then squeezed in a cloth, and pulled out to
dry. To form the PLAIN COLLODION:——Shake up the dry pyroxylin, 48 grains,
with alcohol, sp. gr. ·805, 1-1/2 fl. oz., and then add ether, sp. gr.
·725, 4-1/2 fl. oz. The solution should be allowed to rest for a week or
ten days, when the clear fluid should be decanted from the sediment. To
prepare the IODISING SOLUTION:——Take of iodide of ammonium, 1-1/2 dr.;
iodide of cadmium, 1-1/2 dr.; bromide of ammonium, 40 grains; powder, and
dissolve in alcohol, sp. gr. ·805 to ·816, 10 fl. oz. The collodion is
iodised by adding the solution to it in the proportion of 1 part solution
to 3 parts collodion. The iodised collodion should be kept for at least
six weeks before using. If required for immediate use, add a few drops of
an alcoholic solution of iodine, formed by dissolving 5 grains of iodine
in 1 fl. oz. of alcohol.

_Obs._ Mr Hardwich recommends that the cotton, before being converted into
pyroxylin, should be cleansed by boiling for two hours in a solution of
caustic potassa (2 oz. to the gallon), and by being afterwards repeatedly
washed and dried. The purest nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·45, should be
employed, but the ordinary commercial sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) is
sufficiently pure for use. To purify the ETHER and to get rid of a certain
ozonised principle which would decompose the iodising solution, Mr
Hardwich recommends the following process:——Take the best washed ether of
commerce and agitate it thoroughly with a small portion of dilute
sulphuric acid, and then introduce it into a retort, and distil over one
third. The alcohol used is of the strength of that sold for absolute
alcohol; it should be pure.

=Collodion, Neg′ative.= (Hardwich.) To form the PYROXYLIN:——Take of
sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1·845, at 60°, 18 fl. oz.; nitric acid, sp. gr.
1·475, at 60°, 6 fl. oz.; water, 5-1/4 fl. oz.; cotton, 300 grains. Mix,
and allow the temperature to fall to 150° Fahr. The weight of the
pyroxylin ought to be 375 grains. To form the PLAIN COLLODION:——Take
alcohol, sp. gr. ·806, 1/2 gallon; ether, sp. gr. ·725, 1 gall.;
pyroxylin, 1900 grains. Saturate the pyroxylin with the alcohol, then pour
in half a gallon of the ether, agitate for 3 or 4 minutes, and repeat the
process in adding the remainder. Decant the clear liquid from the sediment
after a week or ten days’ rest. The following forms for IODISING SOLUTIONS
are recommended:——_a._ (Potassium Iodiser.) Iodide of potassium, 135
grains; alcohol, sp. gr. ·816, 10 fl. oz. Powder and dissolve in the
alcohol, previously heated to 140°.——_b._ (Cadmium Iodiser.) Iodide of
cadmium, 170 grains; alcohol, sp. gr. ·816, 10 fl. oz. Dissolve in the
cold, and filter.——_c._ (Bromo-iodiser.) Bromide of ammonium, 40 grains;
iodide of ammonium, 90 grains; iodide of cadmium, 90 grains; alcohol, sp.
gr. ·816, 10 fl. oz. Pulverise and dissolve in the cold. To sensitise the
collodion, add to three parts one part of either _a_, _b_, or _c_.

_Obs._ Most of the practical directions given under the head of POSITIVE
COLLODION apply equally to NEGATIVE COLLODION. Nothing but patient and
intelligent practice will ever lead to success in preparing collodion for
photographic purposes. Although formulæ of undoubted excellence may be
used, it continually happens that the results are entirely nugatory from
some trifling cause. See PHOTOGRAPHY.

=Collodion, Sensitised.= Add to 1 oz. of the plain collodion 6 drams of
spirits of wine; 1-3/4 oz. of ether; and 3 drams of iodide and bromide
solution (see _below_). Shake the bottle well; the mixture is then ready,
but is improved by being kept four or five hours before using. In hot
weather a little more alcohol and less ether; in very cold weather more
ether and less alcohol must be used. As sensitised collodion does not keep
well, it is better not to mix the plain collodion and the iodide and
bromide solution until shortly before required for use.

=Iodide and Bromide Solution.= Iodide of cadmium 154 grains; bromide of
cadmium 54 grains; spirits of wine, 3-1/2 ounces. Pound the iodide and
bromide very fine in a mortar, adding the spirit gradually; when the
iodide and bromide are dissolved, pass the solution through a filter paper
into a bottle. Must be kept in a closely-stoppered bottle.

=Collodion, Styptic.= _Syn._ STYPTIC COLLOID. (Dr Richardson.) To a
saturated solution of tannic acid in alcohol and ether, in equal parts,
add as much pyroxylin as the liquid will dissolve.

=Collodion, Ves′icating.= _Syn._ BLIS′TERING COLLODION, CANTHAR′IDIN C.;
COLLO′DIUM VES′ICANS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Tichborne.) Coarsely powdered
cantharides, 6 oz., are placed loosely in a displacement apparatus
(provided with a tap to regulate the flow), and treated with ether from
methylated spirit, 13 fl. oz., and glacial acetic acid, 2 fl. oz.,
previously mixed together. After the fluid has passed through, it will be
found that the _débris_ has retained by absorption 7 fl. oz., which must
be displaced by the gradual addition of methylated spirits of wine, 7 fl.
oz. If properly managed, there is not the least danger of the admixture of
the spirits with the percolated menstruum, as the animal substance of the
flies swells considerably under the prolonged influence of the spirits of
wine, so that the same bulk will be insufficient to quite displace the
ether. The ethereal solution should be made to measure exactly 15 fl. oz.
with a little spirit, and may then be converted into a collodion by the
addition of pyroxylin, 1/2 oz.

_Obs._ The glacial acid plays a double part in this preparation. It
dissolves the cantharidin, and at the same time gives to the collodion
film the essential property of porosity. Ordinary collodion is useless as
an excipient, for it produces a tough and contractile film, which really
screens the skin from the action of the greater part of the blistering
material.

2. (Ilisch.) Cantharidin, 15 gr.; pyroxylin, 20 gr.; rectified ether,
1-1/2 oz.; acetic ether, 1/2 oz.; dissolve.

3. (Œttinger.) Ether of cantharides and collodion, equal parts.

_Use._ Vesicating collodion is used as an irritant. No. 1 was introduced
in 1862, and has many advantages over the other two. Mr Tichborne thus
described the most effectual method of using it in the ‘Pharm.
Journ,’:——“The part upon which the blister is to be raised should be
painted with the vesicant to the desired extent, bearing in mind that the
blister produced always extends to about one tenth of an inch beyond the
margin of the space covered. Care should be taken to give a coating of
considerable thickness, and to ensure this result the brush should be
passed over and over again, until about 1/2 dr. has been used to the
square inch, or less when operating upon a tender epidermis. It is
desirable to place over the intended blister a piece of oil silk, or, what
is still better, a piece of sheet gutta percha, somewhat larger than the
surface painted, as this will stop the exhalations of the skin, and so
render it moist and permeable. In ten minutes, or a quarter of an hour if
the cuticle is hard, the collodion should be wiped off with a little
cotton-wool moistened with ether, when the blister will almost instantly
rise.”

=COL′LOID.= See DIALYSIS.

=COLLYR′IUM.= [L.] In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, a topical remedy for
diseases of the eye. Formerly the term collyrium was applied to any
medicament employed to restrain defluxions.

=Collyr′ium, Dry.= _Syn._ EYE POWDER; COLLYR′IUM SIC′CUM, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Dupuytren.) White sugar, 1 dr.; red oxide of mercury, 10 gr.; oxide of
zinc, 20 gr.; mix.

2. (Lagneau.) Sugar candy, 2 parts; nitrate of potassa, 1 part.

3. (Falconer.) Chloride of barium, 1 gr.; sugar candy, 1 dr.

4. (Radius.) Calomel and white sugar, of each 1/2 dr.; opium, 10 gr.

5. (Recamier.) Oxide of zinc and sugar candy, equal parts.

6. (Velpeau.) Trisnitrate of bismuth and sugar candy, equal parts.

7. (Wiseman.) Acetate of soda, 10 gr.; powdered opium, 1 gr.; sugar candy,
1/2 dr.

_Obs._ It is absolutely necessary that the ingredients in the above
preparations should be reduced to an impalpable powder by careful
trituration in a wedgwood mortar. For use, a small pinch is placed in a
quill or straw, and blown into the eye previously opened with the fingers.
On the whole, they may be regarded as unnecessary preparations, and are
unsafe, except in skilful hands.

=Collyrium, Liq′uid.= See WATERS (Eye).

=Collyrium, Unct′uous.= See OINTMENTS (Eye).

=COL′OCYNTH= (sĭnth). _Syn._ COLOCYNTH PULP., COLOCYNTHIDIS PULPA, B. P.
BIT′TER AP′PLE, BITTER GOURD, BITTER CU′CUMBER, PEELED COLOCYNTH;
COLOQUINT′IDA, COLOCYNTH′IS (B. P.), L. The decorticated fruit or pulp of
the _Citrellus Colocynthis_ (Schrad.——Ph. L.), or _Cucumis Colocynthis_
(Linn.——Ph. E. & D.). It is an acrid, drastic purge and hydragogue, and
cannot be given alone with safety; but, in combination with other
substances, it forms some of our most useful cathartic medicines.

=COLOCYNTH′IN.= _Syn._ COLOCYNTH′IUM, L. The bitter, purgative principle
of colocynth.

=COL′OPHENE.= Formed by distilling oil of turpentine with concentrated
sulphuric acid. A colourless, viscid, oily liquid; with a high
boiling-point; and exhibiting a bluish tint by reflected light.

=COL′OPHONY.= See RESIN.

=COLORADO BEETLE.= _Syn._ _Doryphera decemlineata._ The Colorado potato
beetle belongs to the family _Chrysomelidæ_, and is a native of the
eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It measures nearly half an inch in
length, and has a tawny or yellowish cream-coloured body, darkly spotted;
with wing cases which are marked with ten black longitudinal stripes. It
has been gradually migrating eastward toward the more cultivated lands of
the Northern states, until it has reached the Atlantic coast. It is now
found over all the central and northern parts of the United States east of
the Rocky Mountains, as well as throughout Canada, on the potato crops of
all of which regions it has committed incalculable ravages. The leaves and
stalks are the parts of the potato plant principally attacked; the
depredators being, for the most part, the larvæ, of which three broods are
said to be produced annually.

In America, we believe, the only means of destroying these insects as well
as their eggs and larvæ consists in the application to the plant of the
highly poisonous and dangerous pigment, Scheele’s green, a hydrated
arsenite of copper. M. Girard recommends in preference to the arsenical
salt a liberal use of sulpho-carbonate of potash.

=COLOUR BLINDNESS.= _Syn._ DAL′TONISM. A curious defect of vision, from
which the eye is incapable of distinguishing colours. It is of three
kinds:——1. An inability to distinguish any colour properly so called, the
person being only able to distinguish white and black, light and shade. 2.
An inability to distinguish between the primary colours, red, blue, and
yellow, or between these and the secondary or tertiary hues, such as
green, purple, orange, and brown. 3. An inability to distinguish nicer
shades and hues, as greys and neutral tints. The first form is rare; the
second and third are common. Dr George Wilson found that of 1154 persons
examined by him in Edinburgh, 65, or 1 in 177, were colour blind; of
these, 21 confounded red with green, 19 brown with green, and 25 blue with
green.

=COL′OURING.= _Syn._ BRANDY COLOURING, BREWER’S C., SPIRIT C. CAR′AMEL;
ESSEN′TIA BI′NA, L. _Prep._ Brown sugar is melted in an iron vessel over
the fire until it grows black and bitter, stirring it well all the time,
after which water is added, and it is boiled to a syrup. In the making of
brandy colouring white sugar is more frequently used.

_Obs._ Some persons use lime-water to dissolve the burnt sugar. Care must
be taken not to overburn it, as a greater quantity is thereby rendered
insoluble. The heat should not exceed 430°, nor be less than about 400°
Fahr. The process, for nice experiments, is best conducted in a bath of
melted tin, to which a little bismuth has been added to reduce its
melting-point to about 435°; a little powdered resin or charcoal or a
little oil being put upon the surface of the metal, to prevent the
oxidisement of the alloy. See CARAMEL.

=COL′OURS.= White light from the sun is of a compound nature, and may be
decomposed into rays of different colours. Newton distinguished seven
PRIMITIVE COLOURS, namely, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange,
and red. Sir D. Brewster is disposed to think that four of these colours
are really compound, and that three, namely, blue, yellow, and red, alone
deserve the name of primitive. The colours of natural objects are supposed
to result from the power possessed by their surfaces of absorbing some of
the coloured rays of light, while they reflect or transmit, as the case
may be, the remainder of the rays. Thus, an object appears red because it
absorbs or causes to disappear the yellow and blue rays composing the
white light by which it is illuminated. Black and white are not colours,
strictly speaking.

A body is said to be black when it absorbs or quenches a large proportion
of all the rays of white light falling upon it. A body is said to be white
when it receives the white light, and reflects all the rays with moderate
strength. Grey may be regarded as a luminous black or dark white. The
names given to colours are far from being satisfactory, for although many
thousand shades may be distinguished by a practised eye, it is a question
whether there are fifty names which would convey the same idea of shade to
any ten colourists in the world. The names taken from natural coloured
objects, as indigo, violet, orange, lilac, amber, emerald, &c., are the
least objectionable. M. Chevreul has devised an ingenious system of naming
and classifying colours. He employs only 6 fundamental names, which are
those of the three elementary colours, red, yellow, and blue; and of the
three secondary colours, orange, green, and violet. By the direct union of
the elementary and secondary colours, 6 tertiary colours are formed. He
arranges the twelve colours in a circle, like the spokes of a wheel,
commencing with the red, and going to the right, thus:——Red, red-orange,
orange, yellow-orange, yellow, yellow-green, green, blue-green, blue,
blue-violet, violet, red-violet. The chromatic circle is completed by
placing 5 shades between the red and red-orange, 5 between the red-orange
and orange; and so on between each of the other couples. This chromatic
circle of 72 colours is not imaginary, but actually exists, composed of
dyed wools. The shades are distinguished by numbers; thus there are red, 1
red, 2 red, 3 red, 4 red, and 5 red, &c. Each of the 72 shades has,
moreover, 20 different degrees of depth, from the lightest that can be
discerned from pure white to the most intense depth, approaching to brown
and black. These degrees of depth are called tones or tints. The addition
of these tones to the chromatic circle brings up the number of tints to
1440. To indicate any one of these tints we have merely to write the
number of the shade, and after it the number of the tone, as, for example,
3 blue-violet, 13 tone. By mixing each of the 1440 tints with grey or
black, so as to darken it in different degrees, a total of 14,440 colours
may be defined. This part of the system is generally regarded as
unnecessary. Mr O′Neill, in his valuable ‘Dictionary of Calico Printing
and Dyeing’ (to which work we refer the reader for a full account of
Chevreul’s classification), gives a long list of colours and coloured
bodies, which are pretty well defined in common language with the names of
the colours, according to this ingenious system. We select from this list
the following examples:——

  Amber in mass = 2 orange, 12 tone.
  Amethyst = 5 blue-violet, from 3 to 16 tone.
  Blood, ox = 1 red, 13 and 14 tones.
  Butter = yellow-orange, 2 to 3 tone.
  Carrot = orange, 7 tone.
  Chocolate in cake = 5 orange, 18 tone.
  Emerald = 2 green, 11 tone.
  Green, apple = 4 yellow-green, 8 tone.
  Isabelle = 1 yellow-orange.
  Mauve = 3 violet, 8 tone.
  Red-lead = yellow-orange, 20 tone.
  Ruby = red, 11 tone.
  Yellow, canary = 1 yellow, 6 tone.

For notices of DYES, PIGMENTS, &c., refer to the principal colours.

=Colours, Cake.= _Syn._ ARTISTS’ COLOURS. These are made by grinding by
means of a glass muller and a slab, the respective pigments previously
reduced to powder, into a smooth paste with equal parts of isinglass size,
and thin gum water. The paste is then compressed into squares as tightly
as possible, and dried with a very gentle heat. Old crumbling cake colours
should be powdered very finely in a biscuit-ware mortar, sifted through
fine muslin, and ground up as above, the gum water being omitted. The
powders rubbed up with honey to the consistence of cream constitute moist
colours.

=Colours, Complement′ary.= _Syn._ ACCIDENT′AL COLOURS. Colours are said to
be complementary to each other which, by blending together, produce the
perception of whiteness. According to Mayer, all colours are produced by
the admixture of red, yellow, and blue light, in certain proportions; and
by intercepting either one or more of these coloured rays in a beam of
light, those which meet the eye will consist of the remaining coloured
rays of the spectrum. Thus, by intercepting the red rays in a beam of
white light, the remaining yellow and blue rays will produce a green
colour; by intercepting the blue rays, the remaining yellow and red will
give an orange; and so on of other cases; so that red and green, blue and
orange, are COMPLEMENTARY COLOURS. If we look for some time, with one eye,
on a bright-coloured object, as a wafer, placed on a piece of paper, and
subsequently turn the same eye to another part of the paper, a similarly
shaped spot or mark will be seen, but the colour will vary, though it will
be always the same under like circumstances. Thus, if the original spot or
wafer be of a red colour, the imaginary one will be green; if black, it
will be white; the imaginary colour being always complementary of that
first gazed upon. The colour so perceived is often called an ACCIDENTAL
COLOUR, to distinguish it from the real colour. It is a general maxim in
design that “colours look brightest when near their complementary
colours.”

=Colours, Drug′gists’ Show.= See SHOW BOTTLES.

=Colours, Flame.= See FIRES (Coloured).

=COLTS′FOOT.= This popular herb is the _Tussilago farfara_ of Linnæus. It
is a demulcent bitter, and is slightly stomachic and tonic. It is much
esteemed by the lower classes in coughs, shortness of breath, and other
affections of the chest. The leaves form the basis of most of the British
herb tobaccos, and have been recommended to be smoked in asthma and
difficulty of breathing.——_Dose._ One or two wine-glassfuls of the tea or
decoction (1 oz. to the pint) _ad libitum_.

=COLUM′BIC ACID.= See TANTALIC ACID.

=COLUM′BIUM.= See TANTALUM.

=COMA.= A deep, heavy sleep, from which the patient cannot be aroused. See
APOPLEXY.

=COMACHROME FOR DYEING THE HAIR BLACK.= Nitrate of silver solution, with
pyrogallic acid. (Reveil).

=COMBINA′TION.= In _chemistry_, the union of dissimilar substances. The
great general laws which regulate all chemical combinations admit of being
laid down in a manner at once simple and concise. The laws of COMBINATION
BY WEIGHT are as follows:

“1. All chemical compounds are definite in their nature, the ratio of
their elements being constant.

“2. When any body is capable of uniting with a second in several
proportions, these proportions bear a simple relation to each other.

“3. If a body, A, unite with other bodies, B, C, D, the quantities of B,
C, D, which unite with A, represent the relations in which they unite
among themselves, in the event of union taking place.

“4. The combining quantity of a compound is the sum of the combining
quantities of its components.” (Fownes.)

There is a remarkable relation between the specific gravity of a body in
the gaseous state and its chemical equivalent or combining proportion——a
relation of such a kind that quantities by weight of the various gases,
expressed by their equivalents, or, in other words, quantities by weight
which combine occupy, under similar circumstances of pressure and
temperature, either equal volumes or volumes bearing a simple proportion
to each other. This relation accounts for the law of COMBINATION BY VOLUME
discovered by Gay-Lussac, and thus expressed:——

When gases combine, chemical union invariably takes place, either between
equal volumes or between volumes which bear a simple relation to each
other.

Gerhardt assumes that equal volumes of the elementary gases and vapours,
when compared under similar conditions of pressure and temperature,
contain the same number of atoms. Consult the chemical works of Fownes,
Roscoe, Watts, &c. See AFFINITY, ATOMIC THEORY, EQUIVALENTS, &c.

=COMPOUND CHINESE TABLET OF ALABASTER= (John Irvine). A cosmetic powder
for the skin. It consists of chalk, free from injurious metals.
(Chandler).

=Compound Chinese Tablet of Alabaster= (Shand). Identical in use and
composition with the last-mentioned powder.

=COMPOUND SUGAR-COATED MAY-APPLE PILLS= (Dr Scott). Recommended as
“antibilious, cathartic, chemical family pills.” Sugar-coated pills,
consisting of bitter extract, powdered podophyllum root, rhubarb, jalap,
and pepper. (Hager).

=COMPRESSES DESINFECTANTES DE LE PERDRIEL.= Charcoal powder incorporated
with paper.

=CONCENTRATED CASTOR OIL in Capsules of Gelatin= (Taylor). 24 gelatin
capsules filled with castor oil, containing ·5 per cent. of croton oil.
(Hager).

=CONCENTRA′TION.= The volatilisation of part of a liquid in order to
increase the strength of the remainder. The operation can only be
performed on solutions of substances of greater fixity than the menstrua
in which they are dissolved. Many of the liquid acids, solutions of the
alkalies, &c., are concentrated by distilling off their water.

In _pharmacy_, the term CONCENTRATED is commonly applied to any liquid
preparation possessing more than the usual strength. Thus, we have
concentrated infusions, decoctions, liquors, solutions, tinctures, and
essences, most of which are made of 8 times the common strength. This is
generally effected by using 8 times the usual quantity of the ingredients,
with a given portion of the menstruum, and operating by digestion and
percolation; the latter being generally adopted when the articles are
bulky. When the menstruum is water, a little spirit is added, to make the
product keep. See DECOCTION, INFUSION, &c.

=CON′CRETE.= A compact mass or cement, composed of pebbles, lime, and
sand, employed in the foundations of buildings. The best proportions have
been said to be——60 parts of coarse pebbles, 25 of rough sand, and 15 of
lime; but Semple recommends 80 parts of pebbles, 40 parts of river sand,
and only 10 parts of lime. The pebbles for concrete should not exceed
about 1/2 lb. each in weight.

=CON′DIMENTS.= Substances taken with the food, to season or improve its
flavour, or to render it more wholesome or digestible. The principal
condiments are COMMON SALT, VINEGAR, LEMON-JUICE, SPICES, AROMATIC HERBS,
OIL, BUTTER, SUGAR, HONEY, and SAUCES. Most of these, in moderation,
promote the appetite and digestion, but their excessive use tends to
vitiate the gastric juice, and injure the stomach.

=CONDY’S FLUID= (from England). A weak solution of permanganate of soda.
(Wittstein.)

=CONFEC′TION.= _Syn._ CONFECTIO, L. Anything prepared with sugar; a
sweetmeat, or candy. In _medicine_ the name is commonly applied to
substances, usually pulverulent, mixed up to the consistence of a soft
electuary, with powdered sugar, syrup, or honey. In the ‘London
Pharmacopœia’ (1836 and 1851) both CONSERVES and ELECTUARIES are included
under this head, though there appears to be some little distinction
between them.

In the preparation of confections all the dry ingredients should be
reduced to very fine powder, and passed through a sieve, not coarser than
80 holes to the inch; and the pulps and syrups used to mix them up should
be perfectly homogeneous, and of a proper consistence. The mixture should
be intimate and complete, in order that the characteristic constituents
may be equally distributed throughout the mass. The consistence of the
newly made confection should be sufficiently solid to prevent a separation
of the ingredients, and yet soft enough to allow of it being easily
swallowed without previous mastication.

Confections should be preserved in stone jars covered with writing paper,
and placed in a cool and not too dry a situation. Without this precaution
they are apt to mould on the top. If at any time the mass ferments and
swells up, the fermentative process may be arrested by placing the jar in
a bath of boiling water, for an hour or two, or until the whole becomes
pretty hot; when it should be removed from the heat, and stirred
occasionally until cold. Should the sugar crystallise out of the
confection, or ‘candy,’ as it is called, the same method may be followed.
Or, the mass may be well rubbed in a mortar until the hard lumps of sugar
are broken down and a uniform consistence again produced. On the large
scale it may be passed through the mill.

As remedial agents, the officinal confections possess little value, and
are chiefly used as vehicles for the administration of more active
medicines. See CONSERVES and ELECTUARIES.

=Confection of Acorns.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO SEM′INUM QUER′CUS, L. _Prep._
(Bories.) Powdered acorns, 3 oz.; red coral and catechu, of each 1-1/2
oz.; confection of dog-rose, 10 oz.; syrup of red roses, q. s. to make a
confection.——_Dose_, 1 dr., every 4 hours; in chronic diarrhœa, &c.

=Confection of Almonds.= _Syn._ ALMOND PASTE, CONSERVE OF ALMONDS;
CONFEC′TIO AMYG′DALÆ (Ph. L.), CONSER′VA AMYGDALA′RUM (Ph. E.), CONFEC′TIO
AMYGDALA′′RUM (Ph. D. 1826), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Sweet almonds, 8 oz.;
white sugar, 4 oz.; powdered gum Arabic, 1 oz.; macerate the almonds in
cold water, then remove the skins, and beat them with the other
ingredients until reduced to a smooth confection. The Ph. E. form is
similar. See POWDERS, COMPOUND POWDER OF ALMOND.

_Uses, &c._ To prepare EMULSION of MILK OF ALMONDS. A little of this paste
or powder, triturated with a sufficient portion of water and strained
through a piece of calico, forms emulsion of almonds. “This confection
will keep longer sound if the almonds, first decorticated (blanched),
dried, and rubbed into the finest powder, be mixed with the acacia and
sugar, separately powdered, and the mixed ingredients be kept in a
well-stoppered bottle.” (Ph. L.) The same effect may be arrived at by
simply well drying the blanched almonds before mixing them with the gum
and sugar. The addition of even a small quantity of water or syrup causes
the confection “to become soon mouldy, or rancid, or both.” (Brande.)

=Confection of Al′um.= _Syn._ CONFECTIO ALU′MINIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (St. B.
H.) Alum (in fine powder), 1 dr.; conserve of roses, 6 dr.

2. (Foy.) Alum, 1 dr.; conserve of roses, 1 oz.——_Dose_, 1 dr., 2 or 3
times a day; in lead colic, and as an astringent in diarrhœa and other
affections.

=Confection, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ AROMATIC ELEC′TUARY; CONFEC′TIO AROMAT′ICA
(Ph. L. & D.), ELECTUA′′RIUM AROMAT′ICUM (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)
Nutmegs, cinnamon, and hay saffron, of each 2 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.;
cardamoms, 1/2 oz.; prepared chalk, 16 oz.; white sugar, 2 lbs.; reduce
the whole to a very fine powder, and keep it in a closed vessel. When
wanted for use, mix it with water to the consistence of a confection.

2. (Ph. E.) Aromatic powder (Ph. E.), 1 part; syrup of orange peel, 2
parts; mix.

3. (Ph. D.) Aromatic powder and simple syrup, of each 5 oz.; clarified
honey, 2 oz.; powdered saffron, 1/2 oz.; mix, and add, oil of cloves, 30
drops.

4. (Commercial.)——_a._ Hay-saffron, cassia, and turmeric, of each 4 oz.;
cardamoms, 1 oz.; starch, 8 oz.; precipitated chalk, 2 lbs.; white sugar,
4 lbs.; oil of nutmeg, 2 dr.; oil of cloves, 3 dr.; reduce the dry
ingredients to fine powder, and pass it through a sieve (80 holes); then
add the oils, and after well mixing them in, pass the whole through a
coarse sieve (about 40 holes to the inch), to ensure perfect admixture.

_b._ Hay-saffron, 4 oz.; turmeric, 3 oz.; powdered starch, 8 oz.;
precipitated chalk, 2 lbs.; white sugar, 4 lbs; oil of cloves and cassia,
of each 3 dr.; oil of nutmeg, 2 dr.; essence of cardamoms, 1 oz.; boil the
saffron and turmeric in 1 gallon of water, placed in a bright copper pan,
for 10 minutes, then, without straining, add the chalk, starch, and sugar;
mix well, and continue stirring until the mixture becomes quite stiff,
then break it up, dry it thoroughly by the heat of a steam or water bath;
next reduce it to fine powder, which must be passed through a fine sieve,
as before; the oils and tincture are now to be added, and after being well
mixed, and passed through a coarse sieve, it should be placed in a jar or
bottle, and bunged up close. Very bright coloured.

_Obs._ In the wholesale trade this article is kept under two forms——one,
in powder, as ordered by the College, and commonly called for distinction
sake PULV′IS CONFECTIO′NIS AROMAT′ICÆ; the other, mixed up ready for use.
In preparing the latter, it is a common plan to make a strong infusion or
decoction of the saffron, and to use it to mix up the other ingredients,
adding the aromatics last. (See 4, _b._) When the price of precipitated
chalk is an objection to its use, prepared chalk may be used instead.
There is much anxiety evinced by the wholesale druggists to prepare this
confection of a rich colour, without an undue expenditure of saffron,
which is generally economised on account of its costliness. This
confection is cordial, stimulant, antacid, and carminative.——_Dose_, 10 to
60 gr., either as a bolus or stirred up with a glass of water; in
diarrhœa, acidity of stomach, heartburn, and any like affection, if
accompanied by looseness of the bowels. In diarrhœa, English cholera, and
flatulent colic, 1/4 gr. of powdered opium may be added to each dose. See
POWDERS, POWDER OF CHALK, COMPOUND.

=Confection of Bark.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO CINCHO′NÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Yellow
bark and white sugar, of each 1 oz.; capsicum, 1 dr.; simple syrup, 4 oz.

2. (St. B. Hosp.) Yellow bark, 6 dr.; ginger, 1/2 dr.; treacle, 3-1/2
oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 dr., where the use of bark is indicated.

=Confection of Cas′sia.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO CAS′SIÆ (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._
(Ph. L.) Prepared cassia, 1/2 lb.; manna, 2 oz.; prepared tamarinds, 1
oz.; syrup of roses, 8 fl. oz.; mix with heat, and evaporate to a proper
consistence.——_Dose_, 2 dr. to 6 dr.; or more, as a laxative.

=Confection of Cat′echu.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO CAT′ECHU COMPOS′ITA (Ph. D.),
L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Compound powder of catechu, 5 oz.; simple syrup, 5 fl.
oz.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 20 gr.; as an astringent, in diarrhœa, &c.; either
alone or combined with chalk.

=Confection of Copai′ba.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO COPAI′BÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Berton.) Copaiba and powdered cubebs, of each 2 oz.; alum, 1 oz.; opium,
5 gr.; mix well.

2. (Swediaur.) Turpentine, 1 oz.; copaiba, 1/2 oz.; mix; add mucilage of
gum Arabic, 1 oz.; triturate to an emulsion, and further add, conserve of
roses, 4 oz.

3. (Traill.) Copaiba, 2 oz.; oatmeal, q. s. to form an electuary; then
add, conserve of roses, 1 oz.

4. (Voght.) Copaiba and powdered cubebs, of each 4-1/2 dr.; yolk of 1 egg;
conserve of roses, 1/2 oz. All the above are excellent medicines in
gonorrhœa.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 dr., three or four times a day, made into
boluses, and covered with the fresh emptied skin of a prune before being
swallowed; in gonorrhœa, gleet, &c.

=Confection of Cream of Tar′tar.= _Syn._ CONFECTION OF BITAR′TRATE OF
POTAS′SA; CONFEC′TIO POTAS′SÆ BITARTRA′TIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Cream of tartar
and powdered sugar, of each 1 oz.; simple syrup, 2 oz.; 1 nutmeg,
grated.——_Dose_, 2 dr. to 6 dr.

2. (St. B. Hosp.) Bitartrate of potassa and simple syrup, of each 3 oz.;
ginger, 1 dr.——_Dose_, 1-1/2 dr. to 5 dr. Both are laxatives well adapted
for women and children.

=Confection of Hem′lock.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO CO′NII, L. _Prep._ (Marshall
Hall.) Fresh hemlock leaves beaten up with an equal weight of
sugar.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr. as a bolus, 2 or 3 times daily, where the use
of hemlock is indicated. The confection of other narcotic plants may be
made in the same way.

=Confection of Hips.= _Syn._ CON′SERVE OF HIPS, CONFECTION OF DOG-ROSE,
CONSERVE OF D.-R.; CONFEC′TIO RO′SÆ; CANI′NÆ (Ph. L.), CONSER′VA ROS′Æ
FRUC′TÛS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Hips, 1 part; refined sugar, 2
parts; beat the hips in a stone mortar, rub the pulp through a sieve, add
the sugar, and mix thoroughly.——_Dose_, 60 grains or more.

2. (Ph. L.) Fruit of the dog-rose, without the seeds (carpels), 1 lb.;
pound it to a pulp, add, gradually, powdered white sugar, 20 oz.; and beat
them together until thoroughly incorporated.

3. (Ph. E.) Pulp of hips, 1 part; white sugar, 3 parts; as No. 1.

4. (Wholesale.) Pulped hips, 2 cwt.; fine white sugar, 3 cwt.; incorporate
them without applying heat.

_Obs._ Both this and the confection of red roses have a brighter colour,
if made without heat, or touching metallic vessels. On the small scale it
is generally made by beating the ingredients together in a marble mortar,
but in large quantities by grinding in a mill. Great care must be taken to
remove the seeds (carpels) with the hair surrounding them, before pulping
the fruit, as they are apt, like the hairs of cowhage, when swallowed, to
produce vomiting, itching about the anus, &c. This conserve is slightly
laxative, and is principally used for forming pills. It is very apt to
candy by keeping.

=Confection of Ipecacuan′ha.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO IPECACUAN′HÆ, L. _Prep._
(Bories.) Ipecacuanha, 12 gr.; sulphur, 20 gr.; orris root, 1 dr.; syrup
of mallows and manna, of each 2 oz.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, 2 or 3 times
daily; in hooping-cough, dyspepsia, &c.

=Confection of Iron, Subcarbonate.= (St. B. Hosp.) Subcarbonate (peroxide
of iron), 1/2 oz.; treacle, a sufficient quantity.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr.

=Confection of Jal′ap.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO JAL′APÆ, C. J. COMPOS′ITA, L.
_Prep._ (St. B. Hosp.) Jalap, 4 dr.; ginger, 1 dr.; bitartrate of potassa,
3 oz.; treacle, 5 oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 dr. as a purgative.

=Confection of Kermes.= (L. P. 1745.) Strained juice of kermes, 3 lbs.;
rose water, 6 fl. oz.; white sugar, 1 lb.; oil cinnamon, 10 gr.

=Confection of Mer′cury.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO HYRAR′GYRI, C. MERCURIA′LIS,
L. _Prep._ 1. Stronger mercurial ointment (Ph. L.), 1 part; conserve of
roses, 3 parts.

2. (Dr D. Davis.) Mercury and manna, equal parts; treacle, q. s.;
triturate until the globules of mercury disappear.

_Dose, &c._ The same as those of mercurial pill.

=Confection of Ni′tre.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO POTAS′SÆ NITRA′TIS, L. _Prep._
1. Nitre, 1 part; confection of roses, 6 parts; oil of juniper, a few
drops.

2. (St. B. Hosp.) As the last, without the juniper. Both are used in
gonorrhœa.

=Confection of O′pium.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO O′PII (B. P.), ELECTUA′′RIUM
O′PII (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Compound powder of opium, 192 gr.;
syrup, 1 oz.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 6 dr.; long pepper, 1 oz.; ginger, 2 oz.;
caraways, 3 oz.; tragacanth, 2 dr.; reduce to fine powder, and keep it in
a closed vessel; for use, add to it by degrees hot syrup, 16 fl. oz.
(_i.e._ 3-1/2 dr. of the powder to each fl. oz. of syrup). It contains 1
gr. of opium in every 36 gr.

3. (Ph. E.) Aromatic powder, 6 oz.; senega, 3 oz.; opium, diffused in a
little sherry, 1/2 oz.; syrup of ginger, 1 lb. Contains 1 gr. of opium in
every 43 gr.

_Uses, &c._ This confection is intended as a substitute for the once
celebrated Mithridate, philonium, and theriaca of the old Pharmacopœias.
It is stimulant, anodyne, and narcotic.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 gr.; in flatulent
colic and diarrhœa unaccompanied by fever.

=Confection of Or′ange Flowers.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO FLOR′UM AURAN′TII, L.
_Prep._ 1. Orange flowers, 1 part; white sugar, 2 parts; beat together to
a confection.

2. (Tadei.) Orange flowers, 1 part; simple syrup, 3 parts; evaporate to a
proper consistence. Both are used as agreeable adjuncts or vehicles for
other medicines. The first is the best article.

=Confection of Or′ange Peel.= _Syn._ CONFECTION OF ORANGE, CONSERVE OF
ORANGE PEEL; CONFEC′TIO AURAN′TII (Ph. L.), CONSER′VA AURAN′′TII (Ph. E.),
CONSER′VA AURANTIO′′RUM (Ph. L. 1824), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. and E.) External
rind of the fresh orange, separated by rasping, 1 lb.; beat it in a stone
mortar with a wooden pestle to a pulp, then add white sugar, 3 lbs.; and
beat them together until incorporated.

_Uses, &c._ This confection is an agreeable tonic and stomachic; it is
much used as an adjunct to bitter and purgative powders, and as a vehicle
for the sesquioxide of iron.

=Confection of Pep′per.= _Syn._ CONFECTION OF BLACK PEPPER, CONSERVE OF B.
P.; WARD’S PASTE; CONFEC′TIO PIPERIS (B. P.), C. P. NI′GRI (Ph. D. & Ph.
L. 1836), ELECTUA′′RIUM PIP′ERIS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Black
pepper, in fine powder, 2 parts; caraway, in fine powder, 3 parts;
clarified honey, 15 parts; triturate.——_Dose_, 60 to 120 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) Black pepper and elecampane, of each 1 lb.; fennel, 3 lbs.;
white sugar, 2 lbs.; reduce to a very fine powder, and keep it in a
covered vessel; for use, add it, gradually, to honey, 2 lbs.; and beat the
whole to a paste (_i. e._, 2 oz. of honey to each 7 oz. of powder).

3. (Ph. E.) As the last, but using liquorice powder instead of elecampane,
and at once making a confection.

4. (Ph. D.) Black pepper and liquorice root, of each 1/2 oz.; refined
sugar, 1 oz.; oil of fennel, 1/2 fl. oz.; honey, 2 oz.; mix.——_Dose_, of
each of the above, 1 to 3 dr., two or three times daily, for 3 or 4
months; in piles, fistula, &c., unaccompanied with inflammatory symptoms.
Or, it may be used as a suppository. It is intended as a substitute for
the once celebrated nostrum, ‘Ward’s Paste for the Piles.’

=Confection of Pep′permint.= _Syn._ CONFECTIO MEN′THÆ PIPERI′TÆ, L. Green
peppermint, 4 oz.; white sugar, 12 oz. Anti-emetic and anti-flatulent; in
colic, diarrhœa, &c.; in the form of a bolus, or made into a mixture.

=Confection of Res′in.= _Syn._ CONFECTIO RESIN′Æ, L. _Prep._ (Dr Watson.)
Powdered resin, 1 oz.; balsam of copaiba, 1/2 oz.; honey, 5 oz.——_Dose_, 1
to 3 dr.; in piles and gleet. It is best combined with a little confection
of orange peel, which effectually covers the taste of the copaiba.

=Confection of Ro′ses.= _Syn._ CONFECTION OF RED ROSES; CONFEC′TIO RO′SÆ
(Ph. L. & D.), CONSER′VA RO′SÆ (Ph. E.), CONFECTIO RO′SÆ GAL′LICÆ (B. P.),
CONSERVA R. G. (Ph. L. 1824), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Fresh red-rose petals,
1 lb.; white sugar, 3 lbs.; mix as confection of hips.

2. (Ph. E.) Fresh petals, 1 part; sugar, 2 parts.

3. (Ph. D.) _a._ Fresh petals, 3 oz.; sugar, 8 oz. Or——

_b._ Dried petals, 1 oz.; water, 2 fl. oz.; macerate for 2 hours; then add
refined sugar, 8 oz.; and beat to a mass as before.

_Obs._ It is astringent and tonic, but is principally used as an elegant
vehicle for more active medicines. It keeps well, and does not candy like
confection of hips.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 drs., eaten off a spoon, either alone
or combined with chalk; in slight cases of diarrhœa, vomiting in
pregnancy, &c. See CONSERVE.

=Confection of Rue.= _Syn._ CONPECTIO RU′TÆ (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.)
Fresh rue (bruised), caraways, and laurel berries, of each 1-1/2 oz.;
prepared sagapenum, 1/2 oz.; black pepper, 2 dr.; honey, 16 oz.; water, q.
s.; rub the dry ingredients to a flue powder, then add, gradually, the
sagapenum, previously dissolved in the water and honey over a slow fire,
and mix well. In the Ph. L. 1836 dried rue was ordered. Carminative and
antispasmodic. In flatulent colic, and in the convulsions of children,
when there is no inflammation.——_Dose_, 15 to 60 gr.; either by the mouth,
or made into an enema with gruel.

=Confection of Scam′mony.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO SCAMMO′NII (B. P.),
ELECTUA′′RUM SCAMMO′′NII (Ph. D.). _Prep._ (B. P.) Scammony, in fine
powder, 24 parts; ginger, in fine powder, 12 parts; oil of caraway, 1
part; oil of cloves, 1/2 part; syrup, 24 parts; clarified honey, 12 parts;
rub the powders with the syrup and the honey into a uniform mass, then add
the oils and mix.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 30 gr.; as a warm cathartic, and in
worms, &c.

=Confection of Scurvy Grass.= (P. Codex.) Fresh leaves of scurvy grass, 1
oz.; sugar, 3 oz. Beat to a pulp and pass through a hair sieve.

=Confection of Sen′na.= _Syn._ LEN′ITIVE ELEC′TUARY, ELEC′TUARY OF SENNA;
CONFEC′TIO SEN′NÆ (Ph. L. & D.), ELECTUA′′RIUM SEN′NÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._
1. Senna, 8 oz.; corianders, 4 oz.; rub them together, and by a sieve
separate 10 oz. of the mixed powder; also boil figs, 1 lb., and fresh
liquorice, bruised, 3 oz., in water, 3 pints, until reduced to one half;
press, strain, and evaporate the strained liquor in a water bath to 24 fl.
oz.; then add sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; dissolve, and further add, prepared
tamarinds, cassia, and prunes, of each 1/2 lb.; remove from the heat, and
when the whole has considerably cooled, add the sifted powder, by degrees,
and stir until the whole is thoroughly incorporated.

2. (Ph. E.) Senna, 8 oz.; corianders, 4 oz.; liquorice root, 3 oz.; figs
and pulp of prunes, of each, 1 lb.; white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; water, 3-1/4
pints.

3. (Ph. D.) Senna leaves, in fine powder, 2 oz.; corianders (in fine
powder), 1 oz.; oil of caraway, 1/2 dr.; mix, and add them to pulp of
prunes, 5 oz.; pulp of tamarinds, 2 oz.; brown sugar, 8 oz.; water 2 fl.
oz.; previously brought to a smooth paste by the heat of a water bath.

4. (Ph. B.) Boil figs, 12 oz., and prunes, 6 oz., gently in distilled
water, 24 oz., in a covered vessel for hours, then, having added more
distilled water to make up the quantity to 24 fluid ounces, add tamarinds,
9 oz., and cassia pulp, 9 oz.; macerate for two hours, and press the pulp
through a hair sieve, rejecting the seeds, &c. Dissolve refined sugar, 30
oz., and extract of liquorice, 3/4 oz., in the mixture with a gentle heat;
and while it is still warm, add to it gradually senna in fine powder, 7
oz., and coriander in fine powder, 3 oz., and stir diligently until all
the ingredients are thoroughly combined. The resulting confection should
weigh 75 oz.

_Uses, &c._ Confection of senna is a gentle and pleasant purgative, and
well adapted for persons suffering from piles, and as a laxative during
pregnancy. The dose is 1 dr. to 1/2 oz., taken at bedtime or early in the
morning.

_Obs._ There is no one pharmacopœial preparation which it is more
difficult to obtain of good quality than confection of senna. The absolute
cost of an article prepared according to the directions of the Colleges is
greater than the price at which many wholesale houses are vending the
drug. Dr Paris very truly remarks, that “the directions of the
Pharmacopœia are very rarely followed.” Considerable quantities are
manufactured, into which unsound and spoilt apples enter as a principal
ingredient; whilst the substitution of jalap for the whole, or a portion
of the senna, is a very common practice. We have seen the following forms
employed in the trade.

5. Powdered senna’ pulp of tamarinds, cassia, and prunes, of each 1-1/2
lb.; powdered corianders, 3/4 lb.; Spanish juice, 1/2 lb.; simple syrup,
12 lbs.

6. As the above, but omitting the cassia pulp, and adding 2 lbs. more
tamarind pulp. Both these articles are labelled “P. L.” and sent out as
genuine, and that when no competition as to price exists. The cheaper
article is made as follows:——

7. Common prunes and tamarinds, of each 16 lbs.; treacle, 3/4 cwt.;
species (a compound of senna dust and small senna, mixed with 3 lbs. of
coriander seeds, and strengthened with jalap; all ground to a fine
powder), 18-1/4 lbs. To this is frequently added, of rotten or inferior
apples, 1/4 cwt., which are pulped with the prunes and tamarinds. This
article is commonly labelled “CONF. SENNÆ VER.” by its manufacturer.

=Confection of Sponge.= _Syn._ ELEC′TUARY OF BURNT SPONGE; CONFEC′TIO
SPONGII, C. S. US′TÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Burnt sponge, 3 parts; confection of
orange peel and hips, of each 1 part; simple syrup, q. s.

2. (St. B. Hosp.) Burnt sponge, made into a confection with
syrup of orange peel. The first form produces the most agreeable
confection.——_Dose_, of either, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr., twice or thrice daily;
in scrofula, &c.

=Confection of Steel.= _Prep._ 1. CONFEC′TIO FER′RI SESQUIOX′IDI, L.——_a._
From confection of orange and sesquioxide of iron (Ph. L.), of each 2 oz.;
white sugar, 3 oz.; syrup, 1-1/2 oz.; mix.——_Dose_, 1 dr. to 3 dr.

_b._ (St. B. Hosp.) Sesquioxide of iron, 1 oz.; treacle, q. s.——_Dose_,
1/2 dr. to 1 dr. Both are given in the usual cases wherein iron is
indicated; especially in anæmia, chlorosis, and amenorrhœa.

2. (CONFEC′TIO FER′RI TARTARIZA′TI.——St B. Hosp.) Cream of tartar, 1-1/2
oz.; tartrate of iron, 2 dr.; ginger, 1 dr.; treacle, 2-1/2 oz., or q.
s.——_Dose_, 1 dr. to 2 dr., 2 or 3 times daily.

=Confection of Sul′phur.= _Syn._ BRIMSTONE AND TREACLE; CONFEC′TIO
SULPHU′RIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Sublimed sulphur, 2 oz.; treacle, 4 oz.——_Dose._
A spoonful night and morning for a week or longer, as an alterative or
purifier of the blood; in skin diseases, &c.

2. (St. B. Hosp.) Precipitated sulphur, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 2 dr.;
honey or treacle, 2 oz. As the last.

3. (B. P.) Sublimed sulphur, 4 oz.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; syrup of
orange peel, 4 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.; as a laxative, in piles,
gonorrhœa, &c.

=Confection of Tin.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO STAN′NI, L. _Prep._ (Hosp. Form.)
Powdered tin, 1 oz.; confection of roses, 2 oz.; mix.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 dr.,
every morning; in worms.

=Confection of Turpentine.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO TEREBINTH′INÆ, L. _Prep._
(B. P.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; liquorice powder, 1 oz.; triturate
together, then add clarified honey, 2 oz.——_Dose_ and _use_, as the last.

=Confection of Worm-seed.= _Syn._ CONFEC′TIO CIN′Æ, C. S. CINÆ. L. _Prep._
1. (Ph. Slesvico-Holsat. 1831, and Ph. Suec. 1845.) Worm-seed, 2 oz.; heat
it in a pan over a gentle fire, add white sugar, boiled to a low candy
height, 4 oz.; and stir together until they become dry; then pick out
those seeds which are covered with sugar, and repeat the process with the
others.

2. Powdered worm-seed and syrup of orange peel, equal parts.——_Dose_, 1 to
2 dr., night and morning, followed by a brisk purge; in worms.

=CONFEC′TIONERY.= See CANDIES, DROPS, LOZENGES, SUGAR, &c.

=CONGELA′TION.= The conversion of a substance from the fluid to the solid
state by the abstraction of heat. See ICE and REFRIGERATION.

=CONGESTION.= “A common condition of disease in an undue flow of blood
into any part, or accumulation within it. The vessels seem to lose the
power of emptying themselves, which they possess in health. Congestion,
although an effect of both visitation and inflammation, may exist
irrespective of either. Two forms of it are distinguished, active and
passive. The first is when some excitement causes the blood to pass more
rapidly into a part than its vessels can transmit out of it; the second
when from some inherent debility the vessels cannot get rid of the fluid
ordinarily thrown into them. Congestion of organs disturb their functions,
and through them the general health.”

=CONGLU′TINUM (Bracy Clarke’s).= Sulphate of zinc (white vitriol), 4 oz.;
dissolved in water, 1 pint. Used as an astringent lotion in veterinary
practice, and much diluted with water (a dessert-spoonful to 1/4 pint or
more of water), as a collyrium in chronic inflammation of the eyes.

=CO′NIA.= C_{8}H_{15}O. _Syn._ CO′NINE, CON′ICINE. An alkaloid, discovered
by Gieseke in hemlock. It exists in every part of the plant, but is
present in the largest quantity in the seed.

_Prep._ (Gieger.) The seeds of hemlock, or their alcoholic extracts, is
distilled with water and potassa. The conia passes over into the receiver,
and floats on the top of the water, which also contains a little conine in
solution. It is purified in the way directed for the volatile bases. (See
ALKALOID.) When the alcoholic extract is employed, about half its weight
of potassa should be used.

_Prop., &c._ Pure conia is an oily-looking liquid, smelling intensely of
hemlock, or rather of a combination of the odours of tobacco and mice;
volatile at common temperatures; reddens turmeric; boils at about 340°
Fahr., but readily distils over with water at 212°; sp. gr. ·89; with the
acids it forms salts, some of which are crystallisable. Six lbs. of fresh
and 9 lbs. of dried seeds yielded 1 oz. of conia. (Gieger.) Forty lbs. of
the ripe but green seeds yielded 2-1/2 oz. of hydrated conia.
(Christison.)

Conia is remarkably poisonous. 1 drop, placed in the eye of a rabbit,
killed it in 9 minutes; 5 drops, poured into the throat of a dog, killed
it in less than a minute. It has been employed in some convulsive and
spasmodic diseases, but is now seldom used medicinally. “The patient
cries, the contortions, and the rigidity of the limbs, which have always
preceded death (caused by conia), leave no doubt as to the cruel pains
which this kind of poisoning brings on.” (Boutron-Chalard and Henry.) The
treatment may be that recommended under ACONITE and HEMLOCK.

=CONSERVATEUR FUR HAARBLEINDE.= A preventive of hair diseases (Edm.
Bühligen, Leipzig). Consists of 10 grammes tinct. arnica, 5 grammes
glycerine, 10 grammes spirit, and 60 grammes water. (Schädler.)

=CON′SERVE.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA, L. Recent vegetable matter, as flowers,
herbs, roots, fruit, and seed, beaten with powdered sugar to the
consistence of a stiff paste, so as to preserve them as nearly as possible
in their natural freshness. Conserves are made both by the confectioner
and the druggist; by the first as SWEETMEATS; by the other chiefly as
vehicles for more active medicines. The London College of Physicians now
includes both conserves and electuaries under the general head of
CONFECTIONS. The term appears, however, in some cases, scarcely
appropriate. The word confection has a more general application, and
implies any sweetmeat or composition in which sugar is the principal
ingredient. See CONFECTION and ELECTUARY.

=Conserve of Ac′etate of Potas′sa.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA POTAS′SÆ ACETA′TIS,
L. _Prep._ (Bories.) Acetate of potassa, 1/2 oz.; sulphate of soda, 1 dr.;
juices of scurvy grass, fumitory, and dandelion, of each 2 oz. (reduced to
one half by gentle evaporation?; sugar, q. s. to make a conserve. A
teaspoonful 2 or 3 times daily, as a diuretic aperient; in obstruction of
the bowels, &c.

=Conserve of Al′monds.= See CONFECTIONS.

=Conserve of Angel′ica.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA ANGEL′ICÆ, L. _Prep._
(Giordano.) Fresh angelica root, 2 parts; water, 16 parts; macerate for a
few hours, clarify the liquor, add sugar, 3 parts; cook the root in the
syrup, and preserve it in this state (confection), or dry it (to a candy).
Used as an agreeable tonic, stomachic, and carminative.

=Conserve, Antiscorbu′tic.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA ANTISCORBU′TICA, L. _Prep._
(Selle.) Horse-radish, water-cress, and water-trefoil, orange-juice, and
radish-juice, equal parts; powdered white sugar, q. s. to make a conserve.
In scurvy, &c.

=Conserve of A′′rum.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA A′′RI, C. A. MACULA′TI, L. _Prep._
From fresh arum tubers (cuckow-pint or wake-robin), 1/2 lb.; sugar, 2-1/2
lbs. As a diuretic and attenuant in dropsy, or as an expectorant in
chronic coughs.——_Dose_, 1/2 teaspoonful, gradually increased.

=Conserve of Broom.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA SCOPA′′RII, L. _Prep._ (Van Mons.)
Broom flowers, 1 part; sugar, 2 parts.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 teaspoonfuls, 2
or 3 times a day; in dropsy, gout, rheumatism, &c.

=Conserve of Hips.= See CONFECTION.

=Conserve of Lavender.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA LAVENDU′LÆ, L. Lavender flowers,
1 part; powdered lump sugar, 3 parts; beaten together to a smooth paste.
Used to sweeten the breath. In a similar way conserves are made from
various other leaves and flowers; but mostly with only twice their weight
of sugar, when they are not very odorous or active.

=Conserve of Lem′on Peel.= _Syn._ CONSERVA LIMO′NIS, C. L. CORT′ICIS, L.
As CONFECTION OF ORANGE PEEL.

=Conserve of Mal′lows.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA MAL′VÆ, L. From the flowers, as
CONSERVE OF LAVENDER.

=Conserve of Or′ange Peel.= See CONFECTION.

=Conserve of Pep′permint.= See CONFECTION.

=Conserve of Rose′mary.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA ROSMARI′NI, L. As CONSERVE OF
LAVENDER.

=Conserve of Roses.= 1. See CONFECTION.

2. (ACIDULA′TED CONSERVE OF ROSES CONSER′VA RO′SÆ AC′IDA, L.) _Prep._
(Hosp. F.) Confection of roses and powdered gum, of each 1 oz.; sulphuric
acid, 1 dr. to 1-1/2 dr.; (diluted with) water, 2 dr. An excellent
substitute for tamarinds.

=Conserve of Sav′in.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA SABI′NÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Han.)
Fresh savin, 1 part; sugar, 2 parts. As an emmenagogue, in amenorrhœa, &c.
Three parts of sugar make a better conserve.

=Conserve of Scurvy Grass.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA COCHLEA′′RIÆ, C. C.
HORTEN′SIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Aust. 1836.) Fresh scurvy grass, 1 lb.; sugar,
3 lbs. Stimulant and antiscorbutic.

=Conserve of Sea Worm′wood.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA ABSINTH′II MARITI′MI, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. L. 1788.) From sea wormwood, as the last. As a stomachic
bitter and vermifuge; in dyspepsia, &c.

=Conserve of Sloes.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA PRU′NI SYLVES′TRI, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
L. 1788.) From the pulp of the fruit, 1 part; sugar, 3 parts. Astringent.
Useful in simple diarrhœa, &c.; either alone or combined with chalk.

=Conserve of Squills.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA SCIL′LÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1788.)
Fresh squills, 1 oz.; sugar, 5 oz. Diuretic, attenuant, and expectorant;
in dropsy, chronic coughs, &c.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.

=Conserve of Tam′arinds.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA TAMARIND′ORUM, L. _Prep._ (P.
Cod.) Tamarind pulp, 2 oz.; white sugar, 3 oz.; evaporate by the heat of a
water bath to the consistence of honey.

=Conserve of Vi′olets.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA VIO′LÆ, C. V. ODORA′TÆ, L.
_Prep._ (Soubeiran.) Flowers, 1 part; sugar, 3 parts; beat to a paste.
Demulcent and laxative; used as a purge for infants, and by ladies to
perfume the breath.

=Conserve of Wa′ter-cress.= _Syn._ CONSER′VA NASTUR′′TII, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
Græca, 1837.) From fresh water-cresses, as the last. In scurvy; taken _ad
libitum_.

=Conserve of Worm′wood.= See CONSERVE OF SEA WORMWOOD.

=CONSTIPA′TION.= _Syn._ CONSTIPA′TIO, OBSTIPA′TIO, L. Surgeons distinguish
between costiveness and constipation. The first applies to that condition
of the body in which the bowels act tardily, and in which the fæces are
abnormally and inconveniently indurated; the last implies the absence of
the proper alvine evacuations. The one rapidly undermines the health; the
other destroys life in a period varying from a few days to three or four
weeks. In popular language, however, the words are frequently used
synonymously. The use of bread containing alum, and water containing much
lime (very hard water), and especially the want of sufficient exercise,
are common causes of constipation.

_Treatment._ When the affection is merely accidental or occasional, a dose
of some aperient or cathartic is the only treatment necessary; but when it
is habitual it calls for further attention. Great benefit may generally be
secured by adopting a diet free from astringents, and consisting of a
large portion of green vegetables and ripe fruit; particularly avoiding
the use of over-cooked, salted, or dried animal food. Brown bread may be
eaten, as it acts as a gentle laxative, from the bran it contains. The
occasional use of aperient and emollient enemata may be had recourse to;
but their habitual administration, as well as that of purgative medicines
generally, by the mouth, is not to be recommended. The bowels, accustomed
to the continual use of stimulants, act but languidly or scarcely at all
without their application. In females, especially of the higher classes,
the want of proper exercise is commonly the chief cause of this affection.
With such persons a short walk, two or three times daily, will often do
wonders, particularly if a little ripe fruit, a few raisins or tamarinds,
or, still better, 2 or 3 drum figs, be occasionally eaten. In some cases
of obstinate constipation a cold-water dressing, placed over the pit of
the stomach or the abdomen, will cause the bowels to act in the course of
an hour or two. When the inactivity of the bowels arises from a deficiency
of bile (one of the most common causes), no remedy is more natural, or
more effective, than inspissated ox-gall. In cases complicated with
nervous, hypochondriacal, or hysterical affections, in chlorosis,
dyspepsia, depraved appetite, and numerous other ailments, this remedy
frequently succeeds, after the most active articles of the materia medica
have been tried in vain.

In the treatment of the constipation of infants, castor-oil (1/2
teaspoonful occasionally), or manna 1/4 to 1/2 oz., sucked at will, may be
given. The introduction (very gently) of a little slip of writing paper,
parsley stalk, or suet, is a method sometimes adopted successfully by
nurses. Friction on the stomach and bowels with the warm hand, or a piece
of soft flannel, should also be employed. See GALL, PURGATIVE, &c.

_Treatment for Animals._ Mr Finlay Dun prescribes laxative clysters,
aloes, or oils. Calomel for horses; croton and gamboge for cattle. Salts,
calomel and jalap, castor oil, linseed oil, and emetics for carnivora. Oil
of turpentine by mouth or rectum; clysters of tobacco, nux vomica,
electricity.

_Treatment for Horses._ When the animal is constipated administer 4 dr. of
aloes and 1 dr. of calomel, rubbed down with gruel; inject soap and water
every hour, taking care to let the horse have walking exercise, and to
apply friction to the belly. If, after twelve hours, no effect is
produced, let the aloes and calomel be repeated, with the addition of
three or four drops of croton oil and a wine-glassful of spirit of nitre,
ether, gin, or whisky.

=CONSTITUTION BALLS=, Vegetable (A. H. Bôldt). Two parallelopiped hard
brown balls, each of which weighs 58 grammes, and is made by melting
together 2 parts of aloes and 1 part coarsely powdered gentian. (Hager).

=CONSUMP′TION.= See PHTHISIS.

=CONTA′GION.= By ‘contagion’ is usually meant the communication of disease
by means either of actual contact or through a medium, such as the air. By
some a contagious disease is regarded as one arising from direct contact
only, in contradistinction to an infectious one, which is believed to act
at a distance. See DISINFECTANT.

=CONTU′SION.= A hurt, or injury to the flesh, such as might be caused by a
blunt instrument or by a fall, without breach or apparent wound. For
treatment, see BRUISE.

=CONVALESCENCE.= Convalescence may be described as the period between the
cessation of an attack of serious illness and the restoration, if not to a
perfect, to an accustomed state of health. Convalescent patients should
particularly guard against excess in eating or drinking, or unnecessary
and imprudent exposure to cold or damp weather, during this interval, as
well as against premature exertion of the limbs or voice; such and all of
which are acts of imprudence that may give rise to a return of the
disease. In order to avoid this latter risk, as well as to aid in complete
recovery, repose both of body and mind are generally needed, more
particularly in the earlier stages of convalescence.

It should be borne in mind that convalescents from many infectious
diseases, such as measles, scarlet fever, smallpox, typhus, &c., are much
more likely to propagate these diseases than when they are labouring under
them in the acute form. During the period of their recovery the skin and
other organs are throwing off the poison in large quantities, and thus
exposing those in contact with, or in the near neighbourhood of the
convalescent, to the great and imminent risk of contagion. Even if not
contagious himself, the convalescent’s clothes, if they be the same as
those worn by him during his illness, may also convey the disease.

=CONVULSIONS.= Spasmodic contractions of the muscles producing motions of
the limbs, generally accompanied with unconsciousness. Convulsions occur
at all periods of life, but in adults they are only symptoms of other
diseases. In children they are very common. They are of frequent
occurrence in teething; and a swollen and inflamed state of the gums is
said to excite them. Dr Gardner, in his very useful work, ‘Household
Medicine,’ says they may be brought on by “improper food, _e.g._ the milk
of a nurse suffering from some violent emotion. At the siege of Berlin
nearly all the suckling children died of convulsions.” They may also be
induced by feverish attacks, hooping-cough, strong purgatives, or
suppressed eruptions. In the case of a dangerous attack of convulsion no
time should be lost in sending for a medical practitioner. Pending his
arrival, the patient should be placed as promptly as possible in a
hot-water bath. A better plan is to loosen all the dress, to place the
child across the arms, and sway it up and down gently, and to allow cool
air to play on the face and chest; give an enema of soap and water, and
apply mustard plasters for a few seconds only to the pit of the stomach.
If these fail to give relief, apply leeches (number according to the age)
to the temples, and cold to the head. Lance the gums if inflamed. When the
fit is over keep the head cool. If there have been white stools, give a
grain or two of calomel, and repeat it every three or four hours for three
or four times until the stools become green or dark. Keep the bowels open
by castor oil, and let the patient be put on a milk diet. The latter part
of the above treatment is inserted for the benefit of the emigrant or
other individual having no means of obtaining proper medical aid.

=COPAHINE.= Copaiba balsam made into a mass with wax and powdered cubebs,
divided into hard egg-shaped pills weighing 5 decigrammes each and sugar
coated.

=COPAHINE MEGE DE JOZEAU.= A fixed quantity of copaiba balsam is mixed
with concentrated nitric acid, and constantly stirred as long as
effervescence continues. The oxidised balsam is then washed, first with
warm then with cold water, till the washings cease to have an acid
reaction. From one part of this balsamum copaivæ acido nitrico correctum
with 1/10 part powdered cubebs, 1/10 part bicarbonate of soda, 1/16 part
calcined magnesia, with some mucilage, a mass is prepared and divided into
oval pills, which are afterwards coated with sugar, mixed with gum and
carmine.

=COPAI′BA.= _Syn._ COPAI′VA, COPAIVA BALSAM, CAPIV′I, BALSAM OF CAPIV′I;
COPAI′BA (Ph. L. E. & D.), L.; BAUME DE COPAHU, Fr.; COBAIVA BALSAM, Ger.
“The oleo-resin, of a brown colour, obtained by incision from the trunk of
Copaifera multijuga.” (B. P.) Most of the balsam of commerce is obtained
from Para and Maranhao. It is packed in casks containing from 1 to 1-1/2
cwt. each, or in large bottles, or in cylindrical tin boxes.

_Prop., Purific., &c._ Copaiba, though usually called a ‘balsam,’ is not
correctly so named, as it contains no benzoic or cinnamic acid. It is
correctly described in the B. P. as an ‘oleo-resin.’ Considerable
variation exists in the colour, odour, consistence, and transparency, as
well as in the proportion of oil and resin yielded by different samples,
scarcely any two of which exactly agree. The sp. gr. varies from ·950 to
·996. Brazilian copaiba is thin, clear, and pale; whilst the West Indian
variety is thick, golden yellow, less transparent, and has a less
agreeable and somewhat terebinthinate smell. Some varieties are opaque,
and continue so unless filtered. This is often a most troublesome
operation. The opacity generally arises from the presence of water, which
it retains with great tenacity. The following is the plan we have found to
answer on the large scale:——Place the casks upon their ends in a warm
situation, and leave them so for 10 days or a fortnight, or longer, if
convenient. They may then be tapped a little above the bottom, when the
contents of some of them will generally be found quite transparent, and
may be drawn off and vatted, care being taken to avoid shaking up the
bottom. The copaiva that remains foul must be filtered through one or more
long Canton flannel bags, sunk in the bottom of a tin cistern, placed over
a suitable receiver, in a similar way to that adopted for oils; a few
pounds of coarsely powdered charcoal being mixed up with the first 5 or 6
gallons thrown in. This will rapidly fill up the pores of the bag, and
make the balsam soon flow clear and pale. The “bottoms” of the casks,
containing the water and impurities, may be poured into a large can or
jar, and allowed to settle for a few days, when the copaiba may be poured
off the top and filtered. A sudden change of temperature will frequently
turn a transparent sample of this article opaque or milky; it is not,
therefore, deemed fit to send out by the wholesale trade, unless it stands
this test. To ascertain this point a common practice is to fill a small
bottle with the copaiba, and to leave it out of doors all night in an
exposed situation.

_Pur., Tests, &c._ This substance is frequently adulterated; indeed, fully
one half that sold for copaiba does not contain 10% of the genuine balsam.
This is particularly the case with that sold in capsules, at low prices,
in the shops. Pure balsam of copaiba may be recognised by the following
characters:——

1. (Ph. E.) It is transparent; free of turpentine odour when heated;
soluble in 2 parts of alcohol; and dissolves one fourth of its weight of
carbonate of magnesia with the aid of a gentle heat, and continues
translucent.

2. (Chevallier.) A drop of the balsam, placed on a piece of unsized paper,
and heated until all the essential oil is expelled, forms a
semi-transparent, well-defined spot; but if the balsam has been
adulterated with a fatty oil, it is surrounded by an oily areola.

3. (Planche.) 2-1/2 parts of balsam shaken with 1 part of solution of
ammonia, sp. gr. ·965, forms a mixture which becomes clear and transparent
in a few moments, and may be heated to 212° Fahr. without becoming opaque.

4. (Vigne.) Boiled with 50 times its weight of water for 1 hour, it should
lose at least half its weight.

5. (Adder.) By agitating the suspected sample with a lye of caustic soda,
and setting the mixture aside to repose, the balsam after a time rises to
the surface, and the fatty oil present (if any) forms a soapy, thick mass
below.

6. (‘Journ. de Pharm.,’ 1842.) Pure copaiba may be adulterated with 50 per
cent. of a fat oil (nut, almond, or castor oil), without it ceasing to
give a clear solution with 2 parts of alcohol; but it combines badly with
magnesia and ammonia. Excess of alcohol, however, separates the oil in all
cases. It was formerly considered that the best test for detecting the fat
oils was pure alcohol, to which some caustic potash had been added.

7. (Dr Hager.) Copaiba which is adulterated with Gurgun balsam is not
quite clear, and frequently exhibits prisms of gurginic acid under the
microscope. The author states that the adulteration may be easily detected
by mixing the suspected sample with four volumes of petroleum ether; the
mixture at once becomes turbid, and gradually deposits a sediment, which,
after half an hour’s settling, occupies the same volume as the copaiba
operated upon. A mixture of pure copaiba with petroleum ether is clear at
first, and either remains clear upon standing or it deposits after several
hours a very slight sediment, which merely covers the bottom of the test
tube like a thin film. Benzol may be used in place of petroleum ether.

8. (Muter.) Three to four grams of the sample are weighed into a clean,
dry flask, and saponified on the water bath with 50 c. c. of alcohol, and
a lump of caustic soda weighing not less than 5 grams. When all is
dissolved water is added, and the whole washed into a half-pint basin, so
as to nearly fill it, and evaporated to 100 c. c. over a low gas flame.
Dilute sulphuric acid is then added till the whole just becomes
permanently turbid, and then solution of caustic soda is dropped in till
it just clears again. By this means a solution is obtained with the least
possible excess of alkali, and with a good amount of sodium sulphate. The
whole is now to be evaporated to _perfect dryness_ on the water bath,
stirring towards the end, so that the sulphate may mix with the soaps, and
produce an easy pulverulent residue. The residue is moved from the basin
into a small, wide-mouthed, stoppered bottle, treated with 70 c. c. of
ether-alcohol, and well shaken up. As soon as it is fairly settled the
fluid is filtered off through a _quick_ filter, and this is repeated with
two successive quantities of 70 c. c., making 210 c. c. in all of the
solvent used. The residue in the bottle and in the filter now consists of
sodium oleate and sulphate if the balsam be impure, and of the latter only
if pure, with a little trace of the insoluble resin soap already referred
to. The contents of the bottle and filter are then dissolved in warm
water, and after heating until all smell of ether is gone the whole is
boiled freely acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and set to cool.

If, when cold, nothing but a few specks of brown resin should rise to the
surface, the balsam is pure; but if an oily layer be formed it is
adulterated, and the smell of the separated oleic acid will at once
determine whether it is actually castor oil or not.

In the case of the presence of oil, 2 grams of pure and dry white wax are
added, and the whole heated till the wax melts with the oleic acid. On
cooling, a solid cake is formed, which is detached from the side of the
beaker, and the fluid below passed through a filter. The cake is once more
melted in boiling water, cooled, detached, dried by gentle pressure
between blotting paper, dried in a water-oven in a weighed platinum dish,
and then weighed, and the weight of the wax used deducted. The beaker,
filter, rod, &c., used are, if at all dirty, dried, extracted with ether,
and the residue left, after evaporation, weighed and added to the total.

The calculation is then performed as follows:——

(1.) To the weight in grams found add ·20 for loss of oleic acid in
solvent, and then say as 95 : 100 :: total oleic acid.

(2.) Calculate the per-centage from the quantity taken, and from this
deduct 6 per cent. for possible altered resin in the balsam. The error,
owing to the correction, of course, increases with the amount of oil
present; but it is stated to be always an error in the direction of
under-estimation, which is the great point for public analysts. When
working on 3 to 4 grains with an admixture of not over 25 per cent. the
errors due to loss of oleic acid and insoluble resin soap are said to so
nearly balance each other, that any correction is unnecessary, and the
actual amount of oleic acid found may be taken as correct within a per
cent.

9. (B. P.) According to the British Pharmacopœia, copaiba should be
soluble in an equal bulk of benzol.

10. (The evaporation test.) Mr Siebold says: “This is an excellent and
exceedingly simple test, but is clumsily applied by many. Instead of
boiling the balsam with water for many hours, a small quantity (about 1 to
1·5 gram) of the sample should be carefully heated in a watch-glass until
all the oil is driven off, which is the case as soon as the residue has
assumed a rich brown colour. A few minutes suffice for the experiment.

“If the remaining resin is perfectly brittle and pulverisable there is no
fatty matter present, for 1 per cent. of oil would diminish the
brittleness of the resin, so that it cannot be reduced to a fine powder.
One per cent. of oil is thus readily detected, and with larger quantities
of the adulterant (3 to 5 per cent.) the resin feels quite sticky.

“On heating the resin castor oil and linseed oil may be distinguished by
the odour. By mixing the adulterated balsam with ten, twenty, forty, and
fifty volumes of pure maranham balsam respectively, and testing each
dilution in this manner, it is easy to find in which the oil has been
reduced to below 1 per cent., and thus to ascertain whether the adulterant
amounted to more than 10, 20, 30, 40, or 50 per cent., and this, I think,
would be sufficiently near the mark for the purpose of public analysts.”

_Uses, &c._ Balsam of copaiba is considered detersive vulnerary, diuretic,
and astringent; and appears to possess a sort of specific power over
diseases of the mucous membranes of the urino-genital organs. It is hence
a favourite remedy in gonorrhœa, as soon as the first inflammatory
symptoms have subsided, antiphlogistic and soothing measures being
previously adopted. _Dose_, 20 to 60 drops on sugar, floating on water, or
made into an emulsion with yolk of egg or gum arabic, 3 or 4 times daily,
if the stomach will bear it. The addition of a few drops of sweet spirits
of nitre and laudanum have been recommended, to allay the nausea. By
adding 1 dr. of oil of orange (ol. aurantii) to each oz. of the balsam,
its flavour becomes far from disagreeable, and it sits well upon the
stomach. Copaiba is also given in capsules and pills. See CAPSULES,
EMULSION, OIL, PILLS, &c.

_Obs._ Numerous preparations of this article are sold under such names as
‘soluble copaiba,’ ‘specific solution,’ ‘salt of copaiba,’ &c.; none of
these appear to possess equal activity and certainty of operation to the
natural balsam. As the whole virtue of copaiba as a medicine depends on
the essential oil it contains, the value of any of these preparations may
be estimated by the quantity of that article which is found in them. In
the case of the first two articles above named the quantity is very small
indeed, and in the last it is wholly deficient.

The following forms are current in the trade for the reduction
(adulteration) of balsam of capivi:——

1. Balsam of copaiba, 4 lbs.; castor oil, 3 lbs.; mix well.

2. Balsam, 7 lbs.; castor oil, 4 lbs; yellow resin, 2 lbs.

3. Equal parts of balsam of copaiba and Canada balsam.

4. To the last add Venice turpentine, 1 lb.

5. Balsams of Canada and copaiba and nut or castor oil, equal parts.

6. Copaiba, 7 lbs.; nut oil, 3 lbs.; yellow resin, 2 lbs.; Canada balsam,
1 lb. Used to fill the cheap capsules; and to sell in the lower parts of
London and in the manufacturing districts. See also COPAIBA, FACTITIOUS
(_below_).

=Copaiba, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ COBAI′BA FACTI′′TIA, BAL′SAMUM COPAI′BÆ
FACTI′′TIUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Castor oil (warm), 7 quarts; copaiba bottoms, 1
quart; mix, and filter through flannel.

2. Castor, oil, 1 gal.; yellow resin, 3 lbs.; Canada balsam, 2 lbs.; oil
of juniper, 2 oz.; oil of savin, 1 oz.; essences of orange and lemon, of
each 1/2 oz.; powdered benzoin, 1 oz.; melt the resin with the castor oil
and benzoin, and when nearly cold add the essences.

3. Canada balsam, 9 lbs.; castor oil, 7 lbs.; yellow resin, 1 lb.; Venice
turpentine, 2 lbs.; oils of rosemary, juniper, and savin, of each 1 dr.;
essential oil of almonds, 20 drops.

4. Canada balsam, 3 lb.; Venice turpentine, 1 lb.; oils of fennel,
juniper, and savin, of each q. s.

Used chiefly to fill capsules. It is readily distinguished from balsam of
copaiba by the proper tests. (See _above_.) Train oil or nut oil is
frequently substituted for the castor oil.

=Copaiba and Ka′li.= _Syn._ COPAIBA CUM POTASSÂ, L. _Prep._ Carbonate of
potassa and water, of each, equal parts; dissolve, and add gradually,
transparent balsam of copaiba, until the fluid, at first milky, turns
quite clear. Resembles miscible copaiba (see _below_).

=Copaiba, Miscible.= _Prep._ From balsam of copaiba (pure and
transparent), mixed with half its volume of solution of potassa made of
double the strength ordered in the B. P.

_Obs._ As different samples of copaiba often require slightly different
quantities of the solution of potassa, it is best to mix the two gradually
and cautiously together. Should the mixture be opaque, a little more of
one or other of the ingredients, as the case may be, will render it clear.
No heat must be used. This article is miscible with water, with which it
forms a kind of milk; and from containing all the volatile oil of the
copaiba, is a very valuable preparation. Its activity is considered equal
to that of the balsam itself, and it is given in similar doses.

=Copaiba, Sol′uble.= _Syn._ COPAI′BA SOLUBIL′IS, L. _Prep._ 1. Heat
miscible copaiba in an earthen, glass, or bright-tinned copper vessel, to
nearly the boiling-point, pour it while still hot in a separator, cover it
up, and allow it to cool very slowly. After a few days, draw off the clear
portion from a cock or hole placed at or near the bottom of the vessel,
observing to reject the first few drops which pass through, and to stop
the stream before any of the floating oil (_oleum copaibæ_) reaches the
orifice. A very little concentrated liquor of potassa, added before
applying the heat, renders it more soluble. Thick, transparent, soluble in
pure water, and resembles the natural balsam in appearance.

2. Balsam of copaiba and solution of potassa (B. P.), equal parts, by
volume; mix, boil for a few minutes, and then proceed as before. Thinner
than the last.

_Prop._ Less powerful than miscible copaiba, but it sits better on the
stomach, and is about four times as strong as specific solution of
copaiba. See SOLUTION.

=Copaiba, Res′in of.= _Syn._ COPAI′BÆ RESI′NA, L. The residuum of the
process of distilling the oil of copaiba from the balsam. It consists
principally of copaibic acid. It has been recommended for gonorrhœa, but
is nearly inert, even in 1/2 oz. or 3/4 oz. doses. See OIL.

=Copaiba, Salt of.= _Syn._ SAL COPAI′BÆ, L. There are two preparations
sold under this name; the one, crude copaibic acid; the other, copaibate
of an alkali. Neither of them possesses the valuable properties of
copaiba, which reside almost entirely in its essential oil, “We have taken
the ‘sal copaibæ,’ and have watched its action on others, but have not
been able to perceive any good effects to result from its administration.”
(Cooley.)

=COPAI′BIC ACID.= _Syn._ CAPIV′IC ACID. YELLOW RESIN OF COPAIBA. An
amber-coloured, brittle, semi-crystalline, resinous substance, obtained
from resin of copaiba, soluble in alcohol, rectified spirit, ether, and
oils, reddens litmus paper, and forms salts with the bases, called
copaibates.

=CO′PAL.= _Syn._ COPAL′, GUM COPAL. A resinous substance, which exudes
spontaneously from various trees belonging to the genera _Hymenæa_,
_Guibourtia_, and _Trachylobium_. The varieties commonly met with in
commerce are East Indian copal, or anine, which is the produce of _Hymenæa
Courbaril_, and West Indian copal, obtained from numerous species.

_Prop._ When of good quality it is too hard to be scratched by the nail,
has a conchoidal fracture, and a sp. gr. ranging from 1·059 to 1·072.
Unlike other resins, it is dissolved with difficulty by alcohol and
essential oils; and this property, combined with its extreme hardness,
renders it very valuable for making varnishes. See VARNISH.

=COP′PER.= Cu. _Syn._ CU′′PRUM, L.; CUIVRE, Fr.; KUPFER, Ger.

_Sources._ Metallic copper (native copper) is found in many parts of the
globe, diffused in isolated particles in the form of thin laminæ, in loose
grains intermixed with quartz (copper sand, copper barilla), in dendritic
pieces, and in solid blocks, occasionally of many tons weight. The richest
deposits of native copper are those of Lake Superior, in North America.
More frequently and more abundantly it occurs as an ore, _e.g._ red oxide,
black oxide, green carbonate of copper or mal′achite, blue carbonate of
copper, vitreous sulphide of copper, purple copper, copper pyrites, or
yellow copper ore, with sulphur, antimony, or arsenic, and other metals
(true grey copper ore or fah′lerz), as an impure hydrated silicate
(chrys′ocolla), and as an impure hydrated oxychloride (atac′amite). The
most abundant and important ore is copper pyrites. It is principally
obtained from the mines of Cornwall, Devonshire, and Cuba. The carbonates
of copper are now largely imported from Australia; the metal produced by
smelting them is generally of the best quality.

_Prep._ We will not attempt to give a minute description of the various
complex processes by which the reduction of copper from its ores is
effected, but will merely give an outline of the common or Welsh process.
This process includes six distinct operations, as follows:——1. The ore
(copper and iron pyrites), containing from 8 to 10% of copper, is roasted
in a reverberatory furnace, called a ‘calciner,’ by which much of the
sulphide of iron is converted into oxide. 2. The calcined ore is melted
with ‘metal slag’ (a product of a subsequent operation——No. 3), in a
melting furnace called the ‘ore furnace.’ The products are a regulus,
termed ‘coarse metal,’ containing about 35% of copper, and ‘ore-furnace
slag,’ which is thrown away. Much of the iron, and the whole of the
so-called earthy matter of the ore, are thus separated as slag. 3. The
coarse metal, having been granulated by causing it to flow from the
furnace into water, is calcined with free access of air in a calciner, and
a considerable amount of sulphur is expelled. 4. The calcined granulated,
coarse metal is melted with the addition of matters rich in oxides of
copper, namely, ‘roaster’ and ‘refinery slags’ (from the two remaining
operations, Nos. 5 and 6, respectively), and native carbonates of copper,
or ores containing oxide of copper. The products are a regulus, termed
‘metal,’ which contains about 75% of copper, and metal slag (see No. 2).
The metal should be in the state of ‘white metal,’ compact and brittle,
with a feeble metallic lustre and a dark, bluish-grey colour. It is tapped
off into sand moulds. 5. The pigs of regulus obtained by the last
operation are roasted in a furnace through which air passes. The
temperature is so regulated that the regulus may be melted in from 6 to 8
hours. The slag is skimmed off, and after a time the heat is lowered, to
allow the regulus to solidify. It is again melted and tapped into sand
moulds, the product being called ‘blister copper.’ 6. This, the last
operation, is termed ‘refining.’ From 6 to 8 tons of blister copper, in
pigs, are melted in a furnace, and kept exposed for about 15 hours to the
oxidising influence of the air. The slag is skimmed off through the end
opening. When the oxidation has been sufficiently prolonged, anthracite or
free-burning coal, as pure as possible, is thrown upon the surface of the
metal, and after a short time the thick end of a long birch or oak pole is
plunged into the molten mass. This part of the operation is termed
‘poling.’ The wood in contact with the copper is rapidly decomposed; much
gas is evolved, which causes the metal to be splashed about, and every
part of it to be exposed to the reducing action of the coal. When the
refiner finds the metal to be at the state of ‘tough pitch,’ the pole is
taken out, and the coal pushed back from the end opening, through which
the copper is then ladled out as quickly as possible, and cast into
suitable moulds. For full details of this and other processes, the reader
is referred to Dr Percy’s work on ‘Metallurgy,’ and Ure’s ‘Dictionary of
Arts, Manufactures, and Mines.’

In the laboratory copper is commonly employed under the following
forms:——

1. BEAN-SHOT COPPER. Produced by simply lading the melted copper from the
refining furnace into hot water. In small lumps like peas and beans; hence
its name. Used to make alloys, solutions, &c.

2. ELECTROTYPE COPPER. A very pure form, obtained by decomposing sulphate
of copper in an electrotype apparatus. It does not contain lead, whereas
most varieties of commercial copper do contain that metal.

3. FEATHER-SHOT COPPER, GRANULATED C. Produced by lading the refined
copper from the furnace into cold water. In small pieces, with a feathered
edge. Used to make calamine, brass, solution of copper, &c.

4. COPPER IN PLATES OR FOIL. Those of commerce (best, annealed) are
generally employed.

5. COPPER IN POWDER.——_a._ A solution of sulphate of copper is heated to
the boiling-point, and precipitated with distilled zinc; the precipitated
copper is then separated from the adherent zinc by dilute sulphuric acid,
washed with water, and dried by exposure to a moderate temperature.

6. COPPER PREPARED BY THE HYDROMETALLURGICAL METHOD.——One of the oldest
processes of this kind, is that known as the ‘cementation’ method, and
consists in precipitating copper from a solution of the sulphate of the
metal, by means of metallic iron. In some mines solutions of the sulphate
are met with occurring naturally, in others they are prepared artificially
by treating poor ores containing oxide of copper, with sulphurous acid or
diluted sulphuric acid, and sometimes by roasting copper pyrites and
afterwards washing them with water to extract the resulting sulphate. The
copper obtained by any of the above processes is called ‘cementation
copper.’ In the Isle of Anglesea the cementation liquid containing the
dissolved sulphate of copper, is first run into large vessels where the
suspended matters are allowed to subside; from these it is conveyed to
tanks containing old scrap-iron, which serves as the precipitating agent.
The scrap-iron is occasionally stirred up so as to renew the metallic
surface presented to the solution. The muddy liquor which contains
metallic copper as a spongy mass, besides impurities, is run into vessels
where it deposits the copper, which after the removal of the supernatant
fluid, is removed and dried in a furnace.

7. WET PROCESS. (Henderson’s process.) The ores (Spanish and Portuguese
pyrites) treated by this method vary very slightly in composition, rarely
containing much more than 3 per cent. of copper, nearly 50 per cent. of
sulphur, from 43 to 44 per cent. of iron, with small quantities of lead,
arsenic, zinc, lime, &c. The ores are first employed by the vitriol
manufacturers, as a source of sulphuric acid. In the process of burning
they lose about 30 per cent. of their sulphur. The copper is extracted
from the residue by subjecting this latter to the following processes,
which are thus described in the ‘Encyclopædia Brittanica.’

I. _Grinding._ The burnt ore, as received from the acid burners, is first
mixed with about 15 per cent. of common salt, and ground to a fine powder
by passing it between a pair of heavy cast-iron rolls. As the amount of
sulphur left in the burnt ore is apt to vary, it is necessary to ascertain
its proportion in each parcel of burnt pyrites. When the sulphur falls
short of the proportion necessary for effecting the decomposition which
follows, a sufficient quantity of ‘green’ or unburned pyrites is added to
produce a proper balance. If, on the other hand, the sulphur has been
sufficiently extracted, dead roasted ore is added.

II. _Calcination._ This operation is accomplished in several kinds of
furnaces, that used by the Tharsis Sulphur and Copper Company, being a
large muffle or close furnace. By others a patent furnace with a revolving
hearth and mechanical stirring arrangement has been adopted with good
results; and some use open reverbatory furnaces heated by gas from
Siemens’s generators. During the roasting the mixture is frequently
stirred, and in the case of hard-worked furnaces, turned with long
rabbles, and the completion of the operation is ascertained by test
assays. When the copper has been brought into a soluble condition, the
charge is raked out of the furnace and permitted to cool under a screen at
its mouth. By the calcination the sulphur in the compound is first
oxidised, sulphate of sodium is formed, and at the same time the chlorine
from the sodium chloride unites with the copper to form cupric chloride. A
small proportion of cuprous chloride is also formed, and special
precautions have to be taken to prevent the extensive formation of this
compound which is dissolved only with difficulty. The hydrochloric acid
and other gaseous products evolved during the calcination are condensed as
‘tower liquor’ in ordinary condensing towers, and the product is used in
the subsequent process of lixiviation.

III. _Lixiviation._ The calcined ore is conveyed to tightly caulked wooden
tanks, in which it receives repeated washings with hot water, tower
liquor, and dilute hydrochloric acid till all the soluble copper is
thereby extracted. The product of the latter washings is pumped or drawn
up by a modification of Gilford’s injector, to serve as a first liquor for
subsequent charges of the lixiviating tanks, and no solution under a
definite strength is permitted to pass on to the next stage in the
process. The insoluble residue in the tanks consist of “purple ore,” an
almost pure ferric oxide, largely used in “settling” blast furnaces, and
for smelting purposes; besides which it is available as jewellers’ rouge.

IV. _Precipitation._ The precipitation of metallic copper from the
solution of its chloride is accomplished in large tanks by means of
metallic iron in the same way that cementation copper is obtained from
solutions of the sulphate. The solution is run into the tanks in which
there are miscellaneous heaps of old malleable iron; the chlorine combined
with the copper unites with the iron, and metallic copper in the state or
fine division is thrown down. The completion of the precipitation is
ascertained by dipping a bright steel knife into the solution in the tank,
and when no deposit of copper covers the steel, the liquor is run off and
a new charge conveyed into the tank. The tanks are drained periodically
for removing the precipitate, which is first roughly separated from the
small pieces of iron, after which it is more thoroughly freed from iron,
&c., by washing in water in a rocking sieve apparatus. The precipitate so
obtained should contain 80 per cent. of metallic copper, which is either
smelted directly for blister copper, or may be fused with the white metal
of the ordinary smelting process, and subsequently roasted. It has been
found possible to extract in this process with profit the small
proportions of lead, silver and gold, which Spanish pyrites is known to
contain. Two processes are in operation for this purpose——one devised by
Mr P. Claudet, and the other by Mr W. Henderson, the original patentee of
the wet process. The liquors from the first three washings contain
practically, all these metals, and they alone are treated. Mr Claudet
precipitates them from the solution by means of iodide of potassium. Mr
Henderson dilutes his solution from 20° to 25° Twaddell, and adds a very
weak solution of lead salt, such as the acetate by which he obtains a
cream-coloured precipitate containing 5 or 6 per cent. of silver, and 3
oz. of gold to each ton of the precipitate. The importance of the wet
process may be estimated from the fact, that although it originated only
in 1860, already 14,000 tons of copper, are annually produced by it in
Great Britain alone, out of an annual production for the whole world
estimated at from 126,000 to 130,000 tons.

_Prop., &c._ Copper has a brilliant yellowish-red colour, a nauseous,
styptic taste, and emits a disagreeable odour when rubbed; is very
malleable and ductile; unchanged in dry air; in damp air it soon becomes
covered with a greenish rust (carbonate of copper); slightly soluble in
dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acid; freely soluble in boiling oil of
vitriol (sulphurous anhydride being evolved); dilute nitric acid dissolves
it readily with copious evolution of nitric oxide; heated to redness in
the air, it rapidly becomes covered with a black scale (oxide); it fuses
at a full red heat; its crystals are either octahedra or dodecahedra; sp.
gr. 8·8 to 8·96; it forms numerous compounds (alloys and salts) with other
bodies, all of which are more or less poisonous; its salts are either blue
or green, and most of them (when neutral) are soluble in water.

_Tests._ Metallic copper may be recognised by the above properties; its
oxides, salts, &c., by the following characters and reactions:——The
solutions of copper possess a blue or green colour, which they retain even
when considerably diluted with water:——With caustic potassa they give a
light-blue, bulky precipitate, turning blackish-brown or black on boiling
the liquid:——Ammonia and carbonate of ammonium produce a bluish-white
precipitate, soluble in excess, yielding a rich deep-blue solution:——The
carbonates of potassium give a light precipitate, insoluble in
excess:——Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a reddish-brown
precipitate:——Sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphydrate of ammonium give
blackish-brown or black ones:——A polished rod of iron, on immersion in an
acidulated solution, quickly becomes coated with metallic copper.

_Estim., &c._ Copper is generally WEIGHED under the form of black oxide,
but sometimes as pure metal:——By throwing it down from its solution by
pure potassa, after which it must be carefully collected, washed, dried,
ignited in a platinum crucible, and weighed therein as soon as it is cold.
Every 5 parts of the ignited precipitate (oxide) represents 4 parts of
copper (nearly); or, more accurately, every 39·7 parts are equal to 31·7
of pure metallic copper:——By immersing a piece of polished steel in the
solution, and weighing the resulting precipitate of the copper (see
_above_). Less delicate than the preceding.

Copper can be separated from the other metals by means of the following
processes:——

From lead. By adding sulphuric acid to the nitric solution, and
evaporating to dryness, when water digested on the residuum will dissolve
out the sulphate of copper, but leave the sulphate of lead behind. From
this solution the oxide of the copper may be thrown down as before.

From tin. By digestion with hot nitric acid, which dissolves out the tin.

From zinc. By sulphuretted hydrogen, which throws down the sulphide of
copper from an acid solution.

From silver. By digesting it in the state of filings or powder in a
solution of chloride of zinc, which dissolves the first, but leaves the
last unchanged.

Copper may be separated, in a state of great purity, from ANTIMONY,
ARSENIC, BISMUTH, LEAD, IRON, TIN, ZINC, &c., as it exists in bell-metal,
brass, bronze, gun-metal, mosaic gold, and other commercial alloys, by
fusing it in a crucible for about half an hour, along with copper scales
(black oxide) and ground bottle-glass, or other like flux. The pure metal
is found at the bottom of the crucible, whilst the impurities are either
volatilised or dissolved in the flux. The proportions for refining
commercial copper are, metal, 10 parts; copper scales and bottle-glass, of
each 1 part. The Society of Arts conceived this process to be so
valuable, that they presented one of their gold medals to its inventor, Mr
Lewis Thompson.

_Uses, &c._ The ordinary uses of copper are well known. In _medicine_, 3
or 4 gr. of the filings or powder were formerly given in rheumatism, and
to prevent hydrophobia. Some of its salts are still used as astringents,
emetics, and caustics. Its alloys are of great value. With zinc it forms
BRASS; with tin, BRONZE, BELL-METAL, GUN-METAL, and SPECULUM-METAL. WHITE
COPPER is formed by the addition of metallic arsenic, and GERMAN SILVER is
a mixture of nickel, zinc, and copper.

_Ant._ Copper in the metallic state is almost inert, but all its compounds
are poisonous. The antidotes are——the white of egg, milk, or flour, mixed
with water. The hydrated sulphides of iron, iron filings, and
ferro-cyanide of potassium have also been strongly recommended, and are
exhibited in the same way. Sugar is likewise highly spoken of as an
antidote. In all cases a strong emetic should be first given.

_Obs._ Culinary and pharmaceutical vessels are very commonly made of
copper, but too much caution cannot be exercised in their employment. Acid
syrups, vegetable juices, aqueous extracts, soups, stews, &c., prepared in
copper saucepans, or boilers, receive a metallic contamination
proportional to the length of time they are exposed to the action of the
metal. Such vessels are frequently tinned, for the purpose of protecting
the copper from contact with their contents, but this film of tin is
necessarily very thin, and soon becomes imperfect by constant use. When
copper vessels are allowed to remain wet or dirty, or, more especially,
greasy, a poisonous green rust forms upon the surface, somewhat similar to
verdigris. If articles are prepared in them in this state, serious
consequences may ensue. Cases of poisoning from this cause are frequently
met with, and instances of vomiting following the use of such articles are
almost of daily occurrence, without the reason being suspected. We have
occasionally seen confections and extracts, prepared in copper pans,
deposit a coating of that metal upon the knives used to stir them. The
ashes of the inspissated juices of fresh vegetables, and especially the
pulps of fruit, prepared in vessels of this metal, have exhibited the
presence of copper on the application of chemical tests. Ketchup is
frequently rendered poisonous in this way. The most wholesome material for
culinary utensils is thin sheet iron, or tinned iron plate (TIN), which is
very durable if kept clean and dry when not in use. Copper vessels of
every kind should be cleaned out, immediately before use, even though they
may not appear to require it, and on no account should they be employed
for any fluids that are the least acidulous, or that may have to remain
long in them.

The following enamel is recommended in Dingler’s Polytechnic Journal for
coating the inside of the copper vessels, used for cooking fruit or
vegetables:——12 parts of white fluor-spar, 12 parts of unburnt gypsum, and
1 part of borax, are finely powdered, intimately mixed, and fused in a
crucible. The fused mass is then poured out, and after cooling, is rubbed
up to a paste. The copper vessel is then coated inside with this
preparation, which is applied by means of a brush, and the vessel is
placed in a moderately warm place, so that the coating may dry uniformly,
when it is subjected to a gradually increasing heat, till at length the
preparation fuses. On cooling, the vessel is found to be protected
internally by a white opaque enamel, adhering very firmly to the copper,
not chipping off by ordinary knocking and rubbing, and impervious to
vegetable acids.

Copper may be cleaned by applying a small portion of the following paste,
and rubbing it dry by a flannel or leather:——1 oz. oxalic acid, 6 oz.
rotten stone, 1/2 oz. gum arabic, all in powder, 1 oz. of sweet oil, and
sufficient water to make a paste.

=Copper, Neu′tral Acetate of.= Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}. _Syn._ NOR′MAL
CUPRIC ACETATE, ACETATE OF COPPER, CRYS′TALLISED VER′DIGRIS. _Prep._
Dissolve common verdigris or cupric hydrate in hot acetic acid, so as to
form a highly concentrated solution; filter and place in a cool situation
to crystallise.

_Prop._ Beautiful dark, bluish-green prisms, which dissolve in 14 parts of
cold and 5 parts of boiling water.

=Copper, Ba′sic Acetates of.= _Syn._ BA′SIC CU′PRIC ACETATES,
SUB-AC′ETATES OF COPPER. Common verdigris is a mixture of several basic
acetates which have a green or blue colour. One of these (SESQUIBASIC
ACETATE) is obtained by digesting powdered verdigris in tepid water,
filtering, and leaving the soluble part to spontaneous evaporation. It may
also be obtained in a state of purity by adding liquor of ammonia in small
portions to a boiling concentrated solution of the neutral acetate till
the precipitate is just redissolved, and leaving the solution to cool. It
forms a blue, crystalline mass, but little soluble in cold water. The
green, insoluble residue of the verdigris, after treatment with tepid
water, contains another acetate (TRIBASIC ACETATE); this may be formed by
digesting neutral acetate of copper with the hydrated oxide. A third salt
(DIBASIC ACETATE, BLUE VERDIGRIS) is prepared on a large scale in France
by exposing copper to the air in contact with fermenting wine-lees.

=Copper, Ammo′′nio-sul′phate of.= _Syn._ SULPHATE OF CUPRAMMONIUM.
CU′PRO-SULPHATE OF AMMO′′NIA; CU′PRI AMMO′′NIO-SULPHAS, L.; CUIVRE
AMMONIACAL, Fr.; KUPFER SALMIAK, Ger. _Prep._ Sulphate of copper, 1 oz.;
sesquicarbonate of ammonium, 1-1/2 oz.; rub together until carbonic acid
ceases to be evolved, then wrap it in bibulous paper, and dry it in the
air.

_Pur._ Pulverulent; dark blue; at an intense heat it is changed into oxide
of copper, at first sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and, afterwards, sulphate
of ammonia, being thrown off. It is soluble in water to a splendid
purple-blue solution, from which the salt is precipitated by alcohol in
blue crystals. This solution has the peculiar property of dissolving
CELLULOSE (cotton, paper, &c.). The cellulose may be precipitated from the
solution in colourless flakes by the addition of acids.

_Uses., &c._ It is occasionally employed in _pyrotechny_. In _medicine_,
it has been given in chorea, epilepsy, hysteria, &c., but is now
principally used as an injection, as a wash for foul ulcers, used as a
collyrium, in opacity of the cornea.——_Dose_, 1/4 gr., gradually increased
to 5 gr., twice a day. Great care must be taken in drying, as it is apt
not only to lose a large portion of its weight, but to become of an
inferior colour. Both the ingredients should be separately reduced to
powder before mixing them.

=Copper, Ar′senite of.= Cu(AsO_{2})_{2}. See GREEN PIGMENTS (Scheele’s
Green).

=Copper, Carbonate of.= CuCO_{3}. _Syn._ DIBA′SIC CARBONATE OF COPPER,
DICARBONATE OF C.; CUPRI CARBONAS, L. _Prep._ Add carbonate of soda in
excess to a solution of sulphate of copper, and warm the mixture till the
pale-blue, flocculent precipitate becomes sandy and assumes a green tint.
Used as a pigment. See GREEN PIGMENTS and VERDITER.

_Obs._ As prepared above, the carbonate contains 2 equivalents of water.
The beautiful green mineral, MAL′ACHITE, has a similar composition, but
contains only 1 equiv. of water. Another carbonate (TRIBASIC C., BLUE C.),
occurs as a natural ore in large, transparent crystals, of the most
intense blue; it has not yet been artificially imitated.

=Cuprous Chloride.= CuCl. _Syn._ DICHLORIDE OF COPPER, SUBCHLORIDE OF
COPPER. _Prep._ By exposing the neutral chloride of copper to the action
of heat.

_Prop._ White; fusible; slightly soluble in water; and decomposed by
exposure to the air.

=Copper, Chloride of.= CuCl_{2}. _Syn._ NEUTRAL CHLORIDE OF COPPER.
_Prep._ From copper scales or black oxide of copper dissolved in
hydrochloric acid, and the solution evaporated and crystallised.

_Prop., &c._ Green, acicular crystals; deliquescent; soluble in alcohol,
the flame of which it colours green. When gently heated it loses water,
and assumes the form of a yellowish-brown powder (ANHYDROUS CUPRIC
CHLORIDE, or CHLORIDE OF COPPER); at a high temperature it loses half its
chlorine, and becomes converted into cuprous chloride.

=Cupric Iodide.= CuI_{2}. _Syn._ IODIDE OF COPPER, DINI′ODIDE OF COPPER;
CU′PRI IODI′DUM. L. _Prep._ By adding iodide of potassium to a solution of
sulphate of copper, and washing out with alcohol the free iodine from the
precipitate formed. A greenish-white precipitate.

(Commercial.) To a solution of sulphate of copper, 1 part, and
protosulphate of iron, 3 parts, add a solution of iodide of potassium, and
wash and dry the precipitate. This is the preparation commonly known in
trade by the name of ‘iodide of copper.’

=Cupric Nitrate.= Cu(NO_{3})_{2}. _Syn._ NITRATE OF COPPER; CU′PRI
NI′TRAS, L. _Prep._ By dissolving the copper in dilute nitric acid to
saturation; evaporating to dryness; redissolving in distilled water;
filtering, evaporating, and allowing to crystallise; or from black oxide
of copper and nitric acid in the same manner.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Deep-blue prismatic crystals, very soluble in water and
deliquescent, soluble in alcohol. Generally used in medicine externally,
in injections, or as a caustic, but sometimes given internally, dissolved
in mucilaginous liquids.——_Dose_, 1/8 to 1/4 gr.

=Cuprous Oxide.= Cu_{2}O. _Syn._ RED OXIDE OF COPPER, DINOX′IDE, SUBOXIDE;
CUPRI SUBOX′YDUM, L. _Prep._ Add grape sugar to a solution of sulphate or
acetate of copper, then further add caustic potassa in excess; the blue
solution heated to ebullition deposits the suboxide, which must then be
collected, washed, and dried.

A solution of cane sugar, 27 parts, in water, 60 parts, is poured over
hydrated oxide of copper (weighed in the compressed and still moist
state), 9 parts; a solution of caustic potassa, 18 parts, in water, 60
parts, is then added, and the whole mass well agitated together at the
ordinary temperature, and strained through linen. If the dark-blue
filtrate is next heated (continually stirring), over a water bath,
anhydrous cuprous oxide is disengaged, and the liquor becomes nearly
colourless.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ A superb red powder, with a metallic lustre. It often
occurs in beautiful transparent, ruby-red crystals, associated with other
ores of copper, and can be obtained in this state by artificial means. It
is used as a pigment and a bronze, and as a stain for glass and enamels,
to which it gives a rich red colour. By heat it is converted into the
black oxide. With ammonia it forms a colourless solution, which rapidly
becomes blue from the action of the air.

=Cupric Oxide.= CuO. _Syn._ OX′IDE OF COPPER, BLACK OXIDE, PROTOXIDE;
CU′PRI PROTOX′YDUM. _Prep._ By heating the nitrate or carbonate of copper
to redness. When it ceases to lose weight the conversion is completed, and
the oxide appears as a heavy, black powder.

By heating in the air the hydrated oxide thrown down from solutions of
copper by pure potassa.

By adding caustic potassa, in excess, to a solution of a cupric salt, and
heating the whole to a boiling-point; the precipitate is then collected,
washed, and dried. A heavy, dark-brown powder.

_Uses, &c._ Protoxide of copper is unchanged by heat unless combustible
matter is present, when it readily parts with its oxygen; hence its
general use in ORGANIC ANALYSIS as a source of that element. It
communicates a beautiful green colour to glass and enamels. With the acids
it produces the ordinary salts of copper.

=Cupric Sulphate.= CuSO_{4}.5Aq. _Syn._ SULPHATE OF COPPER, BLUE
COP′PERAS, B. VIT′RIOL; CU′PRI SUL′PHAS, L.; SULFATE DE CUIVRE, Fr.;
KUPFER VITRIOL, Ger.; NEELA TOOTIA, Hind. _Prep._ (Commercial.) The
sulphate of copper of commerce is obtained by the oxidation of native
sulphide of copper (COPPER PYRITES); by the joint action of air, heat, and
moisture, the copper is converted into an oxide, and the sulphur into
sulphuric acid. The resulting salt is washed out, and the solution
evaporated and crystallised. The water found in and issuing from copper
mines often furnishes such a solution ready to the hands of the
manufacturers. A large quantity of sulphate of copper is also obtained as
a secondary product in the refining of silver, and is occasionally
prepared by dissolving in sulphuric acid an oxychloride of copper, made
for the purpose by exposing sheets of copper to the joint action of air
and hydrochloric acid.

(Pure.) By the direct solution of the metal, or preferably, of its oxide
or carbonate in sulphuric acid, or by purifying the commercial salt by
recrystallisation, &c.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Fine blue crystals, slightly efflorescent, having an
intensely styptic and metallic taste. By heat the blue salt loses its
water of crystallisation, and becomes a white, anhydrous powder. It
dissolves in 4 parts of water at 60° Fahr., and in 2 parts at 212°; is
insoluble in alcohol and ether; and is decomposed at an intense heat into
protoxide of copper, sulphurous acid, and oxygen. It has been used to
prevent the dry rot in timber and in dyeing. It is largely employed as a
source of metallic copper in the ELECTROTYPE. Grain is steeped in a weak
solution of it by the farmer, to prevent the ‘smut,’ As a medicine, it is
employed chiefly as a styptic (in solution) and caustic (in substance) to
destroy ‘proud flesh,’ and, less frequently, as an astringent or tonic
(from 1/4 gr. to 2 gr.), and an emetic (3 or 4 gr. to 10 or 12 gr). It is
exceedingly poisonous.

=COP′PERAS.= This is a generic name for the CRUDE METALLIC SULPHATES. When
used without a qualifying adjective, it generally means sulphate of iron.

=Copperas, Blue.= Crude sulphate of copper. See COPPER (_above_).

=Copperas, Calcined′.= From green copperas, heated in an unglazed earthen
pot until it becomes white and dry. Used as an astringent and ‘drier,’ and
in making ink and dyeing.

=Copperas, Green.= _Syn._ COPPERAS. Crude sulphate of iron. See IRON.

=Copperas, White.= Crude sulphate of zinc. See ZINC.

=COP′PERING.= Iron may be covered with a thin film of copper by merely
immersing it (previously scoured clean) in an acidulated solution of
sulphate of copper, after which it must be rinsed in clean water. This
film soon rubs off, but still it lasts long enough to deceive the
travelling tinker’s customers, who imagine that their copper kettles are
properly repaired. Metals may be conveniently coated with compact copper
to any desired thickness by means of voltaic electricity. See ELECTROTYPE.

=COP′ROLITE.= _Syn._ DUNG′STONE, FOSSIL MANURE. This mineral is the
petrified dung of carnivorous reptiles. (Buckland.) Coprolites are found
in all the secondary and tertiary strata. They contain a considerable
proportion of phosphate of lime, for which reason they are largely
employed in the manufacture of artificial manures. They form the bases of
Lawes’ SUPERPHOSPHATE OF COPROLITE MANURE. The nodules, after being
washed, are ground to powder in a mill, and mixed with an equal weight of
oil of vitriol.

=COPTIS TEETA.= (Ind. Ph.) _Syn._ COPTIS, or MISHMI TITA. _Hab._ Mishmel
mountains, east of Assam. _Officinal part._ The dried root (_Coptidis
Radix_), imported into Bengal from Assam in small rattan baskets, each
containing from 1 to 2 ounces of the drug. This consists of pieces of a
woody rhizome, of the thickness of a small goose-quill and from 1 to 2
inches in length, often contracted at one extremity into a short woody
stem; the surface is usually rough, irregular, more or less annulated, and
marked with the remains of rootlets in the shape of short spiny point.
Externally, yellowish-brown; internally, much brighter, frequently of a
golden-yellow colour, exhibiting on fracture a radiated structure. Taste,
persistently bitter, and when chewed tinges the saliva yellow. Contains
neither tannic nor gallic acid, but abounds with a yellow, bitter
principle, soluble in water and alcohol.——_Prop._ Pure bitter
tonic.——_Therapeutic uses._ In debility, convalescence after fevers, and
other debilitating diseases, atonic dyspepsia, and in mild forms of
intermittent fevers.——_Dose_, 10 to 15 gr. of the powdered root, thrice
daily.

=Tincture of Coptis= (_Tinctura Coptidis_). Take of coptis root, in coarse
powder, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirits, 2 pints. Macerate for 7 days in a closed
vessel, with occasional agitation; strain, press, filter, and add
sufficient proof spirit to make 1 pint.——_Dose_. 1/2 to 2 fl. oz.

=Infusion of Coptis= (_Infusum Coptidis_). Take of coptis root, in coarse
powder, 5 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint. Infuse in a covered vessel for 2
hours, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. oz., thrice daily.

=COR′AL.= _Syn._ CORAL′LIUM, L. The comprehensive term for all calcareous
or stony structures secreted by the marine asteroid polypes, or zoophytes.
The RED CORAL of commerce, which is so largely employed for beads,
earrings, and other ornaments, may be described as the internal skeleton
of _Corallium rubrum_.

=Coral, Red= (=Facti′′tious=). _Syn._ CORAL′LIUM RU′BRUM FACTI′′TIUM, L.
Prepared chalk, coloured with a little sesquioxide of iron or rose pink,
and passed through a sieve. Sold by the druggists for powdered coral.

=Coral, Prepared’ Red.= _Syn._ CORAL′LIUM RU′BRUM PREPARA′TUM. Levigated
coral was formerly used in medicine as an antacid or absorbent, and is
still occasionally employed as a dentifrice. It consists almost entirely
of carbonate of lime, coloured with red oxide of iron, and possesses no
advantage over good chalk. It is prepared in a similar manner as chalk.

=CORAL, to Bleach.= Immerse the coral in a mixture composed of one part of
hydrochloric acid, and thirty parts of water; and keep it in this liquid
until it becomes quite white. It should then be taken out, washed well in
cold water, and allowed to dry.

=COPPER, CYANIDE= (CuCy_{2}). This salt is much used in electro-coppering.
It may be obtained by adding to a solution of a copper salt, a solution of
ferrocyanide of potassium; when a precipitate is obtained, which dried, is
of a brown colour, and is cyanide of copper.

=CORALLINE.= See TAR COLOURS.

=CORD′IALS.= _Syn._ CARDI′ACA, L. Warm, stimulating, restorative
medicines, that tend to raise the spirits and promote the circulation. The
principal cordial medicines are noticed under the heads TINCTURE and
SYRUP. See also PATENT MEDICINES.

=Cordials.= Aromatised and sweetened spirits used as beverages. See
LIQUEUR.

=CORIAN′DER.= _Syn._ (CORIANDER FRUIT, CORIANDRI FRUCTUS, (B. P.);
CORIANDERS, C. SEED; CORIANDRUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The ripe fruit of
the _Coriandrum sativum_, dried.” (B. P.) Coriander is chiefly used by
confectioners and distillers as a flavouring ingredient. In the East it is
much employed as a condiment, being an ingredient in CURRY POWDER. It is
aromatic, carminative, and stimulant; and more effectually covers the
taste of senna than any other substance.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 gr.; chiefly
used as a corrective or adjuvant in compound medicines.

=CORK.= The outer bark of the _Quercus Suber_ or _cork oak_, a tree common
in southern France, Italy, and Spain. The bark obtained from the younger
branches of the same tree is employed for tanning. See ALCORNOCO.

=Cork.= A stopple or plug for a bottle or jar cut from the above
substance. The common practice of employing inferior corks for the purpose
of stopping the mouths of bottles is often productive of considerable
loss, from the air being only partially excluded, and the contents
suffering in consequence. Many a large bin of valuable wine has become,
from this cause, in less than a year, little better than sour ‘Cape.’
Chemical preparations often suffer from a similar cause. The best corks
are those called ‘velvet corks,’ and of these the finest qualities are
imported from France. No pains should be spared to obtain sound and soft
cork for connecting the combustion- and drying-tubes used in organic
analysis.

Ruschhaupt gives the following process for preparing corks for corking
bottles containing alcoholic or caustic liquids:——Paraffin is fused in a
suitable vessel, the dry corks are added, and immersed in the paraffin by
means of a perforated coon or disk. The air is now easily expelled from
the pores of the corks, which after about five minutes, are removed and
cooled; they may now be cut and bored like wax, are easily driven into the
necks of bottles, and readily removed, retain their smoothness and are
gas-tight throughout.

Several attempts have been made to introduce cork-cutting by machinery,
but they have hitherto failed to supersede hand labour.

=Cork-bo′′rer.= A thin brass tube, filed to a cutting edge, used for
piercing holes through corks. Several tubes of different sizes, which fit
into each other, are generally sold together. This simple and convenient
instrument was introduced into the laboratory by Dr Mohr.

=CORN.= _Syn._ CLA′VUS, L. A horny induration of the skin, with a central
nucleus, very sensitive at the base. The common cause of corns is
continued pressure over the projection of the bones, from tight or stiff
boots or shoes. They are of two kinds, hard and soft. The first grow on
the exposed portions of the joints; the last, between the toes.

_Preven._ This consists in keeping the feet clean, by frequent ablution
with warm water, and in the use of easy, soft boots and shoes. Without the
latter precaution, corns will generally return, even after they appear to
have been perfectly removed.

_Treatment._ After soaking the feet in warm water for a few minutes, pare
the corns as close as possible with a sharp knife, taking care not to make
them bleed. They may now be touched over with a little lunar caustic, or
nitric acid, or a little concentrated acetic acid or aromatic vinegar. The
last two do not stain the skin. The first is used by merely rubbing it on
the corns, previously slightly moistened with water; the others, by
moistening the corns with them, by means of a small strip of wood, or,
preferably, a rod of glass; due care being taken not to allow the liquid
to touch the neighbouring parts. This treatment, adopted every 3 or 4 days
for 10 days or a fortnight, accompanied by the use of soft, loose shoes,
will generally effect a cure. It has been recommended to remove large
corns by ligatures of silk, applied as close to their base as possible,
and tightened daily until they drop off; but this plan is tedious, and
often inconvenient, and is not always successful. Another mode of
extirpation is, the application of a small blister, which will frequently
raise them with the skin out of their beds. In this case the exposed
surface must be dressed with a little simple ointment. Soft corns may be
removed by applying ivy leaf, previously soaked in strong vinegar changing
the piece every morning; or by placing a dressing of soap cerate, spread
on a bit of lint or old rag, between the toes. One of the simplest and
best remedies for hard corns, and which has received the sanction of high
medical authority, is to wear upon the toe or part affected a small,
circular piece of soft leather, or, still better, a piece of amadou,
spread with diachylon, or some other emollient plaster, and having a hole
cut in the centre, corresponding to the size of the corn. (Sir B. Brodie.)
By this means the pressure of the boot or shoe is equalised and the apex
of the corn protected from injury. The following are among the most useful
of the POPULAR REMEDIES FOR CORNS:——

=Corns, Caus′tic for.= _Prep._ From tincture of iodine and chloride of
antimony, of each, 1 dr.; iodide of iron, 3 grs.; mix. It is applied with
a camel-hair brush, after paring the corn. 2 to 4 applications are said to
effect a cure.

_Obs._ Most of the remedies noticed below really act as caustics.

=Corns, Lo′tion for.= _Prep._ 1. A solution of sal-ammoniac, 1 part; in
proof spirit, 4 parts.

2. A concentrated aqueous solution of sulphate of copper. To be applied
night and morning.

=Corn Plasters.= _Prep._ 1. From white diachylon, 3 parts; yellow resin, 2
parts; verdigris, 1 part; melted together, and spread on leather.

2. From galbanum plaster, 1 oz.; verdigris, 1 dr.; as the last.

3. From resin plaster, 2 oz.; black pitch, 1 oz.; verdigris and
sal-ammoniac, of each 1/2 dr.

4. To the last add powdered opium, 1 dr. Recommended to allay pain, &c.

5. (W. Cooley.) A piece of spread adhesive plaster is placed upon a table,
and a piece of card paper having a round hole cut in it the size of the
central portion of the corn is laid upon it; the exposed part is then
softened by holding a piece of heated iron for a second or two near it;
the card paper is then instantly removed, and nitrate of silver, in fine
powder is sprinkled over the part which has been warmed. As soon as the
whole is cold, the loose powder is shaken off, and the plaster is ready
for use. Very cleanly and convenient. Two or three applications seldom
fail to effect a cure.

6. (MECHANICAL CORN PLASTERS.) From common adhesive plaster spread on
buckskin, amadou, or vulcanised india rubber, cut into pieces, and a
circular hole corresponding to the size of the corn punched in each.

=Corn Sol′vent.= _Prep._ 1. Carbonate of potassa or pearlash, contained in
an open jar or bottle, set in a damp place, until it deliquesces into an
oil-like liquid (oil of tartar). Applied by means of a feather, or a small
piece of rag dipped in it is bound on the corn.

2. Hydrate of potassa, 1 dr.; rectified spirit 1 oz.; dissolve. As No. 1.

3. Carbonate of potassa, with smalts, ochre, or bole, q. s. to give it the
required colour. It must be kept dry, in a well-corked bottle. A pinch is
placed on the corn, and confined by means of adhesive plaster or rag.

4. Carbonate of soda, 1 oz., finely powdered and mixed with lard, 1/2 oz.
Applied on linen rag every night.

5. (Sir H. Davy’s.) Carbonate of potassa, 2 parts; salt of sorrel, 1 part;
each in fine powder; mix, and place a small quantity on the corn for four
or five successive nights, binding it on with a rag.

_Obs._ Care must be taken, in all cases, to pare the corn moderately close
before applying the remedy; but in _no case should any of the above be
applied to a raw surface_.

=Corns, Pomade’ for.= _Prep._ 1. Powdered verdigris, 1 dr.; savine
ointment, 7 dr.

2. Dried carbonate of soda, 3 dr.; lard, 5 dr.; verdigris or smalts, q. s.
to give a slight tinge of green or blue. Applied on a piece of rag.

_Treatment for Horses._——“Pare out carefully the seat of corn, removing
all reddened and diseased horn; reduce the crust of the quarter slightly,
where it is unduly strong, but leave the bars and frog untouched. They
must be religiously preserved, especially in weak feet, to afford a wide
bearing for the bar shoe that should afterwards be used. To soften the
parts, apply, in bad cases, a poultice for a day or two, and a few drops
of nitric acid, when the horn is dry and scurfy; keep the hoof soft with
soft soap and lard, or any emollient dressing, and pare out the corn every
fortnight. In horses subject to corns, shoe and pare out frequently; and
along with leather pads, use a bar shoe made with a wide heel on the
inside quarter, and nailed only on the outside, or with one nail toward
the inside toe.”[250]

[Footnote 250: Finlay Dun.]

=CORRO′SIVE SUBLIMATE.= See MERCURY.

=CORUN′DUM.= See EMERY.

=CORYZA.= Cold in the head. See CATARRH.

=COSMET′ICS.= _Syn._ COSMET′ICA, L.; COSMETIQUES, Fr. External
applications employed for the purpose of preserving or restoring personal
beauty. The term is generally understood to refer to substances applied to
the cuticle, to improve the colour and clearness of the complexion; but
some writers have included under this head every topical application used
with the like intention. Hence cosmetics may be divided into——CUTANEOUS
COSMETICS, or those applied to the skin; HAIR COSMETICS, or such as are
employed to promote the growth and beauty of the hair; and TEETH
COSMETICS, or such as are used to cleanse and beautify the teeth. See
BALDNESS, COSMETIQUE, DENTIFRICES, DEPILATORY, HAIR-DYE, POMADE, TOOTH
POWDER, &c.

=COSMETIC VINEGAR= (Acetum cosmeticum) is a mixture of tinct. benz., 60
parts; bals. Peruv., 10 parts; eau de Cologne and bals. vitæ Hoffm. ph.
bor. āā 150 parts; aceti puri, 300 parts; allowed to precipitate and
filtered clear.

=COSMETICUM= (Dr Henry’s):——For scalp diseases and an application for the
hair. Spirit, 180 parts; oil of lemon, 3 parts; oil of bergamot, oil of
rosemary, and oil of lavender, of each 1 part. (Hager.)

=Cosmeticum= (Siemerling) for skin affections, freckles, &c. Sweet
almonds, 30 grammes; bitter almonds, 15 grammes; blanched and emulsified
with 330 grammes of water; the emulsion strained and mixed with 25 grammes
tinct. benzoin and 15 grammes lemon juice. (Wittstein.)

=COSMETIQUE.= [Fr.] Hard pomatum, formed into a cake or stick for the
toilet. It is sometimes coloured black or brown, the pigments being added
in the state of an impalpable powder.

1. (BLACK——COSMETIQUE NOIR.) From good lard, 5 parts; wax, 2 parts; (or,
hard pomatum, 7 parts;) melt, stir in levigated ivory black, 2 parts; and
pour it into moulds of tinfoil; which are afterwards to be placed in paper
sheaths.

2. (BROWN——COSMETIQUE BRUN.) As the last, but using levigated umber for
‘plain brown,’ and levigated terra di Sienna for ‘auburn’ and ‘chestnut.’

3. (WHITE, OR PLAIN——COSMETIQUE BLANC.) The same, without colouring
matter.

_Obs._ They are generally scented with musk, ambergris, or cassia.

_Use._ The above are used to colour moustaches, eyebrows, whiskers, &c.,
as well as to keep the hair in its place. The labels on the packets before
us have——“pour fixer et lisser les cheveux.” The application must be
renewed daily, as the cosmetique is gradually removed by friction, and
perfectly so by soap-and-water.

=COSMOLINE.= _Syn._ COSMOLIN. Under the names of Cosmoline and Vaseline
some fatty substances melting at 32° to 85° or even 95° C. have lately
appeared in commerce. They are very variable mixtures of solid paraffin
with paraffin oil, neutral oil, lubricating oil, &c., and are the residues
left after the distillation of petroleum slightly purified by means of
charcoal. (Miller.)

Cosmoline has been examined by Mr Naylor, who states his belief that it
consists of a mixture of paraffins. Comparing Mr Naylor’s results with
those obtained by Mr Moss, in an analysis made of a body imported from
America, and called “Vaseline,” there seems little reason to doubt that if
this latter and “Cosmoline” are not the same substance, they differ from
each other only in a very minute degree, this difference not improbably
being due to the varying temperature employed in producing them. Cosmoline
was found to have the composition:——

  Hydrocarbons (paraffins?)  98·59
  Moisture                    0·69
  Ash                         0·04
                            ——————
                             99·32

It melts at 40°C., and has a sp. gr. of 0·866 at 45°C. The composition of
Vaseline is as follows:——

  Hydrocarbons (paraffins?)  97·54
  Moisture                    0·50
  Ash                         0·05
                            ——————
                             98·09

It melts at 37° C., and has a sp. gr. of 0·840 at 55° C.

Both bodies are pale yellow in colour, translucent, slightly fluorescent,
and semi-solid, and both are alike insoluble in water, slightly soluble in
alcohol, and freely so in ether, whilst they are unaffected by
hydrochloric acid and solution of potash. The processes by which it is
believed cosmoline and vaseline are obtained, consist in separating the
various volatile hydrocarbons from crude petroleum by distillation, the
residuum is then brought into contact with superheated steam, and finally
purified by filtration through animal charcoal. Vaseline has been also
named “petroleum jelly.” Professor Otto, of New York, says that vaseline
is very extensively used throughout the United States, as a substitute for
lard in the preparation of ointments, a purpose for which the freedom from
smell, the negative properties and unalterable qualities when exposed to
the air, of both substances, seem highly to commend their superiority to
lard for this purpose. They have also been employed very successfully for
lubricating surgical instruments, and we believe are, when properly
scented, used largely as the basis of hair pomades, whilst their
suitability for the preparation of suppositories and pessaries has been
urged.

This has been demonstrated by the much greater length of time during which
certain ointments made by them remain fresh and undecomposed when compared
with those in which lard was used.

The ‘American Journal of Pharmacy’ for March, 1877, gives the following
formula as a substitute for cold cream, by E. J. Davidson:——Cosmoline, 24
oz.; white wax, spermaceti, of each 12 oz.; glycerin, 3 fl. oz.; oil of
geranium, 1 fl. dr.

=COSMOS POMADE= (J. Pohlmann, Vienna), 1-1/2 parts white wax, 3 parts
spermaceti, 2 parts castor oil, 8 parts almond oil, 2 parts glycerine, 9
parts extract of mignonette, 1/2 part eau de Cologne. (Hager.)

=COTARN′INE.= A crystallisable substance obtained from the mother-liquors
of opianic acid. It is basic, very soluble, and bitter. Hydrochlorate of
cotarnine is soluble and crystalline.

=COTO BARK.= A bark said to be imported from the interior of Bolivia, and
thought by Dr Wittstein to belong to a lauraceous or a terebinthinaceous
plant. In one specimen examined by Jobst was found a yellowish-white
crystalline substance with the biting taste of the bark, which Jobst
believes to be its active principle, and to which he gives the name
_Cotoin_. Another sample, however, analysed by Jobst in conjunction with
Hesse, failed to yield any cotoin, but gave instead a crystalline mass
which consisted principally of three crystalline bodies, to which these
chemists purpose applying the names _paracotoin_, _oxyleucotin_, and
_leucotin_. Dr Gietel reports that he made trial of the bark
therapeutically with some patients in the general hospital of Munich, and
the results he obtained were such that he regards it as a specific against
diarrhœa in all its varieties. Sometimes he administered it in the form of
powder, and at others in that of tincture, the latter being made in the
proportions of one part of bark to ten of spirit. He gave of the powder
1/2 grain four to six times a day, and of the tincture 10 minims every two
hours. Herr Burkhart, similarly making trial of the _cotoin_ and
_paracotoin_ instead, was equally successful as far as regarded its
anti-diarrhœic action, _paracotoin_, however, exercising a slighter effect
than the _cotoin_. Herr Burkhart administered paracotoin either in powder
1/10th of a gram, with 1/6th of a gram of sugar every three hours, or 1/2
a gram rubbed up as an emulsion.

=COT′TON.= _Syn._ GOSSYPIUM, L. The cotton of which textile fabrics are
made consists of hairs covering the seeds of certain plants belonging to
the natural order _Malvaceæ_, or the Mallow family. Our commercial cotton
appears to be derived from four distinct species, viz.——

=Gossypium arboreum.= The tree cotton, an Indian species. Unlike the other
cotton plants, it has the dimensions of a small tree. The cotton-hairs are
remarkably soft and silky, and are woven by the natives into very fine
muslin, used for turbans by the privileged classes only.

=Gossypium Barbadense.= The ‘Barbadoes’ or ‘Bourbon cotton plant.’ This is
the species which yields all our best cotton. In the small American
islands which fringe the coast from Charlestown to Savannah, this plant
has produced the celebrated ‘sea-island cotton,’ which is unrivalled for
the length of its ‘staple,’ its strength, and silkiness.

=Gossypium herbaceum.= The common cotton plant of India. It produces the
Surat cotton of commerce.

=Gossypium Peruvianum or acuminatum.= A species supposed to be indigenous
to America. It furnishes the South American varieties of cotton, as
Pernambuco, Peruvian, Maranham, and Brazilian.

_Identif._ See LINEN.

_Dyeing._ The fibres of cotton have nearly the same affinity for mordants
and the colouring matter of dyed stuffs as linen, and may be treated in
the same manner. See DYEING, LINEN, &c.

=Cotton Cake.= The cake remaining after the expression of the oil from the
seeds of the cotton plant (_Gossypium_) is used as a cattle food. The
decorticated is preferred to the undecorticated variety, as the latter is
said to occasionally set up dangerous internal irritation amongst the
animals partaking of it.

Composition of cotton-cake (decorticated).

  Moisture                        9·18
  Oil                            16·05
  Albuminous compounds           41·25
  Non-nitrogenous principles     16·45
  Phosphates  and  insoluble
    earthy matters                8·15
  Woody fibre                     8·92
                                 —————
                                100·00

=COTTON, GUN-.= See PYROXYLIN.

=COUGH.= _Syn._ TUS′SIS, L. The sudden and violent expulsion of air from
the lungs. It is generally symptomatic of other affections, but is
sometimes idiopathic, or a primary disease. Many cases of cough depend
upon the extension of catarrh to the trachea and bronchiæ, which thus
become loaded with mucus or phlegm, which they endeavour to throw off by
the convulsive effort called coughing. In some cases it is caused by a
vitiation and inspissation of the secretions, arising from the imperfect
action of the absorbents; this is the common cause of the dry cough of old
people. Idiopathic cough is not considered dangerous in itself, or while
running its regular course, but it is often productive of most serious
consequences, by superinducing the inflammation of some organ, or laying
the foundation of phthisis.

Cough is sometimes attended by copious expectoration, and at other times
exists without any; it has hence been distinguished into moist or mucous
cough, and dry cough.

_Treatment._ That of common catarrhal cough consists in allaying the
irritation as much as possible, by demulcents and expectorants, as
mucilaginous drinks and lozenges, which act upon the glottis, and
sympathetically upon the trachea and bronchiæ. Among the first may be
mentioned almond milk, barley water, refined Spanish juice, gum Arabic,
and a mixture of the last two made into lozenges; among the second, the
most innocent and convenient is ipecacuanha, in the shape of lozenges, 2
or 3 of which maybe sucked whenever the cough is troublesome. A light diet
should be adopted, the bowels kept slightly relaxed by the use of gentle
aperients, and a mild and equable temperature sought as much as possible.
When this plan does not succeed, recourse may be had to an emetic,
followed by small doses of Dover’s powders, and extract or tincture of
henbane or squill pill. When a cough is troublesome at night and
unattended with fever, a small dose of laudanum, or tincture of henbane,
taken on going to rest, will generally procure sleep. In the treatment of
dry cough the more stimulating expectorants are useful, as garlic,
ammoniacum, styrax, and benzoin, combined with narcotics and sedatives, as
henbane, hemlock, and opium. A diaphoretic opiate is also very useful,
especially in the cough of old people. See DRAUGHT, EMULSION, MIXTURE,
PILLS, &c.

=COU′MARIN= (kōō). _Syn._ CU′MARIN. The odorous principle of the fruit or
bean of _Dipteryxodorata_ (tonquin bean). It exists in several other
plants, as _Melilotus officinalis_, _Asperula odorata_, and _Anthoxanthum
odoratum_.

_Prep._ From the sliced tonquin beans, by macerating in hot alcohol;
straining through cloth, and distilling off the greater part of the
spirit. The syrupy residue deposits, on standing, crystals of COUMARIN,
which must be purified from fat oil by pressure, and then crystallised
from hot water.

_Prop._ Slender, brilliant, colourless needles; fusible at 122° Fahr., and
distilling at a higher temperature without decomposition. It has a
fragrant odour and burning taste; it is very slightly soluble in cold
water, more freely in hot water, and also in alcohol.

=COUNTER-IR′RITANTS.= In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, substances applied to
the surface of the body to establish a secondary morbid action, with the
view of relieving one already existing. In painful and spasmodic
affections, as neuralgia, spasms, and cramp; in rheumatism, lumbago,
swelled and painful joints; in headache, sore throat, sprains, languid
glandular tumours, and many other cases, this class of medicine often
proves extremely valuable. The counter-irritants which are best known are
blisters, mustard poultices, hartshorn-and-oil, and liniment of ammonia.

=COURT PLAS′TER.= See PLASTER.

=COW DUNG.= This substance was formerly employed in large quantities by
the calico printers. Recently a mixture of sulphate, carbonate, and
phosphate of lime and soda, with British gum or bran, has been
successfully tested as a substitute for it, and has the advantage of
cleanliness and economy.

=COW′HAGE.= _Syn._ COW′ITCH; MUCUN′A (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The hairs of
the fruit _Mucuna pruriens_” (Ph. L.). “The hairs from the pods” (Ph. E.).
“The hairy down” (Ph. D.). It occasions violent itching when it comes in
contact with the skin, which can only be allayed by a solution of green
vitriol, or by oil. It is frequently administered as a vermifuge, made
into a confection, by scraping the hair off a pod into treacle, syrup, or
honey, for a morning dose, which is repeated for 3 or 4 successive days,
followed by a brisk purge. It acts more effectually if its administration
has been preceded by a gentle emetic.

=COW-POX.= [_Variola Vaccina._] A disease affecting the udder in cows. The
treatment consists in fomenting the udder and applying poultices of spent
hops, giving laxative and saline medicines, and in drawing off the milk
with a teat-syphon.

=COWS.= See DAIRY.

=CRAB.= See SHELL-FISH.

=CRACKNELS.= Small, brittle cakes or biscuits, made by first boiling and
then baking paste. _Prep._ To flour, 1 pint, add a little grated nutmeg,
the yolks of 2 eggs, 2 or 3 spoonfuls of rose-water, and cold water, q. s.
to make a paste; then roll in butter, 1/2 lb., and make it into shapes. In
one hour put them into a kettle of boiling water, and boil them until they
swim, then throw them into cold water; take them out; and when dry, bake
them on tins. Those of the shops contain less butter, and the rose-water
is omitted.

=CRACK′NUTS.= Thin and sweet cakes or wafers. _Prep._ 1. Flour, 1 lb.;
sugar, 3/4 lb.; melted butter, 1/2 lb.; 6 or 7 eggs, well beaten; make a
paste with a glassful of raisin wine and a little water; add caraways,
roll it out as thin as paper, cut it into shapes with a tumbler, wash the
pieces with the white of egg, and dust them over with powdered sugar.

2. As the last, but using 1/2 lb. more flour.

=CRAMP.= See SPASMS.

=CRAPE= is cleaned by rinsing it in ox-gall and water, to remove the dirt;
afterwards in pure water, to remove the gall; and lastly, in a little
gum-water, to stiffen and crisp it. It is then clapped between the hands
until dry.

=CRAY-FISH.= See SHELL-FISH.

=CRAY′ONS.= Colouring substances made up into small cylinders or any other
convenient form for use in writing or drawing.

=Crayons, Draw′ing.= _Prep._ 1. Spermaceti, 3 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint;
agitate together till they form a species of emulsion; add bone ash, 1 lb.
(or more, previously reduced to an impalpable powder), and colouring
matter, q. s. to give the proper tint; reduce the whole to a perfectly
homogeneous paste, and form it into crayons.

2. Pipeclay and the finest prepared chalk, equal parts; or pipeclay alone,
q. s.; colouring, a sufficient quantity; make them into a paste with pale
mild ale.

3. White curd or Castile soap, cut into thin shavings, 1 oz.; boiling
water, 1 pint; dissolve, and when cold, add gradually as much rectified
spirit of wine as will render the liquid barely transparent. With this
fluid make equal parts of the finest elutriated clay and chalk into a
stiff paste, adding colouring matter, q. s., as before. For common
qualities, the spirit of wine may be omitted, but the mass will then dry
more slowly.

4. Curd soap, 1-1/2 oz.; gum Arabic, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1-1/4 pint;
dissolve, and use it as the last. General Lomet uses a similar mixture to
work up the softest varieties of hematite, with which he thus forms
superior red crayon.

5. (Process of the Brothers Joel, of Paris.) Shell-lac, 3 parts; spirit of
wine, 4 parts; oil of turpentine, 2 parts; dissolve, add pure clay, 6
parts; colouring matter, q. s.; form the mass into crayons, and dry them
by a stove heat.

6. Pale shell-lac, 5 parts; wood naphtha, 12 parts; dissolve, and with
this fluid mix up the colouring powder, previously stirred up with an
equal weight of fine pale-blue clay; dry by a stove heat, as before. When
this process is well managed, it produces crayons equal to those of the
best Parisian houses.

_Obs._ The composition may be formed into crayons by simply rolling it on
a slab; but to ensure their solidity the manufacturers generally employ a
metallic cylinder of 2 or 3 inches in diameter, with one end open and the
other firmly secured to a perforated plate, having holes of the same size
as the intended crayons. The crayon composition, in the state of a stiff
paste or dough, is introduced into the open end, and is forced down and
through the holes, by means of a small plug or piston, that exactly fits
the inside of the cylinder, and which is driven by the equable motion of a
small screw. The pieces that pass through the holes are then cut into
lengths and dried.

The substances employed as colouring matters for crayons are very
numerous, and their choice offers a wide field for the skill and fancy of
the artist. The pigment having been selected, it may be reduced to any
shade or tint by admixture with other pigments, and by ‘dilution’ with a
proper quantity of elutriated or prepared chalk. As, however, crayon
colours do not admit of being mixed together at the time of using them,
like liquid colours, it is usual to make 3 to 6 different shades of each
colour, so as to enable the artist at once to produce any effect he
chooses.

CRAYONS, BLACK. From prepared black-lead, ivory-black, lamp-black, &c.
Black chalk and charcoal are frequently made into crayons by simply sawing
them into suitably sized pieces. They may then be put into a pipkin of
melted wax, and allowed to macerate for an hour; after which they should
be taken out, drained, and laid on a piece of blotting paper to dry.
Drawings made with these crayons are very permanent, and if warmed
slightly on the wrong side, the lines will adhere, and become almost as
durable as ink.

CRAYONS, BLUE. From indigo, smalts, Prussian blue, verditer, &c.

CRAYONS, BROWN. From umber (raw and burnt), terra di Sienna (raw and
burnt), Cullen’s earth, brown ochre, &c.; and some peculiar shades, from a
mixture of black, carmine, and either of the above colours.

CRAYONS, GREEN. From a mixture of king’s yellow, or yellow ochre, with
blues.

CRAYONS, PURPLE. From any of the more brilliant blues, mixed with carmine,
lake, or vermilion.

CRAYONS, RED. From carmine, carminated lakes, vermilion, hematite, and any
of the earthy or mineral colours commonly used as pigments. Crayons of red
chalk may be prepared in the manner pointed out for crayons of black
chalk.

CRAYONS, WHITE. From pure clay and chalk.

CRAYONS, YELLOW. From king’s yellow, Naples yellow, orpiment, yellow
ochre, &c.

=Crayons, Lithograph′ic.= _Prep._ 1. Tallow-soap, 7 parts; white wax, 6
parts; melt by a gentle heat, and add lamp-black, 1 part; keep it melted
with constant stirring, for 20 or 30 minutes, then let it cool a little,
and cast it into moulds.

2. White wax, 4 parts; shell-lac and hard tallow-soap, of each 2 parts;
lamp-black, 1 part; as last.

3. Spermaceti, white wax, and hard tallow-soap, of each equal parts;
lamp-black, q. s. to colour.

_Obs._ Some makers melt the soap, wax, and lamp-black in an iron ladle,
over a brisk fire, and allow the mixture to blaze for a few seconds before
adding the shell-lac, which is no sooner thoroughly incorporated than the
heat is increased until the mass again kindles, when it is at once removed
from the fire and stirred until it is cool enough to be poured into the
moulds. This method leads to trouble and loss, without any corresponding
advantage. These crayons are used to draw designs upon lithographic
stones.

=Crayons for Writing on Glass.= _Prep._ 1. From French chalk, cut into
suitable pieces. Marks made with these crayons, when obscured or rubbed
out, may be several times revived by simply breathing on the glass.

2. (Brunquelle.) Spermaceti, 4 parts, tallow, 3 parts, wax, 2 parts, are
melted together in a cup; and red lead, 6 parts, and carbonate of potassa
(in fine powder), 1 part, stirred in; the mass is kept melted and stirred
for about half an hour longer, then poured into glass moulds (tubes) of
the thickness of a common pencil, and cooled as rapidly as possible. The
mass may be screwed up and down in the tube, and cut to a point with a
knife. A crayon is thus obtained which will readily write upon clean, dry
glass.

=CREAM.= _Syn._ CREM′OR, C. LAC′TIS, FLOS LAC′TIS, L. The oleaginous
portion of milk, which collects in a thin stratum upon the surface, when
that fluid is left undisturbed for some time. By violent agitation, as in
the process of churning, the fatty globules unite together, forming
butter; whilst the liquid portion, consisting of caseum, serum, and a
little butter, constituting the residuum, is called butter-milk. This
separation is effected the most readily when the cream has become
partially sour and coagulated by being kept a few days, a change which
occurs in consequence of the conversion of some of the sugar of the serum
into lactic acid, which precipitates the caseous matter contained in the
small portion of the milk with which the cream is mixed. On these simple
facts chiefly depend the successful manufacture of butter. The cream
intended for churning should therefore be kept until it turns slightly
sour, and assumes the condition above referred to, as then the butter will
readily ‘come.’ If churned while quite sweet the operation will be
tedious, and will frequently fail. When this happens the dairy maids
declare the milk is ‘charmed’ or ‘bewitched,’ and reluctantly proceed with
the operation. The addition of a little rennet or vinegar is the proper
remedy in this case, and will cause the almost immediate separation of the
butter.

When cream is suspended in a linen bag, and allowed to drain, it gradually
becomes drier and harder, by the separation of the liquid portion, and
then forms what is known by the name of cream cheese. By the application
of slight pressure the separation of the whey is more completely effected,
and the product is not only better, but will keep longer.

_Qual._ Cream, in a dietetic point of view, may be regarded in the same
light as butter, as it is converted into butter in the process of
digestion. On this account much cream should never be taken at once by
persons of delicate stomachs. In eating cream with fruit persons are
hardly aware of the large quantity they consume, until they find it
disagree with the stomach, when the condiment is blamed for the
indiscretion of those who take it.

Mr Wanklyn gives the following as the composition of six different samples
of cream:——

                   1.      2.     3.      4.      5.     6.

  Water          72·20   71·2   66·36   60·17   53·62  50·00
  Fat            19·00   14·1   18·87   33·02   38·17  43·90
  Milk, Sugar,}
    Casein,   }   8·80   14·7   14·77    6·81    8·21   6·10
    and Ash.  }

A quart of good cream generally yields from 13 oz. to 15 oz. of commercial
butter.

Mr Blyth says: “The analysis of cream is conducted on exactly the same
principle as that of milk; but the cream must be weighed, not measured;
and smaller quantities may be evaporated to dryness in order to estimate
the water, if the ratio of water to the solids not fat is such that
adulteration may be suspected; for this ratio, although occasionally
disturbed by some of the casein rising with the fat, is practically the
same as in milk.” Mineral adulterations, such as carbonate of magnesia,
will be detected, if present, in the ash. See MILK, BUTTER, &c.

=Cream, Al′mond.= _Prep._ From sweet almonds, 2 oz.; bitter almonds, 4 in
no.; blanched and beaten in a mortar to a smooth paste, adding a
teaspoonful of water to prevent oiling; and afterwards a pint of cream,
and enough powdered lump sugar to sweeten; the whole is then whisked to a
froth, the glasses filled with the liquor, and some of the froth placed on
the top of each. Some persons add the juice of a lemon.

=Cream, Bran′dy.= _Prep._ To the last add the yolks of 6 eggs; heat it
gently over the fire until it thickens, keeping it well stirred, then
farther add two or three glassfuls of brandy, and pour it into small cups
or shallow glasses.

=Cream, Burnt.= _Prep._ Cream, 1 quart; cassia, a small stick; peel of
half a lemon; boil for 5 minutes, cool a little, take out the spice, and
add the yolks of 9 eggs, and sugar, q. s. to sweeten; stir until cold, put
it into a dish, strew pounded sugar over it, and bake it until brown.

=Cream, Choc′olate.= _Prep._ Chocolate, scraped fine, 1 oz.; thick cream,
1 quart; sugar (best), 6 oz.; heat it nearly to boiling, then remove it
from the fire, and mix it well; when cold, add the whites of 8 or 10 eggs;
whisk rapidly, and take up the froth on a sieve; serve the cream in
glasses, and pile up the froth on the top of them.

=Cream, Cof′fee.= _Prep._ 1. As the last, omitting the chocolate, and
using a pint of the strongest made coffee.

2. Add a teacupful of very clear, concentrated, made coffee to 1 pint each
of clarified calf’s feet jelly and good cream; sweeten with lump sugar,
give it one boil up, and pour it into shapes or glasses when nearly cold.

=Cream, Cold.= See COSMETIC, CERATE and GRANULATED CREAM (_below_).

=Cream, Costorph′in.= After a village near Edinburgh, where it is commonly
made. _Prep._ The milk of 3 or 4 consecutive days, together with the
cream, are allowed to remain until sour and coagulated; the whey is then
drawn off, and fresh cream added. It is eaten with sugar and fruit,
especially with strawberries and raspberries.

=Cream, Dev′onshire.= _Prep._ 1. (DEVONSHIRE RAW CREAM.) From sour cream
mixed with an equal quantity of fresh cream, and sweetened with sugar.
Eaten with fruit.

2. (DEVONSHIRE SCALDED CREAM, D. CLOUTED C.) The milk of yesterday is set
in a polished, shallow, brass pan, over a clear fire free from smoke, and
gradually heated until very hot, care being taken not to let it boil; when
the undulations on the surface look thick, and form a ring round the top
of the fluid, the size of the bottom of the pan, it is removed from the
fire and allowed to cool; the next day it is skimmed off for sale. Used
with either tea or coffee, and excellent with both; it is also eaten with
sugar and fruit, and is made into butter. See CREAM (_above_).

=Cream, D’Illotte’s.= _Syn._ CRYSTALLISED CREAM, VEGETABLE C. The
ingenious manufacturer whose anagrammatic powers have converted his
patronym of Elliott into one less familiar to vulgar English ears,
prepares this really elegant hair cosmetic as follows:——Oil of almonds, 3
oz., and spermaceti, 1/2 oz., are melted together; and bergamot, neroli,
and verbena, of each 5 drops, and huile au jasmin, 10 drops, are then
stirred in, and the mixture is at once poured into small, wide-mouthed
bottles, to crystallise. If preferred harder, 1/2 dr. more spermaceti may
be used, but the precise quantity to produce the best crystalline
appearance depends greatly on the season of the year, more being required
in winter than in summer.

=Cream, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ MOCK CREAM. _Prep._ 1. Beat 3 eggs, with 2
oz. of sugar, and a small piece of butter, until the combination is
complete; then add warm milk, 1 pint; put the vessel into another
containing hot water, and stir it one way until it acquires the
consistence of cream.

2. Arrowroot, 1 spoonful; wet it with a little cold milk, then add,
gradually, boiling milk, 1/4 pint; mix well, and further add, of fresh
butter, 1 oz.; sugar, 1-1/2 oz.; cold milk, 3/4 pint; and continue
stirring until the whole is quite cold.

=Cream, Ice.= See ICE.

=Cream, Fruit.= _Prep._ From pulped or preserved fruit, 1 lb.; cream, or
good raw milk, 1 quart; sugar q. s.; boil for 1 minute; cool, and add a
glassful of brandy. A froth is raised on these creams with a chocolate
mill. It is taken off and placed on a hair sieve, and some of it, after
the glasses are filled with the cream, placed on the top of each. The
expressed juice of raspberries, of currants, and several other kinds of
fruit, also make delicious creams. In winter, raspberry jelly, jam, or
syrup may be used. A glass of good brandy improves these creams.

=Cream, Fur′niture.= See POLISH.

=Cream, Gran′ulated.= _Syn._ GRANULATED COLD CREAM. _Prep._ (Owen.) Almond
oil, 6 oz., white wax and spermaceti, of each 2 oz., are melted together,
and a little otto of roses added; the liquor is then poured into a large
Wedgwood-ware or marble mortar, previously warmed, and containing 1-1/2 to
2 pints of warm water; brisk agitation with the pestle is then had
recourse to, until the oleaginous portion is well divided, when the whole
is suddenly thrown into a vessel containing a gallon or two of clean cold
water; lastly, the granulated cream is thrown on a muslin filter; and as
much water as possible is shaken (gently) out of it; after which it is put
up for use.

=Cream, Lem′on.= _Prep._ From cream, 1 pint; yolks of 3 eggs; powdered
sugar, 6 oz.; the yellow rind of 1 lemon (grated), with the juice; mix,
apply a gentle heat, and stir until cold. If desired white, the whites of
the eggs should be used instead of the yolks.

=Cream, Or′ange.= Similar to lemon cream, but using oranges.

=Cream, Pis′′tachio.= From the kernels of pistachio nuts, as almond cream.

=Cream, Rasp′berry.= See CREAM, FRUIT.

=Cream, Sat′urnine.= _Syn._ CREM′OR PLUM′BI ACETA′TIS, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Kirkland.) Cream, 1 oz.; solution of diacetate of lead, 1 dr.; mix.
Cooling, sedative, and astringent; a useful application in certain cases
to irritable ulcers, sore nipples, &c. It is poisonous.

=Cream, Scotch Sour.= _Prep._ (Gray.) Skimmed milk is put over night into
a wooden tub, with a spigot at the bottom, and this tub is put into
another filled with hot water; in the morning the small tub is taken out
and the thin part of the milk (‘wigg’) drawn off until the thick, sour
cream begins to come. This process requires practice as to the heat of the
water; when it succeeds, skimmed milk yields nearly one half of this
cream, which is eaten with sugar as a delicacy; it is only distinguishable
from cream by its taste, and sells for double the price of fresh milk.

=Cream, Stone.= _Syn._ CREAM BLANCMANGE. _Prep._ From isinglass, 1/2 oz.,
dissolved in boiling water, a teacupful, adding cream, 1 pint, and sugar,
4 oz.; stirred until nearly cold, and then poured over fruit or preserves,
placed on the bottom of glass dishes.

=Cream, Tarax′acum.= _Syn._ CREM′OR TARAX′ACI, L. _Prep._ (Dr Collier.)
From washed dandelion roots (sliced), sprinkled with spirit of juniper,
and then pressed for their juice.——_Dose._ A table-spoonful twice or
thrice daily, as a stomachic and tonic, in dyspepsia, &c.

=Cream, Vanil′la.= _Prep._ 1. Boil a stick of vanilla (grated), and
isinglass, 1/2 oz., in milk, 1 pint, until the latter is dissolved;
strain, add sugar, 6 oz., and cream, 1 pint; stir till nearly cold, then
pour it into moulds like blancmange.

2. Cream and strong isinglass jelly, of each 1 pint; sugar, 6 oz.; essence
of vanilla, 1/4 oz.; mix as before.

=Cream, Vel′vet.= _Prep._ As the last, but, instead of vanilla, flavour
with the rind and juice of a lemon, and about a teacupful of white wine.

=Cream, Whipped′.= _Prep._ From the whites of 12 eggs; cream, 1 quart;
pale sherry, 1/2 pint; essence of musk and ambergris, of each, 10 drops;
essences of lemon and orange peel, of each, 3 or 4 drops; whisk to a
froth, remove the latter on to a sieve, fill the glasses with the cream,
and then pile the froth on the top of them.

=CRE′ASOTE.= See KREASOTE.

=CRE′ATINE.= See KREATINE.

=CREAT′ININE.= See KREATININE.

=CRÉME.= [Fr.] _Syn._ CREAM. This name is applied to several compound
spirits and cordial liquors, especially by the French liqueuristes, who
pride themselves on the superior quality and cream-like smoothness of
their manufactures. Like the cordials of the English, they are mostly
dilute spirit, aromatised, and sweetened. See LIQUEURS.

=CREME DE BEAUTÉ.= A cosmetic consisting of an emulsion of bitter and
sweet almonds.

=CREN′IC ACID.= A brown substance discovered by Berzelius in certain
mineral waters. It is a modification of HUMUS, and is produced by the
decay of vegetable matter.

=CRESYLIC ACID.= C_{7}H_{8}O. _Syn._ CRESOL, KRESYLIC ACID, KRESOL. One of
the homologues of carbolic acid, found in coal tar. Cresylic, like
carbolic acid, is a useful disinfectant.

=CRIB-BITING.=——The use of deal or any unseasoned wood for the manger may
induce this habit in horses. To remedy it the stable fittings should be of
iron. As the habit very frequently arises from acidity of stomach in
horses, the administration of chalk or other antacids has been
recommended.

=CRICK′ETS.= These insects may be destroyed by putting Scotch snuff into
their holes, or by placing some pieces of beetle wafers for them to eat.

=CRINUM ASIATICUM.= (Ind. Ph.) _Habitat._ Low humid localities in Bengal,
the Concans, and other parts of India; also cultivated in gardens; Ceylon,
the Moluccas, and Cochin China.——_Officinal part._ The fresh root (_Crini
Radix_); bulbous, with a terminal stoloniferous fusiform portion
issuing from the crown of the bulb; emits an unpleasant narcotic
odour; readily dried in a stove, and reducible to powder after
desiccation.——_Properties._ Emetic; in small doses nauseant and
diaphoretic.——_Therapeutic uses._ Analogous to those of squill.

=Juice of Crinum= (_Succus Crini_; _Infusum Crini_, Beng. Ph.). Take of
the fresh root of crinum, 1/2 an ounce; cold water, 2 ounces. Bruise the
root in a stone mortar, gradually adding the water. Strain, with pressure,
through calico.——_Dose._ From 2 to 4 fluid drachms, every twenty minutes,
until the desired effect is produced.

=Syrup of Crinum= (_Syrupus Crini_). Take of the fresh root of crinum,
sliced, 8 ounces; boiling water, 1 pint; refined sugar, 1 pound. Macerate
the root in the water for two hours, bruise in a mortar, press through
calico, add the sugar, and dissolve with the aid of gentle heat.——_Dose._
About 2 fluid drachms, repeated as required. Used as a nauseant and emetic
for children.

=CROTON CHLORAL.= _Syn._ BUTYL CHLORAL. A colourless oleaginous liquid,
having an odour somewhat like that of ordinary chloral; insoluble in
water. Croton chloral may be prepared by the process of Krämer and Pinner,
who were the first to obtain it. A current of chlorine gas is passed into
aldehyd during twenty-four hours. At the commencement of the operation the
action is very energetic; so much so that it is necessary to surround the
vessel containing the aldehyd with a refrigerating mixture, and it is only
towards the end that the temperature is raised to 100° C. Large quantities
of hydrochloric acid are generated during all the time the chlorine is
acting on the aldehyd. The resulting product is submitted to fractional
distillation, and the liquid passing over between 163° and 165° C. is
croton chloral. Croton chloral is the hydride of trichlorcrotonyl
(C_{4}H_{2}Cl_{3}OH), or the aldehyd of crotonic acid (C_{4}H_{5}OOH) in
the radical of which three atoms of hydrogen have been replaced by three
atoms of chlorine. Like ordinary chloral, croton chloral combines with
water to form a crystallised hydrate which is the substance used in
medicine. Croton chloral hydrate occurs in white nacreous spangles. It is
very slightly soluble in cold water, more so in warm, and extremely
soluble in alcohol. A convenient solvent for it is glycerin, in which it
dissolves much more easily than in water. The dose of the hydrate as a
hypnotic is from 8 to 15 grains, for neuralgia 5 grains are given three
times a day. Dr Liebreich, who first introduced croton chloral to the
notice of the medical profession, says he has failed to discover that it
exercises any hurtful effects on the stomach and other organs. On the
contrary, Dr Worms asserts that he finds it not so generally tolerated as
ordinary chloral, and Gay affirms that it is more uncertain in its
narcotic effects.

=CRO′TON OIL.= _Syn._ OLEUM CROTO′NIS (B. P.), O. TIGLII (Ph. L. & D.), L.
The “oil expressed from the seeds of Croton tiglium” or purging croton.
This oil is a drastic purgative, and a powerful local irritant and
rubefacient. Rubbed on the skin, it produces a pustular eruption, and
frequently purges. In this way (diluted with thrice its weight of olive
oil) it is occasionally used as a counter-irritant.——_Dose_ (as a purge),
1 to 2 drops; in obstinate constipation, lead colic, &c.

The residuum from which the oil has been expressed is sometimes used in
veterinary practice under the name of croton cake, or croton farina; but
as the amount of oil it contains varies greatly, it is irregular and
uncertain in its effects.

=CROUP.= _Syn._ CYNAN′CHE LARYN′′GEA, C. SUFFOCA′TIVA, C. TRACHEA′LIS, L.
An inflammatory disease affecting the larynx and trachea.

_Symp._ A permanently laborious and suffocative breathing, accompanied by
wheezing, cough, a peculiar shrillness of the voice, and more or less
expectoration of purulent matter, which continually threatens suffocation.
There are two varieties, acute croup and chronic croup. The latter is very
rare.

_Treat._ Bleeding by leeches or cupping, over the region of the trachea,
should be immediately had recourse to, when the symptoms are urgent; or
violent local irritants, as pieces of lint dipped in strong acetic acid,
or blisters, may be applied to the same part. In weakly subjects of
irritable constitution bleeding should be avoided. Dr Larroque recommends
repeated vomiting in the croup of children; and M. Marotte and M. Boudet
have adopted this plan with great success. The treatment consists in
making the patient attacked with croup vomit a great number of times
within the day, so as to detach the pseudo-membrane from the larynx nearly
as fast as it is formed. For this purpose M. Marotte employs one or other
of the following formulæ:——

1. Tartar emetic, 1-1/2 gr.; syrup of ipecacuanha, 1 oz.; water, 2 oz.

2. Impure emetine, 3 gr.; syrup of ipecacuanha and water, of each 1-1/2
oz.

These draughts are administered by spoonfuls every ten minutes, until
there has been a sufficient number of vomitings. In this manner he says he
has been always able to make the patient expectorate a certain quantity of
false membrane. This treatment is accompanied by the use of small doses of
calomel, leeches to the throat, and blisters to the nape of the neck; but
it is the opinion of M. Marotte that the vomitings alone effect the cure.
Out of 25 cases that occurred at the Hôpital des Enfans[Enfants], the only
authenticated case of cure among all these was effected by emetics. (M.
Boudet.)

The croup is a very dangerous disease, and medical aid should be
immediately sought wherever it can be procured. It is principally confined
to infancy, or to children under 9 years of age; but occasionally attacks
adults. One of our early friends, a young medical practitioner of great
promise, died of it prematurely, after only about 20 hours’ illness.

=CROWDIE.= Mix the liquor in which a leg of mutton has been boiled with
half a pint of oatmeal, and two onions cut very fine; and add pepper and
salt. Make the oatmeal into a paste with a little of the liquor over the
fire, stir in the remainder of the ingredients, and let them boil gently
for twenty minutes. This forms a very nutritious and cheap dish.

=CROWING, IN CHILDREN.= _Syn._ CHILDCROWING. SPURIOUS CROUP. SPASMODIC
CROUP. This very formidable disorder almost always occurs during teething.
It comes on in paroxysms. In the intervals between the spasms the
respiration is quite natural; but during the attack there is great
difficulty of breathing accompanied with a crowing noise, and with violent
struggling on the part of the little sufferer. Convulsions and faintness
also sometimes occur. In his ‘Advice to a Mother’ Mr Chavasse prescribes
the following treatment:——

“The first thing, of course, to be done is to send immediately for a
medical man. Have a plentiful supply of cold and hot water always at hand,
ready for use at a moment’s notice. The instant the paroxysm is on the
child, plentifully and perseveringly dash cold water upon his head and
face. Put his feet and legs in hot salt-mustard-and-water, and if
necessary place the child up to his neck in a hot bath, still dashing
water upon his face and head. If he does not quickly come round, sharply
smack the back and buttocks. As soon as a medical man arrives, he will
lose no time in thoroughly lancing the gums, and in applying appropriate
remedies. During the intervals, great care and attention must be paid to
the diet. If the child be breathing a smoky, close atmosphere, he should
be immediately removed to a pure one. Indeed in this disease there is no
remedy equal to a change of air——to a dry bracing neighbourhood. Even if
it be winter, change of air is the best remedy, either to the coast or to
a healthy farmhouse. In a case of this kind where it is not practicable to
send a child from home, then let him be sent out of doors during the
greater part of every day; let him, in point of fact, almost live in the
open air. I am quite sure from an extensive experience that, in this
disease, _fresh air, and plenty of it, is the best and principal remedy_.”

=CRU′CIBLE.= _Syn._ MELTING POT; CRUCIBULUM, L.; CREUSET, Fr. A vessel
used by metallurgists and chemists for holding substances whilst they are
exposed to a high temperature. The crucibles commonly used for fusing
metals are formed of clay, or a mixture of plumbago and clay. For certain
purposes, crucibles of platinum, gold, silver, iron, porcelain, and lime,
are employed.

=Crucibles, Earth′en.= _Syn._ CLAY CRUCIBLES. From fire-clay, mixed with
silica, coke, burnt clay, or other infusible matter.

_Manuf._ The materials, having been ground and kneaded, are generally
moulded by hand upon a wooden block of the shape of the cavity of the
crucible. Another method of shaping a crucible consists in ramming the
ingredients into a suitable mould, formed of steel or gun-metal. (See
_engr._)

[Illustration:

_a a._ External steel mould.

_b b,_ Clay or composition for forming the crucible.

_c,_ Internal steel mould.

_d d,_ Wooden stand.

_e,_ Cord or chain to withdraw the internal mould or plug.]

Small crucibles are sometimes formed by pouring ‘slip,’ that is, clay
mixed with sufficient water to give it the consistence of cream, into
porous moulds, made of a species of stucco. A series of these moulds are
placed upon a table and filled with the semifluid composition. By the time
the whole (say 50 or 60) are filled, the ‘slip’ may be poured out of the
one first filled, leaving only a very small quantity behind to give the
requisite thickness to the bottom. The second and third may then be
treated in the same way, until the whole number have been attended to. In
each mould a perfect crucible is formed, by the abstraction of the water
of that portion of the ‘slip’ in immediate contact with the stucco, and
the crucible is either thicker or thinner in proportion to the time this
absorbent action has been allowed to go on. 70 or 80 crucibles may thus
be easily made in less than 15 minutes. The moulds and their contents are
next placed in a stove or slow oven. In a short time, from the contraction
of the clay in drying, the crucibles may be removed, and the moulds, as
soon as they have become dry, may be again filled; by care they will last
for years.

Earthen crucibles are used both in the burnt and unburnt state. Small
crucibles are generally kiln-burnt before they are used, but the large
Stourbridge clay ‘casting-pots,’ which are extensively employed in brass
foundries, are never previously burnt.

The following kinds of earthen crucibles are much used in the arts:——

=Crucibles, Cornish.= From Teignmouth clay, 1 part; Poole clay, 1 part;
sand from St. Agnes’s Beacon, Cornwall, 2 parts. When smaller and less
refractory crucibles are needed, the same mixture is employed, with the
addition of an eighth part of China clay, or Kaolinite from St. Austell.
These crucibles are generally made round, and of two sizes, of which one
fits into the other; the larger being 3 inches in diameter at the top, and
3-1/2 inches high outside measure. They are coarse in grain, and of a
greyish-white colour, spotted with dark specks. They are always
kiln-burnt. Of all crucibles, none are more generally useful for
metallurgical experiments.

=Crucibles, Hessian.= From a mixture of equal weights of Almerode clay and
sand. They are generally triangular in shape, so that the melted metal may
be conveniently poured out from each corner. They are usually sold in
‘nests’ of six crucibles, fitting one in another. In the character of
their body, and in composition and qualities, they closely resemble the
Cornish.

=Crucibles, London.= From a very refractory clay. They have a
reddish-brown colour, and are close in grain. They are exceedingly useful
in assaying, as they resist the action of fused oxide of lead much better
than most clay crucibles. Being very liable to crack, they require to be
used with care.

WHITE FLUXING-POTS. From a peculiar kind of foreign clay. They are
manufactured by the Patent Plumbago Crucible Company, and are much
esteemed by metallurgists, being well moulded and very refractory. They
have a smooth surface, and withstand the action of fluxes satisfactorily.

=Crucibles, Stourbridge-clay.= From Stourbridge clay, 4 parts; burnt clay,
obtained by pounding and grinding old glass pots, 2 parts; pipe-clay and
coke-powder, of each 1 part.

Anstey’s Patent. From Stourbridge clay, 2 parts; hard gas-coke (previously
ground and sifted through a sieve of 1/8th-inch mesh), 1 part.

_Obs._ These crucibles of Stourbridge clay are made large enough to hold
forty pounds or more of melted brass. They are only dried, and not baked.
For use they are warmed, placed on the furnace, bottom upwards, the
burning coke gradually heaped round them, and the firing continued until
they acquire a fully red heat. They are then quickly taken out of the
furnace, and put in again with the mouth upwards. If placed in the furnace
with the mouth upwards at first, they are sure to crack. After they have
been once used and allowed to become cold they are worthless.

=Crucibles, Plat′inum.= These are indispensable instruments in the
laboratory of the analytical chemist. They are chiefly employed in the
ignition of precipitates, and in the fusion of silicates with carbonated
alkalies to render them soluble, a preliminary step to their analysis. The
most ordinary form of the platinum crucible is that of a cup with a flat
bottom. They are always provided with lids, which are sometimes so
constructed that they may be used, when separated from the crucibles, as
capsules for ignitions and evaporations. Platinum crucibles are not acted
on by carbonated alkalies at a high temperature, but they are liable to be
seriously damaged by the caustic alkalies. Precipitates of the more
reducible metals must never be ignited in these crucibles, as the
reduction of the metals would infallibly destroy the vessels.

=Crucibles, Gold=, are exceedingly useful for many operations, on account
of the way which they stand caustic and carbonated alkalies, and nitric
acid, which destroy platinum or silver crucibles respectively. Their
drawbacks are their great expense and ready fusibility.

=Crucibles, Silver.= These are much used for fusions of alkalies, being
much less acted on than platinum crucibles, and also for water analyses,
from their cheapness and light weight. They are easily destroyed, however,
by acids.

=Crucibles, Plumba′go.= _Syn._ GRAPHITE C., BLACKLEAD C., BLUE POTS. From
graphite, ground and sifted, mixed with sufficient refractory clay to
render it plastic. They are shaped by hand on an ordinary potter’s wheel,
or by moulds of metal like that figured above under the head of CRUCIBLES,
EARTHEN.

_Prop., &c._ Good blacklead crucibles, even when of the largest size,
support the greatest and most sudden alternations of temperature without
cracking, and may be used after repeated heating and cooling. Their
surface, within as well as without, may be made very smooth, so that
particles of melted metal will not hang about the sides. They are now
almost universally used for melting the precious metals.

=Crucibles, Por′celain.= These beautiful vessels are now made in Germany
and France of all shapes and sizes. They are formed of the most
exquisitely white, thin, and hard porcelain, which does not crack when
heated, and which is but little acted on by the most energetic chemical
reagents. For some operations they supersede platinum crucibles,
particularly in the ignition of the precipitates of the more reducible
metals. They do not retain colouring matter, and are not porous. Their
covers are excellently adapted for delicate cases of testing, the
whiteness of the porcelain showing the changes of colour in a single drop
of liquid most distinctly.

=Crucibles, Iron.= Used chiefly for preparing common reagents, as sulphide
of iron, calcic chloride, &c., and also for preparing pure caustic potassa
from the nitrate.

=CRUMP′ET.= A sort of muffin or tea-cake, very light and spongy. _Prep._
From flour, 2 lbs., made into a dough with warm milk-and-water, adding a
little salt, 3 eggs (well beaten), and 3 teaspoonfuls of yeast, mixed to
the consistence of thick batter; after standing before the fire for a
short time, to rise, it is poured into buttered tins, and baked slowly to
a fine yellow. For the table, crumpets are toasted lightly on both sides,
buttered, piled on a hot dish, and cut into halves.

=CRUST.= The paste with which pies, tarts, &c., are made, or covered.

1. (FINE.) From flour, 1 lb.; sugar, 1/4 lb.; melted butter, 1/2 lb.; 3
eggs; milk, q. s. Requires little baking.

2. (RAISED CRUST, FOR MEAT PIES, &C.) As the last, but using 6 oz. of lard
for the butter, and 2 instead of 3 eggs.

3. (SHORT.) From flour, 1 lb.; butter and sugar, of each 2 oz.; eggs, 2 in
no.; made into a stiff paste.

_Obs._ The quality is improved if the whole or a portion of the butter is
employed in the way directed under PUFF PASTE. For further information
hereon, consult the cookery books of Acton, Beeton, Rundell, and Soyer.

=CRY′OLITE= (3NaF_{1}AlF_{3}). A native double fluoride of aluminium and
sodium, found in large quantities in Greenland, employed in the
manufacture of alum, and also as a source of metallic aluminium.

=CRYOPH′ORUS.= See REFRIGERATION.

=CRYS′TAL.= A solid body, having a regular geometrical form. The plane
surfaces by which a crystal is bounded are termed faces; these intersect
in straight lines or edges; and these again meet in points, and form
angles. The axis of a crystal is an imaginary line passing through its
centre, and terminating either in the middle of two faces or of two edges,
or in two angles; and axes terminating in similar parts of a crystal are
named similar axes. When the axes of a crystal are properly chosen, and
placed in a right position, the various faces are observed to group
themselves in a regular and beautiful manner around these axes, and to be
all so related to them as to compose a connected series, produced
according to definite laws. The multitudinous forms of crystals have been
distributed by mineralogists and chemists into six primary classes or
systems, distinguishable from one another by the relative positions and
lengths of the three axes about which the planes or faces are arranged;
while the different figures of any particular system are distinguishable
by the arrangement of the planes in respect to the axes. Thus, the cube or
hexahedron, the rhombic dodecahedron, and the octahedron all belong to the
regular system, which is characterised by 3 equal axes cutting one another
at right angles. But in the cube each plane cuts 1 axis, and is parallel
to 2 axes; in the dodecahedron each plane cuts 2 axes, and is parallel to
a third; while in the octahedron each plane cuts the 3 axes. The names and
definitions of the six crystalline systems are given below:——

  1. REGULAR SYSTEM.       { The 3 axes equal
                           { and rectangular.
  2. SQUARE PRISMATIC S.   }
       2 equal axes.       } The 3 axes unequal,
  3. RIGHT PRISMATIC S.    } and rectangular.
       All unequal.        }
  4. RHOMBOHEDRAL S.       { The 3 axes equal,
                           { but not rectangular.
  5. OBLIQUE PRISMATIC S.       } The 3 axes not
       1 axis rectangular to 2. } equal, and not
  6. DOUBLY O.P.S.              } rectangular.
       None rectangular.        }

=CRYSTALLISATION.= The act or process by which crystals are formed. The
frequent reference to this subject in the pages of this work, and the
constant employment of the process of crystallisation in the manufacture
of salts, &c., in the laboratory, seem to point out the necessity of a few
explanatory remarks thereon under this head. When fluid substances are
suffered to pass with adequate slowness to the solid state, or when
solutions of solids are slowly concentrated by evaporation, or the solvent
powers of the menstruum, gradually lessened by cooling, the ultimate
particles of matter frequently so arrange themselves as to form regular
geometrical bodies, familiarly known by the name of crystals. This
wonderful property, which is possessed by a great variety of substances in
the mineral kingdom, and by nearly all saline bodies, is resorted to for
many useful and important purposes in the chemical arts. It is by means of
crystallisation that the majority of salts are obtained in a state of
purity; for in the act of passing into the crystalline state, the foreign
substances with which they are united are left behind in the
mother-liquor.

Salts are crystallised, either by allowing their hot and saturated
solutions to cool slowly, or by simply evaporating the menstrua as long as
crystals form. In the first case the liquid is commonly evaporated until a
pellicle appears on the surface, when the vessel is set aside in some
sheltered situation until cold, at which time the crystals are collected,
and the process repeated for fresh crystals. In the second case the
crystals are usually removed from the liquid as soon as they are
deposited. The first method is adopted for those salts that are
considerably more soluble in hot than in cold water, as carbonate of
soda, Epsom salts, &c.; the last method, for those that possess nearly
equal solubility in both cases, and also for many salts which are not
required in handsome crystals; thus common salt and chromate of potash are
crystallised in this way. Many of the alkaloids, and their salts, are
obtained in crystals, by allowing their solutions (generally alcoholic or
ethereal) to evaporate spontaneously. By repeating the processes of
solution and crystallisation two or three times with the same body, the
crystals obtained by the last operation will usually be found to be quite
pure.

Many solids may be readily obtained in a crystalline state by melting them
and allowing them to cool very slowly. Thus, iodide of sulphur is
crystallised by melting it in a flask placed in a salt-water bath, and
allowing it to remain in the water until the whole becomes cold. Sulphur
and many metals are crystallised by pouring them, in a state of fusion,
into a hot vessel having a plug in the bottom, which is withdrawn as soon
as the surface becomes cool, when the liquid portion runs out, and leaves
the under surface in the form of a mass of agglomerated crystals.
Perfectly pure wax, stearine, and spermaceti have a very pleasing
appearance when treated in this way.

=CRYS′TALLOID.= See DIALYSIS.

=CU′BEBIN.= A peculiar substance obtained from cubebs.

_Prep._ From cubebs (from which the oil has been expelled by
distillation), by digestion in alcohol, evaporating the resulting tincture
to one fourth, filtering, and then evaporating the remaining fluid almost
to dryness. The residuum is left in a cold place until it assumes a
semi-crystalline appearance, when it is thrown on a filter, and the fluid
portion (the ‘cubebine’ of M. Cassola) allowed to drain off. In 24 hours
the substance left on the filter is dissolved in 4 times its weight of
boiling alcohol (sp. gr. ·90), the solution allowed to deposit its
undissolved resin (still maintaining it near the boiling temperature),
after which the clear portion is decanted. The crystals deposited as the
liquid cools are cubebin. It is purified by redissolving it in boiling
concentrated alcohol, and the addition of a little boiling water and
animal charcoal, when long, white needles will be deposited if the
solution is allowed to cool very slowly.

_Prop., &c._ It is insoluble in water, and nearly so in cold alcohol, but
very soluble in boiling alcohol. It strikes a fine crimson colour with
sulphuric acid, which remains unaltered for some hours; a property which
distinguishes it from piperin. Its physiological action has been but
little studied. According to Dr Görres, this for the most part resembles
that of cubebs.

=CU′BEBS.= _Syn._ CUBEB PEPPER; CUBEBA (B. P. & U. S.), CUBEBÆ (B. P.), L.
The immature and stalked fruit of _Piper cubeba_ or _Cubeba officinalis_.
Cubebs are stimulant, stomachic, and aromatic, like the other peppers;
they are also diuretic, and appear to possess a specific influence over
the urino-genital organs.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr., in affections of the
bladder and prostate gland, and in gleet and leucorrhœa; 1 to 3 dr., in
the early and inflammatory stages of gonorrhœa, in piles, &c. They may be
taken in water, milk, or bitter ale.

=CU′CUMBER.= The fruit of the _Cucumis sativus_ (Linn.). Used as a salad
vegetable. It is somewhat indigestible, but when properly dressed, with
plenty of oil, it may be eaten without the slightest fear of evil
consequences. The practice of pouring off the natural juice extracted from
the cucumber by salt cannot be too strongly condemned. See ELATERIUM.

=CUD′BEAR.= _Syn._ PERSIO. A dye-stuff obtained from _Lecanora tartarea_
and other lichens, by a process nearly similar to that used in making
ARCHIL. The lichen is watered with stale urine or other ammoniacal liquor,
and suffered to ferment for 3 or 4 weeks, after which the whole is poured
into a flat vessel, and exposed to the air until the urinous smell has
disappeared, and it has assumed a violet colour. It is then ground to
powder. Its use is confined to a few cases of silk dyeing, where it is
employed to yield shades of ruby and maroon; upon wool it gives deep-red
shades. The colours produced by it are very fugitive. Like archil, there
are two varieties of this dye-stuff——BLUE CUDBEAR and RED CUDBEAR. See
ARCHIL.

=CULM.= In _mineralogy_, a slaty kind of ANTHRACITE, occurring in Wales
and North Devon. The term is also applied to any impure, shaly kind of
coal.

=CU′MARIN.= See COUMARIN.

=CU′MIN.= _Syn._ CYMINI SEMINA, CYMINUM, L. The fruit (seed) of _Cuminum
cyminum_. It is carminative and aromatic, like the caraway and anise. See
PLASTER.

=CU′MINOL.= A colourless, transparent oil, of powerful odour. It exists
with CYMOL in OIL of CUMIN. See CYMOL.

=CU′PELLATION.= The process of assaying gold and silver and their alloys
by means of the CUPEL. See ASSAYING.

=CUP′PING.= This method of topical bleeding is performed as follows:——

The skin being softened by means of a sponge and warm water, and the hair
and other extraneous substances being previously removed, one of the small
bell-like glasses (CUPPING-GLASSES; CUCURBITU′LÆ), having the air
contained in it rarefied by being passed over the flame of a spirit-lamp,
is immediately applied to the part. From the formation of a partial vacuum
beneath the cup, the pressure of the air on the surrounding surface causes
that portion immediately under the cup to swell, and the vessels to become
turgid. When this has taken place the cup is removed, and several
incisions are instantly made by means of a scarificator, an instrument
containing numerous lancets, which, by means of a spring, make a number of
incisions at the same moment; the depth of these incisions being regulated
by means of a screw which protrudes or withdraws the lancets, according to
the vascularity of the part, or the quantity of blood to be abstracted.
The cupping glass is now again applied. When a sufficient quantity of
blood has been collected in the cup, it is removed by gently introducing
the nail of one of the fingers under the upper edge, by which means, air
being allowed to enter, the cup becomes detached. The part being washed
with warm water to remove any clots of blood, another cup is applied as
before, and the operation continued until a sufficient quantity of blood
is withdrawn. Sometimes, especially when applied to the scalp, the cups
fill so rapidly with blood as to become detached almost immediately on
being applied. This method of local bleeding is frequently called ‘CUPPING
WITH SCARIFICATIONS,’

When cupping-glasses are applied without the use of the lancet or
scarificator, the operation is called ‘DRY CUPPING,’ and is much used to
cause a speedy irritation of the skin and reaction, for the relief of
oppressive breathing, local pains, &c. To obtain the full benefit from
this operation, the cups should be suffered to remain upon the part until
they cause an exudation of a small quantity of serum, or a considerable
amount of irritation of the part. Dry cupping has been found extremely
beneficial in poisoned wounds; as it acts not only by abstracting the
poison, but also, by the pressure the glasses exercise on and around the
part, in preventing the absorption of it.

_Obs._ For the operation of cupping, a basin of hot water, sponges, and
clean, soft towels, should be provided. In clumsy hands, cupping is
occasionally a severe and painful operation; but this is not the case with
the skilful operator. A good cupper does not exhaust much of the air in
the cup before applying it, but simply passes its mouth rapidly over the
flame of the lamp. When it is held over the flame even for a few seconds,
the compression of the edge of the cup upon the skin is so great, that it
checks the flow of the blood to the scarified part. A good cupper also
removes the cup without spilling the contents, and completes the whole
operation quickly and neatly. There are, however, few persons, who are not
professional cuppers, who are sufficiently expert to exhaust the air in
the cup by means of the common lamp; although it is by far the best. A
good plan is to rarify the air in the cup by means of a small cone of
paper, dipped in spirits of wine, or strong brandy; this is ignited and
thrown in the cup, which is instantly to be applied to the proper spot.
Where cupping-glasses and the scarificator are not to be had,
wine-glasses, or any very small tumblers, may be substituted for the
first; and small incisions by means of a thumb lancet will answer the
purpose of the other.

The cicatrices of the scarification leave permanent marks on the skin; on
which account, when blood is to be drawn from the head or neck, the
glasses should be applied behind the ears, and a portion of hair removed
in such a manner that the part may be covered by what remains.

A most convenient cupping apparatus is manufactured by Mr Bigg, the
eminent surgical instrument maker of Leicester Square, consisting of cups
and an exhausting syringe, so arranged that the use of the spirit-lamp is
rendered unnecessary, and the operation of cupping may be performed nearly
as expertly by an inexperienced nurse as by the most accomplished
professional operator. It is invaluable in places remote from town.

=CURAR′INE.= _Syn._ CURARIA. The vegeto-alkaline base of curara, urari,
woorara, woorali, or wourali, the arrow-poison of Central America.

In physiological effects curarine is antagonistic to strychnia, a fact
which has led to its being proposed as an antidote for the latter poison.
Curarine is also said to have been employed in Germany in the treatment of
hydrophobia with such success that the patient to whom it was administered
recovered. It is a most potent poison, and should not be allowed to come
into contact with the fingers.

=CURB.= In _horses_. An enlargement at the back of a horse’s hock caused
by injuring a ligament in this region. See SPRAIN.

=CURCU′MIN.= The yellow colouring matter of turmeric, obtained by
digesting the alcoholic extract of the powder in ether, and evaporating
the clear ethereal solution to dryness. A brownish-yellow mass, yielding a
bright-yellow powder. It is scarcely soluble in water, but very soluble in
both alcohol and ether. Boracic and hydrochloric acids redden it; alkalies
turn it reddish brown.

=CURD.= Coagulated casein. See CHEESE.

=CUR′RANTS.= The currants of our garden are varieties of the _Ribes
rubrum_ and _Ribes nigrum_. (Linn.) The first includes RED CURRANTS and
WHITE CURRANTS; the fruit of both of which are gently acidulous, cooling,
and wholesome. The juice makes excellent wine. The fruit of the last
(BLACK CURRANTS, QUINSY-BERRIES) is aperitive, and has been used in
calculous affections; the juice is made into wine, jellies, jams,
lozenges, &c. The young leaves are used as a substitute for tea; one or
two buds, or half a small leaf, impart to black tea the flavour and
fragrance of green. The currants of the grocers (ZANTE CURRANTS) are a
small variety of dried grapes. The word “currant” is a corruption of
Corinth, whence the fruit originally came.

=CUR′RY.= _Syn._ CURRIE. A noted dish in Indian cookery, much esteemed
throughout the East. Curries are simply stews, of which rice usually forms
a characteristic ingredient, highly flavoured with fried onions and curry
powder, to which sliced apples and lemon juice are sometimes added. They
are made from every variety of fish, meat, poultry, game, &c., according
to the fancy of the parties.

_To make a Dish of Curry._——Cut an onion into slices and fry it with an
apple, finely chopped, in two ounces of dripping; then add slices of cold
meat; mix a dessert-spoonful of curry powder and one of flour in half a
pint of water; pour it over the meat, and shake the whole over the fire
till it boils.

=Cur′ry Powder.= _Prep._ (Kitchener.) From coriander-seed, 1/4 lb.;
turmeric, 1/4 lb.; cinnamon-seed, 2 oz.; cayenne, 1/2 oz.; mustard, 1 oz.;
ground ginger, 1 oz.; allspice, 1/2 oz.; fenugreek-seed, 2 oz.; all dried
thoroughly, pounded in a mortar, rubbed through a sieve, and mixed
together.

The famous Ceylon curry powder is said by Dr Balfour to have the following
rather indefinite composition:——A piece of green ginger, two fragments of
garlic, a few coriander and cumin seeds, six small onions, one dry Chili,
eight peppercorns, a small piece of turmeric, half a dessert-spoonful of
butter, half a cocoa-nut, and half a lime. For it to be in perfection the
powder should be made the day on which it is cooked.

_Obs._ The above must be regarded as merely a substitute for Indian curry
powder, which contains many ingredients not to be obtained in England. It
should be kept in a bottle closely corked or stoppered. The curry powder
sold at the present time consists of coriander-seed, turmeric, cayenne,
fenugreek-seed, and a large proportion of sago-flour.

=CUS′CONINE.= See ARICINE.

=CUSPA′′RIA.= _Syn._ CUSPARIA BARK (B. P.), ANGOSTU′′RA B.; COR′TEX
ANGOSTU′′RÆ, C. CUSPA′′RIÆ, CUSPARIA (Ph. L. and E.), L. “The bark of
_Galipea cusparia_” (Ph. L.), or _Galipea officinalis_ (Ph. E.). A
valuable drug, imported directly or indirectly from South
America.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 30 gr., as a tonic, stomachic, and febrifuge,
in similar cases to those in which CASCARILLA, CALUMBA, and CINCHONA, are
commonly given.

  --------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Characters.     |  False Angostura.                    |    True
                  |                                      | Angostura.
  --------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                         { Flat or rolled
  _Form_          { Thick, rugous, rolled upon           {   up, little
                  {   itself. Edges cut perpendicularly. {   wrinkled,
                                                         {   edges bevelled.

                  { Brown, or greenish-yellow,           {
                  {   presenting protuberances           {
                  {   or excrescences,                   {
                  {   produced by                        {
  _Colour_        {   the great development              { Greyish-yellow.
                  {   of the corky layer, which          {
                  {   has a still more yellow            {
                  {   colour.                            {

  _Taste_         | Very bitter.                         | Bitter.

  _Reaction       } Red colour when dropped              } Yellow
  with Nitric     }   upon the bark.                     } colour.
  Acid._          }

Angostura or cusparia bark has fallen into comparative disuse, in
consequence of nux vomica or false angostura bark having formerly, in
several instances, been mistaken for it, and administered with fatal
results. The leading characteristics of these two barks have been pointed
out by M. Gibourt. (See previous table.)

=CUSPAR′IN.= _Syn._ ANGOSTU′′RIN, ANGOSTU′′RA. The bitter principle of
Cusparia-bark. It is neutral; crystallises in tetrahedrons; is easily
fusible; soluble in rectified spirits, in acids, and in alkaline
solutions. It is precipitated of a whitish colour by tincture of galls.

=CUS′TARD.= A composition of milk, or cream, and eggs, sweetened with
sugar, and variously flavoured. Custards may be cooked either in the oven
or stew-pan.

_Prep._ 1. (Soyer.) Milk (boiling), 1 pint; sugar, 2 oz.; thin yellow peel
of half a lemon; mix, and set it aside for a short time; then take eggs, 4
in no., beat them well in a basin; add, gradually, the milk (not too hot),
pass the mixture through a colander or sieve, and fill the custard cups
with it; these are then to be placed over the fire in a stew-pan,
containing about one inch of hot water, and left there for 12 minutes, or
till sufficiently set. The above is for PLAIN CUSTARDS; but it forms a
good basis to receive any of the usual flavouring ingredients, as fresh or
stewed fruit, peels, essences, orange-flower water, brandy, or other
spirits, &c.

2. (Rundell.) As the last, but using cream instead of milk, or equal parts
of the two, with 2 additional eggs. Very rich; like the last, any suitable
flavouring matter may be added to it.

3. (ALMOND CUSTARDS,——Rundell.) As either of the above, adding blanched
sweet almonds, 4 oz.; bitter do., 6 in no.; beaten to a smooth paste.

4. (BAKED CUSTARDS,——Rundell.) From cream, 1 pint, with 4 eggs; flavoured
with mace, nutmeg, and cinnamon, and add a little white wine, rose-water,
and sugar; bake in cups.

5. (COFFEE CUSTARDS,——Soyer.) Hot milk and strong-made coffee, of each 1/2
pint; sugar, 2 oz.; dissolve, and add it, gradually, to 4 eggs (well
beaten), and proceed as in No. 1. Chocolate custards and cocoa custards
are made in the same way.

6. (COLD CUSTARD, _for invalids_,——Dewees.) 1 egg; sugar, a tablespoonful;
beat well together; and add, gradually, constantly stirring, cold water,
1/2 pint; rose water, 2 teaspoonfuls; and a little grated nutmeg. An
agreeable and nutritious demulcent. A wine-glassful every 2 or 3 hours, or
_ad libitum_.

7. (LEMON CUSTARDS,——Rundell.)——_a._ As No. 1 (nearly), using a little
more lemon peel. In the same way orange custards are made, but using
orange peel.

_b._ From candied lemon peel and lump sugar, of each 2 oz., beaten in a
mortar quite fine, and added to either No. 1 or No. 2. Orange and citron
custards may be made in the same manner. A little orange-flower water, or
marsala, or sherry, may be also added at pleasure. They are best baked.

8. (ORANGE CUSTARDS.) As _above_, No. 7, _a_ and _b_.

9. (RICE CUSTARDS,——Rundell.) Boil 1/2 a cupful of the best ground rice in
a pint of milk until dissolved, then mix it with a quart of cream; flavour
with nutmeg, mace, and a little brandy, and put it into a cup or a dish.

=CUTCH.= See CATECHU.

=CUTTLE-FISH.= The bone or skeleton of the _Sepia officinalis_ of Linnæus,
or common cuttle-fish (CUTTLE-FISH BONE; OS SE′PIÆ), is used by the
law-stationers to erase ink-marks from paper and parchment, an application
familiar to most schoolboys of the present generation. Reduced to powder
(PUL′VIS SE′PIÆ), it forms a valuable dentifrice and polishing powder, and
is used for forming the moulds for small silver castings.

[Illustration]

The _Sepias_, which inhabit the seas of all quarters of the globe, like
the other _cephalapoda_, are carnivorous. They are able to exercise
considerable locomotive powers, by means of their tentaculæ or arms which
surround the mouth, and which are usually provided with numerous suckers.
Head downward, they walk on these arms at the bottom of the ocean. The
_sepias_ are also fleet swimmers; effecting their progress through the
water either by making the expansion of their skin perform the same office
as fins; or by the forcible projection of water from the cavity of their
mouths, the reaction accompanying which operation drives them rapidly
through the water in a different direction. They are provided sometimes
with eight, and sometimes with ten tentaculæ, and have naked bodies. The
black fluid which the animal is capable of ejecting from its ink-sac, when
pursued by its enemies, was formerly employed in the manufacture of the
pigment called from its source “sepia.”

[Illustration]

=CUTS.= These are incised wounds of greater or less extent, and must be
treated accordingly. The divided parts should be drawn close together, and
held so with small pieces of strapping or adhesive plaster stretched
across the wound. If the part is covered with blood, it should be first
wiped with a damp sponge. When the wound is large and it is much exposed,
a good method is to sew the parts up. The application of a little creasote
or a spirituous solution of creasote will generally stop local bleeding,
provided it is applied to the clean extremities of the wounded vessels. A
good way is to place a piece of lint, moistened with creasote, on the
wound, previously wiped clean, or to pour a drop or two of that liquid on
it. An excellent method is to cover the part with a film of collodion.
Friar’s balsam, quick-drying copal varnish, tincture of galls, copperas
water, black ink, &c., are popular remedies applied in the same way. A bit
of the fur plucked from a black beaver hat is an excellent remedy to stop
the bleeding from a cut produced by the razor in shaving. A cobweb is said
to possess the same property.

=CY′ANATE.= _Syn._ CY′ANAS, L. A salt in which the hydrogen of cyanic acid
is replaced by a metal or other basic radical.

=CYAN′IC ACID.= HCNO. _Syn._ ACIDUM CYAN′ICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Cyanuric
acid, deprived of its water of crystallisation, is distilled in a retort,
and the product collected in a well-cooled receiver.

2. (Liebig.) A current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed through
water in which cyanate of silver is diffused, the process being suspended
before all the cyanate of silver is decomposed.

_Prop., &c._ Cyanic acid is a limpid, colourless liquid; it reddens
litmus; is sour to the taste; possesses a modified sulphurous odour,
similar to that which is always perceived when any of its salts are
decomposed by an acid; it forms salt with the bases called CYANATES; when
in contact with water it suffers decomposition in a few hours, and is
converted into bicarbonate of ammonia; it cannot be preserved for any
time, as shortly after its preparation it spontaneously passes into a
white, opaque, solid mass, to which the name CYAMELIDE has been given. By
distillation this new substance is reconverted into cyanic acid.

=CY′ANIDE.= _Syn._ CYAN′URET; CYAN′IDUM, CYANURE′TUM, L. The compound
formed by the union of cyanogen with a metal or other radical. See
CYANOGEN, HYDROCYANIC ACID, and the respective bases.

=Cyanide, Al′kaline.= _Syn._ CRUDE CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM AND SODIUM.
_Prep._ (R. Wagner.) Dry ferrocyanide of potassium, 4 parts, dry carbonate
of soda, 1 part, are melted together in an iron crucible at a red heat,
and continually stirred until the iron rod comes out covered with a white
crust, when the heat is withdrawn, and after a few moments’ repose the
supernatant liquid portion is poured out on a clean iron slab. This crude
mixed cyanide is quite as useful as the more expensive one of Liebig, and
is equally fit for technical applications, as electrotyping, gilding,
silvering, &c. See POTASSIUM, CYANIDE OF.

=CY′ANINE.= A base discovered by Mr G. Williams in CHINOLINE BLUE. See
_below_.

=Cyanine, I′odide of.= _Syn._ CHIN′OLINE BLUE. The action of iodide of
amyl upon chinoline gives rise to iodide of amylchinoline. Addition of
excess of soda to an aqueous solution of this iodide produces a black
resinous precipitate, which dissolves in alcohol with a magnificent blue
colour. This precipitate is the IODIDE OF CYANINE, or CHINOLINE BLUE. Many
attempts have been made to use it in dyeing; they have, however, failed on
account of the instability of the colour.

=CYAN′OGEN.= CN or Cy. A highly important compound radical or quasi
element, discovered by M. Gay Lussac in 1815.

Best obtained by carefully igniting dry cyanide of mercury in a small
retort, and collecting the gas over mercury.

_Prop., &c._ A colourless gas, possessing a pungent and peculiar odour,
resembling that of peach-kernels or prussic acid; under a pressure of
about 4 atmospheres, at a temperature of 45°, it assumes the liquid form
(Faraday), and this fluid again becomes gaseous on withdrawal of the
pressure; water absorbs nearly 5 times its bulk of cyanogen at 60° Fahr.,
and alcohol about 23 times its volume; with hydrogen it forms hydrocyanic
acid, and with the metals a most interesting and important class of bodies
called cyanides or cyanurets; when kindled, it burns with a beautiful
purple flame, carbonic acid and nitrogen being evolved. Sp gr. 1·806. See
HYDROCYANIC ACID, &c.

Forms a bromide and iodide when the cyanide of mercury is distilled with
bromine or iodine, and which are colourless, volatile, highly poisonous
solids; and two isomeric chlorides, one a very volatile liquid, prepared
by passing chlorine over moist cyanide of mercury, and the other in white
volatile needles, prepared by exposing aqueous hydrocyanic acid to
chlorine in sunshine.

=CYANU′′RIC ACID.= H_{3}C_{3}N_{3}O_{3}. _Syn._ PYRO-U′′RIC ACID†. A
peculiar acid, discovered by Scheele. It is a product of the decomposition
of the soluble cyanates by dilute acids, or of urea by heat, &c.

=CY′DER.= See CIDER.

=CY′DONINE.= The peculiar gum of quince seed. It resembles bassorin in
most of its properties.

=CY′MIDINE.= An oily base, homologous with aniline, obtained by the action
of iron filings and acetic acid on nitro-cymol.

=CY′MOL.= A peculiar hydrocarbon found in oil of cumin, in admixture with
cuminol. The two bodies are separable in a great measure by distillation,
cymol being the most volatile portion of the oil.

=CYNAPINE.= An alkaloid obtained from _Æthusa cynapium_, or _fool’s
parsley_. It possesses no practical interest.

=CYSTICERCI.= These parasites are embryo tænia or tapeworm, infesting the
bodies of men and different animals. One variety of the _cysticerci_ has
its habitat in the organisms of men, pigs, oxen, horses, camels, sheep,
and roe-deer; another in the muscles and internal organs of cattle; a
third is found in cattle, sheep, horses, the reindeer, squirrels, certain
kinds of monkeys, and occasionally in man; whilst a fourth——the _Cystercus
cellulosæ_——is more especially met with in measly pork. Professor Gamgee
believes that probably 5 per cent. of the pigs in Ireland are affected
with this last _cystercus_.

The following figure represents a piece of measly pork infested with
cysticerci. Professor Leuckart seems to have shown pretty conclusively
that man may become infested with a certain form of tapeworm by partaking
of imperfectly cooked veal or beef, infested with the second variety of
the parasite.

[Illustration]

=CYST′INE.= C_{3}NH_{7}SO_{2}. _Syn._ CYST′IC OXIDE. Obtained from cystic
oxide calculi (in powder) by digestion in solution of ammonia. By
spontaneous evaporation the ammoniacal solution deposits small, colourless
crystals of cystic oxide. It forms a saline compound with hydrochloric
acid, and is decomposed by the strong alkalies.

=CY′TISINE.= A purgative bitter principle, extracted from the _Cytisus
Laburnum_ (Linn.), or _common laburnum_, and some other plants.


=DAGUERRE′OTYPE.= See PHOTOGRAPHY.

=DA′′HLIA DYE= (dāle′-y′ă). The shade of colour which is commonly termed
‘dahlia’ is a reddish lilac. It is produced by combining a blue or purple
with red when a compound colour is used. Upon wool and silk it can be
obtained directly by means of archil or cudbear, either alone or ‘blued’
by a small quantity of sulphate of indigo. Upon cotton indifferent shades
of dahlia are obtained by macerating in sumac liquor, working in tin
solution, and dyeing in logwood mixed with some red wood.

=DA′′HLINE.= A species of fecula obtained from the tubers of the dahlia.
It is identical with inuline. It is not employed in the arts.

=DAIR′Y.= The place where milk is kept, and cheese and butter made. The
best situation for a dairy is on the north side of the dwelling-house, in
order that it may be sheltered from the sun during the heat of the day.
Ample means should be provided to ensure ventilation, and at the same time
to exclude flies and other insects. The temperature should be preserved,
as much as possible, in an equable state, ranging from 45° to 55° Fahr. To
lessen the influence of external variations of temperature, the walls
should be double, or of considerable thickness, and the windows provided
with shutters or doors. In summer the beat may be lessened by sprinkling
water on the floor, which will produce considerable cold by its
evaporation. Dairies built of mud or ‘cob’ are preferred in the West of
England; and this preference arises from the uniform temperature they
maintain, on account of the great thickness of the walls, and their being
very bad conductors of heat. In large dairy-farms, where butter and cheese
are made, the dairy is generally a separate building, and divided into 3
or 4 apartments; one of which is called the ‘milk-room,’ a second the
‘churning-room,’ a third the ‘cheese-room,’ containing the cheese-press,
&c.; and a fourth the ‘drying-room,’ where the cheeses are placed to dry
and harden. To these may be added a scullery, furnished with boiler,
water, &c., for scalding and cleaning the dairy utensils.

Cleanliness is very essential in all the operations of the dairy, and in
none more so than in the milking of the cows. The hands and arms of the
milkmaid should be kept scrupulously clean, and should be well washed with
soap and water after touching the udder of a sick cow, as without this
precaution the sores may be conveyed to the healthy ones. The milk-cans
should be scalded out daily, and, as well as all the other dairy utensils,
should be kept clean and dry. Before placing the milk on the shelves of
the dairy it should be strained through a hair sieve or a searce covered
with clean cheese-cloth, as by this precaution any stray hairs that may
have fallen into the milk-pail will be taken out.

The average produce of a milch cow, supplied with good pasturage, is about
3 gallons daily from Lady-day to Michaelmas, and from that time to
February about 1 gallon daily. Cows of good breed will be profitable
milkers, to 14 or 15 years of age, if well fed. See BUTTER, CHEESE, CREAM,
&c.

=D’ALBESPYRE’S BLISTERING TISSUE.= Lard and ship’s pitch, of each 1 part;
resina flav. and yellow wax, of each, 4 parts; finely powdered
cantharides, 6 parts; melted together, and spread over taffety.

=DAMAS′CUS BLADES.= See STEEL.

=DAMENPULVER——Ladies’ Powder= (J. Pohlmann, Vienna). A face powder
composed of 14 parts white lead, 7 of talc, 1 of magnesia, coloured with
carmine and perfumed with volatile oil.

=DAMMAR.= A resin employed in mounting many microscopic objects; such as
teeth, hair, hard bone, and most tissues which have been previously
hardened by treatment with alcohol and chromic acid. Dammar is prepared
for use as follows:——

_a._ Gum dammar, 1/2 oz.; oil turpentine, 1 oz.; dissolve and filter.

_b._ Gum mastic, 1/2 oz.; chloroform, 2 oz.; dissolve and filter. Add
solution _a_ to solution _b_. (Dr Klein.)

If allowed to become thick by drying, dammar may be used as luting.

=DAMP=, under any form, should be avoided. A humid atmosphere or situation
is one of the commonest causes of agues, asthmas, rheumatism, and numerous
other diseases.

=Damp Linen= is very injurious, and should be especially avoided. In
travelling, when it is expected that the bed has not been properly aired,
a good plan is to sleep between the blankets. To ascertain this point the
bed may be warmed, and a cold, dry, glass tumbler immediately afterwards
introduced between the sheets, in an inverted position. After it has
remained a few seconds, it should be examined, when, if it is found dry,
and undimmed by steam, it may be fairly presumed that the bed is well
aired; but if the reverse should be the case, it should be avoided. When
it is impossible to prevent the use of damp linen, as articles of dress,
the best way to obviate any ill effects is to keep constantly in motion
and avoid remaining near the fire, or in a warm apartment, or in a draught
of cold air until sufficient time has elapsed to allow of the escape of
the moisture. The effect of evaporation is the reduction of the
temperature of the body; hence the depressing action of damp linen.

=Damp Walls.= Ivy planted against the sound wall of a house is said to
exclude dampness. If a wall is already damp, ivy planted against it will,
when grown up, cause it to become dry, provided the brickwork is sound and
the dampness does not arise from moisture attracted upwards from the
foundation. Sometimes, when ivy is propagated from flowering branches, it
will not adhere to a wall at all; the way to get over this difficulty is
to cut it back to near the surface of the ground. The young wood which
will then form will take hold and cling immediately to almost anything.

The following is said to be a good application for damp walls:——Dissolve
3/4 lb. of mottled soap in 1 gallon of water. This composition is to be
laid over the brickwork steadily and carefully with a large thick brush,
but not in such a manner as to form a froth or lather on the surface. It
must be allowed 24 hours to dry on the walls. Now mix 1/2 lb. alum with 4
gallons of water; let it stand 24 hours, and then apply it over the
coating of soap. The operation must be performed in dry weather.

=DAM′SON.= A species of small black plum, much used in the preparation of
tarts, &c. Damsons are rather apt to disagree with delicate stomachs, and
also to affect the bowels. See PLUM.

=DAN′CING.= The practice of dancing as an amusement or exercise must be
almost as old as the human race itself. Yet, notwithstanding its antiquity
and prevalence amongst all nations, both barbarous and refined, the
propriety and advantages of its cultivation are of a very questionable
character. In a hygienic point of view it can claim no preference, as an
exercise, over the more simple ones of walking and running; whilst, from
the associations it frequently induces, and the heated and confined
atmosphere in which its votaries commonly assemble to indulge in it, it
becomes the fertile parent of immorality and consumption. A celebrated
cyclopædist has, perhaps harshly, but truthfully, defined dancing to be “a
silly amusement for the idle and thoughtless.”

=DANDELI′ON.= _Syn._ PISS-A-BED; TARAX′ACUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. A common
British plant of the natural order Compositæ. It is known among botanists
by the names _Taraxacum officinale_, _T. dens leonis_, and _Leontodon
Taraxacum_ (Linn.). Its root (_Taraxaci Radix_, B. P.) is employed in
medicine, being diuretic and tonic. It is roasted and used as coffee, and
when mixed with an equal weight of foreign coffee constitutes the article
once so much puffed under the name of ‘dandelion coffee.’ A similar
mixture prepared with chocolate forms the ‘dandelion chocolate’ of the
shops. The blanched leaves are used in salads, and the inspissated juice,
extract, and decoction are employed in medicine, and are considered as
detergent, aperitive, and deobstruent. Ground roasted dandelion root
cannot now be sold under the name of ‘dandelion coffee’ or mixed with
coffee unless it has previously paid the chicory duty. See DECOCTION,
EXTRACT, &c.

=DANDRIFF.= This is a scaly disease affecting the head, and giving rise to
the formation of the small troublesome particles known as scurf. A
serviceable application is two drachms of borax dissolved in a pint of
camphor water; the head to be washed with this lotion once or twice a
week, or much benefit may also be derived by washing the head with tepid
water, agitated with a piece of quillar bark until a strong lather is
produced; or with water containing salt of tartar, in the proportion of
two drachms of the salt to a pint of tepid water. As a general rule, the
use of soap is to be discountenanced.

=DAN′IELL’S BATTERY.= See VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.

=DAPH′NIN.= A peculiar bitter principle, discovered by Vauquelin in the
_Daphne mezereum_ or _mezereon_. It is procured by separating the resin
from the alcoholic tincture of the bark by evaporation; afterwards,
diluting the residue with water, filtering, and adding acetate of lead. A
yellow substance falls down, which, when decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen, yields daphnin, under the form of small, colourless,
transparent, radiated needles. It is bitter; volatile; sparingly soluble
in cold water; freely soluble in hot water, and in alcohol and ether. It
possesses basic properties. See MEZEREON.

=DARNEL.= The powder of the seed of the _Lolium temulentum_, a poisonous
grass, is not unfrequently found mixed with the flour of wheat, oats, and
other cereals, and when these latter, under these circumstances, are
partaken of as food, they give rise to more or less alarming symptoms of
poisoning, which are thus enumerated by Dr Pareira:——Headache, giddiness,
languor, ringing in the ears, confusion of sight, dilated pupil, delirium,
heaviness, somnolency, trembling convulsions, paralysis, and great
gastro-intestinal irritation. One of the most specific signs of poisoning
by darnel seeds is said by Seeger to be the trembling of the whole body.
Dr Taylor mentions a case in which thirty persons who had partaken of
bread containing darnel seeds were violently attacked with the above
symptoms; and another case is on record of sixty persons in a prison at
Cologne being similarly attacked from the same cause. Hassall states that
the flour of the darnel seed presents the following appearance under the
microscope:——“The starch corpuscles are polygonal, and resemble in this
respect those of rice. They are, however, much smaller, and frequently
united into compound grains of various sizes, the larger grains consisting
of some fifty or sixty starch corpuscles.” The structure of the testa is
very different from that of either rice or oat, or indeed any of the other
cereal grains. It is formed of three coats or membranes. The cells of the
outer coat form but a single layer, and, contrary to the arrangement which
exists in the oat, their long axes are disposed transversely, in which
respect they resemble rice. The fibres of the husk of rice and the cells
of the testa of Lolium are, however, very distinct in other respects. In
the former the cells are long and narrow, forming fibres, while in the
latter they are but two or three times as broad.

[Illustration]

The cells of the second coat, which are ranged in two layers, follow a
vertical disposition, an arrangement which is contrary to that which
obtains in all the other cereal grains with the exception of rice. The
cells of the third coat form but a single layer, and resemble those of
other grains.

=DATU′RA.= _Syn._ THORN-APPLE; STRAMO′NIUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. A genus of
plants belonging to the nightshade order, or ‘_Atropaceæ_,’ The species
_Datura Stramonium_ is an important medicinal plant, the leaves and seeds
being officinal in B. P. It is anodyne and sedative, but not hypnotic,
though it will often induce sleep by relieving pain. It affects the
constitution in much the same way as belladonna.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 or 5 gr.,
in asthma, gout, headache, neuralgic and rheumatic pains, &c. In spasmodic
asthma smoking the leaf often gives instantaneous relief, but must be
exhibited with care, as the whole plant is intensely poisonous. No
antidote is known. Another species, namely, _Datura tatula_, is now
preferred for cigars or cigarettes. Cigars are made from _Datura
Stramonium_ more frequently than from _Datura tatula_. They are
recommended for asthma. See ASTHMA, CIGARS (Stramonium), DATURIA
(_below_).

=DATU′RIA.= _Syn._ DATU′RINE, DATURIN′A, HYOSCY′AMINE. An organic alkali,
discovered by Geiger and Hesse in _Datura Stramonium_ or thorn apple. It
occurs also in _Hyoscyamus niger_ or henbane. It is best obtained from the
seeds. Daturia dissolves in 280 parts of cold and 72 parts of boiling
water; it is very soluble in alcohol, less so in ether. It tastes bitter,
dilates the pupil strongly, and is very poisonous. It may be sublimed
unaltered, and may be obtained in prismatic crystals by the addition of
water to its alcoholic solution. With the acids it forms salts, which are
mostly crystallisable.

=DAVIDS-THEE——David’s Tea= (B. Fragner, Prague). Recommended as a domestic
remedy for chronic catarrh of the lungs and air passages, and especially
for tuberculosis. A mixture of equal parts of great centaury, hyssop,
chervil (Scandix odorata), white horehound, milfoil, Iceland moss, and
carduus benedictus.

=Davids-Thee, Echter Karolinenthaler——Genuine Karolin’s Dale David’s Tea=
(Kràl). Recommended for the same diseases as the preceding. A mixture of
white horehound, milfoil, Iceland moss, great centaury, and ground ivy.
According to a communication from a Bohemian apothecary the original
prescription reads thus:——Herba cerefolii (Scandicis, chervil), hb.
centaurii minoris (lesser centaury), hb. marrub. (horehound), flor.
millefol. (milfoil flowers), lichen. Isl., of each 6 parts; hb. hyssopi, 3
parts; hb. cardui benedicti, 2 parts. (A. Selle.)

=DEAD, DISPOSAL OF.= As every dead body during the process of the
decomposition it undergoes gives rise to products that are not only in the
highest degree offensive, but in an especial sense dangerous to the health
and lives of a community, the disposal of the dead in a manner best
calculated to ensure, with the removal of the corpse from amongst the
survivors, the least injurious consequences of its subsequent decay,
becomes a problem of supreme importance to the sanitarian.

Probably amongst the nations of antiquity the Romans, with their eminently
practical minds, and as we may infer from their other enlightened sanitary
arrangements, were the only ancient people who were not guided either by
superstitious or religious ideas in the disposal of their dead, at one
time burned, but afterwards buried them. The Greeks practised cremation,
the Egyptians embalmment (previously disembowelling the body), under the
belief that after the lapse of many thousands of years the soul would
return to its earthly mansion. The Hebrews sometimes burned their dead,
and sometimes interred them. Amongst the ancient Hindoos the body was got
rid of sometimes by cremation, sometimes by being cast into the Ganges, or
other sacred river, and sometimes by exposure, until eaten by vultures.
The Icthyophagi, or fish-eaters, appear to be the only people of antiquity
who disposed of their dead by throwing them into the sea.

Amongst modern civilised nations interment is the method almost
universally adopted for disposing of the dead.

Embalmment has been of late years occasionally practised in America, and
was frequently adopted during the late civil war in many cases, since it
afforded the means of sending the bodies of the slain to surviving
relatives at long distances. Sir Henry Thompson’s advocacy of cremation
was the means of causing the establishment in England a few years back of
a society for its introduction; but neither here nor in Germany, where it
has occasionally been employed, has the practice being adopted, save in a
very few instances, most of which seem to have been merely experimental.
In Calcutta cremation is still practised to some extent by the native
population; the process being very effectively carried out by a French
company, which has been established for some years. We may mention here an
important modification of the ordinary form of interment proposed by Mr
Sydney Hadden. Mr Hadden’s proposal is to dispense with the coffin, and to
place the corpse instead in a large wickerwork receptacle filled with
flowers, then inter it.

Of the three modes of disposal of the dead, viz. by burial, by burning,
and by consignment to the sea, the first, as we have already said, is the
almost invariably prevalent custom amongst civilised communities. That in
a sanitary point of view it is less to be commended than either of the
other methods is, we think, not difficult of demonstration. When a body is
burned the resulting gaseous products of combustion, which most probably
consist mainly of carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, and nitrogen, diffuse
harmlessly into the atmosphere, and there remains behind only the calcined
bones which formed the skeleton. An experiment by Sir Henry Thompson has
shown that cremation may be performed without giving rise to odour of any
kind at a comparatively small expense, and within a very moderate space of
time. He burned a body weighing 227 lbs. in fifty-five minutes by placing
it in a cylindrical metallic vessel seven feet long and six feet in
diameter, previously heated to incandescence. The evolved gases were made
to pass over a large surface of strongly heated fire-bricks, which formed
part of the furnace in which the metallic vessel was placed. The furnace
and its fittings were designed by Dr Siemens. The remaining ashes weighed
about 5 lbs. In his pamphlet ‘On Cremation,’ Sir Henry Thompson has
proposed that the custom, if adopted, should be carried out in the
following manner: “When death occurs, and the necessary certificate has
been given, the body is placed in a light wood shell, then in a suitable
outside receptacle preparatory to removal for religious rites or
otherwise. After a proper time has elapsed it is conveyed to the spot
where cremation is to be performed. There nothing need be seen by the last
attendant or attendants than the placing of a shell within a small
compartment, and the closing of the door upon it. It slides down into the
heated chamber, and is left there an hour until the necessary changes have
taken place. The ashes are then placed at the disposal of the attendants.”
Sir Henry suggests that, previous to the burning of any corpse, proper
officers appointed for the purpose should examine into and certify as to
the cause of death, and if satisfied that it has resulted from natural
events, that they should give the certificate he alludes to.

Sir Henry Thompson proposes that the functions of the officers appointed
for this purpose should be the same as those of the _medicins
verificateurs_, who are medical inspectors appointed by the municipality
of Paris and the other large cities, whose duty consists in visiting each
house where a death occurs, in assuring themselves that the person is
really dead, and that there are no suspicious circumstances attending the
demise.

In Paris alone there are more than eighty of such medical functionaries.

Burial by casting the corpse into the depths of the sea possesses the
great advantage over ordinary interment of removing it from near the
habitation of man, whilst the sea water, by its antiseptic properties,
would be as little favorable to the dissemination of noxious putrescent
compounds as cremation is. On the contrary, if the dead are disposed of by
the ordinary method of burial, the objectionable effects arising from
their decomposition in the earth are, under the most favorable conditions,
only partially overcome; and the reason is obvious, since whilst deep-sea
burial prevents animal decay altogether, and burning destroys the body,
which, if not got rid of, would become putrid; burial in the earth permits
its slow and lengthened decomposition to go on unchecked, and to thus very
frequently become a source of contamination and danger to health.[251]

[Footnote 251: “After death the buried body returns to its elements and
gradually, and often by the means of other forms of life which prey on it,
a large amount of it forms carbonic acid, ammonia, sulphuretted and
carburetted hydrogen, nitrous and nitric acids, and various more complex
gaseous products, many of which are very fetid, but which, however, are
eventually all oxidised into the simpler combination. The non-volatile
substances, the salts, become constituents of the soil, pass into plants,
or are carried away into the water percolating through the ground. The
hardest parts, the bones, remain in some soils for many centuries,
and even for long periods retain a portion of their animal
constituents.”——PARKES.]

The atmosphere in the vicinity of graveyards and cemeteries is notoriously
unhealthy, whilst water taken from wells situated near them is often so
impure as to be wholly unfit for drinking. Several instances are on record
in which the disturbance of an old graveyard has frequently been the means
of disseminating disease. But although the disposal of the dead by means
either of cremation or by consignment of the body to the deep caverns of
the ocean are methods, in a hygienic point of view, immeasurably superior
to earth-burial, there are, we think, certain obstacles to their adoption,
even to a limited extent, by civilised communities, at any rate, for many
years to come.

“Both cremation and deep-sea burial are open to the objection, that should
the proposed officers appointed to inquire into the circumstances
attending death have been mistaken in their verdict, as for instance in
overlooking, or not suspecting a case of secret poisoning, not only would
the murderer escape detection, but a sense of possible immunity from
punishment might act as an encouragement to others who were equally guilty
minded. The proposal that the stomach should be preserved, and kept for a
certain time, and, in case of suspicion justifying it, examination, would
in many instances fail to lead to detection, since, if certain alkaloids
had been employed, they would have to be searched for, not in the stomach,
but in the tissues of the dead body. Again, an obstacle to the universal
adoption of deep-sea burial would be, in the case of vast continents, the
difficulty of transmission from their interior, of the corpse, to the
shore. But even if these objections against cremation and sea-burial could
be overcome (and possibly they may be eventually), there would still
remain the invincible repugnance of the survivors to what sentiment and
feeling will persist in regarding as cruel indignity and irreverence
toward the dead.

“Yet the eventual disposal of our frames is the same in all cases; and it
is probably a matter merely of custom which makes us think that there is a
want of affection, or of care, if the bodies of the dead are not suffered
to repose in the earth that bore them.

“In reality, neither affection nor religion can be outraged by any manner
of disposal of the dead which is done with proper solemnity and respect to
the earthly dwelling-place of our friends. The question should be placed
entirely on sanitary grounds, and we shall then judge it rightly.

“What is the use of preserving for a few more years the remains which will
be an object of indifference to future generations? The next logical step
would be to enshrine these remains in some way so as to ensure their
preservation, and we should return to the vast burial mounds in Egypt.

“At present the question is not an urgent one, but if peace continue, and
if the population of Europe increase, it will become so in another century
or two.

“Already in this country we have seen, in our own time, a great change;
the objectionable practice of interment under and round churches in towns
has been given up, and the population is buried at a distance from their
habitations. For the present that measure will probably suffice, but in a
few years the question will again inevitably present itself.”[252]

[Footnote 252: Parkes.]

Since however, for the reasons above specified, earth-burial seems to be
the only means of disposing of the dead likely to prevail for many years
to come, the question arises as to how its attendant evils can be as much
as possible minimised. The following suggestions, that may assist to
effect this, are offered:——As quickly as possible after death the body
should be covered with sawdust, to which carbolic acid has been added, a
precaution which not only prevents the escape of fetid gases, but also of
putrescent fluids from a badly jointed coffin. Charcoal, although an
excellent disinfectant, from its colour, could not out of consideration
for the feelings of the relatives or friends, be used until the coffin
with its contents had been screwed down.

It is always desirable (save for some special reason) that the corpse
should be interred within three or four days of the demise. If a body has
to be kept above ground for some time, Mr Herbert Barker recommends a thin
layer of sawdust and sulphate of zinc to be placed over it, in the
proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. The coffin
should be made of a material impervious to the air, and of such strength
as to withstand the pressure of the overlying earth.

Mr Wynter Blyth, in his ‘Dictionary of Hygiène,’ recommends a coffin
described by Mr Baker in his evidence before the sanitary commission. “The
body being first of all placed in a common shell, this shell is placed in
the coffin; the interval between the two is filled with common pitch, and
then the outside coffin is coated over with pitch; so that it is as
perfectly air-tight as a leaden shell. If desired a glass can be placed so
as to leave the face exposed to the view of a jury when necessary with
regard to the interment.

“The advantages of deep over shallow burying are obvious. The greater the
mass of superincumbent earth into which the gaseous products of
decomposition diffuse, the better the chance of their absorption and
removal by the soil, and the less risk of their consequent escape into the
contiguous atmosphere, as well as of the danger of contamination to the
water of wells, &c. The depth of the grave varies in different countries.
In Austria it is 6 ft. 2 in.; in Hesse Darmstadt, from 5 ft. 7 in. to 6
ft. 6 in.; Munich, 6 ft. 7 in.; Stuttgard, 6 ft. 6 in.; Russia from 6 ft.
10 in. In our country the practice is generally to make the depth about 6
feet, but then coffins may be placed one on the other, so that, as an
actual fact, they often very closely approach the surface. The regulations
followed at Stuttgard are much to be commended. In the cemeteries there
the space allotted for each grave is an oblong piece of land 10 feet in
length and 5 feet broad. In France the graves vary in depth from 1-1/4
metres (4·921 feet) to 2 metres (6·561 feet). They are 8 decimètres (2·264
feet) in breadth, and distant the one from the other from 3 to 4
decimètres (11·911 inches to 1·132 feet.)” (Blyth.)

To render a cemetery therefore as little prejudicial as possible to a
community, not alone should deep burial be enforced, but only one body
should be permitted to be deposited in a grave, at least, till after the
lapse of some years. Some sanitary authorities recommend the use of
quicklime or charcoal, advising them to be thrown into the grave previous
to its being closed. Of the two, charcoal is the preferable disinfectant,
although it does not entirely prevent putrefaction, nor the evolution of
bad-smelling gases. No more efficient means of absorbing organic matters,
and carbonic acid given off by the decaying corpse in the earth, can be
devised than that of rapidly growing trees and shrubs in abundance around
the graves.

For the funereal cypress and yew, which are slowly growing trees, why
should a needless sentiment prevent the substitution of the much more
sanitary and less sombre-looking eucalyptus in countries where this plant
will flourish?

Old burial-grounds which have become offensive may be best disinfected by
covering the ground with fresh earth to the depth of several inches, and
by planting it with trees and sowing it with grass seed. Twenty-six city
graveyards covering a superficial area of about 48,000 square yards, and
in which, according to moderate calculation, there were not less than
48,000 tons of human remains, were successfully dealt with in this manner.

In the case of church vaults they should be first opened, a quantity of
quicklime thrown into them, and thus freely exposed to the external air.
The coffins should then be rearranged crossways like bricks in a building,
and filled in with dry earth or masons’ rubbish, mixed with about 5 or 10
per cent. of vegetable charcoal. The vaults should next be ventilated by
means of an upcast and downcast shaft of the size of a rain-water pipe,
and the whole should then be closed in. In 1860, two hundred and fifty
vaults in seventy-one city churches were thus disinfected.[253] These
vaults contained the coffins and remains of at least 11,000 dead bodies,
which, previous to the adoption of the above measures, were very
offensive.[253] When bodies are removed from the vaults to other places,
Dr Letheby recommends them to be in closed coffins and in cases containing
an abundant supply of carbonate of lime powder.

[Footnote 253: Letheby.]

The disposal of the dead frequently becomes a matter of considerable
difficulty in time of war or during a siege. Under these circumstances
cremation may be found the most desirable method of getting rid of them.
If the bodies are buried they should always be at as great a distance as
possible from one another, and as deep as they can be. If procurable,
charcoal should be thrown over them; if it cannot be obtained sawdust and
sulphate of zinc, or carbolic acid, may be employed. Quicklime is also
commonly used, but it is less useful.

At Metz, in 1870, the following plan was adopted:——A pit of about 17 feet
in depth was filled with dead disposed of as follows:——A row of bodies was
laid side by side; above this a second row was placed, with the heads laid
against the feet of the first row; the third row were placed across, and
the fourth row in the same way, but with the heads to the feet of the
former; the fifth row was placed as No. 1, and so on.

Between each layer of bodies about an inch of lime, in powder, was placed.
From 90 to 100 bodies were thus arranged on a length of 6-1/2 feet, and
reached to about 6 feet to the surface; the pit was then filled up with
earth, and though 8400 bodies were put in that pit there were no
perceptible emanations at any time.

Around Metz the graves of men, horses, and cattle were disinfected with
lime, charcoal, and sulphate of iron. Immense exertions were made to clean
and disinfect the camps and battle fields, and in the month of May, 1871,
from 1200 to 1600 labourers were employed by the Germans. Wherever
practicable the ground was sown with oats or barley or grass. The hillocks
formed by the graves were planted with trees.

In many cases at Metz bodies were dug up by the Germans, when there was
any fear of water-courses being contaminated, or if houses were near. On
account of the danger to the workmen, graves containing more than six
bodies were left untouched, and the work was always done under the
immediate superintendence of a physician. The earth was removed carefully,
but not far enough to uncover the corpse; then one end of the corpse was
uncovered, and as soon as the uniform or parts of the body were seen,
chloride of lime and sawdust, or charcoal and carbolic acid, put in; the
whole earth round the body was thus treated, and the body at length laid
bare, lifted and carried away. The second body was then treated in the
same way.

Near Sedan, where there were many bodies very superficially buried,
burning was had recourse to. Straw mixed with pitch was put into the
graves, and was lighted; one ton of pitch sufficed for from 15 to 20
bodies. Opinions as to this practice were divided, and it is not certain
how many graves were thus dealt with. It seems probable that only the
surface of the body was burnt, and when many bodies were together in the
grave, some were not touched at all. On the whole the experiment appears
to have been unsuccessful.

The Belgian experience at Sedan was in favour of employing chloride of
lime, nitric acid, sulphate of iron, and chlorine gas. Carbolic acid did
not answer so well. The sulphate of zinc and charcoal, which Barker found
so useful, was not tried.[254]

[Footnote 254: Parkes.]

Various statutes have been framed for the burial of the dead and for the
management and selection of the burial-grounds. In the carrying out of
these enactments the local authorities have only an indirect voice,
exception being made in the case of a local government district in which
the vestry determines to appoint a burial board. The vestry then has power
to constitute the local board so appointed the burial board of such
district or parish, and to rule that the expenses of such burial board
shall be met by a rate levied on such parish, after the manner of a
general district rate.

Vict. 21 and 22, c. 90, s. 49, enacts that if such parish has been
declared a ward for the election of members of the local board, such
members are to form the burial board for the parish.

By Vict. 24 and 25, c. 61, s. 21, it is enacted that a sanitary authority
may provide a proper place for the reception of dead bodies, as well as
for those which are to be subjected to a post-mortem examination.

A sanitary authority is also empowered to make arrangements for interment.
Any urban sanitary authority has the power of regulating these matters by
by-laws. When once constituted a burial board, a sanitary authority has to
see to the carrying out of the Burial Acts, to repair the fences of
disused burial grounds, and generally to keep in proper order and regulate
all burial grounds within its jurisdiction.

The law enacts that the proper sanitary authority shall close any burial
ground which is detrimental to the health of those living in its
neighbourhood, or of persons frequenting any church; and throws upon such
sanitary body the duty of providing a proper place of interment elsewhere.

It may be well to know that by common law it is incumbent upon any person
under whose roof a death has taken place to provide the corpse with
interment. Such person may neither cast the body forth, nor carry it
uncovered to the grave, but he must give it decent burial. This obligation
is imposed upon public bodies as well as on private persons.

Upon presentation of a certificate signed by a properly qualified medical
practitioner, a justice of the peace may order, under certain
circumstances, the removal of the dead body to a mortuary.

Interment within the walls, or underneath the pavement or floor of any
church, or other place of public worship, built in any urban district,
has since August 31st, 1848, been interdicted under a penalty of £50.

=DEAF′NESS.= An imperfection or absence of the sense of hearing. When
deafness is present in infancy and childhood, it is accompanied with
dumbness, or imperfect articulation, in consequence of the impossibility
of conveying a knowledge of the sounds necessary for the exercise of the
imitative faculty of speech. Deafness frequently arises from some
imperfection or obstruction of the passage leading to the membrane of the
tympanum or drum of the ear. In some cases this passage is totally closed
by a membrane, or some malformation of the tube, which may frequently be
removed by a surgical operation. Even instances of partial obliteration of
this passage have occurred, which have been successfully treated. The
researches of Mr Yearsley have established the fact, that enlarged tonsils
are a very common cause of deafness; and when such is the case, their
excision will generally effect a cure. To this form of the affection Mr
Yearsley applies the term ‘throat deafness.’ Another cause of deafness is
the presence of foreign bodies in the aural passages or the accumulation
of hardened wax. In these cases the best treatment is to inject warm water
into the ear by means of a proper syringe. When deafness arises from
imperfection of the tympanum or drum of the ear, the effects of the
application of the artificial membrana tympani invented by Mr Yearsley
(moistened cotton wool) are generally immediate and truly wonderful. By
its aid persons previously so deaf as to be incapable of bearing their
share in conversation have been enabled to hear an ordinary whisper.
Insects may be destroyed by pouring a spoonful of warm olive oil, or
camphorated oil, into the ear over night, retaining it there until the
next morning by means of a piece of cotton wool, when it may be washed out
with a little mild soap and warm water. When there is a deficiency of the
natural secretion of wax, or a dryness of the aural passage, mild
oleaginous stimulants may be employed. For this purpose a little olive
oil, almond oil, to which a few drops of oil of turpentine, oil of
juniper, or camphor liniment, have been added, may be used with advantage.
A piece of cotton wool moistened with glycerin is an excellent application
in such cases. When deafness is accompanied with continued acute pain, or
a discharge of purulent matter, inflammation of the tympanum, or some
other portion of the internal ear, probably exists, and medical advice
should be sought as soon as possible. The deafness that frequently
accompanies a violent cold is generally caused by obstructions in the
Eustachian tubes, and goes off as soon as the secretions return to a
healthy state. In some forms of deafness blisters behind the ears are
useful. A clove of garlic wrapped in cotton or gauze, or a few drops of
the juice introduced into the ear, is extremely efficacious in nervous
deafness. When imperfect hearing depends upon obtundity of the auditory
nerve, or an extensive obliteration or malformation of the internal ear,
it scarcely admits of cure.

=Deafness, Taylor’s Remedy for.= _Prep._ From oil of almonds, 1 lb.;
garlic, bruised, 2 oz.; alkanet root, 1/2 oz.; digest for a week, and
strain. A little is poured into the ear in deafness.

=DEATH.= In cases of sudden death interment should be deferred till signs
of putrefaction begin to appear, especially when no gradation of disease
has preceded, as in cases of apoplexy, hysterics, external injuries,
drowning, suffocation, &c. No sooner has breathing apparently ceased, and
the visage assumed a ghastly or a death-like hue, than the patient, after
his eyes are closed, is too often hurried into a coffin, and the body,
scarcely yet cold, is precipitated into the grave. So extremely fallacious
are the signs of death that the semblance has been frequently mistaken for
the reality. By prompt means and judicious treatment, many persons, when
in such a condition, have been happily restored to their families and
friends. The effects of sound upon animal life is astonishing. The beat of
a drum, for instance, has had a very beneficial effect upon persons in a
state of suspended animation. At one time a scream, extorted by grief,
proved the means of resuscitating a person who was supposed to be dead,
and who had exhibited the usual recent marks of the extinction of life. In
cases of catalepsy or trance, having the semblance of death, the action of
the lungs and heart continues, though in a nearly imperceptible degree. By
placing a cold mirror or piece of highly polished metal immediately over
the mouth of the patient, symptoms of moisture will appear upon the
surface if the most feeble respiration takes place.

=DEBIL′ITY.= _Syn._ DEBIL′ITAS, L. Weakness; languor; feebleness. When
this arises from a diseased action of the stomach, the occasional use of
mild aperients, followed by bitters and tonics, may be had recourse to.
When from a general laxity of the solids, and there are no symptoms of
fever, nor a tendency of blood to the head, a course of chalybeates
generally proves advantageous. See ANÆMIA, ATROPHY, &c.

=DECANTA′TION.= The operation of pouring or drawing off the clear portion
of a liquid from the impurities or grosser matter that has subsided. It is
commonly performed, either by gently inclining the vessel, or by the use
of a syphon or pump. In the laboratory it is much resorted to in the
purification of precipitates, or other similar operations, where repeated
edulcoration or washing is required, for which purpose it is preferable to
filtration, from being less troublesome and more economical. In these
cases, after a sufficient time having been allowed for the subsidence of
the precipitate or powder, or for the clearing of the supernatant fluid,
the latter is decanted, and its place supplied by a fresh portion of
water, which, after sufficient agitation, is similarly treated, and the
whole operation repeated as often as necessary.

=DECANT′ERS.= There is often much difficulty experienced in cleaning
decanters, especially after port wine has stood in them for some time. The
best way is to wash them out with a little pearlash and warm water, adding
a spoonful or two of fresh-slaked lime, if necessary. To facilitate the
action of the fluid against the sides of the glass, a few small cinders or
pieces of raw potato may be used. A spoonful of strong oil of vitriol will
also rapidly remove any kind of dirt from glass bottles. Decanters which
have become furred by holding hard water may be cleaned with a spoonful of
hydrochloric acid (‘spirits of salt’), diluted with 3 or 4 times its
weight of water. See STOPPERS.

=DECARBONISA′TION.= This operation is performed on cast iron, to convert
it into soft iron. The articles to be decarbonised are packed in finely
powdered hæmatite, or native oxide of iron, to which iron filings are
often added, and exposed for some time to a strong red heat, by which the
excess of carbon is abstracted or burnt out. The process somewhat
resembles annealing or cementation.

=DECAY′.= See EREMACAUSIS.

=DEC′IMALS.= _Syn._ DECIMAL FRACTIONS. Fractions which have for their
denominator 10, or some power of ten; as 100, 1000, &c.; the number of
ciphers in the denominator being always equal to the number of figures in
the numerator. Thus, ·2, ·25, ·125, respectively represent 2/10, 25/100,
125/1000. The denominator of decimals is never written, the dot placed
before the first figure of the numerator expressing its value. Ciphers
placed on the right hand of a decimal fraction do not alter its value; for
·5, ·50, ·500, are each equal to 1/2; but ciphers placed on the left hand
of a decimal diminish its value in a tenfold proportion; thus, ·3, ·03,
·003, respectively answer to the common fractions 3/10, 3/100, and 3/1000.
Every figure on the left-hand side of the dot or decimal sign is a whole
number.

ADDITION and SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS are performed in the same manner as
with common numbers, care being taken to place the numbers under each
other according to their several values; as, tens under tens, hundreds
under hundreds, &c.

MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS is performed in precisely the same manner as
with whole numbers, merely pointing off as many figures in the product as
there are decimals in the multiplier and multiplicand put together.

DIVISION OF DECIMALS. As the last, but pointing off as many figures in the
quotient as the decimal places in the dividend exceed those of the
divisor. If there are not figures enough in the quotient, the deficiency
must be supplied by prefixing left-hand ciphers. Ciphers are also added to
the right hand of the dividend, or to a remainder, where there are more
figures in the divisor than in the dividend, by which the quotient may be
carried on to any extent.

A vulgar fraction is reduced to a decimal by dividing the numerator
(increased sufficiently with ciphers) by the denominator. Thus, 1/2 = ·5,
1/8 = ·125, &c.

The value of a decimal, of any denomination, is found by multiplying it by
the number of parts in the next less denomination, and cutting off as many
places to the right hand as there are decimals, and so on until the terms
are exhausted. Thus, ·634 oz. is =

   ·634
      8
  —————
  5·072 drachms.
     60
  —————
  4·320

or, 5 dr. 4-1/3 gr. (nearly).

The constant use of decimals in the laboratory, in the surveys of the
Excise, and in numerous chemical calculations, induces us to press the
subject on the attention of operatives and others of neglected education.
An attentive perusal of the above, and a few hours’ application, will make
the matter familiar to them.

=DECOC′TION.= _Syn._ DECOCT′UM, L. An aqueous solution of the active
principles of any substance obtained by boiling; also the process of
preparing such solutions.

The effect of decoction in water differs greatly from that of infusion. At
the temperature of 212° Fahr., the essential oils and aromatic principles
of vegetables are dissipated or decomposed; while by infusion in hot
water, in covered vessels, they remain for the most part uninjured. The
solvent powers of boiling water are, however, much greater than those of
hot water; and many vegetable principles scarcely acted on by the one are
freely soluble in the other. This is the case with many of the alkaloids,
on which the medicinal virtues of several vegetables depend. On the other
hand, the solutions of many substances, though more readily made by
boiling, are speedily weakened or rendered inert by ebullition, in
consequence of the active principles being either volatilised along with
the steam, or oxidised or decomposed by exposure to the atmosphere. This
is particularly the case with substances abounding in extractive or
astringent matter. When the medicinal properties of vegetables are
volatile, or are injured by a strong heat, infusion should be had recourse
to, in preference to boiling; but when a solution of the fixed
constituents is alone sought, decoction is preferable.

The substances employed for making decoctions should be well bruised, or
reduced to a very coarse powder, or, if fresh and soft, they should be
sliced small. In the former case, any very fine powder or adhering dust
should be removed with a sieve, as its presence tends to make the product
thick and disagreeable, and also more troublesome to strain. The vessel in
which the ebullition is conducted should be furnished with an accurately
fitting cover, the better to exclude the air; and the application of the
heat should be so conducted that the fluid may be kept simmering, or only
gently boiling, as violent boiling is not only quite unnecessary, but
absolutely injurious to the quality of the product. In every case the
liquor should be strained whilst hot, but not boiling, and the best method
of doing this is to employ a fine hair sieve, or a coarse flannel bag. In
general it is found that, as decoctions cool, a sediment is formed, in
consequence of the boiling water dissolving a larger portion of vegetable
matter than it can retain in solution when cold. This deposit for the most
part consists of the active principles of the solution, and, unless when
otherwise ordered, should be mingled with the clear liquid by agitation,
when the decoction enters into extemporaneous compositions, or when the
dose is taken.

The length of time occupied by the ebullition is another point demanding
some attention. Long boiling is in no case necessary, and should be
avoided, especially in decoctions prepared from aromatic vegetables, or
those abounding in extractive. The Colleges, in such cases, direct the
ingredients “to be boiled for a short time,” or “for ten minutes;” or they
limit the period of the ebullition by stating the quantity that must be
volatilised, as——“boil to a pint, and strain.” The last method is
generally employed for those substances that do not suffer by lengthened
boiling.

In preparing compound decoctions those ingredients should be boiled first
which least readily give up their active principles to the menstruum, and
those which most readily part with them should be added afterwards. In
many cases it is proper simply to infuse the more aromatic substances in
the hot decoction of the other ingredients, by which means their volatile
principles will be better preserved.

Distilled water, or perfectly clean rain water, should alone be used for
decoctions, extracts, and infusions. Spring and river water, from
containing lime, have much less solvent matter.

The aqueous solutions of organic matter, from the nature of their
constituents, rapidly ferment or putrefy, at the ordinary temperature of
the atmosphere. Neither decoctions nor infusions are fit to be used in
dispensing, unless made the same day. They should, consequently, be only
prepared in small quantities at a time, and any unconsumed portion should
be rejected, as it would be imprudent for the dispenser to risk his own
reputation, and the welfare of the patient, by employing an article of
dubious quality.

It has of late years become a general practice for the wholesale houses to
vend preparations under the name of ‘Concentrated Decoctions,’ which, with
the exception of the compound decoction of aloes, are stated to be of 8
times the pharmacopœial strength; so that one drachm of these liquids
added to seven drachms of water forms extemporaneous decoctions,
professedly resembling those of the pharmacopœia. The decoction of aloes
is made of only four times the usual strength, as the nature of its
composition would not permit of further concentration. Such preparations
are, however, very imperfect substitutes for the freshly made decoctions.
The extreme difficulty of forming concentrated solutions of vegetable
matter with bulky ingredients too often leads to the omission of a portion
of the materials, or to the practice of concentrating the liquid by long
evaporation. In the first case the strength is, of course, less than it
should be; and in the second, the quality is injured, and perhaps the
preparation is rendered nearly inert by the lengthened exposure to heat,
and the consequent volatilisation or decomposition of its active
constituents. The common practice of adding a considerable portion of
spirit to these preparations, which is absolutely necessary to preserve
them, is also objectionable, as, in many of the cases in which decoctions
are prescribed, this article, even in small quantities, exerts a
prejudicial action. Some concentrated decoctions have been recently
offered for sale which do not contain alcohol, being preserved by the
addition of sulphurous acid, or sulphite of lime.

=Decoction of Alconorque.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ALCONORCO. American alconorque
bark, 1/2 oz.; water, 16 oz,; boil to 8 oz., and strain.——_Dose_, 1 oz.
two or three times a day, in phthisis.

=Decoction of Alder.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ALNI. Bark of common alder, 1 oz.;
water, 20 oz.; boil to 16 oz.

=Decoction of Alder, Black.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM RHAMNI FRANGULÆ. Black alder
bark, dried, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to 1 pint, and strain.

=Decoction of Al′oes.= _Syn._ COMPOUND D. OF A., BALSAM OF LIFE; BAUME DE
VIE, Fr.; DECOCTUM AL′OËS (Ph. E.), D. A. COMPOS′ITUM (B. P. and Ph. D.),
L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Extract of liquorice, 1 oz.; extract of socotrine
aloes, 2 dr.; powdered myrrh and saffron, of each, 1-1/2 dr.; carbonate of
potassa, 1 dr.; tincture of cardamoms, 8 oz.; water, a sufficiency.
Coarsely powder the extract of aloes and myrrh, and put them, together
with the carbonate of potash and extract of liquorice, into a covered
vessel, with a pint of distilled water; boil gently for five minutes, then
add the saffron; let the vessel with contents cool, then add the tincture
of cardamoms, and, covering the vessels closely, allow the ingredients
to macerate two hours, finally strain through flannel, pouring as much
distilled water over the contents of the strainer as will make the product
measure 30 oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of each 1 dr.; extract of
liquorice, 1/2 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 40 gr.; water, 16 fl. oz.; boil
to 12 fl. oz.; strain, and add of compound tincture of cardamoms 4 fl. oz.

3. (Ph. D.) As No. 1 (nearly), but using hepatic aloes.

A warm cathartic.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1-1/2 oz.; in habitual costiveness,
dyspepsia, jaundice, &c.

_Obs._ By boiling the saffron as ordered by the Dublin and Edinburgh
Colleges, nearly the whole of its fragrance is dissipated. A better plan
is to macerate it in the tincture for a few days, previously to adding the
latter to the decoction of the other ingredients. After the tincture has
been strained off from the saffron, the latter may be washed with a little
water, to remove any adhering colour and odour, and this may be added to
the decoction. The addition of the tincture produces a deposit of
mucilaginous and feculent matter, which has been dissolved out of the
liquorice, for which reason some houses omit the latter altogether, and
supply its place with an equal quantity of sugar or treacle, and a little
colouring. By this method the liquid, after being once obtained clear,
will continue so for any length of time.

4. (Wholesale.) Solazzi juice, 1-1/2 lb.; kali (carbonate of potassa), 4
oz.; hepatic aloes, 5-1/2 oz.; myrrh (small), 5 oz.; water, 4-1/2 galls.;
boil to 3 galls., strain through flannel, cool, and add, of compound
tincture of cardamoms, 10 pints; previously digested for 10 days on
saffron, 2-1/2 oz.; mix well, and add essential oil of nutmeg, 15 drops;
oils of cassia and caraway, of each 10 drops; and oils of cloves and
pimento, of each 5 drops; in a week decant the clear portion from the
sediment, and preserve it in a cool place.

5. (Concentrated; D. A. CONCENTRA′TUM, L.)——_a._ Lump sugar, 8 oz.;
colouring, 1/4 pint; carbonate of potash, 2 oz.; aloes, 3-1/2 oz.; myrrh
and saffron, of each 2-1/2 oz.; compound tincture of cardamoms, 1/2 a
gall.; water, 3 pints; boil the first five in the water, until reduced to
nearly one half; cool, and add the tincture, previously digested for a
week, on the saffron; and proceed as above. 14 oz. of extract of liquorice
may be used instead of the sugar and colouring.

_b._ Aloes, myrrh, liquorice, and potassa (all in powder), and saffron as
last; compound tincture of cardamoms, 5-3/4 pints; digest a fortnight, and
filter. In this way a very odorous and beautiful preparation is produced,
which has been much admired. The above are said to possess four times the
strength of the College preparation.

=Decoction, Anticol′ic.= _Syn._ ANTICOLIC AP′OZEM, DEGLAND’S COLIC
MIXTURE; APOZ′EMA ANTICOL′ICUM, L. _Prep._ Senna leaves, 2 oz.; boiling
water, 1 pint; simmer gently to 16 fl. oz.; press out the liquor, add
sulphate of soda, 1 oz.; syrup of buckthorn, 2 oz.; and strain through
flannel. Used by glassfuls in lead colic, or after poisoning by lead.

=Decoction, Antidar′trous.= Decoction of Bitter Sweet (see _below_).

=Decoction of Apocynum.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM APOCYNI. Root of _Apocynum
cannabinum_, 1 oz.; juniper berries, 1 oz.; water, 3 pints. Boil to 2
pints. A wine-glassful frequently. In dropsy.

=Decoction of Ar′nica.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ARNICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Swediaur.)
Flowers of _Arnica montana_, 1 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil to a quart;
filter, and add of syrup of ginger, 3 oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. oz. every
two or three hours; in aphonia, paralysis of the voluntary muscles,
rheumatism, &c.; and as a substitute for bark in putrid fever, agues, &c.

2. (Ph. Cast. Aust., 1841.) Arnica root, 2 dr.; water, 9 oz.; boil to 6
oz., and strain.——_Dose_, 1 oz.; as the last.

=Decoction of Asparagus.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ASPARAGI. Roots of asparagus, 1
oz.; water, 2 pints; boil for 10 or 15 minutes; diuretic.

=Decoction, Astrin′gent.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ASTRIN′GENS, L. _Prep._
(Swediaur.) Oak-bark, pomegranate peel, and tormentil root, of each 2 dr;
water and milk, of each 1 lb.; boil 12 minutes, add of cinnamon, 2 dr.;
boil 2 or 3 minutes longer, and strain.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful.

=Decoction of Avens Root.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM GEI. (Dr A. T. Thompson.) Avens
root, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil for 15 minutes, and strain.

=Decoction of Baobab Tree.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ADANSONIÆ. Bark of the baobab
tree, 6 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain. Used as a
substitute for decoction of bark.

=Decoction of Bark.= _Syn._ DECOCTION OF CINCHO′NA; DECOCTUM CINCHO′NÆ, L.
_Prep._ 1. Ph. L.:——_a_. (D. OF YELLOW B.; D. CINCHONÆ, B. P.) Yellow
cinchona or calisaya bark (bruised), 1-1/4 _oz._; distilled water, 1 pint;
boil for 10 minutes in a lightly covered vessel; when cold, strain and
pour on the marc sufficient water to make up 1 pint.

_b._ (D. OF PALE B.; D. C. PALLIDÆ, Ph. L.) From pale cinchona or loxa
bark, as above (_a._)

_c._ (D. OF RED B.; D. C. RUBRÆ, Ph. L.) From red bark, as above (_a_).

2. (Ph. E.) Brown, grey, yellow, or red cinchona (bruised), 1 oz.; water,
24 fl. oz.; boil for 10 minutes; when cold filter the liquor, and
evaporate it to 16 fl. oz.

3. (Ph. D.) From pale or loxa bark, similar to the ‘Decoctum cinchonæ
pallidæ’ of Ph. L. (1. _b._ _above_).

_Dose, &c._ 1 to 2 fl. oz., 3 or 4 times daily, as a tonic, stomachic, and
febrifuge, when the stomach will not bear the administration of bark in
powder; in fevers, dyspepsia, convalescence, &c. The plan recommended by
the Edinburgh College of filtering the decoction when cold is absurd.
According to Soubeiran, 146 gr. of the deposit thus removed contained 86
gr. soluble in alcohol, and rich in the cinchona alkaloids. This liquid
should, therefore, be well shaken before pouring it out for use, instead
of being filtered. The addition of a few drops of either sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid to the water greatly increases its solvent power, and
also, consequently, the medicinal value of this preparation. (See
_below_.)

=Decoction of Bark (Acid′ulated).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CINCHONÆ ACIDULA′TUM,
L. _Prep._ 1. To the water for any one of the above, add dilute sulphuric
acid, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; boil 10 minutes, and strain whilst hot.

2. (Sir J. Wylie.) Cinchona bark, 1 oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; diluted
sulphuric acid, 1 dr.; as last.

=Decoction of Bark (Facti′′tious).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CINCHONÆ FACTITIUM, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. Bor.) Willow bark and horse-chestnut bark, of each 1/2 oz.;
calamus root and cloves, of each 1/4 oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; boil to one
half. Used as a substitute for decoction of cinchona bark, but is vastly
inferior.

=Decoction of Bark and Ser′pentary.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CINCHONÆ CUM
SERPENTA′RIA, L. _Prep._ (Sir J. Pringle.) Peruvian bark, 3 dr.; water, 1
pint; boil to one half, and infuse in the hot decoction, serpentaria root,
3 dr. As a diaphoretic stimulant, and tonic, in fevers, and as a gargle in
sore throat.

=Decoction of Bar′ley.= _Syn._ BARLEY-WATER; DECOCTUM HOR′DEI (B. P.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Pearl barley, 1 oz. (washed clean); boil for 20 minutes
in 15 oz. of water, and strain.

2. (Ph. D.) Similar to above. (See _Obs. below_.)

=Decoction of Barley (Compound.)= _Syn._ PEC′TORAL DECOCTION, FE′VER
DRINK; DECOCTUM PECTORA′LE, PTISAN′A COMMU′NIS, DEC. HOR′DEI COMPOS′ITUM
(Ph. L.), MISTU′RA HOR′DEI (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Decoction of
barley (simple), 1 quart; figs (sliced) and raisins (stoned), of each
2-1/2 oz.; fresh liquorice (sliced), 5 dr.; water, 1 pint; boil to a
quart, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Pearl barley, 2-1/2 oz.; water, 4-1/2 pints; boil to 3 pints;
add figs and raisins, of each 2-1/2 oz.; liquorice root, 5 dr.; water, 1
pint; and boil to 2 pints, as before.

_Obs._ The above are used as demulcents in fevers, phthisis, strangury,
&c., taken _ad libitum_. They are slightly laxative, and when this would
be an objection to their use, a few drops of laudanum may be added. Mixed
with an equal quantity of decoction of bark, barley-water forms an
excellent gargle in cynanche maligna (ulcerated sore throat), and, with a
like quantity of milk and a little sugar, a good substitute for the breast
in dry nursing infants. It is, also, often acidulated with lemon juice or
sulphuric acid, and sweetened (Decoctum hordei acidulatum). Gum Arabic, 4
dr., and nitre, 1 dr., to each pint, is a common addition in gonorrhœa.
Cream of tartar, 1 dr., is occasionally added to render it more aperient.

=Decoction of Bistort.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM BISTORTÆ. Bistort root, 2 oz.;
water, 1-1/2 pints; boil 15 or 20 minutes, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 oz. to 2
oz.; astringent.

=Decoction, Bit′ter.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM AMA′RUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Dried tops of
lesser centaury and wormwood, and leaves of germander, of each 3 dr.;
water, 1-1/4 pint; boil to a pint.

2. Gentian root, 1/2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil 10 minutes, take out the
root, slice it, and add it again to the decoction with dried orange peel,
1/4 oz.; boil to 1 pint, and strain.

=Decoction of Bitter Sweet.= _Syn._ ANTIDAR′TROUS AP′OZEM; APOZEMA
DULCAMA′′RÆ, L. _Prep._ (Trousseau and Reveille.) Dulcamara, 1 dr.; water,
16 oz.; boil to 9 oz., and strain. To be taken in three doses during the
day. Every other day the quantity is to be increased until 12 dr. or even
2 oz. are taken daily, “so that the patient may begin to feel dryness of
the throat, and some disorder of vision and digestion;” and “continue at
this quantity for several weeks in succession.” In obstinate skin
diseases. See DECOCTION OF DULCAMARA.

=Decoction of Blue Cardinal Flowers.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM LOBEL′IÆ, D. L.
SYPHILIT′ICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Root of _Lobelia syphilitica_, 1
handful; water, 12 lb.; boil to 7 lb., and strain.

2. (Swediaur.) Dried root, 5 oz.; water, 12 lb.; as last. Alterative,
purgative, and diuretic.

_Obs._ This decoction was strongly recommended by Swediaur in certain
complaints. He gave half a pint at first, twice daily, and afterwards 4
times a day, unless it acted too strongly on the bowels, when the
frequency of the dose was diminished, or it was discontinued for 3 or 4
days, and then had recourse to again, until the cure was effected.

=Decoction of Bran.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM FURFURIS, L. _Prep._ 1. From bran,
1/4 lb.; water, 1-1/4 pint; boil to a pint. In diabetes; and sweetened
with sugar, as a demulcent and laxative in cough and sore throat.

2. Bran, 1 quart; water, 1-1/2 gall.; boil 5 minutes, and add cold water,
q. s. to bring it to the proper temperature. As an emollient foot-bath.

=Decoction of Broom.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SPAR′TII CACUMIN′IUM; D. SCOPA′′RII
(Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Broom-tops (dried), 1/2 oz.; water, 1/2
pint; boil 10 minutes, and strain.

2. (Ph. B.) Broom-tops (dried), 1 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint; boil for
10 minutes, and strain. (See _below_.)

=Decoction of Broom (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SPAR′TII CACUMINIUM C.,
D. SCOPA′′RII (Ph. E.), D. S. COMPOS′ITUM (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)
Tops of broom (recent and dried), juniper berries (bruised), dandelion
root (bruised), of each 1/2 oz.; distilled water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a
pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Tops of broom and juniper, of each 1/2 oz.; cream of tartar,
2-1/2 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, as last. The above are
diuretic and laxative.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 wine-glassful, 3 or 4 times a
day; in dropsy, especially of the belly (ASCITES).

=Decoction of Buckbean.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM MENYANTHIS. Buckbean, 1 oz.;
water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint.

=Decoction of Burdock.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ARC′TII, D. BARDA′NÆ, L. _Prep._
1. Bardana root, 6 oz.; water, 5 pints; boil to 3 pints, and strain.

2. (Wood.) Dried root, 2 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil to 2 pints, and strain.
As an alterative; a pint or more daily, in all those cases in which
sarsaparilla is recommended.

=Decoction of Cabbage-tree Bark.= DECOCTUM GEOFFROYÆ (Ph. E. 1817), D. G.
INERMIS (Ph. D. 1826). _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Bark of the cabbage tree
(bruised), 1 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint, and strain. Cathartic,
narcotic, and anthelmintic.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 table-spoonfuls for an adult;
1 to 2 teaspoonfuls for a child, followed by demulcents and castor oil; in
worms, &c.

=Decoction of Calumba (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CALUM′BÆ COMPOS′ITUM,
L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S. 1831.) Calumba and quassia, of each 2 dr.; orange
peel, 1 dr.; rhubarb, 20 gr.; carbonate of potassa, 30 gr.; water, 20 fl.
oz.; boil to 16 fl. oz., strain, and, when cold, add of compound tincture
of lavender, 1/2 fl. oz. Bitter, tonic, and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls 3 or 4 times daily.

=Decoction of Centaury.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CIMICIFUGE, F. H. Lesser
centaury, 2 oz.; water, 2 pints; boil for a few minutes, and strain.

=Decoction of Cey′lon Moss.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM FU′′CI AMYLA′CEI, D.
PLOCA′′RIÆ CANDI′DÆ, L. _Prep._ From Ceylon moss, 2 dr.; water, milk, or
whey, 1 pint; boil to 16 fl. oz., and strain. It may be sweetened and
flavoured. In irritation of the mucous membranes and in phthisis.

=Decoction of Cham′omile.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ANTHE′MIDIS, D. CHAMÆMELI, L.
From chamomiles, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; digest for 10 minutes,
simmer gently for 2 or 3 minutes longer, and strain with pressure. (See
_below_.)

=Decoction of Chamomile (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CHAMÆMELI COMPOSITUM,
L. _Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Chamomile flowers (dried), 1/2 oz.; fennel seed,
2 dr.; water, 16 oz.; boil a short time, and strain. Both the above are
bitter, stomachic and tonic; the last is vermifuge. They are chiefly used
as fomentations and clysters.

=Decoction of Cherry Laurel Bark.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM LAURO-CERASI CORTICIS.
(Dr Kastner.) Cherry laurel bark, 2 oz.; water, 2 pints; boil, and strain.

=Decoction of Chiret′ta.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CHIRAYTÆ, L. _Prep._ From
chiretta or chyrata, 5 dr.; water, 1 pint; boil 8 or 10 minutes and
strain.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 wine-glassful 2 or 3 times daily, as a stomachic
tonic; in flatulency and acidity, especially in the dyspepsia of gouty
persons.

=Decoction of Cincho′na.= See DECOCTION OF BARK.

=Decoction of Coffee.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CAFFEI. Boil 10 dr. of raw coffee
berries in 8 oz. of water to 5 oz. To be given in 3 doses during the
intermissions of intermittent fever.

=Decoction of Col′ocynth.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM COLOCYNTH′IDIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
Bat.) Colocynth pulp, 1 dr.; water, 8 oz.; boil 10 minutes, and when quite
cold, add of syrup of orange peel, 1 oz.; sulphuric ether, 1 dr.——_Dose_,
2 to 6 dr., 2 or 3 times a day; in dropsy, &c.

=Decoction of Colts′foot.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM TUSSILAG′INIS, L. _Prep._
(Pereira.) Fresh leaves of coltsfoot, 2 oz. (or flowers, 1 oz.); water, 2
pints; boil to a pint and strain. A popular remedy in chronic coughs and
chest diseases. It is emollient and demulcent.——_Dose._ Half a teacupful,
_ad libitum_. (See _below_.)

=Decoction of Coltsfoot (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM TUSSILAGINIS
COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ (Taddei.) Coltsfoot flowers, 6 oz.; figs, raisins,
and jujubes, of each 2 oz.; water, 12 pints; boil down to 4 pints; add
liquorice root, 2 oz.; again boil and strain. As the last.

=Decoction, Com′mon.= See DECOCTION OF MALLOWS.

=Decoction of Cor′sican Moss.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM HELMINTH′OCORTI, L. _Prep._
From the moss, 5 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint.——_Dose._ A
wine-glassful, three times a day; as a vermifuge. In 1822, Mr Farr brought
it forward as a remedy for cancer.

=Decoction of Cot′ton Root.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM GOSSYP′II, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Bouchelle.) Inner part of the root of the cotton plant, 4 oz.; water, 1
quart; boil to a pint.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful, occasionally, as an
emmenagogue; or, every 30 or 40 minutes, to produce uterine contractions,
for which purpose it is said to be as effectual as ergot of rye.

=Decoction of Dandeli′on.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM TARAX′ACI (B. P.), L. _Prep._
1. (B. P.) Fresh dandelion root (bruised), 1 _oz_.; water, 1-1/2 pint;
boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Herb and root (fresh), 7 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint.
Aperient, stomachic, and tonic.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. oz., or more, 2 or 3
times daily.

=Decoction, Diaphoret′ic.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM DIAPHORETICUM, L. Decoction of
bark, 1 pint; liquor of acetate of ammonia, 4 oz.; aromatic confection, 1
oz.——_Dose_, 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls every 3 hours.

=Decoction of Dog-grass.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM GRAMIN′IS, L.; PTISANE
CHIENDENT, Fr. _Prep._ From dog-grass root (_Triticum repens_), 1 oz.;
liquorice root, 1/2 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil 20 minutes, and strain.
Aperient and pectoral; by cupfuls, _ad libitum_. (See _below_.)

=Decoction of Dog-grass (Ioduret′ted).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM GRAMINIS
IODURE′TUM, L. _Prep._ (Magendie.) Decoction of dog-grass, 32 fl. oz.;
syrup of peppermint, 2 oz.; iodide of potassium, 1/2 dr.; mix. By cupfuls,
_ad libitum_.

=Decoction of Dog-wood.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM COR′NUS FLORIDÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
U. S.) Dog-wood bark (bruised), 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil 10 minutes, and
strain whilst hot. Tonic and astringent; recommended as a substitute for
bark.——_Dose_. A wine-glassful.

=Decoction of Dulcama′ra.= _Syn._ DECOCTION OF BITTER SWEET, D. OF WOODY
NIGHTSHADE; DECOCTUM DULCAMA′′RÆ (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)
Woody nightshade or bitter sweet (the new shoots), 10 dr.; water, 1-1/2
pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Dulcamara (chopped small), 1 oz.; water, 24 fl. oz.; boil to a
pint, and strain.

3. (Ph. D.) Twigs of woody nightshade, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil 10
minutes in a covered vessel, and strain. It should measure about 16 fl.
oz. Alterative, diaphoretic, and diuretic.——_Dose_. A wine-glassful, or
more, 2 or 3 times a day; in chronic coughs and chronic skin diseases, and
in most of those cases wherein sarsaparilla proves useful. See DECOCTION
OF BITTER SWEET, also _below_.

=Decoction of Dulcama′ra (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM DULCAMA′′RÆ
COMPOSI′TUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Augustin.) Dulcamara (bitter sweet), 4 dr.;
burdock root, liquorice root, sassafras chips, and guaiacum wood, of each,
2 dr.; water, 2 lbs.; boil to 16 fl. oz., and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
wine-glassfuls 2 or 3 times a day.

2. (Foy.) As the last, but using dulcamara, 2 oz.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1
wine-glassful; in similar cases to those in which the simple decoction is
given, especially in chronic rheumatism and venereal affections.

=Decoction of El′der Bark.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SAMBU′′CI, D. S. CORTICIS. L.
_Prep._ 1. (Sydenham.) Inner bark of elder, 1 oz.; water and milk, of each
1 pint; boil to one half, and strain.

2. (Collier.) Bark, 1 oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; boil to 1/2 pint, and
strain.

3. (Pereira.) Bark, 1 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to one half.——_Dose_. One
wine-glassful 2 or 3 times a day; as an aperient and resolvent in various
chronic disorders, in dropsy, and in certain cutaneous affections; or, 2
wine-glassfuls, as before, as a hydragogue cathartic in dropsies.

=Decoction of Elecam′pane.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM HELEN′′II, D. INU′LÆ, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. U. S.) Elecampane root, 1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil a few
minutes and strain. Tonic and expectorant, and, in some cases, diuretic
and diaphoretic.——_Dose_. A wine-glassful every hour or two. (See
_below_.)

=Decoction of Elecampane (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM HELENI COMPOSITUM,
D. INULÆ C., L. _Prep._ (Rotier.) Elecampane, 1 oz.; hyssop and ground
ivy, of each 2 dr.; water, 1 pint; boil 15 minutes, strain, and add of
honey, 2 oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls; as the last.

=Decoction of Elm Bark.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM UL′MI (B. P.), L. _Prep._ Elm
bark (cut in small pieces), 1 oz.; distilled water, 16 oz.; boil to 8 oz.,
and strain.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 oz., three or four times a day, as a cheap
substitute for sarsaparilla in scaly skin diseases. (See _below_.)

=Decoction of Elm Bark (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ULMI COMPOSITUM, L.
_Prep._ (Jeffrey.) Simple decoction of elm bark, 8 pints; liquorice root,
sassafras and guaiacum chips, of each 1 oz.; mezereon root, 3 dr.; boil
for one hour, and strain. More active than the last.

=Decoction of Er′got.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ERGOT′Æ, D. SECA′LIS CORNUTI, L.
_Prep._ (Pereira.) Ergot of rye (bruised), 1 dr.; water, 6 fl. oz.; boil
10 minutes, and strain.——_Dose_. One third at intervals of half an hour,
until the whole is taken; as a parturifacient.

=Decoction of Fern Root.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM FILICIS; D. RADICIS F., L.
_Prep._ (Dr Wood.) Dried fern-root, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil to 16 fl.
oz., and strain. By wine-glassfuls, fasting, until it excites slight
nausea; as a vermifuge, more particularly for tapeworm.

=Decoction of Figs.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM FICI, L. _Prep._ (Cadet.) Figs
(chopped), 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil, and strain. Demulcent and pectoral;
taken _ad libitum_. (See _below_.)

=Decoction of Figs (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM FICI COMPOSITUM, L.
_Prep._ (Foy.) Figs and raisins (chopped), of each 2 oz.; liquorice root,
1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 quart; boil 15 minutes, and strain. As the last.

=Decoction for Ene′mas.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM PRO ENEMA′TE, L. Barley-water, or
thin gruel, is commonly used under this name. See DECOCTION OF MALLOWS,
&c.

=Decoction for Fomenta′tions.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM PRO FOMENTO, L. _Prep._
(Ph. L. 1788.) Dried leaves of southern wood, tops of sea wormwood, and
chamomile flowers, of each 1 oz.; laurel or bay leaves (dried), 1/2 oz.;
water, 1 pint, boil a few minutes, and strain.

=Decoction of Galls.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM GAL′LÆ, (Ph. L.) _Prep._ From galls
(bruised), 2-1/2 oz.; water, 1 quart; boiled to one half, and strained. As
an astringent, fomentation, enema, or injection, in prolapsus ani, piles,
and leucorrhœa.

=Decoction of Guaiac′um.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM GUAIAC′I (Ph. E.), D. G.
COMPOSITUM (Ph. D. 1826), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Guaiacum shavings, 3 oz.;
raisins (chopped), 2 oz.; water, 8 pints; simmer down to 5 pints, adding
towards the end, sassafras (rasped or sliced), and liquorice root
(bruised), of each 1 oz.

2. (Ph. D.) Guaiacum wood, 3 oz.; sassafras, 10 dr.; liquorice root, 2-1/2
oz.; water, 10 pints, as the last; to strain 5 pints.

_Obs._ The above form the once celebrated ‘Decoction of the
Woods,’——_Dose._ A teacupful 3 or 4 times daily, or oftener, in chronic
rheumatism, cutaneous diseases, after a course of mercury, &c. Although
its virtues are of a very dubious kind, there is no doubt that it
frequently does good, especially when persevered in with a sudorific
regimen.

=Decoction of Hairy Horehound.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM BALLOTÆ LANATÆ, L. _Prep._
(Rehmann.) Siberian or woolly horehound (Ballota), 1-1/2 oz.; water, 1
quart; boil to one half.——_Dose._ A tumblerful, or more, twice a day; in
rheumatic, gouty, and dropsical affections, especially the latter. See
DECOCTION OF HOREHOUND.

=Decoction of Harts′horn.= See MIXTURES.

=Decoction of Hel′lebore.= 1. (DECOCTION OF BLACK HELLEBORE; DECOCTUM
HELLEBORI NIGRI, L.) _Prep._ 1. (A. T. Thomson.) Black hellebore root, 2
dr.; water, 1 pint; boil 15 minutes.——_Dose_, 1 fl. oz., every 4 hours; in
dropsy, worms, chronic skin diseases, &c., occurring in non-irritable
habits.

2. (DECOCTION OF WHITE HELLEBORE; DECOCTUM VERATRI, Ph. L. & D.) _Prep._
(Ph. L. 1836.) White hellebore (bruised), 10 dr.; water, 1 quart; boil to
a pint, and when cold, add of rectified spirit, 3 fl. oz. Used as a
lotion, in itch, lepra, psoriasis, scald-head, &c.; and to destroy
pediculi. In most cases it should be diluted with water, and should never
be applied to the unsound skin.

=Decoction of Holly Leaves.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ILICIS. (Foy.) Holly leaves,
1/2 oz.; water, 16 oz.; boil to 12 oz. For three doses.

=Decoction of Horehound.= _Syn._ COMPOUND DECOCTION OF HOREHOUND; DECOCTUM
MARUBII COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ (Dr R. E. Griffith.) Dried horehound
(_Marrubium vulgare_), 1 oz.; liquorice root and flax seed (bruised), of
each 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; macerate for 3 or 4 hours (boil a
minute), and strain. An excellent demulcent and pectoral.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
fl. oz., as required, in coughs, &c.

=Decoction of Horse-chest′nut Bark.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM HIPPOCASTANEI, L.
_Prep._ (Dr Wood.) Horse-chestnut bark (coarsely powdered), 10 dr.; water,
1 pint; boil 10 minutes, and strain. Used for decoction of cinchona bark.
A little liquorice root is frequently added. (See _below_.)

=Decoction of Horse-chest′nut Bark (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM
HIPPOCASTANEI COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Phœbus.) Horse-chestnut bark,
1-1/2 oz.; water, 18 fl. oz.; boil to one half, strain, and when quite
cold, add of sulphuric ether, 1 to 2 dr.; syrup of orange peel, 1 oz. To
be used during the intermission of an ague in wine-glassfuls at a time.

2. (Spielman.) Horse-chestnut bark and willow bark, of each 1/2 oz.;
calamus aromaticus and root of water avens, of each 2 dr.; water, 16 fl.
oz.; boil to one half. As the last.

=Decoction of Iceland Moss.= _Syn._ DECOCTION OF LIVERWORT; DECOCTUM
CETRARIÆ (Ph. L.); D. LICHENIS ISLANDICI (Ph. D.); D. LICHENIS (Ph. L.
1824.) _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Liverwort (Iceland moss), 5 dr.; wecm 1-1/2;
pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. D.) Iceland moss, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil for 10 minutes in
a covered vessel, and strain. Nutritious, demulcent, pectoral, and
tonic.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. oz., every 3 or 4 hours; in chronic affections
of the chest and stomach, especially pulmonary consumption, old coughs,
dyspepsia, chronic diarrhœa, and dysentery. It may be flavoured and
sweetened; milk is frequently added to it. The bitter matter may be
removed by steeping the moss for some time in pretty warm water, or in
cold water, to which a very little carbonate of potash has been added.
Without this is done, it is intensely bitter and nauseous.

=Decoction of Indian Ba′el.= _Syn._ DECOCTION OF ÆGLE MARMELOS; DECOCTUM
BAEL, L. From the dried unripe fruit of _Ægle marmelos_ (Indian bael), 2
oz.; water, 1 pint; boil to one third, and strain.——_Dose_, 2 fl. oz. two
or three times a day; in dysentery, diarrhœa, and English cholera.

=Decoction of Indian Pink.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SPIGELIÆ, L. _Prep._ Indian
pink root, 5 dr; water, 1 pint; boil 5 minutes; add senna, 4 dr.; digest
15 minutes, strain and add of manna, 1 oz.——_Dose._ A small teacupful, 3
times a day, for an adult; 1/2 oz. to 1 oz., or less, for children; as an
anthelmintic purge.

=Decoction of Indian Sarsaparil′la.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM HEMEDES′MI, L.
_Prep._ (Pereira.) Root of Indian sarsaparilla (_Hemedesmus Indicus_), 2
oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint. Diuretic, alterative, and
tonic.——_Dose._ By wine-glassfuls, as decoction of sarsaparilla.

=Decoction of I′′rish Moss.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CHON′DRI. _Prep._ (Pereira.)
Carrageen or Irish moss, 1 oz.; macerate in lukewarm water for 10 minutes,
take it out and drain it, and then boil it in water (or milk), 3 pints,
for 15 minutes, and strain through linen.

_Obs._ If twice the above weight of moss is employed, a mucilage
(_mucilago chondri_) is produced, which may be flavoured with lemon juice,
spices, &c., and forms a most nutritious article of spoon diet. It is
taken in the same cases as decoction of Iceland moss; and is frequently
employed in cookery, as a substitute for animal jelly, in the preparation
of blancmanges, soups, &c.

=Decoction of I′′singlass.= See LISBON DIET DRINK.

=Decoction of Jamaica Dogwood.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CORNUS FLORIDÆ. (U. S.
Ph.) Bark of Jamaica dogwood, 1 oz.; water, 16 oz. o.m.; boil 10 minutes
and strain, and make up to 1 pint o.m. As a substitute for cinchona, but
is more astringent.

=Decoction of Jujubes.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM JUJUBARUM. Boil 2 oz. of jujubes
(stoned), for an hour, in a sufficient quantity of water to produce 2
pints of decoction.

=Decoction of Ju′niper Berries (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM JUNIPERI
COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ (St. B. Hosp.) Juniper berries, 2 oz.; cream of
tartar, 3 dr.; water, 4 pints; boil to a quart, strain, and add compound
spirit of juniper, 2 fl. oz. Diuretic.——_Dose_, 2 or 3 wine-glassfuls, 3
times a day, warm.

=Decoction of Linseed (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM LI′NI COMPOSITUM (Ph.
D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Linseed, 1 oz.; liquorice root (bruised), 1/2
oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil for 10 minutes in a covered vessel, and
strain whilst hot. Emollient and demulcent.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful _ad
libitum_; in gonorrhœa, dysentery, pulmonary affections, &c. It may be
flavoured with lemon peel, and sweetened. See INFUSIONS.

=Decoction of Liquorice.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.
1826.) Liquorice root (sliced), 1-1/2 oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; boil 10
minutes and strain. A mild demulcent; it is taken either alone, by
wine-glassfuls, or is used as a vehicle for more active remedies.

=Decoction, Lisbon.= See LISBON DIET DRINK.

=Decoction of Liv′erwort.= See DECOCTION OF ICELAND MOSS.

=Decoction of Log′wood.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM HÆMATOXYLI (Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Logwood chips, 10 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a
pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Logwood, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil to 10 fl. oz., adding
towards the last, cinnamon (in powder), 1 dr.

3. (Ph. D.) Logwood, 1 oz.; water, 1/2 pint. Astringent and
tonic.——_Dose_, 1 table-spoonful to a wine-glassful; in diarrhœa, as
required.

4. (Ph. B.) Logwood in chips, 1 oz.; cinnamon in coarse powder, 60 gr.;
distilled water, 1 pint. Boil for 10 minutes, and strain to make up 1
pint.

=Decoction of Mad′der.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM RUBIÆ, D. R. TINCTORIÆ, L. _Prep._
1. (Dewees.) Powdered madder, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; simmer for 15
minutes, and add of cloves (bruised), 1 dr.; when cold, strain.——_Dose._ A
wine-glassful, 2 or 3 times daily; in amenorrhœa, chlorosis, &c.; or every
3 hours, a short time previous to the expected menstrual discharge.

2. (W. Cooley.) To the last add ammonio-citrate of iron, 3 dr.

3. (St. Marie.) Powdered madder, 1/2 oz.; hops, 1 dr.; English walnut
leaves, 3 dr.; water, 1 quart; boil to 1-1/2 pint, strain, and when cold,
add of tincture of tartrate of iron, 1 dr.——_Dose_, 2 fl. oz., night and
morning; in scrofula, &c.

=Decoction of Mal′lows.= _Syn._ COMMON DECOCTION; DECOCTUM COM′MUNE, D.
PRO ENEMA′TE (Ph. L. 1787), D. MALVÆ COMPOSITUM (Ph. L. 1836), L. _Prep._
(Ph. L. 1836.) Common mallows (dried), 1 oz.; chamomile flowers (dried),
1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil 15 minutes, and strain. Used chiefly for
fomentations and enemas.

=Decoction of Malt.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM BI′NÆ, D. BYNES, D. MALTI, L. _Prep._
(Swediaur.) Ground malt, 3 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint, and
strain. An oz. of syrup of lemons, or of saffron, may be added to the cold
decoction; or, a little liquorice root, with the malt. Demulcent and
laxative. A cupful _ad libitum_. Infusion of malt (sweet wort) is a more
convenient and elegant preparation.

=Decoction of Marshmal′low.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ALTHÆ′Æ (Ph. D. 1826 and Ph.
E. 1813), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Dried root and herb of marshmallow, 4
oz.; raisins (stoned), 2 oz.; water, 7 pints (wine measure); boil down to
5 pints, strain, allow it to deposit the sediment and decant the clear
liquid. Demulcent.——_Dose._ A cupful _ad libitum_, in coughs, colds,
calculous affections, and other diseases of the urinary organs. See
MIXTURES.

=Decoction of Matico.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM MATICO′NIS, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Jeffreys.) Matico leaves, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil 12 minutes, and
strain. Astringent.——_Dose_, 1 fl. oz., 2 or 3 times a day; in hæmorrhagic
and other discharges.

=Decoction, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM HYDRARGYRI, D. MERCURIALE, L.
_Prep._ 1. Quicksilver, 4 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil in a glass or earthen
vessel for an hour, adding water to replace that lost by
evaporation.——_Dose._ A teacupful.

2. Mercurial pill, 1 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint.——_Dose._ A
wine-glassful. Both were formerly taken for worms and the itch.

3. Corrosive sublimate, 1 gr.; (dissolved in) spirit of wine, 30 drops;
extract of sarsaparilla, 3 dr.; decoction of sarsaparilla, 8 fl. oz.;
mix.——_Dose._ One large table-spoonful, 3 times a day; in syphilis and
obstinate skin diseases.

=Decoction of Mezere′on.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM MEZEREI (Ph. E. and Ph. D.
1826), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Root-bark of mezereon, 2 dr.; liquorice root, 4
dr.; water, 1 quart; simmer to 1-1/2 pint, and strain. Stimulant and
sudorific.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful, or more, three or four times a day;
in chronic rheumatism, scrofula, secondary syphilis, lepra, and some other
cutaneous affections. Much boiling injures the virtues of mezereon. (See
_below_.)

=Decoction of Mezere′on (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM MEZEREI COMPOSITUM,
L. _Prep._ (Van Mons.) Mezereon, 2 dr.; bitter sweet, 4 dr.; burdock, 2
oz.; water, 2 quarts; boil to 3 pints, add of liquorice root, 2 dr., and
strain. As the last, and in obstinate diseases of the skin.

=Decoction of Mugwort.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ARTEMISIÆ VULGARIS. Mugwort root,
1 oz.; water, 24 oz. Boil for half an hour. In epilepsy.

=Decoction of Myrrh.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM MYRRHÆ. (Ph. D.) Myrrh, 2 dr.;
water, 8-1/2 oz.; triturate the myrrh with the water gradually added; then
boil for 10 minutes in a covered vessel, and strain.

=Decoction, Narcotic.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ANODYNUM, D. NARCOTICUM, L. _Prep._
(Hosp. Form.) Common nightshade (dried), 1 oz.; poppy heads, 3 in no.;
water, 1 pint; boil 10 minutes, and strain. As an anodyne fomentation,
used warm.

=Decoction of Ni′tre.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM NITROSUM, D. NITRATUM, D. POTASSÆ
NITRATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Nitre, 1/2 oz.; white sugar, 2 oz.; cochineal, 20
gr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil a few minutes, and strain.

2. (Hosp. Form.) Barley-water, 1 pint; nitre, 5 dr.; dissolve. Diuretic,
diaphoretic, and refrigerant. A wine-glassful, frequently; in gonorrhœa,
sore throat, acute rheumatism, scurvy, &c.

=Decoction of Oak Bark.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM QUERCÛS (Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Oak bark (bruised), 10 dr.; water, 1 quart; boil
down to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. D.) Oak bark, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil 10 minutes, and
strain. Astringent. Used as a gargle in ulcerated sore throat, relaxation
of the uvula, &c., and as a wash, and as an injection in piles,
leucorrhœa, hæmorrhages, prolapsus ani, &c.

3. (Ph. B.) Oak bark bruised, 1-1/2 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint; boil for
10 minutes, and strain.

=Decoction of Oats.= _Syn._ WATER GRUEL; DECOCTUM AVENÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Cullen.) Oatmeal, 1 oz.; water, 3 quarts; boil to a quart, strain, and
when cold, decant the clear liquid from the sediment.

2. (A. T. Thomson.) Washed groats, 4 oz.; water, 4 pints; boil to a quart.
Nutritious and demulcent. Taken _ad libitum_, to promote the action of
purgatives, and as an enema, either alone, or as a vehicle for more active
substances. It is too thin for food. See GRUEL.

=Decoction of Parei′ra.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM PAREIRÆ (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1.
(Ph. L.) _Pareira brava_ root (sliced), 10 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to
a pint, and strain.

2. (Sir B. Brodie.) Pareira, 4 dr.; water, 3 pints; boil to a pint, as
last. The above are given in gonorrhœa, leucorrhœa, and chronic
inflammation of the bladder.——_Dose._ Of the first, 1/2 to 1
wine-glassful, 3 or 4 times a day; of the second, about twice that
quantity, or more. It is commonly combined with some tincture of
hyoscyamus; and when the triple phosphates are present in the urine,
dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid may be added. See PAREIRA.

=Decoction, Pec′toral.= See DECOCTION OF BARLEY.

=Decoction of Pel′litory.= DECOCTUM PYRE′′THRI, L. _Prep._ (Guy’s Hosp.)
Pellitory root, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain. Used
as a gastric stimulant, and as a gargle in the relaxation of the uvula.

=Decoction of Pome′granate.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM GRANA′TI (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._
(Ph. L.) Pomegranate rind (fruit-bark), 2 oz.; distilled water, 1-1/2
pint; boil to a pint, and strain. Astringent. Used as a gargle and
injection, in sore throat, leucorrhœa, &c.; and internally, in diarrhœa,
dysentery, &c.——_Dose_, 1 fl. oz., or more.

=Decoction of Pomegranate Root.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM GRANATI RADICIS (Ph. L.),
L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Root-bark of pomegranate (sliced), 2 oz.; water, 1
quart; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Collier.) Bark of the root, 2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil to one half.
This is the common form used in India.

_Dose, &c._ A wine-glassful, half-hourly, until the whole is taken, a
light diet and a dose of castor oil having been taken the day previously.
In tapeworm, Dr Collier recommends the whole of the last preparation to be
given at 2 doses, at the interval of 2 hours. It purges, and in 5 or 6
hours frequently expels the worm; if this does not take place, it should
be persevered in. “Look for the head of the tænia (tapeworm); for if that
is not expelled, you have done nothing.” (Collier.) Oil of turpentine and
kousso are now more frequently given in tænia in this country.

=Decoction of Poppies.= _Syn._ DECOCTION OF POPPY-HEADS, FOMENTATION OF
P.-H.; DECOCTUM PAPAVERIS (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)
Poppy-heads (bruised), 4 oz.; water, 2 quarts; boil for 15 minutes, and
strain.

2. (Ph. E. & D.) As the last, but using only 3 pints of water. Used as an
emollient fomentation, in painful swellings, excoriations, &c. The
addition of a 1/4 pint of vinegar is said to promote its efficacy.

3. (Ph. B.) Poppy-heads bruised, 2 oz.; distilled water, 1-1/2 pint. Boil
for 10 minutes and strain. The product should measure a pint.

=Decoction of Quas′sia.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM QUASSIÆ, L. _Prep._ From quassia
chips (small). 1 dr.; water, 1-1/4 pint; boil to a pint, and add syrup of
orange peel, 2 oz.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful, occasionally, as a stomachic
tonic. See INFUSIONS.

=Decoction of Quince.= _Syn._ DECOCTION OF QUINCE SEED, MUCILAGE OF Q. S.;
DECOCTUM CYDONII (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ From quince seeds, 2 dr.; water, 1
pint; boil for 10 minutes, and strain. Used as an emollient and sheathing
application to abraded or wounded surfaces, as cracked lip, nipples, &c.;
and to the skin in erysipelas, to painful hæmorrhoidal tumours, and the
like. Prepared with a little less water, it is used by the hairdresser as
‘bandoline’ or ‘fixateur.’

=Decoction of Red Gum.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM GUMMI RUBRI (Mr Squire.) Red gum,
1 oz.; water, 2 pints; boil 10 minutes, and strain.

=Decoction of Rice.= _Syn._ RICE WATER, RICE DRINK; DECOCTUM ORY′ZÆ, L.
_Prep._ RICE, 2 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to one half, and strain.
Demulcent. A good drink in fevers, coughs, &c., either alone or sweetened
and flavoured with a little lemon peel.

=Decoction of Sarsaparil′la.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SAR′ZÆ (Ph. L. & E.), D.
SARSAPARILLÆ (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Sarsaparilla (sliced), 5
oz.; water, 2 quarts; boil to a quart, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Sarsaparilla, 5 oz.; boiling distilled water, 4 pints;
macerate for 2 hours, in a vessel lightly covered, and placed in a warm
situation; then take out the root, bruise it, return it again to the
liquor, boil down to a quart, and strain.

3. (Ph. D.) Sarsaparilla, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; digest an
hour, boil 10 minutes, cool, and strain.

4. (Ph. B.) Digest 2-1/2 _oz._ of Jamaica sarsaparilla cut transversely in
1-1/2 pint of boiling water for an hour, boil for 10 minutes, cool, and
strain. Make up to one pint.

_Obs._ The medicinal virtues of sarsaparilla root reside wholly in the
bark, or cortical portion; it is therefore quite unnecessary to bruise it,
as directed in the Ph. E. By those houses which do largely in decoction of
sarsaparilla, the root is seldom split or cut; the bundles in which it is
made up being simply untied and spread open, to allow of the free exposure
of every part to the solvent action of the water. By this plan the whole
of the soluble portion of the bark is extracted, whilst the feculent
matter that pervades the wood is only partially dissolved out. According
to Soubeiran, a mere infusion is preferable. The dose is a teacupful to
half a pint, 3 or 4 times a day.

An extemporaneous decoction of sarsaparilla is made by dissolving 3/4 oz.
of the simplest extract in 1 pint of hot water. See SARSAPARILLA, and
_below_.

=Decoction of Sarsaparilla (Concentrated).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SARZÆ
CONCENTRATUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Wholesale.) Sarsaparilla (Jamaica) 10-1/2
lbs., is placed in a large and well-cleaned copper boiler, and enough
boiling water added to cover it; it is then left to macerate, without
boiling, for 3 or 4 hours, after which it is boiled for about an hour, and
the clear liquor drawn off into another clean copper pan; the root (after
it has well drained) is then washed or ‘sparged’[255] with boiling water,
until the latter runs off scarcely coloured; the washings are added to the
decoction, and the whole evaporated as quickly as possible to 6-1/2 pints;
it is then set to cool, and rectified spirit of wine, 1-1/2 pint, further
added; after agitation, the whole is set aside in a well-corked bottle, in
a cool place, for a week. In a few days it is usually found as clear and
brilliant as brandy, with very little sediment, and will keep for any
length of time uninjured. Some manufacturers, instead of washing the root,
give it a second and third water, boiling it each time and evaporating the
mixed liquors.

[Footnote 255: For an explanation of the operation of ‘sparging’ see page
356.]

2. (Extemporaneous.) Extract of sarsaparilla, 6-1/2 oz.; water, 12 fl.
oz.; dissolve, add rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz., and water, q. s. to
make the whole exactly measure a pint.

_Obs._ 1 drachm of this decoction, mixed with 7 drachms of water, forms a
similar preparation to the Decoctum Sarzæ of the Ph. L., and is now very
frequently substituted for it in dispensing. See SARSAPARILLA, EXTRACTS,
and _below_.

=Decoction of Sarsaparilla (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SARZÆ COMPOSITUM
(Ph. L. & E.), D. SARSAPARILLÆ C. (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)
Decoction of sarsaparilla (boiling), 4 pints; sassafras chips, guaiacum
wood (rasped), and fresh liquorice root (bruised), of each 10 dr.;
mezereon (root-bark), 3 dr.; boil for 15 minutes, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) As the last, but using 4 dr. of mezereon.

3. (Ph. D.) Sarsaparilla (sliced), 2 oz., sassafras, guaiacum turnings,
and liquorice root (bruised), of each 2 dr.; mezereon root-bark, 1 dr.;
boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; digest for an hour, then boil for 10 minutes,
cool, and strain.

4. (Extemporaneous.) Compound extract of sarsaparilla, 7-1/2 dr.; boiling
water, 1 pint; dissolve.

5. (Ph. B.) Jamaica sarsaparilla, cut transversely, 2-1/2 oz.; sassafras,
guaiacum turnings, bruised liquorice root, of each 1/4 oz., mezereon root
bark 60 grains; digest them with 1-1/2 pint of boiling water in a covered
vessel for an hour, then boil for 10 minutes, cool, and strain. Make up to
1 pint.

_Obs._ This decoction is an imitation of the once justly celebrated
‘Lisbon Diet Drink.’ It is an alterative and diaphoretic.——_Dose._ A
teacupful, or more, 3 or 4 times a day, either along with, or after, a
mercurial course; and in syphilis, scurvy, scrofula, chronic rheumatism,
lepra, psoriasis, and several other skin diseases, and especially in
cachexia, or general bad habit of body. During its use the skin should be
kept warm. See SARSAPARILLA and _below_.

=Decoction of Sarsaparilla (Concentrated Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SARZÆ
COMPOSITUM CONCENTRATUM, D. SARSAPARILLÆ C. C., L. There is a very
considerable trade done in this article, in consequence of compound
decoction of sarsaparilla being taken in large doses, both alone and in
combination with other remedies, and the pharmacopœial preparation
spoiling if kept longer than about 12 hours, in warm weather. Like the
concentrated simple decoction, it is said to be of 8 times the usual
strength, so that when mixed with 7 times its weight of water, it forms a
similar preparation to the Decoctum Sarzæ Compositum,——Ph. L., for which
it is very generally substituted in dispensing.

_Prep._ 1. (Wholesale.) Sarsaparilla (red Jamaica), 96 lbs.; mezereon root
(not root-bark), 9 lbs.; liquorice root (bruised), 16 lbs. The mezereon
and liquorice are first laid (loosely) on the bottom of a clean copper
pan, and the bundles of sarsaparilla (untied and loosened) packed over
them, in horizontal layers, alternately at right angles with each other.
Three or four boards, with as many iron 1/2-cwt. weights, are next placed
on the top of the whole. Water is now run in, to about ten inches higher
than the ingredients, and heat is applied until ebullition commences. The
materials are now allowed to macerate, without boiling, for 3 or 4 hours,
after which the liquor is gently boiled for about an hour, care being
taken to add fresh water from time to time, so as to keep the whole well
covered. The decoction is next run off, and set evaporating as quickly as
possible. The ingredients are then washed with successive portions of
boiling water, by allowing it to descend from a species of shower-bath,
after the manner of ‘sparging,’ described under BREWING.[256] This is
repeated until the water runs off nearly colourless, the smallest quantity
being employed that will effect the object in view. The whole of the
liquid is now evaporated without delay, until reduced to 8-1/4 galls.,
when, after cooling, 2 dr. of essential oil of sassafras, dissolved in 2
galls. of rectified spirit of wine, are added, and afterwards 1 pint of
essence of guaiacum. The liquid is then placed in a suitably sized barrel,
set upon its head, and fitted with a small cock (not placed too near the
bottom), and allowed to repose for a week, by which time it becomes clear
and brilliant, and fit for sale. This is the form adopted by the large
metropolitan drug-houses most celebrated for this preparation. The product
that may be drawn off fit for sale is something over 10 galls. The
residuum, forming the ‘bottoms,’ consists chiefly of fecula. The latter is
well stirred up with 3 or 4 galls. of cold water, and allowed to settle.
The clear decanted ‘washings’ are used as water or liquor in making the
next batch of decoction.

[Footnote 256: See page 356.]

2. (Extemporaneous.) Compound extract of sarsaparilla, 7-1/2 oz.; boiling
water, 12 fl. oz.; dissolve, then add of rectified spirit of wine, 2-1/2
fl. oz.; mix well, and further add of water, q. s. to make the whole
measure a pint.

_Obs._ To conduct this process successfully, several large copper pans are
required; one of which (to boil the ingredients in) must be capable of
containing from 140 to 150 gallons at the least, and the others must be
sufficiently large to receive the liquors as they are drawn off. Those for
the evaporation should be very shallow, in order that it may proceed
rapidly; and the whole should be heated by steam. An excellent plan is to
employ large wooden vats, and to apply the heat by means of pipes laid
along the bottom, and supplied with high-pressure steam. This method is
less expensive than the use of double steam pans, as above. When essence
of guaiacum is not used, 24 lbs. of guaiacum shavings, from which the dust
has been sifted, are boiled with the other ingredients, instead. Those
desirous of using the proportions of the ingredients ordered by the
Colleges may do so by taking eight times the given quantities, and
proceeding as above. The following are special preparations:——

FELTZ’S DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. _Syn._ AP′OZEM OF FELTZ; DECOCTUM SARZÆ
CUM ICHTHYOCOL′LA, L.; PTISANE DE FELTZ, Fr. _Prep._ From sarsaparilla
(sliced), 3 oz.; isinglass and crude antimony (in powder), of each 1/2
oz.; water 5 pints; boil to one half, and strain. Used in skin diseases.

JAUPERAND’S DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. _Syn._ DECOCTUM SARZÆ CUM RADICE
CHINÂ, L.; PTISANE DE JAUPERAND, Fr. _Prep._ (Bories.) Sarsaparilla and
China root, of each 2 oz.; senna and sassafras chips, of each 1/2 oz.;
carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; water, 2 galls.; simmer, gently, for several
hours, and strain 12 pints; when cold, decant the clear.——_Dose_, 2 fl.
oz., two or three times daily; in scrofula, &c.

VINACHE’S DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. _Syn._ DECOCTUM SARZÆ CUM SENNÂ, L.;
PTISANE DE VINACHE, Fr. _Prep._ (Foy.) Sarsaparilla, China wood, and
guaiacum wood, of each 1-1/2 oz.; crude antimony (tied in a rag), 2 oz.;
water, 6 pints; macerate for 12 hours (7 in hot weather), boil to one
half, add sassafras chips and senna, of each 1/2 oz., infuse 1 hour
longer, and strain; when cold, decant the clear. Recommended in scrofula,
secondary syphilis, and various cutaneous affections.

ZITTMANN’S DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. _Syn._ DECOCTUM ZITTMANNI, L.;
PTISANE DE ZITTMANN, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (STRONGER DECOCTION; D. Z. FORTE, Ph.
Bor. 1847.) Sarsaparilla, 12 oz.; water, 72 lbs. (say 5-3/4 galls.);
digest 24 hours, then add (suspended in a bag), white sugar and alum, of
each 6 dr.; calomel, 4 dr.; cinnabar, 1 dr.; boil to 24 lbs., adding
towards the end of the process, senna, 3 oz.; liquorice root, 1-1/2 oz.;
aniseed and fennel seed, of each 1/2 oz.; finally strain, with pressure
and after some time decant the clear portion. The formula in the ‘Ph.
Suec.’ 1845 is similar; that in the ‘Hamburg Codex’ directs only 24 lbs.
of water to be used, and the whole to be reduced to 16 lbs.

2. (WEAKER DECOCTION; D. Z. TENUE.——Ph. Bor. 1847.) Add to the residuum
(waste) of the last preparation sarsaparilla, 6 oz.; water, 72 lbs. (say,
5-3/4 galls.); boil to 24 lbs.; adding towards the end of the process,
lemon peel, cinnamon bark, liquorice root, and cardamoms (all bruised), of
each 3 dr.; press, strain, &c., as before. In the ‘Ph. Suec.’ 1845 double
the above weights of lemon peel and liquorice root are ordered, and in the
‘Hamburg Codex’ (1845) 24 lbs. of water only are ordered, and the whole
is to be boiled down to 16 lbs.

_Obs._ Both the above are used in Germany and on the Continent generally,
in the same cases as those in which compound decoction of sarsaparilla is
administered in England. They may be drunk almost _ad libitum_. A trace of
mercury may be detected in the stronger decoction, when properly prepared.
See SARSAPARILLA.

=Decoction of Sen′ega Root.= _Syn._ DECOCTION OF AMERICAN SNAKE ROOT, D.
OF RATTLESNAKE ROOT; DECOCTUM POLYGALÆ, D. SENEGÆ (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._
(Ph. L.) Senega or seneka root, 10 dr.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint,
and strain.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 wine-glassfuls three or four times daily; in
humoral asthma, chronic cough, dropsy, &c. It is stimulant, expectorant,
and diuretic, and, in large doses, emetic and cathartic. It is frequently
conjoined with ammonia. It is the antidote employed by the Senega Indians
against the bite of the rattlesnake. (Dr Tennant.)

=Decoction of Simaru′ba Bark.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SIMARU′BÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Wright.) Simaruba bark, 2 dr.; water, 24 fl. oz.; boil to one half, and
strain. Tonic.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. oz.; in chronic dysentery and diarrhœa.

=Decoction of Squills (Compound).= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SCILLÆ COMPOSITUM, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. U. S. 1841.) Squills, 3 dr.; juniper berries, 4 oz.; snake
root, 3 oz.; water, 4 lbs.; boil to one half, strain, and add of sweet
spirits of nitre, 4 fl. oz. In chronic coughs and other chest affections,
unaccompanied with active inflammatory symptoms.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. oz.,
twice or thrice daily.

=Decoction of Starch.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM AM′YLI (Ph. L.), MUCILA′GO AM′YLI
(Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. & E.) Starch, 1/2 oz.; add, gradually,
water, 1 pint, and boil for a short time. The Dublin preparation is nearly
twice as strong. Used as an enema in dysentery, diarrhœa, and excoriations
of the rectum.

=Decoction, Sudorif′ic.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SUDORIF′ICUM, L. The old name of
the compound decoctions of sarsaparilla and guaiacum.

=Decoction of Su′et.= _Syn._ ARTIFICIAL GOAT’S MILK; DECOCTUM SE′VI, L.
_Prep._ Suet, 1 oz.; tie it loosely in a piece of muslin and simmer it in
cow’s milk, 1-1/4 pint; adding towards the last, white sugar, 1/2 oz. In
scrofulous emaciation and phthisis; taken _ad libitum_.

=Decoction of Tam′arinds.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM TAMARIND′ORUM, L. _Prep._
Tamarinds, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil for 5 minutes, and strain. A
pleasant drink in fevers, asthma, chronic coughs, &c.

=Decoction of Tamarinds and Sen′na.= _Syn._ DEC. TAMARINDORUM CUM SENNÂ
(Ph. E. 1744), L. _Prep._ Tamarinds, 6 dr.; cream of tartar, 2 dr.; water,
1-1/2; pint; boil in a glazed earthen vessel until reduced to 16 oz.; then
infuse therein for 12 hours, senna, 4 dr.; strain, and add of syrup of
violets, 1 oz. A gentle aperient.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful, or more.

=Decoction of Tar.= _Syn._ TAR WATER; DECOCTUM PI′CIS LIQ′UIDÆ, L. _Prep._
Tar, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2; pint; boil to 1 pint.——_Dose._ A pint or more
daily; in chronic catarrh; and as a wash in chronic skin diseases,
especially those of the head, in children.

=Decoction, Ton′ic.= _Syn._ STRENGTHENING DECOCTION; DECOCTUM ROBORANS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Peruvian bark (bruised), 1/2 oz.; Virginian snake root, 2 dr.;
water, 1 pint; boil to one half, strain whilst hot, and add, spirit of
cinnamon, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; diluted sulphuric acid, 1-1/2 dr.——_Dose_, 2 oz.
two or three times a day.

2. Decoction of bark, 5 oz.; tincture of bark, 6 dr.; aromatic confection,
1/2 dr.; salvolatile, 1 dr.——_Dose_, 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls night and
morning; especially in diarrhœa.

=Decoction of Tor′mentil.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM TORMENTIL′LÆ (Ph. L.), L.
_Prep._ (Ph. L.) Tormentil root (bruised), 2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil
to a pint, and strain. Astringent.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. oz., in chronic
diarrhœa, &c.

=Decoction of Tur′meric.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CURCU′MÆ, L. _Prep._ From
turmeric root (in powder), 1-1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil for 5 minutes,
and strain. A mild aromatic stimulant and stomachic.——_Dose._ A
wine-glassful _ad libitum_. It is principally used as a test for alkalies,
which turn it brown. Unsized paper dipped into it and dried forms the
turmeric test-paper of the chemist.

=Decoction of Verbe′na.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM VERBE′NÆ, L. From verbena
(vervain), 2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to 1 pint, and strain.

_Obs._ The _Verbena officinalis_ was formerly highly recommended by
Etmuller, Hartman, De Haën, Morley, and others, in scrofula, cephalalgia,
&c., but afterwards fell into neglect. More recently, a decoction of the
plant has been highly extolled by Boshanov and others as an anti-febrile.

=Decoction, Vul′nerary.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM VULNERA′′RIUM, L. _Prep._ From
ground ivy and broad-leaved plantain, of each 1/2 oz.; water, 3 pints;
boil to 1 quart, strain, and add sugar, 1 oz. A popular pectoral and
tonic, especially in old coughs; also to heal wounds.——_Dose_, 1/2 a
teacupful or more twice a day.

=Decoction of Wal′nut Bark.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM JUGLAND′IS, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
Gen.) Green bark of walnuts, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil for 15 minutes,
and strain. As an anti-syphilitic. Before the general introduction of
sarsaparilla it was much esteemed in most cases in which that drug is now
taken.——_Dose, &c._ The same as those of comp. dec. of sarsaparilla.
Pearson says that “when the putamen (green rind) of the walnut has been
omitted, either intentionally or by accident (from _Decoctum
Lusitanicum_), the same good effects have not followed its use as when it
contained this ingredient.

=Decoction of Walnut Leaves.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM JUGLAND′IS FOLIO′′RUM, L.
_Prep._ (Negrier.) Walnut leaves, 1 handful; water, 1 quart; boil 15
minutes, and strain. Detersive, diaphoretic, and alterative.——_Dose, &c._
As the last, especially in chronic rheumatism, secondary syphilis, &c.

=Decoction of Wa′terdock.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM RUMI′CIS, D. R. AQUAT′ICI, L.
_Prep._ (A. T. Thomson.) Root of common waterdock (_Rumex obtusifolius_),
1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil for 10 minutes, and strain.

_Obs._ This decoction is astringent, and was once much celebrated as a
remedy for scurvy and some other cutaneous affections. “It is the only
remedy which proves efficacious in that disease when the ulcers are
healed, and the patient is attacked with asthma.” (Linnaeus, on the Scurvy
of the Laplanders.)

=Decoction, White= (Sydenham’s). _Syn._ HARTSHORN DRINK; MIS′TURA COR′NU
USTI. _Prep._ Prepared burnt hartshorn, 2 oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz.; water, 3
pints; boil to 1 quart, and strain. Mucilaginous; demulcent. Taken _ad
libitum_.

=Decoction of Whor′tleberry.= _Syn._ DECOCTION OF BEAR-BERRY, D. OF
UVA-URSI; DECOCTUM UVÆ URSI (Ph. L. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)
Whortleberry leaves, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. D.) Uva-ursi (the leaves), 1/2 oz.; water, 1/2 pint; boil 10
minutes, and strain.

_Dose, &c._ 1 to 3 fl. oz. two or three times daily; in phthisis and
purulent affections of the urinary organs, unaccompanied with active
inflammation; especially in chronic affections of the bladder.

=Decoction of Wil′low Bark.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SALICIS, D. S. CORTICIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Wilkinson.) Willow bark (_Salix latifolia_), bruised, 1-1/2
oz.; macerate in water, 2 lbs., for 6 hours, then boil for 15 minutes, and
strain. Tonic, astringent, and febrifuge.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful.

2. (Nieman.) Willow bark (_Salix alba_), 1-1/2 oz.; water, 3/4 pint; boil
to one half.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. oz. Both are used as substitutes for
decoction of cinchona bark.

=Decoction of Win′ter-green.= _Syn._ DECOCTION OF PYROLA, D. OF UMBELLATED
WINTER-GREEN, D. OF PIPSISSEWA; DECOCTUM CHIMAPHILÆ (Ph. L.), D. PYROLÆ
(Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Chimaphila (dried herb), 1 oz.; water,
1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. D.) Winter-green (dried leaves), 1/2 oz.; water, 1/2 pint; boil 10
minutes in a covered vessel, and strain. Tonic, stomachic, alterative, and
diuretic.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. oz.; in dropsies, scrofula, debility, loss
of appetite, &c.; and in those affections of the urinary organs in which
uva-ursi is commonly given.

=Decoction of Worm′seed.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SANTONICI, L. _Prep._ 1.
Wormseed, bruised, 2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil down to 16 fl. oz., and
strain.

2. (Dr R. E. Griffith.) Fresh leaves of wormseed(_Chenopodium
anthelminticum_),——Linn.), 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; orange peel, 2 dr.; boil
(10 minutes), and strain. The above are bitter, stomachic, and
vermifuge.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful twice a day; in worms. It is also used
as an injection against ascarides.

=Decoction of Yar′row.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM MILLEFOLII, L. _Prep._ From
milfoil or yarrow tops, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 1-1/4 pint; boil to a pint, and
strain. Astringent, tonic, and vulnerary.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful thrice
daily; in dropsies, &c. It is also used as a fomentation to bruises, &c.

=Decoction of Black Snake Root.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM CIMICIFUGE. Black snake
root, 1 oz.; water, 16 oz.; boil for 10 minutes.——_Dose_, 1 oz. to 2 oz.
in rheumatism and dropsy.

=Decoction of Stavesacre.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM STAPHISAGRIÆ. Stavesacre seed,
1 oz.; water, 2 pints; boil for a few minutes, and strain. For external
use.

=Decoction of Snails.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM LIMATUM (MARS MOUCHON). Flesh of
vine or garden snails (cleansed from shell and intestines), 5 oz.; water,
2 pints; simmer gently for 2 hours, adding towards the end, maiden hair 2
oz., and strain.

=Decoction of Soapwort.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM SAPONARIÆ (SWEDIAUR). Soapwort, 2
oz.; water, 4 lbs.; boil to 2 lbs., and strain.

=Decoction of Wood-Soot.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM FULIGINIS (Dr Neligan).
Wood-soot, 4 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint.

=DECOLORA′TION.= The blanching or removal of the natural colour of any
substance. Syrups and many animal, vegetable, and saline solutions are
decoloured or whitened by agitation with animal charcoal, and subsequent
subsidence or filtration. Many fluids rapidly lose their natural colour by
exposure to light, especially to the direct rays of the sun. In this way
castor, nut, poppy, and several other oils are whitened. Fish oils are
partially deodorised and decoloured by filtration through animal charcoal.
Cottons and linens are still commonly bleached by the joint action of
light, air, and moisture. The peculiar way in which light produces this
effect has never been satisfactorily explained. The decoloration of
textile fabrics and solid bodies generally is called bleaching. See
BLANCHING, BLEACHING, OILS, TALLOW, SYRUPS, SUGAR, &c.

=DECOMPOSI′′TION= (-zĭsh′un). In _chemistry_, the resolution of compounds
into their elements, or the alteration of their chemical constitution in
such a manner that new products are formed.

=DEFECA′TION.= The separation of a liquid from its lees, dregs, or
impurities by subsidence and decantation. It is commonly employed for the
purification of saline solutions and glutinous or unctuous liquids on the
large scale in preference to filtration; than which it is both more
expeditious and expensive. See CLARIFICATION, DECANTATION, FILTRATION, &c.

=DEFLAGRA′TION.= The sudden combustion of any substance for the purpose of
producing some change in its composition, by the joint action of heat and
oxygen. The process is commonly performed by projecting into a red-hot
crucible, in small portions at a time, a mixture of nitrate of potash, and
the body to be oxidised.

=DELIQUES′CENCE.= Spontaneous liquefaction by absorption of the moisture
of the atmosphere. Deliquescent salts are those which by exposure
gradually assume the liquid state. They should all be kept in well-closed
bottles or jars.

=DELIR′IUM TRE′MENS.= [L.] The madness of drunkards; a disease of the
brain resulting from the excessive and protracted use of intoxicating
liquors, particularly of ardent spirits. The early symptoms are extreme
irritability and fretfulness, with unusual mobility of the body.
Sleeplessness and unpleasant dreams soon follow. At length frightful
dreams and visions harass the patient. He sees remarkable sights, hears
extraordinary sounds, and labours under all the strange delusions of
insane persons, which, however vague and unfounded, operate on him with
all the force of realities till he becomes furiously mad. The fit almost
always comes on after hard drinking; and the hands are usually, but not
always, tremulous. A similar affection is occasionally produced by the
abuse of opium, excessive mental anxiety, night watching, or depletion.
According to Dr Armstrong, even respiring the fumes of ardent spirits
will, under some circumstances, produce this disease. Persons who have
undergone surgical operations under the influence of chloroform are more
liable to attacks of this kind than other persons.

The _treatment_ of delirium tremens consists mainly in the judicious use
of opium, laudanum, or morphia, in rather large doses, frequently
repeated. Thirty to sixty drops of laudanum may be given every hour or two
during the fit, its effects being carefully watched. The object is to
produce quiet sleep, from which the patient usually wakes free from the
worst symptoms of the disease. Diaphoretics and mild aperients may also be
given, and a light, nutritious diet adopted throughout. Depletion,
especially bleeding, should be particularly avoided. Alcoholic stimulants
and wine, in certain cases, have proved useful. Under this treatment, the
patient, unless of a very bad habit of body, or much debilitated by
previous excesses, usually recovers. He is, however, very liable to
relapses and subsequent attacks, which are best prevented by judicious
moral management.

The judicious administration of chloral hydrate, in doses of from thirty
to sixty grains as well as of bromide of potassium in twenty-grain doses,
either alone or combined with the chloral, has lately been had recourse to
with the happiest results, for the production of sleep in cases of
delirium tremens or in the insomnia of dipsomaniacs.

The repetition of the dose of chloral requires to be regulated with very
great caution; and it is only in the case of emigrants and others unable
to obtain medical aid that we would recommend it to be given, and then
only should opium have failed to produce the desired effect. Not _more_
than sixty grains of the chloral should be administered during the
twenty-four hours. The internal administration of tincture of capsicum in
moderately large doses, in the intervals of the opiates or chloral
hydrate, has lately been tried in the treatment of this disease, it is
said, with success.

=DELPHIN′IC ACID.= _Syn._ PHOCE′NIC ACID. A fatty acid, obtained by
saponifying the oil of the delphinus or porpoise. According to recent
experiments, it is identical with valeric acid.

=DELPHIN′INE.= _Syn._ DEL′PHINE, DEL′PHIA, DELPHIN′IA. An alkaloid
discovered by Lassaigne and Feneulle in _Delphinium staphysagria_ or
stavesacre.

_Prep._ 1. The husked seeds (in powder) are boiled in a little water, and
pressed in a cloth; a little pure magnesia is then added to the filtered
decoction, the whole is boiled for a few minutes, and refiltered; the
residuum, after being well washed, is digested in boiling alcohol, which
dissolves out the alkaloid, and gives it up again by gentle evaporation
and cooling.

2. The bruised, but unshelled, seeds are digested in dilute sulphuric
acid, the filtered liquor precipitated with carbonate of potassa, and the
precipitate digested in alcohol as before.

3. (Parrish.) An alcoholic extract of the seeds is treated with dilute
sulphuric acid, precipitated with an alkali, again dissolved in dilute
sulphuric acid; the colouring matter precipitated by a few drops of nitric
acid, the alkaloid by potassa. The alkaloid is then dissolved in absolute
alcohol, and the solution thus formed is evaporated; one pound yields
about one drachm.

_Prop., &c._ A light-yellowish or white, odourless powder; extremely acrid
and bitter; scarcely soluble in water; dissolves in ether, and readily in
alcohol; and has an alkaline reaction. Its alcoholic solution produces a
burning and tingling sensation when rubbed on the skin, and a similar
sensation is produced in various parts of the body when it is taken in
doses of a few grains. It has been exhibited in neuralgia and rheumatism
by Dr Turnbull.——_Dose_, 1/12 gr. every three hours, made into a pill with
1 gr. each of the extracts of henbane and liquorice. It is also used
externally under the form of ointment and lotion.

=DELPHINUM——A Boot Varnish.= Shell-lac, 7·5 grammes dissolved in alcohol,
15 grammes, mixed with 20 drops fish oil, and ·1 gramme lampblack.
(Geisse.)

=DEMUL′CENTS.= In _medicine_, substances which are calculated to soften
and lubricate the parts to which they are applied. Though having the same
signification as the word EMOLLIENTS, it is desirable to restrict the
latter term to such as are intended for external application, and to
include under the above head only such as are intended for internal
exhibition. The principal demulcents are gum Arabic, gum tragacanth,
liquorice, honey, arrow-root, pearl barley, isinglass, gelatin, milk,
almonds, spermaceti, almond and olive oils, and most other mucilaginous,
amylaceous, saccharine, and oily substances. For use, these are made into
MUCILAGES, DECOCTIONS, EMULSIONS, or MILKS, with water, and form suitable
beverages in dysentery, diarrhœa, catarrh, diseases of the urinary organs,
and all other diseases where diluents are useful. See EMOLLIENTS.

=DENGUE.= This disease is most commonly met with in the East and West
Indies, and occasionally as an epidemic in America. In England it rarely
shows itself in an epidemic character. The symptoms of dengue appear to
combine those of rheumatism and scarlet fever. On the third or fourth day
an eruption shows itself, accompanied with pains in the limbs, glandular
swellings, and languor. The course of the disease is varied by frequent
remissions. It does not come within our design to indicate the treatment,
which appears to be the same as that pursued in scarlet fever.

=DENS′ITY.= Comparative masses of equal weights, or the quantity of matter
contained in a given space. It is commonly used synonymously with SPECIFIC
GRAVITY, which, however, refers to comparative weights of equal bulks.
Thus, quicksilver is said to have a density greater than that of copper,
and alcohol one less than that of oil of vitriol.

=DENTI′FRICES.= _Syn._ DENTIFRICIA, L. Substances applied to the teeth, to
cleanse and beautify them. The most useful form of dentifrices is that of
powder (TOOTH POWDER); but liquids (TOOTH WASHES), and electuaries (TOOTH
ELECTUARIES, TOOTH PASTES), are also employed. The solid ingredients used
in dentifrices should not be so hard or gritty as to injure the enamel of
the teeth; nor so soft or adhesive as to adhere to the gums, after rinsing
the mouth out with water. Pumice-stone (in fine powder) is one of those
substances that acts entirely by mechanical attrition, and is hence an
objectionable ingredient in tooth powder intended for daily use. It is,
however, very generally present in the various advertised dentifrices,
which are remarkable for their rapid action in whitening the teeth. Bath
brick is another substance of a similar nature to pumice, and, like that
article, should be only occasionally employed. Cuttle-fish bone, coral,
and prepared chalk, are also commonly used for the same purpose, but the
last is rather too soft and absorbent to form the sole ingredient of a
tooth powder. Charcoal, which is so very generally employed as a
dentifrice, acts partly mechanically and partly by its chemical property
of destroying foul smells and arresting putrefaction. For this purpose it
should be newly burnt, and kept in well-closed vessels, until used, as by
exposure to the air it rapidly loses its antiseptic powers. Powdered
rhatany, cinchona bark, and catechu, are used as astringents, and are very
useful in foulness or sponginess of the gums. Myrrh and mastic are
employed on account of their odour, and their presumed preservative action
and power of fixing loose teeth. Insoluble powders have been objected to
on account of their being apt to accumulate between the folds of the gums
and in the cracks of the teeth, and thus impart a disagreeable appearance
to the mouth. To remedy this defect, a reddish or flesh-coloured tinge is
commonly given to them with a little rose pink, red coral, or similar
colouring substance, when any small portion that remains unwashed off is
rendered less conspicuous. Some persons employ soluble substances as tooth
powders, which are free from the above objection. Thus, sulphate of potash
and cream of tartar are used for this purpose, because of the grittiness
of their powders and their slight solubility in water. Phosphate of soda
and common salt are also frequently employed as dentifrices, and possess
the advantage of being readily removed from the mouth by means of a little
water. Among those substances that chemically decolour and remove
unpleasant odours, the only ones employed as dentifrices are charcoal and
the chlorides of lime and soda. The first has been already noticed; the
others may be used by brushing the teeth with water to which a very little
of their solutions has been added. A very weak solution of chloride of
lime is commonly employed by smokers to remove the odour and colour
imparted by tobacco to the teeth. Electuaries, made of honey and
astringent substances, are frequently employed in diseases of the gums.
The juice of the common strawberry has been recommended as an elegant
natural dentifrice, as it readily dissolves the tartarous incrustations on
the teeth, and imparts an agreeable odour to the breath. See PASTE and
POWDER (Tooth), also WASHES (Mouth).

=DENT′INE.= The tissue of which the teeth are composed.

=DENTISTRY.= The art or practice of a dentist. Directions for the
extraction of teeth, as well as elaborate details for stopping them, and
for the manufacture of artificial ones, are branches of the dentist’s art,
which, as they necessitate the exercise of considerable skill and long
practice, do not call for notice in a work like the present. We shall
confine ourselves, therefore, to that section of dentistry which concerns
itself with stoppings for the cavities of decayed teeth, and for the
preparation of which we give the following formulæ:——

1. (Soubeiran’s.) Powdered mastic and sandarach, of each 4 dr.; dragon’s
blood, 2 dr.; opium, 15 gr.; mix with sufficient rectified spirit to form
a stiff paste. A solution of mastic, or of mastic and sandarach, in half
the quantity of alcohol, is also used, applied with a little cotton or
lint.

2. Sandarach, 12 parts; mastic, 6 parts; amber, in powder, 1 part; ether,
6 parts. Applied with cotton. Or simply a paste of powdered mastic and
ether. Or a saturated ethereal solution of mastic, applied with cotton.

3. Taveare’s cement is made with mastic and burnt alum. Bernoth directs 20
parts of powdered mastic to be digested with 40 of ether, and enough
powdered alum added to form a stiff paste.

4. Gutta percha, softened by heat, is recommended. Dr Rollfs advises
melting a piece of caoutchouc at the end of a wire, and introducing it
while warm.

5. (Gauger’s Cement.) Put into a quart bottle 2 oz. of mastic and 3 oz. of
absolute alcohol; apply a gentle heat by a water-bath. When dissolved, add
9 oz. of dry balsam of tolu, and again heat gently. A piece of cotton
dipped in this viscid solution becomes hard when introduced into the
tooth, previously cleansed and dried as above.

6. (Mr Robinson’s.) After washing out the mouth with warm water containing
a few grains of bicarbonate of soda, and cleaning the cavity as above
directed, he drops into it a drop of collodion, to which a little morphia
has been added, fills the cavity with asbestos and saturates with
collodion, placing over all a pledget of blotting paper.

7. (Ostermaier’s Cement.) Mix 12 parts of dry phosphoric acid with 13 of
pure and pulverised quicklime. It becomes moist in mixing, in which state
it is introduced into the cavity of the tooth, where it quickly becomes
hard. [In some hands this has failed, from what cause we are not aware.]
The acid should be prepared as directed under ACID, PHOSPHORIC.

8. (Silica.) This name has been given to a mixture of Paris plaster,
levigated porcelain, iron filings, and dregs of tincture of mastic, ground
together.

9. (Wirih’s Cement.) It is said to consist of a viscid alcoholic solution
of resins, with powdered asbestos.

10. (Metallic Cement.) Amalgams for the teeth are made with gold or
silver, and quicksilver, the excess of the latter being squeezed out, and
the stiff amalgam used warm. Inferior kinds are made with quicksilver and
tin, or zinc. A popular nostrum of this kind is said to consist of 40 gr.
of quicksilver and 20 of fine zinc filings, mixed at the time of using. Mr
Evans states that pure tin, with a small portion of cadmium, and
sufficient quicksilver, forms the most lasting and least objectionable
amalgam. The following is the formula:——Melt 2 parts of tin with 1 of
cadmium, run it into ingots, and reduce it to filings. Form these into a
fluid amalgam with mercury, and squeeze out the excess of mercury through
leather. Work up the solid residue in the hand, and press it into the
tooth. Or, melt some beeswax in a pipkin over the fire, throw in 5 parts
of cadmium, and, when melted, add 7 or 8 parts of tin in small pieces;
pour the melted metals into an iron or wooden box, and shake them till
cold, so as to obtain the alloy in a powder. This is mixed with 2-1/2 or 3
times its weight of quicksilver in the palm of the hand, and used as
above.

Another cement consists of about 73 parts of silver, 21 of tin, and 6 of
zinc, amalgamated with quicksilver. An amalgam of copper is said to be
sometimes used. But this class of stoppings is altogether disapproved of
by other authorities. Pure leaf-gold seems the least objectionable.

11. (Marmoratum.) Finely levigated glass, mixed with tin amalgam.

12. (Poudre Metallique.) The article sold under this name in Paris appears
to be an amalgam of silver, mercury, and ammonium, with an excess of
mercury, which is pressed out before using it.

13. (Fusible Metal.) Melt together 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, 3 of
tin, and 1-1/2 or 1·6 of quicksilver, with as little heat as possible.
(Chaudet.)

14. (Non-expensive Metallic Tooth-stopping.) Take 1 part of sulphate of
mercury, 1 part of copper in fine powder; rub them well together with a
little warm water; when the amalgam is formed wash well, and remove the
surplus of mercury by pressing it through chamois.——_Pharm. Journ._

EXPENSIVE METALLIC TOOTH-STOPPING AND MUCH PREFERABLE. Take pure gold,
pure gelatin, 1 part of each; pure silver, 2 parts; melt, and when
refrigerated, reduce to a powder by means of a file; wash well and dry. In
the moment of using it add sufficient mercury to form a plastic
paste.——_Pharm. Journ._

PASTE FOR DESTROYING THE SENSIBILITY OF THE DENTAL PULP PREVIOUS TO
STOPPING. Arsenious acid, 30 gr.; sulphate of morphia, 20 gr.; creasote,
q. s. [Unsafe; it is only inserted by way of warning against what may
prove an unsuspected cause of mischief.]

PIVOTS FOR ARTIFICIAL TEETH. An alloy of platinum and silver.

SPRINGS FOR ARTIFICIAL TEETH. Equal parts of copper, silver, and
palladium. (Chaudet.)

For Cachou Aromatisé, and other compounds for sweetening the breath, see
PERFUMERY.

=DENTI′TION.= See TEETHING.

=DEOB′STRUENT.= In medicine, a substance which removes obstructions, and
opens the natural passages of the fluids of the body, as the pores,
lacteals, and glands. Iodine, mercury, sarsaparilla, and aperients, are
deobstruents.

=DEO′DORISER.= Any substance having the power of absorbing or destroying
fetid effluvia. Chlorine, chloride of lime, chloride of zinc, nitrate of
lead, sulphate of iron, and freshly-burnt charcoal, are the most effective
and convenient deodorisers. Peat charcoal has been highly recommended for
deodorising manure, &c., on the large scale. When it is mixed with these
substances their fetor is immediately destroyed, and a compost produced,
which may be substituted for guano for agricultural purposes.
‘Biedermann’s Centralblatt für Agricultur Chemie’ for June, 1877, contains
the results of some experiments undertaken by A. Eckstein on the
comparative deodorising values of certain substances. Herr Eckstein found
that 1 kilo of copperas dissolved in water destroyed the stench of
sulphuretted hydrogen in a privy used daily by at least 100 persons. The
action ceased after twelve hours. A solution of aqueous sulphate of copper
produced a similar result. When 1 kilo of solid copperas was employed the
action lasted for two days. The same result was obtained by using 1 kilo
of a mixture compound of copperas, sulphate of copper, and carbonate of
lime. Liquid sulphurous acid was found to act very rapidly, rendering the
atmosphere difficult to breathe for an hour; its action ceased after
twenty-three hours. Crude carbolic acid, which was used to the extent of
30 grams, gave so unpleasant a smell for two days as to render the result
impossible to be arrived at. One kilo of copperas enclosed in a bag of
parchment paper only began to act after two hours, and kept the place
odourless for two days. One kilo of good chloride of lime, placed in a
similar bag, did not lose its effect for nine days. With 60 grams of
permanganate of soda the action commenced immediately, but the effect was
over in twenty-four hours; when enclosed in parchment paper it was
efficacious for two days. In Herr Eckstein’s opinion the most powerful
deodoriser known is chloride of lime along with sulphuric acid. Powdered
gypsum is a good absorber of ammonia, and for this purpose may be
sprinkled over the floors of stables, manure heaps, &c. See DISINFECTANT.

=DEOX′IDATION.= See REDUCTION.

=DEPIL′ATORY.= A cosmetic employed to remove superfluous hairs from the
human skin. Depilatories act either mechanically (MECHANICAL
DEPILATORIES), or chemically (CHEMICAL DEPILATORIES). To the first class
belong adhesive plasters, that, on their removal from the skin, bring away
the hair with them. The second class includes all those substances which
destroy the hair by their chemical action.

Lime or orpiment, and generally both of them, have formed the leading
ingredients in depilatories, both in ancient and modern times. The first
acts by its well-known causticity, and also, when an alkali is present, by
reducing that also, either wholly or in part, to the caustic state. The
action of the orpiment is of a less certain character, and its use is even
dangerous when applied to a highly sensitive or an abraded surface. The
addition of starch is to render the paste more adhesive and manageable.

In using the following preparations, those which are in the state of
powder are mixed up with a little warm water to the consistence of a
paste, and applied to the part. Sometimes soap lye is used for this
purpose, and some persons spread the pulpy mass on a piece of paper, and
apply it like a plaster. In 12 or 15 minutes, and sooner, if much smarting
ensues, the whole should be washed off with warm water, and a little cold
cream, lip-salve, or spermaceti cerate, applied to the part. The
application of the liquid preparations is generally accompanied with
gentle friction, care being taken to prevent them extending to the
adjacent parts. All the following effect the object satisfactorily, with
proper management; but some are much more effective than others. A small
wooden or bone knife is the best for mixing them with. They must all be
kept in well-stoppered bottles, and no liquid must be added to them until
shortly before their application; and then no more should be mixed than is
required for immediate use.

=Depilatory, Arsen′ical.= Orpiment (sulphide of arsenic) forms the
principal ingredient in many fashionable depilatories, but its use is not
free from danger. The following are well-known preparations:

1. (COLLEY’S D.) From nitre and sulphur, of each 1 part; orpiment, 3
parts; quicklime, 8 parts; soap lees, 32 parts; boil to the consistence of
cream. Very caustic.

2. (DELCROIX’S D.; ‘POUDRE SUBTILE,’) Orpiment, 1 oz.; quicklime, 10 oz.;
starch, 14 oz.

3. (ORIENTAL D.; ORIENTAL RUSMA.)——_a._ Quicklime, 3 oz.; orpiment, 1/2
dr.; strong alkaline lye, 1 lb.; boil together in a clean iron vessel
until a feather dipped into the liquor loses its flue.

_b._ From pearlash, 2 oz.; orpiment, 3 dr.; liquor of potassa, 1/2 pint;
boil together as before. One of the most caustic and consequently the most
certain of depilatory preparations; but, with the rest of its class, open
to the objections of containing orpiment. (See No. 7.)

4. (PASTE D.; ‘PÂTE ÉPILATOIRE,’) To No. 1 add of orris root, 3 parts.

5. (PLENCK’S D.; ‘PASTA EPILATORIA,’) Orpiment, 1 part; quicklime and
starch, of each 12 parts.

6. (SOAP D.; ‘SAVON ÉPILATOIRE,’) Turkish depilatory and soft soap, equal
parts. Must not be mixed until about to be applied. (See No. 7.)

7. (TURKISH D.; TURKISH RUSMA.) Orpiment, 1 part; quicklime, 9 parts. For
use, it is mixed up with soap lees, and a little powdered starch.

=Depilatory, Boettger’s.= Powdered sulphydrate of sodium, one part; washed
chalk, three parts; made into a thick paste with a little water. Let a
layer about the thickness of the back of a knife be spread upon the hairy
surface. After two or three minutes the stoutest hairs are transformed
into a soft mass which may be removed by water. A more prolonged action
would attack the skin.

=Depilatory, Boudet’s.= _Prep._ Sulphide of sodium (crystallised), 3
parts; quicklime (in fine powder), 10 parts; starch, 10 parts; mix. To be
mixed with water, and applied to the skin, and scraped off in 2 or 3
minutes with a wooden knife. Very effective and safe.

=Depilatory, Cazenave’s.= _Syn._ MAHON’S D.; POMMADE ÉPILATOIRE DE
CAZENAVE, Fr. _Prep._ Quicklime, 1 part; carbonate of soda, 2 parts; lard,
8 parts; mix. Applied as an ointment.

=Depilatory, Chi′nese.= _Prep._ 1. Quicklime, 8 oz.; pearlash (dry) and
liver of sulphur, of each 1 oz.; all reduced to a fine powder; mixed, and
kept in a close bottle.

2. (ROSEATE D.) As No. 1., but coloured with a little rose pink or light
red.

These preparations are applied in the same manner as Boudet’s Depilatory.

=Depilatory, Colley’s.= See DEPILATORY, ARSENICAL.

=Depilatory, Hydrosulphate of Lime.= _Prep._ (Beasley.) Mix quicklime and
water to a thick cream, and pass into the mixture 25 or 30 times its
volume of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. When the gas ceases to be absorbed,
stop the process. The pulpy mass is spread on paper, and applied for 12 or
15 minutes. It is very effective, but has a most disgusting smell.
Spolasco’s depilatory is a very similar preparation (see _below_).

=Depilatory, Mechan′ical.= _Syn._ DEPILATORY PLASTEE. _Prep._ From pitch
and resin, equal parts, melted together and spread on leather. Applied as
a plaster.

=Depilatory, Rayer’s.= _Prep._ Quicklime, 2 oz.; salt of tartar, 4 oz.;
charcoal, 1/4 oz. Less active than Chinese Depilatory.

=Depilatory, Redwood’s.= _Prep._ A strong solution of sulphide of barium,
made into a paste with powdered starch, and applied immediately. Mr
Redwood says this is “the best and safest depilatory.”

=Depilatory, Ro′seate.= See DEPILATORY, CHINESE.

=Depilatory, Spolasco’s.= _Prep._ Freshly prepared sulphide of calcium and
quicklime, equal parts. Almost equal to Redwood’s (_above_).

=DEPOSI′TION (of Metals).= See ELECTRO-TYPE.

=DERBY CONDITION POWDERS= (J. Tobias Simpson, New York). Celebrated as a
safe, infallible, and speedy remedy for glanders, coughs, colds, over
feeding, worms, mouth disease, and loss of horns or hair, in horses and
other valuable domestic animals. Tartar emetic, 2 grammes; black antimony,
20 grammes; sulphur, 10 grammes; nitre, 10 grammes; fenugreek, 40 grammes;
juniper berries, 20 grammes. (Schädler.)

=DER′BYSHIRE NECK.= See GOITRE.

=DERMASOT= (Apotheker Bertschinger, Baden, Switzerland). For profuse
perspiration of the feet. Consists of acetate of alumina, 7·5 grammes;
distilled water, 120 grammes; butyric ether, 2 drops; rosanilin to colour
it slightly. (Weber.)

=DESBRIERRE’S CHOCOLATE A LA MAGNESIE.= 44 grammes of chocolate paste and
15 grammes of calcined magnesia, made into two tablets. (Reveil.)

=DESIC′CANTS.= _Syn._ DESICCAN′TIA, L. In _pharmacology_, substances that
check secretion and dry sores of abraded surfaces, without acting as
styptics, or constringing the fibres of the parts to which they are
applied. See ASTRINGENTS.

=DESICCA′TION.= _Syn._ EXSICCA′TION. The evaporation or drying off of the
aqueous portion of solid bodies. Plants and chemical preparations are
deprived of their humidity by exposure to the sun, a current of dry air,
an atmosphere rendered artificially dry by sulphuric acid, or by the
direct application of heat by means of a water bath, a sand bath, or a
common fire. Planks and timber are now seasoned, on the large scale, in
this way, by which a condition may be produced, in 2 or 3 days, which on
the old system is barely attainable in as many years. “Endeavours were
made to enforce the importance and value of the desiccation of woods to
the builder, cabinet maker, architect, and civil engineer, so long back as
1843, but without success. Since that period certain persons have availed
themselves, commercially, of our ideas and experiments on the subject,
without any acknowledgment, either verbal or pecuniary.” (Cooley.)

=DESTEM′PER.= _Syn._ DISTEMPER. Colours ground up with size, gum, or white
of egg, and water, as in scene painting. The art of executing work in
distemper is called ‘distemper painting.’

=DETER′GENT.= An agent having the power of removing offensive matter from
the skin. The name is now generally restricted to applications that tend
to cleanse foul wounds and ulcers.

=Detergent, Collier’s.= _Prep._ From liquor of potassa, 2 fl. dr.; rose
water, 5-1/2 fl. oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1/2 fl. oz.; mix. One of the
best applications known to free the head from scurf, when the hair is
strong and healthy. The head should be afterwards sponged with clean,
soft water.

=DETONA′TION.= See FULMINATING COMPOUNDS.

=DEUTOX′IDE.= See OXIDES.

=DEUTSCHE SIEGESTROPFEN——German Triumphal Drops= (Schmidt). 480 grammes of
a brown fluid with an agreeably sweet spirituous and aromatic taste,
containing in a hundred parts five parts of the portion soluble in weak
spirit of cloves and orange peel, 29 parts sugar, 36 parts alcohol, and 30
parts water. (Wittstein.)

=DEW-POINT.= The temperature at which dew begins to form, as observed by a
thermometer. It varies with the humidity of the atmosphere.

=DEX′TRIN.= C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}. _Syn._ STARCH GUM, DEXTRINA, DEXTRINUM,
BRITISH GUM. A soluble substance resembling gum, formed by the action of
dilute acids at the boiling temperature, and by infusion of malt, at about
160° Fahr., on starch. It is also formed when potato starch and some of
the other farinas are exposed to a heat of about 400°. See DIASTASE and
GUM (British).

=DEX′TRO-RACE′MIC ACID.= See RACEMIC ACID.

=DIABE′TES.= See URINE.

=Diabetes (Saccharine).= The symptoms observed in this generally fatal
ailment are the passing of an excessive quantity of pale, straw-coloured
urine, of high specific gravity, containing more or less grape sugar;
great thirst and hunger, obstinate dyspepsia, constipation, an unpleasant
odour from the feet, or perspiration of the arm-pits, and bodily debility,
and emaciation. All these symptoms vary in intensity according to the
course and duration of the disease, which is frequently accompanied with
hectic fever, cough, and sometimes carbuncles, and generally ends in
consumption or some organic disease. The flow of urine sometimes reaches
as much as eight gallons in 24 hours; the average quantity, however, is
about two gallons. The specific gravity of the urine varies between 1030
and 1070. The quantity of sugar excreted in the twenty-four hours differs
greatly, ranging from half a pound to three pounds.

In the treatment of diabetes, great attention should be paid to diet,
which should consist principally of digestible, broiled, or roasted meat,
gluten and bran bread (these latter being substituted for ordinary bread,
which with sugar must be especially avoided), liquids in moderate
quantity, of which the most preferable are weak beef tea or mutton broth.
If the thirst is extreme, it is best assuaged by drinking water acidulated
with phosphoric acid. Spirituous liquids as well as saline aperients
should be eschewed. Claret is, however, a suitable beverage.

Small doses of laudanum, given three or four times a day, have been found
of great service.

Dr Watson recommends also the administration of creosote. The bowels must
be regulated by means of mild aperients. Warm baths are also of use, as
they augment the secretion of the skin. The disease may be kept under by
administering from twenty to forty minims of tincture of perchloride of
iron, 3 times a day. The above treatment is inserted for the guidance only
of emigrants and others unable to obtain professional aid; wherever this
can be obtained, no time should be lost in seeking it. This is the more
important, since the earlier the patient has recourse to the proper
remedies, the greater are the chances of recovery.

_Horses._ The disease occurs, although rarely, in horses. It is not known
either in cattle or dogs. The treatment consists in depriving the animal
for some weeks of food containing starch, or other matters capable of
forming sugar. He must be fed on meat soup and cooked animal diet, to
which he quickly becomes reconciled. The strength must be kept up by means
of tonic. To counteract the intense thirst, Mr Finlay Dun recommends the
following to be given three times a day in water:——A drachm of iodide of
potassium, a scruple of iodine, and four drachms of carbonate of soda.

=DIACH′YLON.= See PLASTERS.

=DIALY′′SER.= In _practical chemistry_, an instrument for separating
‘crystalloids’ from ‘colloids,’ introduced by the late Prof. Graham. In
its most convenient form it consists of a hoop of gutta percha, over which
a circular piece of parchment paper is stretched. The paper is applied to
the hoop while wet, and is kept stretched by a second hoop, by an elastic
band, or by a few turns of string. The instrument, when complete,
resembles an ordinary tambourine. It is distinguished as the ‘HOOP
DIALYSER,’ The fluid to be ‘dialysed’ is poured into the hoop upon the
surface of the parchment paper, to a small depth only, such as half an
inch, and the dialyser is then floated upon water in a large glass basin.
Another form of dialyser, termed the ‘BULB DIALYSER,’ consists of a small
glass bell-jar, the mouth of which is covered by a piece of parchment
paper. This is suspended or otherwise supported in a large vessel of water
in such a manner that the parchment paper septum just dips below the
surface. See DIALYSIS (below), PARCHMENT PAPER.

=DIAL′YSIS.= In _practical chemistry_, the method of separating substances
by ‘diffusion’ through a septum of gelatinous matter. When a solution
having a sp. gr. greater is introduced into a cylindrical glass vessel,
and then water very cautiously poured upon it, in such a manner that the
two layers of liquid remain unmoved, the substance dissolved in the lower
liquid will gradually pass into the supernatant water, though the vessel
may have been left undisturbed, and the temperature remain unchanged. The
gradual passage of a dissolved substance from its original solution into
pure water taking place, notwithstanding the higher sp. gr. of the
substance which opposes this passage, is called the ‘diffusion of
liquids.’ From the investigation of the phenomena of this diffusion, the
late Prof. Graham derived the remarkable results upon which the method
under notice is based. Different substances, when in solution of the same
concentration, and under other similar circumstances, diffuse with very
unequal velocity. “The range in the degree of diffusive mobility,” says
Prof. Graham, “exhibited by different substances, appears to be as wide as
the scale of vapour-tensions. Thus, hydrate of potassa may be said to
possess double the velocity of diffusion of sulphate of potassa, and
sulphate of potassa again double the velocity of sugar, alcohol, and
sulphate of magnesia. But the substances named belong, as regards
diffusion, to the more volatile class. The comparatively fixed class, as
regards diffusion, is represented by a different order of chemical
substances (marked out by the absence of the power to crystallise), which
are slow in the extreme. Among the latter are hydrated silicic acid,
hydrated alumina, and other metallic peroxides of the aluminous class,
when they exist in the soluble form; with starch, dextrine, and the gums,
caramel, tannin, albumen, gelatin, vegetable and animal extractive
matters. Low diffusibility is not the only property which the bodies last
enumerated possess in common. They are distinguished by the gelatinous
character of their hydrates. Although often largely soluble in water, they
are held in solution by a most feeble force. They appear singularly inert
in the capacity of acids and bases, and in all the ordinary chemical
relations. But, on the other hand, their peculiar physical aggregation,
with the chemical indifference referred to, appears to be required in
substances that can intervene in the organic processes of life. The
plastic elements of the body are found in this class. As gelatin appears
to be its type, it is proposed to designate substances of this class as
‘COL′LOIDS,’ and to speak of their peculiar form as the ‘colloidal
condition of matter.’ Opposed to the colloidal is the ‘crystalline
condition.’ Substances affecting the latter form will be classed as
‘CRYSTAL′LOIDS,’ The distinction is, no doubt, one of intimate molecular
constitution.”[257] A certain property of colloidal substances comes into
play most opportunely in assisting diffusive preparations. The jelly of
starch, that of animal mucus, of pectin, of vegetable gelose, and other
solid colloidal hydrates, all of which, strictly speaking, are insoluble
in cold water, are themselves permeable when in mass, as water is, by the
more highly diffusive class of substances. But such jellies greatly resist
the passage of the less diffusible substances, and cut off entirely other
colloid substances like themselves that may be in solution. A mere film of
the jelly has the separating effect. Now, parchment-paper, when wetted,
acts just like a layer of animal mucus or other hydrated colloid, by
permitting the passage of crystalloids, but not of colloids; consequently
this substance may be used for dialytic septa (see DIALYSER, _above_). The
following experiments recorded by Graham will give some idea of the
results which may be obtained by dialysis:——

[Footnote 257: ‘Philosoph. Trans.’ for 1861.]

1. Half a litre of urine was placed in a hoop dialyser, which was then
floated on a considerable quantity of pure water. Dialysed for 24 hours,
the urine gave its crystalloidal constituents to the external water. The
latter, evaporated by a water bath, yielded a white saline mass. From this
mass urea was extracted by alcohol in so pure a condition as to appear in
crystalline tufts upon the evaporation of the alcohol.

2. By pouring silicate of soda into diluted hydrochloric acid (the acid
being maintained in large excess), a solution of silica is obtained. But
in addition to hydrochloric acid, such a solution contains chloride of
sodium, a salt which causes the silica to gelatinise when the solution is
heated, and otherwise modifies its properties. Now, such a solution placed
for 24 hours in a dialyser of parchment paper was found to lose 5% of its
silicic acid (silica) and 86% of its hydrochloric acid. After 4 days on
the dialyser, the liquid ceased to be disturbed by nitrate of silver. All
the chlorides were gone, with no further loss of silica. What remained was
a pure solution of silicic acid, which could be boiled in a flask, and
considerably concentrated, without change.

3. Half a litre of dark-coloured porter, with ·05 gramme of arsenious acid
added (1/10000th part of arsenious acid), was placed on a hoop dialyser, 8
inches in diameter, and the whole floated in an earthenware basin
containing 2 or 3 litres of water. After 24 hours the latter fluid had
acquired a slight tinge of yellow. It yielded, when concentrated and
precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen, upwards of one half of the original
arsenious acid in a fit state for examination.

=DIAMANTKITT——Diamond Cement.= 50 parts graphite, 15 parts litharge, 10
parts milk of lime, 5 parts slaked lime, intimately mixed with enough
linseed oil to make a firm mass. (Hager.)

=DIAMANTTROPFEN——Diamond Drops= (Dr Allinhead). A combination of the
juices of mysterious herbs of tropical climes, which has the power to make
all men transparent.

=DI′AMOND.= The diamond is pure carbon, and differs from the carbon of
charcoal and lampblack simply in being limpid, colourless, and highly
refractive of light, properties which are generally referred to its
crystalline form. The weight, and, consequently, the value of diamonds, is
estimated in carats, one of which is equal to 4 grains; and the price of
one diamond, compared to that of another of equal colour, transparency,
purity, form, &c., is as the squares of the respective weights. The
average price of ROUGH DIAMONDS that are worth working is about £2 for the
first carat; that of a CUT DIAMOND is equal to that of a rough diamond of
double weight, exclusive of the price of workmanship. “To estimate the
value of a wrought diamond, ascertain its weight in carats, double that
weight, and multiply the square of this product by £2.” (Ure.) Thus, a cut
diamond of——

  1 carat is worth  £8
  2 carats     ”   £32
  3   ”        ”   £72
  4   ”        ”  £128
     &c., &c. See CARBON, GEMS.

=Di′amond Dust.= Genuine diamond dust is the powder produced by the
abrasion of diamonds against each other in the process of cutting and
polishing them. It possesses the valuable property of polishing the gems,
and giving “the finest edge to every kind of cutlery.” The discovery of
the latter fact, a few years since, led certain dishonest persons to
extensively advertise spurious preparations, consisting chiefly of emery
powder or powdered quartz, under the name of diamond dust. The factitious
articles acquired a very short and bad notoriety. Instead of sharpening
cutting instruments, they infallibly destroyed their edge, and were
particularly unfortunate in converting razors into saws.

=DIAPEN′TE.= _Syn._ PULVIS DIAPENTE. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. 1744) Bay-berries,
birth-wort, gentian, ivory dust, and myrrh, equal parts. An excellent warm
tonic, especially useful in the debility and rickets of children. The
substance sold under this name in the shops is an inferior mixture, used
principally as a tonic in veterinary practice. The following are the forms
commonly adopted in its preparation:——

2. Turmeric, 4 lbs.; laurel berries and mustard, of each 3 lbs.; gentian,
2 lbs. (all in fine powder); mix.

3. Bay-berries, gentian, mustard, and turmeric, equal parts.

4. Gentian, 6 lbs.; bay-berries, 1 lb. This is the formula generally used
by the farriers. Sometimes mustard, 1 lb., is added.

=DIAPHORET′ICS.= _Syn._ SUDORIF′ICS; DIAPHORETICA, SUDORIFICA, L.
Medicines which promote or increase the perspiration. Those that produce
this effect in a very marked degree are more particularly called
‘sudorifics.’ The principal diaphoretics are:——warm diluents, as
barley-water, gruel, tea, &c.; salts of the alkalies, as the citrates of
potassa and soda, acetate of potassa, acetate and carbonate of ammonia,
sal-ammoniac, nitre, &c.; preparations of antimony, as antimonial powder,
tartar emetic, &c; also alcohol, camphor, Dover’s powder, ipecacuanha,
opium, wine, &c.

The use of diaphoretics is indicated in nearly all diseases accompanied by
fever and a dry skin, and particularly in febrile and pectoral affections.

=DI′APHRAGM= (frăm). A partition through or across; a dividing substance.
In _anatomy_, the term is applied to the midriff, a muscle separating the
chest or thorax from the abdomen or lower belly. In _astronomy_ and
_optics_ the term is applied to a circular ring placed in a telescope or
other instrument to cut off the marginal portions of a beam of light. In
_electricity_ the name is commonly used to denote the porous partition,
cell, or vessel, that separates the fluid containing the positive plate
from the fluid which surrounds the negative plate, in a constant voltaic
battery. Thin partitions of sycamore, or other porous wood, are
occasionally used, but cells made of thin biscuit ware are the most
convenient and durable diaphragms. Plaster of Paris, animal membrane,
coarse and tightly wove canvas, &c., are used also for the purpose.
Plaster cells are also formed by surrounding an oiled cylinder of wood
with a hoop of paper, and pouring plaster of Paris, mixed up with water,
into the space between the two. See ELECTROTYPE.

=DIARRHŒ′A.= A purging or looseness of the bowels. The causes of diarrhœa
are various, but among the most common are the presence of irritating
matter, worms, or acidity in the stomach or bowels; and exposure to cold
(especially cold to the feet) or sudden changes of climate or temperature.

_Treatment._ In general, it will be proper to administer a mild aperient,
for which purpose rhubarb or castor oil is usually preferred. The dose of
the first may be from 20 to 30 grains in sugar, or made into a bolus; that
of the second, from 1/4 oz. to 1/2 oz., with a little mint or peppermint
water. After the due operation of this medicine, opium, astringents, and
absorbents, may be taken with advantage, but not in excessive doses, as is
commonly the practice. The first and second are indicated when great
irritability exists, and the third, in cases of diarrhœa arising from the
presence of acidity. Chalk mixture, to which a few drops of laudanum have
been added, or the compound powder of chalk and opium, are excellent
medicines, and will generally quiet the bowels. A small piece of catechu
or hard extract of logwood, sucked in the same way as a lozenge, is a
pleasant method of taking either of these powerful astringents, and will
generally cure cases of simple diarrhœa arising from excessive peristaltic
motion, or want of tonicity of the muscular coats of the intestines.

In bilious diarrhœa, characterised by the bright yellowish-brown colour of
the dejections, a dose of blue pill or calomel, assisted by mild diluents
and demulcents, and warmth, generally proves efficacious. Small doses of
opium are also useful in some cases.

In catarrhal diarrhœa, chylous diarrhœa, and the like varieties,
characterised by the dejections being nearly colourless, and consisting
chiefly of water and mucus; or white and milky, showing the entire absence
of bile; or, being entirely liquid, limpid, and serous (in some cases
resembling the washings of flesh), opinions are divided as to the
treatment. The majority of the best authorities regard purging as
injurious in these varieties, and rely chiefly on warm baths and warm
fomentations, with the internal administration of mild salines and
diaphoretics, followed by astringents, tonics, and occasional doses of
opiates. Choleraic diarrhœa demands a nearly similar treatment.

The diet in every variety of diarrhœa should be light and non-irritating.
Glutinous broths, beef tea, and arrow-root, are among the best articles
which can be taken. To these may be added a little dry toast. Arrow-root
(genuine), either with or without a spoonful of port wine or brandy
(preferably the former), will of itself cure all ordinary cases of
diarrhœa, if accompanied with repose and a recumbent posture.

Among external remedies, warm and stimulating fomentations, liniments,
&c., to the epigastrium and abdomen, will be found useful adjuncts to
other treatment. A spoonful or two of laudanum, used as a friction, will
generally allay pain, and in many cases settle the bowels when all other
remedies have been tried in vain.

_Treatment for Animals._ If for the horse, give at the commencement of the
attack from 2 to 4 dr. of aloes, mixed with 1 oz. of bicarbonate of soda,
and the same quantity of ginger in powder; administer clysters
occasionally. Cattle may be treated by having administered to them 3/4 lb.
of Epsom or common salt, or a pint of linseed oil. Whichever of the two is
employed, it must be combined with 2 oz. each of bicarbonate of soda and
ginger, and 1/2 lb. of treacle; 1 oz. of laudanum should be added to the
above drenches whenever there is much pain and straining, whether in the
horse or cow. Should laxatives fail, aromatics and astringents are called
for, and 1 oz. each of tincture of catechu, ginger, and gentian, given in
a pint of warm ale, may be tried several times a day for a horse. For cows
a double dose is required. Sheep need only half the dose.

=DI′ASTASE.= A peculiar azotised substance contained in malt, which
effects the conversion of starch, first into dextrin, and then into grape
sugar.

_Prep._ A cold infusion of malt is heated to 158° Fahr. (to coagulate in
albumen); it is then allowed to cool, and alcohol is added to the filtered
liquor, when diastase is precipitated, under the form of a tasteless white
powder, which is freely soluble in water.

_Prop., &c._ Diastase seems to resemble vegetable albumen, but very little
is known respecting it, as it has never been got in a state of purity. One
part of diastase is capable of converting 2000 parts of starch into grape
sugar. Malted barley is said to contain 1/500th part of this substance;
yet this small portion is quite sufficient to convert the starch of the
malt into sugar during the operation of mashing, in the manufacture of
beer. See BREWING, DEXTRIN, &C.

=DICTA′MIA.= A nutritious, dietetic article. _Prep._ (Beasley.) Sugar, 7
oz.; potato arrow-root, 4 oz.; flour of brent barley (_Triticum
monococcum_), 3 oz.; Trinidad and Granada chocolate, of each 1 oz.;
vanilla, 15 gr.; triturate together.

=Dictamia.= A strengthening and restorative preparation. Arrowroot, 6
parts; meal of triticum monococcum, 6 parts; chocolate, 4 parts; vanilla,
1/4 part (Richter). Sugar, 217 parts; bran extract, 92 parts; starch, 125
parts; Caracas and Maragnan cocoa, 30 parts; vanilla, 1 part.
(Chevallier.)

=DIDYM′IUM.= Di. A rare metal, found associated with cerium and lanthanium
in the Swedish mineral cerite. See CERIUM.

=DI′ET.= Food or victuals. In _medicine_ food regulated by certain rules,
or prescribed for the cure or prevention of disease. The dietetic part of
medicine is no inconsiderable branch, and deserves a much greater share of
regard than it commonly meets with. A great variety of diseases might be
removed by the observance of a proper diet and regimen, without the
assistance of medicine, were it not for the impatience of the sufferers.
On all occasions it may come in as a proper assistant to the cure, which
sometimes cannot be performed without a due observance of the
non-naturals.

Writers on dietetics (DIETETICA, L.) have taken much trouble to divide and
classify the numerous articles of food suitable to the various conditions
of the body in health and disease; but little practical advantage has
resulted from their labours. Low diet, middle diet, full diet, milk diet,
farinaceous diet, fruit diet, and vegetable diet, are terms which, under
most circumstances, are sufficiently simple to be almost self-explanatory.

=DIGES′TION.= In _chemistry_ and _pharmacy_ the operation of exposing
bodies to a gentle and continuous heat. The best digesters are thin glass
flasks and beakers, and the most convenient source of heat is the sand
bath. Digestion is often performed to soften and otherwise modify bodies
that are to be distilled. In _physiology_ the term is applied to the
conversion of food into chyme, or the process of dissolving food in the
alimentary canal, and preparing it for circulation and nourishment. In
_surgery_ digestion signifies a method of treating ulcers, wounds, &c. See
DIGESTIVES (_below_).

  DIGESTIBILITY OF DIFFERENT FOODS.

                                       Mean time of
                                       chymification
  Foods.              How cooked.      in stomach.
                                           h. m.
  Rice                  Boiled             1
  Eggs, whipped         Raw                1 30
  Trout, salmon, fresh  Boiled             1 30
  Venison, steak        Broiled            1 35
  Sago                  Boiled             1 45
  Milk                  Boiled             2
  Eggs, fresh           Raw                2
  Milk                  Raw                2 15
  Turkey                Boiled             2 25
  Gelatin               Boiled             2 30
  Goose, wild           Roasted            2 30
  Pig, sucking          Roasted            2 30
  Lamb, fresh           Broiled            2 30
  Beans, pod            Boiled             2 30
  Potatoes, Irish       Baked              2 30
  Chicken               Fricassed          2 45
  Oysters, fresh        Raw                2 55
  Eggs, fresh           Soft-boiled        3
  Beef, lean, rare      Roasted            3
  Mutton, fresh         Boiled             3
  Bread, corn           Baked              3 15
  Butter                Melted             3 30
  Cheese, old, strong   Raw                3 30
  Potatoes, Irish       Boiled             3 30
  Beef                  Fried              4
  Veal, fresh           Broiled            4
  Fowls, domestic       Roasted            4
  Ducks, Domestic       Roasted            4
  Veal, fresh           Fried              4 30
  Pork, fat, and lean   Roasted            5 15
  Cabbage               Boiled             4 30

The results recorded in the above table, giving the respective time
required for the digestion of different foods, were obtained by Dr
Beaumont, through his being enabled to watch the process of digestion
actually going on in the stomach of a man, who had received a wound in
that organ, by which part of it was laid bare, and could thus be seen
into.

The above data were controlled by a series of independent experiments,
which consisted in digesting different foods in a solution of gastric
juice, and heating the mixture to 100°. The relative results of both sets
of experiments were found to agree pretty closely; and they have since, on
the whole, being confirmed by the researches of other physiologists.

=DIGES′TIVES.= In _surgery_ substances which, when applied to wounds or
tumours, induce or promote suppuration. All stimulating applications are
of this class. Heat is a most powerful digestive agent. The action of
digestives is opposed to that of DISCUTIENTS, which repel or resolve
tumours and indurations.

=DIGITA′LIN.= _Syn._ DIGITA′LIA. A vegetable principle discovered by M.
Royer in _Digitalis purpurea_, or purple foxglove.

_Prep._ 1. (Majendie.) Foxglove leaves (powdered), 1 lb., are digested in
ether, first in the cold, and then heated under pressure; when the whole
has again become cold, the liquor is filtered (rapidly), and the ether is
distilled off in a water bath; the residuum is dissolved in water, the
filtered solution treated with hydrated oxide of lead, the whole gently
evaporated to dryness, and the dry residuum again digested in hot ether;
from this solution the alkali is obtained, by evaporation and repeated
resolutions, in a crystalline form.

2. (Homolle and Henry.) Foxglove leaves (carefully dried and powdered),
2-1/2 lbs., are digested in rectified spirit, and the tincture expressed
in a tincture press; the spirit is then distilled off, and the residual
extract treated with distilled water, 1/2 pint, acidulated with about 2
fl. dr. of acetic acid, a gentle heat being employed; some animal charcoal
is then added, and the whole filtered; the filtrate is then diluted with
water, and partly neutralised with ammonia; a fresh-made, strong decoction
of galls is next added; a copious precipitation of tannate of digitalin
ensues; the precipitate is washed with water, and mixed with a little
alcohol, after which it is triturated with litharge (in fine powder) and
exposed to a gentle heat; the whole is now digested in alcohol, the
tincture treated with animal charcoal, and evaporated; the dry residuum
is, lastly, treated with cold sulphuric ether, which takes up some foreign
matter, and leaves the digitalin. 2 lbs. 8 oz. of the dried leaves yield
140 to 150 gr. of the digitalin.

_Prop., &c._ White, inodorous, porous masses, or small scales; it
crystallises with difficulty, is intensely bitter, and excites violent
sneezing when smelled to; dissolves freely in alcohol; scarcely soluble in
cold ether; and takes 2000 parts of water for its solution; it is neither
basic nor alkaline; concentrated colourless hydrochloric acid dissolves
it, forming a characteristic solution which passes from yellow to a fine
green. (Homolle.) It is one of the most powerful of known poisons, being
fully 100 times stronger than the powdered leaves of the dried plant. It
is used in the same cases.——_Dose_, 1/60 to 1/30 gr.; either made into
pills or dissolved in alcohol and formed into a mixture. Owing to the
difficulty and uncertainty connected with dispensing such small
quantities, it is now seldom employed in this country.

=Digitalin, Crystallised.= Digitalis leaves from the Vosges, in rather
fine powder, 1000 grams; neutral lead acetate, 250 grams; distilled water,
1000 grams. The digitalis should be collected in its second year just when
the first flowers appear. With respect to the lead acetate, it is very
important that it should not have an alkaline reaction; a slight acidity
would be preferable. The lead salt is dissolved in the cold water, the
powder added and thoroughly mixed, the whole passed through a sieve and
left in contact twenty-four hours, taking care to mix it from time to
time. The mixture is then packed sufficiently in a displacement apparatus,
and exhausted with 50° alcohol, until it no longer yields any bitterness.
About six parts of liquor are thus obtained, and this is neutralised
exactly with sodium bicarbonate dissolved to saturation in cold water;
about 25 to 30 grams will be required. When effervescence ceases, the
alcohol is distilled, and the liquor remaining is evaporated in a water
bath down to 2000 grams; it is then left to cool and diluted with its
weight of water. Two or three days afterwards the clear liquor is decanted
off, by means of a syphon, and the precipitate drained upon a linen
filter. When freed from the extractive liquor the precipitate weighs about
100 grams. It is suspended in 1000 grams of 80° alcohol, and the whole
passed through a metal sieve or a fine cloth; the turbid liquor obtained
is heated to ebullition, and to it is added a solution containing 10 grams
of neutral lead acetate; the heating is continued a few moments, and the
liquor is then left to cool and filtered. The deposit in the filter is
washed with alcohol to remove any liquor it may retain, and then pressed.
To this liquor is added 50 grams of finely powdered vegetable charcoal
that has been washed with acid and afterwards with water until quite
neutral, and it is then distilled, the residue being heated for some time
in a water bath, it being very important that all the alcohol should be
driven off. A little water is added to replace what may evaporate; the
residue is allowed to cool, then drained upon the cloth that was used to
separate the precipitate, and the carbonaceous mass is washed with a
little water to remove the last portion of the coloured liquor. The
carbonaceous residue is then dried completely in a stove at a temperature
not exceeding 100° C., and exhausted by displacement with pure chloroform
until it passes colourless. This liquid is distilled to dryness, and a few
grams of 95° alcohol are placed in the retort, and evaporated to drive off
the last traces of chloroform.

The residue is crude digitalin with viscous and oily matter. It is
dissolved with heat in 100 grams of 90° alcohol, and 1 gram of neutral
lead acetate dissolved in a little water added, together with 10 grams of
animal charcoal in fine granules without powder that has been treated with
hydrochloric acid, and washed until the washings are no longer acid. After
boiling for ten minutes it is allowed to cool and settle, and then
filtered in a glass cylinder furnished with a tight cotton plug, through
which it passes quickly and clear. The black deposit is added last, and
exhausted of all bitterness with alcohol. After distillation the digitalin
remains as a grumous crystalline mass, now only contaminated with the
coloured oil. A little aqueous liquor that occurs with it is separated and
the weight of the impure digitalin is taken in the previously tarred
vessel. The digitalin is then dissolved with heat in exactly sufficient
90° alcohol for its solution (from 6 to 12 grams). Any alcohol evaporated
is replaced, and then to the cooled solution is added, sulphuric ether
rectified at 65°, to half the weight of the alcohol employed; after
mixing, distilled water equal to the weight of the alcohol and ether
combined is added, and the flask is closed and shaken. Two layers are
formed: the upper is coloured, and consists of the ether which has taken
up the fat oil; the lower is colourless, and contains the digitalin, which
being now free quickly crystallises. The flask is placed in a cool place.
Two days afterwards the whole is thrown into a small cylinder furnished
with a moderately tight cotton plug; the mother liquor runs off, and then
the coloured layer, and the small quantity that remains adherent to the
crystals, is removed by a little ether. Thus obtained, this first
crystallisation of digitalin is slightly coloured; it is sufficiently
pure, however, for its weight to be taken in an analysis; one tenth being
deducted for the digitalin it still contains. To obtain it perfectly
white, two purifications are necessary, but first a treatment with
chloroform is indispensable to separate the remainder of the digitalin
which injures its purity.

The digitalin, well dried and reduced to a fine powder, is dissolved in 20
parts of chloroform, and the solution is filtered in a cylinder through a
tight cotton plug. The liquor passes limpid; it is distilled to dryness,
and a little alcohol is poured into the retort, and evaporated to remove
the last traces of chloroform.

The digitalin is dissolved in 30 grams of 90° alcohol, 5 grams of washed
granular animal black added, and the whole boiled for 10 minutes; the
liquor is filtered and the charcoal exhausted as before indicated; and,
lastly, it is distilled, the digitalin in dry crystals is found on the
sides of the vessel, but it is still slightly coloured. To obtain it
perfectly white it is dissolved with heat in exactly sufficient 90°
alcohol (about 6 to 8 grams); to the solution is added ether equal to half
the weight of alcohol employed, and double the quantity of distilled
water, and the flask is closed and agitated; the crystallisation commences
quickly. The ether does not separate. It is exposed to the coolness of the
night, and by the next day nearly the whole of the digitalin is deposited
in small groups of white needles, that which retains colouring matter
remaining in the mother liquor. The whole is thrown into a cylinder and
the crystals washed with ether as before described. 1000 grams of Vosges
digitalis of good quality yields about 1 gram of crystallised digitalin.
Digitalin occurs under the form of very white light crystals, consisting
of short slender needles, grouped around the same axis. It is very bitter
and scarcely soluble in water. 90° alcohol dissolves it well, anhydrous
alcohol dissolves it less freely. Pure ether dissolves only traces.
Chloroform is its best solvent. Brought into contact with a small quantity
of hydrochloric acid, digitalin is coloured emerald green, and this
reaction is favoured by a very slight heat. From ‘Formulæ for New
Medicaments, adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.’

=DILL.= _Syn._ ANETHUM (Ph. L. & E.), L. The fruit (seed) of _Anethum
graveolens_, or garden dill, _Anethi fructus_, B. P. Dill is an aromatic
stimulant and carminative. The Cossacks employ it as a condiment; and in
this country it is frequently employed to heighten the relish of soups and
pickles, especially cucumbers. DILL WATER is a favorite remedy of nurses
to promote the secretion of milk, and to relieve the flatulence and
griping of infants.——_Dose_, of the powder, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr., or more.
Oil of dill (OLEUM ANETHI) and dill water (AQUA ANETHI) are officinal in
the pharmacopœias.

=DIL′UENTS.= _Syn._ DILUENTIA, D. _Aqueous liquors_; so named because they
increase the fluid portion of the blood. Tea, barley-water, water-gruel,
and similar articles, are the most common diluents, after pure water. The
copious use of diluents is recommended in all acute inflammatory diseases
not of a congestive character, and to promote the action of diuretics and
sudorifics.

=DINNER PILLS.= See PILLS.

=DIOS′MA.= _Syn._ BOOKOO, BUKU; FOLIA BAROSMÆ, F. DIOSMÆ, L.; BUCHU (Ph.
L.), BUCKU (Ph. E.), DIOSMA (Ph. L. 1836). “The leaves of _Barosma
serratifolia_, _B. crenulata_, and _B. crenata_.” (Ph. L.) These species
were all included by De Candolle in the genus _Diosma_. Buchu is
principally employed in chronic affections of the urino-genital organs,
especially that of the mucous membrane of the bladder, attended with
copious discharge of mucus.——_Dose_, 20 gr. to 1/2 dr. of the powder,
taken in wine; or made into an infusion or decoction.

The officinal buchu leaves are “glabrous, glandular; either
linear-lanceolate with small serrations, or ovato-oblong, obtuse,
crenated, ovate or obovate, serrated.” (Ph. L.) Their odour somewhat
resembles that of rue, and their taste is warm and mint-like.

=DIOS′MINE.= A bitter extractive matter, obtained by Brande from buchu
leaves. It is very soluble in water, but not in alcohol and ether.

=DIPHTHERIA.= A contagious disease affecting the throat and adjoining
parts. A false membrane forms on the mucous lining of the several parts of
the throat. This alarming malady generally commences with a little
soreness of throat attended with fever; sometimes, however, the fever may
not come on for some days after the sore throat has shown itself. An
ash-coloured spot makes its appearance on one or both tonsils. This
spreads to other parts, extending in doing so, over the soft palate and
uvula, inclosing the latter in a sheath. Sometimes a thin red line
surrounds the opaque membrane thus formed. As the disease proceeds this
opaque and false membrane tends to enlarge itself, and may spread down the
gullet into the stomach, or, what is more dangerous still, it may involve
the mucous membrane of the larynx, and thence extend along the windpipe
into the bronchial tubes. When this is the case the disease is accompanied
with cough, and the peculiar noise of croup; harsh, noisy breathing. There
also frequently runs from the nostrils a thin acrid secretion, smelling
very offensively, and often tainting the whole atmosphere of the room.

By the inexperienced diphtheria is almost always mistaken for ulcerated
sore throat.

As in croup, part of the exudation or false membrane is often coughed up;
sometimes it peels off from the tonsils. Some pathologists think that
minute particles of this membrane, loosely adhering to drinking vessels,
linen, sheets, the night-dress, &c., of the patient, may be the means of
communicating the disease; by others, however, this surmise is not
accepted. The absence of certainty on this point does not remove the
stringent necessity of thoroughly cleansing and disinfecting everything
with which the secretions of the patient come into contact.

The foregoing has been written with the object of enabling the reader to
detect the only symptoms by which this dangerous disease manifests itself,
in order that he may seek medical assistance with which to combat the
complaint as promptly as possible.

After stating thus much, it is needless to say that we only recommend the
adoption of the following treatment, in the extreme case of emigrants and
others unable to obtain the services of a medical practitioner. A
saturated solution of borax in the form of a gargle should be first used,
and used without stint. Should this fail to arrest the formation of the
membrane, then a strong solution of alum should be employed instead; or
alum in powder should be applied to the throat every half hour or hour.
When children are to be submitted to this treatment, the alum instead of
being used as a gargle may be mixed with honey, and in this condition laid
on the parts with a feather; or the powdered alum may be blown on the
affected parts with a tube. Tincture of perchloride of iron, diluted
hydrochloric acid, and chlorate of potash are also said to have been used
successfully as topical applications. The diet should consist of rich
nourishing food, such as strong beef tea and mutton broth, aided by port
wine. The internal remedies embrace quinine or bark, tincture of
perchloride of iron, pernitrate of iron, chlorate of potash, and small,
but repeated doses of the mineral acids. Dr Gardner, in his useful work
‘Household Medicine,’ says, “a definite plan said to have been successful
is to employ as a gargle a solution of chlorinated soda half an ounce,
syrup half an ounce, water six ounces, mixed. At the same time give
internally four drops of the solution every two hours, for two days, then
add quinine. We may add that if this latter prescription be used the diet
before indicated should be adopted.”

=DISCU′TIENTS.= In _surgery_, substances or agents which disperse or
resolve tumours, &c. See DIGESTIVES.

=DISH-COVERS.= As these are made of various materials they must be
cleaned and polished with the substances best adapted for each. All kinds
of dish-covers directly they come from table should be washed free from
grease and wiped dry.

Plated and silver dish-covers should be polished with plate powder; that
free from mercury should be preferred. When dish-covers (as is usually the
case) are made of block tin, they should be polished, by first rubbing
them with sweet oil, and then dusting over the oil finely powdered
whiting; finishing off the polishing with soft rags. All the best covers
are provided with movable handles, which must be removed during the
process of cleaning.

=DISINFECT′ANT.= An agent which absorbs, neutralises, or destroys,
putrescent effluvia, miasmata, or specific contagia, and thus removes the
causes of infection. The principal disinfectants are chlorine, iodine,
bromine, the so-called chlorides of lime and soda, chloride of zinc,
ozone, carbolic acid, the alkaline manganates and permanganates, peat
charcoal, the fumes of nitric and nitrous acid, sulphurous acids, heat,
and ventilation. The last two are the most efficient and easily applied.
The clothing, bedding, &c., of patients labouring under contagious
diseases may be effectually (?) disinfected by exposure to a temperature a
little higher than that of boiling water, for about an hour. Neither the
texture nor colour of textile fabrics is injured by a heat of even 250°
Fahr. (Dr Henry.) See DISINFECTING CHAMBERS.

It is a practice at some of the workhouses to bake the clothes of the
paupers who have the itch, or who are infested with vermin. The soaking
and boiling of clothes in the absence of being able to bake them is by no
means a bad method for disinfecting them. The process is rendered the more
effective by adding to the water in which they are immersed or boiled 1
part of strong solution of chloride of lime to 20 or 30 parts of water; or
carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 part of the pure acid to 100 parts of
water. In the German army, if the clothes cannot be baked they are soaked
for 24 hours in water containing 1 part of sulphate of zinc to 120 of
water, or 1 part of chloride of zinc to 240 of water, after which they are
washed in soap and water and dried.

Quicklime rapidly absorbs carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and
several other noxious gases, and is therefore commonly used as a wash for
the walls of buildings. Acetic acid, camphor, fragrant pastilles,
cascarilla, brown paper, and other similar substances, are frequently
burnt or volatilised by heat, for the purpose of disguising unpleasant
odours, but are of little value as disinfectants. The sulphates of iron
and zinc have the property of rapidly destroying noxious effluvia. A
quantity of either of these sulphates thrown into a cesspool, for
instance, will in a few hours render the matter therein quite scentless.
Of gaseous disinfectants, “sulphurous acid gas (obtained by burning
sulphur) is preferable, on theoretical grounds, to chlorine. No agent
checks so effectually the first development of animal and vegetable life.
All animal odours and emanations are immediately and most effectually
destroyed by it.” (Graham.) See ANTISEPTIC, DEODORISER, FUMIGATION,
INFECTION, OZONE, CARBOLIC ACID, SALICYLIC ACID, BACTERIA as originators
of disease, LIME, CHLORIDE, CHARCOAL, also the DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS
given _below_.

Dr Wynter Blyth divides disinfectants into two great classes:——Gaseous,
and solid or liquid.

        I. _Volatile, in the form of Gas or Vapour._

1. Substances which, like the halogens, appear to form substitution
compounds, _e.g._

  Chlorine,
  Bromine,
  Iodine.

2. Substances which probably combine chemically, and thus destroy
contagion:

  Sulphurous acid,
  Nitrous acid,
  Fumes of other acids.

3. Oxidising substances, such as——

  Pure air,
  Oxygen,
  Ozone.

4. The volatile oils, &c. Feeble disinfectants, supposed, however, to
oxidise——

  Camphor,
  Oil of hops,
  Oil of rue,
  Oil of rosemary,
  Oil of chamomile.

        II. _Solid or Liquid Disinfectants._

1. The chlorides of different metals, earths, or bases:

  Chlorides of the alkalies,
  Chlorides of iron,
  Chlorides of copper,
  Chlorides of manganese,
  Chlorides of zinc,
  Chlorides of aluminium,
  Chlorides of lime,
  Chlorides of mercury,
  and, in fact, all chlorides which are soluble.

2. All soluble sulphates, especially sulphates of iron and aluminium.

3. All soluble sulphites.

4. Some acetates, as acetate of iron.

5. Some nitrates, such as the nitrates of potash and soda.

6. Certain agents which appear to arrest putrefaction or condense certain
gases, &c., without either destruction or oxidation:

  Carbolic acid,
  Tar acids,
  Charcoal,
  Great cold,
  Heat sufficient to dry organic substances, but not to char them.

7. Preservative liquids and solutions. Many of these act by coagulating
the albumen of organised bodies:

  Antiseptics,
  Alcohol,
  Solutions of corrosive sublimate,
  Solutions of common salt,
  Solutions of saltpetre.

8. Destructive agents. Not true disinfectants, they act not by
disinfection, but by destruction:

  A dry heat of 200° to 400° F.,
  The strong undiluted acids and alkalies.

9. Agents which act in many ways, partly by condensing gases, partly by
absorbing moisture, and partly by a peculiar action on organic matter
analogous to tannin:

  Dry earths,
  Clays,
  The natural and artificial compounds of aluminium.

The table on the next page is a summary by the late Dr Letheby of some
experiments made by Drs Dougall and Calvert, with the view of determining
the relative powers possessed by certain substances of arresting
putrefaction, as measured by their action in preventing the germination of
animalcules and fungi, and the development of vaccine lymph.[258]

[Footnote 258: ‘On the Relative Power of various Substances in Preventing
the Germination of Animalculæ,’ by John Dougall, 1871. Calvert,
‘Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xx, p. 185.]

=Disinfecting Compounds.= 1. (Sir WM. BURNETT’S DISINFECTING LIQUID.) A
concentrated solution of chloride of zinc. See ZINC.

2. (COLLINS’ DISINFECTING POWDER.) A mixture of dry chloride of lime, 2
parts, and burnt alum, 1 part. Used either dry or moistened with water.
See LIME.

3. (CONDY’S DISINFECTING FLUIDS.) Solutions of the alkaline manganates and
permanganates. Although this is an excellent and rapid deodoriser, and
makes a most serviceable dressing for fetid sores, it must be borne in
mind that it is in no sense an aërial disinfectant, its action being
limited to the solid or liquid matters only with which it is brought into
immediate contact. It exercises no corrosive action, but it is open to the
objection that it leaves a brown stain upon linen. See MANGANESE.

4. (ELLERMAN’S DEODORISING FLUID.) This is said to consist chiefly of the
perchlorides and chlorides of iron and manganese.

“In a report addressed to the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1859, Drs
Hoffmann and Frankland stated that the perchloride of iron was the
cheapest and most efficient deodoriser that could be applied to sewage.”
(Beasley.)

5. (LABARRAQUE’S DISINFECTING SOLUTION; LIQUOR SODÆ CHLORINATÆ, Ph. L. &
D.) A solution of chlorinated soda, or, as it is commonly called,
‘chloride of soda.’ M. Labarraque made known this valuable disinfectant in
1822, and obtained the prize of the French ‘Society for Encouraging
National Industry’ for its introduction.

6. (LEDOYEN’S DISINFECTING FLUID.) A solution of nitrate of lead, 1 part,
in about 8 parts of water; or, of litharge, 13-1/2 oz., in nitric acid
(sp. gr. 1·38), 12 oz., previously diluted with water, 6 pints. Sp. gr.
1·40.

7. (SIRET’S DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS.)——_a._ A mixture of sulphate of lime,
53 lbs., sulphate of iron, 40 lbs., sulphate of zinc, 7 lbs., and peat
charcoal, 2 lbs., made into balls.

_b._ Sulphate of iron, 20 parts; sulphate of zinc, 10 parts; tan or waste
oak-bark (in powder), 4 parts; tar and oil, of each 1 part; as before.
Used for deodorising cesspools, &c.

8. (BISULPHIDE OF CARBON.) This generates, when burnt, sulphurous acid,
and is, therefore, a very valuable disinfectant. Its highly inflammable
nature, however, renders the adoption of certain precautions necessary in
its use. A method of employing it in the form of fumigation will be found
under the article “Fumigation.”

9. Dry salicylic acid volatilised from a hot plate purifies the air, and
perfectly disinfects the walls of a closed room. (VON HEYDEN.)

10. “SANITAS” is the name given by Mr Kingzett, its discoverer, to a new
liquid antiseptic and disinfectant, containing peroxide of hydrogen and
camphoric acid, and obtained by the atmospheric oxidation of turpentine.
Sanitas is said by its inventor to possess the great advantages of being
non-poisonous, and to exercise no injurious effects either on clothing or
furniture. It is stated that its antiseptic power is distributed between
the peroxide of hydrogen and camphoric acid, the peroxide of hydrogen
being able to evolve large quantities of oxygen, which in this state is
nascent, and of a powerful and oxidising character.

11. COOPER’S UNIVERSAL DISINFECTING POWDER. According to Professor Wanklyn
this powder contains 70 per cent. of mixed chloride of sodium and chloride
of calcium, and about 6 per cent. of anhydrous sulphate of zinc (equal to
about 12 per cent. of hydrated sulphate), a little insoluble matter, and
15 per cent. of moisture.

12. DR BOND’S CUPRALUM AND FERRALUM. The first of these disinfectants is
stated to be a mixture of the sulphates of copper and aluminium, with
potassic dichromate and turpentine. Its inventor claims for it that it
possesses great power of coagulating albumen and high value both as an
antiseptic and deodorant. FERRALUM is a mixture of ferrous and aluminic
sulphates, turpentine, and carbolic acid. Its chief use is for flushing
sewers and in deodorising cesspools, urinals, &c.

13. BAYARD’S DISINFECTANT. A mixture of sulphate of iron, clay, lime, and
coal tar.

        _Summary of the Experiments made by_ DR J. DOUGALL,
        _and by_ DR CRACE CALVERT, _on the action of various
        Antiseptics on Protoplasmic and Fungus Life, and on
        Vaccine Lymph._

  KEY:
  A - Quantity required to prevent Animalcules in six days.
  B - Number of Days before Life appeared in a solution containing 1 of
      substance in 500 water and 1/2 drachm of following——
  C - Number of Days before Vibrio Life appeared in a solution of Albumen
      containing 1 of substance in 1000 of solution.
  D - Beef Juice.
  E - Sol. of Egg Albumen.
  F - Reaction of the Solution.
  G - Infusion of Hay.
  H - Human Urine.
  I - Beef Juice and Egg Albumen.
  J - Average of all.
  K - Effect on Animalcules in Putrid Beef Juice and Egg Albumen, when
      added in proportion in third column.
  L - Animalcules.
  M - Fungi.
  N - Animalcules.
  O - Fungi.
  P - Effect of the Vapour or Gas during 24 hrs. on Vaccine Lymph.
  Q - Animalcules.
  R - Putrid Odour.
  S - Fungi.
  T - Mouldy Odour.

  -------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------
                     |                                                                                       |EXPERIMENTS BY DR CRACE
                     |                   EXPERIMENTS MADE BY DR JOHN DOUGALL, OF GLASGOW.                    |       CALVERT.
                     +--------+-------------------+------+-----------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
                     |        |         A         |      |                 B                 |       |               C
                     |        |----+----+----+----+      +-----------------+--------+--------+       |-------+-------+-------+-------
                     |        |    |    |    |    |      |        D        |        E        |       |       |       |       |
                     |        |    |    |    |    |      |--------+--------+--------+--------+       |       |       |       |
   Substances used.  |   F    | G  | H  | I  | J  |  K   |    L   |   M    |   N    |   O    |   P   |   Q   |   R   |   S   |   T
  -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
                     |        |1 in|1 in|1 in|1 in|      |        |        |        |        |       |       |       |       |
  Acids.             |        |    |    |    |    |      |        |        |        |        |       |       |       |       |
   Mineral.          |        |    |    |    |    |      |        |        |        |        |       |       |       |       |
    Sulphurous       | Acid.  | 250|  50|  50| 117|Death.|   24   |   4 P. |    8   |Over 100|Killed.|  11   |Over 40|  21   |Over 40
    Nitric           |   ”    | 400| 400| 200| 333|  ”   |   18   |   4 P. |   15   |  5 T.  |  ”    |  10   |   50  |  10   |  23
    Hydrochloric     |   ”    | 500| 400| 100| 333|  ”   |   28   |   4 P. |    9   |Over 100|  ”    |  ——   |   ——  |  ——   |  ——
    Sulphuric        |   ”    | 800| 500| 100| 467|  ”   |Over 100|Over 100|   30   | 10 T.  |  ——   |   9   |   ——  |   9   |  11
    Chromic          |   ”    |4000|1400|1200|2200|  ——  |   78   |  38 P. |Over 100|Over 100|  ——   |  ——   |   ——  |  ——   |  ——
   Organic.          |        |    |    |    |    |      |        |        |        |        |       |       |       |       |
    Carbolic         |Neutral.| 300| 300| 200| 267| None.|   12   |  50 T. |   38   | 36 P.  | None. |Over 40|Over 40|Over 40|Over 40
    Cresylic         |   ”    | —— | —— | —— | —— |  ”   |   ——   |  ——    |   ——   |  ——    |  ”    |  ”    |   ”   |  ”    |  ”
    Acetic           | Acid.  | 350|  25|  10| 125|  ——  |   ——   |  ——    |   ——   |  ——    |Killed.|  30   |   ——  |   9   |  50
    Picric           |   ”    | 350| 350| 350| 350|Death.|   44   |  11 P. |Over 100| 44 P.  |  ——   |  17   |Over 40|  19   |Over 40
    Benzoic          |   ”    | 700| 700| 200| 533|  ”   |Over 100|Over 100|   ”    |Over 100|  ——   |  ——   |   ——  |  ——   |  ——
  -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
  Alkalies.          |        |    |    |    |    |      |        |        |        |        |       |       |       |       |
    Lime             |  Alk.  | —— | —— | —— | —— |  ——  |   ——   |   ——   |   ——   |  ——    |  ——   |  13   |   19  |Over 40|Over 40
    Potash           |   ”    | 300|  50|  10| 120|Death.|   ——   |   ——   |   ——   |  ——    |  ——   |  16   |   ——  |  ——   |  ——
    Soda             |   ”    | —— | —— | —— | —— |  ——  |   ——   |   ——   |   ——   |  ——    |  ——   |  23   |   31  |  18   |  29
    Ammonia          |   ”    | —— | —— | —— | —— |  ——  |   ——   |   ——   |   ——   |  ——    |  ——   |  24   |   50  |  20   |Over 40
  -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
  Haloids.           |        |    |    |    |    |      |        |        |        |        |       |       |       |       |
    Iodine tincture  |Neutral.| 400| 400|  50| 283|Death.|    1   |   80 T.|   15   |Over 100|  ——   |  ——   |   ——  |  ——   |  ——
    Chlorine gas     | Acid.  | —— | —— | —— | —— |  ——  |   ——   |   ——   |   ——   |  ——    |Killed.|   7   |   21  |  21   |  ——
    Chloride lime    |  Alk.  | 200| 200|  25| 142|Death.|   27   |   27 T.|   40   |Over 100|  ”    |   7   |   18  |  16   |  ——
    Chloride zinc    | Acid.  | 300| 300| 300| 300|  ”   |    4   |Over 100|   18   |  ”     |  ——   |Over 40|Over 40|  50   |Over 40
    Chloride aluminum|   ”    |2000| 500| 300| 933|  ——  |   19   |    4 P.|Over 100|  8 P.  |  ——   |  10   |   ”   |  21   |  50
  -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
  Sulphates, &c.     |        |    |    |    |    |      |        |        |        |        |       |       |       |       |
    Bisulphite lime  | Acid.  | 100|  50|  25|  58|Death.|    4   |   92 T.|    9   |Over 100|  ——   |  11   |   21  |  14   |Over 40
    Sulphate zinc    |   ”    | 300| 300| 200| 267|  ”   |   30   |    4 P.|   90   | 70 P.  |  ——   |  ——   |   ——  |  ——   |  ——
    Sulphate iron    |   ”    | 500| 500| 100| 367|  ?   |   14   |    5 T.|   35   | 40 T.  |  ——   |   7   |Over 40|  15   |  ——
    Common alum      |   ”    | 800| 500| 100| 467|  ——  |   14   |    3 P.|   38   | 15 T.  |  ——   |  ——   |   ——  |  ——   |  ——
    Sulphate copper  |   ”    |1000|1000| 800| 933|Death.|   86   |   20 P.|Over 100|Over 100|  ——   |  ——   |   ——  |  ——   |  ——
  -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
  Permanganate potash|Neutral.| 500| 200| 125| 275| None.|   ——   |   ——   |   ——   |  ——    |  ——   |   9   |   50  |  22   |Over 40
  Alcohol            |   ”    | 350|  50|  20| 140|Death.|    4   |    4 T.|   10   |Over 100|  ——   |  ——   |   ——  |  ——   |  ——
  Camphor            |   ”    | 300| 150|  50| 167| None.|   ——   |   ——   |   ——   |  ——    | None. |  ——   |   ——  |  ——   |  ——
  Turpentine         |   ”    | —— | —— | —— | —— |  ——  |   ——   |   ——   |   ——   |  ——    |  ——   |  14   |Over 40|  42   |Over 40
  -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

Note.——In the _first_ set of Dr John Dougall’s experiments 3 drachms of a
solution of the strength mentioned were treated with 1 drachm of a
filtered infusion of hay, or with half a drachm of urine or half a drachm
of the mixture of beef juice and egg-albumen. In the _second_ set of
experiments equal parts of a putrid solution of beef juice and
egg-albumen, full of living animalcules, and of the solution of the
various substances of the strength known to be preventive of life (as in
third column), were mixed together, and the results immediately noted. In
the _third_ set of experiments 3-1/2 drachms of distilled water,
containing 1 in 500 of the substances named, were treated with half a
drachm of filtered beef juice, or half a drachm of a solution consisting
of 1 part white of egg to 4 parts water. In the _last_ set of experiments,
separate minims of vaccine lymph were exposed to the several vapours for
24 hours, and the dried spot in each case was moistened with glycerin and
water, and sealed in a capillary tube until an opportunity for vaccination
occurred, when the whole of the diluted lymph was used in one insertion so
as to ensure its full effect.

In Dr Crace Calvert’s experiments, 0·026 of a gramme of the substance was
added to 26 grammes (1 to 1000) of a solution of albumen containing 1 part
white of egg to 4 parts _pure_ distilled water.

The Animalcules observed were Monads (microphymes), Vibrios, and their
cell segments (microerphymes), Bacteria (microzymes), Amœba, &c.; and the
Fungi were Torula, Mycelium, Penicilium, &c., indicated in Table by
letters T and P. Putrefaction was always characterised by a putrid odour,
an alkaline reaction, and the presence of animalcules; whereas Mouldiness
and Fermentation were distinguished by a mouldy or musty odour, an acid
reaction, and the presence of Fungi.

14. LARMANDE’S ANTIMEPHETIC LIQUOR. A solution of the sulphates of zinc
and copper.

15. THYMOL. From experiments made with this substance it appears to be a
very powerful and valuable antiseptic, and likely, because of its
non-poisonous and non-irritant qualities, to supplant carbolic acid in
various branches of surgical practice, in which this latter agent has
hitherto been employed; such, for example, as a dressing for wounds,
ulcers, and as a topical application for certain skin eruptions, &c. Its
difficult solubility and price (spite of its much greater antiseptic
power), however, for the present at any rate, preclude it from being made
available as an ordinary common disinfectant, as this term is generally
understood. See THYMOL.

16. SILICATE OF SODA. It is stated that this salt has considerable
anti-putrefactive powers.

17. Aluminised CHARCOAL. This is recommended by Dr Stenhouse as a cheap
and very efficient decolorising agent. It is made by dissolving in water
54 parts of the sulphate of alumina of commerce in water, and mix it with
92-1/2 parts of finely powdered wood charcoal. When the charcoal is
saturated it is evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness in covered
Hessian crucibles till the water and acid are dissipated. The charcoal
contains 7-1/2 per cent. of anhydrous alumina.

The natural disinfectants are air and water.

Air, when in violent motion, as is the case during a hurricane, has in
many instances been known to arrest the course of certain epidemics;
whilst in the form of ordinary ventilation, although inadequate alone to
destroy the causes (whatever they may be) of contagion or infection, it is
nevertheless found to supplement, to a considerable extent, the
application of artificial and specific disinfectants. Hence the paramount
necessity of perfect ventilation in all apartments in which the sick are
placed, and hence also the measures taken in all hospitals to ensure by
this means an increasing supply of fresh air to the wards in which the
patients are lying.

The diminution in the amount of sickness prevailing in an army caused by
the removal of the soldiers from barracks and placing them in sheds or
under canvas is another illustration, tending to show the disinfectant
properties possessed by an atmosphere in a state of circulation, when, of
course, other hygienic precautions are not neglected.

In Hammond’s ‘Hygiène’ for 1863 the author, who was surgeon-general in the
United States army, says that he only met with one instance of hospital
gangrene in a wooden pavilion hospital, and not a single one in a tent;
and the same result is recorded by Kraus, of the Austrian army in 1859,
who says he never discovered that gangrene originated in a tent; that, on
the contrary, cases of gangrene at once began to improve when those
suffering from the disease were sent from hospital wards into tents. In
his work on ‘Practical Hygiène’ Dr Parkes advises all cases of typhus
occurring in barracks, whenever practicable, to be sent to tents or wooden
huts having badly-jointed walls.

The great solvent power of water, superadded to its being able to hold
matters in suspension, renders it a most important disinfectant, and thus
enables it in the form of rain to remove from the atmosphere many noxious
and pestilential bodies that would doubtless, if allowed to increase,
become a source of disease. The air-current which constitutes the
ventilation of the House of Commons, before entering the Commons’ chamber,
is made to pass over a fine spray of water, by which means it has any dust
or other organisms washed out of it. The beneficial effect of rain also in
flushing drains and canals, and sweetening the superincumbent air, and of
washing out of it many solid as well as gaseous objectionable impurities,
is well known. The year 1860 was one of the wettest on record, as it was
also one of the healthiest. Dr W. Budd recommends that when a room is to
be disinfected, a short time before the process is commenced a tub of
boiling water should be placed in the apartment, so that the steam may
become condensed on the walls, and diffused throughout the air, as he
believes there is a greater chance of ensuring the destruction of the
disease germs by the aërial disinfectants than if these latter were
allowed to act on the germs in the dry state.

We have already enforced in these pages the importance of the habit of
personal cleanliness as being one of the greatest aids to the preservation
of health; and although the unstinted use of soap and water will alone
fail to effect the removal of any infectious or contagious maladies, their
use will be found important auxiliaries in assisting recovery. But
personal ablution is not the _sine quâ non_. The frequent cleansing of our
dwellings, streets,[259] alleys (more particularly culs-de-sac), lanes,
and the sheds and habitations of animals, by soap and water, or water
alone, as well as the removal of all decaying or refuse materials from our
midst, is of equal importance, and must not be disregarded, if we desire
to make our sanitary surroundings such as they ought to be.

[Footnote 259: In streets where there is much traffic the air above has
been found to contain large quantities of dust composed, amongst other
matters, of the remains of horse droppings; hence the great importance of
assiduously watering and cleansing the thoroughfares of all large cities
and towns. A plan for laying the dust of streets has been suggested by Mr
Cooper, and consists in watering them with waste chlorides of calcium and
magnesium. Carbolic acid has been employed for the same purpose by many
urban authorities for some years past.]

We extract the following from Dr Parkes’ valuable and standard
work——‘Practical Hygiene,’

“_Disinfection of Various Diseases._

“EXANTHEMATA, SCARLET FEVER, AND ROTHËLN. The points to attack are the
skin and throat. The skin should be rubbed from the very commencement of
the rash until complete desquamation, with camphorated oil, or oil with a
little weak carbolic acid. The throat should be washed with Condy’s fluid,
or weak solution of sulphurous acid.

“Clothes to be baked, or to be placed at once in boiling water, as
directed further back. The clothes should not be washed at a common
laundry. Chlorine or euchlorine should be diffused in the air, the saucer
being put some little distance above the head of the patient. Carbolic
acid and ether or carbolic-acid spray may be used instead.

“_Smallpox._——In this, as in all cases, there can be no use in employing
aërial disinfectants, unless they are constantly in the air, so as to act
on any particle of poison which may pass into the atmosphere.

“The skin and the discharges from the mouth, nose, and eyes are to be
attacked. There is much greater difficulty with the skin, as inunction
cannot be so well performed. By smearing with oil and a little carbolic
acid and glycerin, or, in difficult cases, applying carbolised glycerin to
the papules and commencing pustules, might be tried. The permanganate and
sulphurious acid solutions should be used for the mouth, nose, and eyes.
The clothing should always be baked before washing, if it can be done.

“The particles which pass into the air are enclosed in small dry pieces of
pus and epithelial scales; and Bakewell, who has lately examined them,
expresses great doubts whether any air purifier would touch them. Still it
must be proper to use euchlorine or carbolic acid. Iodine has been
recommended by Richardson and Hoffmann.

“_Measles._——Oily applications to the skin and air purifiers, and
chlorides of zinc and aluminium in the vessels receiving the
expectoration, appear to be the proper measures.

“_Typhus (Exanthematicus)._——Two measures seem sufficient to prevent the
spread of typhus, viz. most complete ventilation and immediate
disinfection and cleansing of clothes. But there is also more evidence of
use from air purifiers than in the exanthemata. The nitrous acid fumes
were tried very largely towards the close of last century and the
beginning of this in the hulks and prisons where Spanish, French, and
Russian prisoners of war were confined. At that time so rapidly did the
disease spread in the confined spaces where so many men were kept, that
the efficacy even of ventilation was doubted, though there can be no
question that the amount of ventilation which was necessary was very much
underrated. Both at Windsor and Sheerness the circumstances were most
difficult. At the latter place (in 1785), in the hulk, 200 men, 150 of
whom had typhus, were closely crowded together; 10 attendants and 24 men
of the crew were attacked; 3 medical officers had died when the
experiments commenced. After the fumigations one attendant only was
attacked, and it appeared as if the disease in those already suffering
became milder. In 1797 it was again tried with success, and many reports
were made on the subject by army and naval surgeons. It was subsequently
largely employed on the Continent, and everywhere seems to have been
useful.

“These facts lead to the inference that the evolutions of nitrous acid
should be practised in typhus-fever wards, proper precautions being taken
to diffuse it equally through the room, and in a highly dilute form.

“Hydrochloric acid was employed for the same purpose by Guyton de Morveau
in 1773, but it is doubtless much inferior to nitrous acid. Chlorine has
also been employed, and apparently with good results.

“In typhus it would seem probable that the contagia pass off entirely by
the skin, at least the effect of ventilation, and the way in which the
agent coheres to the body linen seems to show this.

“The agent is not also enclosed in quantities of dry discharges and
epidemics, as in the exanthemata, and is therefore less persistent and
more easily destroyed than in those cases. Hence possibly the greater
benefit of fumigations, and the reason of the arrest by ventilation. The
clothes should be baked, steeped, and washed, as in the exanthemata.

“_Bubo Plague._ The measures would probably be the same as for typhus.

“_Enteric (typhoid fever)._ The bowels’ discharges are believed to be the
chief, if not the sole agents in spreading the disease; the effluvia from
them escape into the air, and will adhere to walls and retain power for
some time, or the discharges themselves may get into drinking-water. Every
discharge should be at once mixed with a powerful chemical agent; of
these, chloride and sulphate of zinc have been chiefly used, but sulphate
of copper (which Dougall found so useful in stopping the growth of
animalculæ), chloride of aluminium, or strong solution of ferrous sulphate
(1 ounce to a pint of water), or carbolic acid. After complete mixing the
stools must be thrown into sewers in towns; but this should never be done
without previous complete disinfection. In country places they should be
deeply buried at a place far removed from any water supply; they should
never be thrown on to manure heaps or on to middens, nor into earth
closets, if it can be possibly avoided. As the bedclothes and beds are so
constantly soiled with the discharges, they should be baked, or, if this
cannot be done, boiled immediately after removal with sulphate or chloride
of zinc. It would be less necessary to employ air purifiers in this case
than in others.

“_Cholera._ There can be little doubt that the discharges are here also
the active media of the conveyance of the disease, and their complete
disinfection is a matter of the highest importance. It is, however, so
difficult to do this with the immense discharges of cholera, especially
when there are many patients, that the evidence of the use of the plan in
the last European epidemic is very disappointing.

“The ferrous sulphate (green vitriol), which has been strongly recommended
by Pettenkofer as an addition to the cholera evacuations, was fully tried
in 1866 at Frankfurt, Halle, Leipzig, in Germany, and at Pill, near
Bristol, and in those cases without any good result. In other places, as
at Baden, the benefit was doubtful. It seemed to answer better with Dr
Budd and Mr Davies at Bristol; but other substances were also used, viz.
chlorine gas in the rooms, and chloride of lime and Condy’s fluid for the
linen. On the whole it seems to have been a failure. Ferric sulphate, with
or without potassium permanganate, has been recommended by Kühne instead
of ferrous sulphate, but I am not aware of any evidence on the point.
Carbolic acid was largely used in England in 1866, and appeared in some
cases to be of use, as at Pill, near Bristol, and, perhaps, at
Southampton. It failed at Erfurt, but, as it is believed the wells were
contaminated by soakage, this is perhaps no certain case. Chloride of lime
and lime were used at Stettin without any good result, and, on the whole,
it may be said that the so-called disinfection of the discharges of
cholera does not seem to have been attended with very marked results. At
the same time it cannot be for a moment contended that the plan has had a
fair trial, and we can easily believe that unless there is a full
understanding on the part of both medical men and the public of what is to
be accomplished by this system, and a conscientious carrying out of the
plan to its minutest details, no safe opinions of its efficacy or
otherwise can be arrived at. It would be desirable to try the effect of
chromic acid or bichromate of potash.

“With regard to air purifiers little evidence exists. Chlorine gas
diffused in the air was tried very largely in Austria and Hungary in 1832,
but without any good results. Nitrous-acid gas was used in Malta in 1865,
but apparently did not have any decided influences, although Ramon da Luna
has asserted that it has a decided preservative effect, and that no one
was attacked in Madrid who used fumigations of nitrous acid. But negative
evidence of this kind is always doubtful. Charcoal in bulk appears to have
no effect. Dr Sutherland saw a ship’s crew severely attacked, although the
ship was loaded with charcoal.

“Carbolic-acid vapour diffused in the atmosphere was largely used in 1866
in England; the liquid was sprinkled about with water, and sawdust
moistened with it was laid on the floors and under the patients. The
effect in preventing the spread of the disease was very uncertain.

“_Yellow Fever._ In this case the discharges, especially from the stomach,
probably spread the disease, and disinfectants must be mixed with them.

“Fumigations of nitrous acid were employed by Ramon da Luna, and it is
asserted that no agent was so effectual in arresting the spread of the
disease.

“_Dysentery._ It is well known that dysentery, and especially the putrid
dysentery, may spread through an hospital from the practice of the same
close stool or latrines being used. As long ago as 1807, fumigations of
chlorine were used by Mojon to destroy the emanations from the stools, and
with the best effects. The chlorine was diffused in the air, and the
stools were not disinfected; but this ought to be done as in enteric
fever, and especially in the sloughing form. It is probable that carbolic
acid in large quantity would be efficacious.

“With respect to _Erysipelas_, _Diphtheria_, _Syphilis_, _Gonorrhœa_,
_Glanders_, and _Farcy_, local applications are evidently required, and
carbolic acid in various degrees of strength, and the metallic salts, are
evidently the best measures.

“_Cattle Plague._ The experiments made by Mr Crookes on the disinfectant
treatment of cattle plague with carbolic acid vapour have an important
bearing on human disease. Although the observations fall short of
demonstration there are grounds for thinking that when the air was kept
constantly filled with carbolic acid vapour, the disease did not spread.

“So also euchlorine was employed in Lancashire by Professor Stone of
Manchester, with apparent benefit. Dr Moffat employed ozone (developed by
exposing phosphorus to the air), and he believes with benefit. As such
experiments are very much more easily carried out on the diseases of
animals than on those of men, it is much to be wished that the precise
effect of the so-called disinfectants should be tested by continuing the
experiments commenced by Mr Crookes, not only in cattle plague in the
countries where it prevails, but in epizootic diseases generally.

“It may be said, in conclusion, that although positive evidence is so
deficient, yet, taking into consideration the decidedly great and known
effect of many so-called disinfectants, and air-purifiers on organic
matters, and the fact that the infectious organic agencies are certainly
easily destroyed in most cases (since free ventilation renders many of
them inert, and few of them retain their power very long), it is highly
probable that the specific poisons of the so-called zymotic diseases are
destroyed by some of these chemical methods, and at any rate the careful
and constant use of chemical agents for the destruction of the specific
poisons in the excreta and discharges from the body, and when they pass
into the air, is not only warranted, but should be considered
comparative.

“_Purification of rooms after infectious diseases._ In addition to
thorough cleansing of all woodwork with soft soap and water, to which a
little carbolic acid has been added (1 pint of the common liquid to 3 or 4
gallons of water), and to removal and washing of all fabrics which can be
removed, the brushing of the walls, the room should be fumigated for 3
hours with either the fumes of sulphurous or nitrous acids. Both of these
are believed to be superior to chlorine, especially in smallpox. All doors
and windows, and the chimney being closed, and curtains taken down, the
sulphur is ignited as directed in our article FUMIGATION.

“In white-washed rooms the walls should be scraped, and then washed with
hot lime to which carbolic acid is added.

“Mortuaries and dead-houses are best purified with nitrous acid.”

These directions may be supplemented by the following:——The towels,
sheets, articles of clothing, &c., should be boiled in water, or plunged
in boiling water containing one to two handfuls of soda to the gallon,
before being taken from the room, after which treatment they should be
steeped in water containing 4 fluid ounces of carbolic acid to a gallon of
water.

Fabrics soiled by the discharges, &c., such as rags, bandages, and
dressings, if of little value should be immediately consigned to the
flames; but if this be not convenient, they may be treated with carbolic
acid and water, in the same manner as directed for towels, sheets, &c.

As soon as any infectious disease sets in, the room of the patient should
be at once stripped of curtains, carpet, bed-curtains, valances, and all
unnecessary garments, whether in a wardrobe or drawers, as well as of all
superfluous furniture, especially chairs stuffed with wool or covered with
fabric of any kind.

Disinfections of the apartment by fumigations must be postponed until it
is vacated; as before such a time thorough disinfection is impossible.

Infected bedding, &c., should be removed in the boxes made for the
purpose, and subjected to the heating process. In most towns provision is
made by the Board of Guardians, and under the directions of the medical
officer of health, for the disinfection process to be efficiently carried
out. See DISINFECTING CHAMBERS.

The disinfection of articles of food is accomplished by thorough cooking,
boiling in the case of milk, boiling and filtration in the case of water,
and complete roasting, stewing, and frying of meat.

The experiments of Mr Crookes (to which reference has been made in the
extract taken from Dr Parkes’ ‘Practical Hygiène’) with carbolic acid
during the cattle plague possess great practical interest both for the
chemist and physiologist.

Of the use of carbolic acid as a disinfectant Mr Crookes, in the Appendix
to the Report of the Cattle Plague Commissioners, writes as follows:

“According to the principles laid down, the air must be treated, and where
there is no disease there is only a secondary use in treating anything
besides the air. Several cowhouses have been treated with carbolic acid
with very excellent results. The mode has been, first, to remove from the
floor the mass of manure, which too often adheres to it; secondly, to
sprinkle the floor with strong carbolic or cresylic acid; next, to wash
the walls, beams, and rafters, and all that is visible in the cowhouse,
with lime, in which is put some carbolic acid, 1 to 50 of the water used,
or with strong carbolic acid alone. Next, to make a solution containing 1
of carbolic or cresylic acid to 100 of water, or, perhaps still better, 60
of water, and to water the yard and fold until the whole place smells
strongly of the acid. Only a few farms have been treated in this way, so
far as I know, but in each it has been successful. It may be well to give
the cattle a little of the weak solution of carbolic acid, but this has
not been so fully tried as the external use. The washing of the mouth and
of the entire animal with the weak solution may be attended with good
results, especially in the early stage of disease; but I know nothing of
cure, and speak only hopefully of prevention.

“The animals seem to have an instinct for disinfection, and lick
substances touched with this acid. They must not be allowed to drink it,
as when strong it blisters the skin, and especially the mouth and tongue.”

Mr Crookes also tried the effect of the acid by injecting it into the
veins of the animals, and thus details the results of his
experiments:——“It appeared evident that if harm were to follow the
injection of carbolic acid, the mischievous effect would be immediate; but
that if the fluid could pass through the heart without exerting its
paralysing action on that organ, and could get into the circulation, no
present ill effects need be anticipated. I therefore determined to push
these experiments as far as possible, increasing the quantity of carbolic
acid, until it produced a fatal result.

The next operation was on cow No. 11, in which 3 oz. of solution
(containing 52-1/2 gr. of pure carbolic acid) were very slowly injected;
no bad effect followed. Increasing the dose, cow No. 12 had injected into
her vein 4-1/2 oz. of solution (equal to 78-3/4 gr. of carbolic acid);
this also was followed by no immediate ill effect. Cow No. 13 was then
treated with 6 oz. of solution (containing 105 gr. of pure carbolic acid),
in two portions of 3 oz. each, five minutes’ interval elapsing between
each injection. The first 3 oz. produced a slight trembling, but not so
severe as in the case of cow No. 10, as she seemed better in a few
minutes. The second dose of 3 oz. was injected. This proved too much, or
was pumped in too hurriedly, for almost before I had finished the animal
trembled violently, its eyes projected, its breathing became laborious, it
fell down and expired. The result could scarcely be attributed to the
accidental injection of air into the vein, for the distress began with the
injection of the first syringeful, and was only increased by the second;
nor is it likely that this accident would happen twice consecutively. I
was particularly careful on this point, and the construction of the
instrument rendered such an occurrence scarcely possible with ordinary
precaution. It is probable that the injection was performed too rapidly,
or that the vital powers were lower than usual. In the case of the
remaining animal, No. 14, I decided to inject as large a dose as it would
bear, stopping the operation at the first sign of trembling, and
delivering the liquid very gradually. The first syringeful caused no bad
symptoms, and I had just finished injecting the second dose when trembling
commenced. It was rather violent for a short time, but soon went off, and
in five minutes the animal appeared as well as before.

This cow, therefore, bore without inconvenience the injection of 6 oz. of
a 4 per cent. solution, containing 105 gr. of pure carbolic acid. Careful
observations with the thermometer were taken before each operation. There
were no more diseased beasts on the farm, or I should have carried my
experiments still further. On visiting the farm the next day I was told
that all the animals seemed better, and on testing them with the
thermometer that statement was confirmed. I gave directions that each
animal was to be drenched with half a wine-glassful (1 oz.) of carbolic
acid in a quart of warm water every morning, but in other respects they
might be treated as Mr Tomlinson, a skilful cow doctor, should direct.

“Business now calling me to London, I was unable to watch the further
progress of these cases.

“This is to be regretted, as a series of daily thermometric observations
would have been of great value in suggesting further experiments. I had,
however, frequent accounts sent me. Cow No. 14 continued to improve slowly
until convalescent; she is now quite well. Nos. 10, 11, and 12 remained
apparently in the same state for four days; they then changed for the
worse, and died. It is not improbable that had I been able to inject a
further quantity of carbolic acid during the four days in which they were
thus hovering between recovery and relapse, it would have turned the
scale, and some of them at all events would be now alive and well.

The following table gives the thermometric observations;——

        _Table showing the results of injecting carbolic acid
        into the blood of animals suffering from the cattle
        plague._

  +-----+------------+-------------+---------+--------+-----------+
  |     | Grains of  | Temperature |         |        |           |
  | No. | Carbolic   | before      | Second  | Third  |           |
  |     | Acid       | Injection   | Day.    | Day.   |           |
  |     | Injected.  |             |         |        |           |
  +-----+------------+-------------+---------+--------+-----------+
  |     |            |     F.      |   F.    |        |           |
  | 10  | 26-1/2     | 105·4       | 103·8   | Better.| Died on   |
  |     |            |             |         |        | 6th day.  |
  | 11  | 52-1/2     | 103·8       | 102·8   |  ”     | Died on   |
  |     |            |             |         |        | 6th day.  |
  | 12  | 78-3/4     | 104·8       | 104·4   |  ”     | Died on   |
  |     |            |             |         |        | 6th day.  |
  | 14  | 105        | 103·7       | 103·1   |  ”     | Recovered.|
  +-----+------------+-------------+---------+--------+-----------+

If future experiments prove that injection of carbolic acid or other
antiseptic will do good, it is an operation very easily performed. I have
injected five animals, and taken thermometric observations within an hour.
Sulphite or bisulphite of soda apparently occasions some pain, as the
animals struggle very much; with carbolic acid I found them tolerably
quiet. I have calculated the proportion which the carbolic acid bore to
the whole quantity of blood in these operations. Taking the whole amount
of blood in the animal at 150 lbs., there were injected into——

  No. 10, 1 part of carb. acid, in 40,000 of blood.
   ”  11,     ”         ”          20,000     ”
   ”  12,     ”         ”          13,300     ”
   ”  14,     ”         ”          10,000     ”

It is worth mentioning incidentally, that in the case of cow No. 14 (which
recovered) the proportion of carbolic acid injected into the blood would
have been enough to keep from decomposition the whole quantity of that
liquid for a considerable time. In Nos. 10, 11, and 12 the proportion of
carbolic acid would probably not have been sufficient for that purpose. I
am informed by Dr Calvert that cresylic acid has much less coagulating
power on albumen than carbolic acid, and my own experiments entirely
confirm this statement.”

We have described under “CHARCOAL” the disinfecting properties of that
substance. These properties have been turned to excellent account by Dr
Stenhouse, who has invented a charcoal respirator, which, causing the
wearer to breathe air drawn through a layer of that substance, and by thus
depriving the air so inspired of any noxious gases or exhalations, if
present, becomes, if worn in an infected atmosphere, a great safeguard
against disease. Dr Letheby was accustomed to use a charcoal respirator
when analysing dead bodies and other putrid matters of suspected
poisoning, and by so doing never experienced any ill effects, nor was he
conscious of the offensive odour which but for its adoption he must have
encountered.

Professor Tyndall has suggested for the same purpose a respirator of
cotton wool, by means of which the air, being filtered before it enters
the lungs, becomes deprived of minute particles of various substances
suspended in it, as well as of the germs, which so many pathologists
believe to be always present during the prevalence of epidemic maladies,
and the cause, when inhaled, of the maladies themselves.

=DISINFECTING CHAMBERS.= The sanitary authorities of most large cities
have made provision for the purification of mattresses, linen, wearing
apparel, &c., by means of disinfecting chambers or ovens, in which
receptacles the infected articles are subjected for a certain time to hot
air. The simplest form of apparatus for this purpose, and one that could
be used on an emergency, provided the articles to be disinfected were not
too bulky, is a baker’s oven. The drying closet of a good laundry would be
so far unsafe, because it would occasionally fail to give a heat
sufficient for the destruction of the noxious principles.

The disinfecting chambers employed in Liverpool are arched ovens of solid
brickwork, having a depth of 7 feet from front to back, a width of 5 feet
from side to side, and a height of 6-1/2 feet from the floor to the crown
of the arch. The doors are made of wrought iron, tightly fitting into
cast-iron framework. The floors are made of double iron gratings, having
alternate openings, so arranged as to admit at pleasure hot air into the
chamber. At the top of the arch there is an opening fitted with an iron
valve, by which the air of the chamber escapes into an exhausting shaft
which is connected with the chimney. The heating is accomplished by means
of a cast-iron cockle, the smoke from which escapes by two cast-iron smoke
flues, which, after forming a coil for the purpose of affording as great a
heating surface as possible, pass along the hot-air passage under the
chamber, into a chimney situated at the opposite end.

The cold air is drawn into a brick flue placed underneath the floor of the
stokehole into a cavity on each side of the cockle, and thence into a
space underneath the chamber, whence it becomes heated by the radiation
from the surface of the two cast iron flues. From this cavity or passage
it is conveyed at will through the gratings as already described. At the
entrance of the cold air flue there is a damper, by which the temperature
of the air may be regulated. A heat equal to 280° F. has been registered
in this chamber, and as high as 380° in a drying closet over the cockle.
Dr French, the medical officer of health for Liverpool, says “that, if
necessary, a temperature reaching 500° F. can be attained in these
chambers; but this temperature is of course never employed. Experience has
proved that from 220° to 250° F. is the most suitable. Instances have been
known where fabrics, after being exposed for some length of time to a
temperature above 212° F., have sustained injury from being scorched.

In some of the chambers, carbolic acid powder is sprinkled on the floor.

We have taken the liberty of transcribing the following description and
plates illustrative of the disinfecting stove used in the Royal Victoria
Yard, Deptford, from that very useful publication, ‘Chemistry,
Theoretical, Practical, and Analytical,’ published by Mr W. Mackenzie.

“This stove consists of a brick chamber with a slightly arched roof, and
an iron movable floor in two pieces. The chamber is 7 feet deep, 6 feet 9
inches wide, and 5 feet 8-1/2 inches high in the centre of the arch. It is
heated by a flue below the iron floor passing round 3 sides of the chamber
and up a chimney. There is an opening in the upper part of the chamber in
its centre, which passes along in the roof to the side, from thence down
in the wall entering beneath the fire; this carries away any of the foul
air of the clothes from the chamber through the fire and up the flue. This
proceeding takes place after the clothes have been in the chamber say an
hour and a half in the following manner:——The damper in the foul air shaft
is withdrawn, and the furnace door is shut; any draught that gets to the
fire comes to the chamber. Over the opening into the furnace is a square
opening, fitted with a glass, inside of which is a fixed thermometer. When
this shows a temperature of 200° F., the interior of the chamber is at
250° F., the highest point at which it is allowed to be. In the interior
of the chamber at the sides there are little movable cranes, three rows of
three supporting rods of iron on which wooden trays rest, and on which the
clothes are placed when the iron cart is not used. The cranes move fore
and aft to be out of the way when the cart is used. The cart is of iron on
wheels, and runs into the chamber on tramways to keep it in position; in
the interior of the cart are three iron trays for laying the clothes on.
The lowest tray is always the hottest, so that it is prudent to use the
cart, the iron bottom of which prevents burning. The iron ends of the cart
are removed when it is placed in the chamber; so is the handle. It is
usual to keep the clothes at the temperature of 250° F. for two hours.

There is a trap door 8 inches square about 14 inches above the upper edge
of the furnace, and on a level with the iron floor of the chamber, for
disinfectants. Carbolic acid and sulphur are used; the former is placed on
a flat plate, the latter is sprinkled over the floor. These are used as
the last, and after that has been the clothes are fit to be used without
danger to any one.

_Elevation plan_ (fig. 5) shows the front of the chamber with the doors
closed; the openings (Nos. 1, 2, and 3) are for inserting the long
thermometer, which is pushed into the clothing to be disinfected; they
correspond with the three trays. The thermometer can be withdrawn and
examined without allowing much cold air to enter; plugs fit into these
three openings when not used for the thermometer.

[Illustration]

_Section._——The chamber is shown about the centre of its depth; the
foul-air shaft (B) passes along the roof down the side wall, and beneath
the fire (C); the opening where the fixed thermometer is placed is marked
with dotted lines. The damper for the foul-air shaft (E) is represented as
shut, and the damper for the chimney (F) is also shut.

[Illustration]

_The ground plan_ shows the flue beneath the iron plates, which form the
floor of the chamber, the dotted lines showing the foul-air flue (B), as
it passes beneath the fire. In the flue (C) there are openings at D, D, D,
for the purpose of cleaning it.

[Illustration]

Another form of disinfecting chamber is that invented by Dr Esse, of
Berlin, and employed in that city. The apparatus consists of two iron
cylinders, one fitted within the other, with a space between, into which
steam under pressure is introduced. The outer cylinder is surrounded with
wood and the top with felt, to prevent the escape of heat. The articles to
be disinfected are put in at the top of the inner cylinder, the inside of
which soon becomes heated up by the surrounding steam. A pulley is used to
lift the lid of the inner cylinder, around which the clothes are hung on
pegs, not being allowed to touch the side of the cylinder. At the top of
the inside cylinder is a brass box pierced with holes at the bottom, which
dips a little way down, through which the air from the interior can rise.
In this box the bulb of a thermometer being placed, the temperature of the
inner chamber can be registered.

When the steam condenses in the space between the cylinders it is carried
off by means of a valve, which is lifted when the water reaches a certain
point in the condenser. In an hour’s time the temperature of the interior
cylinder can be raised to 235° Fahr.

For heating mattresses another apparatus has been devised by Dr Esse. It
consists of an iron case with a spiral steam pipe in the centre, the steam
inside the pipe being compressed to two atmospheres.

Dr Ransome has invented, for the use of the Nottingham hospital, a gas
stove in the form of an iron box, well packed with a non-conducting
material, which surrounds the outside. A channel leads to the interior of
the box, and inside this channel gas is kept burning in such a manner by a
modification of Kemp’s regulator, that the temperature of the box shall
range day and night between 235° and 255° Fahr.

An apparatus put to great use by the Holborn District Board during the
epidemic of smallpox in 1871 was one made by Fraser’s patent. Mr Fraser’s
disinfecting chamber consists of an oven or receptacle made of brick, with
doors in front. Situated on the lower portion of this chamber is a covered
furnace connected with flues, by means of which the interior space is
heated to the desired temperature. By a particular arrangement the air
laden with the noxious vapours given off by the tainted clothing is
conveyed into the furnace, and so consumed. Belonging to the apparatus is
a covered truck or cart, fitted with doors and dampers, and provided
inside with racks and shelves for holding the materials to be purified,
which are thus brought from the infected dwelling and placed, truck and
all, inside the chamber. The infected materials, as well as the truck
containing them, are then heated to the necessary point, disinfection
being assisted by sulphurous acid gas, or some other material adapted for
the purpose. When the process is finished the carriage with its contents
is drawn back to the house from which they were originally taken, and the
purified articles are restored to the owners. It will be seen that by this
arrangement the vehicle is disinfected as well as the clothes it contains.

=DISLOCA′TION.= _Syn._ LUXATION; DISLOCATIO, L. The forcible displacement
of a bone from its socket, either by violence or disease. The latter
happens when the textures forming the joint have been destroyed by some
independent organic affection. “A considerable share of anatomical
knowledge is required to detect the nature of these accidents; and it is
much to be lamented that students neglect to inform themselves
sufficiently on the subject.” (Sir A. Cooper.) In common cases the bones
may be frequently replaced by forcibly extending the limb. This should be
done as early as possible, and before inflammation sets in. The latter
should be combated by aperients, local bleeding, refrigerant lotions, &c.
Dislocations frequently exist without the fact being suspected, the
swelling and inflammation being referred to other causes.

=DISPLACE′MENT.= See PERCOLATION.

=DISTEM′PER.= A disease among dogs, usually characterised by a running
from the nose and eyes, and a short dry cough; followed by wasting of the
flesh, and loss of strength and spirits. At length the brain suffers, and
fits, paralysis of the extremities, or convulsions come on. Laxatives and
emetics are the best remedies. If there is much diarrhœa, astringents may
be afterwards given. The violence of the fits may be mitigated by the
administration of antispasmodics, and by the warm bath. The distemper is a
contagious disease, and is generally fatal to weakly and very young dogs.
Fits in the advanced stages of the disease are seldom followed by
recovery. Impatience of light, red eyes, obstinate diarrhœa, spasmodic
twitchings, a yellow colour of the skin, and a pustular eruption, are also
bad symptoms.

=Distemper Powders (Blane’s).= The basis of these is said to be ‘_aurum
musivum_,’ or bisulphide of tin. That of another advertised nostrum is a
mixture of mercury and chalk, with a little rhubarb and ipecacuanha.

=DISTILLA′TION.= The evaporation and subsequent condensation of the vapour
of fluids, by means of a still and refrigerator, or other similar
apparatus. DRY DISTILLATION is a term applied to the distillation of
substances _per se_, or without the addition of water or other volatile
fluid. DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION is the distillation of substances at
temperatures sufficiently high to decompose them, by which their elements
are separated, or evolved in new combinations. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION is
the separation of substances having different boiling-points, by
distilling the mixture with a gradually increasing heat, and collecting
the products which come over at different temperatures in separate
receivers. See HYDROCARBON, STILL, &c.

=Distillation.= The art of the distiller; the manufacture of spirituous
liquors as practised on the large scale.

The process of distillation, as carried on in the distilleries of Great
Britain, may be divided into four general operations, viz.——1. The
mashing, or formation of a saccharine infusion from certain vegetable
matters, as malt, barley, oats, rye, &c. 2. The cooling of this wort or
liquor. 3. The fermentation, or process by which the sugar of the cooled
wort is converted into alcohol. 4. The separation of the spirit so formed
by means of a still and refrigerator. By the first operation the materials
for the formation of the alcohol are obtained; by the second, they are
brought to a temperature most favorable to the transformation that takes
place in the third, after which it only remains to free the product of the
last operation from the foreign matter with which it is associated; this
is done in the fourth, which, correctly speaking, constitutes the only
part of the process which can be called distillation.

The general principles of the first three of the preceding operations are
noticed in the articles BREWING, FERMENTATION, &c. It will there be seen
that the amylaceous or starchy matter of the grain is first
‘saccharified,’ and afterwards converted into alcohol, and that certain
precautions are necessary to render the process successful and economical.
In many of the distilleries of Great Britain molasses and analogous
saccharine substances are employed, in which case the vegetable principle
(sugar) essential to the formation of alcohol is already present, and
merely requires simple solution in water of a proper temperature, to be
ready to be subjected to immediate fermentation. In general, however, the
sources of spirit in England are the various kinds of grain; barley, rye,
maize, and rice are those commonly employed. These are ground and mixed
with bruised malt, in various proportions, and are mashed in a similar
manner to malted grain. The fermentation is carried on until the density
of the liquor ceases to lessen or ‘attenuate,’ which is determined by an
instrument called a saccharometer. When this point is arrived at, the
‘wash’ is submitted to distillation, to prevent the access of the acetous
fermentation, which would lessen its alcoholic value.

During the process of distilling off the spirit of the fermented ‘wash’ or
‘wort’ a hydrometer is employed to ascertain the ‘strength’ of the liquor
that passes over. As soon as this has fallen to a certain point, the
operation is stopped, and the ‘spent wash’ removed. The spirits obtained
by the first distillation are generally called ‘low wines,’ and have a
specific gravity of about ·975. By rectification or ‘doubling,’ a crude
milky spirit, abounding in oil, at first comes over, followed by clear
spirit, which is received in a separate vessel. The process is continued
until the alcoholic content of the distilled liquor has considerably
diminished, when the remaining weak spirit that distils over, called
‘faints,’ is caught separately, and mixed with the low wines preparatory
to another distillation. The strongest spirit passes over first, and the
condensed liquor gradually becomes weaker, until it ceases to contain
alcohol. By receiving in separate vessels any given portion of the
product, spirit of any required strength, within certain limits, may be
obtained. The same object is more conveniently effected by surrounding the
top of the capital of the still with a water bath, of a temperature
corresponding to that of alcoholic vapour of the strength it is desired to
obtain. Thus, if we keep the temperature of the water at about 198° Fahr.,
we shall obtain proof spirit; if at 192°, a spirit 20 o. p.; and so on for
other strengths.

It is found from experience, and is readily accounted for by theory, that
the lower the temperature at which the distillation is conducted, the
stronger will be the product, and the less quantity of oil or other
volatile matter will come over along with it. To promote this, it has been
proposed to carry on the process _in vacuo_, but on the large scale this
has never been adopted. The distillation of the wash is usually performed
in a separate set of stills to those employed for the rectification of the
low wines. For very strong and tasteless spirit, a third and even a fourth
rectification is employed, conjointly with other methods, to abstract the
water and to remove any foreign matter that vitiates its odour or flavour.
A portion of soap is generally put into the still with the wash, to
prevent excessive frothing.

We have said that the processes of mashing, &c., in the distillery are
similar to those adopted in brewing beer. We may add that, as richness in
alcohol, and not flavour, is the object aimed at in the distiller’s wash,
not only is a large quantity of unmalted grain employed, but the process
of boiling the wort with hops is omitted altogether. The wort is commonly
‘set’ at 70° Fahr., and the fermentation and attenuation of the liquor
pushed as far as possible by large and repeated doses of the best
‘top-yeast’ of the porter brewers.

It often happens that raw spirit prepared from damaged grain is
contaminated with a highly acrid and volatile fatty substance, which is
powerfully intoxicating and irritating to the eyes and nostrils, and
possesses an odour very similar to that of an alcoholic solution of
cyanogen. This may be got rid of by dilution with water and skilful
rectification, when most of it passes over with the first and last
‘runnings,’ the intermediate portion being less loaded with it. Another
plan is to filter the spirit successively through 6 or 7 separate vessels
containing pine or willow charcoal before rectifying it. In some
distilleries the contaminated spirit is well agitated with a considerable
quantity of olive oil, and after repose decanted, diluted with water, and
rectified as before. The ordinary corn oil or fusel oil of raw spirit is
generally, for the most part, intercepted by a self-regulating bath
arranged between the still-head and the refrigeratory.

The quantity of spirit obtained from various substances, and even from
pure sugar, depends upon the skill with which the several operations are
conducted. By theory, pure sugar should yield 51% of alcohol; but in
practice 11·925 galls. of proof spirit is the largest quantity which has
yet been obtained from 112 lbs. of sugar. By the revenue authorities this
weight of sugar is estimated to afford 11-1/2 galls. of proof spirit. The
average product is, perhaps, about 1 gall. of spirit of this strength for
every 10 lbs. of sugar. According to Harmstädt, 100 lbs. of starch yield
35 lbs. of alcohol, or 7·8 galls. of proof spirit; and 100 lbs. of the
following grains produce the accompanying quantities by weight of spirit
of sp. gr. ·9427, or containing 45% of pure alcohol:——wheat, 40 to 45%;
rye, 36 to 42%; barley, 40%; oats, 36%; buckwheat, 40%; maize, 40%; the
mean being 3·47 galls. of proof spirit. It is found that a bushel of good
malt yields 2 galls. of proof spirit, and that the largest quantity of
proof spirit obtained from raw grain, mashed with 1/5 or 1/6 of malt, does
not exceed 22 galls. per quarter.

The distiller is allowed to produce worts from any substance, and at any
specific gravity, provided such gravity can be correctly ascertained by
the saccharometer approved of by the Board of Inland Revenue. He is not,
however, allowed to mash and distil at the same time. See ALCOHOL, BRANDY,
FERMENTATION, FUSEL OIL, GIN, STILL, &c.

=DISTOMATA.= A genus of fluke-like parasites infesting men and the higher
vertebrate animals. The egg is about the 1/280th of an inch long and
1/270th inch wide.

[Illustration]

The embryo is frequently met with in sewage water, from which, if it be
removed and placed in pure or distilled water, it soon dies. The embryo
which does not become a distoma gives rise to a progeny (gradually formed
from germ-cells within it) consisting sometimes of one, but much more
often of a number of bodies of various forms and structures, each of which
possesses powers of movement and locomotion. But the creatures of this
second development are not distomata; neither are the offspring to which
they in their turn give rise. Like their immediate progenitors, this
offspring produce in their interior germ-cells which develop into minute
worms having tails, and displaying great vivacity when placed in water.
These latter alone exhibit the characters of true distomata. “These
cercaria now either become enclosed, like a chrysalis in a pupa state, or
they penetrate into the bodies of soft animals, become encysted and
parasitic. It appears probable that the distomata enter the human
intestinal canal as cercaria, and then pass into the biliary
passages.”[260]

[Footnote 260: Blyth.]

A case is on record of two distomata having been extracted from the foot
of a woman, into which it has been surmised they gained an entrance as
cercaria whilst the woman was bathing.

It is thought that shell-fish, as well as uncooked fish when eaten, may be
the means of introducing these parasites into the human system. The
embryos of the _Distomata hepaticum_ swim about and live in water, which
may probably, when drunk, be the means of conveying them into the bodies
of men and sheep. The ailments and symptoms to which these pests give rise
depend upon the particular organ or portion of the body in which they
establish themselves.

In man they are a frequent cause of hæmaturia and dysentery. In sheep they
occasion fearful mortality, giving rise to the disease known as ‘the rot,’
and killing thousands of flocks annually.

“The number of species affecting men are usually enumerated as nine——viz.
_Fasciola hepatica_, _Distoma crassum_, _D. lanceolatum_, _D.
ophthalmobium_, _D. heterophyes_, _Bilharzia hæmatopia_, _Tetrastoma
renale, Hexathrydium renarum_, and _H. pinguicola_.”[261]

[Footnote 261: Blyth.]

=DISTORTIONS.= In treating of this subject we shall confine ourselves to
those distortions which are preventable——or rather, we may say, of two out
of the three which will be discussed, which are voluntary.

One very common form of bodily distortion is crooked or curved spine. It
is mostly met with in young girls of from ten to sixteen years of age; and
first shows itself either in the elevation of one shoulder above the
other, or in a growing out of one of the shoulder blades, or of one side
of the bosom beyond the other. The elevated shoulder is generally the
right one. At the same time the right side of the chest is unnaturally
high, and rounded; whilst the opposite or left shoulder and chest are on
the contrary depressed and concave. Very frequently these conditions are
accompanied by a projection of the left hip, and a curving inwards of the
loins on the right side. With persons so afflicted the spine presents an
appearance that has not inaptly been compared to a long italic _f_.

Spinal curvature arises from a weakened state of the muscles, ligaments,
and bones of the backbone. It is most frequently met with in those whose
occupation compels them to stand the greater part of the day; as well as
in persons who pass many hours at the desk or at needlework. Spinal
curvature is also common in young fragile girls acting as nursemaids, and
as such unduly subjected to carrying heavy infants on one side. Amongst
the children of the poor, those of tender years are much too frequently
put to this objectionable form of drudgery. Any one’s recollections of a
walk through a poor neighbourhood will enable them to call to mind many
instances they must have seen of smaller babes being nursed by larger
ones. Those subjected to too long standing, no doubt because the posture
affords them relief, unconsciously contract the habit of frequently
standing on the right leg——of _standing at ease_ on it, as it is
called——and at the same time of bending the left knee a little; and since
this position causes the right shoulder to be raised, and the left side of
the pelvis to be thrown out of its place, it will be evident from what has
been already said that, if persisted in, it will end in distorting the
spine in the manner above indicated.

[Illustration]

The same results will also follow in those other cases, such for instance
as in too long an application at the desk or at the needle, as well as the
carrying for an undue length of time a heavy child in the arms; these all
being occupations in which one side of the body is subjected to an undue
and unequal strain over the other.

“Why one-sided postures should cause distortion must be evident, when it
is considered that the intervertebral substance is compressible to such an
extent that an adult man of middle stature loses about an inch of his
height after having been in the erect posture during the day, and does not
regain it till after some hours of rest. Since the united thickness of the
intervertebral substance in an adult man is about 3·875 inches, we see
that they lose nearly one fourth by compression, which they do not recover
till after some hours of rest. But if the weight of the body falls
unequally on the spine day after day, it must be evident that they will
become compressed on one side more than the other; and that if their
elasticity be impaired, and the muscles and ligaments be weak, and the
bones soft, as they are in young persons who have not a sufficiency of
fresh air, wholesome food and active exercise, this lateral distortion
will become permanent.[262]

[Footnote 262: Dr Druitt.]

Another cause tending to distortion of the spine is the foolish habit of
using corsets, a practice which contributes to weaken the dorsal muscles.
When the shoulders are continually supported by a corset, the dorsal
muscles upon which the support ought to fall have their functions usurped
by the corset, and hence fail to receive their proper development, and
consequently lose their power; the result being an inability on the part
of the body to support itself without the corset, and a sinking and
bending of the spine when it is removed. In boys, who never wear corsets,
spinal curvature is rarely met with. In girls, who do, it is constantly to
be found. To guard against spinal distortions, bad and awkward positions
of the body should, wherever possible, be prohibited. Amongst the
prejudicial postures indulged in by the young, we have already mentioned
the habit of standing on one leg and of carrying heavy loads on one side
of the body.

To these may be added the habit of lying crooked in bed, and that of young
girls spending a long time in a constrained position in dressing their own
hair. Every one-sided motion may lead to distortion if it be frequently
repeated, and the tendency once existing, the evil grows day by day. The
use of corsets should be strenuously discountenanced. The early detection
of spinal distortion is a matter of considerable importance. Hence the
advisability of mothers, nurses, governesses, and other guardians of
children or young girls, frequently examining the bodies of their charges
to note if they present any of the peculiarities we have indicated at the
commencement of this article. Should any of these develop themselves, aid
should immediately be sought of a skilful medical practitioner.

Dr Lewis Sayre, in his work ‘Spinal Disease and Spinal Curvature’
says:——“The great object in the treatment of Pott’s disease is to maintain
_rest of the affected part_ by such means as will not debar the patient
from the benefits of fresh air, sunlight, and change of scene. The patient
should not be permitted to assume the upright position before he has been
fitted with some artificial support capable of removing all pressure from
the bodies of the diseased vertebræ. This object may be obtained by
straightening the spinal column in such a manner that the weight of the
body is borne by _the transverse_ processes and not by the bodies of the
vertebræ.” Acting on these principles, Dr Sayre partially envelopes the
patient in a jacket of plaster of Paris, surrounding the body from the
pelvis to the axillæ.

Although Dr Sayre’s work is almost entirely devoted to a much more serious
affection of spinal curvature than that treated of here——viz. posterior
angular curvature, in which actual disease of the bones of the vertebræ is
concerned——his treatment is no less applicable to the milder form of
distortion to which our remarks have been directed. Dr Sayre himself
states that 300 cases have been treated by his method with very signal
success, and very many eminent surgeons bear testimony to the soundness of
the principles concerned in it. For the details of its application consult
the author’s work before alluded to.

Serious as are the effects very frequently arising from spinal curvature,
amongst which may be included lameness, lung disease, and inability to
perform the functions of maternity; still worse results in addition to the
two last of these ensue in the case of a persistence in another form of
distortion, which is none the less dangerous because it is voluntary. The
distortion to which we refer is that caused by the practice of
tightlacing.

Foremost among the conditions absolutely essential for the preservation of
health and bodily well-being, is the due performance of the function of
the lungs, heart, liver, kidneys, stomach and other important organs. The
object of the ribs within which most of these organs are more or less
wholly contained is to protect these latter from external pressure, and
therefore injury; as well as to allow them unimpeded and unrestricted
action. To ensure this freedom of movement for the parts and organs within
the ribs, it will be evident that every possible obstacle tending in any
degree to compress them, or circumscribe their limits should be especially
avoided.

Instead of the avoidance of such dangers, however, what course do the
silly votaries and dupes of that most senseless and remorseless of all
tyrants——Fashion——pursue? One the very reverse; and which is opposed, not
only to personal comfort and common sense, but, since it mars nature’s
outlines, to symmetry and our proper canons of the grace of the female
figure. By means of corsets, tight stays, and other implements of torture
the ribs are pressed _inwards_ to such an extent that all the conditions
we have insisted on as essential to health are imperilled, and eventually
become overthrown. Now, this mischievous and unnatural pressure exerted on
the stomach pushes that organ out of its proper position, and in doing so
forces the diaphragm also out of its place; a disturbance which so
curtails the space in which the movements of the lungs and the heart are
performed, that if the pernicious custom be persevered in these latter
organs become seriously and incurably diseased. The liver also shares in
the damage inflicted, and frequently becomes incapable of discharging its
office. The very much larger number of young women than of young men who
die of consumption is undoubtedly referable to the fact that a large
proportion of the majority are the victims of tightlacing. Nor is it
difficult to understand why this should be, since we know that if the
lungs are prevented exercising their full powers of expansion, unnaturally
diminished function will set up disease in them, which, if there be a
predisposition, will probably be consumption. This cause also, by
preventing the blood becoming properly oxygenated, gives rise to a large
class of disorders due to impurity of the vital fluid. Organic disease of
the heart is by no means an uncommon contingency if tightlacing be
persevered in; for that organ is not allowed room to beat, nor the blood
to circulate. One effect of this is seen in frequent fainting fits.

Again, tightlacing not infrequently stops the growth and arrests the
development of a young girl’s _mammæ_, thus seriously incapacitating her
from suckling her babe when she becomes a mother. It also indirectly has a
very prejudicial effect upon health by preventing its votaries from taking
sufficient walking exercise; free bodily movement with accompanying
expansion of the lungs becomes impossible with those encased in a vice of
unyielding armour, such as constitutes pestilent stays and corsets.
Amongst the minor evils wrought by the baleful custom, we may mention
indigestion (for the pressure of the stays weakens the stomach, and sets
up this troublesome complaint), with its accompaniments of flatulence,
heartburn, pain in the chest, &c. Constipation is also another of its
attendant ills; so also are bad breath and a red nose.

“I recollect Dr A. Todd Thomson, in his excellent lectures, relating a
case he had attended where a young lady appeared to be dying from the evil
effects of tightlacing. He cut open her stays and she gradually came to
herself. If the worthy doctor had not quickly done what he did, she would
soon have been a corpse! Dr Thomson has kindly favoured me with the
following interesting particulars of the case for publication:[263]——‘Some
years since I was requested to hasten to a house not far from my own to
see a lady who had fallen from her chair in a fit whilst eating her
dinner. On being ushered to the drawing room of the house where the
circumstance had taken place, I saw a lady lying upon a sofa, apparently
dead, and several ladies hanging over the couch in great distress. I found
little appearance of life except that the temperature of the body was
natural; the pulse had ceased to beat, and no respiratory action could be
detected. On laying my hand over the region of the heart, I felt that the
stays were extremely tightly laced; and conceiving that the suspension of
animation arose from that cause, I requested a penknife to be given me,
with which I instantly ripped down the stays and gown. In an instant the
chest dilated, on the binding matter giving way, which was almost like
splitting an overbraced drum; and in a few seconds respiration recommenced
and animation returned. In this case the waist was drawn in to a degree
that gave a complete hour-glass appearance to the figure, and prevented
the descent of the diaphragm, whilst the blood could not circulate, or be
renewed in the lungs from the general obstruction of many of the cells and
smaller tubes. The quantity of residual air also in the lungs was too
small; and this was still diminished by the warmth of some soup, which the
lady was eating when she fell from the chair, dilating the gas in her
stomach, and consequently pressing that enlarged organ upwards on the
lungs. Had I not lived close by, the time necessary to get medical aid
from a greater distance might have rendered it unavailable.’ The above
narrative by Dr Thomson is valuable not only as illustrating the dangers
arising from tightlacing, but also as emphasizing the rationale of its
action as stated by ourselves. In the present article we have explained
why it is the use of corsets is to be deprecated. We hope we have
succeeded in showing how imperatively the abandonment of stays is called
for.

[Footnote 263: Dr Chavasse, ‘Counsels to a Mother.’]

Another variety of distortion is that brought about by wearing tight boots
and shoes, or boots and shoes constructed upon false principles; for, a
boot or shoe may be productive of considerable inconvenience to the
wearer, as well as the cause of a certain amount of twisting out of place
of the bones of the foot, without necessarily being too small. Amongst the
consequences arising from the adoption of tightly fitting or badly
constructed boots or shoes may be mentioned the following:——Considerable
bodily discomfort, and pain in walking; corns and bunions; growing in of
the nails; chronic enlargement of the base of the great toe; caries or
ulceration of the bones of the feet; and flat feet. That these are not
altogether minor evils may be inferred when it is stated that, in order to
obtain relief from the effects of a bunion, partial amputation of the foot
has been sometimes found necessary; that the first attacks of gout mostly
seize the joint of the ball of the great toe when that joint has become
weakened by displacement following the use of faulty boots and shoes; and
that a flat foot interferes with the proper performance of walking.

[Illustration]

The above figure (No. 1) represents the skeleton of the foot with the
bones which form it in their natural position, and in which they are
admirably adapted for executing the various movements required of them.

It will be seen to consist of twenty-six bones, fourteen of which
constitute the toes; the remaining twelve bones enter into the formation
of what are termed the _tarsus_ and _metatarsus_.

The five long bones (_a_) are the _metatarsal_ bones. The toes form joints
with the fore part of these _metatarsal_ bones. The remaining seven are
the _tarsal_ bones; _b_, which is one of these, is named the _astragalus_,
and being gripped on each side by a continuation from the bones of the leg
called the _malleolus_, thus forms the ankle-joint.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

Fig. 2 gives a representation of the inner aspect and side view of the
foot. It will be seen that it is an arch resting in front on the anterior
heads of the five metatarsal bones, _a_, but chiefly on that of the great
toe, and on the _calcaneum_ or heel (_b_) behind.

The astragalus, _c_, forms the key-stone of the arch. This arch, which
supports the superincumbent weight of the body, retains its curved form by
means of strong ligaments or bands, which unite the bones which compose it
into a compact but withal flexible mass. The arch, owing to the pressure
thrown upon it from above, becomes flattened when the foot is resting on
the ground; but when this pressure is removed and the foot hangs free, the
curvature of the arch increases. In front of the metatarsal bones are
placed the toes, which are connected with the metatarsal bones by joints.
The great toe has one joint; each of the smaller ones has two.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

Fig. 3 depicts the skeleton of a foot with the bones thrown out of their
natural position, the contortion being the result of wearing tightly
fitting or unscientifically constructed boots or shoes. The following
extracts from Dr Hermann Meyer will best illustrate how nature’s simple
mechanical arrangements must be thwarted when coverings for the feet are
permitted to be constructed which can give rise to distortions such as
those represented in Figure 3. Dr Meyer says “the great toe plays by far
the most important part in walking; because when the foot is raised from
the ground with the intention of throwing it forwards, we first raise the
heel, then rest for a second on the great toe, and in lifting this from
the ground the point of it receives a pressure which impels the body
forwards. Thus, in raising the foot the whole of the sole is gradually, as
it were, ‘unrolled’ up to the point of the great toe, which again receives
an impetus by contact with the ground.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

The great toe ought, therefore, to have such a position as will admit of
its being unrolled in the manner described; that is to say, it must so lie
_that the line of its axis, when, carried backwards, will emerge at the
centre of the heel; and this is its position in the healthy foot_. The
sole of an almost sound foot is given in Fig. 4, and the true position of
the great toe is indicated by the dotted line. This relation is still
better brought out in Fig. 5, which represents the well-preserved foot of
a child about two years old. The line drawn through both figures is that
in which the foot _unrolls_ itself from the ground. The smaller toes,
however, are by no means without their uses. In standing they rest on the
ground and give lateral support to the foot; while in walking they are
bent in a peculiar manner, so that they are firmly pressed against the
ground; and here too they support the foot laterally. The first joint is
strongly bent upwards, while the second is hollow above. This peculiar
curvature enables the toe in a measure to lay hold of the ground as with
bird’s claws.”

Dr Meyer then proceeds to show how the application of these principles is
entirely disregarded in the manufacture of our boots and shoes, and to
demonstrate that their neglect gives rise to the objectionable
consequences we have before alluded to. As boots and shoes are at present
constructed, the foot is made to adapt itself to the sole, not the sole to
the foot. This pernicious system must be abandoned if we wish to preserve
our feet, as well as our personal comfort.

“A sole,” says Dr Meyer, “is of the proper construction when a line (see
Fig. 6, _c d_) drawn at half the breadth of the great toe distant from,
and parallel to, the inner margin of that toe shall, when carried
backwards, pass through the centre of the heel. In the usual form of a
sole this line passes out of the inner margin of the heel (see Fig. 7).
If, then, the preservation of the primary straight line is, as has been
already shown, the principal point in the formation of a proper sole, it
follows that, if it be thought desirable to have pointed shoes, the
pointing must be effected from the outer side, as indicated in the annexed
Fig. 8. In a pair of shoes made on these principles, placed side by side
with the heels in contact, the inner margins of the front part of the foot
are also brought close together” (Fig. 9).

Dr Meyer’s pamphlet contains the following strictures on ‘High heels’ to
boots and shoes: “It is usual, in all shoes of even moderate strength, to
make the heel a little higher by means of what is called the _heel-piece_.
These heel-pieces are generally of some little use, especially in dirty
weather, and we cannot wholly deny their right to existence. But at the
same time they ought to be as low as possible, and heels an inch thick, as
is at present very commonly the case, have very serious disadvantages
indeed.

“The weight of the body is by this means thrown in a disproportionate
ratio on the toes, the joints of which are consequently overstrained.
Moreover, with a high heel the sole is so oblique in its direction that
the foot must be constantly gliding forwards and forcibly pressing the
toes into the point of the shoe. The toes, therefore, even when the shoe
is sufficiently long, are subjected to the same injuries and
disfigurations as if it were too short, and the effects are doubly hurtful
when the form of the sole is also incorrect. High heels, especially if
they are also very small; are peculiarly liable to wear obliquely, and so
the shoe gets trodden on one side; they must, therefore, be peculiarly
favorable to origin of flat-foot.

[Illustration: FIG. 6. and FIG. 7.]

[Illustration: FIG. 8. and FIG. 9.]

High and small heels are therefore quite unsuitable. The heel-piece ought
to be as low and broad as possible.”

Further and more explicit knowledge on this subject may be obtained from
Dr Meyer’s excellent little pamphlet entitled ‘Procrustes ante portas,’
very ably translated into English by Mr J. T. Craig, L.R.C.E., under the
title of ‘Why the Shoe Pinches.’

=DIURE′SIS.= See URINE.

=DIURET′ICS.= _Syn._ DIURETICA. Medicines which promote the secretion of
urine. The principal diuretics are——aqueous fluids, which act by
increasing the watery portion of the blood, and——substances which promote
the action of the kidneys. Most of the first produce copious diuresis if
the skin is kept cool. Among the last are acetate, bitartrate, and nitrate
of potassa; oils of juniper, turpentine, cajeput, and copaiba; dilute
spirit, and sweet spirits of nitre; decoction of common broom, &c.

=DIVIDIVI.= An astringent substance imported from Jamaica. It contains
above 5% of tannin; whilst gall-nuts contain less than 3·5%, and the best
oak-bark only 1·35%. Hence its value in tanning.

=DOBEREINER’S LAMP.= A portable apparatus for obtaining instantaneous
light by the action of a jet of hydrogen on a small piece of spongy
platinum.

=DOCHMIUS DUODENALIS.= An intestinal parasitic worm. Its length is from
1/3 to 1/2 an inch and its breadth about 1/60th of an inch. It is
furnished with hooklets. It is found in the duodenum, the ileum, and the
jejunum of man, and Greisinger seems to have pretty conclusively
established that it is the cause of the disease so prevalent in Egypt, and
known as the Egyptian chlorosis. Anemia, dysentery, and hemorrhoids and
liver diseases are also frequently caused by it amongst the natives of
Arabia, Brazil, and Northern Italy. In India it is also stated to give
rise to some very alarming maladies. Leuchart affirms that it obtains an
entrance into the system through drinking impure water.

=DOC′IMACY or DOCIMAS′TIC ART.= See ASSAYING.

=DOG.= The effect of medicines on dogs is much the same as on man; but
there are some striking exceptions to this rule. Thus, whilst the dog can
take a dose of aloes six or eight times as large as that given to man, the
administration of half as much calomel or oil of turpentine would be
productive of serious injury to the animal. The idea usually entertained,
therefore, that medicines may be given to dogs in doses equalling those
taken by man requires considerable modification. Dogs have a short and
straight alimentary canal, in consequence of which purgative medicines act
more quickly upon them than they do on other veterinary subjects. The
facility with which dogs can be made to vomit is also another peculiarity
possessed by them. Vomiting may be produced by their swallowing nauseous
or unpalatable matters, as well as from their eating various sorts of
grass. A good plan to prevent dogs vomiting their medicines is to keep the
head well raised for an hour after the administration; and this may be
easily accomplished by attaching a chain or cord to the collar, and fixing
it at the requisite height, to any object. The kidneys are acted upon with
much more difficulty than with the horse, whilst the skin seems nearly, if
not altogether incapable of being affected. We give below a list of
medicines for dogs; premising that the doses required vary considerably
according to the strength, size, and age of the dog, all of which should
always be duly taken into account. The doses prescribed in the following
formulæ are for moderately large dogs:——

PHYSIC BALLS AND OTHER PURGATIVE MEDICINES:——

1. Barbadoes aloes, 8 oz., antimonial powder, 1 oz., ginger, 1 oz., palm
oil, 5 oz.; beat together into a mass.——_Dose._ From 1/2 dr. to 2 dr.
every 4 or 6 hours, till the bowels are relieved. (Youatt.)

2. The same, with the addition of 1 oz. of calomel. He directs from 45 gr.
to 2 dr. for a dose. (Clater.)

3. Aloes, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr. made into a ball with syrup of ginger.

4. Aloes, 1/2 dr. to 1-1/2 dr., calomel, 2 to 5 gr., syrup to form a ball;
in inflammation of the bowels, and in worms. (Blaine.)

5. Cape aloes, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr., calomel, 2 to 3 gr., oil of caraway, 6
drops, syrup to form a ball. (M′Ewen.)

6. Calomel, 12 gr., aloes, 3 dr., opium, 1 gr., syrup q. s. to form a
mass, for 4, 6, or 8 balls; one every 4 or 5 hours till the bowels are
relieved. (Blaine.)

7. Croton oil, 1 drop, Castile soap, 20 gr., conserve to form a ball.

8. Castor oil, 3 parts, syrup of buckthorn, 2 parts, syrup of poppies, 1
part.——_Dose._ From 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls.——Mr Youatt’s purge. [Mr Clark
says syrup of buckthorn for dogs should be made with treacle, and the
spices omitted.]

9. Epsom salts, from 1 to 4 dr., wrapped in tissue paper, dividing the
doses into convenient-sized packets.

10. In costiveness with inflammation: 1/2 oz. to 2 oz. castor oil. (Mr
Spooner.)

ALTERATIVE BALLS AND POWDERS:——

1. Sulphur, 2-1/2 lb.; nitre, 1/2 lb.; Æthiops mineral, 4 oz.; linseed
meal, 1/2 lb.; palm oil, 1 lb., or as much as may be required; beat
together, and keep in a jar for use.——_Dose_, from 2 scruples to 1-1/2 or
2 dr. (Clater.)

2. Ethiops mineral, 20 to 40 gr.; cream of tartar, 20 to 40 gr.; nitre, 5
to 10 gr.; night and morning, made into a ball with butter. (Spooner.)

3. _Tonic Alterative._ Mercurial pill, 1 dr.; aloes 2 dr.; myrrh, benzoin,
balsam of Peru, of each 1-1/2 dr.; to be divided into 10, 15, or 20
pills: one every evening, for the yellows, after aloes and calomel.
(Blaine.)

4. _Alterative Powder._ Æthiops mineral, 2 to 5 gr.; cream of tartar, 4 to
10 gr., tartarised iron, 1 to 3 gr., once a day. (Clater.)

5. _To give a fine skin._ Give a table-spoonful of tar made up with
oatmeal. (Mayer.)

ASTRINGENT BALLS, &c.:——

1. Catechu, 1-1/2 dr.; sulphate of quinine, 20 gr.; opium, 5 gr.; ginger,
1 dr.; conserve of roses, q. s. to form a mass, to be divided into 8, 6,
or 4 balls. (Blaine.)

2. Prepared chalk, 2 oz.; powdered gum Arabic, 1/2 oz.; powdered catechu,
1/2 oz.; powdered oak bark, 1/2 oz.; powdered ginger, 1/4 oz.; opium, 15
gr.; palm oil, 1 oz.; beat well together.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr.,
morning, noon, and night, in the advanced stage of distemper. (Clater.)

3. Opium, 5 gr.; catechu, 2 dr.; gum Arabic, 2 dr.; ginger, 1/2 dr.; syrup
of poppies, q. s.; divide into 12, 9, or 6 balls: in diarrhœa. (Blaine.)

4. Myrrh, 1 dr.; ipecacuanha, 1 scruple; opium, 3 gr.; chalk, 2 dr.;
carbonate of iron, 1 dr.; as No. 3. (Blaine.)

5. In obstinate cases: Alum, 1 dr.; chalk, 2 dr.; opium, 6 gr.; resin, 3
dr.; into 4, 6, or 8 balls.

6. In diarrhœa, after 1 to 4 dr. of Epsom salts; prepared chalk, 1 to 3
scruples; catechu, 5 to 10 gr.; opium, 1/4 to 2 gr.; twice a day.
(Spooner.)

COUGH BALLS IN ASTHMA, &c.:——

1. _After a few emetics._ Calomel, 3 gr.; foxglove, 3 gr.; cream of
tartar, 1 dr.; antimonial powder, 12 gr.; honey to form 6 boluses. One
twice a day. (Blaine.)

2. Digitalis, 20 gr.; antimonial powder, 40 gr.; nitre, 2 dr.; sulphur, 3
dr.; palm oil, 3 dr., or q. s. Divide into 10, 15, or 20 balls, according
to the size of the dog, morning and night, interposing an emetic every
third or fourth day. (Clater.)

3. _In old cases._ P. squill, 1/2 gr. to 1 gr.; gum ammoniac, 5 gr.;
balsam of Peru, 8 gr.; benzoic acid, 1 gr.; balsam of sulphur to form a
ball.

4. Extract of hemlock, 1/2 dr.; extract of henbane, 10 gr.; p. digitalis,
20 gr.; conserve of roses to form a mass. Divide into 8, 10, or 6 balls.
One night and morning. (Blaine.)

DISTEMPER MEDICINES:——

1. Turbeth mineral, 1 to 3 gr.; assafœtida, 1/2 dr.; aloes, 20 gr.; soap,
10 gr.; syrup of poppies to form a ball. To be preceded by an emetic, and
given every third day.

2. After an emetic, give a physic ball; and afterwards the following, two
or three times a day:——Antimonial powder, 2, 3, or 4 gr.; nitre, 5, 10, or
15 gr.; ipecacuanha, 2, 3, or 4 gr.; form a ball. If the disease proceed
to the debilitating stage, give the _Tonic Ball_ No. 2; in the putrid or
malignant stage give the _Astringent Ball_ No. 1. (Blaine.)

3. After the Emetic Powder No. 1 (which should be repeated every 3rd or
4th day) give the _Cough Ball_ No. 2, from 1/2 dr. to 2 dr. in weight. And
if the dog lose flesh, give equal parts of the cough ball and the Tonic
Ball (No. 1). In the more advanced stages give the tonic alone; or the
_astringent ball_ if diarrhœa comes on. (Clater.)

4. Give a third of a paper of James’s powder mixed with butter, and
afterwards warm broth or milk. In 2 hours, another third; and if this
neither vomit nor purge, give the other third at the end of 4 hours.
(Daniel.)

5. Blaine’s distemper powders, which are sold in packets, with directions
for use.

6. Camphor, 3 to 5 gr.; charcoal, 10 gr.; opium, 1 gr.; aromatic
confection, q. s. to form a ball.——In the malignant stage, with diarrhœa.

7. Antimomal powder, 2 to 4 gr.; nitre, 5 to 10 gr.; digitalis, 1/4 to 2
gr. Afterwards the Tonic Pills No. 4. (Spooner.)

_Poudre Kusique_: a French nostrum. Mix 45 gr. of nitre, 45 of sulphur,
and 1 charcoal. Divide into 3 doses. Give 1 for 2 successive mornings, and
the third on the 4th morning, mixed with lard or butter, or in milk. For a
large dog a second packet (of 3 powders) may be required. (Habert.)

Another French nostrum. Hemel’s Powder is of a similar kind.

8. A strong solution of salt, to the amount of 1/2 pint daily.

9. Powdered tin, sulphur, gunpowder, of each 1 oz.; lard sufficient to
form a mass. The size of a nutmeg to be given twice or thrice a week.

10. Physic Ball No. 11.

11. 1/4 oz. to 1 fl. oz. of cod-liver oil twice a day, according to size.

12. Emetics, gentle laxatives, milk diet, and from 5 to 15 gr. of chlorate
of potash twice a day. (Finlay Dun.)

WORM MEDICINES:——

1. Carbonate of iron, 1/2 oz.; Æthiops mineral, 1 dr.; gentian, 1 oz.;
ginger, 1/2 oz.; levigated glass, 1 oz.; palm oil, 9 dr.; beat well
together.——_Dose_, from 3/4 to 2 dr. (Clater.)

2. As much very finely-powdered glass as will lie on a sixpence, mixed
with butter (Blaine). Mr Youatt says from 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.; powdered
glass, with a little ginger, made into a ball with lard.

3. Aloes, sulphur, prepared hartshorn, and juice of wormwood, made into a
mass; the size of a hazel nut to be given three times a week, fasting,
wrapped in butter. (Daniel.)

4. Tin filings, or pewter filings, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr., with butter or lard.

5. Jalap, 10 to 15 gr.; calomel, 2 to 3 gr. mixed with butter; no cold
liquid should be allowed. (White.)

6. Cowhage, 1/2 dr.; iron filings, 4 dr.; conserve q. s. to form a mass,
to be divided into 4, 6, or 8 balls; one every night and morning; and
afterwards the purgative No. 4. (Blaine.)

7. Epsom salts, 1 oz.; common salt, 1 dr.; give a small or large
teaspoonful daily.

8. Give green walnut leaves boiled in milk. (Mayer.)

9. From 1/2 dr. to 2 dr., according to size. Betel nut in coarse powder,
made into a ball.

10. _For Tapeworm._——Oil of turpentine, 1/2 dr., mixed with yolk of egg;
for very large dogs, 2 scruples. Some writers prescribe larger doses (1 to
2 dr.), but these sometimes prove fatal. (Blaine.) 2 to 6 dr. of cusso
according to size.

11. _For Tapeworm._——Oil of turpentine and olive oil, of each 1/2 oz.;
mix, and give carefully; 3 or 4 hours after give 1 oz. castor oil. But see
No. 9. (White.)

12. _For Stomach Worms._——Give the emetic powder (see further back) and
afterwards a physic ball.

13. _Threadworms._——These are destroyed by an aloetic clyster.

OINTMENTS AND LOTIONS FOR THE MANGE:——

N.B.——An alterative ball should be given daily and a physic ball
occasionally. Bleeding is sometimes prescribed.

_For Scabby Mange._——Sulphur, 4 oz.; sal ammoniac, 1/2 oz.; aloes, 1 dr.;
Venice turpentine, 1/2 oz.; lard, 6 oz.; mix. After four applications,
wash well with soap and water. (Blaine.)

2. Horse turpentine and palm oil, each 1/2 lb.; train oil, 1/2 pint. Melt
together, and while cooling, stir in 3 lbs. of flowers of sulphur.
(Clater.)

3. Aloes, 2 dr.; hellebore, 1/2 oz.; sulphur, 4 oz.; lard or train oil, 6
oz. (McEwen.)

4. Sulphate of zinc, 1 dr.; snuff, 1/2 oz.; white hellebore, 1/2 oz.;
sulphur, 4 oz.; aloes, 1/4 oz.; soft soap, 6 oz. (Blaine.)

5. Charcoal powder, 2 oz.; sulphur, 4 oz.; salt of tartar, 1 dr.; Venice
turpentine, 1/2 oz.; lard, 6 oz.

6. _For Red Mange._——Add 1 oz. of strong mercurial ointment to 6 oz. of
either of the above.

7. Charcoal, 1 oz.; chalk, 1 oz.; sugar of lead, 1 dr.; white precipitate,
2 dr.; sulphur, 2 oz.; lard, 5 oz. (Blaine.)

8. _Wash for Red Mange._——Corrosive sublimate, 20 gr.; spirit of wine, 2
dr.; dissolve and add milk of sulphur, 1/2 oz.; lime-water, 1/2 pint.
Apply by means of a sponge. (Clater.)

9. _For Ulcerated Mange._——Ointment of nitrated quicksilver, 2 dr.; sugar
of lead, 20 gr.; flowers of sulphur, 1/2 oz.; lard, 1 oz.; mix. (Blaine.)

FLEAS:——

1. Rub the skin with the powdered resin and bran.

2. Let the dog sleep on deal shavings.

3. Scotch snuff steeped in gin. (Meyer.) (This requires caution.)

4. Oil of aniseed. (Finlay Dun.)

5. Persian insect powder.

=DOG-BALLS= (A. H. Bôldt, Genf). Hard pills, weighing 15 grammes, of
irregular shape and unequal size, composed of aloes with 1/3 of gentian,
and covered with a brown powder containing liquorice root. (Hager.)

=DOORS.= Much annoyance is sometimes experienced from the creaking of
doors. This may be prevented by rubbing a little soap or a mixture of
tallow and black-lead on the hinges; or by applying to them with a feather
a little sweet oil once or twice a year. The trifling trouble and expense
(a penny or two a twelvemonth) will be amply repaid by their noiselessness
and greater durability. To prevent the noise of doors slamming, a small
piece of vulcanised india rubber, cork, or leather may be placed so as to
receive the shock.

=DOSE.= In medicine the quantity taken or prescribed at one time. The
doses of medicaments vary with the sex, age, temperament, constitutional
strength, habituation, and idiosyncrasies of individuals. Different
circumstances, especially of climate, exercise an important influence on
the activity of medicines. Thus, the inhabitants of England and the
northern countries of Europe bear much larger doses in their own climates
than when they remove to warmer latitudes. Warmth, indeed, appears to
promote the action of most medicaments, whilst cold acts in a contrary
way. Nor does the same rule apply to all medicines. Calomel, for instance,
is generally borne better by children than by adults; while opium affects
them more powerfully, and requires the dose to be diminished considerably
below that indicated by mere calculation or analogy with other medicines.

Prescribers ought not to forget that the action of medicines is not simply
proportioned to the amount, but that each remedy has a dose below which it
either produces no effect or one contrary to that which we desire it to
produce. Dr Paris remarks, “that powerful doses are disposed to produce
local rather than general effects;” and Dr Barlow gives it as his opinion
that “practitioners often err, especially in the treatment of chronic
maladies, from requiring an obvious effect from each dose administered.”
Adult women are said to require only three fourths the full dose for men.
The following rules and tables have been framed chiefly with reference to
age; but, as Dr R. E. Griffith correctly observes, “no scheme can be
devised, founded on age alone, to which there are not many exceptions.”

        I. _Formula of_ Dr YOUNG.

_For children under 12 years, the doses of most medicines must be
diminished in the proportion of the age to the age increased by 12._ Thus,
at 2 years, the dose will be 1-7th of that for an adult.

            2
  for  ------------- = 1-7th.
          2 + 12

        II. _Posological Table of_ GAUBIUS.

For an adult, suppose the dose to be 1, or 1 drachm (60 grains).

  Under 1 year will require  1/12 or 5 grains.
     ”  2 years  ”            1/8 or 8 grains.
     ”  3  ”     ”            1/6 or 10 grains.
     ”  4  ”     ”            1/4 or 15 grains.
     ”  7  ”     ”            1/3 or 1 scruple.
     ” 14  ”     ”            1/2 or 1/2 drachm.
     ” 20  ”     ”            2/3 or 2 scruples.
     ” 21 to 60, the full dose, or 1 or 1 drachm.
  Above this age an inverse gradation must be
  observed.

        III. _Posological Table of_ PHOEBUS.

  Age——_Years_ 80   65   50  25-40 20   16   12   8    5    2
       _Doses_ 5/8  3/4  7/8   1   7/8  3/4  5/8 1/2  3/8  1/4

   ”   _Months_ 12    6    2     1
       _Doses_  1/5  1/8  1/15  1/24

=DOUCHE.= [Fr.] _Syn._ DOUCHE BATH. A species of bath much employed by
hydropathists, both for the relief of local affections, and to give a
healthy stimulus to the whole system. The douche consists of a single jet
of cold water, varying in size from the thickness of a quill to that of a
man’s arm; it is projected with great force, either from above, below, or
on one side, upon a particular part of the body. See BATH (Shower).

=DOUGLAS′ DISINFECTING POWDER.= A mixture of sulphite of calcium, chalk,
and carbolic acid, or of sulphite and carbonate of lime.

=DOVER’S POWDERS.= See POWDER.

=DRAB DYE.= 1. (FOR COTTON.) For 40 lbs. Boil 6 lbs. of fustic; scald
2-1/2 lbs. of Lima wood and 2 lbs. of sumach. Decant into a wooden vessel,
capable of containing 100 gallons; reduce with cold water to handling
heat; enter, 6 turns; wring out; sadden with 8 ounces of copperas; 4
turns; wring out again, and give 4 ounces of bluestone.

2. (FOR SILK.) For 100 yards. Boil 4 lbs. of fustic and 6 ounces of
logwood, 2-1/2 ounces of cudbear, 1-1/4 ounce of copperas. Cool to 200°
Fahr.; enter, winch 20 minutes; air out; repeat; then take a little of the
liquor out of the boiler, dissolve the copperas, reduce it to handling
heat with water, and give one or two shots through it, as the pattern
requires; one water out of the saddening; then give a warm but weak sour
to clear the colour, wash in two waters, and dry.

3. (FOR WOOL.) _Dark drab._ For 50 lbs. 7 lbs. of fustic, 8 ounces of
madder, 4 ounces of cudbear, 2 lbs. of alum, 8 ounces of tartar. Enter
between the cold and 160° Fahr.; after heating up boil from 10 to 30
minutes; wash in two waters. All dark shades of this may be slightly
prepared with chrome; wash in two waters.

4. (FOR WOOL.) _Light drab._ For 56 lbs. 4 lbs. of fustic, 1-3/4 lb. of
alum, 4 ounces of madder, 4 ounces of tartar, 3-1/2 ounces of cudbear.
Work as for dark drab.

=DRACONINE.= _Syn._ DRA′CINE, RED RESIN OF DRAGON’S BLOOD. A peculiar
vegetable principle discovered by M. Melandre in dragon’s blood.

_Prep._ Dragon’s blood is dissolved in alcohol, the solution filtered,
concentrated, and precipitated with cold water; the red, spongy
precipitate is well washed, neutralised with dilute sulphuric acid, again
liberated by means of an alkali, and well washed with water.

_Prop., &c._ Draconine has a fine red colour; is tasteless, inodorous, and
flexible; it fuses at 131° Fahr. The smallest quantity of carbonate of
lime in filtering paper may be detected by sulphate of draconine, the
yellow colour instantly turning red.

=“DRAGEES AU LACTATE DE FER.”= (Gélis & Conté.) 100 grammes of lactate of
iron made into 2,000 very small pills with powder and mucilage of
marshmallow, and coated with eleosaccharate of anise. (Reveil.)

=DRAGEES DE COPAHU DE FORTIN.= 30 grammes balsam of copaiba made into 72
dragées, with 1·2 grammes calcined magnesia, and coated first with gum
arabic and then with sugar. (Reveil.)

=DRAGEES DE CUBEBE AU COPAHU.= Cubebines (Labelonye). 2 parts balsam of
copaiba, 2 parts extract of cubebs, 1 part yolk of egg, with sufficient
liquorice powder to make a mass, which is divided into oblong pills, each
weighing 7 decigrammes. These are dried and coated with white or raw
sugar. (Hager.)

=DRAGEES DE POUGUES.= (Garnier.) Chloride of calcium, 50 parts; chloride
of magnesium, 50 parts; chloride of iron, 10 parts; dissolved in water and
precipitated with sodium carbonate. The precipitate is washed, pressed,
and mixed with 100 parts bicarbonate of soda. Of this mixture 25 parts are
made into a mass with 475 parts of a paste of sugar, peppermint, oil, and
mucilage. The mass is then divided into dragées weighing 5 decigrammes,
which are coated with gum and sugar. (Reveil.)

=DRAGON’S BLOOD.= _Syn._ SANGUIS DRACONIS, L. A rich red-coloured resin,
obtained from various species of the genus _Calamus_. Its colour, in the
lump, is a dark brownish-red; in powder, bright red. It is friable, breaks
with a shining fracture, and has a sp. gr. not higher than 1·196 or 1·197.
When pure, it readily dissolves in alcohol, ether, and oils, yielding rich
red, transparent solutions. Adulterated and factitious dragon’s blood is
only partly soluble, and lacks the rich colour of the genuine article.
Dragon’s blood is chiefly used to tinge varnishes and lacquers.

=Dragon’s Blood, Factitious.= _Prep._ 1. Shell-lac, 4 lbs.; melt, remove
from the fire, and add, Canada balsam, 6 oz., and gum benzoin, 2 oz.;
mix well, stir in red sanders wood, 1-1/2 lb., and Venetian red, 3/4 lb.
(both in fine powder); and form the mass into sticks.

2. As the last, omitting the red Venetian.

=DRAINS.= The salubrity of a dwelling-house is largely dependent upon the
sound condition, the unimpeded outlet from, and the proper construction
and position of, its drains, supplemented by like conditions in the
various house-pipes which run from the sinks and closets into them.

The sense in which we shall use the term “drain” is that defined by the
Public Health Act of 1875:——“‘Drain’ means any drain of, and used for the
drainage of one building only, or premises within the same curtilage, and
made merely for the purpose of communicating therefrom with a cesspool or
other like receptacle for drainage, or with a sewer into which the
drainage of two or more buildings or premises occupied by different
persons is conveyed.”

There can be no doubt that the almost universal system pursued with regard
to house drainage is radically irrational and dangerous. As the drains
lead into the main sewer or cesspool it is most important that the
house-pipes which communicate with the drains should be so connected with
them and arranged, as to remove all risk of the foul air of the sewers
passing into them through the drains, and thus (should the pipes be
imperfect) escaping into and defiling the atmosphere of the house——a very
possible contingency for two reasons, first, because the traps connecting
the pipes with the drains may be defective, and, second, because the
aspiratory power of the warm house is constantly tending to draw air (the
sewer air) through the water in the water trap. Instead of making the
connection, as is now so universally done, between the sink and closet and
other pipes and the drain, by means of a water trap, _underneath the
basement_, this junction should be effected _outside the house_. The
drains should, therefore, always terminate outside, and not under the
house; and wherever practicable all house-pipes should be carried outside,
and not inside, or between the walls of any dwelling, the objections to
which have been already stated. In cases, however, in which this
arrangement is impossible of execution, and a pipe can only be carried
through the house from the front to the rear, it is far better to take it
above the basement than underneath.

The interposition of the water in the trap at the point of union between
the house-pipe and the drain is not alone sufficient to effect the
necessary amount of disconnection between them. There must be thorough
ventilation and communication with the outer air at the point of junction,
otherwise there is danger that the emanations from the sewer may find
their way into the house, as in the former case.

A great number of methods have been devised for disconnecting the
house-pipes and the outside drains, the simplest of which consists in
placing the trap just outside the house, in opening the drain on the side
of the trap the furthest from the house, and in carrying up from it a
four-inch pipe to as great a height as is convenient. By this means any
noxious gas that might escape from the drain is diverted from the house,
and ascends into and diffuses into the superincumbent atmosphere.

In the arrangement of the house-pipes it is desirable not to carry the
pipes which convey away the sink water and the waste water into the
closet-soil pipes, but, wherever it can be managed, to let them discharge
over a grating into the drain trap. Where we have to deal with soil or
water-closet pipes, or with a pipe formed by the junction of these with
the waste-water pipe (if such an arrangement is unavoidable), it is most
important that there should be complete disconnection between the pipe and
the drain by means of one of the many ventilating contrivances so well
known to sanitary engineers.

The best material for the manufacture of drain pipes is hard, well-burnt,
smooth, and glazed earthenware; bricks and porous earthenware are
particularly ill adapted for the purpose; so also are iron pipes, unless
they are thoroughly cemented inside.

In the laying of drain pipes care should be taken to place them on
concrete, in loose soils, and on well-worked puddled clay, in the case of
clay soils. When they are laid in very loose soils it is sometimes
necessary, besides employing concrete, to additionally use even piling for
the depth of a foot. Leakage and consequent soakage of the soil are sure
to take place sooner or later if the drain pipes are not laid on a good
foundation, as they are when the drains are badly and carelessly joined.

[Illustration]

Messrs Brooke, of Huddersfield, have invented a combined drain and subsoil
pipe, the latter, on which the drain pipe rests, being perforated, carries
off the subsoil water. This contrivance is adapted for wet soils.

When junction pipes are required for uniting the drain pipes those known
as “oblique junctions” only should be used. The junctions known as “square
junctions” should be avoided, as they are always sure to become blocked
up.

With respect to the fall of drain pipes Dr Parkes says, “one in
forty-eight is frequently given, or three quarters of an inch in every
yard; a fall of one in sixty-five in drains of six inches diameter, and
one in eighty-seven in drains of eight inches diameter, will give a
velocity of 220 feet per minute.

In order that drain pipes may be properly cleaned it is desirable to have
them so made that they can be opened at intervals by means of lids or
caps. The following cuts represent a few of the many kinds of pipes
adapted for this purpose.

[Illustration]

In addition to this method of cleansing them, drain pipes should be
regularly flushed out at least once a month. House pipes are usually
cleaned out by means of a flexible bamboo, or by jointed rods fitted with
screws and rollers, which serve to loosen sediment. A frequent examination
of all house pipes and traps should be made, and every joint and bend of
the former well looked to. Unfortunately, however, they are so frequently
covered in, that this is impossible.

Where it can be done all skirting boards and covers under which the pipes
and traps are concealed should be removed. When, however, this cannot be
managed the following plan of examination into their condition may be
followed:——Pour water down the pipe, and observe if there be any smell; if
there be, the pipe is full of foul air, and requires ventilation; or else
the trap is defective, and the bad smell is due to sewer gas. Or, instead
of pouring down water, a lighted candle or a piece of smouldering brown
paper may be held over the entrance of the pipe, or the grating over a
trap, when the air will be driven back. If the condition of the pipe be
tested by throwing water down it, it should be noticed whether the water
runs away at once or whether it is checked in its progress. This is all
that, under the circumstances, can be done inside the house; but though an
examination of the pipe is precluded inside, it may be possible to remove
the earth on the outside, and so to get down to and open the drain with
which the pipe communicates. Under these circumstances water mixed with
lime should be poured down the house pipe; if the milky-looking water is
long in making its appearance, and runs only in driblets, the drain
requires flushing; if the milky-looking water is much coloured and mixed
with dirt, then the pipes and trap are foul, or there is a sinking or
depression in some part of the drain where the water is lodging.

Afterwards a pailful of lime and water should be poured down the pipe,
which should be afterwards flushed by pouring water down it until the
water flows off nearly clear.

Referring to the construction and position of the pipes which carry off
the waste water, soil, &c., from our houses into the drains, Dr Parkes
writes——“Builders are always anxious to conceal tubes, and thus carry them
inside the walls, or in the case of hollow walls, between the two. The
consequence is that any escape of air must be into the house. I have known
a case in which the leakage of a closet pipe carried down in a hollow wall
constantly contaminated the air of a house. It would be infinitely better
to run the pipes at once through the wall to the outside. Few persons have
any idea of the carelessness of plumbers’ work——of the bad junctions, and
of the rapidity with which pipes get out of order and decay. When a leaden
pipe carrying water is led into a water-closet discharge pipe, it is
frequently simply puttied in, and very soon the dried putty breaks away,
and there is a complete leakage of gas into the house. Even if well joined
the lead pipe will, it is said, contract and expand, and thus openings are
at last formed. Dr Fergus, of Glasgow, has directed particular attention
to this in the case of lead closet pipes, which become easily perforated,
and which have only a limited duration of wear.” See TRAPS, SEWERS.

=DRAUGHT.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS, L. A single dose of liquid medicine, usually
dispensed in one-and-a-half-ounce or two-ounce phials. Draughts are almost
exclusively extemporaneous compounds, and differ from ‘mixtures’ only in
containing one dose; whereas mixtures contain several. The latter have now
very generally superseded draughts among all but the higher classes, when
the dose is to be frequently repeated. Draughts possess the advantages of
extreme convenience, and, from only one phial being opened at a time, of
preserving the preparation better than when it is exposed to the air by
the frequent removal of the cork. They are usually taken from a
wine-glass, which they about 2/3rds fill.

In the preparation of draughts the same precautions are observed as are
pointed out under MIXTURE; regard being had to the increased volume of
the dose. The ingredients of a six-ounce mixture, for example, containing
(say) 12 doses, may be equally distributed among a dozen draught phials,
after which each may be filled up with distilled water, or any other
simple vehicle. In most cases a little syrup may be advantageously added.
In many instances no addition will be required, the doses of each form of
preparation being the same.

The following are useful formulæ, which will serve as examples for others
of the class. The number might be easily multiplied, and, indeed, might be
extended so as to include 3/4ths of the whole materia medica; but such a
plan would lead to useless repetitions, and occupy much space. See
MIXTURE, PRESCRIBING, &c.

=Draught, Abernethy’s.= See ABERNETHY MEDICINES and MIXTURE.

=Draught, Ace′tate of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS AMMONIÆ ACETATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. (St. B. Hosp.) Solution of acetate of ammonia, 4 fl. dr.; water
to make 1-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Dr Paris.) Camphor mixture, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; liquor of acetate of
ammonia, 4 fl. dr.; antimonial wine, 20 drops; mix. As a refrigerant and
diaphoretic in febrile affections; taken late in the evening.

=Draught, Ac′etate of Potas′sa.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS POTASSÆ ACETATIS, L.
_Prep._ (Mid. Hosp.) Acetate of potassa, 30 gr.; bicarbonate of potassa,
20 gr.; peppermint water, 1 fl. oz. Diuretic, antacid, and laxative.

=Draught, Ammoni′acal.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS AMMONIACALIS, H. AMMONIÆ, L.
_Prep._ (Brande.) Liquor of ammonia, 20 to 30 drops; compound tincture of
cardamoms and tincture of gentian, of each 1/2 fl. dr.; campho-mixture,
1-1/2 fl. oz. An aromatic absorbent and stomachic; in heartburn, acidity,
low spirits, &c.

=Draught, An′odyne.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ANODYNUS, L. _Prep._ 1. Tincture of
opium, 15 drops; pimento water and syrup of poppies, of each 2 dr.; water,
1 fl. oz.

2. (Copland.) Nitre, 6 gr.; laudanum, 12 drops; compound spirit of ether,
1 fl. dr.; syrup of poppies, 2 fl. dr.; camphor mixture, 9 fl. dr.

3. (Ellis.) Tincture of opium, 15 to 25 drops; syrup of poppies, 2 fl.
dr.; spirit of cinnamon, 1 fl. dr.; distilled water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

4. As the above, but substituting a like quantity of solution of either
acetate or hydrochlorate of morphia in lieu of the laudanum. All the above
are given as soothing draughts to allay pain and produce sleep, especially
the last thing at night. No. 4 is to be preferred if there are febrile
symptoms present.

=Draught, Antac′id.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ANTACIDUS, L. _Prep._ 1. Bicarbonate
of soda, 20 gr.; tincture of calumba, 3 fl. dr.; tincture of hops, 1 fl.
dr.; syrup of orange peel, 2 fl. dr.; water, 6 fl. dr. To improve the
appetite in heartburn and dyspepsia; taken 1 hour before a meal.

2. Liquor of ammonia, 16 drops; syrup of saffron, 2 fl. dr.; infusion of
gentian, 3 fl. dr.; water, 7 fl. dr. As the last, taken occasionally,
especially in debility, low spirits, &c.

3. (Collier.) Compound tincture of cardamoms, 1 fl. dr.; solution of
bicarbonate of magnesia (fluid magnesia), 9 fl. dr.; simple syrup, 2 fl.
dr. Twice a day; in dyspepsia, heartburn, &c., especially in gouty
patients.

4. (A. T. Thomson.) Magnesia, 1 dr.; peppermint water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.;
tincture of orange peel, 1 fl. dr. In dyspepsia, &c., with acidity or
diarrhœa.

5. As No. 1, but using bicarbonate of potassa for bicarbonate of soda. In
acidity, diarrhœa, &c., accompanied by great irritability of the coats of
the stomach.

6. Prepared chalk, 30 gr.; spirit of nutmeg and tincture of opium, of each
12 to 20 drops; syrup of saffron, 3 dr.; cinnamon water, 1 fl. oz. In
acidity, with extreme looseness of the bowels.

=Draught, Anti-arthrit′ic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ANTI-ARTHRITICUS, L. _Prep._ 1.
Tincture of colchicum seeds (L.), 1/2 fl. dr.; syrup of orange peel, 2-1/2
fl. dr.; water, 1 fl. oz. In gout; taken over-night, followed by another
in the morning.

2. (Brande.) Wine of colchicum, 1/2 fl. dr.; carbonate of magnesia, 15
gr.; cinnamon water, 1/2 fl. oz.; water, 1 fl. oz. As the last.

3. (Sir C. Scudamore.) Magnesia, 18 gr.; Epsom salts, 1-1/2 dr.; vinegar
of colchicum, 1 fl. dr.; simple syrup, 1 fl. dr.; cinnamon water, 9 fl.
dr. As the last.

4. (Sir H. Halford’s GOUT PREVENTIVE.) Compound infusion of gentian, 1-1/2
fl. oz.; tincture of rhubarb, 1 fl. dr.; bicarbonate of potassa, 15 gr.

=Draught, Anti-asthmat′ic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ANTI-ASTHMATICUS, L. _Prep._
Vinegar of squills, 1/2 fl. dr.; ipecacuanha wine, 15 drops; cinnamon
water, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Expectorant. One to be taken three times daily during
the attack.

=Draught, Anti-emet′ic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ANTI-EMETICUS, L. _Prep._ 1. Juice
of 1 lemon; liquor opii sedativus, 10 drops (or laudanum, 15 drops);
ether, 20 drops; simple syrup, 2 dr.; water, q. s.

2. (HAUSTUS ANTI-EMETICUS RIVERII,——P. C.) Bicarbonate of potassa, 30 gr.;
lemon juice, 4 dr.; syrup of lemon, 1 oz.; water, 3 oz.; mix quickly, and
tie down the cork. To check nausea and vomiting. This is best given
effervescing.

=Draught, Anti-hyster′ic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ANTI-HYSTERICUS, L. _Prep._
Cyanide of potassium, 1 gr.; lettuce water (distilled), 2 fl. oz.; syrup
of orange flowers, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 5-1/2 fl. oz.; for 6 draughts. One
to be taken when the fit is expected, and a second in half an hour. Should
the fit come on, the dose may be repeated at intervals of about 15 minutes
until 3 or 4 have been altogether administered. The symptoms, however
intense, are generally either at once arrested, or greatly alleviated by
this treatment.

=Draught, Antilith′ic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ANTI-LITHICUS, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Venables.) Borax, 8 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 10 gr.; aerated water, 8
fl. oz. For a draught; in red gravel.

2. (Dr Paris.) Carbonate of soda, 12 gr.; tincture of calumba, 1 fl. dr.;
infusion of quassia, 1 fl. oz.; water, 3 fl. dr. In dyspepsia and gravel,
attended with the lithic-acid diathesis.

=Draught, Anti-neural′gic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ANTI-NEURALGICUS, H. NARCOTINÆ,
L. _Prep._ (Jeston.) Narcotine, 2 gr.; diluted sulphuric acid, 20 drops;
infusion of roses, 1-1/2 fl. oz. One every 2 hours in the intermissions of
neuralgia.

=Draught, Antisep′tic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ANTISEPTICUS, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Collier.) Decoction of yellow bark, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of opium, 5 drops;
spirit of pimento and water, of each 2 fl. dr. In putrid fevers, gangrene,
&c.

=Draught, Antispasmod′ic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ANTISPASMODICUS, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Dr Collier.) Tincture of castor, 1 fl. dr.; sulphuric ether, 10 drops;
peppermint water, 11 fl. dr.; mix. In hysteria, and that species of
irregular muscular action dependent on debility.

2. (Dr Gregory.) Fetid spirit of ammonia, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr.; camphor
mixture, 10 fl. dr.; syrup of saffron, 1 fl. dr. In cases complicated with
low spirits, debility, &c.

3. (A. T. Thomson.) Musk mixture, 14 fl. dr.; liquor of ammonia, 16 drops;
tincture of castor, 1 fl. dr.; syrup of poppies, 1/2 fl. dr.; mix. Three
or four times daily, in hysteria and convulsive affections, after the
bowels have been well cleared by some aperient.

4. (A. T. Thomson.) Oil of aniseed, 10 drops; magnesia, 20 gr.; tincture
of senna, 2 fl. dr.; peppermint water, 10 fl. dr.; mix. In flatulence and
spasms of the stomach.

=Draught, Ape′′rient.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS APERIENS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Paris.)
Infusion of senna, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of senna, tincture of jalap, and
syrup of senna, of each 1 fl. dr.; tartrate of potassa, 1 dr.; mix.

2. (Ryan.) Epsom salts, 4 dr.; tincture of senna, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; syrup of
ginger, 1 fl. dr.; spirit of sal-volatile, 20 drops; infusion of senna,
1-1/2 fl. oz.

3. (Thomson.) Tartrate of potassa, 3 dr.; tincture of senna and syrup of
saffron, of each 1 dr.; infusion of senna, 1-1/2 oz. The above are good
aperients, and in their composition and action resemble the ordinary
“black draught.”

4. (EFFERVESCING A. D.)——_a._ (Dr Barker.) Bisulphate of potassa, 73 grs.;
carbonate of soda, 72 gr.; water, q. s.; dissolve the two in separate
glasses, mix the solutions, and drink whilst effervescing, in the same way
as soda water.

_b._ (W. Cooley.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; potassio-tartrate of soda, 2
drs.; dissolve in about 1-3rd of a glassful of cold water; and pour it on
another like quantity of water, holding in solution tartaric acid, 40
grs., and syrup of orange peel, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; and drink it instantly.

_c._ (Paris.) Potassio-tartrate of soda, 2 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 40
grs.; dissolve, and add lemon juice, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls.

_d._ (Young.) Cream of tartar, 3 dr.; carbonate of soda, 2-1/2 dr.; throw
them into a soda-water bottle three parts filled with cold water, cork
immediately, and wire down the cork. The last three are examples of
FACTITIOUS EFFERVESCING SEIDLITZ WATER, and are good saline aperients. The
method of taking them may be varied by mixing the dry ingredients (in fine
powder) on a piece of paper, and throwing the mixture suddenly into a
tumbler 2-3rds filled with water, and drinking the liquid whilst
effervescing. See CATHARTIC D. (_below._)

=Draught, Ap′petite.= See DRAUGHT, DINNER.

=Draught, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ AROMATIC ANTACID, DRAUGHT; HAUSTUS
AROMATICUS, L. _Prep._ 1. Aromatic confection, 1 dr.; spirit of
sal-volatile, 1/2 dr.; syrup of saffron, 2 drs.; pimento water, 9 fl. dr.
Excellent in dyspepsia, with acidity, and in diarrhœa, preceded by an
aperient.

2. (H. AROM. CUM RHEO.——St. B. Hosp.) Aromatic confection, 1 dr.; infusion
of rhubarb and cinnamon water, of each, 6 fl. dr. In diarrhœa and
dyspepsia, especially when there is acidity and deficiency of bile.

=Draught, Astrin′′gent.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ASTRINGENS, L. _Prep._ 1. Tannin,
3 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr.; simple syrup, 2 fl. dr.; water, 6 fl.
dr.

2. (Dr Paris.) Chalk mixture, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of catechu, 1 fl.
dr.; laudanum, 15 drops.

3. (Thomson.) Extract of logwood, 12 gr.; tincture of catechu, 1 fl. dr.;
cinnamon water, 15 fl. dr. The above are excellent remedies in diarrhœa
(preceded by a purgative), and in dysentery, &c. One may be taken after
each motion.

=Draught, Black.= See MIXTURE.

=Draught, Cam′phor.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS CAMPHORÆ, L. _Prep._ (Guy’s Hosp.)
Camphor, 6 gr.; rectified spirit, q. s. to powder; white sugar, 1 dr.;
mucilage, 3 dr.; water, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Anodyne and diaphoretic, &c.

=Draught, Cas′tor Oil.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS OLEI RICINI, L. _Prep._ (Guy’s
Hosp.) Castor oil, 4 dr.; yelk of egg, q. s. (2 in no.); simple syrup, 1
fl. dr.; cassia or cinnamon water, 1 fl. oz. Aperient.

=Draught, Cathar′tic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS CATHARTICUS, L. The following are
given as additions to those under APERIENT D., and other heads:——_Prep._
1. (Dr Thomson.) Tartrate of potassa, 5 dr.; tincture of senna, 1 fl. dr.;
infusion of senna, 14-1/2 fl. dr.; syrup of saffron, 1/2 fl. dr.; mix. In
acute diseases, taken early in the morning.

2. (Thomson.) Epsom salts and manna, of each 2 dr.; infusion of roses, 14
fl. dr.; dilute sulphuric acid, 10 drops. In inflammatory affections, and
to check vomiting in low fevers.

3. (Thomson.) Carbonate of magnesia, 1 dr.; powdered rhubarb, 20 gr.;
peppermint water, 12 fl. dr. In dyspepsia, attended with costiveness and
acidity, taken an hour before dinner.

4. (Thomson.) Castor oil, 5 fl. dr.; powdered gum, 20 gr.; rose water, 1
fl. oz.; compound tincture of lavender, 8 drops; syrup of poppies, 1 fl.
dr. In colic and calculus. The above differ from aperient draughts simply
in their greater strength.

=Draught, Chalk.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS CRETÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Powdered gum, chalk,
and simple syrup, of each 1 dr.; aromatic water (as that of caraway,
cinnamon, nutmeg, pimento, or peppermint), 1-1/2 fl. oz.

2. CHALYBEATED C. D.; HAUSTUS CRETÆ ET FERRI, L.——Paris.) Chalk mixture, 7
fl. dr.; compound mixture of iron, 3 fl. dr.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia,
5 or 6 gr. In diarrhœa, particularly in that arising from debility and
anæmia.

3. (C. D. WITH RHUBARB; HAUSTUS CRETÆ CUM RHEO, L.)——_a._ Chalk mixture
(see _above_), 1-1/2 fl. oz.; powdered rhubarb, 12 gr.

_b._ (Lond. Hosp.) Powder of chalk with opium, 12 gr.; rhubarb, 15 gr.;
syrup of saffron and compound tincture of cardamoms, of each 1 fl. dr.;
caraway water, 10 fl. dr. In heartburn, dyspepsia, and certain forms of
diarrhœa.

=Draught, Chlo′′rine.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS CHLORINII, L. _Prep._ (Copland.)
Chlorine water, 1/2 fl. dr.; water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; mix, and add of syrup
of poppies, 1/2 fl. dr. One every 6 hours; in the worst form of typhus
fever, and other putrid diseases, &c.

=Draught, Cit′rate of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS AMMONIÆ CITRATIS, H. A.
SESQUICARBONATIS EFFERVESCENS, L. _Prep._ (Guy’s Hosp.) Sesquicarbonate of
ammonia, 20 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add of lemon juice, 1/2
fl. oz. An agreeable, cooling, saline draught in febrile cases.

=Draught, Cit′rate of Potas′sa.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS POTASSÆ CITRATIS, L.
_Prep._ From carbonate of potassa, 24 gr. (or bicarbonate, 29 gr.); water,
1 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add of lemon juice, 5 fl. dr. As the last. 20 gr.
of citric acid may be used instead of the lemon juice.

=Draught, Col′chicum.= See DRAUGHT ANTI-ARTHRITIC.

=Draught, Copai′ba.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS COPAIBÆ, L. _Prep._ (St. B. Hosp.)
Balsam of copaiba, 1/2 fl. dr.; mucilage (thick), 4 fl. dr.; pimento
water, 3 fl. dr.; water, 5 fl. dr. In gonorrhœa, &c.

=Draught, Cough.= See MIXTURE.

=Draught, Diaphoret′ic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS DIAPHORETICUS, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Collier.) Infusion of serpentary, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of serpentary,
1 fl. dr. Tonic and diaphoretic.

2. (Thomson.) Sesquicarbonate of potassa, 20 gr.; fresh lemon juice, 4 fl.
dr.; tartrate of antimony, 1/6 gr.; water, 11 fl. dr.; syrup of poppies, 1
fl. dr. Antifebrile and diaphoretic.

3. (Thomson.) Liquor of acetate of ammonia, 6 fl. dr.; camphor mixture, 10
fl. dr.; nitrate of potassa, 10 gr.; syrup of tolu, 1/2 fl. oz. Anodyne
and diaphoretic. All the above are used in inflammatory affections.

=Draught, Din′ner.= _Syn._ APPETITE DRAUGHT; HAUSTUS DICTUS ANTE CIBUM.
_Prep._ 1. Tinctures of cascarilla, hops, and rhubarb, of each 1 fl. dr.;
spirit of sal-volatile, 1/2 fl. dr.; tincture of capsicum, 20 drops; syrup
of orange peel, 2 dr.; water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

2. Compound tincture of gentian, 1/2 fl. oz.; sal-volatile, 1/2 a
teaspoonful; cinnamon water, 1 fl. oz.; compound tincture of cardamoms, 1
teaspoonful. Either of the above to be taken an hour before a meal.

=Draught, Diuret′ic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS DIURETICUS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Collier.)
Tincture of jalap, 2 fl. dr.; vinegar of squills, 1 fl. dr.; peppermint
water, 10 fl. dr.; mix.

2. (Copland.) Acetate of potassa, 1/2 dr.; infusion of quassia and
cinnamon water, of each 6 fl. dr.; vinegar of squills and sweet spirits of
nitre, of each 1/2 fl. dr.

3. (Thomson.) Nitre, 8 gr.; tincture of digitalis, 16 drops; infusion of
roses, 13 fl. dr.; syrup of roses, 1 fl. dr.

4. (Turner.) Nitre and powdered gum, of each 15 gr.; almond mixture, 1-1/2
fl. oz. The above are used as diuretics in dropsy; the last, also in
scurvy, and in the incontinence of urine of children.

=Draught, Donovan’s.= _Syn._ DRAUGHT OF HYDRIODATE OF ARSENIC AND MERCURY;
HAUSTUS HYDRIODATIS ARSENICI ET HYDRARGYRI, L. _Prep._ (Donovan.) Liquor
of hydriodate of arsenic and mercury (Donovan’s), 2 fl. dr.; distilled
water, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; syrup of ginger, 1/2 fl. oz.; mix for 4 draughts.
One, night and morning; in lepra, lupus, psoriasis, and some other
obstinate cutaneous affections. It must not be allowed to touch anything
metallic.

=Draught, Efferves′cing.= _Prep._ (Lond. Hosp.) Sesquicarbonate of soda,
30 gr.; water, or peppermint water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; syrup of orange peel, 2
fl. dr.; tincture of calumba, 1/2 fl. dr.; tartaric or citric acid, 25
gr.; add the acid last, and drink whilst effervescing. Stomachic, tonic,
and anti-emetic; in acidity, dyspepsia, &c. (See _antè_.)

=Draught, Emet′ic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS EMETICUS, L. _Prep._ 1. Sulphate of
zinc, 15 gr. to 30 gr.; water, 9 fl. dr.; dissolve. In cases of
poisoning, and at the commencement of an attack of ague.

2. (Copland.) Ipecacuanha, 30 gr.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 20 gr.;
tincture of capsicum, 30 drops; oil of chamomile, 10 drops; mint water, 2
fl. oz. As a stimulant emetic in cases of poisoning by laudanum or other
narcotics.

3. (Guy’s Hosp.) Antimonial wine, 2 fl. dr.; ipecacuanha wine, 6 fl. dr.;
water, 4 fl. dr. For unloading the stomach in ordinary cases.

4. (Mid. Hosp.) Tartar emetic, 1 gr.; ipecacuanha, 20 gr.; syrup, 2 fl.
dr.; water, 10 fl. dr. As the last.

5. (Dr Pickford.) Sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.;
water, 1-3/4 oz. When it is also desired to act rapidly on the bowels.

6. (Rodier.) Sulphate of copper, 10 gr.; water, 2 fl. oz. In poisoning by
laudanum.

7. (Sprague.) Ipecacuanha, 30 gr.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 20 gr.;
tincture of capsicum, 1 fl. dr.; peppermint water, 3 fl. oz. In poisoning
by narcotics.

8. (A. T. Thomson.) Ipecacuanha, 20 gr,; ipecacuanha wine, 2 fl. dr.;
water, 10 fl. dr. For unloading the stomach, in ordinary cases.

9. (Trousseau.) Ipecacuanha, 8 gr.; syrup of ipecacuanha, 1 fl. oz.;
water, q. s. for 4 draughts. One every 10 minutes, until vomiting occurs.

=Draught, E′ther.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS ÆTHEREUS, L. _Prep._ (Neligan.)
Sulphuric ether, 1 fl. dr.; spermaceti, 3 gr.; rub together (expertly),
and add of peppermint water, 10 fl. dr. An excellent stimulant and
antispasmodic, febrile symptoms being absent.

=Draught, Expec′torant.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS EXPECTORANS, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Collier.) Mixtures of ammoniacum and almonds, of each 6 fl. dr.; tincture
of squills, 12 drops. In hoarseness, chronic coughs, &c.

=Draught, Hen′bane.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS HYOSCYAMI, L. _Prep._ 1. Tincture of
henbane, 30 to 60 drops; syrup of saffron, 1 fl. dr.; water, 10 fl. dr.
Anodyne and soporific. Used to allay nervous excitement, and induce sleep,
when laudanum is inadmissible.

2. (HENBANE AND SQUILLS D.; HAUSTUS HYOSCYAMI CUM SCILLÂ, L.——Dr Bree.)
Extract of henbane, 3 gr.; tincture of squills, 10 drops; dilute nitric
acid, 6 drops; water, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Anodyne and expectorant; in asthmas,
chronic coughs, &c.

=Draught, Hydrocyan′ic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS HYDROCYANICUS, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Donovan.) Cyanide of potassium, 1 gr.; syrup of lemons, 1/2 fl. oz.;
distilled water, 7-1/2 fl. oz. For 8 draughts. One for a dose.

2. (Dr S. Dickson.) Medicinal Hydrocyanic acid (L.), 15 drops; liquor of
ammonia, 20 drops; syrup of orange flowers (or simple syrup), 3 fl. dr.;
water, 8-1/2 fl. oz.; mix, and divide into 6 draughts. One——2 or 3 times a
day; in gastrodynia, and all those nameless nervous and hysterical
affections arising from excessive irritability, mental anxiety, &c. In a
case that came under our notice, in which life was an absolute burden to
the patient, relief was afforded by the first draught, and 4 or 5 effected
a comparative cure, although almost every other remedy had been tried in
vain.

=Draught, Laennec’s.= _Syn._ LAENNEC’S CONTRA-STIMULANT DRAUGHT; HAUSTUS
CONTRASTIMULANS, L. _Prep._ From tartar emetic, 2 grs.; syrup of poppies,
2 fl. drs.; orange-flower water, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Every two hours in
pneumonia, &c.

=Draught, Lax′ative.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS LAXANS, L. _Prep._ 1. See DRAUGHTS,
APERIENT.

2. (Dr Copeland.) Infusion of senna and compound infusion of gentian, of
each 6 fl. dr.; sulphate of potassa, 20 to 30 gr.; extract of taraxacum,
30 to 40 gr.; compound tincture of cardamoms, 1-1/2 fl. dr. Aperient,
stomachic, and alterative.

=Draught, Mor′phia.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS MORPHIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Brera.) Morphia,
1/4 gr.; syrup of poppies, 1 fl. dr.; water, 11 fl. dr. Two or three drops
of acetic acid may be advantageously added. At bed-time, as a soporific.

=Draught, Narcot′ic.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS NARCOTICUS, H. OPIATUS, L. _Prep._ 1.
(St. B. Hosp.) Laudanum, 12 to 20 drops; syrup of red poppies, 1 fl. dr.;
pimento water, 3 fl. dr; water, 1 fl. oz. To induce sleep in slight cases,
when fever is absent.

2. (A. T. Thomson.) Camphor mixture, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; laudanum, 35 drops;
sulphuric ether and syrup of saffron, of each 1 fl. dr. In intermittent
headache.

3. (Thomson.) Carbonate of ammonia, 15 gr.; fresh lemon juice, 1/2 fl.
oz.; water, 1 fl. oz.; spirit of nutmeg, 1 fl. dr.; syrup of orange peel,
1/2 fl. dr.; tincture of hemlock, 10 drops. In diseases of increased
irritability.

4. (Thomson.) Carbonate of potassa, 20 gr.; fresh lemon juice, 1/2 fl.
oz.; peppermint water, 1 fl. oz.; laudanum, 25 drops; syrup of tolu, 1/2
fl. dr. To procure sleep in the majority of diseases. (See _above_.)

=Draught, Nux Vom′ica.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS NUCIS VOMICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr Joy.)
Nux vomica (in fine powder), 3 gr.; powdered gum, 2 dr; compound tincture
of cardamoms, 1 fl. dr.; cinnamon water, 10 fl. dr. Diuretic, narcotic,
stimulant, and tonic; in paralysis, impotence, debility, &c.,
unaccompanied by inflammation of the nervous centres. See STRYCHNINE.

=Draught, Refri′′gerant.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS REFRIGERANS, L. _Prep._ 1.
Carbonate of potassa, 20 grs.; syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. dr.; spirit of
nutmeg, 1/2 fl. dr.; water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Thomson.) Nitre, 12 gr.; almond mixture, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; syrup of tolu,
1 fl. oz.

3. (Collier.) Carbonate of potassa, 20 gr.; antimonial wine, 20 drops;
syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. dr.; tincture of orange peel, 1/2 fl. dr.;
water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; mix, and add a large table-spoonful of lemon juice.
In inflammatory diseases, &c.

=Draught, Saline′.= See DRAUGHT, EFFERVESCING, &c.

=Draught, Stomach′ic.= See DRAUGHT, DINNER, &c.

=Draught, Ton′ic.= _Syn._ STRENGTHENING DRAUGHT; HAUSTUS TONICUS, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Collier.) Disulphate of quinine, 2 gr.; tincture of orange
peel, 1 fl. dr.; diluted sulphuric acid, 5 drops; laudanum, 10 drops;
infusion of cascarilla, 1-1/2 fl, oz. In pyrosis, &c., 1 hour before
dinner.

2. (A. T. Thomson.) Infusion of yellow bark, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; compound
tincture of cinchona, 1 fl. dr.; powdered cinchona, 40 gr.; syrup of
orange peel, 1 fl. dr. In intermittents and acute rheumatisms.

3. (Thomson.) Infusion of cascarilla, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of
cascarilla and ginger, of each 1 fl. dr. In dyspepsia, arising from
intemperance.

4. (Walton.) Infusion of cascarilla, 9 fl. dr.; tinctures of rhubarb and
ginger, of each 1 fl. dr.; syrup of saffron, 1/2 fl. dr.; ammonio-citrate
of iron, 6 gr.; tincture of capsicum, 5 drops. In anæmia, and debility
accompanied by paleness and relaxation.

=Draught, Ver′mifuge.= _Syn._ HAUSTUS VERMIFUGUS, H. ANTHELMINTHICUS, L.
_Prep._ (M. Levacher.) Castor oil, 4 dr.; oil of turpentine, 2 dr.; mint
water, 2 fl. oz.; syrup, 1 fl. oz.; powdered gum, 2 dr.; for an emulsion.
In tapeworm.

=DRAW′INGS.= Chalk and pencil drawings may be fixed so as not to suffer
from slight abrasion, by washing them with skimmed milk, or with water
holding in solution a little isinglass or gum. When the first is used,
great care must be taken to deprive it of the whole of the cream, as the
latter substance would cause the drawing to look streaky. An easy way of
applying these fluids is to pour them into a shallow vessel, and to lay
the drawing flat upon the surface of the liquid; after which it should be
gently removed and placed on white blotting paper, in an inclined
position, to drain and dry.

=DRENCHES.= _Syn._ DRINKS. In _veterinary practice_, these terms are
applied to liquid medicines or mixtures which are administered to horses
and neat cattle, and chiefly to the latter. A drench for a HORSE should
not be less than half a pint, nor more than a quart; about a pint is,
perhaps, the best quantity; that for a COW or OX should measure about a
quart, and not more than about 5 half pints. See VETERINARY MEDICINE.

=DRES′SING.= In the _industrial arts_, a preparation of gum, starch, size,
&c., employed in stiffening or “finishing off” textile fabrics and paper.
In _surgery_, the term is appropriated to any application to a wound or
sore, made by means of lint, linen, or leather. SIMPLE DRESSING is simple
cerate or spermaceti cerate. Among _cooks_, the stuffing of fowls, pork,
veal, &c., is commonly called ‘dressing.’

=DRIERS.= Driers are substances employed to facilitate the drying of
paints. The driers most commonly employed are sugar of lead, litharge, and
white copperas. Either of these when well ground, and mixed in small
proportion with paints, very materially hastens their drying. Indeed, some
colours will not dry without them. Red lead is also well adapted for a
drying agent, and in cases where its colour does not preclude it, is much
used. The best drier is sugar of lead. Its cost, however, is somewhat
higher than that of the other driers. It is important to bear in mind that
in the finishing coats of delicate colours driers are not generally had
recourse to, as they have a slight tendency to injure the colour. A drying
property may be imparted to linseed oil by boiling it with drying
substances; it then becomes a very useful vehicle for some purposes. See
OILS, DRYING.

=DRIFFIELD OILS.=——For the prevention of gangrene and for healing incised
and other wounds, bruises, sprains, swellings, and external inflammations.
A dusky brownish-green clear oil, consisting of olive oil, digested with
wormwood, savin, and arnica, and afterwards perfumed with a mixture of
oils of rosemary, thyme, and juniper, 1 pint (474 grammes). (Hager.)

=DRINKS (Summer).= See BEER, GINGER, LEMONADE, SHERBET, &c.

=DRINK, CORDIAL= (Dr Cherwy). A herbal lemonade to heal all chronic and
scrofulous diseases. It contains 115 grammes water, 15 grammes spirit, 2
grammes potassium iodide, 5 grammes bitter almond water, 10 grammes sugar,
and 3 grammes burnt sugar. (Hager.)

=DRIPPING TO CLARIFY.= Put the dripping into a stewpan over the fire, and
let it boil, and as it does so, skim it carefully. When it boils pour it
into a basin, in which you have previously put a little cold water. It
must stand till cold. It is then to be taken out of the water. The
dripping will now be in the form of a cake, at the bottom of which will be
found adhering little pieces of meat, skin, &c. These must be scraped off,
and the dripping will have been purified. Another method is to mix boiling
water with the dripping, to stir well, let it get cold, and then to take
it out and scrape it as above.

=DROP.= See MEASURES.

=DROPS, CHOLERA——CHOLERATROPFEN= (A. Bastler, Vienna). Oils of anise,
cajeput, and juniper berries, of each 20 parts; spirit of ether, 60 parts;
tincture of cinnamon, 120 parts; Haller’s acid elixir, 5 parts.——_Dose_,
30 to 50 drops. (Wittstein.)

=DROPS (Confectionery).= These are confections of which the principal
basis is sugar. They differ from lozenges chiefly in the ingredients being
combined by the aid of heat. Occasionally they are medicated.

_Prep._ Double refined sugar is reduced to powder, and passed through a
hair sieve (not too fine), and afterwards through a gauze sieve, to take
out the fine dust, which would destroy the beauty of the drop. It is then
put into a clean pan, and moistened with any favorite aromatic, as rose or
orange-flower water, added slowly, stirring it with a paddle all the time,
from which the sugar will fall as soon as it is moist enough, without
sticking. The colouring (if any) is next added, in the liquid state, or in
very fine powder. A small, polished copper, or tinned-copper pan,
furnished with a lip, is now one half or three parts filled with the
paste, and placed over the fire, or over the hole of a stove, or
preferably on a sand bath, and the mixture stirred with a little bone or
glass spatula until it becomes liquid. As soon as it almost boils, it is
taken from the fire, and if it is too moist, a little more powdered sugar
is added, and the whole stirred, until it is of such a consistence as to
run without too much extension. A tin plate, very clean and smooth, and
very slightly oiled, being now ready, the pan is taken in the left hand,
and a bit of bright iron, copper, or silver wire, about 4 inches long, in
the right. The melted sugar is next allowed to fall regularly on the tin
plate, the wire being used to remove the drop from the lip of the pan. In
two or three hours afterwards the drops are taken off with the blade of a
knife, and are at once put into bottles or tins. On the large scale,
‘confectionery drops’ are moulded by a machine consisting essentially of
two metal rollers covered with hollows. A sheet of the warm and soft
composition, on being passed between the rollers, is at once converted
into a batch of symmetrical drops, the upper and lower halves being
moulded by the corresponding hollows of the upper and lower rollers. See
CANDYING, CONFECTION, ESSENCE, STAINS (Confectioner’s), SUGAR PLUMS.

The following are a few of the principal confectionery drops kept in the
shops:——

=Drops, Acid′ulated.= _Syn._ ACID DROPS. _Prep._ Tartaric acid, 1/2 oz.,
dissolved in a very little water, is added to each lb. of sugar, as above;
with essence of lemon, orange, or jargonelle pear, to flavour, as desired.

=Drops, Chocolate.= _Prep._ Chocolate, 1 oz., is reduced to fine powder by
scraping, and added to powdered white sugar, 1 lb.; when the mixture is
made into drops, as above, care being taken to avoid heating it a second
time.

=Drops, Cof′fee.= _Prep._ A clarified, concentrated infusion of coffee, 1
oz., is used for each lb. of sugar.

=Drops, Fruit.= These are prepared according to the general description.
(See _above_.) The flavouring essences (volatile oils or essences of
lemon, orange, citron, raspberry, jargonelle pear, &c.) not being added
until the sugar is melted, to avoid, as much as possible, loss by
evaporation. The colouring matter may be any of the transparent ‘stains’
usually employed for cakes, jellies, and confectionery. In this way are
made the majority of the first-class fruit drops and bon-bons of the
sugar-bakers. In some cases the plan is varied by adding the clarified
concentrated juice, or jelly of the fruit to the sugar. One variety of
raspberry and currant (red and black) drops are made in this way.

=Drops, Ginger.= _Prep._ From essence or tincture of ginger, as above. An
inferior kind is made in the way described under CANDY, GINGER.

=Drops, Jargonelle′.= Fruit drops flavoured with essence of jargonelle
pear (SOLUTION OF ACETATE of AMYLE).

=Drops, Lem′on.= Acidulated drops flavoured with essence of lemon. They
are usually stained with an infusion of turmeric. (See _above_.)

=Drops, Pep′permint.= From the whitest refined sugar, flavoured with
English oil of peppermint or its spirituous solution (essence of
peppermint), or with peppermint water.

=Drops, Rasp′berry.= See DROPS, FRUIT (_above._)

=Drops (Med′icated).= _Syn._ GUTTÆ, L. This term is commonly applied to
compound medicines that are only taken in small doses. At the present time
they are almost exclusively confined to empirical and domestic medicine.
The plan of directing liquids to be measured by dropping is objectionable,
because the drops of different fluids vary in size, and are also further
influenced by the size of the bottle and the shape of its neck, as well as
the quantity of liquid it is poured from. See ESSENCE, and _below_.

=Drops, Acoust′ic.= _Syn._ ACOUSTIC BALSAM; GUTTÆ ACOUSTICÆ, BALSAMUM
ACOUSTICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Oil of almonds, 1 oz.; laudanum and oil of
turpentine, of each 1 dr.; mix. For hardened wax, and to allay pain.

2. Tinctures of benzoin, castor, and opium, of each, 1 fl. oz.; essential
oil of assafœtida, 5 drops. As the last, and in deafness arising from
debility of the organism.

3. (Baumé’s.) Tinctures of ambergris, assafœtida, castor, and opium, of
each, 1 oz.; terebinthinated balsam of sulphur and oil of rue, of each, 15
drops. In atonic deafness.

4. (Bouchardat.) Compound spirit of balm, 2-1/2 dr.; oil of almonds, 5
dr.; ox-gall, 10 dr.; cresote, 10 or 20 drops. In cases complicated with
hardened wax, fetid discharges, &c.

5. (Dr Hugh Smith.) Ox-gall, 3 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1 dr. In fetid
ulcerations of the ear. One or two drops of the above are poured into the
ear; or a piece of cotton wool moistened therewith is introduced instead.
The last is the safest plan.

6. Glycerin, either alone or diluted with water. In deficiency of the
natural secretions of the ear; used in sufficient quantity to moisten the
first passages. See DEAFNESS, GLYCERIN.

=Drops, A′gue.= _Prep._ White arsenic, 1/2 gr.; hot water, 1 oz.;
dissolve.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful, twice a day. See SOLUTION
(Arsenite of Potassa).

=Drops, An′odyne.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ ANODYNÆ, L. The solutions of acetate and
hydrochlorate of morphia are commonly vended in the shops under this name.

=Drops, Ant′acid.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ ANTACIDÆ, L. _Prep._ (U. C. Hosp.) Liquor
of potassa, 3 fl. oz,; powdered myrrh, 1 oz.; triturate together until
thoroughly incorporated, add of liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz., mix well,
place the mixture in a stoppered bottle, and the next day decant the clear
portion. Antacid, tonic, and stomachic.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 drops, or more,
in water.

=Drops, Antihyster′ic.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ ANTIHYSTERICÆ, L. _Prep._ Cyanide of
potassium, 2 gr.; rectified spirit, 5 fl. dr.; syrup of orange flowers, 3
fl. dr.——_Dose_, 10 drops to 1/2 teaspoonful, when the attack is expected,
and repeated occasionally as required; in hysterical affections,
gastrodynia, &c.

=Drops, Antiscorbu′tic.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ ANTISCORBUTICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
Expressed juice of water-cress, 2 fl. oz.; salt of tartar, 1 oz.; agitate
together occasionally for a few hours, and in 2 or 3 days decant.——_Dose_,
12 or 15 drops, to a teaspoonful, twice a day, in a cupful of new milk.

2. Citrate of potassa, 4 dr.; ammonio-citrate of iron, 2 dr.; water, 10
fl. dr.——_Dose._ As the last, in water.

3. (GREEN’S ANTISCORBUTIC DROPS.) Merely a disguised solution of corrosive
sublimate. Most of the other ‘antiscorbutic’ and ‘anti-venereal drops’
advertised by quacks have a like composition.

=Drops, Antiscrof′ulous.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ ANTISCROFULOSÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
Iodine, 10 gr.; iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; water, 1 fl. oz.

2. (Augustin.) Chlorides of iron and barium, of each, 1/2 dr.; distilled
water, 1 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops, 2 or 3 times a day.

=Drops, Antispasmod′ic.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ ANTISPASMODICÆ, L. _Prep._ Tinctures
of castor, valerian, and assafœtida, of each, 2 dr.; tincture of capsicum
and balsam of Peru, of each, 1 dr.; camphor, 20 gr.; acetate of morphia, 3
gr.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 drops, as required.

=Drops, Bateman’s.= See DROPS, PECTORAL.

=Drops, Battley’s.= See LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS.

=Drops, Bitter.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ AMARÆ, L.; GOUTTES AMÈRES, Fr. _Prep._ From
nux vomica (rasped), 1 lb.; liquor of potassa, 1/2 fl. oz.; bistre, 1 dr.;
compound spirit of wormwood, 32 fl. oz.; digest 10 days, express the
tincture, and filter. A most unscientific preparation; said to be tonic
and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1 to 8 drops in water or any bitter infusion. In
large doses it is poisonous.

=Drop, Black.= _Syn._ ARMSTRONG’S BLACK DROP, LANCASTER’S B. D., QUAKER’S
B. D., TOUSTALL’S B. D., BRAITHWAITE’S GENUINE B. D.; GUTTA NIGRA, L. This
celebrated preparation was originally prepared nearly a century and a half
ago by Edward Toustall, a medical practitioner in the county of Durham,
and one of the Society of Friends. The formula passing into the possession
of a relative of his (John Walton, of Shildon), was found among his
brother’s papers, and, by the permission of Thomas Richardson, of Bishop’s
Wearmouth, one of his executors, was handed to Dr Armstrong, who
subsequently published it in his work on typhus fever.

_Prep._ 1. (Original formula.) Opium (sliced), 1/2 lb.; good verjuice, 3
pints; nutmegs, 1-1/2 oz.; saffron, 1/2 oz.; boil them to a proper
thickness; then add, of sugar, 1/4 lb., and yeast, 2 teaspoonfuls. Set the
whole in a warm place, near the fire, for 6 or 8 weeks, then place it in
the open air until it becomes of the consistence of a syrup; lastly,
decant, filter, and bottle it up, adding a little sugar to each bottle. To
yield two pints of strained liquor.

2. (ACETUM OPII, L.——U. S.) Opium, 8 oz.; nutmeg, 1-1/2 oz. (both in
coarse powder); saffron, 1/2 oz.; distilled vinegar, 24 fl. oz.; digest on
a sand bath with a gentle heat for 48 hours, and strain; digest the
residuum with an equal quantity of distilled vinegar for 24 hours; then
put the whole into a percolator, and return the filtered liquid as it
passes until it runs clear; afterwards pour on the material, fresh
distilled vinegar until 48 fl. oz. of filtered liquor shall be obtained;
in this dissolve sugar, 12 oz., and gently evaporate the whole to 52 fl.
oz.

3. (Wholesale.) Opium, 10 oz., and distilled vinegar, 1 quart, are
digested together for about a fortnight, and after sufficient repose the
clear portion is decanted. This is the form commonly adopted by the
wholesale trade in England.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 drops. It is usually
considered to be of fully 4 times the strength of laudanum.

=Drops, Carmin′ative.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ CARMINATIVÆ, L. _Prep._ (Radius.) Oil
of mace, 1 dr.; nitric ether, 3 dr.——_Dose_, 6 to 10 drops on sugar; in
flatulent colic, &c.

=Drops, Cham′omile.= See ESSENCE.

=Drops, Dalby’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES (Dalby’s Carminative).

=Drops, Durande’s.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ ÆTHERIS TEREBINTHINATÆ, L. _Prep._ (M.
Durande.) Rectified sulphuric acid, 3 parts; oil of turpentine, 1
part.——_Dose_, 20 to 30 drops, or more; in the passing of gall-stones.

=Drops, Dutch.= _Syn._ HAERLEM DROPS, TURPENTINE DROPS; BALSAMUM
TEREBINTHINÆ, L. The genuine or imported ‘Dutch Drops’ is the residuum of
the rectification of oil of turpentine. It is also prepared by distilling
resin, and collecting the product in different portions. At first a white,
then a yellow, and lastly a red oil, comes over. The last is the balsam.
The article commonly sold under the name in this country is prepared by
one or other of the following formulæ:——

1. Oil of turpentine, tincture of guaiacum, and sweet spirit of nitre, of
each 1 oz.; oils of amber and cloves, of each 15 drops.

2. Balsam of sulphur, 1 part; oil of turpentine, 5 parts. This last is the
form most generally employed. They are all regarded by those who use them
as detergent, diuretic, stimulant, and vulnerary.

=Drops, Female.= _Syn._ EMMENAGOGUE DROPS; GUTTÆ EMMENAGOGÆ, L. _Prep._
(Brande.) Compound tincture of aloes and tincture of valerian, of each, 2
fl. oz.; tincture of sesquichloride of iron, 1 fl. oz.——_Dose._ A
teaspoonful in water or chamomile tea; in obstructed menstruation, &c.

=Drops, Fit.= _Syn._ SOOT DROPS; TINCTURA FULIGINIS, GUTTÆ F., L. _Prep._
From wood-soot, 2 oz.; sal-ammoniac, 1 oz.; salt of tartar, 1/2 lb.; soft
water, 4 lbs.; digest a week and filter. Reputed antispasmodic, and also
useful in scurvy and certain skin diseases.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful or
more, occasionally, in water.

=Drops, Golden.= _Syn._ DE LA MOTTE’S G. D.; BESTUCHEFF’S NERVOUS
TINCTURE; GUTTÆ AUREÆ, L.; ELIXIR D’OR, GOUTTES D’OR DU GÉNÉRAL LAMOTTE,
Fr. _Prep._ 1. (Original.) Chloride of iron (obtained by distilling iron
pyrites with twice its weight of corrosive sublimate), 3 oz.; alcohol, 7
oz,; expose the mixture in a closely stoppered bottle to the rays of the
sun until it becomes decoloured.

2. Chloride of iron, 1 part; alcohol and ether, of each, 3 parts. These
drops have the remarkable property of losing their yellow colour in the
sun, and recovering it in the shade. They are taken in gout,
hypochondriasis, and nervous complaints, in doses of from 10 to 60 drops.

=Drops, Hooping-Cough.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ ANTI-PERTUSSICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr
Graves.) Tincture of assafœtida and compound tincture of camphor, of each
1/2 fl. oz.; compound tincture of bark, 5 fl. oz.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful,
2 or 3 times a day.

2. (Potestates Succini.) Oil of amber, 1 oz.; carbonate (not sesquicarb.)
of ammonia, 1/2 oz.; strongest rectified spirit (alcohol), 1/2 pint;
digest 3 or 4 days, and decant the clear portion.——_Dose_, 10 drops to 1
dr., applied as a friction.

=Drops, Infantile.= Several anodyne, carminative, and absorbent
preparations, which pass by this name, will be found under MIXTURES, &c.

=Drops, Jes′uits’.= _Syn._ ELIXIR ANTIVENEREUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Gum
guaiacum, 7 oz.; balsam of Peru, 4 dr.; root of sarsaparilla, 5 oz.;
rectified spirit of wine, 1 quart; digest for 14 days.

2. (Quincy.) Copaiba, 1 oz.; gum guaiacum, 2 dr.; oil of sassafras, 1 dr.;
salt of tartar, 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz.; digest a week.

3. (Walker’s.) Copaiba, 6 oz.; gum guaiacum, 1 oz.; chio turpentine and
salt of tartar, of each, 1/2 oz.; cochineal, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 1
quart; digest a week. See COMP. TINCTURE OF BENZOIN.

=Drops, Kœchlin’s.= _Prep._ (Augustin.) Solution of ammonio-chloride of
copper and mercury, 1 fl. dr.; water, 10 fl. dr. In obstinate venereal
affections, scrofula, &c.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful after each meal.

=Drops, Lav′ender.= _Syn._ RED DROPS; GUTTÆ LAVENDULÆ, L. The same as
compound tincture of lavender.

=Drops, Life.= _Syn._ SALMON’S DROPS OF LIFE; GUTTÆ VITÆ, L. _Prep._
Tincture of castor, 8 fl. oz.; antimonial wine and water, of each 1 lb.;
opium, 3 oz.; saffron, 1/2 oz.; cochineal, camphor, and nutmegs, of each 2
dr.; digest for 10 days and filter. Anodyne and diaphoretic.——_Dose_, 20
to 60 drops.

=Drops, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ 1.
Bichloride of mercury, 2 gr.; hydrochloric acid, 3 drops; rectified spirit
and distilled water, of each, 1/2 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 12 to 20 drops.

2. Bichloride of mercury, 2 gr.; sal-ammoniac, 3 gr.; compound decoction
of sarsaparilla, 2 fl. oz.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful.

3. (Sir A. Cooper.) Corrosive sublimate, 1 gr.; dilute hydrochloric acid,
1/2 dr.; dissolve, and add tincture of bark, 2 fl. oz.——_Dose._ As the
last. They are all taken 2 or 3 times daily, as alteratives in scrofula,
syphilis, cancer, &c. It should not be measured in a metal spoon.

=Drops, Norris’s.= An aqueous solution of tartar emetic, mixed with spirit
of wine, and coloured.

=Drops, Odontal′gic.= _Syn._ TOOTH-ACHE DROPS; GUTTÆ ODONTALGICÆ, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Dr Blake.) Alum (in fine powder), 1 dr.; sweet spirit of
nitre, 7 fl. dr.; agitate together occasionally for an hour.

2. (Dr Copland.) Powdered opium and camphor, of each 10 gr.; oils of
cloves and cajeput, of each 1 dr.; highly rectified spirit and sulphuric
ether, of each 1/2 fl. oz.

3. (Cottereau.) A saturated ethereal solution of camphor, to which a few
drops of liquor of ammonia is added.

4. (Dr R. E. Griffith.) Wine of opium, Hoffman’s anodyne, and oil of
peppermint, equal parts. Used as a friction on the cheek or gum, as well
as applied to the teeth.

5. (Perry’s.) A concentrated ethereal tincture of camphor and pellitory.

6. (Righini.) Creosote, 6 dr.; rectified spirit, 4 dr.; tincture of
cochineal, 2 dr.; oil of peppermint, 1/2 dr.

7. Camphor, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 oz.

_Obs._ The above are applied to the tooth with a camel-hair pencil, or a
little wad of lint or cotton wool is moistened with them, and placed in or
against the tooth.

=Drops, Pectoral.= _Syn._ BATEMAN’S P. D.; GUTTÆ PECTORALES, L. _Prep._ 1.
Paregoric, 10 fl. oz.; tincture of castor, 4 fl. oz.; laudanum, 1 fl.
oz.; tincture of saffron or of cochineal, 1/2 fl. oz.; oil of aniseed, 15
drops.

2. Castor, 1 oz.; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; camphor, 5 dr.; cochineal, 1-1/2
dr.; opium, 3/4 oz.; treacle, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gal.; digest for a
week.

3. (Phil. Coll. of Pharm.) Camphor, catechu, powdered opium, and red
sanders wood, of each 2 oz.; oil of aniseed, 4 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 4
old wine-gallons; digest 10 days, and filter.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, or
more, in coughs, colds, hoarseness, &c., assisted by an aperient.

=Drops, Rheumat′ic.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ RHEUMATICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Iodide of
potassium, 1 dr.; tincture of guaiacum, 2 fl. oz.; dissolve.——_Dose_, 20
to 30 drops. In both chronic and occasional rheumatism, assisted with the
copious use of lemon juice.

2. (Lampadius.) Bisulphuret of carbon and ether, of each 2 fl.
dr.——_Dose_, 6 to 12 drops, on sugar, or in milk.

3. (Wutzer.) Bisulphuret of carbon, 1 fl. dr.; alcohol, 2 fl. dr.——_Dose._
As No. 2. The last two are sudorific, alterative, resolvent, and
emmenagogue, and, besides rheumatism, have been used with advantage in
amenorrhœa, in some cutaneous affections, in glandular swellings, &c.

=Drops, Rousseau’s.= See WINE OF OPIUM (by Fermentation.)

=Drops, Sed′ative.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ SEDATIVÆ, L. The solutions of acetate and
hydrochlorate of morphia, black drop, Rousseau’s drop, and Battley’s
liquor opii sedativus, are frequently sold under this name by the
druggists. The anti-hysteric drops (_antè_) is also an excellent sedative.

=Drops, Spilbury’s.= _Prep._ 1. (Dr Paris.) From bichloride of mercury,
gentian root, and dried orange peel, of each 2 dr.; precipitated sulphuret
of antimony and red sanders wood, of each, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 16 fl.
oz.; digest ten days and strain.

2. Levigated crocus metallorum (‘crocus of antimony’), 6 dr.; corrosive
sublimate, 45 gr.; red sanders, 1/2 dr.; gentian root and dried orange
peel, of each 2 dr.; brandy (or equal parts of rect. sp. and water), 16
fl. oz.; digest as before.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 drops; as an antiscorbutic,
&c.

=Drops, Steel.= See TINCTURE OF SESQUICHLORIDE OF IRON.

=Drops, Ton′ic.= _Prep._ (Collier.) Elixir of vitriol, 2 fl. dr.; tincture
of calumba, 6 fl. dr. A teaspoonful three times daily, in a wine-glassful
of cold water.

=Drops, Torrington’s.= See TINCTURE OF BENZOIN (Comp.).

=Drops, Van Swieten’s.= An aromatised solution of corrosive sublimate.

=Drop, Ward’s White.= _Prep._ From quicksilver, 4 oz.; nitric acid, 16 fl.
oz.; dissolve, add sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 7 oz.; evaporate and
crystallise; then dissolve the resulting salt by the heat of a sand bath,
in 4 times its weight of rose-water. Very poisonous.——_Dose_, 5 to 15
drops, as an antiscorbutic, antivenereal, &c.

=Drops, Worm.= _Syn._ GUTTÆ ANTHELMINTICÆ, G. VERMIFUGÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
Creosote, 1 dr.; oil of turpentine, 7 fl. dr.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, 3 or
4 times a day.

2. (Peschier.) Oil of male-fern, 3 fl. dr.; rectified oil of turpentine, 5
fl. dr. As the last; in tapeworm.

3. (Schwartz’.) Barbadoes tar, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of assafœtida, 1-1/2
fl. oz.——_Dose_, 30 to 40 drops, three times a day; in tapeworm.

=DROPS (Scouring).= _Prep._ 1. Oil of turpentine and oil of lemons, equal
parts. Both of the ingredients should have been recently distilled or
rectified.

2. Oil of lemon bottoms, 1-3/4 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1 quart; mix well,
and distil by the heat of a sand bath, until 3 pints have come over, or as
long as the distillate is clear, pale, and sweet. Used to remove paint,
grease, &c., from cloth.

=DROPSY.= _Syn._ HYDROPS, L. An unnatural collection of aqueous fluid in
any part of the body. Dropsy has received different names, according to
the part of the body affected by the disease. When it occurs in the
cellular membrane it is called ANASARCA; when in the cavity of the
abdomen, ASCITES; in the cavity of the cranium, HYDROCEPHALUS; in the
scrotum, HYDROCELE; in the uterus, HYDROMETRA; and in the chest,
HYDROTHORAX. Dropsy is mostly a symptom of extreme debility and a
broken-down constitution, and frequently follows lengthened attacks of
exhausting chronic diseases.

The treatment of dropsy, perhaps, more than any other disease, depends
upon the circumstances with which it is connected, and, more especially,
upon those which have caused it. The acute inflammatory forms of dropsy
generally require depletion. In most other cases, tonics may be
advantageously administered. To promote the absorption of the accumulated
fluids, diuretics are commonly resorted to. Confirmed dropsy (especially
HYDROCEPHALUS and HYDROTHORAX), occurring in patients either much
debilitated by previous disease or of a bad habit of body, is seldom
curable.

=DROWNING.= The cause of death from submersion in water is the entire
seclusion of air from the lungs, by which the aëration of the venous blood
is prevented. In consequence of this deprivation of air, venous blood
circulates through the arterial system, whilst the pulmonary vein ceases
to convey oxygenated blood to the heart. Under ordinary circumstances, in
the course of 4 or 5 minutes after the access of air has been cut off,
life becomes extinct. Many cases have, nevertheless, occurred of persons
being submerged for 15 or 20 minutes, and even longer, and where perfect
insensibility has existed, in which recovery has taken place.

_Prev._ The specific gravity of the human body is less than that of
water, so long as the lungs are partially filled with air; and this
difference is sufficient to keep the body floating with the mouth and
nostrils free for respiration, provided the face is turned upwards by
throwing the head back on the shoulders, by which the weight of the head
is sustained by the water. When a person throws himself into the water,
the body rises rapidly to the surface and assumes nearly the erect
position, the upper part of the head, down to a little below the eyes,
remaining above the surface of the water. This arises from the greater
density of the legs and thighs compared to that of the chest, which acts
as a species of float or buoy to the rest of the body. In this situation
the head may be thrown back, so that the face may form the exposed
portion, as before mentioned, when respiration may be carried on without
inconvenience in still water, and regularly, but sufficiently, so as to
sustain life for some time, even in a rough sea. The adoption of this
simple precaution would have saved thousands of valuable lives.

Another point which should be remembered by every person in danger of
drowning is, that there is always a considerable amount of residual air in
the lungs, in a nearly deoxidised state, and that if this air is expelled
by two or three forced inspirations, and a deep inspiration is then taken,
a larger quantity of vital air will be introduced into the lungs, and the
blood will continue aërated for a proportionally longer time; and
consequently, a longer period will elapse before another inspiration will
be required. If we prepare ourselves by taking two or three forced
inspirations, and then take a full inspiration, we may remain for 1-1/2 or
2 minutes before a second attempt at respiration need be made. This is the
plan adopted by the pearl fishers, and other divers who are remarkable for
remaining beneath the surface of the water for some time. A person in
danger of shipwreck, or expecting immediate submersion, in any other
situation, should have recourse to this expedient, which would prevent the
dreadful effects of attempting respiration whilst under water.

_Treat._ The first object is the restoration of the animal heat. For this
purpose, the wet clothes should be removed, and the body, after being well
dried, surrounded with warm air. In the absence of a warm-air bath, the
body may be laid between well-heated blankets, and bottles of hot water
applied to the feet and armpits. Gentle friction with warm flannel or the
hands should also be assiduously employed. Meanwhile attempts should be
made to excite respiration artificially; and when the apparatus is at
hand, slight shocks of electricity should be kept up at the same time. On
the appearance of returning life, such as sighing or convulsive twitching,
a vein may be opened. The throat may be tickled with the finger or a
feather, to excite vomiting, and a teaspoonful of warm water administered.
If the power of swallowing exists, a table-spoonful of warm wine or brandy
and water may be given. Even if no symptom of returning animation appear,
these means of recovery should be persisted in for three or four hours.

In the treatment of this species of asphyxia, nasal stimulants, as
ammonia, aromatic vinegar, &c., should be avoided, as well as the
injection of tobacco smoke, both of which have been found highly
prejudicial. The practice of holding the body with the head downwards,
which is sometimes adopted by the vulgar and ignorant, under the idea of
allowing the water to run out by the mouth, is still more dangerous and
absurd. The supposition that water is inhaled by drowning persons instead
of air is perfectly fallacious. The peculiar mechanism of the glottis, or
upper portion of the windpipe, is such as to prevent, by the spasmodic
closure of the epiglottis, the entrance of more than a very trifling and
accidental quantity of water, which is altogether too insignificant to
produce any very injurious effects. See ASPHYXIA.

=DRUGS.= Substances used in medicine, sold by druggists, and compounded by
apothecaries and physicians. Our continental neighbours, wiser than
ourselves, not merely require that persons engaged in selling and
dispensing drugs and pharmaceutical preparations shall be fully qualified
by previous education and training for the task, but also that the various
articles they sell and use shall be commercially pure and of the proper
quality. In the United States of America this subject has also engaged the
attention of the government and legislature. Under the Act of the 26th
June, 1848, inspectors were appointed to examine the quality of imported
articles of this class before allowing them to pass the Customs for home
use. An abridged copy of the order addressed to the “collectors and other
officers under this act” is appended, and will be useful to the reader, as
assisting to establish a standard by which the value of the substances
named therein may be estimated.

        TREASURY DEPARTMENT, _June 4th, 1853_.

    The following articles are to be entitled to entry when
    ascertained by analysis to afford the per-centages as under,
    viz.:——

    ALOES, 80% of _pure aloetic extract_.

    ASSAFŒTIDA, 50% of its _peculiar bitter resin_, and 3% of
    _volatile oil_.

    CINCHONA BARK,[264] 1% _of pure quinine_, or 2% of the several
    alkaloids, as _quina_, _cinchona_, _quinidine_, _aricine_, &c.

    BENZOIN, 80% of _benzoin resin_.

      Do. 12% of _benzoic acid_.

    COLOCYNTH, 12% of _colocynthine_.

    ELATERIUM, 30% of _elaterine_.

    GALBANUM, 60% of _resin_.

      Do. 10% of _gum_, and 6% _volatile oil_.

    GAMBOGE, 70% of _pure gamboge resin_, and 2% of _gum_.

    GUAIACUM, 80% of _pure guaiacum resin_.

    GUM AMMONIACUM, 70% of _resin_, and 18% of _gum_.

    JALAP,[265] 11% of _pure jalap resin_.

    MYRRH, 30% of _pure resin_, and 50% of _gum_.

    OPIUM, 9% of _pure morphia_.

    RHUBARB,[266] 40% of _soluble matter_.

    SAGAPENUM, 50% of _resin_, 30% of _gum_, and 30% of _volatile
    oil_.

    SCAMMONY, 70% of _pure scammony resin_.

    SENNA, 28% of _soluble matter_.

    Medicinal leaves, flowers, barks, roots, extracts, &c., not
    specified above, must be, when imported, in perfect condition,
    and of as recent collection and preparation as practicable.

    Pharmaceutical and chemical preparations, whether crystallised
    or otherwise, used in medicine, to be pure and of a proper
    consistence and strength, as well as of perfect manufacture,
    conformably with the standard authorities named in the Act; and
    must, in no instance, contain over 3% of excess of moisture or
    water of crystallisation.

    Essential or volatile oils, and expressed oils used in medicine
    must be pure and of the standard sp. gr. noticed and declared in
    the dispensatories named in the above Act.

    “Patent” or “Secret Medicines” are by law subject to the same
    examination as other medicinal preparations, and cannot be
    permitted to pass the Custom-house for home consumption, but
    must be rejected and condemned, unless the special examiner is
    satisfied, after due investigation, that they are fit and safe
    to be used for medical purposes.

    An appeal from the examiner to the collector to be admitted
    within 10 days.

                                              JAMES GUTHRIE,
                                _Secretary to the Treasury_.

[Footnote 264: Of whatever denomination.]

[Footnote 265: Root in powder.]

[Footnote 266: Only Turkey, East Indian, and Russian, admissible.]

=DRUM′MOND LIGHT.= See LIGHT (Artificial).

=DRUNK′ENNESS.= See ABSTINENCE, INTEMPERANCE, &c.

=DRY′ERS (Painter’s).= _Prep._ 1. Litharge (best) ground to a paste with
drying-oil. For dark colours.

2. From white copperas and drying oil; as the last.

3. From sugar of lead and drying oil. The last two are for pale colours.

4. From white copperas and sugar of lead, of each 1 lb.; pure white lead,
2 lbs. For ‘whites,’ and opaque light colours, greys, &c.

Dryers are employed, as the name implies, to increase the drying and
hardening properties of oil paints. A little is beat up with them at the
time of mixing them with the oil and turpentine for use.

=DRY′ING.= See DESICCATION, &c.

=DRY′ING-OIL.= See OILS.

=DRY-ROT.= A peculiar disease that attacks wood, and renders it brittle
and rotten. It is generally caused by dampness and the subsequent
development of the spores of fungi, particularly those of _Merulius
lacrymans_ and _vastator_ and _Polyporus destructor_. The dry-rot
principally attacks ‘ill-seasoned’ timber, and more particularly that of
ships and badly ventilated buildings.

_Prev._ Various means have been proposed to prevent the attacks of dry-rot
and to arrest its progress when it has commenced, among which the process
called ‘KYANIZING’ (Kyan’s patent) is that most generally known and most
extensively adopted. It consists in immersing the timber in a bath of
corrosive sublimate. The process termed ‘PAYNIZING’ (Payne’s patent)
consists in first filling the pores with a solution of chloride of
calcium, under pressure, and next forcing in a solution of sulphate of
iron, by which an insoluble sulphate of lime is formed in the body of the
wood, which is thus rendered nearly as hard as stone. Wood so prepared is
now largely employed in our public works and railways. Sir W. Burnett’s
process (patented in 1836) consists in impregnating the timber with a
solution of chloride of zinc. Mr J. Bethell’s process (patented in 1838)
consists in thoroughly impregnating the wood with oil of tar containing
creasote and a crude solution of acetate of iron, commonly called
‘pyrolignite of iron.’ The impregnation is effected in a strong
cylindrical vessel, connected with a powerful air-pump, so that in the
first instance a vacuum being formed, and subsequently a pressure of
several atmospheres applied, the liquid may as much as possible be forced
into all the pores of the wood. The above processes for ‘seasoning’
preserve the timber not only from dry-rot, but from the influence of the
weather and the attacks of insects and worms.

“The construction of air-drains or passages around wood-work to be
preserved is, where the method is applicable, a great aid to the
preservation of wood. Dry-rot is both prevented in new buildings and cured
in old ones by filling up the spaces between the floor-joists with
‘tank-waste’ from alkali works. This can also be applied to the ends of
beams resting in walls.”——_Chemical News._

=DUB′BING.= _Prep._ 1. By boiling the waste cuttings of sheep-skins in
crude cod oil. 2. Black resin, 2 lb.; tallow, 1 lb.; crude cod oil or
train oil, 1 gall.; boil to a proper consistence. Used by the curriers to
dress leather, and by shoemakers and others to soften leather, and to
render boots and shoes waterproof.

=DUBOISIA MYOPOROIDES.= (Nat. order, _Solanacæ_.) A small tree growing in
Australia, New Caledonia, and New Guinea. The leaves have been used in
Brisbane and Sydney as a substitute for atropine, and extract of
belladonna; to both of which Mr Tweedy believes them to be superior in
prompt and energetic action. Mr Tweedy further states that, in every case
in which he has used _duboisia_ to produce dilatation of the pupil of the
eye, its action has been beneficial, and he is induced to conclude, more
advantageous than that of atropine. According to Dr Ringer, _duboisia_,
besides causing dilatation of the pupil, quickens the pulse, parches the
tongue, stops the secretions of the skin, and induces headache and
drowsiness. He also reports that it is antagonistic in its action to
muscarine, and produces tetanus after the lapse of some hours or days.

For an account of the botanical properties of the plant, the reader is
referred to a paper by Mr E. M. Holmes in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ for
March 9th, 1878; and to the ‘Lancet’ of March 2nd, 1878, for some
experiments on its physiological effects by Messrs Ringer and Tweedie. The
_Duboisia myoporoides_ was introduced into medical practice by Dr
Bancroft, of Brisbane.

Since the above has been written, Mr Gerrard has obtained a powerful
alkaloid from an extract of the leaves of the Duboisias, very similar in
chemical properties to aconite, and possessed of the same physiological
qualities as the extract.

=DUCK.= See POULTRY.

=DUCTIL′ITY= is the property of being drawn out in length without
breaking. See METALS.

=DULCAMA′RA.= See NIGHTSHADE (Woody).

=DUMB′NESS.= _Syn._ APHONIA, L. As speech is an acquired and imitative
faculty, persons who are either born deaf or become so in early infancy
are also, necessarily, dumb. The first step in treating dumbness must
therefore be directed to the removal of the deafness on which the
imperfection rests. The exertions of modern philanthropists have, however,
been so far successful in such cases as to enable the deaf-mute to
converse with those around him by signs. Those interested in the subject
may consult an admirable treatise on ‘Deaf-dumbness,’ by M. E.
Hubert-Valleroux, of which an excellent translation appeared in the
‘Medical Circular,’ vol. ii, for 1853. See DEAFNESS.

=DUMPLINGS, Norfolk.= Mix half a pound of flour with half a teaspoonful of
baking powder and a pinch of salt; make into a little dough with cold
water; fall into small balls, put them into boiling water immediately, and
boil for twenty minutes.

=DUNGER——MANURE= (Boutin, Paris). A bluish-green fluid, containing about
190 grammes of solid matter per litre. The residue consists of sulphates
of copper, iron, magnesia, and soda, sal ammoniac, nitrates of potash and
soda, common salt, and none or a mere trace of phosphoric acid. The blue
deposit which separates on standing is ultramarine. (Keller, Karmrodt, and
Nessler.)

=DUNG′ING.= _Syn._ CLEANSING. One of the principal processes in the arts
of calico printing and dyeing, its object being to free the cloth from
loose matters, which would interfere with the dyeing. After the thickened
mordants have been applied to the fabric and properly fixed, it is
necessary to remove the now useless thickening matter, together with the
excess of mordant, which has not come into actual contact with the cloth.
Formerly a bath formed of cow-dung, diffused through hot water (130° to
212° Fahr.) was always used to wash away these loose matters; but now
various manufactured substances are successfully employed for the purpose.
The best dung substitutes are the arsenite and arseniate of soda, the
silicate of soda, and phosphate of lime. Experience proves that, in the
case of these substitutes, a final rinse in cow-dung before dyeing is
advantageous. A process very similar to ‘dunging’ is employed after
dyeing, to clear and give purity to the undyed parts. This subsequent
process is distinguished by the term ‘clearing.’ Cow-dung has been used in
‘clearing’ operations, but its employment is not to be recommended. Bran
scalded and mixed with water is employed for certain goods, but bleaching
powder is the most generally used ‘clearing agent.’

=DUST, ATMOSPHERIC.= When a ray of sunlight is admitted into a dark room,
or an electric beam is transmitted through a glass tube, myriads of little
motes are revealed, which move and dance about in all directions.

In ordinary daylight these minute particles are invisible. Nevertheless,
they are always more or less present in the atmosphere wherever (except
under special conditions) this permeates, and they constitute that more or
less attenuated, impalpable, generally dry, or dessicated form of matter
which we denominate dust.

As with every inspiration we take into our bodies more or less of this
suspended material, the study of the composition and characters of the
different substances which compose it is one possessed of paramount
interest, both for the pathologist and sanitarian.

Amongst solid, inorganic matters found in the open air are silica,
peroxide of iron, silicate of alumina, carbonate and phosphate of lime,
sand, carbon, chloride of sodium, and metallic iron. These, of course, are
of telluric origin, and are carried into the atmosphere by strong currents
and winds, which latter have the power of transporting dust to great
distances, _e.g._ red sand from the interior of Africa has been found in
the sails of ships 600 or 800 miles distant from the African coast, whilst
particles of carbon, sand, and dried mud, ejected to great heights from
volcanoes into the air, have been transported over still greater
distances.

Some doubt appears to prevail as to whether all dust storms originate on
the earth, it having been conjectured that some of the solid matters found
in the atmosphere may be of meteoric origin, and may have entered it from
the realms of space. The chloride of sodium (which the chemist knows is so
omnipresent that he cannot heat an ordinary platinum wire in a Bunsen
burner without indications of its presence) is derived from the spray of
the sea, lifted and diffused into the air by the wind; the iron dust from
the rails over which railway trains are constantly passing; the silica,
amongst other sources, from the traffic over macadamised thoroughfares.

The organised and organic substances contained in the external air are
very numerous. The animal kingdom is the source of the wings of moths,
butterflies, and other insects, spiders’ legs and webs, hair, wool,
epithelium, and eggs, many of these bodies being mere _débris_.

The vegetable kingdom contributes spores, pollen, cells, cotton fibre, and
the germs of vibriones and monads. Besides these are many living
creatures, brought by the agency of monsoons and cyclones from extensive
deserts. Showers of sand derived from these wastes occur in different
parts of Europe. Ehrenberg submitted the sand obtained during seventy of
these showers to microscopic examination, and found, in addition to sand
and oxide of iron, numerous organic forms, amongst which 194 Polygastrica,
145 Phylolithariæ, besides Polythalmia, &c. Silvestre found four species
of diatoms and living infusoria in the sand obtained from a dust shower in
Sicily in 1872. But, besides the presence of these organisms in the
external air, which may be regarded exceptional, it contains, under
ordinary conditions, numerous living creatures, some brought into it from
the earth by the force of winds, others growing in it. More than 200
forms——rhizopods, tardigrades, and Anguilulæ——have been found in it by
Ehrenberg. So tenacious of life are these latter that, even if dried, they
will retain their vitality for months, and even years.

Of the organisms found in the air the following are the most
important:——1. Extremely small, round, and oval cells, which, that they
may be rightly examined by the microscope, require a power of 600 or 1000
diameters. They are found sometimes growing together and sometimes
cleaving, when they present an appearance like the figure 8. Sulphuretted
hydrogen in the air is said to stimulate their growth and carbolic acid to
check it. Although existing in the open air, they are by far more abundant
in the atmosphere of dirty prisons. They are also met with in the sweat of
the prisoners inhabiting these localities. Observers believe they increase
rapidly by cleavage. No ill effects have been traced to them.

“To the same class, perhaps, of these round and oval cells the bacteria
and monads, which have been described as gathered from the air, must be
assigned; the development of these cells into vibriones and rod-like
bacteria, though asserted, has not yet been definitely proved, and,
indeed, Burden-Sanderson’s observations rather throw doubt on the
statement that true bacteria exist in the air.

“2. Spores of fungi are not infrequent in the open air; they occur most
commonly in the summer (July and August); they are not in this country
more frequent with one wind than another; the largest number found by
Maddox in ten hours was 250 spores; on some days not a spore can be found.
Maddox leaves undetermined the kind of fungus which the spores developed
under cultivation; the spores were pale or olive coloured and oval,
probably from some form of smut. Angus Smith found in water through which
the air of Manchester was drawn innumerable spores. Mr Dancer has
calculated that in a single drop of the water 250,000 fungoid spores as
well as mycelium were present; but as the water was not examined for some
time there may have been growth. Mycelium of fungus seems uncommon in the
air, but is sometimes found.

The cells of the _Protococcus pluvialis_ are not uncommon, neither,
perhaps, are those of other algæ. On the whole the experiments of Maddox
show that in his locality (near Southampton) it is incorrect to speak of
the air being loaded with fungoid spores; they can be found, but are not
very numerous.”[267]

[Footnote 267: Parkes.]

Amongst other suspended matters are minute fragments of dried horse
droppings, derived from the original substance, reduced to powder by the
traffic, and carried by aerial currents into the atmosphere. In the
‘Chemical News’ for October, 1871, Professor Tichborne gives the results
of some analyses of the street dust of Dublin. Some dust taken from the
top of a pillar 134 feet high contained 29·7 per cent. of organic matter,
whilst that collected from the street consisted of as much as 45·2 per
cent. This organic matter was principally composed of comminuted stable
manure; it was capable of acting as a ferment, and was possessed of
deoxidising powers sufficient to reduce nitrate to nitrite of potash.

This evidence of the presence of suspended known matters in the air has
led some pathologists to conjecture that certain formless substances found
in it, undeterminable by the microscope, may in reality be disease germs,
which, being transported through long distances by the wind, may also be
the means of spreading certain maladies from one locality to another. In
this manner cholera has been supposed to have been propagated from India,
the particles of the dried excreta of cholera patients being supposed to
be the carriers of the formidable disease; this hypothesis of its origin,
however, is not yet, at any rate, universally accepted. “In the case of
smallpox and scarlet fever the distance to which the ‘contagions’ spread
by means of the air is certainly inconsiderable.”[268]

[Footnote 268: Ibid.]

Hitherto we have spoken only of the nature of the dust occurring in the
external air. The composition of that met with in confined spaces is, of
course, largely influenced by surrounding conditions and circumstances;
for instance, in indifferently ventilated apartments, in addition to the
substances already enumerated, the dust of the confined air has been found
to contain small particles of food, bits of the hair of human beings,
domestic animals, and feathers of birds, as well as of coals, cinders,
charred wood, linen, cotton, and wool fibres, varieties of epithelium, and
certain round cells resembling nuclei.

In the apartments of the sick it is additionally charged with a very large
quantity of organic matter.

The spores of the Tricophyton and Acorion have been discovered in and seem
peculiar to skin hospitals. In that taken upon two occasions from the ward
of St. Louis (the Skin Hospital of Paris), and submitted to examination,
one specimen was found additionally to contain 36 per cent. and in the
other 46 per cent. of organic matter.

“The scaly and round epithelia found in most rooms are in large quantity
in hospital wards, and probably in cases where there is much expectoration
and exposure of pus or puriform fluids to the air the quantity would be
still larger.”[269]

[Footnote 269: Parkes.]

The investigation of the air of a cholera ward in 1849 by Britain and
Swayne, at Clifton, revealed the presence of bodies resembling fungi;
minute scales of variolous matter have been found by Bakewell in smallpox
wards, and cells of pus and epithelium in the sheds and stables of animals
affected with cattle disease and pleuro-pneumonia. Dr Watson detected in
the air of a ward for consumptive patients at Netley, together with pus
cells, bodies bearing a great resemblance to the cells met with in
tuberculous matter, these latter not being discoverable in the open air or
in the rooms of non-consumptive persons; whilst Rainy, examining the air
of the cholera ward at St. Thomas’s Hospital, found bacteria in it,
besides fungi. The presence of these bodies was, however, detected in the
open air.

The atmosphere of mines, workshops, manufactories, and rooms in which
handicraft of any kind is carried on, is more or less laden with small
particles of substances employed in the arts, manufactures, and various
industries. The nature of these floating substances, as well as a list of
the diseases, together with the amount of mortality they produce, will be
found under the article “TRADES, CERTAIN, THEIR EFFECTS ON HEALTH.”

Dr Wynter Blyth gives the following instructions for collecting
atmospheric dust for examination:——

“The most simple way to obtain the emanations from a sick room for
microscopical observation is to suspend a common water bottle from the
ceiling filled with iced water. The moisture of the air condenses, and
brings with it organic matters; or the moisture may be gathered which
adheres to panes of glass in cold weather; or a bottle may be taken
containing some distilled water, absolutely free from impurities of any
kind, and filled several times with the air of the place. The water may
then be submitted to microscopical and chemical examination.

“Metallic dust, such as iron, may be attracted by a magnet. The most usual
and successful way is, however, by _aspiration_, either by an aspirator
made for the purpose [see ASPIRATOR], or by means of an ordinary cask, by
which a considerable volume of air is drawn through a small quantity of
distilled water, glycerin, or other liquid. The indirect way for the
organic matter, &c., mentioned above, viz., analysis of the rain water,
and the obvious way of collecting the dust, by carefully sweeping it off
shelves, &c., may be also enumerated.

“_Examination of dust._ The dust obtained by any or all of these methods
should now be examined microscopically and chemically. Low powers should
be used at first, and then (if looking for germs) the highest that can be
obtained. If the dust is in any quantity it can be submitted to chemical
examination, but a knowledge of what class it belongs to——animal, mineral,
or vegetable——is sufficient for most purposes.”[270]

[Footnote 270: ‘Dictionary of Hygiene.’]

=DUST-BIN.= A dust-bin on any premises may become a nuisance and a peril
to health if certain precautions are not observed with respect to it.

It should have a tolerably tight-fitting cover, and one that is waterproof
also, if, especially as it ought to be, the dust-bin is situated in the
open air. The bottom should never be the bare earth, but one that is
properly bricked or tiled. It should be lime-washed occasionally, in
summer time the most frequently. Only dry refuse, such as ashes and the
sweepings of rooms, &c., should be thrown into it.

On no account should fragments of vegetable or animal nature be put in,
such as fishbones, potato parings, cabbage stalks, dirty or discarded
pieces of apparel, or bits of rags or dusters. These should be at once
burnt on the kitchen fire; the best kind of stove for consuming these is
that known as the kilnhouse. Meat bones should be got disposed of as soon
as possible, as they frequently give rise to unpleasant and offensive
odours. Finally, the dust-bin should not be too large. If too capacious,
it acts as a guile for servants not to have it cleaned out as often as it
should be, the frequent removal of its contents being a most essential
condition toward the preservation of health.

=DUSTING.= This very important branch of household labour is sometimes
very inefficiently performed. Very frequently the dust of an apartment is
not removed, but merely disturbed or driven from one place to settle down
on another.

It should always as much as possible be got rid of by means of a duster or
a brush and dust-pan.

As the dust should adhere to the former, this should from time to time be
taken out into the open air and shaken. During the time a room is being
dusted the furniture should be collected in as small a space as possible,
and enveloped in the dusting-sheet. The dusting-sheet on its removal
should be carefully folded together, taken into the air and shaken. The
furniture may then be dusted and returned to the proper places.

A duster should never be rubbed over furniture standing close to a wall,
or a dirty mark on the wall-paper will be the result. The same caution
applies to mantel-pieces, where the paper may soon be spoilt by the act
of dusting, unless contact with the duster be avoided.

=DUTCH DROPS.= The dark-coloured residue left by the dry distillation of
turpentine. (Hager.)

=DUTCH GOLD.= See ALLOY.

=DUTCH LIQ′UID.= See OLEFIANT GAS.

=DYE′ING.= The act of tinging or colouring absorbent materials by
impregnating them with solutions of colouring matters or dye-stuffs. The
colouring matters which impart their tints without the intervention of
other substances are called ‘substantive colours’; while those which
require such aid are called ‘adjective colours.’ The bodies employed to
fix and develop the latter class are called ‘mordants.’ The exact way in
which dye-stuffs act upon fibrous materials has not yet been investigated
as fully as it deserves; the generally received opinion is that the fibre
has a chemical affinity for the colouring matter in the case of
substantive dyes, and likewise for the mordant, which, in its turn, has an
affinity for the colouring matter of adjective dyes. Another opinion is
that the fibres have pores, which, when expanded by heat or chemical
agents, admit particles of colouring matter. However this may be, it is
certain that different materials ‘take’ dyes in different proportions;
thus, silk and wool take the coal-tar dyes in the most perfect manner, but
cotton requires the intervention of a most powerful mineral or animal
mordant. Wool takes the colouring matters of most dye-stuff so well that
the deepest tints can readily be produced. SILK and COTTON are dyed with
greater difficulty, whilst LINEN shows still less disposition to take
dyes. The operations which take place in dyeing are ‘mordanting,’
‘ageing,’ ‘dunging,’ ‘dyeing,’ and ‘clearing.’ The first of these
operations is noticed under MORDANT. After the fabric has been mordanted,
it is generally hung up in a room through which a current of steam and air
is passing, by means of which the union between the fibre and the mordant
is quickened very considerably. This exposure to moist air is the step in
the process to which the term ‘ageing’ is applied. The operations of
‘dunging’ and ‘clearing’ are noticed above (see DUNGING). The ‘dyeing’
proper, which follows the ‘dunging,’ is effected by running the fabric
through the solution of the dye-stuff, the colour being modified more or
less by the nature of the mordant used. Under the names of the different
colours the means used to dye such colours are minutely described. See
BLACK DYE, BLUE DYE, &c.

The following particulars respecting the production of the more common
colours may prove interesting to the reader, who merely requires some
general information on the subject:——

BLACK is usually produced by logwood or galls with an iron mordant. Common
black silks are dyed with logwood and fustic, iron being used as a
mordant. The best silks are dyed black on a blue ground. Woollen goods are
first dyed blue with indigo, and afterwards with sumac, logwood, and green
or blue copperas. Cotton and linen goods are dyed black in a very similar
manner.

BLUE is commonly produced from indigo, either in the form of sulphate or
in aqueous solution. Prussian blue, with a persalt of iron or tin as a
mordant, gives a very splendid dark blue. Of late several blues of novel
shades have been produced from coal-tar.

RED is obtained in various shades by using cochineal, safflower, lac-dye,
madder, or logwood, with a tin mordant.

PURPLE. Until the last few years the dyer was dependent for his purples on
orchil or cudbear, but he has now at his disposal the magnificent series
of aniline, or coal-tar, colours, ranging from the most delicate violet,
or ‘mauve,’ to the full crimson-purple, known as ‘magenta.’ See PURPLE
DYE.

YELLOW. The most important yellow dyes are made from quercitron, fustic,
turmeric, arnotto, and French and Persian berries. For further
information, see BLEACHING, CALICO-PRINTING, &c.

=DYER’S SPIRITS.= See TIN MORDANTS.

=DYES.= See DYEING, and the names of the principal colours.

=DYE-STUFFS.= The colouring materials used in dyeing are so called. The
more important of them are noticed under the respective names.

=DYNAMITE.= Nobel’s dynamite consists of a mixture of 75 parts of
nitroglycerin incorporated with 25 parts of an infusorial earth known as
‘kieselghur,’ found at Luneburgh, and consisting of the fossil shells of
infusoria. Kieselghur is almost pure silica. Dynamite is in regular use on
the Continent for mining operations, and its manufacture and transport
appear to be subject only to reasonable precautions. If ignited in the
open air, or even when loosely packed, it burns quietly away, with the
evolution of a small quantity of nitrous acid. Although the first cost of
dynamite is four times that of gunpowder, it is said to be really only
half as expensive, since it possesses eight times the explosive power of
the latter; added to which the labour of boring blast-holes is avoided. It
also possesses the advantage of not being impaired in efficiency by damp.

When required for use the dynamite is rammed into a thick paper cartridge,
into which a fusee is passed, by means of which it is ignited. Although
dynamite when once made may be comparatively harmless until exploded at
will; that great risk is incurred in its manufacture may be inferred from
the fact that, upon two occasions the manufactory on the Continent in
which it is prepared has been twice entirely destroyed. On the occasion of
the last accident it was impossible to learn the cause of the disaster,
since every one in the building was blown to atoms.

Diralin is said to be a mixture of nitroglycerin with sawdust or wood-pulp
as used in paper-mills, the two latter substances having been previously
treated with nitric and sulphuric acids.

=DYNAMOM.= (Dr Momma Düsseldorf.) A galvano-electric curative apparatus. A
small capsule of horn, containing a disc secured to a pedicel. On the disc
a number of sharp needles are fixed. By gently moving the apparatus, and
afterwards withdrawing it, artificial pores are produced in the skin by
punctures which are not very painful. These are then to be rubbed with a
certain oil, probably containing cantharides. (Wittstein.)

=DYS′ENTERY.= _Syn._ BLOODY FLUX; DYSENTERIA, L. A disease arising from
inflammation of the mucous membrane of the large intestines, and
characterised by stools consisting chiefly of blood and mucus, or other
morbid matter, accompanied with griping of the bowels, and followed by
tenesmus. There is generally more or less fever, and the natural fæces are
either retained or discharged in small, hard balls (_scybala_). The common
causes of this disease are marsh miasma, improper diet, excessive
exhaustion, and fatigue, and, above all, exposure to the cold and damp air
of night after a hot day.

_Treat._ The common dysentery of this country generally gives way to
gentle aperients (castor oil or salts-and-manna), to cleanse the bowels,
followed by mild opiates or morphia, to allay irritation. The chronic
symptoms, which frequently hang about for some time, are best combated by
mild tonics and vegetable bitters (bark, calumba, cascarilla).
Occasionally, chalybeates (ammonia-citrate of iron, lactate of iron, wine
of iron, saccharine carbonate of iron) will be found useful during
convalescence. Throughout, the diet should be light and nutritious.

The contagious dysentery, of camps and hot climates, is a severe and often
fatal disease, in which the preceding symptoms are complicated with
remittent or typhoid fever. Its treatment is tedious and difficult, and
depends chiefly on judiciously meeting the several symptoms as they
develop themselves. Aperients, diaphoretics, and nauseants, followed by
tonics, are the remedies generally relied on. The febrile symptoms must be
treated according to their inflammatory or putrid tendency. This variety
of the disease frequently gives rise to organic diseases of the abdominal
viscera, dropsy, &c. It is regarded by some as contagious, but without
sufficient reason.

=DYSMENNORHŒ′A.= See MENSTRUATION.

=DYSPEP′SIA.= [L.] _Syn._ DYSPEP′SY, INDIGESTION. This complaint pervades
every rank of society, and is, perhaps, of all others, the most general.
Few indeed are there who wholly escape it, in one or other of its forms.
The common symptoms of dyspepsia are——want of appetite, sudden and
transient distensions of the stomach, frequent eructations, heartburn,
stomachic pains, occasional vomiting, and, frequently, costiveness or
diarrhœa. Sometimes the head is affected, and dimness of sight, double
vision, muscæ volitantes, and slight vertigo, are experienced, along with
a multitude of other symptoms, depending on a derangement of the functions
of the nervous system.

The causes of dyspepsia are numerous. In the higher ranks of society it is
a common consequence of over-indulgence in the luxuries of the table, of
late hours, or of the want of proper exercise, both of body and mind. In
the studious, and those who lead a sedentary life, it is usually caused by
excessive mental exertion or anxiety, or by the fatigues of business, and
the want of sufficient bodily exertion and of pure air. In the lower
orders of society it generally results from inebriety, or a deficiency of
proper food and clothing, bad ventilation, &c.; and is not unfrequently
occasioned by the physical powers being over-taxed, especially soon after
meals.

The treatment of dyspepsia depends less on medicine than on the adoption
of regular habits of life. Moderation in eating, drinking, and the
indulgence of the passions; early rising, due exercise, and retiring to
rest at an early hour, will do much to restore the tone both of the
stomach and nerves. Excessive study and mental exertion should be avoided,
and recourse should frequently be had to society and amusements of a
lively and interesting character. If the bowels are confined, mild
aperients should be taken, and if diarrhœa is present, antacids and
absorbents may be had recourse to with advantage. The stomach may be
strengthened by the use of mild bitters, tonics, and stimulants, and sea
bathing, or the shower or tepid bath, may be taken, when convenient, to
strengthen the nervous system. When dyspepsia is a secondary or
symptomatic disease, the cause should be sought out, and the treatment
varied accordingly. Among the aperient medicines most suitable to
dyspepsia may be mentioned——Epsom salts, phosphate of soda, and Seidlitz
powders, each of which should be taken largely diluted with water. An
occasional dose of the ‘_Abernethy Medicines_’ (which _see_) has also been
recommended. Among antacids, are the bicarbonates and carbonates of
potassa and soda, either of which may be taken in doses of half a
teaspoonful dissolved in water; or, if the spirits are depressed, one or
two teaspoonfuls of spirit of sal volatile will be more appropriate; and
in cases accompanied by diarrhœa, a little prepared chalk. As bitters, the
compound infusion of orange peel, or of gentian, are excellent. As tonics,
small doses of bark, or of sulphate of quinine, to which chalybeates may
be added, if there is pallor of countenance, or a low pulse, with no
disposition to fever or headache.

When dyspepsia is complicated with hysteria, hypochondriasis, or
chlorosis, the treatment noticed under those heads may be conjoined to
that above recommended. When it depends on constipation, or a deficiency
of bile, the mildest and most effective of all remedies will be found
supplied in inspissated ox-gall. “In all cases of incipient constipation,
ox-gall is a remedy of undoubted efficacy; and even in protracted cases,
when hope has almost fled——but where evidences of strangulation are not
unequivocally manifested——it should never be omitted by the practitioner.
In habitual or chronic constipation, accompanied by indigestion,
clay-coloured stools, and a feeling of oppression after food has been
taken, it acts with almost specific certainty. When, however, the liver
begins to assume its healthy action, its employment should be
discontinued, and it will then produce all the symptoms of regurgitation
of bile into the stomach. This state will be readily recognised as a
favorable omen of returning power.” (Dr Allnatt.)

=DYSPNŒ′A.= Difficulty of breathing. It is generally symptomatic of some
other affections. When it occurs in persons of a nervous or irritable
habit of body, perfect quiet, a semi-recumbent posture, fresh air, and
some small doses of ether, ammonia, or opium, will generally effect a
cure. Those of a full habit require aperients and depletion. To prevent
attacks of the kind, excess in eating and drinking, and the use of
stimulants, should be avoided.

=DYSU′′RIA.= [L.] _Syn._ DYS′URY. Difficult urination. It is generally
symptomatic of disease of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. The treatment
depends on the exciting cause.


=EAR (Inflamma′tion of).= _Syn._ OTITIS, L. This affection, when it
attacks the internal part of the ear, is generally accompanied with
confusion of sound, deafness, and more or less fever. It is most frequent
among children, and is commonly produced by exposure to draughts of cold
air, and, occasionally, by foreign matters, as cherry-stones, insects,
&c., having got into the external ear. In such cases, the removal of the
offensive matter, and due attention to warmth and cleanliness, with a dose
of laxative medicine, will be all the treatment required. The pain may
generally be relieved by throwing warm water into the ear by means of a
syringe, and fomenting the surrounding parts with decoction of poppy-heads
and chamomile flowers. Should this treatment not succeed, a drop or two of
laudanum, with one drop of oil of cloves and a little oil of almonds, may
be dropped in the ear, and a piece of cotton wool introduced afterwards.
Cases of acute inflammation of the internal ear are occasionally met with
in adults, which assume a very serious character, and demand the most
careful treatment. See DEAFNESS.

=Earache.= Pain in the ear may arise from various causes, amongst which,
in the absence of organic disease, cold, and that peculiar derangement of
health popularly called ‘nervousness,’ are the most common. In the one
case, the proper remedy is warmth; in the other, the attention should be
directed to the restoration of the body to the healthy standard.

=Earache, Simple Cure for.= Take a common, tobacco-pipe, place a wad of
cotton in the bowl, drop upon it 8 or 10 drops of chloroform, and cover
with another wad of cotton; place the stem to the affected ear, then blow
into the bowl, and in many cases the pain will cease almost
immediately.——_Amer. Journ._

=EARTHS.= In _chemistry_, a group of metallic oxides. The principal earths
are baryta strontia, lime, magnesia, alumina, berylla or glucina, yttria,
zirconia, and thoria. The first four are termed ALKALINE EARTHS; the
remainder, together with the oxides of the very rare metals erbium,
terbium, norium, cerium, lanthanum, and didymium, constitute the EARTHS
PROPER.

The term _earth_ was very loosely applied by the older chemical and
pharmaceutical writers, and the practice is still common among the vulgar
at the present day. Thus, ABSORBENT EARTH (chalk); ALUMINOUS E.,
ARGILLACEOUS E. (alumina); BOLAR E. (bole); BONE-E. (phosphate of lime);
FULLER’S E. (an absorbent clay); HEAVY E. (baryta); JAPAN E., or TERRA
JAPONICA (catechu); SEALED E. (bole), &c., are names even now frequently
encountered both in trade and in books.

=EARTHEN-WARE AND GLASS, to prevent the Cracking of.= When quite new, all
vessels of glass and earthenware should be laid to soak in cold water, and
after some hours, this water, covering the vessels, should be gradually
heated to the boiling point. It is a good plan to place a little hay on
the top of the water.

Glass and earthenware vessels thus treated are far less liable to crack
when subjected to the heat of boiling water than it would otherwise be.

=EARTH-NUT.= See ARACHIS HYPOGŒA.

=EAU.= (Fr.) Water. This word, like its English synonym, is applied to
numerous substances, differing in their composition, sensible properties,
and uses, of which the following are a few useful examples:——EAU DOUCE,
fresh or river water; EAU DE MER, sea or salt water; EAU DE FONTAINE, EAU
DE SOURCE, spring water; EAU DE PUITS, well or pump water; EAU DE RIVIÈRE,
river water; EAU DISTILLÉE, distilled water; EAU DE ROSE, rose water; EAU
DE VIE, brandy; EAU DE COLOGNE, Cologne water; EAU D’HONGRIE, Hungary
water; EAU BÉNITE, holy water; EAU FORTE, aquafortis; EAU DE SAVON,
soapsuds; EAU DE SENTEUR, scented water, &c.

=Eau Athenienne.= (Hte. Bourgeois, Paris.) Pour nettoyer la tête et
enlever les pellicules——for cleaning the head and removing scurf. An
alcoholic solution of potash-soap, with some solution of potash and
aromatic oil. (Dr P. Goppelsröder.)

=Eau Berger for Dyeing the Hair.= Two fluids for consecutive application.
No. 1 is a solution of 1·3 grammes sulphate of copper, ·25 grammes nitrate
of nickel, 30 grammes distilled water, 4 grammes ammonia. No. 2 is a
solution of calcium sulphide, made by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into
milk of lime until it ceases to be absorbed, and then filtering from the
excess of lime. (W. Engelhardt.)

=Eau Capillaire Progressive, pour rétablir la coleur naturelle des cheveux
et de la barbe. Formule rationelle, succès garanti.= Progressive hair-wash
for restoring the natural colour of the hair and beard. Formula rational,
success guaranteed (Dr R. Brimmeyer, chimie-pharmacien, Echternach,
Luxembourg). (Schädler.)

=Eau d’Afrique, for dyeing the Hair Black.= Three fluids to be
consecutively applied. No. 1 is a solution of 3 parts nitrate of silver in
100 parts water. No. 2 is a solution of 8 parts sodium sulphide in 100
parts water. No. 3 is a solution of nitrate of silver like No. 1, but
perfumed. (Reveil.)

=Eau d’Atirona.= An elegant fluid cosmetic soap, by the use of which all
imperfections of the skin will be easily and painlessly removed. It
consists of 25 grammes of a spirituous tincture of cinnamon and cloves, 4
grammes soda soap, and a drop of peppermint oil. (Wittstein.)

=Eau de Bahama.= A black dye for the hair. It is a solution of sugar of
lead perfumed with oil of anise, and containing flowers of sulphur in
suspension. (Reveil.)

=Eau de Beauté, Eau de Paris sans pareille, or Eau de Princesses= (August
Renard, Paris); with a German title, “Rhümhehst bekanntes cosmetisches
Wasser genannt Prinzessen-Wasser.” The well-known and renowned cosmetic
called Princesses’ Water.’ To experience the brilliant effects of this
marvellous fluid we need only, after washing, habitually pass a small
sponge moistened with the fluid gently over the skin, and allow it to dry
without rubbing. By so doing our complexion will remain white, smooth,
clear, and soft, even to extreme old age. Those, however, who are troubled
with freckles, heat-spots, or any other eruption should use the water
several times a day as directed. They need suffer no longer from any
defect of the skin. Princesses’ Water when shaken is a milk-white fluid
contained in an oval bottle with a long neck, which holds 125 grammes. On
standing it deposits a white precipitate. It is made from 2·5 grammes
calomel, ·45 grammes corrosive sublimate (so altered by the added perfume
that the usual tests do not reveal it), and 122 grammes orange-flower
water.

=Eau de Botot.= A mouth wash. Tincture of cedar wood, 500 grammes;
tincture of myrrh and tincture of rhatany, of each 125 grammes; peppermint
oil, 5 drops. (Winkler.)

=Eau de Capille= (Kamprath & Schwartze). A hair dye. A mixture of 16
grammes glycerine, 8 grammes hyposulphite of soda, 1 gramme sugar of lead
(or an equivalent quantity of Liq. Plumbi subacet.), about 2 grammes
precipitated sulphur and 130 grammes water, perfumed with a small quantity
of eau de Cologne. (Hager.)

=Eau de Charbon, Dr Chattam’s= (A. Ahnelt, Charlottenburg, the African
traveller). A prophylactic and specific against syphilis. 150 grammes of a
slightly red fluid, consisting of a watery solution of carbolic acid
coloured with aniline and perfumed with 1 drop peppermint oil and 8 drops
chloroform dissolved in 20 grammes spirit. (Hager.)

=Eau de Cythère.= A hair dye. A solution of 4 parts chloride of lead and 8
parts crystallised hyposulphite of soda in 88 parts distilled water.
(Hager.)

=Eau de Docteur Sachs.= For promoting the growth of the hair, preventing
its turning grey, for protecting the scalp from all injurious influences,
and for preserving it in a state of purity and health. A solution of
castor oil in spirit containing picrotoxin. (Dr C. Schacht.)

=Eau de Fée——Fairy Water.= A natural hair wash (Lattke, Chemiker, Kiel).
Recommended as a preparation consisting solely of harmless vegetables. It
consists mainly of a strong solution of nitrate of lead. (Himly.)

=Eau des Fées——Fairy Water.= A hair wash. A solution of 1-1/4 parts lead
sulphite in about 3 parts sodium hyposulphite, 7-3/4 parts glycerin, and
88 parts water. According to the directions for use, more than three
bottles of 120 grammes of the Fairy Water should not be used before the
hair has been treated with Eau de Poppée, and, to raise it to the highest
possible degree of beauty, with Huile régénératrice d’Hygie. (Hager.)

=Eau de Hebe.= For freckles. To be applied with a small sponge in the
evening and washed off in the morning. Lemons, cut small, digested in a
closed flask with distilled vinegar, lavender vinegar, oil of lemon, and
rosemary, and filtered.

=Eau de Java Anticholerique= is a solution of camphor and carbolic acid in
spirit. (Casselmann.)

=Eau de la Floride.= A colourless fluid with a greenish-yellow deposit
consisting of sugar of lead, 50 parts; flowers of sulphur, 20 parts;
distilled water, 1000 parts. (F. Eymael.)

=Eau de Lechelle= may be replaced by a filtered mixture of 200 parts aqua
aromatica, 300 parts aqua dest., 10 parts acid. carbol., 10 parts ol.
thymi, 20 parts acid. tannic.

=Eau de lys de Lohse= (Lohse formerly——before the French war——Lohsé,
Berlin). A cosmetic consisting of 2 grammes zinc oxide, 2 grammes
prepared talc, 4 grammes glycerin, and 200 grammes rose water. (Schädler.)

=Eau de Mont Blanc.= A hair dye. A solution of nitrate of silver.

=Eau de Naples.= Neapolitan washing solution. A mixture of 12 parts borax,
100 parts distilled water, 50 parts rose water, 1 part camphor, 4 parts
tinct. benzoin. (W. Hildwein.)

=Eau de Quinine——Glycerin Hair Wash, with Extract of Peruvian Bark= (A.
Heinrich, Leipzig). For removing scurf and strengthening the hair. 2
grammes balsam of Peru, 6 grammes castor oil, 60 grammes rum, 35 grammes
water, 5 grammes tincture of red cinchona. (Hager.)

=Eau de Vienne.= A hair dye from Paris. Two fluids, one of which is a
solution of nitrate of silver in ammoniacal water, and the other a
solution of pyrogallic acid.

=Eau Dentifrice de Mallard.= Star anise, common anise, cinnamon, cloves,
of each, 8 parts; guaicum wood, 10 parts; brown cinchona, 6 parts; rose
leaves, 5 parts; nutmegs, 2 parts, are placed in a displacement apparatus
and percolated with 3 parts cochineal; 12-15 parts water, 1000 parts sp.
vini; sp. gr. ·860. The tincture is displaced with water and 1000 parts
are mixed with 7 parts of a mixture of peppermint oil, spirit of scurvy
grass, and tinct. of benzoin, allowed to stand and filtered.

=Eau Dentifrice des Cordillères.= An Indian recipe. 360 parts strong
spirits, 330 parts water, 2-1/2 parts extract of red or yellow cinchona, 1
part oil of cinnamon, 2 parts oil of cloves, 3 parts oil of anise, 5 parts
oil of peppermint. (Hager.)

=Eau Ecarlate——Scarlet Water.= (Bürdel). For renovating red linen and
woollen fabrics. Oxalium, 25 parts; soda, 16 parts; potash, 5 parts;
water, coloured with cochineal and slightly perfumed, 1000 parts.
(Sauerwein.)

=Eau Lajeune.= A hair dye. An elegant pasteboard box, in which are three
bottles of fluid and two bone-handled tooth-brushes. No. 1 contains a
clear fluid consisting of pyrogallic acid 1·5 gramme, ·3 gramme colouring
matter of alkanet, 17·5 grammes spirit of wine, 27 grammes water. No. 2 is
filled with a thick brown fluid, which from decomposition has produced a
deposit sometimes brown, sometimes grey. This partly-decomposed fluid was
originally a mixture of silver nitrate, 3·5 grammes; ammonia, 4·5 grammes;
gum arabic or some similar mucilage, 2·5 grammes; distilled water, 23
grammes. No. 3, labelled “Fixateur,” contains 7·5 grammes fluid,
consisting of ·5 gramme sodium sulphide, 7 grammes distilled water. The
directions for use, translated into various languages, say——Dissolve 10
grammes subcarbonate of soda in half a litre of warm or cold rain water,
and with this wash the grease from the hair. Afterwards rinse it in clear
water, and dry it thoroughly with a cloth. Pour one part of fluid No. 1
into a saucer, and with brush No. 1 apply it to the roots of the hair.
Allow it two or three minutes to dry, then rub the hair with an old linen
cloth to remove the superfluous moisture. Next repeat the operation, using
fluid and brush No. 2, and without waiting wash the hair with warm or cold
soapy water. This hair dye is quite harmless, and leaves no marks on the
skin behind it. _To use it for the Beard._——The process is the same as
that for the hair, except that instead of the soda solution, ordinary soap
is to be used to cleanse the beard from grease. It often happens that when
the user of the dye has not taken ordinary care in cleansing the hair, the
latter becomes of a false and unnatural tint. In this case the Fixateur
should be used. A small sponge should be moistened with this and passed
over the hair, which will make the colour natural and glossy. The Fixateur
as well as the sponge must only be used in this way. It may be employed
two days after the first operation without it being necessary to dye the
hair anew. (Hager.)

=Eau Medicinales= are either simply watery solutions (HYDROLÉS,
HYDROLATURES, SOLUTIONS PAR L′EAU), or distilled water (EAUX DISTILLÉES);
or they are vinous or alcoholic tinctures or solutions of essential oils,
aromatics, or more active drugs. See CORDIALS, HAIR DYES, PERFUMERY,
SPIRITS, TINCTURES, WATERS, &c.

=Eau Tonique de Chalmin= is a perfumed solution of tannin.

=Eau Tonique Parachûte des Cheveux.= To prevent the falling off of the
hair. Macerate some pieces of violet root for some days in 120 grammes
rose water, filter, and add to the fluid 2 decigrammes sulphate of iron, 3
drops vinegar, 1·3 gramme each of tincture of benzoin and balsam of Peru,
7·5 grammes Provence oil, and 10 drops oil of bergamot. (Dr Casselmann.)

=Eau Virginale= (Chable). Lead acetate, zinc sulphate, of each 1 part;
distilled water, 28 parts; eau de Cologne, 12 parts. Dissolve and mix;
allow to stand for a month and filter. A spoonful mixed with a glass of
water to be used as a vaginal injection. (Reveil.)

=Eaux=, in perfumery, are solutions of the fragrant essential oils in
spirit, as eau de Cologne, eau de bouquet, &c.; or they are distilled
waters, largely charged with the odorous principles of plants, as eau de
rose, eau de fleurs d’oranges, &c.

=Eaux=, of the liqueuriste, are aromatised spirits or cordials.

=EB′LANINE.= The yellowish-red, crystallisable, solid substance, which is
left behind in the retort, when wood spirit is rectified from quicklime.
It is insoluble in water, and sublimes without fusion at 273° Fahr.

=EBONITE.= The only difference between this and vulcanite, consists in the
colouring materials used. See CAOUTCHOUC.

=EB′ONY.= The wood of the _Diospyrus Melanoxylon_, an East Indian tree, of
the natural order _Ebenaceæ_. Two other species of the same genus, namely,
_Diospyrus Ebenus_ and _D. Ebenaster_, yields respectively MAURITIUS EBONY
and the BASTARD EBONY of Ceylon. Pale-coloured woods are stained in
imitation of ebony (FACTITIOUS EBONY), by washing them with or steeping
them in a strong decoction of logwood or of galls, and, when dry, washing
them over with a solution of sulphate or acetate of iron. They are then
rinsed in clean water, and the process is repeated, if required. The wood
is lastly polished or varnished.

=EBRI′ETY.= See INTOXICATION.

=EBULLI′′TION.= The state of boiling, or the agitation of a liquid arising
from its rapid conversion into vapour by heat. Ebullition occurs in
different liquids at very different temperatures, such temperatures being
called their ‘boiling-points.’ Under the same circumstances the
boiling-points are constant, and by observing them the chemist is often
able to distinguish liquids which much resemble each other. The
boiling-point of the same liquid may, however, vary considerably under
different circumstances. The causes which induce variation are increased
or diminished atmospheric pressure, the greater or less depth of the
liquid, and the character of the containing vessel. Thus boiling water is
colder by some degrees when the barometer is low, in bad weather, or at
the top of a hill, than when the barometer is higher, in fine weather, or
at the bottom of a valley or mine. There is a very simple and beautiful
experiment, illustrative of the effect of diminished pressure in lowering
the boiling-point of a liquid. A little water is made to boil for a few
minutes in a flask or retort placed over a lamp, until the air has been
expelled, and the steam issues freely from the neck. A tightly fitting
cork is then inserted, and the lamp at the same moment withdrawn. When the
ebullition ceases, it may be renewed at pleasure for a considerable time
by the affusion of cold water, which, by condensing the vapour within,
occasions a partial vacuum. Liquids in general boil from 60° to 140° lower
than their ordinary boiling-points when heated _in vacuo_.

The following table furnishes very exact information respecting the effect
of increasing pressure upon the boiling-point of water:——

Boiling water contained in a deep vessel is hotter than that in a shallow
one, on account of the greater resistance in the one case than the other
to the escape of the steam. It is also found that fluids boil at a lower
temperature and more quietly in vessels with rough and spicular surfaces,
than in those with smooth or polished ones. The boiling-point of water, as
marked on the scale of the thermometer, is 212° Fahr., but in glass
vessels, under common circumstances, it varies from

        TABLE I.——_Boiling-points of Water at different
        Pressures._ By Mr C. GREVILLE WILLIAMS.

  --------------+-----------+---------------+-----------
  Boiling-point | Barometer | Boiling-point | Barometer
  ° Fahr.       | Inches.   | ° Fahr.       | Inches.
  --------------+-----------|---------------+-----------
      184       | 16·676    |    200        | 23·454
      185       | 17·047    |    201        | 23·937
      186       | 17·421    |    202        | 24·441
      187       | 17·803    |    203        | 25·014
      188       | 18·196    |    204        | 25·468
      189       | 18·593    |    205        | 25·992
      190       | 18·992    |    206        | 26·529
      191       | 19·407    |    207        | 27·068
      192       | 19·822    |    208        | 27·614
      193       | 20·254    |    209        | 28·183
      194       | 20·687    |    210        | 28·744
      195       | 21·124    |    211        | 29·331
      196       | 21·576    |    212        | 29·922
      197       | 22·030    |    213        | 30·516
      198       | 22·498    |    214        | 31·120
      199       | 22·965    |    215        | 31·730
  --------------+-----------+---------------+-----------

212·254° to 215·6°; whilst in perfectly pure and smooth glass vessels
water may be heated to 221° Fahr. without boiling. That the elevation of
the boiling-point in this case is due to the nature of the surface, may be
at once demonstrated by throwing into water, about to boil in a glass
matrass, a little iron filings or coarsely powdered glass, when ebullition
will commence with almost explosive violence, at the same time that the
temperature of the fluid will sink about 2° Fahr.

The boiling-point of water contained in ordinary vessels may be raised
considerably above 212° Fahr., by the addition of saline matter, as will
be seen in the following table, extracted from Mr C. G. Williams’s
excellent ‘Handbook of Chemical Manipulation,’——

        TABLE II.——_Boiling-points of Saturated Solutions of
        various Salts at the ordinary Atmospheric Pressure._ By
        C. G. WILLIAMS.

     Name of Salt.         Boiling-point.

  Chloride of calcium        355° Fahr.
  Acetate of soda            256   ”
  Nitrate of soda            246   ”
  Sal-ammoniac               236   ”
  Common salt                224   ”
  Cream of tartar            214   ”

The above solutions are suitable for chemical baths. With the exception of
the first, they furnish in their boiling-points temperatures, as nearly as
can be obtained, 10° above each other. They were chosen by Mr Williams
because, in ‘fractionating’ volatile substances, it is usual to separate
the distilled products by differences of temperature equal to 10° Fahr. In
long operations it is found inconvenient to employ a saturated saline
solution for a bath (by which the highest temperature would be obtained),
as the constant evaporation of the water induces the crystallisation of
the salt. It is hence usual to keep it considerably below that point.

The following table, compiled chiefly from the pages of Dr Miller’s
‘Elements of Chemistry,’ gives the boiling-points of several interesting
substances.

        TABLE III.——_Boiling-points of various Liquids at the
        ordinary Atmospheric Pressure._

    Name of Substance.       Boiling-point.

  Liquid carbonic acid        -108° Fahr.
  Liquid sulphurous acid      + 17·6 ”
  Chloric ether                 51·9 ”
  Aldehyd                       69·4 ”
  Ether                         94·8 ”
  Bisulphide of carbon         118·5 ”
  Bromide                      145·4 ”
  Wood spirit                  149·9 ”
  Alcohol (sp. gr. ·815)       173·1 ”
  Benzol                       176·8 ”
  Dutch liquid                 184·7 ”
  Acetic acid                  243·1 ”
  Sulphur (melted)             609·  ”
  Mercury                      662·  ”

=EBUL′LIOSCOPE.= _Syn._ EBULLITION ALCOHOLOMETER, THERMO-ALCOHOLOMETER.
“This instrument is essentially a thermometer, and its application to
alcoholometry is based upon the fact that the boiling-point of a spiritous
liquid is scarcely altered by the presence, within certain limits, of the
substances which may be dissolved in it, and which, by increasing its
specific gravity, render the ordinary alcoholometers or hydrometers
useless for the purpose of indicating its alcoholic richness. The
ebullioscope was invented by the Abbé Brossard-Vidal, of Toulon, and in
its original form consisted of a spirit-lamp surmounted by a small boiler,
into which a large cylindrical glass bulb was plunged, having an upright
stem of such calibre that the quicksilver contained in them, by its
expansion and ascent when heated, raised before it a little glass float in
the stem, which was connected by a thread with a similar glass bead,
hanging in the air. This thread passed round a pulley, which, turning with
the motion of the beads, caused an index to move along a graduated
circular scale, which represented on its face the per-centage of absolute
alcohol in spirituous liquors of different boiling-points. This form of
the apparatus being found inconvenient and liable to get disarranged,
various improvements were made in it by MM. Conaty, Lerebour, and others.
The modification of the instrument now in use, and known as Field’s PATENT
ALCOHOLOMETER, was made by the late Dr Ure, and can scarcely be improved
on. It consists of a thermometer having a very minute bore and a large
bulb, similar to that employed to determine the height of mountains from
the boiling-point of water, but instead of thermometric degrees being
marked upon the scale the per-centage under proof is placed on the
left-hand side of the stem, and the per-centage content of proof spirit on
the right-hand side. These commence at 178·5° Fahr., the temperature at
which ‘proof spirit’ boils, and which here forms the bottom of the scale.
The succeeding number are based upon the boiling-points of mixtures of
alcohol and water. The little boiler being charged, and about a
teaspoonful of salt (35 gr.) being added, to prevent loss of alcohol by
evaporation, the thermometer is set in its place, and the spirit-lamp
lighted. When the mercury begins to rise out of the bulb of the
thermometer, the ‘damper-plate’ is pushed in a little way, to moderate the
heat. The eye is now kept steadily on the instrument, and as soon as the
liquor boils freely, and the mercury becomes stationary in the stem, the
indication is carefully noted, and the damper-plate pushed home to
extinguish the flame.

“The ebullioscope is adjusted to the mean boiling-point of water under an
atmospheric pressure of 29·5 inches. When the pressure is either higher or
lower, both water and alcohol boil at a somewhat different temperature, to
meet which a barometrical equation is attached to the thermometer by means
of a small subsidiary scale. It is therefore necessary, prior to
commencing the operation of testing any liquor, to charge the little
boiler with pure water only, and to fix the thermometer in its place. When
the water boils freely, the mercury becomes stationary in the stem,
exactly opposite the true barometrical indication at the time. Should this
be against the line 29·5, no correction will be required; but should it
stand at any other line, above or below, then the various boiling-points
will bear reference to that boiling-point only. In the latter case, the
boiling-point of the water on the barometrical indicator must be set
against the boiling-point of the liquid on the scale, when opposite the
line——29·5 will be found the true strength. Thus:——the barometer being at
30 inches, and the indication or boiling-point being 72 u. p., 30 on the
indicator must be placed against 72 u. p. on the thermometer, when against
the line of 29·5 will be seen 69·6 u. p., the real strength of the sample
tested.

“When a spirit is stronger than the ‘excise proof,’ its boiling-point
varies too little with its alterations of strength to render the
ebullioscope of much practical value. To make it applicable to the
stronger spirits, it is therefore necessary to dilute them with exactly
their own bulk of pure water before testing them, and then to double the
resulting indication, as suggested by Dr Ure. Our own plan is always to do
this when the spirit is stronger than 20 u. p.

“By means of the ebullioscope the alcoholic content of beer, wines, and
spirits, of every variety and class, may be readily determined with
sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes; and by methods which we
shall hereafter point out, the amount of saccharine extractive, or sugar,
in cordialised spirit, malt liquors and wines, may also be ascertained.

“The ebullioscope (Field’s ALCOHOLOMETER) employed by us in numerous and
extensive investigations connected with public hygiène, was made by Mr
Long, of Little Tower Street, and is an instrument which should be in the
hands of every wine and spirit merchant and licensed victualler, as well
as every private gentleman who feels interested in the quality of the
liquors in his cellar. The instrument is accompanied by a useful little
pamphlet of directions and tables, which has been very accurately got up,
as we understand, by the late Dr Ure, expressly for Mr Long.” (A. J.
Cooley.)

=ECHINOCOCCUS HOMINIS.= This creature, which is the larva of the _Tinæa
Echinococcus_, is a very common parasite infesting man, and has been found
in the human lungs, heart, kidneys, liver, spleen, ovaries, breasts,
membrane of the throat, and the bones. The disease to which it gives rise
is of a very long and painful nature, frequently terminating fatally, and
one in which no remedies have hitherto been found of any avail. The part
of the human economy most frequently attacked by the ravages of the
Echinococcus is the liver, in the substance of which it gives rise to the
formation of a hydatid tumour. This tumour is composed of a thick-walled
cyst or bag, within which is another of a much more delicate texture.
“This latter membrane is the mother-sac of the Echinococcus embryo”
(Huxley), and corresponds with the germinal membrane of Professor Goodsir.
It is studded with innumerable transparent cells, varying as extremes of
measurement from 1/10000th to 1/3000th of an inch. It is the seat of
development of innumerable Echinococci, and to this membrane, in a fresh
hydatid tumour, they are found connected by a delicate membrane, either
singly, or more commonly in clusters, the number of individuals on the
cluster varying from 10 to 100 or more, as shown in the annexed
woodcut.”[271]

[Footnote 271: Aitken.]

[Illustration]

The size of the embryo varies from 1/18th to 1/20th of a line to 1/10th to
1/18th, according as it is elongated or contracted. Fig. 2 represents two
Echinococci. In the one the head is drawn within the vehicle, and in the
other it is extruded.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

Fig. 3 represents a transverse view of an echinococcus; S S are suctorial
discs; the hooklets may be seen encircling a membranous disk.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

In Fig. 4 we have a representation of the circlet of these hooklets, B,
which are thirty-four in number; C gives various views of separate
hooklets; _b_ is the base; _c_ the central extremity; _e_ the hooklets
viewed upon their concave or inferior border. The dotted lines connecting
_f_, _g_, _k_, represent the outer surface of the neck, and runs through
the fixed point of the three hooks which move upon the central fixed
process, as on the pivot.

The inhabitants of Iceland are said to suffer severely from the effects of
the Echinococcus Humanus; it has been computed that a sixth of the
population of the island are attacked by it.

=ECLECTIC REMEDIES.= These are medicines chiefly employed by a sect of
American practitioners, self-styled “Eclectics.” The medicinal properties
appended to each of these preparations are those ascribed to them by the
Eclectics themselves.

APOCYNIN. From the roots of _Apocynum_ and _Rosœmifolium_. Given in
jaundice, hepatic torpor, and constipation.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 gr.

ASCLEPEDIN. From _Asclepias tuberosa_. Expectorant, diaphoretic, and
tonic.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 grains three times a day.

BAPTISTIN. From Wild Indigo. Given in liver affections.——_Dose_, 1/4 to
1/2 grain.

BAROSMIN. From _Buchu_. Diuretic, alterative, antispasmodic.——_Dose_, 2 to
4 grains.

CAULOPHYLLIN. From _Caulophyllum thalictroides_. Tonic and alterative,
acts on the uterus.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1 grain three times a day; as a
parturient, 2 to 4 grains.

CERASEIN. From the _Cerasus virginiana_. Given as a substitute for quinine
when this latter is inadmissible.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.

CIMICIFUGIN. _Syn._ MACROTIN. From Black Snakeroot. Tonic, alterative,
nervine, antiperiodic, and in chorea.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr.

CORNINE. From _Cornus Florida_ (Dogwood). Antiperiodic.——_Dose_, 10
grains.

EUPATORINE. From _Eupatoreum purpureum_. Diuretic.——_Dose_, 3 to 5 grains.

EUPHORBIN. From _Euphorbia corollata_. Emetic, cathartic, expectorant, and
vermifuge.——_Dose_, 1 grain or less.

GELSEMIN. From _Gelsemium sempervirens_. Given in pneumonia, hysteria, and
dysmenorrhœa.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 2 grains. This must not be confounded with
the powerful alkaloid, Gelsimia.

GERANIN, or GERANIIN. From _Geranium maculatum_. Astringent.——_Dose_, 1 to
5 gr.

HAMAMELIN. From _Hamamelis Virginica_ (Witch hazel). Astringent.——_Dose_,
5 grains.

HYDRASTIN. From _Hydrastis Canadensis_. Tonic.——_Dose_, 3 to 5 grains.
This must not be confounded with the alkaloid Hydrasta.

IRIDIN. From the _Blue flag_. Alterative, sialagogue,
anthelmintic.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 5 gr.

INGLANDIN. From _Butter-nut_. Given in chronic hepatic disorders and
constipation.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 gr.

LEPTANDRIN. From _Leptandra Virginica_. Given in liver affections, chronic
dysentery, diarrhœa, and typhus.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 gr.

LYCOPIN. From _Lycopus Virginicus_. Given in hæmorrhage, diabetes, and
dysentery.——_Dose_, 2 to 3 grains.

MYRICIN. From _Myrica cerifera_. Stimulant, astringent, and
antispasmodic.——_Dose_, 2 to 10 grains.

POPULIN. From _Populus tremuloides_. Tonic and febrifuge.——_Dose_, 4 to 8
grains.

PRUNIN. From _Wild Cherry Bark_. Stimulant, tonic, and
expectorant.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 gr.

RUMIN. From _Rumex crispus_. Action like rhubarb.——_Dose_, 3 grains.

SANGUINARIN. From _Sanguinaria Canadensis_. Hepatic and
alterative.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 grains.

STILLINGIN. From _Stylingia sylvatica_. Given in bronchitis and
laryngitis. Used externally as a stimulant. Internally, 1 drop with
mucilage.

=EDELENZIANWURZELSAFT——Noble Gentian-root Juice——Enzian Extract——Extract
of Gentian.= A water-clear, colourless Schnapps, which contains much fusel
oil and has had some of the spirit removed, distilled from gentian plant.
(Hager.)

=EDIBLE EARTHS.= There seems little reason to doubt that the inhabitants
of many countries, especially during famine and in times of scarcity, use
certain kinds of earth as food. In Spain, a particular kind of earth known
as _bucaro_ is eaten; the Russian peasant partakes of his _rock-flour_;
the Thuringian of his _rock-butter_; the Swede, of his _bergmehl_ or
_mountain meal_; the native of Java of an earth known as _teneampa_; the
Hindoo, of the so-called _Patna earth_; and the Persian of a species of
soil known as _Gheli Giveh_.

Mr Molvar has analysed an earth, eaten by the poorer classes of the
Neograd district in Hungary, and finds it has the following composition:——

  Carbonic acid     40·357
  Lime              51·488
  Magnesia           0·110
  Volatile matter    5·545
  Ferrous oxide      0·158
  Alumina            2·272

As the volatile matter seemed to be the probable means of nourishment, it
was subjected to a special examination, and was found to contain, besides
empyreumatic substances, 0·067 water, and 0·010 nitrogen.

Dr Schmidt, a German chemist, gives the following as the composition of
100 parts of the air-dried powder from the coast of the White Sea:——

  Water given off at 100° C                  0·260
  Given off at a low red heat                0·835
  Alumina                                   40·797
  Ferric oxide                               0·310
  Magnesia                                   0·618
  Lime                                      traces
  Soda                                       1·829
  Potassa                                    9·845
  Silicic acid, trace of fluorine, and loss 45·506

This earth is eaten by the Laplanders, who mix it with the flour of which
they make their bread.

The Persian edible earth called _Gheli Giveh_ contains:——

  +----------------------+------+
  |Magnesic carbonate    |66·963|
  +----------------------+------+
  |Calcic carbonate      |23·634|
  +----------------------+------+
  |Sodium chloride       | 3·542|
  +----------------------+------+
  |Sodic sulphate        | 0·293|
  +----------------------+------+
  |Sodic carbonate       | 0·598|
  +----------------------+------+
  |Magnesic hydrate      | 1·311|
  +----------------------+------+
  |Ferric oxide          | 0·092|
  +----------------------+------+
  |Alumina               | 0·227|
  +----------------------+------+
  |Silicic acid          | 0·765|
  +----------------------+------+
  |Water combined at 120°| 1·153|
  +----------------------+------+
  |Hydroscopic moisture  | 1·422|
  +----------------------+------+

The ‘Chemical News’ (xxxvi, 202) contains the analysis by Mr Paterson Muir
of a clay from Mackenzie County, South Island, New Zealand, which is
largely eaten by sheep. It consists of:——

  +------------------+------+
  |Silica            | 61·25|
  +------------------+------+
  |Alumina           | 17·97|
  +------------------+------+
  |Ferric oxide      |  5·72|
  +------------------+------+
  |Lime              |  1·91|
  +------------------+------+
  |Magnesia          |  0·87|
  +------------------+------+
  |Sodium chloride   |  3·69|
  +------------------+------+
  |Potassium chloride| trace|
  +------------------+------+
  |Water             |  7·31|
  +------------------+------+
  |Organic matter    |  1·77|
  +------------------+------+
  |                  |100·49|
  +------------------+------+

See ANIMALCULÆ.

=EDULCORA′TION.= The affusion of water on any substance for the purpose of
removing the portion soluble in that fluid. Edulcoration is usually
performed by agitating or triturating the article with water, and removing
the latter, after subsidence, by decantation or filtration. It is the
method commonly adopted to purify precipitates and other powders which are
insoluble in water. The washing-bottle is a most useful instrument for the
edulcoration of precipitates. In its simplest form, it is a bottle fitted
with two bent glass tubes, one drawn to a fine point and reaching to the
bottom of the bottle, the other only entering the cork a few inches. By
blowing down the latter tube, the water is forced out of the former in a
fine stream. See WASH-BOTTLE.

=EEL.= _Syn._ ANGUILLA, L. A family of fishes belonging to the ‘apodal’
section of the _malacopterygii_. At least three species of eels are found
in this country——the ‘sharp-nosed,’ the ‘broad-nosed,’ and the ‘snig.’ The
first, which is common in streams and lakes, attains the greatest
size——sometimes 25 lbs. or even 30 lbs. The ‘snig’ is considered superior
to other kinds for the table. As articles of food, eels are said to be
laxative and far from wholesome. The fat (EEL FAT; ADEPS ANGUILLÆ, OLEUM
A.) is among the simples of the Ph. L. 1618, and was formerly considered
‘good against stripes,’ and is even now used by the vulgar as a friction
for stiff joints. For the table, eels are generally dressed by stewing,
frying, baking, or potting, which is done in the usual way, the fish being
cut into pieces 2 or 3 inches long, and melted butter, onions, sweet
herbs, and anchovy sauce, added at will. The CONGER EEL is a distinct and
gigantic species of the same family. Its flesh is coarse and oily, but is
much esteemed by the inhabitants of the southern coast of Devon, on which
it abounds.

Letheby states the following to be the composition of the Eel:

  +------------------+-----+
  |Nitrogenous matter|  9·9|
  +------------------+-----+
  |Fat               | 13·8|
  +------------------+-----+
  |Saline matter     |  1·3|
  +------------------+-----+
  |Water             |  75·|
  +------------------+-----+
  |                  |100·0|
  +------------------+-----+

Payen’s analysis differs from the above, in giving a larger proportion of
nitrogenous matter, and a still greater quantity of fat.

The native inhabitants of New Zealand and kindred races suffer largely
from scrofula, the prevalence of which disease amongst them has been
attributed to their partaking so largely of eel as a common article of
diet.

=EFFERVES′CENCE.= The rapid escape of gas in small bubbles from a liquid.
See DRAUGHT, POWDER, &c.

=EFFLORES′CENCE.= The spontaneous conversion of a crystalline solid into a
dry pulverulent form. Crystals which in a dry atmosphere lose their water
of crystallisation, and become crusted over with a mealy powder, are said
to be EFFLORESCENT.

=EGG.= _Syn._ OVUM, L. A body produced in the females of birds and certain
other animals, containing an ′embryo’ of the same species, or body, from
which a similar animal may ultimately be produced. The eggs of the common
domestic fowl are nutritious and easily digestible; and when lightly
cooked by boiling and eaten with a little salt, are admirably adapted as
an aliment for the sick and delicate. When boiled hard or fried, they are
rendered less digestible, and possess no advantage in this respect over
butcher’s meat. A new-laid egg, beaten up in a cup of tea, coffee, or
chocolate is an excellent ingredient in the breakfast of a person with a
poor appetite, and is very supporting. A glass of wine, beer, or porter,
similarly treated, along with a biscuit, has been recommended as a light
and nutritious luncheon or supper, well suited to the debilitated and
dyspeptic. Raw eggs may be advantageously substituted for cod-liver oil in
all the cases in which this last is ordered, occurring in persons with
delicate or irritable stomachs. The addition of fresh salad oil vastly
increases their medicinal virtues. A fresh egg is said to contain about
the same amount of nourishment as 1-1/2 oz. of fresh meat and 1 oz. of
wheaten bread, but in a more digestible form.

  _Composition of the contents of the egg._
    Water               74·02
    Albumen             14·08
    Oil and fat         10·25
    Mineral matter       1·65
                      ———————
                       100·00

  _Composition of the white of egg._ (Thompson.)
    Nitrogenous matter     20·40
    Fatty matter
    Saline matter           1·60
    Water                  78·00
                          ——————
                          100·00

  _Composition of the yolk._ (Thompson.)
    Nitrogenous matter     16·00
    Fatty matter           30·70
    Saline matter           1·30
    Water                  52·00
                          ——————
                          100·00

=Egg, White of= (ALBUMEN OVI), is officinal in the B. P. Yelk of egg
(_vitellus ovi_) is an ingredient in the BRANDY MIXTURE (MISTURA SPIRITUS
VINI GALLICI) of the London College. It is also a popular application to
chaps, cracked nipples, abrasions, &c., and is largely used to render
oleaginous substances miscible with water, in the preparation of
emulsions.

The average weight of the new-laid egg of a hen is about 2-1/2 oz., and
its sp. gr. is 1·080 to 1·090; the white generally weighs about 1-1/2 oz.;
the yolk, a little under 3/4 oz.; and the shell and skin, 1/4 oz. Dr Prout
found that an egg, on being kept for 2 years in a dry situation, lost
544-3/10 gr., from the evaporation of a portion of its water through the
shell. By boiling in water an egg loses from 2% to 3% of its weight.

_Choice._ The larger end of a new-laid egg feels cold when placed against
the tongue. New-laid eggs appear semi-transparent when placed between the
eye and a strong light, and have a small and perceptible division of the
skin from the shell, which is filled with air. This mode of examination
among the trade is called ‘candling.’ When they shake they are stale. The
eggs of turkeys and pea-hens are much esteemed for some purposes; those of
ducks and geese are coarse and inferior.

Sound eggs will sink if put into a solution, consisting of 1 oz. of salt
in 10 oz. of water; in the same solution indifferent ones will float,
whilst bad or worthless ones will swim even in pure water.

_Pres._ Eggs may be preserved for any length of time by excluding them
from the air. One of the cleanest and easiest methods of doing this is to
pack them with the small end downwards, in clean dry salt, in barrels or
tubs, and to place them in a cool and dry situation. We have eaten eggs
thus preserved that were more than a twelvemonth old, and that had been
for some months on shipboard in a tropical climate, and which yet retained
all the peculiar sweetness of new-laid eggs. With a like intention, eggs
are placed in vessels containing milk of lime or strong brine, or are
rubbed over with butter, lard, or gum water, all of which act by excluding
the air. Eggs for keeping should never be laid on their sides, and when
kept in the air should be occasionally turned to prevent the yolk
attaching itself to the side instead of floating in the albumen. Some
persons place the eggs in a netting or on a sieve or colander, and immerse
them for an instant in a caldron of boiling water before packing them
away. The practice of packing eggs in damp straw, or anything else that
can convey a flavour should be carefully avoided. The shells of eggs are
porous, and readily admit the passage of gaseous substances, especially of
fetid odours. It is from inattention to this point that a large number of
the eggs imported from the coast of France have a less delicate flavour
than those of our poultry yards. Damp chopped straw, as well as most other
organic substances exposed to warmth and moisture, readily ferment or
putrefy; and during fermentation a considerable increase of temperature
takes place, as any one may readily perceive by examining the common
hotbeds in our gardens, which are merely masses of organic matter in a
state of decomposition. Eggs, as long as they retain the embryo of the
future chick in a vital state, possess in themselves a certain degree of
warmth, which tends materially to promote the decomposition of the
substances they are packed in, particularly in the presence of moisture.

A correspondent of the ‘Chemical News’ says: “Eggs may be kept fresh for a
whole year by subjecting them to the following process. The fresh eggs are
carefully placed in a mixture of five kilogrammes of alum, dissolved in
five litres of water, heated to from 45° to 50° C., and left in that
liquid for from thirty to forty minutes; the eggs are next drained, and in
the meantime the solution of alum is heated to boiling-point. The eggs are
again immersed in the liquid and kept therein from ten to fifteen seconds;
after having been drained and cooled, they are packed in either dry bran,
sawdust, cork-dust, sifted ashes, or in cotton-wool.”

M. Durand, of Blois, proposes to preserve eggs by coating them with
silicate of soda.

    _To Preserve Eggs fresh for many weeks._——As the eggs are taken
    from the nest, brush each one separately with a thin solution of
    gum Arabic, being careful to leave no portion of the shell
    uncovered by it. The half of each egg must first be done, and
    left to become dry before the remainder is touched, that the gum
    may not be rubbed off any part by its coming in contact while
    wet with the hand as it is held to be varnished, or with the
    table when it is laid down to harden.——ELIZA ACTON.

_Eggs to boil in the Shell._——Eggs brought from a cold place and suddenly
plunged into boiling water are very frequently liable to crack, and thus
to allow of the partial escape of their contents. In winter it will be
found a good plan to hold them for an instant over the steam of the
saucepan before they are placed in it, which they should be, very gently.
By boiling for three minutes, the whites will become in a partially solid
state. Exactly five minutes will harden the whites and leave the yolks
liquid. Eight or ten minutes will render them hard. Eggs should always be
boiled in water sufficient to entirely cover them. They should be boiled
15 minutes for salad-dressings.

_Eggs, to Poach._——Take for this purpose a wide and delicately clean pan
about half filled with the clearest spring water; throw in a small
saltspoonful of salt, and place it over a fire quite free from smoke.
Break some new-laid eggs into separate cups, and do this with care, that
the yolks may not be injured. When the water boils, draw back the pan,
glide the eggs gently into it, and let them stand till the whites appear
almost set, which will be in about a minute; then without shaking them
move the pan over the fire, and just simmer them from two minutes and a
half to three minutes. Lift them out separately with a slice, trim quickly
off the ragged edges, and serve them upon dressed spinach or upon minced
veal, turkey, or chicken; or dish them for an invalid upon delicately
toasted bread, sliced thick and free from crust; it is an improvement to
have the bread buttered, but it is less wholesome.

Comparative time of poaching eggs: swan’s eggs, 5 to 6 minutes (in basin,
10 minutes); turkey’s eggs, 4 minutes; hen’s eggs, 3 to 3-1/2 minutes;
Guinea fowl’s, 2 to 3 minutes; bantam’s, 2 minutes.

_Obs._ All eggs may be poached _without boiling_ if kept just at simmering
point, but _one boil_ quite at last will assist to detach them from the
stewpan, from which they should always be very carefully lifted on what is
called a fish or egg slice. There are pans made on purpose for poaching
and frying them in good form; but they do not, we believe, answer
particularly well. If broken into cups slightly rubbed with butter and
simmered in them, their roundness of shape will be well preserved.——ELIZA
ACTON.

=Egg, Elas′tic.= Take a good and sound egg, place it in strong vinegar,
and allow it to remain for 12 hours; it will then become quite soft and
elastic. In this state it can be squeezed into a tolerably wide-mouthed
bottle; when in, it must be covered with water having a little soda
dissolved in it. In a few hours the egg will be restored to nearly its
original solidity; after which the liquid may be poured off and the bottle
dried, the whole being kept as a curiosity to puzzle one’s friends for an
explanation how the egg got there. (‘Parlour Pastime.’)

=Egg Flip.= _Prep._ 1. Beer, 1 pint; eggs, 3 in no.; sugar, 2 oz.; nutmeg
and ginger, q. s. to flavour; the eggs are broken into one half of the
beer, the sugar added, and the whole beaten well together; the mixture is
then placed in a clean warmer, and heated over the fire to nearly the
boiling-point, and stirred one way all the time, care being taken not to
let it either boil or curdle; the other portion of the beer and the spices
are then added, and the whole mixed well together.

2. As above, but adding a glass of spirit. Some persons also add a little
lemon peel.

=Eggs, Packing, for Shipboard.= The following plan is now adopted by many
firms shipping eggs:——“In the bottom of the box may be placed bran, cut
hay, and sawdust. Tear up old newspapers to about 8 or 10 inches square.
The paper should be about medium——that is, not too stiff nor too soft.
Place one of these pieces of paper on the hand, and on this an egg, on one
end; close the lower hand so as to bring the paper up all round the egg;
with the other hand crumple the loose corners and edges of the paper down
over the other end of the egg; lay another piece of paper on the hand, on
which place the same egg, but the other end up; bring up the new paper and
crumple down as before. This gives a good cushion to both ends, and a fair
one over the centre. Repeat this till you have six thicknesses of paper,
reversing the egg each time, and always keeping it on the end. This gives
you a ball about 3 to 3-1/2 in. thick by 3-1/2 to 4 in. long. Care should
be taken not to press the paper too closely to the egg while covering.
Place on one end in the box or basket; place alongside and press them
together close enough to prevent their becoming loose in the box, fillings
at the ends and on top with crumpled paper.”——J. P.

=Egg, Glaire of.= _Prep._ Separate the whites from the yolks, and whisk
them to a froth, let them stand 24 hours, and strain them through muslin.
Used as a glaze or varnish by bookbinders and others.

=Egg, Liquid.= _Prep._ (Jayne.) From lime, 1 bushel (slaked with water);
common salt, 2 or 3 lbs.; cream of tartar, 1/2 lb.; water, q. s. to form a
mixture strong enough to float an egg. Used to preserve eggs, which it is
stated it will do for two years, by simply keeping them in it. Simple milk
of lime answers quite as well.

=Egg Wine.= As egg flip, but using equal parts of white wine and water,
instead of beer.

=ELA′IDINE.= A fatty compound of elaïdic acid and glycerin, formed by the
action of nitrous acid or nitrate of mercury on olive oil. It is neutral;
melts at 90° Fahr.; and is very soluble in ether, scarcely so in alcohol.
It is one of the components of CITRINE OINTMENT. By saponification it is
resolved into its two constituents.

=ELA′IN.= See OLEIN.

=ELAIOM′ETER.= _Syn._ OLEOM′ETER. An instrument for ascertaining the
specific gravity of oils. See HYDROMETER and OIL.

=ELAL′DEHYD.= A peculiar crystalline substance which forms in ALDEHYD when
kept for some weeks at a temperature of 32° Fahr. It melts into a
colourless liquid at about 38°, in which state it is miscible with water,
alcohol, and ether. It is isomeric with aldehyd, but its vapour has about
three times the density of that substance, whilst it neither combines with
ammonia nor comports itself with potassa and solution of silver like
aldehyd.

=ELAOP′TENE.= See OIL (Volatile).

=ELAT′ERIN.= _Syn._ MOMORDICINE. The active principle of ELATERIUM. It was
discovered by Dr Clutterbuck in 1819, but first obtained in a state of
purity in 1830 by the late Mr Hennel.

=Elaterin.= _Syn._ ELATERIUM. (Dr Morries.) Obtained by evaporating
tincture of elaterium (made with rectified spirit) to the consistence of
thin oil, and throwing it in boiling distilled water. When cold, the
crystalline precipitate is collected, and dried with a gentle
heat.——_Dose_, to commence with 1-16th of a grain.

_Prep._ 1. (Dr Morries.) Elaterium is digested in hot alcohol, the
resulting tincture filtered, evaporated to the consistence of thin oil,
and then thrown into boiling distilled water. When the whole is cold, the
precipitate is collected and purified by redissolving it in alcohol and
precipitation by water, as before.

2. (Hennel.) The alcoholic extract of elaterium is digested in ether, and
the residuum dissolved in hot alcohol; crystals form as the solution
cools.

3. An alcoholic tincture is evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, and
thrown into a mixture of equal parts of liquor of potassa and water at a
boiling temperature. Almost pure elaterin separates as the liquid cools.

_Obs._ Elaterin forms delicate, white, silky crystals, having a bitter
taste; it is fusible at about 365° Fahr.; tastes bitter; odourless;
neutral; insoluble in water; and dissolves readily in hot alcohol. Its
medicinal action is similar to that of elaterium, differing only in its
greater activity.——_Dose_, 1/16 gr. to 1/20 gr.

=ELATER′IUM.= _Syn._ SQUIRTING CUCUMBER. In _pharmacy_, ‘the fresh unripe
fruit’ of the wild cucumber, ‘_Ecbalium officinarum_——Richard,’ Ph. L.
(_Momordica Elaterium_, Linn.). According to present usage, the word is
more generally applied to the feculence deposited from the juice of the
wild cucumber. It is thus applied in Ph. B. E. & D. See _below_.)

=Elaterium.= B. P. _Syn._ EXTRACT OF ELATERIUM, E. OF SQUIRTING CUCUMBER;
EXTRACTUM ELATERII (Ph. L.), ELATERIUM (Ph. E. & D.,) L. The feculence of
the juice of the above fruit.

_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Slice wild cucumber before it is quite ripe in the
long direction, and strain the juice, very gently expressed, through a
fine hair sieve; then set it aside for some hours, until the thicker part
has subsided. The thinner supernatant fluid being rejected, dry the
thicker portion with a gentle heat. The processes of the other colleges
are essentially the same.[272]

[Footnote 272: At the Mitcham Gardens, elaterium is manufactured in much
the same way, only that considerable force is used in the expression of
the juice, and the product therefore less potent, though more in quantity.
The manufacture usually commences about the second week in September. (Dr
Royle).]

2. (Dr Clutterbuck.) The cucumbers (fully ripe) are cut longitudinally,
and sprinkling with cold water, and the juice allowed to strain through a
fine sieve into an earthenware vessel. The seeds and surrounding pulp are
next placed on the sieve, with the split fruit, and washed repeatedly with
cold water. The washings being received in the same vessel with the juice,
the whole is allowed to repose for a few hours, when the clear portion is
decanted and the sediment spread thinly on fine linen, and dried by
exposure to the air and a gentle heat avoiding the sunshine or a bright
light. Quality very fine. Forty fruits, by this process, yield only 6 gr.
of elaterium.

3. (Apothecaries’ Hall.) The fruit, slit into halves, is placed in hempen
or horsehair bags, and submitted to slight pressure in a tincture press.
The juice, as it runs off, passes through a fine hair sieve into a
cylindrical glass jug or jar, where it is allowed to remain for two hours,
when the clear supernatant liquor is poured off, and the thick portion
containing the sediment is poured on a paper filter, supported on linen,
and allowed to drain, after which it is dried by a gentle heat in a stove.
The product has a green colour, and constitutes the finest elaterium of
commerce. A darker and inferior article is obtained from the liquor,
poured from the first sediment by placing it in shallow pans, and allowing
it again to deposit.

_Prop., &c._ Elaterium is sold in thin cakes, and when pure has a
pale-gray or greenish-gray colour, floats on water, is easily pulverised
by pressure, and forms with rectified spirits a rich, green-coloured
tincture. Elaterium obtained as a second deposit (ELATERIUM NIGRUM), is
dark and inferior. Alcohol dissolves from 50% to 60% of good elaterium.
“When exhausted by rectified spirit, the solution, concentrated, and
poured into hot dilute solution of potassa, deposits, on cooling, minute
silky, colourless crystals (of ELATERIN), weighing from 1/7th to 1/4th of
the elaterium operated on.” (Ph. E.)

_Obs._ To procure a fine sample of elaterium it is necessary to remove it
as soon as it is deposited, as a heavy mucilage falls down soon
afterwards, which materially injures its quality and appearance. English
elaterium is the best. The foreign is uniformly adulterated with chalk or
starch, and coloured with sap green.

_Dose_, 1/16 gr. to 1/2 gr., formed into a pill with extract of gentian
and liquorice powder; as a hydragogue and cathartic in dropsies, twice a
day, repeated every other day for a week or ten days. Its use must be
avoided when there is much debility or any inflammatory symptoms. Larger
doses than 1/2 gr. of pure elaterium are poisonous. The _antidotes_ are
emetics, followed by demulcents, opium, and stimulants.

=EL′DER.= _Syn._ SAMBUCUS (Ph. L. & E.), L. A large shrub or small tree
belonging to the natural order _Caprifoliacæ_. It is indigenous in Europe,
and has long been valued for its medicinal properties. “The recent flowers
of the _Sambucus nigra_” (Ph. L.) or common elder are regarded as
diaphoretic and pectoral, and a distilled water (ELDER-FLOWER WATER; AQUA
SAMBUCI) is made of them. The inner bark of the same tree is purgative and
emetic, and is used in dropsy; the leaves are purgative; the juice of the
fresh berries is made into wine (ELDER WINE), and is largely used to make
FACTITIOUS PORT WINE, and to adulterate the real wine. See WATERS
(Distilled).

=ELECAMPANE′.= _Syn._ INULA (Ph. L.), L. “The root of _Inula Helenium_”
(Ph. L.). A plant of the nat. order _Compositæ_. Tonic, diaphoretic, and
expectorant.——_Dose_, 20 gr. to 1 dr., or more, either in the form of
powder or decoction; in catarrh, dyspepsia, &c. It is now seldom used.

=ELECTRANODYN.= For the cure of neuralgia, headache, migrain, faceache,
and apoplectic attacks. As a necklace for children for toothache, as a
preventive of quinsy, &c. A tissue paper converted into a nitrogenous
material (pyroxylin or _düppelpapier_) by immersion in a mixture of
sulphuric and nitric acid, and containing besides an insignificant
proportion of wax and resin. (Hager.)

=ELEC′TRIC.= _Syn._ ELECTRICAL. Exhibiting the effects of ELECTRICITY when
‘excited’ by friction; pertaining to, derived from, or produced by
electricity.

=Electric.= _Syn._ INSULATOR, NON-CONDUCTOR. A substance which may under
ordinary circumstances be readily made to evince electrical properties by
friction. Electrics do not transmit, or conduct, electricity; whilst, on
the other hand, ANELECTRICS are good transmitters or conductors of
electrical action. The most perfect electrics are shell-lac, sulphur,
amber, jet, resinous bodies, gums, gun-cotton, glass, silk, diamond,
agate, and tourmaline; dry fur, hair, wood, feathers, and paper;
turpentine and various oils; dry atmospheric air and other gases, steam of
high elasticity, and ice at 0° Fahr. The most perfect anelectrics or
conductors are the metals, charcoal, and saline fluids.

=Electric Eel.= The _Gynotus electricus_, a fish having the power or
giving violent electric ‘shocks’; which power it exerts for killing or
stunning its prey. It is an inhabitant of the fresh-water lakes and rivers
of the warmer regions of America, Africa, and Asia.

=Electrical Machine.= An instrument for the excitation and collection of
electricity. The term is only applied to contrivances in which friction is
the immediate cause of the electrical disturbance; those which act through
chemical force, magnetism, or heat, being known by various distinctive
names, as ‘voltaic battery,’ ‘electro-magnetic machine,’ ‘induction-coil,’
‘thermo-electric pile,’ &c.

The electrical machines in common use are composed of a hollow glass
cylinder, or circular plate of glass, turning on an axis, and rubbing
against two or more leather rubbers covered with silk, the electricity
being collected by sharp points fixed in a metal rod standing on a glass
pillar. A description of these instruments, however, would be out of place
in the present work, which does not aim at giving information that may be
easily obtained from other sources.

Cylinder machines are seldom made of greater size than 13 inches by 9, and
are about as powerful as an 18-inch plate machine. The latter are commonly
made up to 3 and 4 feet diameter, and will, with a suitable condenser,
give 15 inch sparks in air.

=ELECTRI′′CITY= (-trĭs′-ĭt-e). The name given primarily to one of the
great forces of nature, and secondarily to that department of physical
science which embraces all that is known respecting this particular force.
Many theories respecting the nature of electricity have been advanced for
the purpose of explaining electrical phenomena. The theory of Dr Franklin
supposed the existence of a single homogeneous, imponderable fluid, of
extreme tenuity and elasticity, in a state of equable distribution
throughout the material world. This fluid is assumed to be repulsive of
its own particles, but attractive of all other matter. When distributed in
bodies, in quantities proportionate to their capacities or attraction for
it, such bodies are said to be in their ‘natural state.’ When we increase
or diminish the natural quantity of electricity in any substance,
excitation is the result, and the substance, if ‘overcharged,’ is said to
be electrified ‘positively,’ or if ‘undercharged,’ ‘negatively.’ These
theories, and all others based upon the assumption that electricity is a
form of matter, have been found to be inadequate for the elucidation of
electrical phenomena.

At the present day, however, two kinds of electric forces are recognised,
and distinguished as negative and positive, but they are both assumed to
be analogous in principle, and very generally assumed to be simply due to
different analogous motions of matter. For a full exposition, however, the
reader must refer to some of the especial works on the subject.

=ELECTRICITY, Iron reduced by.= Gelatin capsules of the size of a 2-grain
pill, filled with powdered blacksmith scales (black oxide of iron).
(Hager.)

=ELECTRO-CHEM′ISTRY.= That branch of chemistry which treats of the agency
of electricity in effecting chemical changes.

=ELECTRO-ETCH′ING.= See ETCHING.

=ELECTROL′YSIS.= (-trŏl′-e-sĭs). Electro-chemical decomposition. The
voltaic current has the power of loosening and separating the constituents
of certain compound bodies when these are interposed in the circuit. The
substances which are thus susceptible of decomposition are termed
electrolytes. They are all binary compounds, containing single equivalents
of their components, which are held together by very powerful affinities.
The amount of electrical power required to effect decomposition varies
greatly with different electrolytes: solution of iodide of potassium,
melted chloride of lead, hydrochloric acid, water mixed with a little
sulphuric acid, and pure water, demand very different degrees of
decomposing force, the resistance increasing from the first-mentioned
substance to the last, which latter it has been denied can be decomposed.
One of the indispensable conditions of electrolysis is fluidity. When a
liquid is electrolysed its components are discharged solely at the
limiting surfaces, where, according to the usual figurative mode of
speech, the current enters and leaves the liquid, all the intermediate
portions appearing quiescent. The terms ‘anode’ and ‘cathode’ have been
proposed respectively for the surfaces which are supposed to receive and
let out the current of positive electricity. The anode is therefore
directly against or opposite the positive pole of the battery, or,
according to the improved nomenclature, the positive electrode; and the
cathode against the negative pole, or electrode. The bodies which are set
free by the action of the current are termed ions; those which go to the
anode and appear at the positive electrode being distinguished by the term
anions, and those which go to the cathode and appear at the negative
electrode by the term cathions. This nomenclature has, however, been but
partially adopted, and is making but slow way, if any, many preferring the
old terms of electro-positive for anions, and electro-negative for
cathions.

The relative decomposing effects produced by the same current in different
electrolytes are exactly expressed by the chemical equivalents of the
electrolytes. Thus, if a current be made to traverse acidulated water,
iodide of potassium, and chloride of lead, these three electrolytes will
suffer decomposition at the same time, but by no means to the same extent;
for the current which decomposes but 9 parts of water will separate into
their elements 166 parts of iodide of potassium and 139 parts of chloride
of lead. The electrolysis of metallic salts is now carried out on a large
scale in the beautiful arts, which we notice under the general head of
ELECTROTYPE.

=ELECTROMOTIVE ESSENCE= (Romershausen). An embrocation for restoring the
suspended functions of the skin by stimulating the flow of vital
electricity and the functions of the nerves. A solution of oils of
turpentine and rosemary in the ninth dilution of alcohol previously
coloured red with some vegetable dye. (Reithner.)

=ELECTRO-PLA′′TING and GILDING.= See ELECTROTYPE.

=ELECTROPH′ORUS.= A simple instrument for exciting electricity, generally
used in the chemical laboratory for charging small Leyden jars when gases
have to be exploded by the electric spark. To construct it, a plate of
tinned iron is made into a circle of about 12 inches diameter; a raised
border is then turned up for about half an inch, and the extreme edge is
turned outwards over a wire to avoid a sharp border. A mixture of equal
parts by weight of shell-lac, Venice turpentine, and resin, is made by
gently heating them together with stirring until well fused and thoroughly
incorporated. This composition is poured into the plate, to quite fill it,
and kept melted until all bubbles have disappeared. Another portion of the
instrument, serving the same purpose as the conductor of an electric
machine, is a circle of wood, rather smaller than the resinous plate,
rounded at the edge, and neatly covered with tin-foil. An insulating
handle, formed of a piece of stout glass rod, is cemented into the centre
of this wooden disc. Before using the instrument it must be carefully
dried and slightly warmed. The resinous surface is excited by beating it
obliquely with a folded piece of warm flannel. When this has been done for
about a minute, the warm dry cover of the instrument is to be placed upon
the resinous plate, and touched with the finger. If the cover is then
raised a few inches, and the knuckle approached, a powerful spark of
positive electricity will pass; and if the cover be again replaced,
touched, and raised, a second spark will pass. This may be repeated many
times without again exciting the resinous plate. By receiving the sparks
with the knobs of a Leyden jar, a charge strong enough to give a powerful
shock, or explode a gaseous mixture, may be rapidly obtained. Other forms
have been given to the instrument, but the essential part of every one is
a plate of some resinous substance.

=ELECTROTYPE.= _Syn._ ELECTRO-MET′ALLURGY, GALVAN′O-PLAS′TIC. The art of
working in metals by the aid of electricity. Strictly speaking, the term
electrotype is only applicable to one branch of ‘electro-metallurgy’——that
which relates to the production of copies of engraved plates, medals,
coins, and other works——but it is now commonly employed in the sense
indicated by our definition. According to this extended signification of
the term, the art of electrotype includes ELECTRO-PLATING, and
ELECTRO-GILDING.

_General Principles._——If a current from a voltaic battery be passed, by
means of platinum electrodes, through water to which some sulphuric acid
has been added, electrolysis, takes place, hydrogen appearing at the
cathode, and oxygen at the anode. If into the acid liquid some crystals of
sulphate of copper be now thrown, electrolysis will still go on, but only
one of the elements of the water, namely oxygen, will be evolved; for the
hydrogen, on being released, will take the place of the copper in the
solution, and the copper thus liberated will be deposited on the platinum
plate or wire which constitutes the negative electrode. This experiment
may be continued until all the copper is extracted from the solution. Let
this experiment be repeated with a copper plate for the positive
electrode, and it will be found that neither of the gases will be evolved.
The hydrogen, as before, will take the place of the copper in the
solution; the oxygen, instead of escaping at the anode, will combine with
the copper of the electrode and the sulphuric acid to form sulphate of
copper. The chemical forces called into action by the current are so
beautifully balanced, that in the last experiment the quantity of copper
supplied by the positive electrode exactly equals the quantity withdrawn
from the solution and deposited upon the negative electrode. The whole art
of electrotype consists in applying the metals thus released from their
solutions to artistic or useful purposes. To obtain compact and brilliant
deposits, many precautions have to be observed. The solutions must be kept
saturated, or nearly so; the mould to be copied, or object to be coated,
must not be too small, or out of proportion to the size of the zinc plate
of the battery; in fine, the power employed must be carefully regulated
according to the work to be done. In all arrangements the moulds or
objects which receive the deposits act as negative electrodes, and are
consequently in connection with the zinc of the battery or generating
cell.

_Electrotype Processes._ Although reguline deposits of many metals can be
obtained through the agency of voltaic electricity, we shall only treat of
those of copper, silver, gold, and platinum. When copper is deposited, the
object is generally to produce a substantial copy of a medal, an engraved
plate, or other work of art; but when solutions containing the precious
metals are electrolysed, the deposits are nearly always used for covering
the surface of inferior metals. We shall notice the operations connected
with the deposition of copper, and those relating to electro-plating under
separate heads.

1. DEPOSITION OF COPPER:

The moulds or models intended to receive the deposited metals may be
formed of various materials. For medals and similar small works, moulds of
fusible metal, white wax, stearine, stearic acid, and gutta percha, are
commonly used. The first are formed by dropping or pressing the medals to
be copied upon the melted metal, taking care that the former are quite
cold, and that the surface of the metal is bright or free from oxide. To
make a mould in gutta percha, the material must be softened in warm water,
and then pressed upon the medal by means of a strong screw press. With the
other materials the manipulation is very easy. A ribbon of cardboard or
thick paper is placed round the medal, so as to form a rim; the material,
which has been melted in an earthen vessel, is then poured on, and allowed
to remain until quite cold and hard, when it is cautiously removed. For
large works, moulds of plaster of Paris are usually employed; these
require to be saturated with wax or tallow, by standing them in a shallow
vessel containing these substances in a melted state. For copying seals
and small coins, impressions in ordinary sealing-wax may be used as
electrotype moulds. Non-metallic moulds must be coated with some substance
which has the property of conducting electricity before they can be used
as negative electrodes. The substance commonly employed is plumbago or
black-lead. It must be in the condition of an impalpable powder. It is
rubbed briskly over the surface of the mould (wax, stearine, plaster, &c.)
by means of a strong fine camel-hair brush, till the whole presents the
well-known black-lead polish. The adhesion of the plumbago may be often
promoted by breathing slightly on the mould. To cause it to adhere to
sealing wax impressions, the wax may be slightly moistened with spirits of
wine, or exposed to the vapour of ether. Delicate moulds and objects,
which cannot well be black-leaded, may be covered with a conducting film
of silver, by first dipping them in bisulphuret of carbon holding about
1/20th part of phosphorus in solution, and then, after a few seconds,
immersing them in a weak solution of nitrate of silver, and allowing them
to dry in the light. Metallic moulds require no preparation.

The voltaic apparatus used may now be described. The single-cell
arrangement, used for small works, is formed on the principle of Daniell’s
Constant Battery. It consists of a vessel of glass, earthenware, or wood,
containing a smaller cell of thin biscuit ware, or other porous material;
a rod or plate of amalgamated zinc, placed within the porous cell, and a
wire connecting the zinc with the mould to be copied; the latter being
placed in the outer vessel. The annexed figure represents a convenient
form of the single-cell:——

The battery arrangement has many advantages over that described above, and
should always be employed when large objects are to be electrotyped, or
when a number of small moulds are to be operated upon. In this arrangement
the copper solution is electrolysed in a separate vessel, termed the
decomposition cell, and the current generated by one or more cells of a
Daniell’s or Smee’s battery. This arrangement is shown in the following
engraving:——

[Illustration:

  _a._ An oval vessel of salt-glazed earthenware or wood nearly
      filled with a saturated solution of sulphate of copper.
  _b._ A porous diaphragm, containing the cylinder or plate of zinc
      (_c_), and filled with dilute sulphuric acid.
  _d._ A small bar of brass or copper fastened to the vessel by the
      binding screws (_e, e_), and supporting the plate of zinc
      (_c_), by the hook of copper wire (_f_), and the mould (_g_),
      by the hook (_h_).
  _i._ A small shelf or partition to support crystals of sulphate of
      copper, to keep up the strength of the solution.]

[Illustration:

  _a._ A constant battery cell.
  _b._ Decomposition cell, a cubical vessel made of wood or
      earthenware, and filled with a mixture of 1 part of dilute
      sulphuric acid (1 acid + 9 water), and 2 parts of saturated
      solution of sulphate of copper by measure.
  _c, c, c._ Moulds suspended to the brass rod (_f_), and connected
      with the zinc or positive element of the battery (_a_), by
      means of the screw (_g_.)
  _d, d._ Pieces of sheet copper suspended on the brass rod (_h_),
      and connected with the zinc end of the battery, by means of
      the screw (_i_), employed to keep up the strength of the
      cupreous solution in the decomposition cell.]

To connect the moulds with the zinc or positive element, stout copper
wires or strips of thin sheet copper are employed. In the case of a
non-metallic mould, the wire must lead directly to the plumbagoed surface,
or, what amounts to the same thing, the plumbago must be extended to the
point of attachment. The connecting wires, and the backs and edges of
metallic moulds, must be covered with sealing-wax varnish, or other
non-conducting substance, to prevent them receiving the deposit. Before a
mould is placed in the copper solution it is advisable that everything
should be arranged, so that the immersion may occasion immediate voltaic
action. If the connection between the zinc and the mould is not effected
until after the immersion, the solution may act chemically on the surface
of the mould, and cause the deposit to appear dark and dirty. When a mould
has remained in the solution long enough to receive a complete coating of
copper, it may be lifted out with impunity for examination. If everything
is going on well, the deposited metal will present a brilliant, light,
copper-coloured surface. When sufficiently thick, the deposit is removed
with care, washed and placed to dry. Electrotype medals may be polished
with wash-leather and the plate brush, or bronzed. Various natural objects
such as insects, fruits, &c.; small works of art, such as busts and
statuettes; chemical vessels, particularly glass flasks and retorts; and
numerous classes of articles, may be rendered less fragile by coating them
with copper by the electrotype process.

II. DEPOSITION OF THE PRECIOUS METALS——

The solutions generally employed as electrolytes from which silver and
gold are respectively separated, are those of the argento-cyanide and the
auro-cyanide of potassium. These compounds are what chemists call double
salts; for instance, cyanide of potassium is simply a compound of
potassium and cyanogen; but argento-cyanide of potassium is cyanide of
silver united with cyanide of potassium. When a solution of this double
salt is electrolysed silver appears at one electrode and cyanogen at the
other, while a proportionate amount of the simple cyanide of potassium is
formed in the solution. But if the positive electrode is of silver, the
cyanogen combines with it, and forms cyanide of silver, which unites with
the liberated cyanide of potassium, and so keeps up the strength of the
solution.

As in the deposition of copper, the apparatus used for plating or gilding
may be the single cell or the decomposition cell and battery. The
necessity of economising solutions of silver and gold has, however, led to
certain modifications in the apparatus. The single-cell arrangement
consists, as before (see _above_), of an outer vessel of glass or
earthenware, containing a cell of porous biscuit ware; but the object to
be silvered or gilded is placed, with the cyanide solution in the latter,
while the zinc is placed in the outer vessel, with the dilute sulphuric
acid.[273] The zinc is usually employed in the form of a cylinder,
completely surrounding the porous cell. In the battery arrangement the
decomposition cell may be of porcelain or glass; the silver or gold
employed to keep up the strength of the solution may be in plates, wires,
or ingots. For plating small objects, a single cell of a Daniell’s battery
will afford ample decomposing power; gilding may be better accomplished by
using three such cells. The battery arrangement is much more convenient,
effective, and economical than the single-cell arrangement.

[Footnote 273: The strength of the acid water acting upon the zinc must be
regulated according to the work to be done. If the action between the acid
and the zinc be too energetic, the electricity developed will be more than
sufficient to release pure metal, and hydrogen will be evolved, which will
interfere with the deposition.]

On a large scale, electro-plating is carried out in oblong vats,
occasionally holding from 200 to 250 gallons of solution. Silver plates
connected with a powerful voltaic or magneto-electric battery, are placed
at intervals in the vats; they form the positive electrodes, and
correspond in extent of surface with the articles to be coated, and face
them on both sides. The articles (tea-pots, cruet-frames, forks, spoons,
&c.) act as the negative electrodes, and are suspended by copper wires
from brass rods laid lengthways over the vats, and connected with the
battery. The articles plated are usually formed of nickel silver or German
silver, which is chosen on account of its silvery whiteness, a quality of
great importance when portions of the coating of noble metal have been
worn away by use.

To prepare the articles for plating, they are first boiled in a solution
of potassa, to free them from grease; they are then quickly dipped in red
nitrous acid, to remove any oxide that may have formed on the surface, and
after this well washed in water, to remove every trace of acid. They are
then suspended from copper wires, and dipped into a solution of mercury in
cyanide of potassium, or some other mercurial solution, and afterwards
washed in water, as before. The amalgamation of the surface effected by
the last operation promotes the adhesion of the film of silver. The
articles having been weighed, are now immersed in the silvering solution,
and left until a sufficient amount of silver has been deposited on them.
Their condition at any time may be ascertained by weighing a test-object
removed from the solution. In some electro-plating establishments the
silvering solution is kept constantly stirred by simple mechanical
arrangements; in others, continual motion is given to the suspended
articles. On being removed from the vats the plated articles are well
brushed with brushes of fine brass wire attached to a lathe, and cleaned
with fine Calais sand; they are afterwards polished on revolving brushes
with rottenstone, then by hand with soft leather and rouge, and, lastly,
with the naked female hand. A lasting polish is given to some articles by
burnishing with a burnisher formed of highly polished hardened steel,
bloodstone, agate, or flint. The process of electro-gilding on the large
scale is nearly the same as that of electro-plating or silvering, but, of
course, plates of gold are suspended in the solution instead of silver
plates.

Various solutions for silvering, plating, and platinising, have been
recommended. We give below those generally employed.

1. Solvent solution. Cyanide of potassium, 2 oz; distilled water or rain
water, 1 pint; dissolve. Other proportions may be employed. Used as a
general solvent for salts of silver, gold, and platinum.

2. Silver solution. Oxide of silver?[274] (not dried), 1 oz.; the solvent
solution (No. 1), 1 pint. Used for the single-cell apparatus, its strength
being maintained as the deposition proceeds by a fresh supply of oxide
from time to time.

[Footnote 274: Precipitated from pure solution of nitrate of silver by
excess of lime water. It should be well washed, and preserved in bottles
with distilled water.]

Cyanide of silver dissolved in solvent solution (No. 1). This is the
solution generally employed for plating with a separate decomposition
cell.

3. Gold solution. Add to a pint of No. 1 oxide of gold, 1/4 oz. Used in
the same manner as the second silver solution.

Cyanide of gold dissolved in solution of cyanide of potassium (No. 1).
Used as last.

4. Platinum solution. The double chloride of platinum and potassium,
dissolved in solution of caustic potassa. Other solutions have been
proposed, but this appears to be decomposed with the greatest ease.

The above sketch of the electrotype art is necessarily very imperfect. For
minute details respecting manipulation, the reader is referred to the
excellent treatises on the subject that have been written; more
particularly to Ernest Spon’s valuable work, entitled ‘Workshop Receipts.’

=ELEC′TUARY.= _Syn._ ELECTUARUM, L. Electuaries (ELECTUARIA) are formed of
light powders, generally vegetable, mixed up with honey, syrup, or sugar,
to the consistence of a stiff paste. In the present Pharmacopœia they are
included under the title Confection, but this arrangement is manifestly
improper, as the words are not synonymous. In Conserves and Confections
the addition of the saccharine matter is in much larger proportion, and is
designed to preserve the vegetable matter; in Electuaries, the syrup is
designed merely to communicate the required form. (Dr Murray.)

The preparation of electuaries is similar to that of confections and
conserves, and the same precautions must be observed to reduce the dry
ingredients to very fine powder before adding them to the syrup or other
substances used to give them form. Care must also be taken to diffuse the
ingredients equally through every portion of the mass, by patient and
laborious stirring. The neglect of this point has often led to
disagreeable consequences, from some portion of the electuary being nearly
inert, while another portion has possessed increased activity. See
CONFECTION, CONSERVE, LINCTUS, &c.

=Electuary of Ac′etate of Potassa.= See CONSERVE.

=Electuary of Al′um.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM ALUMINIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Phœbus.)
Alum, 1 dr.; extract of logwood, 4 dr.; balsam of Peru, 6 drops; water of
sage, q. s. Astringent and antiseptic; in diarrhœa, sponginess of the
gums, &c.

2. (St. Marie.) Alum, 1 dr.; catechu and extract of bark, of each 2 dr.;
conserve of roses, 6 dr.; simple syrup, q. s.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful,
every 4 hours; in chronic diarrhœa, leucorrhœa, hæmorrhages, &c. See
CONFECTION.

=Electuary, An′odyne.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM ANODYNUM, L. _Prep._ See
CONFECTION OF OPIUM.

=Electuary, Anti′monial.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM ANTIMONII, Fr. _Prep._
Electuary of senna, 1 oz.; guaiacum resin, æthiops mineral, prepared
sulphuret of antimony, each 1/2 oz.; syrup, q. s.——_Dose_, 1 dr. to 2 dr.
twice a day.

=Electuary, Anti-rheumatic.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM ANTIRHEUMATICUM; CHELSEA
PENSIONER. _Prep._ Guaiacum resin, 1 dr.; rhubarb, 2 dr.; bitartrate of
potash, 1 oz.; sulphur, 2 oz.; one nutmeg; mix the powders with 1 lb. of
honey. Take two spoonfuls night and morning.

=Electuary, Ar′abic.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM SARZÆ COMPOSITUM, E. ARABICUM,
L.; ELECTUAIRE ARABIQUE, Fr. _Prep._ From sarsaparilla, 5 oz.; senna and
China root, of each, 3 oz.; dried walnut peel, 1 oz. (all in fine powder);
honey, q. s.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 dr. See TRAITEMENT ARABIQUE.

=Electuary, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM AROMATICUM (Ph. E.). This
preparation differs from the aromatic confection of the other British
colleges, in not containing chalk. It is aromatic and stomachic, but not
antacid or absorbent. CONFECTION.

=Electuary, Bath.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM ANTI-CACHECTICUM, E. MARTIALE, E.
FERRI COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ From blacksmiths’ clinkers, reduced to an
impalpable powder, and made into an electuary with honey or treacle, q.
s.; afterwards adding powdered ginger and carbonate of magnesia, of each,
1 oz., to every lb. of the mixture.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful night and
morning every day, for 3 or 4 days, and again, after an equal interval, as
long as thought necessary; as a chalybeate tonic, and in worms.

=Electuary of Bitar′trate of Potas′sa.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM POTASSÆ
TARTRATIS, L. _Prep._ (Monro.) Cream of Tartar, 1 oz,; powdered ginger and
conserve of roses, of each 1 dr.; syrup of orange peel, q. s.——_Dose_, 1
to 3 dr.; as a hydragogue purge. It is also a useful laxative in common
cases. See CONFECTION OF CREAM OF TARTAR.

=Electuary, Black.= _Syn._ TROUSSEAU’S ELECTUARY, TROUSSEAU’S BLACK TONIC;
ELECTUARIUM NIGRUM, E. FERRI TANNATIS, L. _Prep._ From sesquichloride of
iron, 4 dr.; tannin, 1 dr.; confection of roses, 2 oz.; syrup of orange
peel, 1 oz. Tonic and astringent.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 gr.

=Electuary of Black Pep′per.= See CONFECTION OF PEPPER.

=Electuary of Burnt Sponge.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM SPONGIÆ USTÆ, L. _Prep._
(Hulse.) Burnt sponge, 10 gr.; rhubarb, 4 gr.; conserve of roses, q. s.
For a _dose_, to be taken night and morning; in scrofula, glandular
swellings, &c. See CONFECTION OF SPONGE.

=Electuary of Cas′sia.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM CASSIÆ (Ph. D. 1826.), E. C.
FISTULÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Fresh cassia pulp and syrup of
orange, of each, 1/2 lb.; manna, 2 oz.; tamarind pulp, 1 oz.; mix, and
evaporate to a proper consistence.——_Dose_, 2 dr. to 1 oz.; as a gentle
laxative for children, or as a vehicle for other cathartics. That of the
shops is commonly made with equal parts of tamarind and cassia pulps,
mixed with 1/8th of manna, and flavoured with a few drops of tincture of
orange peel, without any evaporation. See CONFECTION.

=Electuary of Cat′echu.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM CATECHU, CONFECTIO C., C.
JAPONICA, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Powdered catechu and kino, of each, 4 oz.;
cinnamon and nutmegs, of each, 1 oz.; opium (dissolved in a little
sherry), 1-1/2 dr.; syrup of red roses (evaporated to the consistence of
honey), 1-1/2 pint. See CONFECTION, and _below_.

=Electuary of Cat′echu (Compound).= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM CATECHU COMPOSITUM
(Ph. D.). See CONFECTIONS. Both the above are astringent, aromatic, and
anodyne.——_Dose_, 15 gr. to 1 dr., or more; in diarrhœa, dysentery, &c.

=Electuary, Cathar′tic.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM CATHARTICUM, L. _Prep._ 1.
Confection of senna, 1-1/2 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 1/2 oz.; syrup of
roses or of orange peel, q. s.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, 3 or 4 times a day,
in piles; or, 2 to 3 teaspoonfuls, as a gentle laxative for females, and
in skin diseases, gonorrhœa, &c. A mild and excellent medicine. It may be
safely given in larger doses.

2. (Brera.) Aloes, 8 gr.; cream of tartar, 2 dr.; honey, q. s. For a dose.
In amenorrhœa, attributed to abdominal engorgement.

=Electuary, Cephal′ic.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM CEPHALICUM, E. VALERIANÆ
COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ (Hosp. F.) Valerian root and mistletoe of the oak,
of each 1 oz.; honey, 1-1/2 oz.; tincture of henbane, q. s. to make an
electuary. In nervous and rheumatic headache, &c.; assisted by an
aperient.

=Electuary of Char′coal.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM CARBONIS, E. CARBONII,
CONFECTIO C., L. _Prep._ 1. (Hosp. F.) Confection of senna, 2 oz.; fresh
burnt charcoal, 1/2 oz.; carbonate of soda, 1/4 oz.; syrup of orange peel,
q. s.

2. (Radius.) Electuary of senna, 2 oz.; powdered charcoal and carbonate of
soda, of each, 1 dr. Both the above are given in obstinate
constipation.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls twice a day. See ELECTUARY FOR
THE TEETH.

=Electuary for Chol′era.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM ANTI-CHOLERICUM, L. The
preparations that come under this name are numerous, including aromatic
confection, and several like absorbent or astringent preparations. This
name has been given to the American remedy for cholera, noticed at page

=Electuary of Cincho′na Bark.= _Syn._ ELECTUARY OF BARK; ELECTUARIUM
CINCHONÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From yellow bark and simple syrup, of each 1 oz.;
conserve of red roses and confection of orange peel, of each 1/2 oz. Tonic
and febrifuge.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 dr.; in debility, agues, &c.

2. (Radius.) Peruvian bark, 1 oz.; syrup of orange peel, q. s. As the
last.——_Dose_, a teaspoonful or more, 3 or 4 times daily. (See _below_.)

=Electuary of Cinchona (Compound).= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM CINCHONÆ
COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (ACIDULATED,——Copland.) Yellow bark, 1 oz.;
confection of roses, 1/2 oz.; diluted sulphuric acid, 1 dr.; syrup of
ginger, 1-1/2 oz.

2. (ASTRINGENT,——Saunders.) Powdered Peruvian bark, orange peel, and
conserves of roses and hips, of each 6 dr.; crabs’ eyes (or prepared
chalk), 2 dr.; syrup of catechu, q. s.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, 2 or 3
times daily; in chronic diarrhœa, &c.

3. (WITH CATECHU,——Pierquin.) Peruvian bark, 1 oz.; catechu and balsam of
tolu, of each 1 dr.; syrup of comfrey (_Symphytum officinale_,——Linn.), q.
s.——_Dose._ As the last; in spitting of blood, hæmorrhages, &c.

4. (WITH CLOVES,——Dewees.) Peruvian bark, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 dr. (better, 4
dr.); simple syrup, q. s. A piece the size of a walnut, every hour or two,
during the intermission of an ague.

5. (WITH IRON,——Cadet.) Peruvian bark, 6 dr.; oxide of iron and confection
of opium, of each 2 dr.; syrup of cinnamon, q. s.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful,
or more, twice a day; in dropsy of the belly, after the evacuation of the
fluid, and as a tonic in debility, accompanied by nervous excitement, &c.,
in the absence of fever.

6. (Quarin’s.) Red bark, 1 oz.; ammoniated iron, 1 dr.; made into an
electuary with equal parts of oxymel of squills and syrup of the ‘five
roots’ (diuretic). Tonic, febrifuge, and pectoral.

7. (WITH SAL-AMMONIAC,——P. Cod.) Gray bark, 2-1/4 oz.; hydrochlorate of
ammonia, 1 dr.; honey and syrup of wormwood, of each 2 oz. In
intermittents occurring in scrofulous subjects.

8. (WITH SODA,——P. Cod.) Powdered cinchona, 1 oz.; carbonate of
soda, 2 dr.; thin mucilage, q. s. to mix. Tonic, febrifuge, and
stomachic.——_Dose_, 2 dr., 2 or 3 times a day; in agues, complicated with
acidity and dyspepsia.

9. (WITH SULPHUR,——Cadet.) Peruvian bark, 1 dr.; sulphur, crabs’ eyes
(chalk), and spermaceti, of each 2 dr.; extract of opium, 4 dr.; conserve
of roses, 4 dr.; syrup of milfoil, q. s. Highly praised in debility from
phthisis.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, 2 or 3 times a day, assisted with the
liberal use of raw or lightly boiled eggs and cod-liver oil.

10. (WITH TIN,——Cadet.) Peruvian bark 1 oz.; tin filings and valerian
root, of each 1/2 oz.; syrup of saffron, q. s. In epilepsy, worms,
&c.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, morning and evening. See CONFECTION OF BARK.

=Electuary of Copai′ba.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM COPAIBÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Copaiba
and powdered cubebs, equal parts; conserves of roses and orange peel, of
each (in equal quantities), q. s.

2. (Caspar.) Blanched almonds, 6 dr.; powdered marsh-mallow root, 1 dr.;
catechu, 1/2 dr.; balsam of copaiba, 3 dr.

3. (Ricord.) Confection of almonds, 1 oz.; copaiba, 1/2 oz.; hard extract
of rhatany, 3 dr.; syrup of orange peel, q. s. All the above are excellent
in gonorrhœa, gleets, &c. The last two agree better with the stomach than
most other like preparations.——_Dose_, 1 teaspoonful, or more (rapidly
increased to 2 or 3 dr.), 3 or 4 times daily. See CONFECTION.

=Electuary of Cow′hage.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM DOLICHOS, E. MUCUNÆ, L.
_Prep._ 1. Dip the pods of dolichos in treacle, allow them to drain a
moment, and then scrape off the hairs for use.

2. (Chamberlain.) As the last, nearly.

3. (Correa.) Cowhage (the hairs or setæ), 40 gr.; syrup, 1/2 oz.

4. (Ellis.) Cowhage (hairs), 1 dr.; honey, q. s.

5. (Guy’s Hosp.) Cowhage (hairs), any quantity, made into an electuary
with treacle, q. s. In worms.——_Dose._ For a child, a teaspoonful; for an
adult, a table-spoonful; in the morning, fasting, and at night, for 3 or 4
days; followed by a dose of castor oil, to which a teaspoonful of
turpentine may be advantageously added. See COWHAGE.

=Electuary of Cu′bebs.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM CUBEBÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. See
ELECTUARY OF COPAIBA.

2. (Beral.) Cubebs and copaiba, of each 2 oz.; powdered alum, 1 oz.;
extract of opium, 5 or 6 gr.; mix.

3. (Bouchardat.) Cubebs, 1/2 oz.; copaiba, 1 oz.; sweet spirit of nitre,
1/2 fl. dr.; oil of peppermint, 8 or 10 drops; powdered sugar, q. s.

4. (Radius.) Cubebs, 1/2 oz.; honey, 1 oz. In gonorrhœa, mucous discharges
from the vagina, bladder, &c.——_Dose_, 1 teaspoonful, afterwards increased
to 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls, twice or thrice daily. See CONFECTION OF COPAIBA,
ELECTUARY OF C., &c.

=Electuary, Demul′cent.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM DEMULCENS, L. _Prep._ From
spermaceti, syrup of poppies, and syrup of tolu, of each 2 dr.; powdered
gum tragacanth, 1 dr.; confection of roses, 6 dr.; nitre, 1/2 dr.——_Dose._
A piece the size of a small filbert, frequently; as a pectoral and
demulcent in coughs, hoarseness, &c.

=Electuary, Deob′struent.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM DEOBSTRUENS, L. _Prep._
(Copland.) Confection of senna, 1-1/2 oz.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.;
sulphur and syrup of ginger, of each 6 dr.; borax, 3 dr.; syrup of
poppies, 2 dr.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, or more, nightly; in the obstinate
constipation of females, painful and suppressed menstruation, &c.

=Electuary for Dys′entery.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM ANTI-DYSENTERICUM (Ph. E.
1744), L. Electuary of catechu, mixed with half its weight of Locatel’s
balsam.

=Electuary, Emmen′agogue.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM EMMENAGOGICUM, L. _Prep._
From myrrh, 1 dr.; ammoniated iron, 1 scrup.; syrup of ginger, q. s. to
mix.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr., night and morning; in deficient or
suppressed menstruation.

=Electuary for Epilep′sy.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM ANTI-EPILEPTICUM, L. _Prep._
1. See ELECTUARY OF CINCHONA (Comp.), No. 10.

2. (Dr Mead.) Powdered cinchona, 1 oz.; valerian and tin (both in powder),
of each, 1/2 oz.; syrup, q. s. to mix.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, night and
morning.

=Electuary, Feb′rifuge.= See ELECTUARY OF CINCHONA, &c.

=Electuary, Compound Guaiacum.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM GUAIACI COMPOSITUM.
(Mid. H.) _Prep._ Guaiacum resin, 2 dr.; rhubarb, 1 dr.; sulphur, 2 dr.;
nitre, 2 dr.; syrup of poppies, q. s.; mix.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Electuary of In′digo.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM INDIGI, E. PIGMENTI INDICI, L.
_Prep._ (Phœbus.) Powdered indigo, 4 dr.; aromatic powder, 1/2 dr.; syrup,
1 fl. oz. or q. s. In spasmodic diseases, especially in epilepsy, chorea,
and hysteria, and the convulsions of children. It has also been used with
advantage in that species of impotence in which strychnia is useful. The
above quantity is to be all taken, in divided doses, during the day. To be
of permanent advantage, it should be continued for several weeks.

=Electuary of Ipecacuan′ha.= See CONFECTION.

=Electuary of Jal′ap.= See CONFECTION.

=Electuary of Kermes.= MARMELADE DE ZANETTI; ELECTUARIUM KERMETIS, E. K.
MINERALIS, L. _Prep._ From manna, 4 oz.; pulp of cassia and oil of
almonds, of each 2 oz.; butter of cacao, 1/2 oz.: Kermes mineral, 10 gr.;
syrup of marsh-mallow, 3 fl. oz.; syrup of orange flower, q. s. A
diaphoretic laxative.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 teaspoonfuls, or more.

=Electuary of Lau′rel Ber′ries.= See CONFECTION OF RUE.

=Electuary, Len′itive.= See CONFECTION OF SENNA.

=Electuary, Mahomed’s.= _Prep._ 1. From grocer’s currants, 2 oz.; powdered
senna, 1/2 oz.; powdered ginger, 1 dr.; finely powdered capsicum and
cloves, of each 20 gr.; croton oil, 3 drops; conserve of roses and syrup
of saffron, of each in equal parts, q. s. to mix.

2. (Bateman.) Currants, 1 oz.; senna, 1/2 oz.; ginger, 1/2 dr.; syrup of
roses, q. s.; croton oil, 1 drop.——_Dose_, 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls, early in
the morning; in dyspepsia and habitual constipation. The first formulary
produces a most useful medicine, particularly for free-livers.

=Electuary of Male Fern.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM FELICIS MARIS, L. _Prep._ 1.
Powder of male fern, 3 dr.; conserve of roses, 1 oz.

2. (Radius.) Ethereal extract of male fern, 1/2 dr.; honey of roses, 1 oz.
The half of either to be taken at night, and the remainder the next
morning. In worms.

=Electuary, Mustard.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM SINAPIS. (Guy’s H.) _Prep._
Mustard seed, lightly bruised, 1 oz.; sulphur, 2 dr.; syrup of orange
peel, 1 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 1 dr., 3 or 4 times a day.

=Electuary of Ni′tre.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM POTASSÆ NITRATIS, L. _Prep._
(Hosp. F.) Nitre, 3 dr.; confection of roses, 2 oz.——_Dose._ A piece of
the size of a filbert, where the use of nitre is indicated. See
CONFECTION.

=Electuary, Olibanum.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM OLIBANI. [Fr.] _Prep._ Olibanum,
1/2 oz.; balsam of copaiva, 1/2 oz.; conserve of hips, 1 oz.; syrup, q.
s.——_Dose_, 2 dr. twice a day.

=Electuary of O′pium.= See CONFECTION OF OPIUM.

=Electuary, Pec′toral.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM PECTORALE, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph.
E. 1744.) From conserve of roses, 2 oz.; compound powder of tragacanth, 4
dr.; flowers of benzoin, 1 dr.; syrup of tolu, q. s.——_Dose._ A little,
_ad libitum_.

2. Oxymel of squills, syrup of marsh-mallows, mucilage of gum Arabic, and
syrup of tolu, of each 1/2 oz.; powdered lump sugar, 2 oz. As the last.

=Electuary of Pep′per.= See CONFECTION, and _above_.

=Electuary for Piles.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM HÆMORRHOIDALE, L. _Prep._ 1. See
CONFECTION and ELECTUARY OF PEPPER.

2. (Dr Copland.) Cream of tartar, 1 oz.; precipitated sulphur (pure), 3
dr.; confection of senna, 2 oz.; syrup of orange peel or ginger, q. s. to
mix.

3. (Dr Graves.) Confection of senna and sulphur, of each 1 oz.; balsam of
copaiba and cream of tartar, of each 1/2 oz.; jalap and ginger, of each 1
dr.; syrup of orange peel, q. s.

4. (Hosp. F.) Confection of senna, 2 oz.; black pepper and precipitated
sulphur, of each 1/2 oz.; oil of cubebs, 1 dr.; syrup, q. s. The last
three are useful laxatives in piles, and by their preventing the
accumulation and hardening of the fæces, often remove the
affection.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, three or four times a day. From the
difficulty experienced in procuring pure precipitated sulphur, washed
sublimed sulphur may be advantageously substituted.

=Electuary of Pomegran′ate= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM GRANATI, L. _Prep._ 1. From
the root-bark, 1 dr.; assafœtida, 1/2 dr.; croton oil, 6 drops; conserve
of roses, 1 oz.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, night and morning.

2. (Radius.) Extract of the root-bark, 6 dr.; lemon juice, 2 fl. dr.;
linden water, 3 fl. dr.; gum tragacanth, q. s. to make an electuary. One
half to be taken at once; the remainder in an hour. Both are given in
tape-worm.

=Electuary of Prunes.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM PRUNONUM. (Zwelfer.) _Prep._
Pulp of prunes boiled to a due consistence, 2 lbs.; pure sugar, 1 lb.

=Electuary of Resin.= See CONFECTION OF RESIN.

=Electuary of Rhubarb.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM RHEI, L. _Prep._ (Saunders.)
Powdered rhubarb, 1-1/2 dr.; sulphate of potassa, 1 dr.; cream of tartar,
4 dr.; pulp of tamarinds, 2 oz.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, as a mild
stomachic laxative.

=Electuary, Compound Saffron.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM CROCI COMPOSITUM.
CONFECTION D’HYACINTHE, [F.] _Prep._ Prepared Armenian bole, 8 oz.;
levigated crab’s eyes, 8 oz.; cinnamon, 3 oz.; yellow sandal, red sandal,
myrrh, of each 1 oz.; dittany of Crete, 1 oz.; all in fine powder. On the
other hand, dissolve 1-1/2 lb. of honey in 3 lbs. of syrup of pinks, over
a gentle fire, and strain, and when nearly cold stir into it 1 oz. of
saffron in powder. Let stand twelve hours, and then stir in carefully the
powders first mentioned.

=Electuary of Scam′mony.= See CONFECTION.

=Electuary for Scur′vy.= See CONSERVE (Antiscorbutic).

=Electuary of Sen′na.= See CONFECTION OF SENNA.

=Electuary of Squills.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM SCILLÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Oxymel of
squills, 2 fl. oz.; cream of tartar and powdered sugar, of each 1-1/2
oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls, as a laxative and expectorant; in old
coughs, &c.

2. (Radius.) Squills, nitre, gum ammoniacum, and tartrate (bitartrate) of
potassa, of each 2 dr.; sal-ammoniac, 20 gr.; syrup of cinnamon, q.
s.——_Dose_, 2 dr.; three times a day; in dropsies. See CONSERVE OF
SQUILLS.

=Electuary of Steel.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM FERRI, E. CHALYBEATUM, L. _Prep._
1. (Dr Collier.) Potassio-tartrate of iron, 1/2 oz.; confection of roses,
1 oz.; syrup q. s. to mix.

2. (Collier.) Precipitated sesquioxide of iron, 1 oz.; honey,
2 oz.; ginger syrup, 1/2 fl. oz. Both the above are tonic and
emmenagogue.——_Dose._ One teaspoonful, thrice a day. See CONFECTION.

=Electuary, Stim′ulant.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM STIMULANS, L. _Prep._ From gum
ammoniacum (strained), 1 oz.; vinegar of squills, 1/2 oz.; mixed with a
gentle heat, and spread on leather. Applied to the chest or pit of the
stomach, as a mild counter-irritant and antispasmodic; and as a discutient
to tumid glands and indolent tumours. It is wrongly called an electuary.

=Electuary, Stomach′ic.= _Syn._ DINNER ELECTUARY; ELECTUARIUM STOMACHICUM,
CONFECTIO STOMACHICA, L. _Prep._ 1. Rhubarb, ginger, and extract of
chamomile, of each 1 dr.; confection of orange peel, 4 dr.; syrup q. s.

2. Rhubarb and gentian, of each, 1-1/2 dr.; extract of hops and powdered
capsicum, of each 1/2 dr.; oil of chamomile, 12 drops; confection of hips
and syrup of orange peel, of each 1/2 oz.

3. Green peppermint, lump sugar, and confection of orange peel, equal
parts.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, an hour before a meal. They are all
excellent stomachics, and are useful to improve the appetite, and in
dyspepsia.

=Electuary of Sul′phur.= See CONFECTION OF SULPHUR, and _below_.

=Electuary of Sulphur (Compound).= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM SULPHURIS
COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Sulphur, 3/4 oz.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.;
confections of senna and black pepper, of each 2 oz.; syrup of ginger, 1
fl. oz. An excellent medicine in piles.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, twice a
day.

2. (WITH BORAX.) Flowers of sulphur, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 1-1/2 oz.;
borax, 1/2 oz.; confection of senna, 2-1/2 oz.; syrup of orange peel q. s.
to mix.——_Dose._ 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls, in diseases of the uterine organs
and lower bowels. See CONFECTION.

=Electuary for the Teeth.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM DENTIFRICUM, L. See TOOTH
PASTE, DENTIFRICE, &c.

=Electuary of Tin.= See CONFECTION OF TIN, and _below_.

=Electuary of Tin (Compound).= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM STANNI COMPOSITUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. Powdered tin, 1 oz.; confection of oil of turpentine, 2 oz.

2. (Dr Cheston.) Tin filings, 4 dr.; carbonate of iron (sesquioxide), 1
dr.; conserve of wormwood, 3 dr.

3. (Foy.) Powder of tin, 1 oz.; extract of wormwood and powdered jalap, of
each, 1 dr.; compound syrup of chicory, q. s. In worms.-_Dose._ A
tablespoonful, or more, for 2 or 3 successive mornings, fasting; followed
by a purge.

=Electuary of Tur′pentine.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM TEREBINTHINÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
(St. B. Hosp.) Common turpentine, 1 oz.; honey, 2 oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
teaspoonfuls; in complaints of the urinary organs, worms, &c.

2. (Radius.) Turpentine, soap, and rhubarb, of each, 1 dr.; syrup of
wormwood, q. s.——_Dose._ Three teaspoonfuls a day; in dropsy, worms, &c.

3. (E. OLEI TEREBINTHINÆ,——Copland.) As confection of turpentine,——Ph. D.
See CONFECTION.

=Electuary, Ver′mifuge.= _Syn._ ELECTUARIUM ANTHELMINTICUM, E. VERMIFUGUM,
L. _Prep._ 1. (Bresmer.) Worm-seed and tansy-seed, of each 4 dr.; powdered
valerian root, 2 dr.; jalap and sulphate of potassa, of each 1-1/2 to 1/2
dr.; oxymel of quills, q. s. to mix.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, or more;
repeated night and morning, followed by a brisk purge.

2. (Rosenstein.) Worm-seed, 10 gr.; sulphate of iron, 4 gr.; jalap and
honey, of each 20 gr. For two doses, as the last. 2 or 3 dr. of confection
of senna are often substituted for the jalap and honey.

3. (Foy.) Aloes, 1/2 oz.; common salt, 3 dr.; flour, 2 oz.; honey q. s. to
form a stiff paste. Used as a suppository in ascarides.

4. Flowers of sulphur, 4 oz.; powdered jalap, 1 oz,; powdered bark, 1 oz.;
syrup of buckthorn q. s.——_Dose._ Two or three teaspoonfuls, every morning
early. See CONFECTION and ELECTUARY OF TIN, TURPENTINE, WORM-SEED, &c.

=Electuary for Worms.= See ELECTUARY VERMIFUGE (_above_).

=EL′EMENTS.= _Syn._ ELEMENTARY BODIES, SIMPLE B.; ELEMENTA, L. In
_chemistry_, those substances or bodies which have hitherto resisted every
attempt which has been made to decompose them, or to resolve them into
simpler forms of matter. Earth, air, fire, and water, were regarded by the
ancients as simple bodies, of which all others are composed, and they
still constitute the ‘four elements’ of the vulgar. The imaginary
principles or elements of the alchemists were termed salt, sulphur, and
mercury. About sixty-four different kinds of matter are at present
recognised as elementary bodies. They are substances having the most
diverse characters. The great majority exist in the solid state; bromide
and mercury are liquid; while oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine,
are gaseous. About four fifths of the elements are metallic, as instanced
by gold, silver, copper, iron, &c.; the remainder are non-metallic, as
instanced by carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. A list of the known elements
is given under the head of ATOMIC WEIGHTS (which _see_).

=EL′EMI.= _Syn._ GUM ELEMI; ELEMI (B. P.). “A terebinthinate concretion,
from an uncertain plant.” (Ph. L.) MEXICAN ELEMI is known to be the
produce of a species of the genus _Elaphrium_. MANILLA ELEMI is probably
the product of _Canarium commune_.

_Prop., &c._ The elemi of commerce is of a pale-yellow colour, brittle
without, but soft and tough within; it has a warm bitter taste, and a
fragrant aromatic smell, partaking of fennel and juniper. It is only
partially transparent even in thin plates, is very fusible, and has a
density a little greater than that of water. It contains 12-1/2 per cent.
of volatile oil (oil of elemi). It is used to give toughness to lacquers
and varnishes, and in medicine in the preparation of ELEMI OINTMENT.

_Pur._ The elemi of the shops is often adulterated, but more frequently a
factitious kind is sold for the genuine gum. This fraud may be detected by
exposing the suspected article to heat, along with a little water, when
the factitious fragrance of the spurious article evaporates, and the
coarse terebinthinate smell of the resin used to adulterate it, or which
is sold for it, becomes readily distinguishable.

=Elemi, Facti′′tious.= _Prep._ 1. Yellow resin, 8 lbs.; melt, add Canada
balsam, 2 lbs; withdraw the vessel from the heat, and further add of oil
of juniper, 2 dr.; oil of sweet fennel, 1 dr.; oil of nutmeg, 1/2 dr.

2. Yellow resin, 7 lb.; Canada balsam, 1 lb.; juniper oil bottoms, 4 dr.;
oil of mace, 3 dr.; mix as before.

=EL′EMIN.= The crystalline resin of gum elemi.

=ELIX′IR.= In _pharmacy_, a name formerly applied to various compound
tinctures, and to preparations supposed to contain the quintessence of
other substances. (It is still applied to several popular remedies.) The
elixirs of the alchemists were solutions employed in their fruitless
attempts to transmute the baser metals into gold.

=Elixir, Ac′id.= _Syn._ ELIXIR ACIDUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dippell’s) Sulphuric
acid, 1 part, dropped gradually into rectified spirit of wine, 5 parts;
placed in a large flask, and afterwards coloured by digestion on animal
kermes and saffron, of each 1 part.

2. (Haller’s,——Ph. Sax. 1837.) From sulphuric acid and rectified spirit,
of each 1 part; as before.

3. (Vogler’s.) From sulphuric acid and nitrous ether, equal parts, as
above. Astringent and antiseptic.——_Dose._ A few drops, in water.

=Elixir of Al′oes.= _Syn._ COMPOUND TINCTURE OF ALOES; ELIXIR ALOËS, L.
See TINCTURE.

=Elixir of Aloes (Compound).= _Syn._ ELIXIR OF ALOËS COMPOSITUM, L.
_Prep._ (Dr Copland.) Acetate of potassa, inspissated ox-gall, socrotine
aloes, and myrrh, of each 2 dr.; hay saffron, 1 dr.; brandy (or proof
spirit), 2-1/2 fl. oz.; digest a week, and strain. Stomachic and
laxative.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, or more; in dyspepsia, constipation, &c.

=Elixir, Anti-asthmat′ic.= _Syn._ ELIXIR ANTI-ASTHMATICUM, L. _Prep._ 1.
Oil of aniseed, camphor, and balsam of tolu, of each 1 oz.; cochineal, 1
dr.; proof spirit, 1 gal.; digest a week, and filter.

2. As the last, adding powdered opium, 1-1/4 oz.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful to
allay irritation, assisted by an occasional dose of aperient medicine; in
asthma, chronic coughs, &c.

3. (Boerhaave’s.) Aniseed, asarabacca, elecampane, liquorice root, orris
root, and sweet flag (calamus), of each equal parts; made into a tincture,
with brandy.——_Dose_, 20 to 40 drops.

=Elixir Antigoutteux de Villette= is a tincture of 100 parts brown
cinchona bark, 50 parts poppy petals, 25 parts sassafras, 50 parts
guaiacum in 4,000 parts rum, mixed with 2,500 parts syrup of sarsaparilla.
(Hager.)

=Elixir, Anti-scrof′ulous.= _Syn._ ELIXIR ANTI-SCROFULOSUM, L. _Prep._ 1.
(P. Cod.) The ammoniated tincture of gentian. See TINCTURE.

2. (Desforges.) Guaiacum, 5 oz.; cinchona bark and pellitory of each 3
oz.; cloves, 5 dr.; orange peel and benzoin, of each 2 dr.; hay saffron,
1/2 dr.; rectified spirit and brandy, of each 1/2 pint; digest a week, and
filter. Used as an application to scorbutic gums.

=Elixir, Bitter.= _Syn_. ELIXIR AMARUM (Ph. Germ.) _Prep._ Extract of
buckbean, extract of orange peel, of each 2 parts; peppermint water,
alcohol (68 per cent.), of each 16 parts; spirit of ether (made of 3 parts
of alcohol and 1 part of ether), 1 part. Dissolve and mix.

=Elixir, Boerhaave’s Asthmat′ic.= See ELIXIR ANTIASTHMATIC (_above_).

=Elixir, Boerhaave’s Vis′ceral.= _Syn._ ELIXIR BOERHAAVII, E. B.
VISCERALE, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Han.) Aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of each 1 oz.;
tartrate of potassa, 2 oz.; alcohol (strongest rectified spirit), 14 oz.;
water, 1 oz.; macerate 3 days, and filter. This preparation “has been
highly praised in visceral obstruction.” (Dr Griffith.)——_Dose_, 1 to 3
teaspoonfuls.

=Elixir of Celery= (Dr Wilkinson’s.) For increasing, preserving, and
producing virility. Juniper berries, angelica root, lovage root, of each 1
part; spirit, 12 parts; orange-flower water, rose water, of each 4 parts;
spring water, sufficient. Distil 20 parts, and mix the distillate with 12
parts clarified honey. (Hager.)

=Elixir, Claude’s.= _Syn._ ELIXIR CLAUDERI, L. 1. (Pideret.) Salt of
tartar, sal-ammoniac, strained aloes, and myrrh, of each 1 oz.;
elder-flower water, 1-1/4 pint, digest, with agitation, for 24 hours, and
filter.

2. (Parrish.) Carbonate of potassa, 1 oz.; aloes, guaiacum, myrrh,
saffron, and rhubarb (contused), of each 2 dr.; water, 18 fl. oz. Macerate
a few days, and decant.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls; in amenorrhœa,
constipation, scurvy, visceral obstructions, &c.

=Elixir, Cough.= _Syn._ ELIXIR ANTI-CATARRHALE, L. _Prep._ 1. See
ANTI-ASTHMATIC ELIXIR.

2. (Hufeland.) Extracts of blessed thistle and dulcamara, of each 1 dr.;
cherry-laurel water, 1 fl. dr.; fennel-water, 1 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
teaspoonfuls, 3 or 4 times a day. It is a most useful remedy in coughs
occurring in nervous, hysterical, or irritable patients. See ELIXIR OF
IPECACUANHA, ELIXIR LETTSOM’S, &c. (_below_).

=Elixir, Daffy’s.= _Syn._ ELIXIR SALUTIS, E. SENNÆ COMPOSITUM, TINCTURA
SENNÆ COMPOSITA, L. This is an aromatised and sweetened tincture of senna,
to which other cathartics are generally added. Nearly every drug-house has
its own formula for this article. The following are those employed in the
London trade:——

_Prep._ 1. East India senna, 1-1/2 lb.; jalap, 5 oz.; coriander seed and
aniseed, of each 1/2 lb.; rhubarb, 1/4 lb.; red sanders wood, 2 oz.; salt
of tartar, 2 oz.; treacle, 7 lbs.; rectified spirit of wine, 2-1/2 galls.;
water, 3-1/4 galls. All the solids are well bruised, and macerated in the
mixed fluids for 14 days, when the whole is pressed, and strained through
a flannel bag. It is too glutinous to run through filtering paper.

2. Senna, rhubarb, and aniseed, of each 2 lbs.; jalap and caraways, of
each 1 lb.; red sanders wood, 1/2 lb.; brown sugar, 7 lbs.; proof spirit,
10 galls.; as the last.

3. Senna, 56 lbs.; aniseed, 7 lbs.; rhubarb (East India), 14 lbs.;
coriander seed, 6 lbs.; caraway seed and red sanders wood, of each 5 lbs.;
cassia bark and jalap, of each 3 lbs.; proof spirit, 100 galls.; digest
for 14 days, press, strain, and add molasses, 84 lbs.; mix well, and
either clarify or strain through flannel.

4. For proof spirit in the last two formulæ, equal parts of spirit of wine
and water are employed by the smaller houses.

5. (Redwood.) Senna, 1/2 lb.; aniseed, caraways, and jalap, of each 1 oz.
2 dr.; juniper berries, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 6 pints; macerate for 14
days, then add of treacle, 10-1/2 oz.; water, 1 lb. 5 oz.; mix and strain.

6. (Dicey’s.) Senna, 1 lb.; guaiacum shavings, elecampane root (dried),
aniseed, caraway seed, coriander seed, and liquorice root, of each 1/2
lb.; stoned raisins, 2 lbs.; proof spirit or brandy, 9 quarts; macerate
for 10 days.

7. (Swinton’s.) Senna, 1 lb.; jalap, 3 lbs.; coriander seed, caraway seed,
liquorice root, and elecampane root, of each 4 oz.; moist sugar, 2 lbs.;
rectified spirit of wine and water, of each 1 gal.; as the last.

_Obs._ Daffy’s elixir is a favorite purge with drunkards, and is a common
and very popular remedy in flatulent colic, dyspepsia, diarrhœa,
&c.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 table-spoonfuls, or more.

=Elixir de Pepsin Digestif.= (Grimault & Co.) For loss of appetite and
disordered digestion. Contains pepsine, in quantities not at all
proportionate to the price of the article.

=Elixir Deslauriers Toni-Febrifuge au Quinquina et Caffé.= A tonic
febrifuge. Yellow cinchona (Köningschina), 20 grammes; brown cinchona, 8
grammes; powdered coffee beans, slightly roasted, 16 grammes; wine, 250
grammes; sugar, 15 grammes; citric acid, 2·5 grammes. Boil once after
standing some time in a warm place, and filter. Add to the filtered liquid
85 grammes sugar and 15 grammes spirit.

=Elixir de St. Hubert pour les Chasseurs= is a solution of 2 parts
carbolic acid in 50 parts spirit. (Casselmann.)

=Elixir, Devil’s.= _Syn._ ELIXIR CAPSICI COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ From pods
of capsicum, and cloves (bruised), of each 1 oz.; ginger and saffron, of
each 3 oz.; cantharides, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 7 lbs.; digest for 10
days.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 3 dr., in mixtures. It is stimulating,
anti-choleraic, and aphrodisiac.

=Elixir of Garlic.= _Syn._ ELIXIR ALLII, L. _Prep._ From garlic roots
(bruised), 80 in no.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest, distil to
dryness, and repeat the process with the same spirit from fresh roots, a
second and a third time; lastly, add camphor, 2 dr. Diaphoretic and
pectoral.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, twice a day; in asthma, old coughs,
diarrhœa from debility, &c.

=Elixir, Garus’s.= _Syn._ ELIXIR GARI, L.; ELIXIR DE GARUS, Fr. _Prep._ 1.
Myrrh, 1 oz.; aloes and saffron, of each 1/2 oz.; cinnamon, cloves, and
nutmeg, of each 1 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest a week, add water, 5
fl. oz., and distil over 1 quart; to the distillate (ALCOOLAT DE GARUS)
add of syrup of maidenhair, 2 lbs.; orange-flower water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Foy.) Compound tincture of saffron, 8 pints; syrup of maidenhair, 10
pints; mix; add caramel, q. s. to colour, dissolved in orange-flower
water, 1/2 pint.

3. (P. Cod.) Aloes and saffron, of each 1 oz.; myrrh, cinnamon, and
cloves, of each 1/2 oz.; nutmeg, 1/2 dr.; proof spirit, 12 pints;
orange-flower water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate 2 days, distil 6 pints, and add
to the distillate (ALCOOLAT DE GARUS), of syrup of capillaire, 7-1/2
pints; and colour with saffron q. s.

4. (Soubeiran.) Socotrine aloes and saffron, of each 1 oz.; myrrh, canella
alba, citron, and nutmegs, of each 1/2 oz.; spirit (sp. gr. ·923), 20
lbs.; orange-flower water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate as last, distil 10 lbs.,
and add to the distillate (ALCOOLAT DE GARUS), of syrup of capillaire,
12-1/2 lbs.; orange-flower water, 8 fl. oz.; with saffron q. s. to colour.

5. (Thierry.) Aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of each 2 dr.; nutmeg, 4 dr.;
canella alba and cloves, of each 1 oz.; spirit (·864), 13 lbs.; draw over
12 lbs. of ‘alcoolat,’ add to the residue of the distillation rose water,
10 lbs.; distil 6 lbs., and add as much of this aromatic water to the
alcoolat as will raise its sp. gr. to ·890. Then to every 11 lbs. of the
above mixed liquor add of simple syrup, 15 lbs.; tincture of vanilla and
orange peel, of each 2-1/2 fl. oz.; fresh milk (skimmed), 1 lb.; and
tincture of saffron q. s. to colour; digest with agitation for two days,
and filter. Used as a stomachic, carminative, and stimulant, in doses of a
wine-glassful. That prepared without distillation forms an excellent
stomachic purge. With the exception of that from the 2nd formula, the
products may be regarded as agreeable cordial liquors rather than
medicines. It is much employed on the Continent.

=Elixir of Gold.= _Syn._ ELIXIR AURII, L.; ELIXIR D’OR, Fr. _Prep._ 1. De
la Motte’s Golden Drops.

2. Terchloride of gold, 20 gr.; rectified spirit, 6 fl. dr.; ether, 3 fl.
dr.; dissolve.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 drops, taken in distilled water; in gout,
scrofula, nervous diseases, cancer, indurated glands, secondary syphilis,
&c. This last preparation is often confounded with the _gouttes d’or du
Général de la Motte_; but the two are evidently distinct articles. See
DROPS.

=Elixir, Haller’s.= See ELIXIR ACID (_above_).

=Elixir, Hoffman’s Visceral.= _Syn._ ELIXIR HOFFMANNI, E. H. VISCERALE, L.
_Prep._ 1. As ELIXIR OF ORANGE-PEEL,——Ph. Bor. 1847.

2. Thin outside peel of orange (dried), myrrh, and centuary, of each 2
dr.; extracts of carduus benedictus, cascarilla, and gentian, of each 1
dr.; white wine (sherry), 1 quart. Aromatic and stomachic.——_Dose._ A
dessert-spoonful, or more.

=Elixir for Impotence in Males= (Dr Ludwig Tiedemann). Prepared from
directions given in the Puntsaou from genuine ginseng root. 135 grammes of
a dark brown aromatic vinous liquid, prepared by digesting orange berries
in wine. The embrocation is an equal quantity of a pleasantly-smelling
liquid consisting of spirit with tincture of storax and a small admixture
of volatile oils. (Hager.)

=Elixir of Ipecac′uanha.= _Syn._ ELIXIR IPECACUANHÆ, L. _Prep._ (Cadet.)
Powdered ipecacuanha and balsam of tolu, of each 4 dr.; flowers of
benzoin, opium, and saffron, of each 2 dr.; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.;
camphor, 40 gr.; alcohol (rectified spirit), 1-1/2 pint; digest a week and
filter.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr., as a stimulant, diaphoretic, expectorant, and
stomachic; in chronic coughs, asthmas, and old colds, and in certain forms
of deficient appetite, dyspepsia, diarrhœa, &c.

=Elixir of Jal′ap.= _Syn._ ELIXIR JALAPÆ COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ From
jalap, 4 oz.; scammony, 4 dr.; gamboge, 2 dr.; proof spirit, 1
quart.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 3 dr., as a purgative; especially in worms.

=Elixir Karoly pour les Fourrures.= A solution of camphor and carbolic
acid in strong spirit, mixed with a clear brown acrid tincture, perhaps
tinct. pyrethri rosei. (Casselmann.)

=Elixir, Lettsom’s.= _Prep._ (Augustin.) Oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; camphor,
1-1/2 dr.; benzoic acid, opium, and saffron, of each 2 dr.; ipecacuanha
and balsam of tolu, of each 4 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 lbs.; digest 10
days and filter.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 drops, for a child; 1/2 to 1
teaspoonful, for an adult; in ordinary coughs, hooping-cough, &c.

=Elixir of Life, Bitter= (Jacob Wolff). For strengthening the
constitution. A brandy prepared from 1 gramme aloes, 10 grammes cinnamon,
2·5 grammes sweet flag, 5 grammes angelica root, ·6 grammes cake saffron,
10 grammes caramel, 215 grammes glycerin, 180 grammes spirit, 350 grammes
water. (Hager.)

=Elixir, Live-long.= _Syn._ ELIXIR OF LONG LIFE; E. LONGÆ VITÆ, L. _Prep._
1. See TINCTURE OF RHUBARB AND ALOES.

2. (ELIXIR VITÆ MATTHIOLI.) A mixture of several aromatics and stimulants,
made with rectified spirit.

=Elixir of Myrrh.= _Syn._ ELIXIR MYRRHÆ, L. See TINCTURE OF SAVINE
(Comp.),——Ph. L. 1788.

=Elixir d’Or.= See ELIXIR OF GOLD.

=Elixir of Or′ange Peel.= _Syn._ ELIXIR AURANTIORUM COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._
1. (Ph. Bor. 1847.) Orange peel, 6 oz.; cinnamon, 2 oz.; carbonate of
potassa, 1 oz.; Madeira wine, 4 lbs.; macerate 6 days, express the
tincture, and add of extracts of buckbean, cascarilla, gentian, and
wormwood, of each, 1 oz.; dissolve, and after repose for subsidence,
decant and filter. An excellent aromatic bitter and stomachic.

2. (Moscati.) Orange peel, 1 oz.; cascarilla, 1/2 oz.; waters of citron
peel and wormwood, and rectified spirit, of each 1/2 pint; digest a week.
Resembles the last.——_Dose_ (of either). A table-spoonful to a
wine-glassful.

=Elixir, Parego′ric.= _Syn._ ELIXIR PAREGORICUM, L. See TINCTURE OF
CAMPHOR (Comp.).

=Elixir, Paregoric (Scotch).= _Syn._ ELIXIR PAREGORICUM SCOTICUM, L. See
TINCTURE OF OPIUM (Ammoniated).

=Elixir, Pec′toral.= _Syn._ ELIXIR PECTORALE, L. (Ph. E. 1745.) Balsam of
tolu, 2 oz.; gum benzoin, 1-1/2 oz.; saffron, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit,
32 fl. oz.; digest in a gentle heat for 4 days and filter.——_Dose_, 1/2 to
1 teaspoonful. (See _above_.)

=Elixir, Pol′ychrest.= _Syn._ ELIXIR POLYCHRESTON, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.
1745.) Guaiacum (gum), 6 oz.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit,
23 fl. oz.; digest as last, strain, and add oil of sassafras, 2 fl. dr.
Pectoral and anti-rheumatic.——_Dose_, 10 to 60 drops, or more.

=Elixir, Paracelsus’s.= See ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS (_below_).

=Elixir Proprieta′tis.= [L.] _Syn._ PARACELSUS’S ELIXIR OF PROPRIETY;
ELIXIR DE PROPRIÉTÉ DE PARACELSE, Fr. An old preparation, nearly
corresponding to the compound tincture of aloes of modern pharmacy, and
which is now sold for it. _Prep._ 1. (Soubeiran.) Tincture of myrrh, 4
oz.; tinctures of aloes and saffron, of each 3 oz. (‘Trait. Pharm.’ 1847.)

2. (ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS CUM ACIDO.)——_a._ The last, slightly acidulated
with oil of vitriol, and filtered.

_b._——Ph. Bor. 1847.——Aloes and myrrh, of each 2 oz.; saffron, 1 oz.;
spirit (sp. gr. ·900), 2 lbs.; dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 5), 2 oz.;
macerate 4 days, and filter.

3. (ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS TARTARIZATUM; E. P. ALKALIZATUM.) From elixir
proprietatis, alkalised with salt of tartar, and filtered. The last two
are old preparations, now seldom inquired for in this country, except in
places remote from London.

=Elixir, Radcliffe’s.= _Prep._ 1. From socotrine aloes, 6 dr.; rhubarb, 1
dr.; cinnamon (cassia), cochineal, and zedoary root, of each 1/2 dr.;
syrup of buckthorn, 2 fl. oz.; brandy, 1-1/4 pint; digest 10 days and
strain.

2. As the last, but substituting proof spirit, 1 pint, and water, 1/4
pint, for the brandy. Aromatic, stomachic, and aperient.——_Dose_, 1 to 4
dr.; in similar cases to those in which ‘DAFFY’S ELIXIR’ is taken.

=Elixir of Ro′ses.= _Syn._ ELIXIR ROSÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Eau de rose, 2 fl.
oz.; spirits of horseradish and scurvy grass, of each 1 fl. oz.; otto of
roses, 3 drops; camphor and cochineal (both in powder), 12 gr.; powdered
sugar-candy, 1/2 oz.; digest, with frequent agitation, for a week, and
after repose decant the clear, and strain through a piece of muslin. Used
as an elegant application in scurvy of the gums, and also to perfume the
breath.

2. (Beasley.) Cinnamon, 3 oz.; ginger, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 dr.; essence of
peppermint, 1 oz.; oil of orange peel, 1 dr.; otto of roses, 15 (? 25)
drops; rectified spirit, 2-1/2 pints; digest 15 days and filter. Used as a
tooth cosmetic.

=Elixir Sa′crum.= Tincture of aloes and rhubarb.

=Elixir Salu′tis.= _Syn._ ELIXIR OF HEALTH. The compound tincture of senna
of old pharmacy. See ELIXIR, DAFFY’S.

=Elixir of Scam′mony.= _Syn._ ELIXIR SCAMMONII, L. _Prep._ (Guibourt.)
Scammony (pure), 2 dr.; proof spirit, 8 fl. oz.; mix in a suitable vessel,
apply heat, set the spirit on fire, and add of sugar, 4 oz.; when the
whole is dissolved (melted down), extinguish the flame, and further add of
syrup of violets, 2 fl. oz.; mix well, and after sufficient repose decant
the clear portion from the dregs. The product should be 12 oz., containing
12 gr. of scammony per oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dessert-spoonfuls in milk or
aromatised water; or made into an emulsion with aromatics; in worms, &c.

=Elixir, Squire’s.= _Prep._ 1. (Original Formula.) Aurum musivum, 3 oz.;
opium, 2 oz.; camphor, 1 oz.; cochineal, 1/2 oz.; sweet fennel, 1/4 oz.;
tincture of serpentary, 1 pint (old meas.); spirit of aniseed, 1 gal. (old
meas.); sugar, 1 lb.; dissolved in water, 1 pint (old meas.); digest 10
days and filter.

2. Powdered opium, 2 oz.; ginger, red sanders wood, and camphor, of each 1
oz.; oil of aniseed, 1/2 oz.; oil of sweet fennel, 1/2 dr.; tincture of
serpentary, 1 pint; proof spirit, 5 pints; water, 1 quart; as last.
Stimulant, anodyne, diaphoretic, and pectoral.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
teaspoonfuls; in chest affections, nervous headaches, &c., in the absence
of inflammatory symptoms.

=Elixir, Stomach′ic.= Compound tincture of gentian was formerly so called.

=Elixir, Stoughton’s.= _Prep._ 1. Raisins (stoned and bruised), 1 lb.;
gentian root, 3/4 lb.; dried orange peel, 6 oz.; serpentary, 1/4 lb.;
calamus aromaticus, 1-1/2 oz.; cardamoms, 1/2 oz.; sugar colouring, 1/4
pint; brandy or proof spirit, 2 galls.; digest a week and strain.

2. Tincture of gentian (compound), and brandy or proof spirit, of each 1
quart; tincture of serpentary and syrup of saffron, of each 1 pint;
tinctures of aloes and rhubarb, of each 1/4 pint; bitter almonds
(bruised), 8 in no.; digest as before.

3. (Foy.) Aloes and cascarilla, of each 1 dr.; rhubarb, 4 dr.; gentian,
germander, dried orange peel, and wormwood, of each 6 dr.; rectified
spirit, 32 fl. oz.; as before. Stimulant, tonic, and stomachic.——_Dose_,
20 drops to a teaspoonful.

=Elixir, Ton′ic.= _Syn._ ELIXIR ROBORANS. See TINCTURE OF CROWN BARK
(Comp.,——Ph. Bor. 1847).

=Elixir Tonique Antiglaireux de Guillé.= A stomachic tonic for diarrhœa.
Calumba root, 90 parts; orris root, 60 parts; gentian root, 8 parts; jalap
root, 1500 parts; aloes, 13 parts; saffron, 60 parts; sulphate of quinine,
16 parts; tartar emetic, 2 parts; nitre, 16 parts; yellow sandal, 30
parts; syrup prepared from barley sugar, rectified spirit, and water, of
each 11,000 parts. Macerate the drugs in spirit for 24 hours, and dissolve
the salts in the water. Filter the liquids, mix and leave for 24 hours,
then add the syrup, stand and filter next day. (Reveil and Hager.)

=Elixir, Tooth.= _Syn._ ELIXIR DENTIFRICUM, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Lefandinière’s.) Guaiacum raspings and cloves, of each 1 oz.; pellitory
of Spain and nutmeg, of each 2 dr.; oil of rosemary, 20 drops; bergamotte,
10 or 12 drops; brandy, 1 quart; macerate a fortnight, and filter.

2. Cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg, of each, 1 dr.; vanilla, 1/2 dr.;
camphor, 10 gr.; tincture of pellitory, 2 fl. oz.; brandy or proof spirit,
1/2 pint; digest as before. See ANTISCROFULOUS and ROSE ELIXIRS (_above_).

=Elixir Valerianatis Ammonici (Goddard).= Valerianic acid, 3 grammes
dissolved in 40 grammes distilled water and neutralised with ammonium
carbonate. Add this to 35 grammes spirit, 50 grammes syrup, 1 drop bitter
almond oil, 2 drops oil of orange peel, 30 grammes diluted bitter almond
water, 12 grammes tincture of red sandal, 3 grammes tincture of orange
peel, 2 grammes burnt sugar, and filter.

=Elixir, Vis′ceral.= _Syn._ ELIXIR VISCERALE, L. See ELIXIRS, BOERHAAVE’S
and HOFFMAN’S (_above_).

=Elixir of Vit′riol.= 1. The old name for aromatic SULPHURIC ACID (which
_see_).

2. (Mynsicht’s.) See TINCTURE (Acid Aromatic).

3. (Scourer’s.) Dilute sulphuric acid 1 to 5). Used to scour metals.

4. (SWEET E. OF V.; E. VITRIOLI DULCI, L.) The old name for aromatic
SPIRIT OF ETHER (which _see_).

5. (Virgani’s). _Prep._ From spirit of sulphuric ether, 2 lb.; aromatic
tincture, 3 lb.

=Elixir, Woroneje.= Capsicum, 1 oz.; nitre, 1/2 oz.; sal-ammoniac, 2 dr.;
nitro-hydrochloric acid, 2 fl. dr.; vinegar, 1-1/2 pint; native white or
rose naphtha, or petroleum, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; olive oil, 1 fl. oz.; oil of
peppermint (Mitcham), 15 fl. oz.; strongest rectified spirit, 6 quarts;
digest 12 days, with constant agitation, and filter.——_Dose_, 2
teaspoonfuls every 15 minutes; in cholera, diarrhœa, &c.

=ELLAG′IC ACID.= HC_{7}H_{2}O_{4}.Aq. When an aqueous infusion of
nut-galls is left for some time exposed to the atmosphere, the tannic acid
gradually disappears, and is replaced by gallic acid, and an insoluble
grey powder, to which the term ellagic acid was applied by Chevreul. It is
soluble in alkalies, forming salts, and is precipitated by acids.

=ELM.= _Syn._ ULMUS, L. A genus of tree forming the type of the natural
order _Ulmaceæ_. The interior bark of the _Ulmus campestris_, or _common
small-leaved elm_ (_Ulmi cortex_), is officinal in B. P. This substance is
demulcent, diaphoretic, and diuretic, and slightly febrifuge, astringent,
and tonic. It has been employed in agues, and as a substitute for
sarsaparilla in cutaneous eruptions, but is now little used. The leaves of
the elm-tree are reported to be vulnerary. See DECOCTION and ULMIN.

=ELUTRIA′TION.= Cleansing by washing. The term is commonly applied to the
operation of washing insoluble powders with water, to separate them from
foreign matter, or the coarser portion. It is usually performed by
grinding or triturating the mass with a little water until reduced to a
very fine powder, and this paste is suddenly diffused through a large
quantity of water, contained in a deep vessel, from which, after the
subsidence of the grosser portion, the liquid is poured into another
vessel, and allowed to deposit the fine powder it still holds in
suspension. When this has taken place, the clear supernatant liquor is
decanted, and the sediment drained and dried. The coarse sediment
deposited in the first vessel is now submitted to a fresh grinding and
diffusion through water, and the entire operation is repeated until the
whole of the pulverisable portion is washed over. The proper length of
time for the liquid to remain in the first vessel depends solely on the
density of the powder and the degree of fineness required in the product;
heavy powders subsiding almost immediately, while light ones often take
several minutes to deposit the coarser portion. Sometimes three or more
vessels are employed, and the muddy liquor, after remaining a short time
in the first, is poured into the next one, and this, in a short time
longer, into the third, and so on, until the last vessel is filled, by
which means powders of different degrees of fineness are obtained, that
deposited in the last vessel being in the minutest state of division. The
elutriated paste or moist powder is then drained, and dried. On the small
scale the trituration is performed with a stone and muller, or in a
mortar; on the large scale, in a mill, driven by either horse or steam
power. Antimony chalk, bistre, and other pigments, as well as various
other substances insoluble in or unacted on by water, are commonly
obtained in the state of an impalpable powder by elutriation, or ‘washing
over,’ as it is called by amateurs and operatives.

=ELYDOR′IC PAINTING.= A method of painting invented by M. Vincent, of
Montpetit, in which the pigments are mixed up with an emulsion of oil and
water. It is said to add the fresh appearance of water colours, and the
finish of miniature painting, to the mellowness of oil colours.

=EMBALM′ING.= _Syn._ MUMMIFICATION. The preservation of the dead bodies of
animals. See PUTREFACTION.

=EMBOS′SING.= The formation of ornamental figures in relief on cloth,
leather, paper, and wood, has now been brought to such perfection as to
place this species of decoration within the reach of almost every class of
society. EMBOSSED CLOTH and PAPER are now employed by the bookbinder to
cover even the low-priced volumes that pass through his hands; whilst the
EMBOSSED LEATHER that encloses the album or ornaments our furniture
frequently bears the richest patterns of the arabesque or moresque. Cloth
and paper are usually embossed by machinery; leather and wood more
frequently by hand labour.

=EMBROCA′TION.= _Syn._ EMBROCATIO, L. A fluid medicine for external and
local use. Embrocations do not differ, materially, from liniments and
lotions, and are applied in the same manner. (See those preparations, and
_below_.)

=Embrocation, Guestonian.= _Syn._ EMBROCATIO TEREBINTHINÆ CUM ACIDO L.
_Prep._ (Dr Paris.) Oil of turpentine and olive oil, of each 1-1/2 oz.;
dilute sulphuric acid, 3 fl. dr.; agitate together until mixed. Used in
rheumatism, &c.

=Embrocation, Lynch’s.= Olive oil (coloured with alkanet root), 5 fl. oz.;
oils of amber, rosemary, and turpentine, of each 1 dr. In bruises,
rheumatism, &c.

=Embrocation, Roche’s.= _Prep._ 1. (Dr Paris.) Olive oil, mixed with half
its weight of the oil of cloves and amber.

2. Olive oil, 2 oz.; oil of amber, 1 oz.; oils of cloves and lemons, of
each 1 dr. For hooping-cough.

=Embrocation, Ward’s.= See ESSENCE.

=Embrocation of Cantharides.= _Syn._ EMBROCATIO CANTHARIDES. (Dr Struve,
in _hooping-cough_.) _Prep._ Tartarized antimony, 1 scruple; water, 2 oz.;
tincture of cantharides, 1/2 oz. To be rubbed over the region of the
stomach, covering the part afterwards with flannel.

=Embrocation of Delphinia.= _Syn._ EMBROCATIO DELPHINIÆ. (Dr Turnbull.)
_Prep._ Delphinia, 1 scruple to 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 oz.

=Embrocation of Quinine.= _Syn._ EMBROCATIO QUINIÆ. (Dr Gustamacchia.)
_Prep._ Sulphate of quinine, 8 to 12 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 oz.

=Embrocation of Veratria.= _Syn._ EMBROCATIO VERATRIÆ. (Dr Turnbull.)
_Prep._ Veratria, 1 scruple to 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 oz.

=EMBROID′ERY.= Gold and silver fancy work of this description may be
cleaned with a little spirit of wine, either alone or diluted with an
equal weight of water. Gin is frequently used for the same purpose. The
common practice of using alkaline or acid liquors is very injurious, and
frequently destroys the beauty of the articles instead of cleaning them.

=EM′ERALD.= _Syn._ SMARAGDUS; EMERAUDE [Fr.] This beautiful deep-green gem
ranks next to the diamond in value. The finest are brought from Peru, but
fair varieties are found in Bavaria, Siberia, and India. A fine emerald
weighing 4 or 5 gr. is worth as many pounds; one of 10 gr., about £2 per
gr.; one of 15 gr., £3 to £4 per gr.; and so on in proportion to the
increase in size. One of 24 gr., if of pure water, is worth about £100.
According to the analysis of Vauquelin, the purest specimens consists of
65 parts silica, 14 alumina, 13 glucina, 2·56 lime, and 3·50 oxide of
chromium, to which last the gem owes its rich green colour. See BERYL,
GEMS, PASTES, &c.

=Emerald Green.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=EMERY= is an impure, amorphous, compact, and opaque variety of corundum,
and consists of alumina, with a small per-centage of silica and peroxide
of iron. It occurs in Spain, the isles of Greece, and other localities,
and derives its name from Cape Emeri, in the island of Naxos. Its hardness
is so great, that it scratches and wears down nearly all minerals except
the diamond; hence the use of its powder for cutting and polishing glass
and various other hard substances. For commercial purposes, the lumps of
emery, as taken from the mine, are broken into pieces about the size of a
hen’s egg, which are then crushed under stampers, similar to those used
for pounding metallic ores. The coarse powder is then sifted through
sieves covered with wire-cloth of different degrees of fineness, by which
it is sorted into different sizes. In this state it forms the emery of the
shops, or flour emery. For delicate purposes, it is afterwards prepared by
elutriation.

=Emery Cakes= are formed by melting emery flour with a little beeswax, and
after thorough admixture, forming it into solid lumps of suitable sizes.
Used to dress the edges of buff and glaze wheels.

=Emery Cloth= is prepared by brushing the surface of thin cotton cloth
over with liquid glue, and sifting the emery powder over the surface while
still warm.

=Emery Paper= is made in the same way as emery cloth. Both are used either
with or without oil, in the same way as glass paper.

=Emery Sticks= are made of pieces of wood in the same way, and are used
for the same purposes, as emery paper.

=Emery Stones= are formed of emery, of the requisite coarseness, mixed
with about half its weight of good Stourbridge loam, and water q. s. to
make a stiff paste, which is forced into metallic moulds by a powerful
press. The pieces, when thoroughly dry, are exposed in a muffle for a
short time to a temperature just under a full white heat. In this way
‘discs’ and ‘laps’ are generally made. For ‘wheels,’ only 1/4th of loam is
used. Another method, applicable for ‘cutting stones’ generally, is to
press the flour emery, previously moistened with water, into moulds, with
strong pressure, as before, without any other addition, and then to fire
it at nearly a full white heat.

=EMETIA.= _Syn._ EMETIN, EMETINA. A feebly basic or alkaloidal body,
existing in and forming the active principle of ipecacuanha.

_Prep._ 1. (Medicinal——EMETIC EXTRACT.)——_a._ Ipecacuanha (in coarse
powder) is digested first in ether, and then in rectified spirit for 3 or
4 days; the alcoholic tincture is next expressed and evaporated
(distilled) to dryness; the residuum is dissolved in distilled water, and
the solution precipitated with acetate of lead; the precipitate is then
diffused through distilled water, in a tall glass vessel, and sulphuretted
hydrogen is passed through it, to throw down the lead; after which the
liquor is decanted, filtered, evaporated to the consistence of a thick
syrup, and spread in a thin layer on warm plates of glass, and allowed to
dry in a current of warm air, or by a gentle heat in a stove. The
maceration in ether is frequently omitted.

_b._ Ipecacuanha, 1 part; rectified spirit (·835), 7 parts; make a
tincture, distil off the spirit, dissolve in cold distilled water, 5
parts; filter the solution, and evaporate, &c., as before. Inferior to the
last.

_c._ (P. Cod.) As the last, nearly.

_Obs._ Medicinal or impure emetia is brownish, red, deliquescent, and
emetic in doses of 1/4 to 1/2 gr.

2. (Pure.)——_a._ Ipecacuanha (in coarse powder), 1 part, is digested for
24 hours in distilled water, 10 parts; together with calcined magnesia,
added in slight excess; the deposit is then thrown on a filter, washed
carefully with very cold water, and dried; it is next dissolved in
rectified spirit and neutralised with dilute sulphuric acid; the filtered
solution is decoloured with animal charcoal, again filtered, and again
precipitated by digestion with magnesia; the last deposit forms a
colourless solution with rectified spirit, which, by gentle evaporation,
gives up its emetia as a yellowish white pulverulent mass, which may be
rendered perfectly white by redissolving it in alcohol, &c., as before.
The process is rendered easier by first digesting the powdered ipecacuanha
in ether.

_b._ (P. Cod.) Alcoholic extract of ipecacuanha, 1 part; water, 10 parts;
dissolve, filter; add calcined magnesia, 1 part; evaporate to dryness,
wash the product on a filter with very cold water, 5 parts; dry it again,
and dissolve it in boiling alcohol; evaporate the filtered tincture to
dryness, redissolve the residuum in a little water, acidulate (slightly)
with dilute sulphuric acid, decolour with animal charcoal, filter,
precipitate with liquor of ammonia, and dry the precipitate by a gentle
heat.

_c._ (Ph. Suec. 1845.) Powdered ipecacuanha, 1 part; water, acidulated
with sulphuric acid, 6 parts; digest, filter; add lime, 1 part, and
evaporate to dryness over a water bath; the residuum is then exhausted
with boiling rectified spirit, and otherwise treated as in the last
formula.

_Prop., &c._ Pure emetia is white, pulverulent, inodorous, and bitter;
fusible at 122° Fahr.; very soluble in alcohol and boiling water, but only
slightly so in ether, oils, and cold water. It restores the blue colour of
reddened litmus, and partially neutralises the acids, forming scarcely
crystallisable salts. It is reddened by nitric acid, and this red colour
is deepened by ammonia. Tincture of iodine produces a reddish precipitate
in an alcoholic solution of emetia. With tincture of galls this solution
behaves like morphia; but, unlike the last substance, the salts of iron
produce no change of colour in it. These reactions, combined with its
emetic properties, are sufficient for its identification.——_Dose._ White
and pure emetia is emetic in doses of 1/20 to 1/16 gr. The large doses
ordered in certain pharmaceutical compilations, evidently in error of the
difference between the strengths of the pure and the impure or medicinal
emetia, have, in several cases which have been reported on, produced very
serious consequences.

The ‘Journal de Pharmacie et de Chemie,’ for September, 1875, contains a
new process for the extraction of emetia, by M. A. Glenard. This process
is based upon the combined use of lime and ether. It consists in treating
with ether a suitably prepared powder, or an extract of ipecacuanha and
lime, or the precipitate formed upon adding an excess of lime to a
solution obtained by treating ipecacuanha in the cold with water
acidulated by sulphuric acid. Either of these mixtures, or the
precipitate, when treated with ether, will yield all the alkaloid it
contains.

The alkaloid may be obtained from the ethereal solution by distilling it
to dryness, and treating the residue with acidulated water, or by at once
shaking the solution with acidulated water. A more or less acid aqueous
liquid is thus obtained, which upon the addition of ammonia, yields the
emetine almost colourless, and much more pure than that produced by the
process ordinarily employed.

_Preparation of Crystallised Hydrochlorate and Pure Emetine._——When water,
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, is employed to remove the emetine from
the ether, an acid solution is obtained, which, when sufficiently
concentrated by evaporation, forms a nearly colourless, solid, crystalline
mass. This mass is formed of extremely delicate needles, formed in
bundles that radiate around a central point, and form small spheres with
an embossed surface, resembling mulberries in appearance. Upon pressing
these crystals in a cloth the more or less coloured mother liquid runs
off, and the crystals redissolved in water give a colourless solution,
from which a fresh crystallisation of perfectly pure hydrochlorate of
emetine can readily be obtained.

The production of this crystallised hydrochlorate of emetine is worthy of
notice, since it does not accord with what has been stated by different
authors, who have all considered emetine to be incapable of forming
crystallisable salts. It is especially interesting in that it furnishes a
convenient and certain method of obtaining perfectly pure emetine, for
which it is only necessary to precipitate a solution of the hydrochlorate
with an alkali. But it is important to observe that ammonia does not
precipitate all the emetine of the hydrochlorate, and that the precipitate
is less in proportion as the salt is more acid.

It might appear from this that emetine is soluble in hydrochlorate of
ammonia. But the author finds that it is the result of a decomposing
action exercised by the emetine upon the hydrochlorate of ammonia, as is
shown by the following two experiments. If a little dry powdered emetine
be placed in a glass containing a solution of hydrochlorate of ammonia, it
may be observed to agglomerate and become transformed into a soft resinoid
mass, at the same time the disengagement of ammonia may be recognised, and
the resinoid mass gradually undergoes a kind of metamorphosis, and becomes
white and crystalline. Again, if emetine in powder be suspended in water,
and solution of hydrochlorate of ammonia be gradually added, the emetine
is dissolved, and upon evaporation of the solution crystals of double
hydrochlorate of emetine and ammonia is obtained.

The author believes the decomposition of hydrochlorate of ammonia by an
organic alkali to have been hitherto unobserved. It does not appear,
however, that emetine is alone in this action, as the author has observed
that quinine, under similar conditions, behaves in the same manner.

Zinoffsky (‘Jour. de Pharm. d’Anvers,’ xxix, 490) gives the following
process for the quantitative determination of emetia:——Treat fifteen grams
of powdered ipecacuanha with alcohol of 85 per cent., acidified with a few
drops of sulphuric acid, so as to form a volume of 150 cubic centimètres.
Filter, and after expelling the alcohol from 100 cubic centimètres of the
liquid by distillation, add to the residue a titrated solution of
iodo-hydrargyrate of potassium until a filtered portion ceases to be
affected by this reagent. The number of cubic centimètres of
iodo-hydrargyrate multiplied by 0·0189 (0·0001 of the equivalent of
emetine) gives the quantity of emetine contained in ten grains of the
root.

A normal solution of iodo-hydrargyrate is obtained by mixing aqueous
solutions of 13·546 grams of bichloride of mercury, and 49·8 of iodide of
potassium, adding water to make one litre. One cubic centimètre of this
solution precipitates 0·0001, or 0·00005 of an equivalent of alkaloid.

Wine of ipecacuanha can be titrated by the same process.

_Composition of Emetine and its Hydrochlorate._——These substances dried at
110° C., gave upon analysis results corresponding with following
centesimal composition:

                       Hydrochlorate
            Emetine.   of Emetine.
  Carbon      72·25       63·00
  Hydrogen     8·61        8·15
  Nitrogen     5·36        4·75
  Oxygen      13·78       11·64
  Chlorine                12·46

From these figures the author has constructed the following formulæ:

Emetine: C_{30}H_{22}NO_{4}. Hydrochlorate of Emetine:
C_{30}H_{22}NO_{4}HCl.

_Preparation and Composition of Emetine_ (J. Lefort and F. Wurtz, ‘Comptes
Rendus,’ lxxxiv, 1299). When ipecacuanha is dissolved in water, and a
concentrated solution of potassium nitrate added, a thick mass is
produced, consisting of emetine nitrate. It is washed with water,
dissolved in alcohol, and the solution poured into milk of lime. The
mixture is evaporated to dryness, and digested with ether, which dissolves
out the emetine, leaving it as a yellowish mass on evaporation. On
dissolving this mass in sulphuric acid, and pouring the solution into
dilute ammonia, the alkaloid is obtained as a white precipitate, which is
dissolved in alcohol, from which it separates in minute radiate groups of
needles. By analysis it gave numbers leading to the formula
C_{28}H_{40}N_{2}O_{3}.[275]

[Footnote 275: Note by the translator (‘Journal of Chem. Soc,’): “This is
printed C_{28}N_{2}H_{40}O_{5} in the formula for emetine nitrate, and as
no data are given, it is impossible to tell which are correct.”]

Pure emetine nitrate was prepared, and was found to have the formula
C_{28}N_{2}H_{40}O_{5}NOH; this in conjunction with Glenard’s results,
shows that emetine does not form basic salts.

=EMET′ICS.= _Syn._ VOMITS, ANACATHARTICS; ANACATHARTICA, EMETICA,
VOMITORIA, L. Medicines which induce vomiting. The principal emetics are
ipecacuanha and tartarised antimony, and their preparations; and the
sulphates of zinc and copper. Of these the first is commonly employed
either in substance or infused in wine (ipecacuanha wine), when it is
merely wished to evacuate the contents of the stomach, when that organ is
in a disordered state or overloaded with food; and is the one most adapted
in ordinary cases for children and females. Tartar emetic (tartarated
antimony) (dissolved in water) and antimonial wine, either alone or
combined with ipecacuanha, are preferable at the commencement of fevers
and other inflammatory disorders, in consequence of the nausea,
relaxation, and depression of the muscular power and circulation which
commonly follow their use. When poison has been taken, sulphate of zinc is
generally preferred as an emetic, on account of the promptness and
completeness of its action, and its effects ceasing as soon as it is
ejected from the stomach. Sulphate of copper is employed in the same cases
as sulphate of zinc, but its action is more violent and disagreeable,
whilst its intense metallic taste is a great objection to its use. 25 to
30 gr. of either of the above sulphates are dissolved in 3 or 4 fl. oz. of
warm water, and a fourth of the solution is given every ten minutes, until
copious vomiting ensues. In the absence of other substances, when an
immediate emetic is required, a teaspoonful of flour of mustard (an
article always at hand), stirred up with half a pint of warm water, and
drank at a draught, will generally act easily and effectively, and relieve
the stomach before other remedies can be obtained and applied.

The operation of emetics is powerfully promoted by drinking copiously of
diluents, especially of warm or tepid water. The latter, in fact, is
itself an emetic, when taken in quantity. Its use will also prevent that
dreadful straining and retching which makes emetics so much dreaded by the
nervous and delicate.

The timely administration of an emetic at the commencement of fevers and
other inflammatory affections will frequently cause copious diaphoresis,
and produce a cure, or at least greatly mitigate the severity of the
symptoms. Dropsies have also been cured by vomiting; and swelled testicle,
bubo, and other glandular swellings, have occasionally been dispersed by
the action of emetics. Visceral obstructions, in both sexes, have also
yielded to the same treatment. Small and repeated doses of emetics are
frequently administered, with advantage, to produce nausea, in many
diseases of the lungs and stomach. Certain chronic and obstinate diseases,
as rheumatism and asthma, are sometimes relieved by emetics, when every
other line of treatment has failed.

Emetics should be avoided in plethoric habits, in hernia, pregnancy, and
whenever visceral inflammation is suspected. They should also be given
with great caution to young children and females, and to the nervous and
delicate. In such cases, wine or powder of ipecacuanha should alone be
employed.

=Emetic Cups.= _Syn._ ANTIMONIAL CUPS; POCULA EMETICA, CALICES VOMITORII,
L. Small cups made of metallic antimony. Wine left in them for 10 or 12
hours becomes emetic.

=Emetic Tartar.= See ANTIMONY, TARTARATED.

=EM′ETINE.= See EMETIA.

=EMMEN′AGOGUES.= _Syn._ EMMENAGOGA, L. Medicines which are considered to
have the power of promoting the menstrual discharge when either retained
or suspended. There are, probably, few remedies which exert this specific
power on the uterus, the majority of repeated emmenagogues acting rather
by their influence on the system generally, or on parts contiguous to the
uterus, than in the uterus itself. Among the substances usually arranged
under this class are——aloes, black hellebore, birthwort, borax, cubebs,
ergot, gamboge, gin, iodide of potassium, iodine, madder, mercurials, the
peppers, rue, savine, stimulants (generally), stimulating diuretics,
stinking goosefoot, stinking orache, wine, &c.

Of the above, ergot and madder are the only articles which exercise a
direct power on the uterus, and that rather in increasing its expulsive
energy than in promoting the menstrual function, though they are
advantageously employed for the latter purpose. Several of the other
substances named are drastic purgatives, or possess cerebro-spinal
properties, or local powers of irritation, by which they increase the
pelvic circulation, or produce excitement in the neighbouring parts, in
many cases of a dangerous and irreparable character. Hence many writers on
pharmacology deny the existence of emmenagogues.

To ensure the successful administration of this class of medicines, the
system must be previously prepared for their use by invigorating it, if
there is either relaxation or debility; and an opposite course should be
pursued when there is an undue degree of arterial action. In the majority
of cases, the restoration of the discharge is rather attributable to a
proper regulation of the system than to any specific power in the medicine
administered.

=EMOLL′IENTS.= _Syn._ EMOLLIENTIA, L. In _pharmacy_ and _therapeutics_,
demulcents of an oleaginous, saponaceous, or emulsive character, applied
to surfaces (generally external), to soften and relax the fibres. See
DEMULCENTS.

=EMUL′SIN.= _Syn._ SYNAPTASE. An azotised substance, forming a large
proportion of the white pulp of both bitter and sweet almonds. It is
yellowish-white, soluble in cold water, and coagulated by heat and
alcohol. Its most remarkable property is its action on amygdalin by which
the volatile oil of almonds and hydrocyanic acid, with other products are
formed. It has never been obtained in a state of purity.

=EMULSINES.= See EMULSION.

=EMUL′SION.= _Syn._ EMULSIO, L. A milky fluid, formed by the mechanical
admixture of oil and water, by means of some other substance that
possesses the power of combining with both. The emulsions of the
Pharmacopœia are in the ‘British Pharmacopœia’ included in the class
_Misturæ_ (which _see_).

In the preparation of emulsions, the oily or resinous ingredients are
usually suspended by means of mucilage of gum arabic, almonds, or yolk of
egg. 1 dr. of the first, made with equal parts of gum and water; 1 oz. of
the second (usually 26 in number); and one in no. of the last, will form 2
dr. of any oil into an emulsion with about 1 oz. of water, gradually
added. In some cases, instead of the above substances, a little liquor of
potassa is employed, by which a saponaceous emulsion is formed. In all
cases the mucilage or other viscid substance should be put into the mortar
before anything else. The oil or resinous matter may then be very
gradually rubbed in, taking care not to add it more quickly than it can be
subdued by the pestle; and if, during this part of the manipulation, the
mixture should begin to assume a breaking or curdling appearance at the
edges, a few drops of water must be immediately incorporated with it,
before adding the remainder of the oil. From the want of this precaution,
it is common for an emulsion suddenly to lose its tenacious consistence in
the mortar, and it is then in vain to endeavour to restore it. After the
oil is thoroughly incorporated, some care is requisite to avoid separating
it again by too hasty an effusion of the water or other fluid of the
mixture. If any alcoholic or acid liquid is to be added, it must be at the
very end of the process. Indeed, the addition of an acid liquid, even a
slightly acescent syrup, will often entirely destroy an emulsion. Mixtures
of copaiba are frequently spoiled by the addition of spirit of nitric
ether; a misfortune which might be avoided by first diluting it with one
or two parts of water.

An excellent method of preparing emulsions of resins and gum-resins, is to
put the article into a marble or wedgwood mortar, and to pour over it
about 4 times its weight of rectified spirit, which is then to be ignited,
and the mixture triturated until an equal consistence is obtained. The
liquid is then to be added gradually, and the whole patiently triturated
or shaken until cold. Yolk of egg or mucilage may be added to the fluid
resin or gum-resin, if desired, as in the common method, but an excellent
emulsion may be made without them.

The presence of soluble salts in an emulsion is apt to occasion the
separation of the oleaginous portion. Spirit produces the same effect in
those which are made with yolk or mucilage; and acids in those made with
an alkali. The addition of these substances to emulsions should be
therefore avoided as much as possible. Emulsions of wax, spermaceti, oil
of turpentine, and balsam of copaiba, are the most readily and completely
formed with yolk of egg. Volatile oils are more readily made into
emulsions if mixed with an equal volume of some simple fixed oil, before
proceeding to operate on them. Scammony is generally formed into an
emulsion with milk; and resin of jalap, with almonds and water.

In a paper read before the American Pharmaceutical Association by Mr
Gregory, the author recommends the use of powdered gum instead of mucilage
in the preparation of emulsions. He thinks that three drachms of acacia in
fine powder are necessary to emulsify one ounce of any of the volatile
oils, and that a little less (about two drachms) will answer for the fixed
oils and balsams, and that to this quantity of gum four drachms and a half
of water must be added (no more and no less), and that either the water or
the oil may be added first to the gum, but it is quickest to add the oil
the first; and well triturate before adding the water. Less gum can be
made to yield a good result by a careful operator, but, as a general
practical working rule, it may be said that three drachms are necessary
for one ounce of oil.

The following formulæ, for certain emulsions, are merely given here for
examples. Various others will be found under MIXTURE, LOTION, WASH, &c.

=Emulsion of Al′monds.= _Syn._ MILK OF ALMONDS, ALMOND MIXTURE; EMULSIO
AMYGDALÆ, MISTURA A., L. _Prep._ 1. Blanched almonds, 1 oz.; beat them to
a smooth paste, add, gradually, water, 1/2 pint; and when the whole is
thoroughly incorporated, strain through a piece of gauze.

2. As the last, adding sugar, 1 oz.; or syrup (either simple or
flavoured), 1-1/2 fl. oz. See EMULSION OF OIL OF ALMONDS (_below_).

=Emulsion of Assafœt′ida.= _Syn._ EMULSIO ASSAFŒTIDÆ, MISTURA A., L.
_Prep._ (Duclow.) Assafœtida, 1 oz.; powdered gum, 2 oz.; oil of almonds,
3-1/2 fl. oz.; water, 6 fl. oz. Antispasmodic.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls; in hysterical affections, &c.

=Emulsion of Cam′phor.= _Syn._ EMULSIO CAMPHORÆ, E. CAMPHORATA, MISTURA
CAMPHORÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. Castr. Ruth. 1840.) Camphor, 1/2
dr.; triturate with milk, 1/2 fl. oz., gradually added; then further add
of water, 7-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Camphor, 20 gr.; lump sugar, 1/2 oz.; triturate together, and
add of blanched almonds, 1/2 oz.; again triturate, then gradually add of
water, 1 pint. Stimulant, antispasmodic, and diaphoretic.——_Dose_, 1 fl.
oz. to 2 fl. oz.

=Emulsion of Cas′tor Oil.= _Syn._ EMULSIO OLEI RICINI, MISTURA O. R., L.
_Prep._ 1. Castor oil, 1 oz.; thick mucilage, 1-1/2 oz.; syrup of orange
peel, 1 fl. oz.; water, 6 fl. oz.

2. As the last, but using milk instead of water.——_Dose._ One third; as an
aperient for females who object to taking the unprepared oil.

=Emulsion of Copai′ba.= _Syn._ EMULSION OF CAPIVI; EMULSIO COPAIBÆ,
MISTURA C., L. _Prep._ 1. Balsam of copaiba and syrup of orange peel, of
each 2 oz.; yolks of 5 eggs; milk, 14 fl. oz.

2. (Beral.) Copaiba and mucilage, of each 2 oz.; water, 12 fl.
oz.——_Dose_, 1/2 oz. to 1 oz., 2 or 3 times a day; where the use of
copaiba is indicated.

=Emulsion of Cubebs.= _Syn._ EMULSIO CUBEBÆ. (Dublanc.) _Prep._ Essence of
Cubebs, 4 oz.; mucilage, 4 oz. Mix them.

=Emulsion of Gum.= _Syn._ EMULSIO ACACIÆ, MISTURA ACACIÆ (Ph. E.), L.
_Prep._ From sweet almonds (blanched), 10 dr.; white sugar, 5 dr.;
mucilage, 3 fl. oz.; water, 1 quart. Demulcent. In coughs, &c., _ad
libitum_.

=Emulsion of Indian Hemp.= _Syn._ EMULSIO CANNABIS INDICÆ. (Mr Bromfield.)
_Prep._ Rub 1 scruple of extract of Indian hemp in warm water with 1 fl.
dr. of olive oil; then add gradually, still triturating the mixture, 4 dr.
of mucilage of acacia and 7-1/2 oz. of distilled water.

=Emulsion of Oil of Almonds.= _Syn._ EMULSIO OLEI AMYGDALÆ, L. _Prep._
From oil of almonds, 3 dr.; thick mucilage and simple syrup, of each, 5
dr.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 3 to 4 fl. oz. An elegant and
efficient substitute for almond milk. See EMULSION OF ALMONDS (_above_).

=Emulsion, Pancreatic.= See PANCREATIN.

=Emulsion of Peru′vian Balsam.= _Syn._ EMULSIO BALSAMICA, E. BALSAMI
PERUVIANI, L. _Prep._ 1. As emulsion of copaiba.

2. (Hosp. F.) Balsam of Peru, 1/2 oz.; oil of almonds, 6 dr.; powdered
gum, 1 oz.; triturate together, and add, gradually, rose water, 4 fl.
oz.——_Dose_, 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls; in old asthmas, chronic coughs,
winter coughs, &c.

=Emulsion of Poppies.= _Syn._ EMULSIO PAPAVEUS. _Prep._ Poppy seeds, 2
drachms; water, 8 oz. Make into an emulsion and strain.

=Emulsion of Raw Meat.= (Yvon.) Raw meat 250 grammes; sweet almonds, 75
grammes; bitter almonds, 5 grammes; white sugar, 80 grammes. After
blanching the almonds beat them up with the rest of the ingredients in a
marble mortar until a rose-coloured uniform paste is obtained. This may be
easily made into an emulsion with water, and will not unmix for 24 hours.
It can be made still more nourishing by the addition of the yolks of two
eggs, and by the substitution of milk for water. This emulsion is
frequently prescribed by continental physicians.

=Emulsion of Resin of Jalap.= _Syn._ EMULSIO PURGANS CUM RESINÆ JALAPÆ.
(Par. Pharm.) _Prep._ Resin of jalap, 8 gr.; white sugar, 1 oz.;
orange-flower water, 2 dr.; water, 4 oz. Triturate the resin with a little
of the sugar, add gradually half the yolk of an egg, triturate for a long
time, then add gradually the rest of the sugar and the water.

=Emulsion of Scam′mony.= _Syn._ EMULSIO SCAMMONII, MISTURA S. (Ph. E.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Resin of scammony, 7 gr.; new milk, 3 fl. oz. For a
dose.

2. (Planche.) Aleppo scammony, 7 gr.; sugar, 2 dr.; new milk, 3 fl. oz.;
cherry-laurel water, 5 drops. For a dose. Purgative; in torpor of the
intestines, dropsy, worms, &c. The formula of the Paris Codex is similar.

=Emulsion of Spermace′ti.= _Syn._ EMULSIO CETACEI, MISTURA C., L. _Prep._
As emulsion of wax. Demulcent.

=Emulsion of Tur′pentine.= _Syn._ EMULSIO TEREBINTHINÆ, MISTURA T., L.
_Prep._ 1. Chio turpentine, 2 dr.; white sugar, 1 oz.; yolk of 1 egg; milk
of almonds, 4 fl. oz. In gleets.——_Dose_, 2 table-spoonfuls, 3 or 4 times
a day.

2. (Clossius.) Venice turpentine, 1-1/2 dr.; yolk of 1 egg; peppermint
water, 4-1/2 fl. oz. (See _below_.)

=Emulsion of Oil of Turpentine.= _Syn._ EMULSIO OLEI TEREBINTHINÆ, MISTURA
O. T., L. _Prep._ (Carmichael.) Rectified oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.;
yolk of 2 eggs; emulsion of almonds, 4 fl. oz.; syrup of orange peel, 2
fl. oz.; spirit of lavender, 4 fl. dr.; oil of cinnamon, 5 or 6
drops.——_Dose_, 1 fl. oz., twice or thrice a day; in nephritic pains, and
that variety of ophthalmia termed iriditis. (See _above_.)

=Emulsion of Wax.= _Syn._ EMULSIO CERÆ, E. CERÆ ALBÆ, MISTURA C., LAC C.,
L. _Prep._ (Guibourt.) White wax, 1 oz.; powdered gum, 1-1/2 dr.; water,
24 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 4 fl. oz.; put the syrup and gum into a warm
mortar, add the wax, and triturate with a warm pestle until united; then
add the water (warm) gradually, and continue the agitation till the whole
is quite cold. Demulcent. _Ad libitum._

=ENAM′EL.= A species of vitreous varnish, coloured with metallic oxides,
applied in a thin stratum to brightly polished metallic surfaces (copper
or gold), on which it is fused by the flame of a lamp urged by the
blowpipe, or by the heat of a small furnace.

The basis of all enamels is a highly transparent and fusible gloss, called
‘frit,’ ‘flux,’ or ‘paste,’ which readily receives a colour on the
addition of metallic oxides. It may be made by one or other of the
following formulæ:

_Prep._ 1. Red lead, 16 parts; calcined borax, 3 parts; powdered flint
glass, 12 parts; powdered flints, 4 parts; fuse in a Hessian crucible for
12 hours, then pour it out into water, and reduce it to a powder in a
biscuit-ware mortar.

2. Tin, 3 parts; lead, 10 parts; mix, calcine in an iron pot at a dull
cherry-red heat, and scrape off the oxide as it forms, observing to obtain
it quite free from undecomposed metal; then reduce it to fine powder by
grinding and elutriation. In this state it is known among enamellers as
‘flux’ or ‘calcine.’ 4 parts of this ‘calcine’ are next mixed with an
equal weight of pure sand or powdered flints, and 1 part of sea salt, or
other alkaline matter; the mixture is then partially fused in a Hessian
crucible, by which it undergoes semi-vitrification.

3. (Chaptal.) Lead and tin, equal parts; calcine as above, and take off
the mixed oxides or ‘calcine’ and ground flints, of each, 1 part; pure
carbonate of potash, 2 parts; and proceed as before.

4. (Wynn.) Flint glass, 3 oz.; red lead, 1 oz.; as last.

5. (Wynn.) Red lead, 18 parts; borax (not calcined), 11 parts; flint
glass, 16 parts; as last.

6. (Wynn.) Powdered flints, 10 parts; nitre and white arsenic, of each, 1
part; as last.

_Obs._ The precise qualities of the products of the above processes depend
greatly upon the duration and degree of heat employed. By increasing the
quantity of sand, glass, or flux, the enamel is rendered more fusible, and
the opacity and whiteness is increased by the addition of oxide of tin.
The use of borax should be avoided, or it should be used sparingly, as it
is apt to make the enamel effloresce and lose colour.

=Enamel, Black.= _Prep._ 1. Calcined iron (protoxide), 12 parts; oxide of
cobalt, 1 part; mix, add an equal weight of white flux, and fuse as
before.

2. (Clouet.) Pure clay, 3 parts; protoxide of iron, 1 part. A fine black.

3. Peroxide of manganese, 3 parts; zaffre, 1 part; mix, and add it, as
required, to white flux.

=Enamel, Blue.= _Prep._ 1. White ‘frit’ or ‘flux,’ coloured with oxide of
cobalt.

2. Sand, red lead, and nitre, of each 10 parts; flint glass or ground
flints, 20 parts; oxide of cobalt, 1 part, more or less; depending on the
desired depth of colour.

=Enamel, Brown.= _Prep._ 1. Manganese, 5 parts; red lead, 16 parts; flint
powder, 8 parts; as before.

2. (Wynn.) Manganese, 9 parts; red lead, 34 parts; flint powder, 16 parts.

3. Red lead and calcined iron, of each, 1 part; antimony, litharge, and
sand, of each, 2 parts. To be added in any required proportion to white
‘frit,’ according to the colour desired. A little oxide of cobalt or
zaffre is frequently added to alter the shade.

=Enamel, Green.= _Prep._ 1. ‘Flux’ or ‘frit,’ 2 lbs.; black oxide of
copper, 1 oz.; as before.

2. As the last, but adding red oxide of iron, 1/2 dr. Less decisive.

3. Copper dust and litharge, of each 2 oz.; nitre, 1 oz.; sand, 4 oz.;
‘flux’ or ‘frit,’ q. s.

4. From transparent ‘frit,’ any quantity; oxide of chromium, q. s. to
colour. Colour superb; it will stand a great heat; in common hands,
however, it frequently turns on the dead-leaf tinge.

5. Transparent ‘flux,’ 5 oz.; black oxide of copper, 20 to 40 gr.; oxide
of chromium, 2 gr. Resembles the emerald.

6. From blue and yellow enamel mixed in the required proportions.

=Enamel, Ol′ive.= _Prep._ Blue enamel, 2 parts; black and yellow enamel,
of each, 1 part. See ENAMEL BROWN.

=Enamel, Or′ange.= _Prep._ 1. Red lead, 12 parts; red sulphate of iron and
oxide of antimony, of each, 1 part; flint powder, 3 parts; calcine
together, powder, and melt with ‘flux,’ 50 parts.

2. (Wynn.) Red lead, 12 parts; oxide of antimony, 4 parts; flint powder, 3
parts; red sulphate of iron, 1 part; calcine, then add ‘flux,’ 5 parts, to
every 2 parts of this mixture.

=Enamel, Pur′ple.= _Prep._ 1. ‘Flux’ or ‘frit,’ coloured with oxide of
gold, purple precipitate of cassius, or peroxide of manganese.

2. Sulphur, nitre, green vitriol, antimony, and oxide of tin, of each, 1
lb.; red lead, 60 lb.; mix, fuse, cool, powder, and add rose copper (red
oxide), 19 oz.; zaffre, 1 oz.; crocus martis, 1-1/2 oz.; borax, 3 oz.; and
of a compound formed of gold, silver, and mercury, 1 lb.; fuse, stirring
the melted mass with a copper rod all the time, then place it in
crucibles, and submit them to the action of a reverberatory furnace for 24
hours. This is said to be the purple enamel used in the mosaic pictures in
St. Peter’s at Rome.

=Enamel, Red.= _Prep._ 1. ‘Paste’ or ‘flux,’ coloured with the red oxide
or protoxide of copper. Should the colour pass into the green or brown,
from the partial peroxidation of the copper, from the heat being raised
too high, the red colour may be restored by the addition of any
carbonaceous matter, as tallow, or charcoal.

2. By tinging the glass or ‘flux’ with the oxide or salts of gold, or with
the purple precipitate of cassius. These substances produce shades of red,
inclining to crimson or purple of the most exquisite hue. The enamel often
comes from the fire quite colourless, and afterwards receives its rich hue
at the lamp.

3. (Wynn.) Sulphate of iron (calcined dark), 1 part; a mixture of 6 parts
of ‘flux’ (No. 5), and 1 of colcothar, 3 parts. Dark red.

4. (Wynn.) Red sulphate of iron, 2 parts; ‘flux’ (No. 1), 6 parts; white
lead, 3 parts. Light red.

=Enamel, Rose-col′oured.= _Prep._ Purple enamel (or its elements), 3
parts; ‘flux,’ 90 parts; mix, and add silver leaf or oxide of silver, 1
part, or less.

=Enamel, Transpa′′rent.= The ‘frit’ or ‘flux’ described _above_.

=Enamel, Vi′olet.= _Prop._ 1. Purple enamel, 2 parts; red enamel (No. 2),
3 parts; ‘frit,’ 6 parts.

2. Saline or alkaline ‘frit’ or ‘flux,’ any quantity; peroxide of
manganese, q. s. to colour. As the tint depends on the metal being at the
maximum of oxidation, contact with oily or carbonaceous substances should
be particularly avoided.

=Enamel, White.= _Prep._ 1. ‘Calcine’ (from 2 parts of tin and 1 part of
lead), 1 part; fine crystal glass or ‘frit,’ 2 parts; manganese, a few
grains; powder, mix, melt, and pour the fused mass into clean water; again
powder, and fuse, and repeat the whole process 3 or 4 times, avoiding
contamination with smoke, dirt, or oxide of iron. A fine dead white.

2. Washed diaphoretic antimony, 1 part; fine glass (free from lead), 3
parts; mix, and proceed as before. Very fine.

3. Lead, 30 parts; tin, 33 parts; calcine as before, then fuse 50 parts of
this ‘calcine’ with an equal weight of flints, in powder, and 100 parts of
salt of tartar. A fine dead white enamel.

_Obs._ For white enamel, the articles must be perfectly free from foreign
admixture, as this would impart a colour. When well managed, either of the
above forms will produce a paste that will rival the OPAL.

=Enamel, Yellow.= Superior yellow enamels are less easily produced than
those of most other colours; they require very little flux, and that
mostly of a metallic nature. The following come highly recommended by
experienced artists:——

_Prep._ 1. From ‘frit’ or ‘flux,’ fused with oxide of lead, and a little
red oxide of iron.

2. Lead, tin, ashes, litharge, antimony, and sand, of each 1 oz.; nitre, 4
oz.; mix, fuse, and powder; and add the product to ‘flux’ or ‘frit,’ q. s.

3. White oxide of antimony, alum, and sal-ammoniac, of each 1 part; pure
carbonate of lead, 1 to 3 parts, or q. s. (all in powder); mix, and expose
them to a heat sufficiently high to decompose the sal-ammoniac. Used as
the last. Very bright coloured.

4. (Wynn.) Red lead, 8 oz.; oxide of antimony, and tin, calcined together,
of each 1 oz; mix, and add of ‘flux’ (No. 5), 15 oz.; mix well and fuse.

5. Pure oxide of silver added to the metallic ‘fluxes.’ The salts of
silver are also used, but are more difficult to manage. If a thin film of
oxide of silver be spread over the surface of the enamel to be coloured,
exposed to a moderate heat, then withdrawn, and the film of reduced silver
on the surface removed, the part under will be found tinged of a fine
yellow. (Clouet.)

=Enamelling of Cast-Iron.= Wagner in his ‘Chemical Technology’ gives the
following account of this process:——The surface of the cast-iron to be
enamelled is first carefully cleaned by scouring with sand and dilute
sulphuric acid, next a somewhat thickish magma, made of pulverised quartz,
borax, feldspar, kaolin and water is brushed over the clean metallic
surface as evenly as possible, and immediately after a finely powdered
mixture of feldspar, soda, borax, and oxide of tin, is dusted over, after
which the enamel is burnt in by the heat of a muffle. In France an enamel
is applied which consists of 130 parts of flint glass, 20-1/2 parts of
carbonate of soda, and 12 parts of boric acid fused together, and
afterwards ground to a fine powder.

It would appear, however, from the statements contained in a paper read by
Mr Tatlock, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., that the enamel used for iron vessels is
frequently of a less harmless kind than that described by Wagner. Mr
Tatlock states that in some instances the milk-white porcelainous enamel,
with which cast-iron cooking vessels are now so commonly prepared, has a
composition such as to render it highly objectionable, on account of the
facility with which it is acted upon by acid, fruits, common salt, and
other ordinary dietetic substances, by which means lead, and even arsenic,
are dissolved out in large quantity during cooking processes.

Mr Tatlock gives the analysis of three samples of enamel from the interior
of three cast-iron pots obtained from different manufacturers. These iron
vessels were all employed for cooking:——

                No. 1.    No. 2.     No 3.
              per cent.  per cent.  per cent.

  Silica         61·00     42·40     42·00
  Alumina         8·00      2·88      6·06
  Oxide of iron   1·10      2·04      4·04
  Lime            3·02      0·16      0·78
  Magnesia        0·28      0·10      0·21
  Oxide of lead   absent   25·89     18·48
  Potash          5·61      7·99      6·46
  Soda           20·67     14·67     19·25
  Phosphoric acid trace    trace     trace
  Arsenious acid  0·02      0·42      1·02
  Carbonic acid   0·30     absent    absent
  Borax          absent     3·45      1·70
                ———————   ———————   ———————
                100·00    100·00    100·00
                ———————   ———————   ———————
  Total bases    38·58     53·73     55·28

The author showed that it was not so much on account of the presence of
large proportions of lead and arsenic that the enamels are so dangerous,
but because they are so highly basic in character, that they are acted
upon with facility by feebly acid solutions, the lead and arsenic being
thereby easily dissolved out.

He demonstrated that the ratio of the bases to the silica in No. 1 was 1
to 1·58; in the No. 2, as 1 to 0·79; and in the No. 3, as 1 to 0·76. A one
per cent. solution of citric acid boiled in the No. 1 did not affect it in
the slightest, while in the case of the No. 3, the glassy surface of the
enamel was at once roughened and destroyed, and lead dissolved out to such
an extent as to give immediately a dense black precipitate with
sulphuretted hydrogen. He thought that no enamel was fit to be used unless
it were totally unaffected by boiling with a one per cent. solution of
citric acid, which was a very moderate test, and gave it as his opinion
that either the use of such poisonous ingredients as lead and arsenic in
large quantity should be entirely abandoned, or that the composition
otherwise of the enamel should be of such a character as to ensure that
none of the poisonous substances could be dissolved out, in the
circumstances under which the enamelled vessels are used.

=ENCAU′STIC.= See PAINTING (Encaustic).

=ENDEMIC.= Indigenous. Peculiar to a district. Those are called endemic
diseases, which are produced by causes more or less local. The word is
often confounded with epidemic.

=ENE′MA.= _Syn._ CLYSTER; EN′EMA (pl. ENEM′ATA), L. A medicine, usually
liquid (sometimes gaseous), thrown into the rectum or lower bowels.

Clysters usually consist of some weak glutinous or mucilaginous fluid, to
which the active ingredients are added; or a decoction or infusion is made
of the medicaments, which is then used, either alone, or after the
addition of a little gum, starch, or sugar. The proper vehicle for
astringent vegetable matter, metallic salts, and the mineral acids, is
pure water. Oleaginous and resinous substances are made into emulsions
before being employed for enemas. In all cases the fluid is administered
warm. The quantity of fluid forming a clyster, for an adult, may vary from
1/2 to 3/4 pint; that for an infant within a month old, should be about 1
fl. oz.; for a child of one year, about 2-1/2 fl. oz.; from one to seven
years, from 3 or 4 fl. oz.; and from seven to twelve or fourteen, 6 or 7
fl. oz.; after that age to puberty, 1/2 pint may be employed.

The quantity or dose of the active ingredients in a clyster should be 4 or
5 times as great as that of the same medicines when taken by the mouth; as
it is generally regarded that the susceptibility of the rectum is only
1/5th that of the stomach, and that to exert a like absorbent action it
occupies 5 times as long as the latter viscus. The dose, and the interval
between its repetition, should, therefore, be proportionately increased.
Narcotics, as opium, tobacco, &c., should, however, be given in only twice
or thrice the quantity that would be exhibited in the usual manner.

Enemata are usually administered by means of a syringe, bladder, or
elastic bag, furnished with a rectum tube; but many ingenious and elegant
pieces of mechanism, adapted for self-administration, are made by the
instrument makers. Great care should be taken to avoid injuring the coats
of the rectum by the use of a rough or improperly shaped pipe, or one that
is too long. The extremity of the pipe or tube should also be perfectly
smooth and well rounded (rather spherical than pointed), and in using it
no force should be employed. A neglect of this point often produces very
serious consequences, especially in young children.

Tobacco smoke may be administered by means of a double pair of bellows,
supplied with air from a small funnel under which the herb is
burning,——and gaseous matter, by connecting the rectum tube with a small
gasometer, exerting a trifling pressure on the confined gas.

The number of substances employed in the preparation of enemata is very
great. The following are some of them, arranged according to their
effects:——

1. (Anodyne and Narcotic.) Opium, henbane, &c., are employed to allay
spasms of the bowels, stomach, uterus, bladder, &c.

2. (Aperient or Cathartic.) Aloes, colocynth, senna, various purging
salts, gruel, decoction of marshmallows, decoction of linseed, warm water,
&c., are commonly employed to promote the peristaltic action of the
bowels, or to destroy worms.

3. (Demulcent and Emollient.) Decoction of starch, gum, isinglass, glue,
&c., either alone or combined with opium, are used to protect the coats of
the intestines, and to allay irritation; and also to restrain diarrhœa,
especially when combined with astringents, as logwood, catechu, or oak
bark.

4. (Nutrient.) Animal jelly, soups, broths, milks, &c., are frequently
used as injections to convey nourishment to the body.

5. (Sedative.) Tobacco infusion or smoke, and tartar emetic (in solution),
are employed to relax the powers of the body, to remove spasms, depress
the circulation, and to produce syncope.

Enemata or clysters are now very frequently employed in our large towns,
especially among the higher classes; but a great prejudice exists among
many persons against their use, arising from a fastidious and mistaken
delicacy. The introduction of improved apparatus of late years, by which
the administration of these remedies is attended with less difficulty and
exposure than formerly, has removed much of the repugnance which
previously existed.

Clysters are invaluable when it is necessary to evacuate the bowels as
speedily as possible, and when the stomach will not bear the
administration of a purgative by the mouth, as well as in cases requiring
a direct medication of the lower bowels, as in dysentery, colic, &c. As a
mere laxative, an injection of tepid water, milk-and-water, or water
gruel, will generally be found sufficient. By the addition of 1 or 2
table-spoonfuls of common salt, Epsom salts, salad oil, or molasses, to
this laxative enema, it will form an excellent purgative one, which will,
in most cases, induce a full discharge. In all cases, the patient should
be directed to retain the injection for as long a time as possible, and
not to attempt to empty his bowels immediately after the reception of the
medicine. “In irritation of the bladder, rectum, or uterus, an anodyne
injection or enema often affords much relief. In diseases of the lower
bowels, clysters are also of almost indispensable utility, as also in the
dislodgment of ascarides seated in the rectum; nor are they less
beneficial in those cases of sudden sinking of the powers of life where
deglutition is impossible, and yet a prompt stimulating impression is
requisite to save the patient; under such circumstances, clysters of some
of the diffusible stimuli have proved of the greatest benefit.”

The injection of large quantities of liquid matter into the bowels, as
well as the constant use of clysters (even of warm water only), is deemed
by the highest medical authorities to be injurious, and occasionally
dangerous. The practice should not, therefore, be allowed to grow into a
habit. The bowels continually accustomed to a stimulant cease to act
without one. The same remarks apply to aperients taken by the mouth.

The following formulæ embrace the whole of the enemas (ENEMATA) of the
‘British Pharmacopœia,’ as well as a few others in common use:——

=Enema of Albu′men.= _Syn._ ENEMA ALBUMINIS, L. _Prep._ (Ricord) Infusion
of linseed, 12 oz.; whites of 2 or 3 eggs; mix. In chronic diarrhœa, and
as a nutritient clyster in debility from stomach diseases. The reason for
rejecting the yolks of the eggs is not very obvious, as the preparation is
much more effective with them.

=Enema of Al′oes.= _Syn._ ENEMA ALOËS (B. P.), L. _Prep._ From aloes, 2
scrup.; carbonate of potassa, 15 gr.; mucilage of starch, 1/2 pint. In
ascarides, atonic amenorrhœa, &c. It should not be employed when
irritability of the rectum, bladder, or genitals, exists; nor in piles, or
when there is a tendency to prolapsus ani or prolapsus uteri.

=Enema, An′odyne.= See ENEMA OF OPIUM.

=Enema, Antispasmod′ic.= _Syn._ ENEMA ANTISPASMODICUM, L. _Prep._ From
tincture of assafœtida, 3 fl. dr.; laudanum, 30 to 60 drops; water gruel
or barley water, 1/2 pint. In spasmodic affections of the bowels. (See
_below_.)

=Enema of Assafœt′ida.= _Syn._ FETID CLYSTER, ANTISPASMODIC C.; ENEMA
ASSAFŒTIDA (B. P.), E. FŒTIDUM (Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.)
Assafœtida, 30 gr.; water, 4 oz.; rub together until mixed.

2. (Ph. E.) To cathartic enema (Ph. E.), add of tincture of assafœtida, 2
fl. dr.

3. (Ph. D.) Warm water, 12 fl. oz.; tincture of assafœtida, 2 fl. dr.

4. (St. B. Hosp.) Assafœtida, 2 dr.; yolk of an egg; barley water, 7 fl.
oz. Stimulant, antispasmodic, and carminative. An excellent remedy in
hysteria, flatulent colic, hooping-cough, infantile convulsions, worms in
the lower bowels, &c. See ENEMA HOOPING-COUGH.

=Enema, Astrin′′gent.= _Syn._ ENEMA ASTRINGENS, L. _Prep._ 1. Tincture of
catechu, 1 fl. oz.; barley water, 9 fl. oz.

2. Extract of rhatany, 2 dr.; syrup, or made starch, 2 oz.; water, 7 fl.
oz.

3. Decoction of galls, oak-bark, pomegranate, or other like astringent
substance, 3 or 4 fl. oz.; water or barley water, 6 or 7 fl. oz.

4. (Hosp. F.) Electuary of catechu, 2 dr.; water and lime water, of each
4-1/2 fl. oz. In diarrhœa, &c., arising from a relaxed condition of the
coats of the lower bowels; and in fissures of the anus, &c.

=Enema of Bark.= _Syn._ ENEMA CINCHONÆ. Decoction of bark is used.

=Enema of Belladonna.= _Syn._ ENEMA BELLADONNÆ (Ratier.) _Prep._
Belladonna, 10 gr.; water, 6 oz.; infuse.

=Enema of Cam′phor.= _Syn._ ENEMA CAMPHORÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Camphor
liniment, 4 fl. dr.; yolks of 2 eggs; water gruel, 7 fl. oz.

2. Camphor, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 dr.; triturate till dissolved, then
add, gradually, of simple syrup, 1 oz.; when thoroughly incorporated,
further add of thin gruel, 7 fl. oz. Anodyne, antispasmodic, and diuretic.
In difficult or obstructed micturition.

=Enema of Cas′tor Oil.= _Syn._ ENEMA OLEI RICINI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Hosp. F.)
Castor oil and mucilage, of each, 1 oz.; gruel, 1/2 pint.

2. Castor oil, 1 oz.; liquor potassa, 2 fl. dr.; triturate, and add of
honey, 1 oz.; when mixed, further add of hot gruel, 1/2 pint; and agitate
until cool enough to be administered.

=Enema, Cathar′tic.= _Syn._ PURGATIVE CLYSTER; ENEMA CATHARTICUM (B. P.,
Ph. E. & D.), E. LAXATIVUM, E. PURGATIVUM, L. These have been already
alluded to. By increasing the quantity of the active ingredients, a mild
laxative or aperient clyster is converted into an active purgative or
cathartic one.

_Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Senna, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 16 fl. oz.; infuse an
hour, then add of Epsom salts, 1/2 oz.; sugar, 1 oz.; when dissolved,
further add of olive oil, 1 oz.; and mix them by agitation.

2. (Ph. D.) Epsom salts, 1 oz.; olive oil, 1 fl. oz.; mucilage of barley.
16 fl. oz. Same as enema of sulphate of magnesia, B. P., except that in
the latter mucilage of starch is substituted for mucilage of barley.

3. (Ph. D. 1826.) Manna, 1 oz.; compound decoction of chamomile, 1/2 pint;
dissolve, and add, of olive oil, 1 oz.; Epsom salts, 1/2 oz.

4. Compound decoction of mallows, 1/2 pint; Epsom salts, 3/4 oz.; sweet
oil, 2 fl. oz.; mix, as above.

_Obs._ The above are employed in all ordinary cases where the use of an
immediate cathartic is indicated.

=Enema of Cevidina.= _Syn._ ENEMA CEVIDINÆ (Soubeiran.) Cevadilla, 2 dr.;
water, 10 oz.; boil to 7 oz.; strain and add milk, 8 oz. To destroy
ascarides.

=Enema of Chlo′′ride of Lime.= _Syn._ ENEMA CHLORIDI CALCIS, E.
ANTIPUTRESCENS, L. _Prep._ 1. Chloride of lime, 10 gr.; tepid water, 1 fl.
oz.; triturate, then add of barley water, or plain tepid water, 7 fl. oz.

2. (Pereira.) Chloride of lime, 10 to 15 gr., added to a common enema. As
a deodoriser, when the alvine evacuations are unusually fetid.

=Enema of Chloride of Soda.= _Syn._ ENEMA SODÆ CHLORINATÆ. _Prep._
Labarraque’s solution, 24 drops; decoction of mallows, 16 oz.

=Enema of Chloride of Sodium.= _Syn._ ENEMA SODII CHLORIDI. _Prep._ Common
salt, 1 oz.; barley water, 1/2 pint; olive oil, 1 oz.

=Enema for Col′ic.= _Syn._ ENEMA ANTICOLICUM, L. _Prep._ From oil of
cajeput or peppermint, 15 drops; dissolved in sweet spirit of nitre, 60
drops; laudanum, 35 drops; infusion of chamomile, 1/2 pint.

=Enema of Col′ocynth.= _Syn._ ENEMA COLOCYNTHIDIS (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1.
(Ph. L.) Extract of colocynth, 1/2 dr.; soft soap, 1 oz.; triturate, and
add of water, 1 pint.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, but using compound extract of colocynth.

3. (Guy’s Hosp.) Colocynth pulp, 1 dr.; water, 3/4 pint; boil so as to
strain 1/2 pint; and add of common salt, 1/2 oz.; syrup of buckthorn, 1
fl. oz. An efficient enema in colic and obstinate constipation, in the
absence of spasms and inflammatory symptoms.

=Enema, Com′mon.= _Syn._ ENEMA COMMUNE, L. Gruel or barley water, either
with or without the addition of a little common salt or oil, are generally
so called. The first are simply laxative; the latter, purgative. Decoction
of mallows, linseed tea, or water gruel, are also commonly used as the
vehicle.

_Prep._ 1. (St. Bar. Hosp.) Barley water, 1 pint; common salt, 1 oz.;
dissolve.

2. (Guy’s Hosp.) Water gruel, 10 to 15 fl. oz.; common salt, 1 oz.

3. (U. C. Hosp.) Water gruel, 8 to 12 fl. oz.; salt, 1 oz.; linseed oil, 2
fl. oz.

=Enema of Copai′ba.= _Syn._ ENEMA COPAIBÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From balsam of
copaiba, 2 dr.; liquor opii sedativus, 15 drops; yolk of egg, q. s.;
barley water, 7-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Collier.) To the last add, of extract of opium, 1 gr.; oil of
turpentine, 4 fl. dr.

3. (Velpeau.) Copaiba, 2 dr.; laudanum, 20 drops; yolk of 1 egg; water
gruel, 8 fl. oz. In ascarides, gonorrhœa, and some affections of the lower
bowels and bladder, when the stomach rejects the balsam.

=Enema of Creosote.= _Syn._ ENEMA CREOSOTI. (Dr Wilmot.) Creasote, 1 dr.;
decoction of starch, 12 oz. In epidemic dysentery.

=Enema of Croton Oil.= _Syn._ ENEMA OLEI CROTONIS. (Sundelin.) _Prep._
Croton oil, 2 to 4 drops; linseed oil, 2 oz.; gruel, 4 oz.

=Enema of Cubebs.= _Syn._ ENEMA CUBEBÆ. (Velpeau.) _Prep._ Decoction of
mallow, 10 oz.; powdered cubebs, 6 dr.

=Enema, Domes′tic.= _Syn._ ENEMA DOMESTICUM, L. This name has been applied
to an enema of warm water, either with or without the addition of a little
sugar, honey, or milk. The effect is laxative.

=Enema, Emoll′ient.= _Syn._ ENEMA EMOLLIENS, E. DEMULCENS, L. _Prep._ From
decoction of linseed, barley, or starch, 1 pint; linseed or olive oil, 1
oz. Soothing and laxative; in excoriations of the lower bowels. 20 to 40
drops of laudanum may be added when there is much pain or looseness.

=Enema of Ergot.= _Syn._ ENEMA ERGOTÆ. (Boudin.) _Prep._ Infuse 1 dr. of
ergot in 8 oz. of hot water and strain.

=Enema, Feb′rifuge.= _Syn._ ENEMA FEBRIFUGUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Collier.)
Water gruel, 12 fl. oz.; sugar, 1 fl. oz. In low fevers.

2. (Brande.) Vinegar, 2 fl. oz.; infusion of chamomile, 5 or 6 fl. oz. In
typhus.

=Enema, Fe′tid.= See ENEMA OF ASSAFŒTIDA.

=Enema of Galls and Opium.= _Syn._ ENEMA GALLÆ ET OPII. (Dr Ryan.) _Prep._
Decoction of galls, 8 oz.; tincture of opium, 1/2 dr.

=Enema for Hoo′ping-cough.= _Syn._ ENEMA PERTUSSICULAIRE, L. _Prep._ 1.
See ENEMA ASSAFŒTIDA.

2. (M. Reiken). Assafœtida, 8 gr.; yolk of 1 egg; water, 1/2 pint.

_Obs._ This quantity is sufficient for 10 or 12 clysters for children
under 1 year; 5 or 6 for those under 3 years; and 2 or 3 for those under
7. Two clysters are prescribed daily in hooping-cough. According to M.
Reiken, this is more successful in removing hooping-cough than any other
remedy. To ensure success, it should not be administered until the
feverish symptoms have passed. M. Reiken sometimes uses an ointment of
assafœtida as well as the clyster.

=Enema of Ipecacuanha.= _Syn._ ENEMA IPECACUANHÆ. (U. C. Hosp.)
Ipecacuanha root (bruised), 1 dr.; boiling water, 8 oz. Macerate for an
hour and strain.

=Enema, Lax′ative.= See ENEMAS (Cathartic, Common, &c.).

=Enema of Lead.= _Syn._ ENEMA PLUMBI, L. _Prep._ (Dr Newbold.) Acetate of
lead, 6 gr.; tepid distilled water, 6 fl. oz. In strangulated hernia;
repeated in two or three hours.

=Enema of Morphia.= _Syn._ ENEMA MORPHIÆ. (Beera.) _Prep._ Morphia, 1 gr.;
oil of almonds, 1 oz. Triturate and add infusion or decoction of linseed,
q. s.

=Enema, Nitrate of Silver.= _Syn._ ENEMA ARGENTI NITRATIS. (Boudin.)
_Prep._ Nitrate of silver, 1 to 3 gr.; distilled water, 5 oz.

=Enema, Nu′trient.= _Syn._ FEEDING CLYSTER; ENEMA NUTRIENS, L. _Prep._ 1.
Strong beef tea, 12 fl. oz.; thickened a little with arrow-root or
hartshorn shavings.

2. (M. Nasse). Strong meat soup, 3/4 pint; dilute hydrochloric acid, 1/2
fl. dr.

3. Yolks of 2 eggs; brown sugar and salad oil, of each 1 oz.; mutton
broth, 12 fl. oz. To nourish the body, when aliments cannot be taken or
retained by the stomach.

=Enema, Oi′′ly.= See ENEMA (Emollient).

=Enema of O′pium.= _Syn._ ENEMA OPIATUM, E. OPII (B. P. and Ph. L.), E.
OPII vel ANODYNUM (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Mucilage of starch, 2
fl. oz.; tincture of opium, 1/2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Starch, 1/2 dr.; water (boiling), 2 fl. oz.; mix, and when
cool enough add of tincture of opium, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr.

3. (Ph. D. 1826.) Laudanum, 1 dr.; warm water, 6 fl. oz.

_Obs._ The above are the orders of the colleges, but in practice the
quantity of laudanum is frequently doubled; this should, however, be done
with great care. Opium clysters are used in dysentery, colic, cholera, and
various painful affections of the intestines, bladder, &c. The bowels
should be emptied before their administration, and in inflammatory
complaints they should not be used for the first 48 hours. Clysters
containing opium, even in small quantities, are dangerous remedies for
young children; yet there are cases in which they sometimes succeed when
every other remedy has failed. This is particularly so in the low chronic
diarrhœa of infancy and early childhood. A case of this kind occurred in
the family of the writer. The family medical attendant, as well as the
physician he consulted, abandoned the little sufferer to apparently
inevitable death, as beyond the reach of further assistance. A small opium
clyster was given, and the child recovered.

=Enema of Ox-gall.= _Syn._ ENEMA FELLIS, E. F. BOVIS, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Allnatt.) Fresh ox-gall, 2 fl. oz.; water gruel, 8 fl. oz.

2. (Dr Clay.) Ox-gall, 2 fl. oz.; water, 4 or 5 fl. oz. To soften
indurated fæces, and in costiveness arising from deficiency of bile.

=Enema of Percyanide of Iron.= _Syn._ ENEMA FERRI PERCYANIDI. _Prep._
Triturate 5 gr. of Prussian blue, with 2 oz. of water; to be used daily,
increasing the dose if necessary. An American remedy for ascarides.

=Enema of Pop′pies.= _Syn._ ENEMA PAPAVERIS, L. _Prep._ 1. DECOCTION OF
POPPIES.

2. Poppy-heads (with the seeds), 5 dr.; water, 3/4 pint; boil to 12 fl.
oz., and strain. Anodyne; as a substitute for opium clyster.

=Enema, Pur′gative.= See ENEMA CATHARTIC.

=Enema of Quinine.= _Syn._ ENEMA QUINIÆ. Sulphate of quinine, 5 to 15 gr.;
decoction of starch, 6 oz.

=Enema of Rue.= _Syn._ ENEMA RUTÆ. _Prep._ Confection of rue, 20 to 60 gr;
thin gruel, 6 oz. to 8 oz.

=Enema, Sim′ple.= Barley water, rice water, thin-made starch, and
decoction of mallows, are frequently so called, from being used either for
simple laxative enemas, or as the vehicle for more active substances.

=Enema of Soap.= _Syn._ ENEMA SAPONIS, L. _Prep._ (St. B. Hosp.) Soft
soap, 6 dr.; hot water, 1 pint; dissolve. To soften indurated fæces, &c.;
and as a detergent in certain ulcerations of the rectum.

=Enema of Soot.= _Syn._ ENEMA FULIGINIS. Wood soot, 4 oz.; water, 1-1/2
pints; boil to a pint.

=Enema of Starch.= _Syn._ ENEMA AMYLI, L. See ENEMA SIMPLE (_above_).

=Enema, Stim′ulant.= _Syn._ ENEMA STIMULANS, L. The ordinary cathartic
clysters are often so called. The following belong to a different class:——

_Prep._ 1. Tincture of capsicum, 1 fl. oz.; barley water or thin
arrow-root, 1/2 pint; mix. In cholera, especially the cold stages.

2. To the last add, of ether, 2 fl. dr.; laudanum, 30 drops.

3. Decoction of poppies, 1/2 pint; tincture of capsicum, 3 fl. dr.; oil of
nutmeg, 10 drops. In diarrhœa.

=Enema of Tobac′co.= _Syn._ ENEMA TABACI (Ph. L. E. & D.), INFUSUM TABACI
(Ph. D. 1826), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Tobacco leaf, 20 gr.; boiling water,
8 oz.; infuse half an hour, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Tobacco, 15 to 30 gr.; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.; as last.

3. (Ph. D.) Tobacco, 1 scrup.; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.

4. (Ph. L. 1836.) Tobacco, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint.

_Obs._ Tobacco clyster is used in strangulated hernia, obstinate
constipation, retention of urine, &c. It is violently depressing and
relaxing; producing fainting, and even death, when improperly or
injudiciously administered. “It is not to be forgotten that 2 dr., 1 dr.,
and even 1/2 dr., of tobacco, infused in water, have proved fatal.” “The
cautious practitioner, therefore, will not use more than 15 or 20 gr.”
(Pereira.) Three parts of Virginia tobacco are equal to seven parts of any
other kind. (Davy.)

=Enema of Tur′pentine.= _Syn._ TURPENTINE CLYSTER; ENEMA TEREBINTHINÆ (Ph.
L.), E. OLEI T., L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Oil of turpentine, 1 oz.; mucilage
of starch, 15 oz.

2. (Ph. L.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; yolk of 1 egg; triturate
together, then add of decoction of barley, 19 fl. oz.

3. (Ph. E.) As the last, but using simple water instead of barley water.

4. (Ph. D.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; mucilage of barley, 16 fl. oz.

5. (Dr Neligan.) Oil of turpentine, 1/2 fl. oz.; syrup of garlic, 1 fl.
oz.; barley water, 6 or 7 fl. oz. In ascarides, and as an antispasmodic
and purgative in colic, obstinate constipation, calculus, peritonitis,
tympanitis (DRUM-BELLY), &c.

=Enema, Ver′mifuge.= _Syn._ ENEMA ANTHELMINTICUM, E. VERMIFUGUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. Castor oil, 1 oz.; mucilage, 3/4 oz.; decoction of the root of
male fern, 7 fl. oz. In worms, especially tape-worm.

2. (Collier.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; olive oil (warm), 1/2 pint. In
ascarides.

3. (Dr Darwall.) Tincture of sesquichloride of iron, 1 dr.; water, 7 or 8
fl. oz. In ascarides, especially when occurring in childhood; the quantity
used being proportionately lessened. See ENEMAS of ALOES, ASSAFŒTIDA,
TURPENTINE, &c.

=Enema of Vinegar.= _Syn._ ENEMA ACETICI. (Brande.) _Prep._ Vinegar, 2
oz.; infusion of chamomile, 4 oz. In typhus fever.

=Enema of Wine.= _Syn._ ENEMA VINOSUM, L. _Prep._ From sherry wine and hot
water, of each 7 fl. oz. In suspended animation. Sometimes a wine-glassful
of brandy is added.

=ENERGY, relative values of Food as sources of.= Chemists and
physiologists, although they agree that muscular power is derived from the
action of the oxygen supplied during respiration upon the digested
portions of the food, differ in their conclusions as to whether the
nitrogenous or non-nitrogenous principles of the food, form the chief
source of this power or not. The opinion of Liebig, Playfair, Ranke, and
others, that the oxidation and metamorphosis of the nitrogenous tissue is
the fountain of muscular force has of late years been contested, and on
the opposite view adduced, viz. that it is principally to the oxidation of
the carbonaceous or non-nitrogenous constituents of the food, that animal
dynamic power is due.

This latter view has received support from the experiments of Frankland,
Lawes, and Gilbert (from their observations on the feeding of cattle),
Edward Smith, Meyer, Pettenkofer, Voit, Wislicenus, Fick, Parkes, and
others.

The data upon which it is based are those derived from the observation of
the amount of heat generated by the combustion of a definite quantity of
food out of the body; which, it is affirmed with certain deductions,
represents the quantity of heat evolved by the oxidation of the same food
within the body; and as heat is the equivalent of muscular force or
energy, that aliment which, in burning, gives off the most heat, must, it
is supposed, necessarily be the richest in the production of animal motive
power. Of course these conditions will, amongst others, be very
considerably modified by the extent to which the processes of the animal
economy, such as digestion, assimilation, &c., can liberate the elements
of the food so as to become available as sources of this energy.

Were these processes perfect, all the carbon of the carbonaceous, as well
as that of the nitrogenous constituents of the diet, after deducting the
carbon which passes off as urea (one part of dry nitrogenous matter
yielding about a third of its weight of urea) would be utilised and
converted into heat-producing power. But even under these circumstances a
considerable portion of this thermotic power would be expended in
sustaining the internal movements of the body, such as respiration and the
heart’s action, which it has been computed are daily maintained by a force
capable of raising 600,000 pounds a foot high.

No wonder if, with such varying factors introduced into the problem,
physiologists and physicists should differ so widely in their
calculations; and that, whilst one inquirer believes that food practically
yields only about half the force which, according to theory, it actually
contains; another estimates it at only one fifth.

The following table by Dr Frankland shows the amount of force which
different foods yield when burned. The results agree very closely with
those theoretically given by Playfair and others.

_Energy developed by one gramme, or one ounce of the following substances,
when oxidised in the body._

  -------------------+-----------+--------------+---------------
                     |           |              |  1 ounce will
                     |           |              | equal foot-tons
                     |    Per    |   1 gramme   |   of energy, or
  Name of Substance  |  cent. of |   will equal |   in other words,
                     |   Water   |  kil.-metres |  would raise the
                     |           |    of energy.|    under-given
                     |           |              |  number of tons,
                     |           |              |  1 foot high.[276]
  -------------------+-----------+--------------+-----------------
  Beef (lean)        |    70·5   |       604    |      55·0
  Veal (lean)        |    70·9   |       496    |      45·3
  Ham (lean,         |           |              |
  boiled)            |    54·4   |       711    |      64·9
  Bread crumb        |    44·0   |       910    |      83·0
  Flour              |    ...    |      1627    |     148·5
  Ground rice        |    ...    |      1591    |     145·3
  Oatmeal            |    ...    |      1665    |     152·0
  Pea meal           |    ...    |      1598    |     146·0
  Potatoes           |    73·0   |       422    |      38·5
  Carrots            |    86·0   |       220    |      20·0
  Cabbage            |    88·5   |       178    |      16·2
  Butter             |    ...    |      3077    |     280·9
  Egg (white of)     |    86·3   |       244    |      22·3
  Egg (yolk)         |    47·0   |      1400    |     127·0
  Cheshire cheese    |    24·0   |      1846    |     168·5
  Arrowroot          |    ...    |      1656    |     151·3
  Milk               |    87·0   |       266    |      24·3
  Sugar (lump)       |    ...    |      1418    |     129·5
  Ale (Bass’ bottled)|    88·4   |       328    |      30·0
  Porter (Guinness’  |           |              |
  stout)             |    88·4   |       455    |      41·5
  ----------------------------------------------------------------

[Footnote 276: The amount of work done is generally estimated in this
country as so many lbs. or tons lifted 1 foot. In France it is expressed
as so many kilogrammes lifted 1 metre,——and called ‘the kilogrammemetre,’
as above.]

“A table of this kind,” says Dr Parkes, “is useful in showing what can be
obtained from our food, but it must not be supposed that the value of food
is in exact relation to the energy which it can furnish. In order that the
force shall be obtained, the food must not only be digested and taken into
the body properly prepared, but its energy must be developed in the place
and in the manner proper for nutrition. The mere expression of potential
energy cannot fix dietetic value, which may be dependent on conditions in
the body unknown to us. For example, it is quite certain, from
observation, that gelatin cannot take the place of albumen, though its
potential energy is little inferior, and it is easily oxidised in the
body. But, owing to some circumstances yet unknown, gelatin is chiefly
destroyed in the blood and gland-cells, and its energy, therefore, has a
different direction from that of albumen. So also of the potential
energy, it is quite possible that all is not usefully employed. The tables
of energy give broad indications, and can be used in a general statement
of the value of a diet; but at present they do not throw light upon the
intricacies of nutrition.”

=ENFLURAGE.= See POMMADE.

=ENGRA′′VING.= The art of producing designs or figures on metal, wood,
&c., by incision or corrosion, usually for the purpose of being
subsequently printed on paper, calico, or other materials. The mechanical
operations of the engraver do not come within the province of this work.
Several of the materials which he employs in his trade will, however, be
found noticed under their respective heads.

There is this important difference between engraving on metal plates and
wood-engraving: in the former all the lines and dots that are to print
black are hollowed out with a graving-tool, or ‘bitten in’ by acid; in the
latter all the parts that are to appear white in the impression are cut
away, and the lines which produce the imprint are left on the face of the
block.

Casts of wood-blocks, or ‘stereos.’ are often used instead of the original
blocks when a great number of impressions is required. To produce them
stucco moulds are prepared, and from these the casts in type metal are
taken. The casts are usually about 1/8 in. thick, and have to be screwed
upon wooden blocks to bring them to the height of the types which are
printed with them. As soon as one cast is worn out another may be taken,
and the original block is thus preserved in the state in which it left the
engraver’s hands.

For the reproduction of engraved metallic plates the ELECTROTYPE PROCESS
is commonly employed. Woodcuts are also copied, though less frequently, by
this process. The mode by which the postage-stamp plates are multiplied is
as follows:——240 ‘queen’s heads’ or stamps (a pound’s worth) are engraved
on one steel plate. This plate is then hardened, and an impression of it
taken on a softened steel roller. This roller, in its turn, is also
hardened, and softened steel plates being passed under it, an impression
precisely like that of the original plate is produced on each of them.
These plates are then hardened and employed for printing the penny postage
stamps for sale. They last a long time; and when they are worn out they
are destroyed, and their place is supplied by fresh ones, which are
produced by the cylinder before referred to, which continues ready to
supply any number that may be required. Bank-note plates are reproduced in
the same manner. See ELECTROTYPE, ETCHING, &c.

=Engravings, to Clean.= Place the engraving on a smooth board, and cover
it thinly with finely powdered and very clean common salt. Next squeeze
lemon-juice upon the salt so as to dissolve a considerable portion of it.
Now elevate one end of the board so that it may form an angle of about
forty-five or fifty degrees. Next pour on the engraving boiling water from
a tea-kettle until all the salt and lemon-juice are washed off. The
engraving will then be found to be perfectly clean and free from stains.
Care must be taken to dry it on the board or on some smooth surface very
gradually. It will acquire a yellow tint if dried by the sun or before a
fire.

=Engravings, to Mount.= Strain thin calico on a frame, then carefully
paste on it the engraving, so as to be free from creases; afterwards, and
when dry, give the engraving two coats of thin size (made by putting a
piece of glue the size of a small nut into a small cupful of hot water);
finally, when this dries, varnish the engraving with a varnish known as
‘white hard.’

=ENTERI′TIS.= See INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.

=ENTOZO′A.= Parasitic animals which infest the bodies of other animals.
See WORMS.

=ENTRY, Powers of.= The Public Health Act thus defines the power of any
local authority to enter into premises whereon a nuisance is supposed to
exist; and the conditions under which this power is to be exercised.

“The local authority or their officer shall be admitted to any premises
for the purpose of examining as to the existence of a nuisance thereon, or
of enforcing the provisions of any Act in force within the district
requiring fireplaces and furnaces to consume their own smoke at any time
between the hours of nine in the forenoon and six in the afternoon, or in
the case of a nuisance arising in respect of any business, then at any
hour when such business is in progress or is usually carried on.

“Where under the Public Health Act a nuisance has been ascertained to
exist, or an order of abatement or of prohibition has been made, the local
authority or their officer shall be admitted from time to time into the
premises between the hours aforesaid until the nuisance is abated or the
works ordered to be done are completed, as the case may be.

“Where an order of abatement or prohibition has not been complied with or
has been infringed, the local authority or their officer shall be admitted
from time to time at all reasonable hours or at all hours during which
business is in progress or is usually carried on into the premises where
the nuisance exists, in order to abate or remove the same.

“If admission to premises for any of the purposes of this section is
refused, any justice on complaint thereof on oath by any officer of the
local authority (made after reasonable notice in writing of the intention
to make the same has been given to the person having custody of the
premises) may, by order under his hand, require the person having custody
of the premises to admit the local authority or their officer into the
premises during the hours aforesaid; and if no person having custody of
the premises can be found, the justice shall, on oath made before him of
that fact, by order under his hand, authorise the local authority or their
officer to enter such premises during the hours aforesaid.

“Any order made by a justice for admission of the local authority or their
officer on premises shall continue in force until the nuisance has been
abated, or the work for which the entry was necessary has been done.

“Any person refusing to obey a justices’ order for admission of the local
authority or their officers is liable to a penalty not exceeding five
pounds. Power of entry at _reasonable times_ is given to the medical
officers of health and inspector of nuisances to inspect food, &c. Penalty
for obstruction, five pounds and under.”

=ENURE′SIS.= See URINE.

=EPHESTIA ELETELLA——The Chocolate Moth.= The larvæ of this moth frequently
cause serious damage to cocoa, flour, or biscuits when these are stored.
Professor Huxley proposes to guard against the ravages of the insect by
the adoption of the following precautions——

1. Have no cocoa stored in any place in which biscuits are manufactured.

2. Lead up all biscuit puncheons as soon as they are full of the
freshly-baked biscuit.

3. Coat puncheons with tar after they are leaded up, or at least work
lime-wash well into the joints and crevices.

4. Line the bread-rooms of the ships with tin, so that if the Ephestia has
got into a puncheon it may not infest the rest of the ship.

5. If other means fail, expose the woodwork of puncheons to a heat of 200°
F. for two hours, or they might be destroyed by driving into the puncheon
a stream of carbonic oxide, and afterwards exposing it well to the air.
Weevils in biscuit have frequently been exterminated by this method, and
there appears to be no reason why this treatment should not be equally
efficacious for getting rid of the larvæ of the _Ephestia Eletella_.

=EPHIAL′TES.= See NIGHTMARE.

=EPIDEM′IC.= Common to many people. In _pathology_, an epidemic disease
(EPIDEMIC; EPIDEMY) is one which seizes a number of people at the same
time and in the same place, but which is not dependent on any local cause,
but on some extraordinary condition of the air. When a disease is peculiar
to a people or nation, and appears to depend on local causes, it is said
to be ‘ENDEMIC’ or ‘ENCHORIAL,’ Thus, Asiatic cholera may be taken as an
example of the first, and the agues of low countries, and the goitre of
the Alps, as examples of the other.

Epidemics may be divided into indigenous and exotic. Amongst the former
may be included scarlet fever, measles, hooping-cough, influenza, typhoid;
whilst the latter embrace such as are imported, viz. Asiatic cholera,
plague, &c.

No year passes without the prevalence of an epidemic of one kind or the
other in this country.

The following enactments for the prevention of epidemic diseases are now
in force:——

“Whenever any part of England appears to be threatened with, or is
affected by, any formidable epidemic, endemic, or infectious disease, the
Local Government Board may make, and from time to time alter and revoke,
regulations for all or any of the following purposes, viz.:——

“(1) For the speedy interment of the dead; and——

“(2) For house-to-house visitation; and——

“(3) For the provision of medical aid and accommodation, for the promotion
of cleansing, ventilation, and disinfection, and for guarding against the
spread of the disease;——

“and may by order declare all or any of the regulations so made to be in
force within the whole or any part or parts of the district of any local
authority, and to apply to any vessels as well as arms or parts of the sea
within the jurisdiction of the Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom, or
the Commissioners for executing the office of the Lord High Admiral for
the time being, for the period in such order mentioned, and may by any
subsequent order abridge or extend such period.” (P. H., s. 134.)

“All such regulations, &c., made by the Local Government Board are to be
published in the ‘London Gazette,’ and such publication is to be held as
conclusive evidence.” (P. H., s. 135.)

“The local authority of any district within which, or part of which,
regulations so issued by the Local Government Board are declared to be in
force, shall superintend and see to the execution thereof, and shall
appoint and pay such medical or other officers or persons, and do and
provide all such acts, matters, and things as may be necessary for
mitigating any such disease, or for superintending or aiding in the
execution of such regulations, or for executing the same, as the case may
require. Moreover, the local authority may from time to time direct any
prosecution or legal proceedings for or in respect of the wilful violation
or neglect of any such regulation.” (P. H., s. 136.)

“The local authority and their officers shall have power of entry on any
premises or vessel for the purpose of executing or superintending the
execution of any regulations so issued by the Local Government Board as
aforesaid.” (P. H., s. 137.)

“Whenever, in compliance with any regulation so issued by the Local
Government Board as aforesaid, any poor-law medical officer performs any
medical service on board any vessel, he shall be entitled to charge extra
for such service, at the general rate of his allowance for services for
the union or place for which he is appointed, and such charges shall be
payable by the captain of such vessel on behalf of the owners thereof,
together with any reasonable expenses for the treatment of the sick.

“Where such services are rendered by any medical practitioner who is not a
poor-law medical officer, he shall be entitled to charges for any service
rendered on board, with extra remuneration on account of distance, at the
same rate as those which he is in the habit of receiving from private
patients of the class of those attended and treated on shipboard, to be
paid as aforesaid. In case of dispute in respect of such charges, such
dispute may, where the charges do not exceed _twenty pounds_, be
determined by a court of summary jurisdiction; and such court shall
determine summarily the amount which is reasonable, according to the
accustomed rate of charge within the place where the dispute arises for
attendance on patients of the like class as those in respect of whom the
charge is made.” (P. H., s. 138.)

“The Local Government Board may, if they think fit, by order authorise or
require any two or more local authorities to act together for the purposes
of the provisions of this Act relating to prevention of epidemic diseases,
and may prescribe the mode of such joint action, and of defraying the
costs thereof.” (P. H., s. 139.)

“Any person who——

“(1.) Wilfully violates any regulation so issued by the Local Government
Board, as aforesaid; or,

“(2.) Wilfully obstructs any person acting under the authority or in the
execution of any such regulation shall be liable to a penalty not
exceeding five pounds.” (P. H., s. 140.)

=EPIGAS′TRIC.= In _anatomy_, pertaining to the EPIGAS′TRIUM, or the part
of the abdomen over the stomach.

=EPILEP′SY.= _Syn._ FALLING SICKNESS; EPILEPSIA, MORBUS CADUCUS, L. The
popular name of this disease arises from the patient, when attacked by it,
suddenly falling to the ground. The other leading symptoms consist of
convulsions, stupor, and, generally, frothing at the mouth. It comes on by
fits, which after a time go off, leaving a certain amount of lassitude and
drowsiness behind. Sometimes certain peculiar symptoms precede the attack.
Among these, a sensation of coldness or of a current of cold air from the
extremities of the body towards the head (AURA EPILEPTICA), palpitation,
flatulency, stupor, and an indescribable cloud or depression, are the most
common. The occurrence of these symptoms are not, however, uniform, even
in the same patient; but it generally happens that the party falls down
suddenly, and without the slightest warning.

Epilepsy is often symptomatic of other affections, as excessive irritation
of the primæ viæ from worms, indigestible or noxious food, or poison; or
it depends on local injuries, particularly those of the head, accompanied
with lodgments of water on the brain, tumours, pressure, &c. Violent
affections of the nervous system, sudden frights or fits of passion,
violent mental emotions, the sudden suppression of old evacuations, and,
in childhood, difficult teething, are also common causes of sympathetic
epilepsy. Occasionally it arises from mobility of the sensorium, induced
by plethora, or by excessive debility. In such cases the treatment must be
energetically directed to the removal of the exciting cause.

When epilepsy occurs as an idiopathic or primary affection, or when it
cannot be referred to any apparent cause, more especially when the attack
commences about the age of puberty, and the fits are frequent, it is
generally hereditary, and there is great danger of its terminating either
in apoplexy, or lunacy, or imbecility.

The treatment of idiopathic epilepsy is principally directed to the
improvement of the general health, and the diminution of nervous
irritability by sedatives and tonics. Among the first, camphor, ether,
henbane, hemlock, musk, oil of cajeput, opium, and morphia, and, more
recently, hydrocyanic acid, have been principally relied on. Among the
second, bark, cascarilla, quinine, strychnia, valerian, the sulphate of
iron, zinc, and copper, arsenious acid, and nitrate of silver, have each
their zealous advocates. The objection against the last preparation is the
danger of its disfiguring the patient, by tinging the skin of a permanent
dull, leaden hue. In cases accompanied with plethora, a low diet, daily
out-of-door exercise, and the frequent use of aperients, with occasional
blistering, cupping, and other depletive measures, are indicated; whilst
in those marked by inanition and debility, an entirely opposite course
must be adopted. When the disease is complicated with syphilis, a mild
course of mercury may be given; and when with scrofula, iodine, iodide of
potassium, or cod-liver oil, assisted by sea-bathing, will be proper.

Among other methods of treatment may be mentioned the administration of an
active emetic or purgative, twice weekly, in the morning, when the stomach
is empty. The first has now few supporters; but the second is said to be
often productive of great benefit.

During a fit of epilepsy the only thing that can be done for the patient
is to prevent the sufferer injuring himself, and to loosen every part of
his dress that presses on his head, neck, or chest. When premonitory
symptoms occur, a brisk emetic, a large dose of laudanum and ether, a cold
plunge or shower bath (when not contra-indicated), or anything else which
gives a sudden shock to the system or raises its tone, frequently prevents
the accession of the fit.

Epilepsy more commonly attacks children than adults, and boys than girls.
“Its returns are frequently periodical, and its paroxysms commence more
frequently in the night than in the day, being somewhat connected with
sleep. It is sometimes counterfeited by street impostors in order to
excite the charity of the passers-by.

_For Animals._ All animals are subject to attacks of epilepsy, more
particularly dogs and pigs. The animal seized with the fit loses the
senses of sight and hearing, and falling down exhibits the same symptoms
as those which accompany the disease in human beings. Cattle, although
they bellow greatly during an attack, rarely die from it; but it not
infrequently suffocates dogs, and is in them a not unusual cause of sudden
death. The fit, which lasts from ten to fifty minutes, when it passes off,
leaves the animal dull, and is apt to return. Epileptic fits are a
frequent accompaniment of distemper in dogs. They are often induced in
cattle by tough and indigestible food, and in these as well as in dogs, by
intestinal worms. Hot weather and excitement, especially in dogs, are a
frequent cause of an epileptic fit. By energetic treatment after the first
attack the further course of the malady may often be arrested. The best
treatment is to give, when the fit is over, a brisk purge, with an ounce
of oil of turpentine in horses or cattle, and twenty to forty drops in
dogs. If the disease is caused by worms give the medicines ordered in such
cases.

=EPISPAS′TICS.= See BLISTER and VESICANT.

=EP′ITHEM.= _Syn._ EPITHEMA, L. Any external liquid medicine for local
application; as an embrocation or lotion. Some writers confine the term to
those preparations which are intended to be applied by means of a cloth
dipped into them. See LINIMENT, LOTION, &c.

=Epithem, Astrin′′gent.= _Syn._ EPITHEMA ASTRINGENS, L. _Prep._ 1.
Powdered ice, 7 dr.; powdered catechu, 1 dr.; mix.

2. (Brera.) Powdered bole and rhatany, of each 1 oz.; vinegar of roses, q.
s. to form a paste. Both are applied to the nostrils and forehead to stop
bleeding at the nose.

=Epithem, Gly′′cerin.= _Syn._ EPITHEMA GLYCERINÆ, L. _Prep._ (Mr Startin.)
Glycerin, 1 oz.; rose water and lime water, of each 3 or 4 fl. oz.;
powdered gum tragacanth, q. s. to form a thin mucilage. In scalds, burns,
and excoriations.

=Epithem, Vermifuge.= _Syn._ EPITHEMA VERMIFUGUM, L. (Hoffmann). Wormwood
and centaury, beaten up with aloes and colocynth, and applied over the
belly.

=Epithem, Vesica′ting.= _Syn._ EPITHEMA VESICATORIUM, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Alibert.) Rye or barley meal, made into a paste with vinegar, and 30 to
40 gr. or more of powdered Spanish flies sprinkled over the surface.

2. (Ph. L. 1746.) Spanish flies (in fine powder) and wheat flour, equal
parts, made into paste with vinegar, q. s. As a blister.

=Epithem, Vol′atile.= _Syn._ EPITHEMA VOLATILE, E. AMMONIÆ, L. _Prep._
(Ph. L. 1764.) Common turpentine and water of ammonia, equal parts. An
excellent counter-irritant; either with or without the addition of a
little olive oil.

=EPIZOOTIC DISEASES.= These are diseases which attack different species of
domestic animals in the same manner that epidemics do man. These maladies
ravage large tracts of country, frequently causing great mortality amongst
the various animals inhabiting the localities visited by them; different
animals being assailed by different forms of epizootic disease.

For instance, there is the rinderpest, or plague peculiar to cattle, the
typhoid or gastric fever which prevailed so largely amongst horses in this
country in 1854, and 1861 and 1862; the smallpox of sheep; the diphtheria
affecting oxen, sheep, goats, and pigs; the influenza of horses, and the
charbon of pigs. Dogs, cats, tame and wild birds, fish,[277] silkworms and
bees, each suffers from a special variety of epizootic disease.

[Footnote 277: Great mortality has prevailed amongst the salmon during the
present year, owing to the attacks of a peculiar white fungus, called the
_Saprolegnia ferox_, a parasite that multiplies so rapidly as speedily to
envelope any fish it attacks.]

Epizootic diseases are met with in most European countries. They are very
common in Russia, where they commit great devastation amongst the horned
cattle, 400,000 of which are said to die annually from their ravages. Of
epizootics, Mr Finlay Dun says:——“They extend at the same time over large
tracts of country, attack in a similar manner great numbers of animals,
tend to assume a typhoid form, and withstand badly all depletive
treatment. They depend upon some general causes as yet unknown, but which
it has usually been thought sufficient to term “atmospheric;” but are
always most common and fatal amongst animals breathing impure air, densely
crowded, badly fed, or exposed to cold winds; and are generally prevented
or robbed of their virulence by guarding against such debilitating causes,
and maintaining a high standard of health.”

=EQUISE′TIC ACID.= In _chemistry_, a substance identical with ACONITIC
ACID (which _see_).

=EQUIV′ALENT.= (EQUIVALENCY.) In modern _chemistry_, the equivalent of a
body is that weight of it which will exactly replace in a compound 1 atom
of hydrogen or 1 atom of either of the other monivalent elements (_see_
Table, _below_).

Monivalent elements are those which replace one atom of hydrogen in
chemical combinations in the ratios of their atomic weights.

One atom of a divalent, trivalent, tetrivalent, pentivalent, and
hexivalent element replaces respectively, or is equivalent to, two, three,
four, five, or six atoms of hydrogen or of any other monivalent element.
(For further information on this subject consult the works on chemistry
by Fownes, Miller, Kay-Shuttleworth, &c.)

_Table of the Elements, arranged according to their Equivalency_.

  -----------+-----------+----------+-------------+------------+------------
  Monivalent.| Divalent. |Trivalent.| Tetrivalent.|Pentivalent.| Hexivalent.
  -----------+-----------+----------+-------------+------------+------------
  Hydrogen   | Oxygen    |Boron     | Carbon      |Nitrogen    | Sulphur
  Fluorine   | Barium    |Gold      | Silicon     |Phosphorus  | Selenium
  Chlorine   | Strontium |          | Tin         |Vanadium    | Tellurium
  Bromine    | Calcium   |          | Titanium    |Arsenic     | Tungsten
  Iodine     | Magnesium |          | Thorium     |Antimony    | Molybdenum
  Cæsium     | Zinc      |          | Niobium     |Bismuth     | Osmium
  Rubidium   | Didymium  |          | Tantalum    |            | Iridium
  Potassium  | Lanthanium|          | Zinconium   |            | Ruthenium
  Sodium     | Yttrium   |          | Aluminium   |            | Rhodium
  Lithium    | Glucinum  |          | Platinum    |            | Chromium
  Thallium   | Cadmium   |          | Palladium   |            | Manganese
  Silver     | Mercury   |          | Lead        |            | Iron
             | Copper    |          |             |            | Cobalt
             |           |          |             |            | Nickel
             |           |          |             |            | Uranium
             |           |          |             |            | Cerium
  -----------+-----------+----------+-------------+------------+------------

=ERB′IUM.= According to Prof. Mosander, the substance usually called
yttria is a mixture of the oxides of three metals——yttrium, erbium, and
terbium, which differ in the character of their salts, and in some other
important particulars. The first is a powerful base; the others, very weak
ones. The latter are separated with extreme difficulty, and possess no
practical importance.

[Illustration]

=ERDMAN’S FLOAT.= This useful little instrument, invented as its name
implies, by Erdman, is used to ensure accuracy in the readings of Mohr’s
burette.

It is in the form of an elongated glass bulb, loaded with a globule of
mercury at the bottom, the same as a hydrometer, and with a glass hook at
the top, by means of which it can be placed in or removed from the liquid
in the burette at pleasure. The float has a circular mark scratched by a
diamond, running round the middle, which, when the instrument is placed in
the fluid in the burette, should correspond with the graduation or degree
on the burette at which the fluid stands. The actual height of the fluid
in the burette is of no consequence, since, if the operation be commenced
with the line on the float opposite the 0 gradation on the burette, the
same proportional division is always maintained. It is most essential
that, when the fluid is being drawn off, the float should accompany it in
its descent without wavering, and that the circular mark upon it should
always be parallel to the graduations of the burette. Another condition
is, that when the float has been pressed down in the fluid of the closed
burette it should slowly rise again. A correspondent in Liebig’s ‘Annalen
der Chemie und Pharmacie’ for April, 1875, states that Erdman’s floats
generally become lined internally with a green or yellow layer, from the
oxidation of the mercury, and are thus rendered opaque and consequently
useless. He proposes to place the mercury in a distinct cell, hermetically
sealed from the upper part of the float which carries the circular mark.
He has had floats of this construction in use for years.[278] See BURETTE.

[Footnote 278: ‘Chemical News.’]

=EREMACAU′SIS.= Slow burning; decay. This expression was applied by Liebig
to the peculiar decomposition which moist organic matter undergoes, when
freely exposed to the air, by the oxygen of which it is gradually burned
or destroyed, without any sensible elevation of temperature. See
PUTREFACTION.

=ER′GOT.= _Syn._ ERGOT OF RYE, SPURRED RYE, HORNED R., COCKSPUR R.,
OBSTETRICAL R. ERGOTA (B. P.), L. The diseased seeds of _Secale cereale_
(Linn.), or common rye.

Ergot of rye deteriorates greatly by age, being subject to the attacks of
a description of acarus resembling the cheese mite, but much smaller,
which destroys the whole of the internal portion of the grain, leaving
nothing but the shell, and a considerable quantity of excrementitious
matter. To prevent this the ergot should be well dried, and then placed in
bottles or tin canisters, and closely preserved from the air. The addition
of a few cloves, or drops of the oil of cloves, or strong acetic acid, or
a little camphor, or camphorated spirit of wine, will preserve this
substance for years in close vessels. M. Martin proposes to steep the dry
ergot in strong mucilage, and then to dry it on a sheet of white iron.
This operation he repeats once or oftener, and finally preserves the
prepared and thoroughly dried ergot in a well-corked glass flask. (‘Jour.
de Chimie Méd.’) The wholesale druggists generally keep it in well-covered
tin canisters or tin boxes.

H. Ducros (‘Zeitschr. des Oesterr. Apoth. Ver.,’ 1876-8), on the strength
of many years’ experience, recommends powdered wood-charcoal for the
preservation of ergot of rye.

The ergot is placed in a wide-mouth stoppered bottle, and covered with a
thick layer of the powdered charcoal. Whenever it is required for use some
of the ergot is transferred to a piece of paper, and freed from the
adhering charcoal by blowing and rubbing. What is not required is returned
to the bottle.

N. B. Gionovié (‘Zeitschr. des Oesterr. Apoth. Ver.,’ 1876, 126) states he
has used the following process with the best success. A small quantity of
ether is dropped on the ergot contained in a bottle, and the latter closed
with a well-fitting stopper. The addition of ether is repeated every time
the bottle is opened.

Ergot of rye is much used to restrain uterine hæmorrhage, and to
accelerate the contraction of the uterus in protracted labour. It is also
much used as an emmenagogue.——_Dose._ To facilitate labour, 20 to 30 gr.,
either in powder or made into an infusion; repeated at intervals of 20 or
30 minutes until 3 or 4 scruples have been taken. In other cases
(leucorrhœa, hæmorrhages, &c.) the _dose_ is 5 to 12 gr., three times
daily, for a period not longer than a week or ten days at a time.

M. Tancret states that he has succeeded in obtaining an alkaloid from
ergot of rye, which he names _ergotinine_. The isolation of ergotinine is
said to be attended with great difficulty, owing to its great tendency to
undergo spontaneous changes, a short contact with the air being sufficient
to decompose it; a circumstance which may perhaps help to explain the
rapid change that the powder ergot experiences. Professor Dragendorff,
however, refuses to admit that ergotinine is the active principle of
ergot, or that it is a distinct chemical substance. He ascribes the
therapeutic power of the drug mainly to _sclerotic acid_, which body,
after various unsuccessful attempts, he has obtained from ergot, with
certain other determinate compounds, by the following process:——“Very
finely powdered ergot is exhausted with distilled water, the solution
concentrated _in vacuo_, and the residuary liquid mixed with an equal
volume of 95 per cent. alcohol. This causes the precipitation of a
peculiarly shiny substance (scleromucin), together with a portion of the
salts, and the greater part of the suspended fatty matter. The mixture
having been allowed to stand on ice for twenty-four to forty-eight hours,
it is filtered, and the filtrate mixed with a further quantity of 95 per
cent. alcohol, sufficient to precipitate all the sclerotic acid in
combination with the bases (chiefly as calcium sclerotate). The separation
of the precipitate is promoted as before, by placing the mixture on ice
for some days. This causes the deposited mass, which has a brownish
colour, to adhere firmly to the walls of the vessel, so as to permit the
supernatant liquid to be easily poured off. The precipitate is kneaded
with alcohol of 80 per cent., and immediately thereafter dissolved in a
sufficient quantity of 40 per cent. alcohol, when the remainder of the
scleromucin and another large portion of the foreign salts are left
behind. The filtered liquid is now mixed with absolute alcohol, whereby
sclerotic acid is precipitated in conjunction with certain bases and other
substances. The impure product, when carefully dried over sulphuric acid,
was found on analysis to contain 8·5 per cent. of potassium, about 0·36
per cent. of calcium, 4·3 per cent. of sodium, 2·74 per cent. of
phosphoric acid, or altogether 12·9 per cent. of ash.

“The greater part of these admixtures may be removed, and the sclerotic
acid obtained free, by adding before the final precipitation with absolute
alcohol a considerable quantity of hydrochloric acid (for every 100 c. c.
of solution 5-6 gm. of the acid, sp. gr. 1·100), allowing to stand at
ordinary temperature for a few hours, and then proceeding to precipitate.
In this manner the amount of ash may be brought down to 3 per cent., and
by repeated solution, addition of acid, and precipitation, it may further
be reduced to less than 2 per cent. or 3 per cent. A more complete
purification is difficult and hazardous, because every addition of
hydrochloric acid causes the decomposition of a small quantity of
sclerotic acid, while at the same time a portion of the latter is lost by
remaining in solution.

“The resulting product, although not chemically pure, is nevertheless
physiologically pure, as it always produces constant and identical
results, no matter from what sample of (good) ergot it was obtained.

“Good ergot contains about 4 to 4·5 per cent. of the acid, although
samples are met with which contain scarcely 1·5 to 2 per cent.”[279]

[Footnote 279: From ‘New Remedies.’]

Frogs are stated to have been thrown into a state of palsy by the
hypodermic injection of 0·02 to 0·04 gram of sclerotic acid.

See DECOCTION, EXTRACT, INFUSION, OIL, TINCTURE, &c.

=ER′GOTIN.= _Syn._ ERGOTINA, L. _Prep._ 1. (Bonjean’s.) Powdered ergot is
exhausted with cold water, by displacement, and the resulting solution is
heated in a water bath to about 200° Fahr., and filtered; the filtered
liquor is then evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, and when cold,
is treated with rectified spirit, in considerable excess, to precipitate
its gummy matter; after repose, the clear portion is decanted, by the heat
of a water bath, to the consistence of a soft extract. _Prod._ 15%.
According to M. Bonjean, this preparation possesses all the ‘hæmostatic’
without any of the ‘poisonous’ qualities of ergot. It has a reddish-brown
colour, a bitter taste, and an odour somewhat resembling that of roasted
meat. Its aqueous solution is red, limpid, and transparent.——_Dose_, 4 to
10 gr., either made into a pill or dissolved in water.

2. (Wigger’s.) Powdered ergot is first digested in ether, to remove the
fatty matter, and then in boiling alcohol; the alcoholic tincture is
evaporated, and the resulting extract treated with water; the undissolved
portion, dissolved in hot alcohol and filtered, yields pure ergotine by
gentle evaporation.——_Prod._ 1-1/4%. It has a brownish-red colour; is
resinous, acrid, bitter, insoluble in water and ether, soluble in alcohol,
and poisonous. It evolves a peculiar odour when warmed. Its therapeutical
action has not been determined. See EXTRACT.

=ER′RHINES.= _Syn._ ERRHINA, L. Substances applied to the pituitary
membrane of the nose, for the purpose of producing an increased discharge
of nasal mucus. When they are given to excite sneezing, they are called
STERNUTATORIES or PTARMICS. Asarabacca, euphorbium, several of the
_labiatæ_ (herbæ _vel_ flores), sal-ammoniac, powdered sugar, subsulphate
of mercury, tobacco, and white hellebore, are the principal substances of
this class.

Errhines act as local irritants, and are occasionally employed in chronic
affections of the eyes, face, ears, and brain; as in amaurosis,
ophthalmia, deafness, weak sight, headache, &c.

=Errhine, Al′um.= _Syn._ ERRHINUM ALUMINIS, L. _Prep._ (Radius.) Alum and
Armenian bole, of each, 1 dr.; kino, 1/2 dr.; red oxide of iron, 2 dr.
(all in powder); mix and triturate. In bleeding at the nose. A little is
snuffed up the nostrils.

=Errhine, Hæmostat′ic.= _Syn._ ERRHINUM HÆMOSTATICUS, L. _Prep._ From
powdered catechu, 1 dr.; opium, 5 gr.; sugar, 2 dr. As the last.

=ERUPTIONS (of the Skin).= For brevity and convenience, these cutaneous
affections may be divided into 5 classes:——

=Eruptions, Animal′cular.= These are due to the presence of minute
parasites (ACARI), which burrow and breed in the scarf-skin, and occasion
much local irritation. See ITCH.

=Eruptions, Pap′ular.= _Syn._ DRY PIMPLES. In these the surface is raised
into little elevations or pimples, which sometimes show themselves on the
surface, and at others are only appreciable by the touch. They are usually
accompanied with a greater or less degree of cutaneous irritation and
troublesome itching, in attempting to relieve which they are frequently
converted into disagreeable and painful sores and excoriations, which are
often difficult to heal.

_Treat._ In simple cases, where there is not much disarrangement of the
general health, these eruptions commonly yield to the occasional use of
mild saline aperients, and warm or tepid bathing, or frequent ablution
with warm soap and water. Sea-bathing is also a powerful remedy.
Stimulants of all kinds should be avoided, and ripe fruit and vegetables
should form a prominent part of the diet. Lemonade, made by squeezing a
lemon into a tumbler of water, and sweetening the mixture with a little
sugar, is one of the best beverages on these occasions. To relieve the
itching, brisk friction with a soft flesh-brush may be had recourse to,
followed by the use of a lotion formed by adding the juice of a lemon or a
wine-glassful of distilled vinegar, to 3/4 of a pint or a pint of water,
either with or without the addition of a table-spoonful of glycerin.
Occasional single pimples, depending on local causes, generally require no
particular treatment. See LICHEN, PRURIGO, RED GUM, and TOOTHRASH.

=Eruptions, Pus′tular.= _Syn._ MATTERY PIMPLES. These are distinguished by
the pimples (pustules) containing an opaque yellow fluid or matter (pus,
lymph). “They are generally developed on a ground of inflamed skin; and
the degree of this inflammation of the skin is the basis of their division
into two groups, termed technically ‘IMPETIGO’ and ‘ECTHYMA,’ The former
presents the slighter degree of inflammation, and, sometimes, there is
scarcely any redness of the skin; the latter is always accompanied by
considerable inflammation and redness.” “The little bubbles attain their
full size in the course of two or three days, and either dry up without
breaking, or more frequently burst and then dry, forming a hard crust,
which offers considerable variety of colour, being sometimes yellowish,
sometimes brownish, and sometimes almost black.” The latter form is
popularly known as ‘crusted tetter.’ In ecthyma the pustules “are
generally of the size of a split pea, and surrounded at their base by a
broad halo of redness. They are usually separate, not clustered like
impetigo, scattered over various parts of the body, and followed either by
a hard black crust or by a sore.”

_Treat._ The inflammation and pain may be generally alleviated by the
application of a lotion formed of rectified spirit of wine, 1 part; and
water, 5 or 6 parts; to which a table-spoonful of distilled vinegar is
often added. The crusts or scabs, when they become hard or troublesome,
may be removed by a warm fomentation or an emollient poultice; a little
simple cerate being afterwards applied to allay irritation. When the
constitution is full and inflammatory (as it usually is in impetigo), a
depletive treatment may be adopted, when it is low and debilitated (as it
usually is in ecthyma), tonics and a more liberal diet, with the free use
of lemon juice diluted with water, as a beverage, should be had recourse
to. Sea-bathing is also highly useful. See TETTERS.

=Eruptions, Sca′ly.= _Syn._ DRY TETTER. This is a form of inflammatory
condition of the true skin (DERMA), which commonly makes its appearance as
a small dull red, salmon-red, or liver-coloured spot, slightly raised
above the level of the surrounding skin, constituting a broad, flat,
pimple-like prominence, about the size of a split pea. Upon the surface of
this prominence the scarf-skin becomes slightly roughened, and after a
little while a very distinct but circular scale is produced, which
increases in thickness by the addition of fresh layers, and after assuming
various colours in different varieties of the disease, ultimately
separates and falls off, either leaving a permanently bare surface, or
being followed by crops of other like scales, which also fall off, and are
replaced in rapid succession. This class of eruptions is more obstinate
than any of the other varieties, and often defies medical skill. Each
particular form generally requires special treatment. In all, however,
endeavours should be made to restore the general health of the body in the
manner which existing circumstances may indicate. The red meats, ripe
fruit, and antiscorbutic vegetables should form a large portion of the
diet; and sea-bathing, or shower, sulphuretted, or ioduretted baths,
should be taken daily, if possible. Dry friction with a flesh-brush, and
daily exercise to perspiration, are also highly recommended. See LEPROSY,
PSORIASIS, TETTERS, &c.

=Eruptions, Vesic′ular.= _Syn._ WATERY PIMPLES. These consist of little
vesicles or bladders, filled with a small quantity of a transparent and
colourless liquid. They result from a similar action to that which
produces ordinary blisters. Inflammation is excited in the sensitive skin
by an inward or outward cause, and the inflamed vessels pour out the
watery part of the blood, and so raise the scarf-skin from off the
sensitive layer, in the form of a small dome, which in some situations is
conical, in others a segment of a sphere. They present great variety in
point of number and size; some are so minute as to be scarcely discernible
without close inspection, whilst others increase to the magnitude of a
hen’s egg. They are numerous in the inverse ratio of their size; the
smaller ones being very abundant, and the larger ones scanty and few.

_Treat._ This consists chiefly in the due attention to the general
principles of health——cleanliness, exercise, food, and raiment, as already
pointed out, assisted by such special remedies as the particular case or
circumstances may demand. Antiphlogistics or tonics must be had recourse
to, according to the condition of the system, and local irritation allayed
by the usual means. Simple cases frequently yield to a dose or two of some
saline aperient and a change of diet. See ACNE, ERYSIPELAS, PEMPHIGUS,
RUPIA, TETTERS, and SKIN.

=ERVALEN′TA.= The meal of lentil (_Ervum lens_,——Linn.), variously
doctored with other substances. In some cases the article sold under the
name does not contain a particle of lentil meal.

_Prep._ 1. (Paris Ervalenta.) Indian-corn meal (fine), and bean flour, of
each 14 lbs.; salt and sugar, of each 1 lb.; mix, and pass the compound
through a sieve.

2. (Warton’s.) Lentil powder, 1 part; durra or Turkey millet flour
(_Sorghum vulgare_), 2 parts. Some persons assert that it contains a large
quantity of the flour of Indian corn. See REVALENTA and LENTILS.

=ERYN′′GO.= _Syn._ ERYNGIUM, L. The root of the _Eryngium campestre_, a
plant common in middle and southern Europe. It is sweet, aromatic, and
tonic, and formerly enjoyed much repute in gonorrhœa, suppressed
menstruation, and visceral obstructions generally, especially those of the
gall-bladder, liver, and uterus. Candied eryngo (ERYNGIUM CONDITUM,
ERYNGII RADIX CONDITA), according to Lindley, “has the credit of being a
decided aphrodisiac,” and has a considerable sale. _Eryngium aquaticum_
(bitter snake-weed) and _E. maritimum_ (sea eryngo, sea holly) furnish the
eryngo of the Ph. U. S. See CANDYING.

=ERYSIP′ELAS.= _Syn._ ST. ANTHONY’S FIRE, THE ROSE. A peculiar form of
inflammation, which chiefly attacks the skin, and is generally accompanied
or followed by an eruption of a very red colour, sometimes vesicular, and
by tumefaction. It commonly attacks the head and face, and is at its
height from the third to the sixth day, but the duration and progress of
the symptoms are variable. From the eighth to the twelfth day the eruption
usually scabs or scales off. Sometimes suppuration occurs, especially of
the eyelids and scalp, and during the latter stages of the disease there
is, in general, a tendency to debility. In many cases erysipelas is
attended by typhoid symptoms, and is then a dangerous and often fatal
disease.

_Treat._ Aperients and diaphoretics, assisted by a cooling diet. When the
inflammatory symptoms run high, blistering and cupping are frequently had
recourse to. Local irritation may be subdued by milk-and-water, or cooling
or evaporating lotions, or by sprinkling starch, hair-powder, or
arrow-root, on the part. The tendency to debility in the latter stages
should be combated with bark, quinine, or other like tonics. When
shiverings, sickness, and delirium, attend the height of the disorder,
wine, bark, ammonia, and other stimulants, are usually prescribed, and
depletion must be avoided. The same treatment is also adopted in the
gangrenous forms of the disease, to which doses of opium and calomel are
also commonly added. When suppuration and sloughing of the cellular
membrane have taken place, it is usual to make incisions to give exit to
the discharge, and relieve the tension of the limb. These may be about
1-1/2 inch in length, and from 2 to 4 inches apart, and should be made in
the direction of the long dimensions of the limb. Mr Higginbottom, of
Nottingham, applies (freely) lunar caustic to the inflamed skin, and also
to the healthy skin, to the extent of an inch or more beyond it. The
result, in many cases, is a complete change of action in the part, and a
resolution of the disease. Iodine paint is often successfully used in the
same way.

Wherever practicable medical assistance should be called in on the first
appearance of this dangerous disease.

Erysipelas is generally symptomatic of a debilitated or bad constitution.
It is also a common sequel of surgical operations in crowded and
ill-ventilated hospitals, where it often appears to be contagious. In
these cases cleanliness, ventilation, and change of air, are the only
remedies. We need scarcely add, that this disease should never be tampered
with, but the best medical advice sought, whenever it can be procured.

_For animals._ The bowels should be kept gently open, by small doses of
medicine, and laxative glysters. If there be any feverish symptoms, saline
diuretics should be administered; and as a lowering treatment is
objectionable, tonics and stimulants should be had recourse to at an early
stage of the disease. The affected parts should be kept constantly moist
with a lotion composed of one part of Goulard’s extract to thirty parts of
distilled or freshly boiled water. Nutritious food, fresh air and general
comfort must not be neglected. Cold applications are hurtful. Horses are
seldom attacked by erysipelas.

=ERYTHORE′TIN.= _Syn._ RED RESIN OF RHUBARB. A yellow or reddish-yellow
substance, forming one of the three resins found by Schlösberger and
Dœpping in rhubarb. It is very soluble in alcohol; less so in ether; with
ammonia and potassa it forms soluble compounds of a rich purple colour.
See RHUBARB.

=ERYTH′RIC ACID.= _Prep._ The lichen _Roccella tinctoria_ (Canary or
herb-archil) is boiled with milk of lime, and the filtered solution
precipitated with hydrochloric acid; the dried precipitate is dissolved in
warm alcohol, and filtered; as the solution cools, crystals of erythric
acid are deposited.

_Prep., &c._ Feebly acid; colourless; inodorous; scarcely soluble in
water; soluble in alcohol and ether; chloride of lime turns its solutions
of a blood-red colour.

=ERYTH′RINE=, AMARYTHRINE, ERYTHRILINE, PSEUDO-ERYTHRINE, and
TELERYTHRINE. Substances obtained by Kane and Heeren from _Roccella
tinctoria_, _Parmelia roccella_, _Leconara Tartarea_, &c. They are of
little practical importance.

=ESCHAROT′ICS.= _Syn._ ESCHAROTICA, L. Substances that destroy the texture
of living organic bodies, with the production of an ‘eschar’ or ‘scab.’
Escharotics have been divided into two classes——_mechanical_ and
_chemical_. Among the former are actual cauteries, as a heated iron,
moxas, &c.; among the latter are all those substances commonly known as
caustics. Some writers have subdivided chemical escharotics into ERODING
ESCHAROTICS, as blue vitriol, red precipitate, burnt alum, &c.; and into
CAUSTIC ESCHAROTICS, as lunar caustic, pure potassa, strong sulphuric
acid, nitric acid, &c.; but these distinctions possess little practical
value. “In cauterising with a heated iron, this should be at a white heat,
as, at this temperature, it occasions less pain to the patient, from its
causing an immediate death of the parts to which it is applied.” “The
surrounding surface should be protected by some non-conductor of heat, but
not by wet paper or cloth, as the sudden extrication of steam will produce
a blistered surface around the burn, and will much increase the pain.” (Dr
R. E. Griffith.) See CAUSTIC, SOLUTION, &c.

=ES′CULENTS.= Substances used for food. The more important esculents are
noticed under their respective heads.

=ESCU′LIC ACID.= A peculiar acid found by M. Bussy in the bark of the
horse-chestnut. It is but little known, and has not been applied to any
use.

=ESERINE.= Powder of Calabar bean, 100 parts; tartaric acid, 1 part;
potassium bicarbonate in powder, q. s.; alcohol (90°) q. s.; rectified and
washed ether q. s. Exhaust the bean mixed with tartaric acid by several
digestions in alcohol at the heat of a water-bath, alcohol equal to about
three times the weight of the powder being used for each maceration.
Distil the combined liquors and filter; heat the residue in a water-bath
exposed to the air until it contains no more alcohol. After cooling
suspend the extract in a small quantity of distilled water, and filter
through paper to separate the insoluble resin.

Agitate the filtrate with rectified and washed ether, until the ether is
no longer sensibly coloured; two or three treatments are usually
sufficient. Treat the aqueous liquor which contains the eserine in the
state of acid tartrate, with a slight excess of potassium bicarbonate,
until the reaction is alkaline. Shake this liquor several times with
ether, which removes the liberated eserine, and deposits it upon
evaporation. The product is purified by fresh crystallisations from ether.

Pure eserine is colourless or slightly rose coloured; it crystallises in
thin laminæ having a rhomboid form. Most frequently it occurs in commerce
under the form of yellowish spangles, or amorphous masses more or less
coloured by the action of the air.

It is slightly soluble in water, but dissolves freely in alcohol, ether,
and chloroform. When a one per cent. solution of it is treated with
potash or soda it rapidly acquires a characteristic rose colour. Heated in
a flask with a water-bath in contact with excess of ammonia, it gives upon
evaporation of the liquor in the open air, a magnificent blue colour, very
soluble in the water. This solution treated with acids, produces a very
fine dichroic liquor, violet and transparent by transmission, and carmine
red and turbid by refraction. Eserine has the property of contracting
energetically the pupil of the eye.

A kilogram of Calabar beans yields on the average one gram of eserine
(from ‘Formulæ for new Medicaments, adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical
Society.’) See CALABAR BEAN.

=Eserine, Neutral Hydrobromate of.= This body is prepared with colourless
hydrobromic acid in the same manner as the sulphate. The solution
evaporated to a syrupy consistence, crystallises in the course of a few
days in fibrous masses, rarely colourless and non-deliquescent.

The neutral hydrobromate of eserine is employed like the sulphate and in
the same doses, although it contains a little less eserine. (From ‘Formulæ
for New Medicaments,’ adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.) See
CALABAR BEAN.

=Eserine, Neutral Sulphate of.= This salt is obtained by saturating
directly and exactly a known quantity of eserine with dilute sulphuric
acid (1 in 10); or better still, by shaking a solution of the eserine with
a titrated solution of sulphuric acid so as not to exceed the point of
saturation. The filtered solution of sulphate of eserine is evaporated
rapidly to dryness by the aid of a gentle heat.

Sulphate of eserine can be crystallised in long prismatic needles,
combined in radiating groups, but it is very difficult. It is preferable
to preserve it in the amorphous state, and in well-stoppered bottles, as
it is very deliquescent.

Sulphate of eserine is employed like eserine, internally under the form of
granules containing up to one milligram. It is employed also for the eyes
as a solution, containing two to five centigrams of the salt to ten grams
of distilled water.

Solutions containing eserine, pure or combined, alter rapidly in contact
with the air, becoming red; they should only be prepared in small
quantities as required. (From ‘Formulæ for New Medicaments,’ adopted by
the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.) See CALABAR BEAN.

=ESPRIT.= [Fr.] SPIRIT. This term is commonly applied to alcoholic
solutions of the essential oils, and to various odorous and aromatic
essences sold by the perfumers and druggists as articles of the toilet.
See ESSENCE, SPIRIT, &c.

=ES′SENCE.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA, L. The active and characteristic portion of a
substance, or that on which its most remarkable properties depend. The
term has been very loosely applied to various preparations presumed to
contain these essential principles or qualities, disencumbered of grosser
matter. Modern systematic writers generally restrict its application to
the volatile oils obtained from vegetable substances by distillation, or
to a strong solution of them in alcohol. In pharmacy and perfumery, the
word ‘essence’ is applied to concentrated preparations that differ vastly
from each other. Thus, concentrated effusions, decoctions, liquors,
solutions, and tinctures, are frequently called ‘essences’ by those who
vend them; but the term ‘fluid extracts’ would be more appropriate, if
those already mentioned are not deemed sufficiently showy and attractive.
We shall here confine ourselves to a brief notice of the principal
compound essences, or those that undergo some preparation beyond being
merely extracted from vegetables by distillation along with water. The
latter will be considered under the article OIL.

The concentrated preparations of the pharmaceutist, termed ‘essences,’ are
mostly prepared by digesting the active ingredient or ingredients in
rectified spirit of wine, either with or without the addition of a certain
portion of water; or they are extemporaneously formed by dissolving a
portion of the essential oil of such substances in the spirit. In this way
are made the essences of lavender, musk, ginger, &c. When it is desired
only to obtain the aromatic and volatile portion of the ingredients, the
latter are usually digested in the spirit for a few days, and then
submitted to distillation, when the alcohol comes over loaded with
aromatic essential oil, or other volatile matter. In this way are prepared
most of the fragrant essences of the perfumer and druggist, when simple
solution of the essential oils in alcohol is not resorted to. In many
cases the active principles of the ingredients are partly volatile and
partly fixed, or at least do not readily volatilise at the temperature at
which alcohol distils over. This is the case, for instance, with the
active portion of ergot and Jamaica ginger. In such cases digestion alone
should be adopted. When the principles of organic substances, of which it
is desired to obtain a concentrated solution, are resinous or oily, or
little soluble in weak spirit (which is mostly the case), the strongest
rectified spirit of wine should alone be employed. In the preparation of
essences without distillation, the method by percolation or displacement
is preferable to that of simple maceration and expression, when the nature
of the ingredients and other circumstances render it applicable, as it is
not only more economical, but a more concentrated solution may thereby be
obtained. At the same time, however, the reader should remember, that this
mode of operating requires much greater experience and skill to ensure
success than the former method. This clumsiness of manipulation is the
common cause of the failures which are so frequently met with in the
preparation of these articles.

The ingredients for the preparation of essences must undergo the same
operations of bruising, powdering, or slicing, as directed under
‘TINCTURE,’ previous to digestion in the spirit, or other menstruum; and
the length of time they should be allowed to infuse, when this method
alone is adopted, should not be less than ten days; but this time may be
advantageously extended to a fortnight, or even longer. During the whole
of this period frequent agitation should be employed, and when the
ingredients are so bulky as to absorb the whole of the fluid, the vessel
which contains them should be securely fastened by a bung or stopper
covered with bladder, and inverted every alternate day. By this means
every portion of the ingredients will be equally exposed to the action of
the menstruum. In all such cases the method of displacement, or
percolation, is preferable. For the essences used as perfumes and for
flavouring, not only must the spirit be perfectly tasteless and scentless,
but it must be also quite devoid of colour.

The following formulæ embrace most of the essences met with in the shops.
Those not found among them may be readily prepared by applying the general
directions given above, or by employing the formula given for the
preparation of the essence of some similar substance, merely varying the
characteristic ingredient. Thus, were it desired to form an essence of
ambergris or of myrrh, and no formulæ could be found for these
preparations, the tyro would consider in what menstruum the active
principles of these substances were most soluble. This, he would
immediately see by reference to their properties, is rectified spirit of
wine. He would next have to decide on the proper strength of his essence.
In this he must be guided, either by the strength of the like preparations
of other makers, or by his own judgment of what would be useful, novel, or
convenient. Suppose he decided that his essence should represent 1-10th of
its weight of the solid ingredient. He would then take 2 oz. of ambergris
or myrrh, and 20 oz. of rectified spirit, which he would digest together
for 10 days or a fortnight in the manner described above. Had the required
preparation been an essence of senna (for example), he would probably
recollect, or might easily ascertain by reference, that the active
properties of senna are soluble in both water and weak spirit. Then, to
make an essence 4 times as strong as the tincture of the pharmacopœia, 7
oz. of senna, and 1 pint of proof spirit, should be employed, with due
digestion, as before.[280] The same applies to other preparations. See
CONCENTRATION, DECOCTION, INFUSION, LIQUOR, SPIRIT, TINCTURE, &c.

[Footnote 280: See directions given under TINCTURE.]

=Essence of Ac′onite.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ACONITI, L. _Prep._ From aconite
(herb, dried, and powdered), 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 oz.; macerate for
4 days at a temperature of 68° Fahr., press, and strain; the marc or
residuum is again macerated with (a little) spirit, and pressed as before,
so that the weight of the mixed tinctures may amount to double that of the
herb.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 drops. See TINCTURE.

=Essence of All′spice.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF PIMENTO; ESSENTIA PIMENTÆ, L.
_Prep._ From essential oil of pimento or allspice, 1 fl. oz.; strongest
rectified spirit of wine, 1 pint; agitate until perfectly united, and the
next day decant the clear portion, if there is any sediment. Used to make
pimento water, and by cooks and confectioners as a ‘flavouring.’

=Essence of Al′monds.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF BITTER ALMONDS, E. OF PEACH
KERNELS, E. OF RATAFIA, E. OF NOYEAU, QUINTESSENCE OF N., ALMOND FLAVOUR;
ESSENTIA AMYGDALÆ, E. A. AMARÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From essential oil of
almonds, as the last.

2. (Pereira.) Essential oil of almonds, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 7 fl.
oz.

_Uses, &c._ It is added to wine, cordials, perfumery, pastry, &c., to
impart an agreeable nutty flavour or aroma. It is also employed to prepare
cherry-laurel, peach-kernel, and bitter-almond water. A large quantity is
consumed by the confectioners, and by wine merchants to ‘improve’ their
sherries, and to give Cape wine a sherry flavour. It should be used in
very small quantities, as it is very powerful, and, in quantity,
poisonous. A few drops are sufficient for several pounds of pastry. The
first formula is that used in trade. The second is sometimes used by the
druggists, and is occasionally vended under the name of ‘CONCENTRATED
ESSENCE OF BITTER ALMONDS,’ &c. The directions for purifying the almond
oil from hydrocyanic acid before dissolving it in the spirit, given in
more than one recent book of receipts, are absurd, as in this way the oil
loses much of its characteristic odour and flavour, and by keeping
gradually becomes nearly destitute of both. See ESSENTIAL OIL.

=Essence of Am′bergris.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA AMBRÆ GRISEÆ, E. A. SIMPLEX,
TINCTURA A. CONCENTRATA, L. _Prep._ 1. Ambergris (cut very small), 5 dr.;
rectified spirit, 1 pint; place them in a strong bottle or tin can, secure
the mouth very firmly, and expose it to the heat of the sun, or in an
equally warm situation, for 1 or 2 months, frequently shaking it during
the time; lastly, decant, and filter through paper.

2. (Guibourt.) Ambergris, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 3 oz.; digest 10 or 12
days.

3. (Redwood.) Ambergris, 2-1/2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; macerate for
14 days. Chiefly used as an element in other perfumes. The first is the
formula employed by the London houses.

=Essence of Ambergris and Musk.= _Syn._ CONCENTRATED TINCTURE OF A. AND
M.; E. AMBRÆ GRISEÆ (ODORATA), E. A. ET MOSCHI, E. REGIA, L.; ESSENCE
ROYALE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. Ambergris (cut small), 3/4 oz.; 1 or 2
fresh-emptied musk-pods (or musk, 12 gr.); rectified spirit, 1 pint;
proceed as in No. 1 (_above_).

2. Ambergris, 2-1/2 oz.; bladder musk, 1/2 oz.; spirit of ambrette (purple
sweet sultan), 1 gal.; as last.

3. Ambergris, 2-1/2 oz.; bladder musk, 1 oz.; spirit of ambrette, 1 gal.;
as before. The fragrance of the above, especially of the last two, is very
powerful, and is much esteemed.

4. Ambergris, 1/2 oz.; musk and lump sugar, of each 1/4 oz.; triturate
together in a wedgwood-ware mortar, adding oil of cloves, 20 drops; true
balsam of Peru, 30 drops, and enough essence of jasmine or tuberose to
convert it into a perfectly smooth paste; then put it into a strong bottle
with rectified spirit, 1 quart; observing, before adding the whole of the
last, to rinse the mortar out well with it, that nothing may be lost;
lastly digest for 6 or 8 weeks, as directed in No. 1 (_above_).

5. Ambergris, 4 dr.; musk, 1-1/2 dr.; sand, 3 oz.; triturate, then add, of
oil of cinnamon, 1 dr.; oil of rhodium, 1/2 dr.; essence of roses and eau
fleurs d’orange, of each 1/4 pint; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; digest as
before (or not less than 14 days), and decant and filter. The last two are
very fine, though inferior to Nos. 2 and 3.

6. To the last (No. 5), add civet, 1 dr.; salt of tartar, 3 dr.; and an
additional pint of rectified spirit. Inferior to the above, but cheaper.

_Obs._ Essence of ambergris is used as a perfume, and is added in small
quantities to sweet-scented spirits and wines, to improve their flavour
and aroma. A very small quantity of any one of them added to lavender
water, eau de Cologne, tooth-powder, hair-powder, wash-balls, or a
hogshead of claret, communicates a delicious fragrance. See AMBERGRIS and
ESSENCE ROYALE (_below_).

=Essence d’Ambrette.= [Fr.] _Syn._ ESSENCE OF MUSK SEED, SPIRIT OF M. S.;
ESPRIT D’AMBRETTE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. Musk seed (ground in a clean
pepper-mill), 1-1/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 pints; digest for 3 or 4
weeks in a warm place, and filter.

2. Musk seed, 4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gal.; digest 10 days, add water,
2 quarts, and distil over 1 gal. Very fine.

=Essence of Ammoni′acum.= _Syn._ CONCENTRATED TINCTURE OF AMMONIACUM;
ESSENTIA AMMONIACI, TINCTURA A. CONCENTRATA, L. _Prep._ 1. Ammoniacum (in
tears), 1 lb., is bruised in a very cold marble mortar with half its
weight of coarse and well-washed siliceous sand or powdered glass, and
rectified spirit, 1/2 pint, gradually added; the trituration is continued
until the whole is reduced to a smooth paste, and is then placed in a
wide-mouthed bottle, and spirit of wine, 1-1/2 pint, further added; the
whole is then digested together for a week with constant agitation, and
after sufficient repose to settle, the supernatant transparent liquid is
decanted into another bottle for use.

2. Gum ammoniacum, 1 lb., is reduced to a cream with boiling water, 3/4
pint; as soon as the mixture has cooled a little, it is placed in a strong
bottle, and rectified spirit of wine, 1-1/4 pint, is cautiously added; the
mixture is then corked down close, and the whole macerated for a few days;
the bottle is next placed in a moderately warm situation, that the
sediment may subside, after which the clearer portion is poured off
through flannel into another bottle.

_Obs._ This preparation is used as a substitute for the gum in substance,
for extemporaneously preparing emulsion of ammoniacum, mixture of a., &c.
It is represented to possess fully the same amount of medicinal virtue as
an equal weight of the solid gum, on which account it has a considerable
sale. The product of the first formula, when well managed, is a beautiful
pale brownish-coloured, transparent tincture; that of the second is milky
and less sightly. The preparation generally sold under the name of
‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF AMMONIACUM’ (ESSENTIA AMMONIACI CONCENTRATA, L.),
and represented as twice as strong as the gum in substance, is generally
prepared by the first formula given above for ESSENCE OF AMMONIACUM. A
stronger article may be prepared by a similar process, by using 1 lb. of
ammoniacum to a pint of the strongest rectified spirit. As, however, a
clear liquid at this strength is somewhat difficult to produce, it is very
seldom attempted by the druggists; they therefore generally content
themselves with sending out the liquid at half the professed strength,
leaving the label to confer the additional concentration. See AMMONIACUM.

=Essence of Anchov′ies.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA CLUPEÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Anchovies,
1 lb., are ‘boned,’ reduced to a pulp in a wedgwood-ware or marble mortar,
and passed through a clean hair or brass-wire sieve: meanwhile the bones
and other portion that will not pass through the sieve are boiled with
water, 1 pint, for 15 minutes, and strained; to the strained liquor, salt,
and flour, of each, 2-1/2 oz., together with the pulped anchovies are
added, and the whole simmered for 3 or 4 minutes, when the vessel is
removed from the fire, and as soon as the mixture has cooled a little,
strong pickling vinegar, 1/2 pint, is mixed in; it is then bottled, and
the corks tied over with bladder, and either ‘waxed’ or ‘capsuled.’
_Product_, 3 lbs. (nearly).

2. Anchovies, 7 lbs.; water, 9 pints; salt and flour, of each, 1 lb.
_Product_, 20 lbs.

3. To the last add of Cayenne pepper, 1/4 oz.; the peel of a lemon
(grated), and mushroom catsup, 4 oz. Very savoury.

4. From British anchovies (pickled sprats) or young pilchards, along with
herring liquor, or the drainings of anchovy barrels.

_Use, &c._ As a sauce and condiment; when well prepared, it has a fine
flavour. That of the shops is usually coloured with Venetian red or
Armenian bole. An infusion of cochineal, or a little annotta, would form a
more appropriate colouring, and would be perfectly harmless. See ANCHOVY
and SAUCE.

=Essence of Angel′ica.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ANGELICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Van Mons.)
Angelica root (bruised), 1 part; rectified spirit, 8 parts; water, 16
parts; digest, and distil over 6 parts; Stomachic, carminative, and
alexipharmic.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 spoonfuls.

=Essence of Ani′seed.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ANISI (B. P.), L.; ESPRIT D’ANISE,
Fr. Oil of anise, 1 part; rectified spirit, 4 parts; mix (B. P.).
Stimulant, aromatic, and carminative.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 minims. Used also
to flavour liqueurs, and to make aniseed water. See SPIRIT.

=Essence of An′odyne.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ANODYNA, L. _Prep._ 1. Hard aqueous
extract of opium (in powder), 1 dr.; powdered cinnamon, 1/2 dr.; rectified
spirit, 1 fl. oz.; digest a week.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 drops.

2. Extract of henbane (recent), 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; as
last.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops. Narcotic, sedative, and antispasmodic. Both
are excellent preparations.

=Essence, Antihyster′ic.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ANTIHYSTERICA, L. _Prep._ 1.
Cyanuret of potassium, 3 gr.; powdered sugar, 1 dr.; rectified
spirit and eau d’orange, of each 4 fl. dr.; agitate together until
dissolved.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 drops, in pure water; in hysteria,
gastrodynia, &c. See DRAUGHT (Antihysteric).

2. (P. Cod.) Resembles FETID SPIRIT OF AMMONIA (which _see_).

=Essence of Ap′ple.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF VALERIANATE OF AMYL; ESSENTIA POMI
ODORATA, L. _Prep._ From apple oil (valerianate of oxide of amyl), as
ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. Used to flavour liqueurs and confectionery.

=Essence of Ar′nica.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ARNICÆ, E. A. FLORUM, TINCTURA A. E.
CONCENTRATA, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Baden, 1841.) From arnica flowers, ESSENCE OF
ACONITE. It represents half its weight of herb.

=Essence, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA AROMATICA, L. _Prep._ From hay
saffron, dr.; and rectified spirit, 6 fl. dr.; digested together; to the
filtered tincture is added oil of cinnamon and powdered white sugar, of
each 1 dr.; ether (rect.), 2 fl. dr.; oil of nutmeg and essence of ginger,
of each 1/2 dr.; after agitation and a few days’ repose, the clear portion
is decanted into a stoppered phial.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 drops, on sugar or in
a glass of wine or weak spirit; in cholera, diarrhœa, spasms, &c.

=Essence of Bark.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA CINCHONÆ, E. CORTICIS C., L. _Prep._ 1.
Resinous extract of yellow bark, 4 dr.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 fl. oz.;
tincture of orange peel, 1/2 fl. oz.; acetic acid (Ph. L.), 1 fl. dr.;
digest a week.

2. Disulphate of quinine, 1/2 dr.; resinous extract of bark, 2 dr.;
rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; as before.——_Dose_, 12 drops to a
teaspoonful; as a febrifuge and tonic.

=Essence of Beef.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF RED MEATS, &c. _Prep._ 1. From lean
beef (chopped small), 1 lb.; water, 1/2 pint; place them in a bottle,
which they will only half fill, and agitate them violently for half an
hour; then throw the whole on a sieve, and receive the liquid in a jug;
next boil the undissolved portion in water, 1 pint, for 20 minutes;
strain, mix the decoction with the cold infusion, evaporate the liquid to
the consistence of a thin syrup, adding spice, salt, &c., to taste, and
pour the essence, whilst boiling hot, into bottles, jars, or (still
better) tin cans, which must then be at once hermetically corked, sealed,
or soldered up, and stowed away in a cold place. In this state it will
keep a long time. (Brande’s.)

2. (Ellis.) Take of lean beef (sliced), a sufficient quantity to fill the
body of a porter bottle; cork it up loosely, and place it in a pot of cold
water, attaching the neck, by means of a string, to the handle of the pot;
boil for 1-1/2 to 2 hours, then decant the liquid and skim it. Spices,
salt, wine, brandy, &c., may be added as before. Highly nutritious and
sustaining.

=Essence of Ber′gamot.= See OIL (Volatile).

=Essence, Bit′ter.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA AMARA, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Den.) Wormwood,
4 parts; gentian root, bitter orange peel, and blessed thistle, of each 1
part; rectified spirit, 45 parts; digest a week. Tonic and
stomachic.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr.

=Essence of Calum′ba.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA CALUMBÆ, L. See INFUSION OF
CALUMBA.

=Essence of Cam′phor.= _Syn._ CAMPHOR DROPS, LIQUOR OF CAMPHOR,
CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF C., CONCENTRATED SOLUTION OF C., CONC. CAMPHOR
JULEP; ESSENTIA CAMPHORÆ, LIQUOR C., L. C. CONCENTRATUS, L. _Prep._ 1.
Camphor (clean), 4-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. This
forms the ‘ESSENCE OF CAMPHOR’ and ‘LIQUOR CAMPHORÆ’ of the wholesale
houses. About 1/2 fl. dr., added to 7-1/2 fl. dr. of cold distilled water,
forms (by agitation) a transparent aqueous solution of camphor, fully
equal in strength to the filtered ‘MISTURA CAMPHORÆ’ (camphor julep) of
the Ph. L. The above made with weaker spirit forms the ‘spirit of wine and
camphor’ of the shops.

2. Camphor, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight); dissolve. This
forms the ‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF CAMPHOR’ of the wholesale druggists. 10
or 12 drops, added to 1 fl. oz. of pure cold water, make a transparent
camphor julep, as before. There is a large quantity of these solutions of
camphor sold by the London houses, who charge a considerable price for
them. They are very convenient for preparing extemporaneous camphor julep
or camphor mixture in dispensing.

3. (Fordred.) Tincture of camphor, 13 fl. dr.; tincture of myrrh, 1/2 fl.
dr.; rectified spirit, 18-1/2 fl. dr.; mix. 1 fl. dr., added to 4 fl. oz.
of water, forms camphor julep. It has been proposed to bleach the tincture
of myrrh with animal charcoal, but this interferes with its proper action.

4. (Homœopathic.) See CHOLERA REMEDIES, Nos. 6 and 7.

5. (Houlton.) Spirit of camphor (Ph. L.), 1 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 7 fl.
oz.; 1 fl. dr. to 3 fl. oz. of water; forms ‘CAMPHOR JULEP,’

6. (Redwood.) Camphor, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2-1/2 oz.; dissolve, and
add of water, 1/2 oz.

7. (Swediaur.) Powdered camphor, 1 dr.; water saturated with carbonic acid
gas, 12 fl. oz.; dissolve. 1 part of this solution, added to 4 parts of
water, forms ‘CAMPHOR MIXTURE,’ See CAMPHOR.

=Essence of Cap′sicum.= See ESSENCE OF CAYENNE.

=Essence of Car′away.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA CARUI, L. _Prep._ From oil of
caraway, as ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. Its applications and uses are similar. An
inferior kind is prepared by macerating the seeds in proof spirit.

=Essence of Car′damoms.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA CARDAMOMI, E. C. CONCENTRATA, L.
_Prep._ From lesser cardamom seeds (ground in a pepper mill), 5-1/2 lbs.;
rectified spirit of wine, 1 gall.; digest for a fortnight, press, and
filter.

_Obs._ This preparation is very convenient for flavouring cordials,
pastry, &c., and is very powerful. In the laboratory it is frequently
substituted for powdered cardamoms in making compound extract of
colocynth, and has the advantage of adding no inert matter to the
preparation, whilst it imparts the characteristic odour of the seeds in a
remarkable degree. When used in this way it is not added to the extract
until it is nearly cold and about to be taken from the pan. The testæ or
shells of the seed should be separated from the kernels, as the former are
quite inert, and if used occasion a loss of spirit for no purpose.

=Essence of Cascaril′la.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA CASCARILLÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
Cascarilla (bruised), 12 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; proceed either by
digestion or percolation. The product is 8 times the strength of the
infusion of cascarilla. (Ph. L.)

2. See INFUSION (Concentrated).

=Essence of Cas′sia.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA CASSIÆ, L. _Prep._ From oil of
cassia, as essence of allspice or almonds.

=Essence of Cayenne′.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF CAYENNE PEPPER, E. OF CAPSICUM,
CONCENTRATED E. OF C.; ESSENTIA CAPSICI, TINCTURA CAPSICI CONCENTRATA, L.
_Prep._ 1. Capsicum (recent dried pods, bruised), 3 lbs.; rectified
spirit, 1 gall.; digest 14 days, press, and filter. Some persons prepare
it by the method of displacement.

2. Capsicum, 1/4 lb.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest as before. Weaker than
No. 1.

3. (Kitchener’s.) Cayenne pepper, 1 oz.; brandy, 1 pint; digest, &c., as
before.

_Obs._ The product of the first formula is a transparent, dark-coloured
liquid, having an intensely burning taste. One drop is sufficient to
deprive a person of the power of speech for several seconds; and a few
drops will impart the rich pungency of cayenne to a large quantity of
soup, sauce, or any other article. It forms the ‘ESSENCE OF CAYENNE’ and
the ‘CONC. ESS. OF CAYENNE PEPPER’ of the London houses. It is principally
used as a flavouring, and to make SOLUBLE CAYENNE PEPPER; also in
dispensing. It is fully eight times as strong as the ‘TINCTURA CAPSICI’
(Ph. L.). The product of the third formula is used exclusively for
culinary purposes. The pods or fruit of _Capsicum annuum_ (capsicum
chilly), _C. baccatum_ (bird pepper), and _C. fructescens_ (Guinea pods,
red pepper), are indiscriminately used for this preparation, but the first
are those preferred for medicinal purposes; the others have similar
properties, but are more pungent and acrimonious; hence the preference
given to them in the preparation of cayenne pepper. See PEPPER.

=Essence of Ce′drat.= See OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Cel′ery.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF CELERY SEED; ESSENTIA APII, ESS.
A. SEMINIS, L. _Prep._ 1. From celery seed (bruised or ground), 4-1/2 oz.;
proof spirit, 1 pint; digest a fortnight, and strain.

2. (Concentrated.) Celery seed, 7 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest as
before. Very fine. Both are used for flavouring.

=Essence, Cephalic.= See ESSENCE FOR HEADACHE.

=Essence of Cham′omile.= _Syn._ CHAMOMILE DROPS; ESSENTIA ANTHEMIDIS, E.
CHAMÆMELI, E. C. ALBA, L. _Prep._ 1. From essential oil of chamomile, as
essence of allspice. Stomachic and stimulant.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 drops; 1/2
fl. oz., shaken with about 1 pint of pure water, forms an excellent
extemporaneous chamomile water.

2. Gentian root (sliced or bruised), 1 lb.; dried orange peel, 1/4 lb.;
proof spirit, 1 gal.; essential oil of chamomile, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; macerate
a week. Slightly coloured. Some persons use 1/2 lb. of quassia wood,
instead of the gentian and orange peel. Both the above are stomachic and
tonic, and are favourite remedies in loss of appetite, dyspepsia,
&c.——_Dose._ As the last, on sugar, or in a wine-glassful of wine or beer.

=Essence of Chiret′ta.= See INFUSION (Concentrated).

=Essence of Cin′namon.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA CINNAMOMI, SPIRITUS C.
CONCENTRATUS, L. _Prep._ 1. From oil of cinnamon, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE
or ALMONDS.

2. Cinnamon, 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 3/4 pint; water, 1/4 pint; digest a
week, and strain. Inferior to the last. Essence of cassia is commonly sold
for it.

=Essence of Civ′et.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ZIBETHI, L. _Prep._ 1. Civet (cut
small), 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; as ESSENCE OF MUSK.

2. Instead of rectified spirit use spirit of ambrette. Both are used in
perfumery; chiefly in combination with other substances.

=Essence of Cloves.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA CARYOPHILLI, L. _Prep._ 1. (White.)
From oil of cloves, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as a ‘flavouring.’

2. (Coloured.) Cloves (bruised), 3-1/2 oz. proof spirit, 3/4 pint; water,
1/4 pint; digest a week, and strain. Inferior to the last. It is 8 times
as strong as INFUSION OF CLOVES (Ph. L.). Chiefly used in dispensing.

=Essence of Cof′fee.= See COFFEE.

=Essence of Co′gnac.= (kōne′-yăk). _Syn._ BRANDY ESSENCE. _Prep._ From
brandy oil, 2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 18 fl. oz. For flavouring malt
spirit to imitate brandy. See OIL.

=Essence of Cologne.= _Syn._ CONCENTRATED EAU DE COLOGNE; ESSENTIA
COLONIENSIS, AQUA C. CONCENTRATA, L. _Prep._ 1. By taking 8 times the
quantity of the ingredients ordered for COLOGNE WATER, and using the
strongest rectified spirit.

2. Oils of lemon and cedrat, of each, 2 dr.; oil of rosemary, 1 dr.; oil
of bergamotte, 1 oz.; spirit of neroli, 2 fl. oz.; purest rectified
spirit, 5 fl. oz. Used as a condensed perfume.

=Essence of Colts′foot.= _Prep._ 1. (Ryan.) Balsam of tolu, 1 oz.;
rectified spirit and compound tincture of benzoin, of each 3 oz.;
dissolve, and in a few days decant the clear portion.

2. (Paris.) Equal parts of balsam of tolu and compound tincture of
benzoin, with double the quantity of rectified spirit.

3. Tincture of tolu, 5 fl. oz.; compound tincture of benzoin, 3 fl. oz.;
powdered sugar (quite dry), 1 oz.; hay saffron, 1 dr.; digest a week, with
frequent agitation.

_Obs._ Pectoral and stimulant. A quack remedy for consumption and most
other diseases of the lungs, but unless assisted by occasional aperients,
and in the absence of fever, it is more likely to kill than cure in these
complaints. The last is the best formula.

=Essence of Cu′bebs.= _Syn._ CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF CUBEBS; ESSENTIA
CUBEBÆ, E. C. CONCENTRATA, L. _Prep._ 1. Cubebs (bruised, or preferably
ground in a pepper mill), 1/2 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest 14
days, press, and filter.

2. (Wholesale.) Cubebs, 4-1/4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall. This essence
has a very large sale, and if carefully prepared from a good sample of the
drug, is a most excellent preparation. Every fl. oz. represents 2-1/2 dr.
of cubebs.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 dr.

=Essence of Cubebs (Oleo-resinous).= _Prep._ (Dublanc.) Oleo-resinous
extract of cubebs, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 oz.; dissolve. A very active
and concentrated form of administering cubebs, which must not be
confounded with the preceding preparation, which is the one always meant
when ‘Essence of Cubebs’ is ordered.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Essence of Dill.= _Syn._ DILL DROPS; ESSENTIA ANETHI, L. _Prep._ 1. From
oil of dill, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE.

2. Oil of dill, extract of dill, and salt of tartar, of each 1/2 oz.;
rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest, and strain. Both the above are aromatic
and anti-flatulent. The first is commonly used as an adjunct to other
medicines, especially to purgatives for children. The second is a popular
tonic and stomachic in the flatulent colic, dyspepsia, &c., of women and
children.——_Dose._ A few drops, on sugar.

=Essence of Er′got.= See LIQUOR or ERGOT OF RYE.

=Essence of Ergot (Ethereal).= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ERGOTÆ ETHEREA, E. SECALIS
CORNUTI E., L. _Prep._ 1. (Mr Lever.) Ergot (powdered), 2 oz.; rectified
sulphuric ether, 2 fl. oz.; digest a week, express the tincture, filter,
and abandon the liquid to spontaneous evaporation; lastly, dissolve the
residuum in ether, 1 fl. oz. This is an expensive and troublesome formula.
The following modification of it is both simpler and less expensive.

2. Ergot (ground), 8 oz.; ether, 16 fl. oz.; prepare a tincture as before,
and by a gentle heat distil off the ether in a retort connected with a
well-cooled refrigerator, until 15 fl. oz. shall have passed over;
continue the evaporation at a reduced heat until the remainder of the
ether has passed off; lastly, dissolve the residuum, as soon as cold, in
ether, 4 fl. oz.

_Obs._ Each fl. oz. represents 2 oz. of ergot.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops as
a parturifacient, taken on sugar; 3 to 5 drops as a hæmostatic and
emmenagogue, in hæmorrhages, floodings, &c. It possesses all the acrid,
narcotic principle of the ergot, but less of the hæmostatic principle than
the ordinary essence, whilst it is much more costly.

=Essence of Fen′nel.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF SWEET FENNEL; ESSENTIA FŒNICULI,
L. _Prep._ From oil of fennel (_Fœniculum dulce_), as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE.

=Essence of Gen′tian.= See INFUSION OF GENTIAN (Concentrated).

=Essence of Gin′ger.= _Syn._ CONCENTRATED TINCTURE OF GINGER, ESSENTIA
ZINGIBERIS, TINCTURA Z. CONCENTRATA, L. _Prep._ 1. Unbleached Jamaica
ginger (bruised), 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest a fortnight,
press, and filter.

2. (Oxley’s ‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF JAMAICA GINGER,’ The same as the
preceding, with the addition of a very small quantity of essence of
cayenne. The above possess only about 4 times the strength of tincture of
ginger (Ph. L.); and though vended in the shops as essence of ginger,
scarcely deserves the name.

3. As No. 1 (next article, _below_), but using double the quantity of
spirit. Very fine.

4. (Kitchener’s.) Ginger (grated), 3 oz.; yellow peel of lemon (fresh), 2
oz.; brandy, 1-1/2 pint; digest 10 days. For culinary purposes, &c. See
_below_.

=Essence of Ginger (Concentrated).= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ZINGIBERIS
CONCENTRATA. _Prep._ 1. Jamaica ginger (best unbleached, in coarse powder)
and siliceous sand, equal parts, are sprinkled with rectified spirit of
wine, q. s. to perfectly moisten them, and after 24 hours the mass is
placed in a ‘percolator,’ and after returning the first runnings 2 or 3
times, the receiver is changed, and more rectified spirit poured on
gradually, and at intervals, as required, until as much essence is
obtained as there has been ginger employed.

_Obs._ The quality of the product of the above formula is excellent, but
the process is somewhat difficult to manage. The mass remaining in the
percolator is treated with fresh spirit until exhausted, and the tincture
so obtained is employed, instead of spirit, for making more essence with
fresh ginger. The last portion of spirit in the waste mass may be obtained
by adding a little water. Coarsely powdered charcoal is frequently used
instead of sand, in which case the product has less colour; at the same
time, however, a little of the flavour is lost.

2. (Wholesale.)——_a._ Best unbleached Jamaica ginger (as last), 12 lbs.;
rectified spirit, 2-1/2 galls., are digested together for 14 days, and the
expressed and strained tincture reduced by distillation, in a steam or
water bath, to exactly 1 gall.; it is next cooled, and transferred as
quickly as possible into stoppered bottles, and the next day filtered.

_Obs._ The product of the last formula is a most beautiful article, of
immense strength, and the richest flavour. The assertion made by a recent
writer on pharmacy, that ‘the product is very strong, but has lost some of
the flavour of the ginger,’ is evidently made in ignorance of the
preparation. “We were the first to introduce and publish this formula, and
have employed it for years on the most extensive scale, and can
conscientiously assert that, for inexpensiveness, and the quality of the
essence produced by it, it is unequalled by any other. The process, though
apparently complicated is, in reality, easily performed. The spirit
distilled over contains none of the fragrant or aromatic principles of the
ginger; on the contrary, the little flavour it has received (apparently
from a species of ethereal oil) is rather disagreeable than otherwise, and
is better got rid of than retained in the essence. The spirit is used with
advantage for preparing the common tincture of ginger, and several other
articles. The cause of failure when this process is adopted is careless or
awkward manipulation. When possible, hydraulic pressure should be employed
to express the tincture, 2 oz. of this essence are regarded as equivalent
to 3 oz. of the finest ginger, being fully twenty times as strong as the
‘TINCTURE OF GINGER’ (Ph. L.). A single drop, swallowed, will almost
produce suffocation.” Cooley.

_b._ From ginger (as last), 24 lbs.; rectified spirit, 6 gall.; make a
tincture, as before, and reduce it by distillation to 1 gall.; then cool
as quickly as possible out of contact with the air and add, of the
strongest rectified spirit of wine, 1 gall.; lastly, filter, if required.
Quality resembles No. 2, _a_ (nearly). “We are in the habit of applying
the method developed in the last two formulæ to the preparation of the
essences of several other substances, the active principles of which are
not volatile at a low temperature.” Cooley.

=Essence of Grape.= _Prep._ From grape oil, as ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. It is
used to flavour brandy and wines. See OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Guaiac′um.= _Syn._ FLUID EXTRACT OF GUAIACUM; ESSENTIA
GUAIACI, EXTRACTUM GUAIACI FLUIDUM, L. _Prep._ Recent guaiacum shavings,
from which the dust has been sifted, 3 cwt., are exhausted by coction in
water, as in the preparation of an extract, using as little of that fluid
as is absolutely necessary; the decoction is evaporated to exactly 1-3/4
gall.; it is next stirred until cold, to prevent the deposit of resinous
matter, when it is put into a bottle, and spirit of wine, 5 pints, is
added; the whole is then repeatedly agitated for a week, after which it is
allowed to settle for 7 or 8 days, and the clear portion is decanted into
another bottle.

_Obs._ This preparation is frequently substituted for guaiacum shavings in
the preparation of compound decoction of sarsaparilla. 1 pint of this
essence is considered equivalent to 19 lbs. of guaiacum in substance. See
DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA (Comp.).

=Essence for the Handkerchief.= See ESSENTIA ODORATA, &c.

=Essence for the Headache.= _Syn._ CEPHALIC ESSENCE, EMBROCATION OF
AMMONIA, DR HAWKINS’ EMBROCATION, WARD’S E., WARD’S ESSENCE FOR THE
HEADACHE; EMBROCATIO AMMONIÆ, LINIMENTUM A., ESSENTIA CEPHALICA, L.
_Prep._ 1. Oil of lavender (Mitcham), 1 dr.; camphor, 1 oz.; liquor of
ammonia, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; dissolve. Very fragrant and
powerful.

2. (Beasley.) Spirit of camphor, 2 lbs.; strong water of ammonia, 4 oz.;
essence of lemon, 1/2 oz.

3. (Redwood.) Camphor and liquor of ammonia, of each 2 oz.; oil of
lavender, 4 dr.; rectified spirit, 14 oz. Very fragrant. Stimulant and
rubefacient. Used as a counter-irritant lotion in local pains, as
headache, earache, colic, &c. Compound camphor liniment is usually sold
for it. See LINIMENT.

=Essence of Henbane.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA HYOSCAMI, L. See ESSENCE (Anodyne),
No. 2.

=Essence of Hop.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA LUPULI, E. HUMULI, TINCTURA LUPULI
CONCENTRATA, L. _Prep._ 1. New hops (rubbed small), 26-1/2 oz.; proof
spirit, 1 quart; digest 24 hours, then distil over (quickly) 1 pint, and
set the distillate (_spiritus lupuli_) aside in a corked bottle; to the
residuum add water, 1 pint; boil 15 minutes, cool, express the liquor,
strain, and evaporate it as quickly as possible to dryness by the heat of
a water bath, powder the residuum, and add it to the distilled spirit;
digest a week, and filter.

2. Lupulinic grains (yellow powder or lupulin of the strobiles), 5 oz.;
rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest 10 days; express, and filter. Both the
above are powerfully bitter, and loaded with the aroma of the hop. They
are fully 8 times as strong as the ‘TINCTURA LUPULI’ of the Ph. L. A few
drops added to a glassful of ale or beer render it agreeably bitter and
stomachic.

3. (BREWER’S E. OF HOPS.) Several noxious preparations under the name of
extract of hops are sold by the brewer’s druggist. They are mostly
semi-fluid extracts of quassia, gentian, and like powerful bitters. Of
three of these articles which we have examined, one (for PALE ALE)
consisted of the mixed extracts of quassia and chamomile; another was a
preparation of picric acid; whilst a third (‘strongly recommended for
PORTER’) consisted of about equal parts of the extracts of bitter aloes,
cocculus indicus, and wormwood. A few years ago one of these vile
compounds was publicly advertised, and ‘warranted’ as being equal to 100
times its weight in hops (1 oz. to 5-1/2 lbs.).

=Essence of Jargonelle’ Pear.= _Syn._ PEAR ESSENCE, ESPRIT DE JARGONELLE,
&c. _Prep._ From pear oil (acetate of oxide of amyl), as ESSENCE OF
ALMONDS. This is now largely employed to flavour confectionery and
liqueurs. See AMYL and OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Jas′mine.= See SPIRIT and OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Jes′samine.= See SPIRIT and OIL.

=Essence of Jon′quil.= See SPIRIT and OIL.

=Essence of Lav′ender.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA LAVANDULÆ (ODORATA), L. _Prep._ 1.
Oil of lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz.; rectified spirit (strongest), 1 pint.

2. As the strongest _Eau de lavende_. See SPIRIT.

=Essence of Lavender (Red).= See SPIRIT and TINCTURE.

=Essence of Lem′on.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA LIMONIS, L. _Prep._ 1. See OIL
(Volatile).

2. (W. Procter.) Fresh oil of lemons, 1 fl. oz.; deodorised alcohol
(strongest flavourless rectified), 8 fl. oz.; exterior yellow rind of
lemons (fresh), 1/2 oz.; digest 48 hours, and filter. Used for flavouring
mixtures, pastry, &c.

3. From oil of lemons, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as the last.

=Essence of Lemon Peel.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF LEMON RIND, QUINTESCENCE OF L.
P.; ESSENTIA CORTICIS LIMONIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Yellow peel of fresh lemons,
1/2 lb.; spirit of wine, 1 pint; digest for a week, press, and filter.
Very fragrant.

2. Yellow peel of fresh lemons, 1 lb.; boiling water, 1/2 gall.; infuse 1
hour, express the liquor, boil down to 1/2 pint, cool, and add oil of
lemon, 1/4 oz., dissolved in spirit of wine, 1-1/2 pint; mix, and filter.
Used as the preceding.

=Essence of Lov′age.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA LEVISTICI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Wurt.)
Lovage root (_levisticum officinale_), 2 oz.; lovage seeds, 1 oz.;
rectified spirit, 10 oz.; digest a week, and filter. Aromatic, stomachic,
and diaphoretic.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.; in dyspepsia, dropsies, &c.

=Essence, Madden’s.= Concentrated infusion of roses.

=Essence of Malt.= See COLOURING.

=Essence of Mint.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF SPEARMINT; ESSENTIA MENTHÆ, E. M.
SPICATÆ, E. M. VIRIDIS, L. _Prep._ As ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT.

=Essence of Moss-Rose= (from the ‘Chemist and Druggist’). Otto of rose,
1-1/2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 2-1/2 oz.; essence of musk, 1 oz.;
alcohol, 15 oz.; concentrated rose water, 10 oz. Mix, and shake frequently
for a week.

=Essence of Musk.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA MOSCHI, TINCTURA M. CONCENTRATA, L.
_Prep._ 1. Grain musk, 2 oz., and boiling water, 1 pint, are digested
together in a close vessel until cold, when rectified spirit of wine, 7
pints, is added; the vessel (preferably a tin bottle) being corked close,
and tied over with bladder, the whole is digested, with frequent
agitation, for 2 months, in the sunshine (in summer), or in an equally
warm situation in winter. At the end of the time the essence is decanted
and filtered.

2. Grain musk, 1/4 oz.; rectified spirit of wine, 2 pints; essence of
ambergris, 1 fl. oz.; digest as before.

3. Musk (from the bladder, rubbed very small), 5 oz.; civet, 1 oz.;
essence of ambergris, 1 pint; spirit of ambrette, 1 gall.; as before.

_Obs._ All the preceding formulæ yield superior essences, but the product
of the last is of the very finest quality, and such as is seldom sold,
except by the most celebrated houses, when it fetches a very high price.
It is powerfully and deliciously odorous, and has received the approval of
royalty itself, both in these kingdoms and on the Continent. The second
formula also produces a very fine article, but less choice than just
referred to. The digestion should be long continued, and on no account
less than 3 weeks, as otherwise much fragrant matter is left undissolved.
The addition of 1 fl. dr. of either liquor of ammonia or liquor of
potassia (the first is best) to each pint of the essence, vastly increases
its fragrance. The essence of musk of the wholesale London druggists is
generally made by merely digesting the freshly emptied musk pods in
rectified spirit. Sometimes a little (a very little) grain musk is added.
See ESSENCE ROYALE and ESSENCE OF AMBERGRIS.

4. (Guibourt.) Musk, 1 part; proof spirit, 12 parts; digest a fortnight,
or longer. Used in dispensing, &c.

=Essence of Musk Seed.= See ESSENCE D’AMBRETTE.

=Essence of Mus′tard.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA SINAPIS, L. _Prep._ (Whitehead’s.)
Black mustard seed (bruised), and camphor, of each 2 oz.; oil of rosemary,
3 dr.; balsam of tolu, 1 dr.; annatto, 1/2 dr.; digest a week, and
filter.

=Essence of Myr′tle.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF MYRTLE BLOSSOMS; ESSENCE DE MYRTE,
ESPRIT DE M., Fr. _Prep._ Myrtle tops (in blossom), 2-1/2 lbs.; proof
spirit, 9 pints; digest 3 days, then distil 1 gall. A pleasant perfume.
See OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Nero′li.= _Syn._ ESSENCE DE FLEURS D’ORANGES, ESPRIT DE F.
D’O., Fr. _Prep._ 1. Neroli, 3 dr.; rectified spirit of wine, 1 pint; mix.
A delicious perfume.

2. Oil of orange, 2 dr.; orris root (bruised), 1/2 oz.; ambergris, 10 gr.;
neroli, 35 drops; spirits of wine, 1 pint; digest 14 days, and filter.
Very fragrant, but less ‘chaste’ than the last.

=Essence of Nut′meg.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA MYRISTICÆ, E. M. MOSCHATÆ, E. NUCIS
M., L. _Prep._ From essential oil of nutmeg, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used
as a flavouring or zest by cooks, liqueuristes, and confectioners.

=Essence, Odontal′gic.= See ESSENCE, TOOTHACHE.

=Essence d’Œillets.= [Fr.] _Prep._ From cinnamon, 3 oz.; cloves, 1-1/4 oz.
(both well bruised); rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest for a week. Oil of
cloves and spirit of cloves also bear this name in some places.

=Essence of O′pium.= See ESSENCE ANODYNE, No. 1. BLACK DROP and ROUSSEAU’S
LAUDANUM have also been sometimes so called.

=Essence of O′range.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA AURANTII, L. _Prep._ As ESSENCE OF
LEMON.

=Essence of Orange Peel.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA CORTICIS AURANTII, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Golden.) Fresh yellow rind of orange, 4 oz.; rectified spirit and water,
of each 1/2 pint; digest for a week, press, filter, and add of sherry
wine, 1 quart. A pleasant liqueur.

2. (Saccharated.) See OLEO-SACCHARUM.

=Essence d’Orient.= [Fr.] A pearly-looking substance, found at the base of
the scales of the blay or bleak, a small fish of the genus _cyprinus_.

_Prep._ The scales are scraped from the fish into a tub containing water,
and after agitation and repose the fluid is poured off, and its place
supplied with fresh water, and this in its turn, after agitation and
repose, is also poured off. This part of the operation is repeated till
the ‘essence’ and scales are perfectly freed from impurities, when the
whole is thrown on a sieve, which retains the latter, but allows the
former to flow through. After repose for a short time, the essence is
obtained as a deposit at the bottom of the vessel.

_Obs._ Essence d’Orient has a bluish-white and pearly aspect, and is
employed to cover the interior of glass bubbles and beads, in imitation of
pearls and mother-of-pearl. Its tendency to putrefaction, while in the
moist state, may be obviated by the addition of a little liquor of
ammonia.

=Essence of Patch′ouli.= _Syn._ ESSENCE DE PATCHOULIE, ESPRIT DE POUCHÂ
PÂT [Fr.]. _Prep._ 1. Indian patchouli (leaves or foliaceous tops), 2-1/2
lb.; rectified spirit, 9 pints; digest for a week; add of water, 1 gall.;
oil of lavender (Mitcham), 3 dr.; common salt, 2 lbs.; agitate well
together, distil over (rapidly) 1 gallon, and add of essence of musk,
3-1/2 fl. dr. A very fashionable perfume. Essence of patchouli, thus
prepared, has been largely used, both at court and by the nobility
generally.

2. Patchouli, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest a week, press, and
filter. A still commoner kind is made with proof spirit.

=Essence of Pear.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF JARGONELLE.

=Essence of Pen′nyroyal.= See ESSENTIA PULEGII, E. MENTHÆ P., L. _Prep._
From pennyroyal (_Mentha pulegium_), as ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT. Stimulant,
carminative, and emmenagogue. Used in dispensing, especially to make
extemporaneous pennyroyal water.

=Essence of Pep′permint.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ (B. P.) L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Oil of peppermint, 1 part; rectified spirit, 4 parts.
Mix.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 minims.

2. To the last add of herb peppermint, parsley leaves, or spinach leaves
(preferably one of the first two), 1/2 oz., and digest for a week, or
until sufficiently coloured. Sap green (10 or 12 gr., rubbed up with a
teaspoonful of hot water) is also used for the same purpose. A delicate
light green.

3. (Ph. U. S.) Oil of peppermint, 2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.

_Obs._ Essence of peppermint is not conceived to be good by the ignorant
unless it has a pale-greenish tint, which they take as a proof of its
being genuine. The most harmless way of tinging it is that indicated
above. A little green mint or parsley will, indeed, be found to improve
the flavour. These additions are quite harmless. The practice of using
cupreous salts, adopted by some lazy and unprincipled makers, is
unpardonable, and admits of no excuse, even a lame one, as not the least
advantage, either of convenience, cost, or appearance, results from such a
practice, while the colouring matter, though small in quantity, is
nevertheless sufficient to impart a noxious quality to the liquid. This
fraud may be detected by the addition of liquor of ammonia in excess,
which will strike a bluish or greenish-blue colour when copper is present.

Essence of peppermint (like that of most of the other aromatic oils) is
cordial, stimulant, and stomachic. A few drops (10 to 30) on sugar, or
mixed with a little water or wine, is an excellent remedy in flatulence,
colic, nausea, sickness, &c. It is also extensively used as a flavouring
ingredient by cooks, confectioners, and druggists. A few drops, well
agitated with half a pint of cold water, form an excellent extemporaneous
peppermint water.

The formulæ 1 and 2, generally the latter, are those employed by the
respectable portion of the London trade. The various published receipts
for this and similar essences, ordering the essential oil in a larger
proportion than that directed above, are never adopted in practice, and
their products (often impossible combinations) exist only in the
imaginations of the writers.

=Essence of Pimen′to.= See ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE.

=Essence of Pine-apple.= From pine-apple oil (butyric ether, butyrate of
ethyl), as ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. It forms a delicious flavouring for
liqueurs, confectionery, rum, &c. See ETHER and OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Quas′sia.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA QUASSIÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From quassia
(sliced), 1-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest 10 days, and filter; 1/2
fl. dr. added to 7-1/2 fl. dr. of water, forms the infusion of quassia, of
the Ph. L.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. in water or wine, an hour before a meal, as a
stomachic tonic, in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c., particularly when
complicated with gout; 1 to 2 dr., three or four times daily, as a
febrifuge, and antiseptic, in intermittents, putrid fevers, &c.

2. (Brewer’s).——_a._ From powdered quassia (sprinkled with a little rum)
and “foots” (coarse moist sugar or sugar bottoms), equal parts, reduced to
the consistence of a semi-fluid extract by the addition of a few spoonfuls
of water. For ale.

_b._ From powdered quassia, 1 part; burnt sugar colouring, 2 parts; well
stirred together. For porter and stout. Both are used by fraudulent
brewers as substitutes for hops.

=Essence of Quin′ine.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA QUINÆ, L. _Prep._ From disulphate
of quinine, 1-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; digest with warmth,
gradually dropping in a little dilute sulphuric acid (avoiding excess),
and employing constant agitation until the whole is dissolved. 1 fl. dr.,
added to 7 dr. of proof spirit, forms the ‘TINCTURE OF QUININE’ (Ph. L.).
Every fl. dr. contains 8 gr. of disulphate of quinine, or about 10 gr. of
the neutral sulphate. If more sulphuric acid is added than is sufficient
to dissolve the salt (_i. e._ convert it into a neutral sulphate), the
solution is apt to deposit part of it on keeping, owing to the gradual
formation of ether, by the action of the excess of acid on the alcohol.

=Essence of Rat′afia.= The same as Essence of Almonds. So called from
being used to flavour ratafias, noyeau, and other liqueurs.

=Essence of Rhu′barb.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA RHEI, L. _Prep._ From rhubarb (in
powder) and siliceous sand, of each 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; by the
method of displacement. Every fl. oz. represents the active virtues of 2
dr. of rhubarb.

=Essence of Rondele′tia.= _Prep._ 1. Essence (oil) of bergamotte, essence
(oil) of lemon, and oil of cloves, of each 1 dr.; otto of roses, 10 drops;
rectified spirit, 1 pint.

2. To the last add, of oil of lavender, 1 dr.; neroli, 15 drops. A very
fashionable and agreeable perfume.

=Essence of Rose′mary.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ROSEMARINI, L. _Prep._ From oil of
rosemary, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as a perfume; also to make
extemporaneous rosemary water.

=Essence of Ro′ses.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ROSÆ (ODORATA), L. _Prep._ 1. Attar
of roses (genuine), 2 dr.; alcohol, 1 pint; agitate frequently until they
unite.

2. Attar of roses, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; mix in a close
vessel, and assist the solution by placing it in a bath of hot water. (See
ESSENCE OF MUSK.) As soon as the spirit gets warm, take it from the water
and shake it till quite cold; the next day filter.——_Obs._ Unless the
spirit of wine is of more than the common strength, it will not retain the
whole of the otto in solution in very cold weather.

3. To each pint of either of the preceding, add, of oil of bergamotte, 30
drops; neroli and essence of musk, of each 20 drops.

4. Petals of roses, 3 lbs., digest in spirit of wine, 5 quarts, for 24
hours; distil to dryness in a water bath; digest the distilled spirit on 2
lbs. of fresh rose petals, as before, and repeat the whole process of
maceration and distillation, a third, fourth, fifth, and sixth time, or
oftener, the last time only drawing over 1 gall., which is the essence.
Each of the above is very superior. The last has a peculiar delicacy of
flavour, when the spirit used to make it is pure.

=Essence of Roses (Red).= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ROSÆ (RUBRA), TINCTURA E.
CONCENTRATA, L. _Prep._ From rose leaves, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gall.;
digest for 14 days, press, strain, add concentrated acetic acid, 2-1/2 fl.
dr.; mix well, and the next day filter. Used to make extemporaneous SYRUP
and HONEY OF ROSES, &c. Smells, colours, and tastes strongly of the
flower. CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF ROSES is sold under the same name.

=Essence Royale.= [Fr.] _Prep._ 1. (Soubeiran.) Ambergris, 40 gr.; musk,
20 gr.; civet and carbonate of potassa, of each 10 gr.; oil of cinnamon, 6
drops; oil of rhodium and otto of roses, of each 4 drops; rectified spirit
of wine, 4 fl. oz. (say 1/4 pint); macerate for 10 days or longer.
Antispasmodic and aphrodisiac. A few drops on sugar, or in syrup of
capillaire.

2. See ESSENCE OF AMBERGRIS.

=Essence of Sarsaparil′la.= _Syn._ CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF SARSAPARILLA;
ESSENTIA SARSÆ; E. SARSAPARILLÆ; L. _Prep._ 1. Sarsaparilla root (best red
Jamaica), 2-3/4 lbs., is carefully decorticated, the bark reduced to
coarse powder, and digested for a week or 10 days in sherry, 3/4 pint, and
rectified spirit, 1/4 pint, with frequent agitation; after which the
essence is expressed, and in a week the clear portion is decanted from the
sediment. A very elegant preparation. 1/2 fl. dr. added to 7 fl. dr. of
water forms 1 fl. oz. of a solution of equal strength to decoction of
sarsaparilla of the Ph. L. Every fl. oz. represents the active principles
of 2 oz. (= 2 oz. 85 gr. avoir.) of sarsaparilla root. In other words, it
is twice as strong as the root, and 16 times as strong as the decoction.

2. Alcoholic extract of sarsaparilla, 7 oz.; sherry, 3/4 pint; rectified
spirit, 1/4 pint; dissolve and filter. Strength as the last.

3. (Beral.) Alcohol extract, 4 oz.; sherry wine, 1 pint; dissolve and
filter. About 3 fl. dr., added to water, 1 pint, form an extemporaneous
decoction.

4. (Guibourt.) Alcoholic extract, 4 oz.; white wine, 1 lb. Strength the
same as Nos. 1 and 2 (nearly).

5. (Hening.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 10 oz.; distilled water, 6 pints;
macerate at a temperature of 120° Fahr. for six hours and strain; repeat
with the same quantity of fresh water; mix the liquors, and evaporate in
china vessels at 160° Fahr. If reduced to 10 fl. oz. (or to 9 fl. oz.,
with 1 fl. oz. of rectified spirit added), 1 fl. dr., mixed with 7 fl. dr.
of water, will be equal to the decoction of the usual strength. If reduced
to 5 fl. oz. 1 fl. dr. will be equal to 2 fl. oz. of the decoction.

6. The bark separated from sarsaparilla root, 2-3/4 lbs., is exhausted
with water as last; the liquid is evaporated as quickly as possible, in a
water bath, to 16 fl. oz., and when cold, mixed with rectified spirit, 4
fl. oz. Strength same as No. 1.

7. The infusion in No. 6 is evaporated to 10-1/2 fl. oz., and when cold
mixed with sherry, 1/2 pint; in a week the clear portion is decanted from
the sediment. Strength same as No. 1.

_Obs._ The formulæ Nos. 1, 2, 6, and 7 have each in turn been extensively
employed by us in the laboratory with the most satisfactory results. See
LIQUOR OF SARSAPARILLA.

=Essence of Sarsaparilla (Compound).= _Syn._ ESSENTIA SARSAPARILLÆ
COMPOSITA, E. SARSÆ C., L. _Prep._ 1. One pint of No. 1, 2, 6, or 7
(_above_), is triturated with the extract prepared from mezereon bark,
3-1/4 oz., and extract of liquorice, 4 oz.; when mixed it is returned to
the bottle, and essence of guaiacum, 1-1/2 fl. dr., and oil of sassafras,
20 drops, are added, the whole is then well agitated for at least 15
minutes, and after a week’s repose the clear portion is decanted as
before. 1/2 fl. dr., with 7-1/2 fl. dr. of water, forms extemporaneous
compound decoction of sarsaparilla.

2. (Cadet.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 8 oz.; hot water, q. s.; exhaust the
root by successive macerations; unite the liquors, and evaporate to 10 fl.
oz.; strain, and add, when cold, of alcohol (·842) and tinctures of
guaiacum and mezereon, of each 4 fl. dr.; white wine, 1 fl. oz.; oil of
sassafras, 12 drops; extract of liquorice, 2 dr.; agitate, and after
repose decant as before. This is nearly 8 times as strong as ‘DEC. SARSÆ
CO.’——Ph. L. The first is the best formula. See LIQUOR OF SARSAPARILLA
(Compound).

=Essence of Sa′′vory Spices.= _Prep._ 1. Black pepper, 4 oz.; powdered
turmeric, 3 dr.; coriander seeds, 1-1/2 dr. (all ground and genuine); oil
of pimento, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oils of nutmeg, cloves, cassia and caraway, of
each 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest, with agitation, for a
fortnight. Very fine.

2. Black pepper, 3 oz.; allspice, 1-1/4 oz.; nutmegs and burnt sugar, of
each 1/2 oz.; cloves, cassia, coriander, and caraway seeds, of each 1 dr.
(all bruised or ground); rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest with agitation,
as before, for 14 days, press, and filter. Used as a flavouring. When made
with proof spirit or brandy, and only 1/2 the above weight of spice, it is
called ‘TINCTURE OF SAVORY SPICES,’

=Essence of Sen′na.= See LIQUOR and INFUSION (Concentrated).

=Essence of Smoke.= See ESSENCE, WESTPHALIAN.

=Essence of Soap.= _Syn._ SPIRIT OF SOAP, SHAVING FLUID; ESPRIT DE SAVON,
ESSENCE DE SAVON, ESSENCE ROYALE POUR FAIRE LA BARBE, Fr.; ESSENTIA
SAPONIS, TINCTURA SAPONIS CONCENTRATA, L. _Prep._ 1. Castile soap (in
shavings), 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; dissolve, and add a little
perfume.

2. Venetian soap, 3/4 lb.; salt of tartar, 1 oz.; benzoin, 1/2 oz.; spirit
of wine, 1 gall.

3. Best soft soap, 1/4 lb.; boiling water, 1 pint; dissolve, cool, and
add, oils of cinnamon (cassia), verbena, and neroli, of each 6 drops;
dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 pint; mix well, and if not perfectly
transparent, add a little more strong spirit, or filter through blotting
paper.

_Obs._ This alcoholic solution of soap is chiefly used for shaving, and is
very convenient in travelling, as a good lather may be instantly produced
without the trouble of employing a soap-box. Instead of the above
perfumes, 15 drops of essence of musk or ambergris, or 30 drops of any of
the perfumed spirits, or 3 drops of attar of roses, or 6 drops of any of
the aromatic essential oils, may be added, when a corresponding name is
given to the preparation, as esprit de savon, de la rose, &c.

4. (P. Cod.) White soap, 3 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; proof spirit,
12 oz.; dissolve. Used medicinally. They are all used as frictions, &c.

5. (CAMPHORATED,——Guibourt.) White soap, 3 parts; camphor, 1 part; spirit
of rosemary, 16 parts; dissolve. A variety of opodeldoc. Used as an
embrocation in rheumatic pains, sore throat, &c.

=Essence of Soup Herbs.= _Syn._ SPIRIT OF SOUP HERBS, CONC. TINCTURE OF S.
H., &c. _Prep._ (Kitchener’s.) Lemon thyme, winter savory, sweet marjoram,
and sweet bazil, of each 1 oz.; lemon peel (grated), and eschalots, of
each 1/2 oz.; bruised celery seed, 1/4 oz.; proof spirit or brandy, 1
pint; digest for 10 days or a fortnight. A superior flavouring essence for
soups, gravies, &c. See ESSENCE OF SAVOURY SPICES.

=Essence of Spear′mint.= See ESSENCE OF MINT.

=Essence of Sprats.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF BRITISH ANCHOVIES. From pickled
sprats (British anchovies), as ESSENCE OF ANCHOVIES, for which it is
commonly sold.

=Essence of Spruce.= _Syn._ FLUID EXTRACT OF SPRUCE; ESSENTIA ABIETIS,
EXTRACTUM A. FLUIDUM, L. _Prep._ A decoction of the young tops of the
black spruce-fir _Abies nigra_, evaporated to the consistence of a thick
syrup. Used to make spruce beer, &c.

=Essence, Toothache.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA ODONTALGIA, L. _Prep._ 1. Acetate of
morphia, 1/2 dr.; tincture of pellitory of Spain (made with rectified
spirit), 2 fl. oz.; acetic acid (glacial), 4 fl. dr.; dissolve, and add of
oil of cloves, 6 fl. dr.

2. (Redwood.) Pellitory, 1/2 lb.; extract of belladonna, 2 dr.; rectified
spirit, 1 pint; digest 14 days, strain, and add, of hyponitrous ether, 1
oz.; oil of wine, 1/2 oz.; oil of cloves, 2 dr. See DROPS (Odontalgic).

=Essence of Tu′′berose.= _Prep._ The flowers are stratified with sheep’s
or cotton wool, impregnated with the purest oil of ben or of olives, in an
earthen vessel, closely covered, and kept for 12 hours in a water bath;
the flowers are then removed, and fresh ones substituted, and this is
repeated until the oil (HUILE AU TUBEROSE) is sufficiently scented. The
wool or cotton is then mixed with the purest spirit of wine, and distilled
in a water bath; or it is first digested in a warm situation, and in a
well-closed vessel, for several days, during the whole of which time
frequent agitation is had recourse to. A similar plan is followed for the
preparation of essences of jasmine, violets, and other like flowers. See
SPIRIT.

=Essence of Turtle.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF GREEN TURTLE. _Prep._ From essence
of anchovies and shallot wine, of each 3 oz.; basil wine, 1/2 pint;
mushroom ketchup, 1/4 pint; the juice of 2 lemons; the yellow peel of 1
lemon; curry powder, 1/4 oz.; digest for a week. Used to impart the
flavour of turtle to soups and gravies.

=Essence of Tyre.= See HAIR DYE.

=Essence of Vanil′la.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA VANILLÆ, TINCTURE V. CONCENTRATA,
L. _Prep._ 1. Vanilla (cut small), 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint, digest
a fortnight.

2. (Wholesale.) Vanilla, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; proceed as for
ESSENCE OF MUSK. Very superior.

3. Vanilla (best), 3/4 lb.; spirit of ambrette, 1 quart; cloves, 30 gr.;
grain musk, 7 gr.; as last. Much esteemed. It is chiefly used as a perfume
and for flavouring.

=Essence of Verbe′na.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF LEMON-GRASS, E. OF CITRONELLE;
ESSENTIA VERBENÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From oil of lemon-grass or verbena
(_Andropogon citratum_), as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE.

2. To the last add, of essences of ambergris and bergamotte (oil), of each
1 fl. dr.; neroli, 1/2 fl. dr.

3. To No. 1. add, of oils of lavender and bergamotte, of each 1/2 dr.;
essence of vanilla, 2 fl. dr. A powerful and refreshing perfume.

=Essence of Vio′let.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA VIOLÆ, L.; ESSENCES DES VIOLETTES,
Fr. See ESSENCE OF TUBEROSE and SPIRIT.

=Essence of Vittie Vayr.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF VETIVER; ESSENCE DE VITTIE
VAYR DOUBLE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. Vittie vayr or cuscus (the root of _Andropogon
muricatus_, cut small and bruised), 3 lbs.; proof spirit, 9 pints; digest
a week, add of water, 5 pints, and the next day distil over 1 gall. of
essence.

2. To the last, before distillation, add, of otto of roses, 1/2 dr.; eau
de melisse (spirit of balm), 1/2 pint; and proceed as before. Used as a
perfume. In 1831 it was much employed in Paris as a prophylactic of
cholera.

=Essence, Volatile (Acetic).= _Syn._ PUNGENT ACETIC ESSENCE; ESSENTIA
VOLATILIS ACETICA, L. Aromatic vinegar.

=Essence, Volatile (Ammoniacal).= _Syn._ PUNGENT AMMONIACAL ESSENCE,
AROMATIC AMMONIACAL E.; ESSENTIA VOLATILIS, E. V. AMMONIACALIS, E. V.
AROMATICA, &c., L. _Prep._ 1. Oil of cinnamon, 6 drops; otto of roses, 12
drops; oil of cloves, 1 fl. dr.; essence of bergamotte, 2 fl. dr.; oil of
lavender (Mitcham), 4 fl. dr.; essence of musk, 5 fl. dr.; liquor of
ammonia (strongest), 1 pint; mix in a cold place, and shake the bottle
until the whole is combined.

2. Essence of violets and oil of cinnamon, of each 12 drops; neroli,
essence of jasmine, and otto of roses, of each 1/2 dr.; oil of lavender, 1
dr.; essence royale and essence (oil) of bergamotte, of each 2-1/2 dr.;
liquor of ammonia (strongest), 1 pint; as the last.

3. Oils of lemon and bergamotte, of each 5 fl. dr.; oil of lavender, 1-1/2
fl. dr.; otto of roses, 1 fl. dr.; oils of cassia, neroli, cloves, and
cedrat, of each 1/2 fl. dr.; oil of sandal wood, 15 drops; liquor of
ammonia (strongest), 1 pint.

4. Essence of bergamotte, 6 fl. dr.; oil of lavender, 4 fl. dr.; oil of
cloves, 3 fl. dr.; oil of cassia, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oil of verbena
(lemon-grass), 1 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 30 drops; liquor of ammonia, 18
fl. oz.

5. (Redwood.) Oil of bergamotte, 3 oz.; essence of lemons, 2 oz.; oil of
lavender, 6 dr.; essence of jasmine, 4 dr.; oil of sassafras, 3 dr.; oil
of neroli, 2 dr.; otto of roses, 1-1/2 dr.; oil of origanum and essence of
ambergris, of each 1 dr.; musk, 20 gr.; macerate for a week, and decant
the clear portion. It is added to the strongest liquor of ammonia in
proportion of 1-1/2 oz. to the pint.

_Obs._ The above are used to fill smelling-bottles. They are all very
fragrant and refreshing.

=Essence, Ward’s.= See ESSENCE HEADACHE.

=Essence of Water-fen′nel.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA PHELLANDRI AQUATICI, E.
FŒNICULIS A., L. _Prep._ (Cottereau.) Water-fennel seeds (fine-leaved
water-hemlock, bruised), 1 oz.; proof spirit, 4 fl. oz.; digest. Narcotic
and pectoral.——_Dose_, 5 to 25 drops, combined with bark; in phthisis, &c.

=Essence, Westphalian.= ESSENCE OF SMOKE, E. OF WOOD-SMOKE, CAMBRIAN
ESSENCE, SMOKING FLUID; ESSENTIA FULIGINIS, &c., L. _Prep._ 1. Crude or
empyreumatic pyroligneous acid, 1 pint; sugar colouring, 2 oz.; dissolve,
and in a week decant the clear portion.

2. Tar, 3 dr.; sugar colouring, 2 oz.; hot crude pyroligneous acid, 1
pint; agitate constantly for 1 hour, and after repose decant the clear
portion.

3. Acetic acid (Ph. L.), 1 pint; creasote, 5 dr.; mix. White.

4. Barbadoes tar, 1/4 oz.; burnt sugar and common salt, of each 1 oz.;
strong pickling vinegar, 3/4 pint; port or elder wine, 1/4 pint; digest as
before. Inferior to the preceding. Used to impart a smoky flavour to meat,
fish, &c., by brushing it over them, or adding a little to the brine in
which they are pickled.

=Essence of Worm′wood.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA AMARA, E. ABSINTHII, L. _Prep._ 1.
Extract of wormwood, 4 oz.; oil of wormwood, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1
pint; digest a week and filter. Tonic, stomachic, and vermifuge.——_Dose_,
10 drops to a teaspoonful.

2. (Van Mons.) Tincture of wormwood, 1 pint; salt of wormwood, 5 dr.;
extract of wormwood, 1 dr.; digest as before.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1-1/2 fl.
dr.

=Essences, Fla′′vouring.= _Syn._ CULINARY ESSENCES, SPICE E., ESSENCES FOR
THE TABLE, &c. Those used by cooks, confectioners, liqueurists, &c., are
all made by either dissolving 1 fl. oz. of the essential oil of the
particular substance in 1 pint of rectified spirit, or by digesting 4 to 6
oz. of the bruised spice, or 5 to 10 oz. of the dried herb, in a like
quantity (1 pint) of spirit. The first method is preferable, from being
the least troublesome, and yielding the finest product. They are commonly
labelled ‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF ————.’ An inferior article, vended under
the names of ‘ESSENCES OF CULINARY HERBS,’ ‘CULINARY TINCTURES,’
‘TINCTURES FOR KITCHEN USE,’ &c., are prepared from half the above
quantity of oil or spice, infused in a pint of proof spirit or British
brandy. The principal compounds of this class are the essences of
allspice, caraway, cardamoms, cassia, cayenne, celery seed, cinnamon,
cloves, coriander seed, fennel, garlic, ginger, lemon peel, mace,
marjoram, nutmegs, orange peel, peppermint, spearmint, sweet basil, and
the like. The whole of these are employed to flavour soups, gravies,
sweetmeats, pastry, wines, mulled wines, liqueurs, &c.

=Essences, Flower.= Those for which separate formulæ are not given in this
work may most of them be made from the essential oil of the flowers and
rectified spirit, as the last; or by digesting the flowers (crushed or
bruised), 3 to 5 lbs., in proof spirit, 2 galls., for a few days, and then
drawing over, by distillation, 1 gall. For the essences of those flowers
which are not strongly odorous, the spirit thus obtained is distilled from
a like quantity of flowers, a second, and a third time, or even oftener.
The essences of other organic substances, whose fragrant principles are
volatile, may be prepared in the same manner. A small quantity of some
other odorous essence is frequently added to the product, to enrich or
modify the fragrance. See FLOWERS and ESSENCES BY INFUSION.

=Essences, Fra′grant.= See FLOWER ESSENCES (_above_), ESSENTIA ODORATA,
PERFUMERY, &c.

=Essences, Fruit.= See ESSENCES OF APPLE, PINE-APPLE, JARGONELLE, &c.

=Essences by Infu′sion.= This term, among perfumers, is commonly applied
to those essences, eaux, and esprits, which are prepared by digesting the
ingredients in the spirit used as the vehicle for the aroma, in opposition
to those obtained by ‘distillation,’ or by ‘contact,’ or ‘pressure.’ Thus,
the ESSENCES OF AMBERGRIS, MUSK, and VANILLA, are of this class.

=Essences, Vi′nous.= _Syn._ ESSENTIA VINOSA, L. These are prepared in a
similar way to the wines (VINA) of the pharmacopœia, by using 8 times the
usual quantity of ingredients, and the very strongest sherry wine. 1 fl.
dr., added to 7 fl. dr. of wine or water (properly the first only), forms
an extemporaneous imitation of the officinal VINA MEDICATA. Some of the
above are largely used in dispensing, and by travellers. See LIQUOR and
WINE.

=ESSENTIA BI′NA.= See COLOURING.

=Essentia, Odora′ta.= _Prep._ 1. Oil of lavender, 1 dr.; oils of cloves,
cassia, and bergamot, of each 1/2 dr.; neroli, 20 drops; essence royale, 2
fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; mix.

2. (Redwood.) English oil of lavender, 48 drops; oil of cloves, 32 drops;
oil of orange peel, 16 drops; oil of bergamotte and sweet spirit of nitre,
of each 8 drops; oil of yellow sandal-wood, neroli, and otto of roses, of
each 2 drops; oil of cinnamon, 1 drop; rectified spirit, and essence of
ambergris and musk, of each 1 oz.; honey water, 8 oz.; mix. Used as a
perfume for the handkerchief, &c. The last form seems unnecessarily
complicated and minute.

=Essentia Odorif′era.= _Prep._ 1. Grain musk and balsam of Peru, of each
10 gr.; civet, 4 gr.; oil of cloves, 5 drops; oil of rhodium, 3 drops;
salt of tartar (dried by a dull-red heat and cooled), 1/2 dr.; rectified
spirit (strongest), 2-1/2 fl. oz.; macerate for 14 days, and pour off the
clear.

2. Oil of rhodium and balsam of Peru, of each 1/2 dr.; oil of cloves, 1
dr.; spirit of ammonia, 2 fl. dr.; essence of civet and vanilla, of each 2
fl. oz.; essence of musk, 5 fl. oz.; neroli, oils of lavender, verbena,
and cassia, of each 6 drops. As last. Both are very pleasant, durable, and
powerful perfumes for personal use.

=ESSENTIAL OIL.= See OIL (Volatile).

=ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK.= See BARK and =Extract=.

=ESSENTIAL SALT OF LEMONS.= _Syn._ SALT OF LEMONS; SAL LIMONUM, L. The
preparation sold under this name is made by mixing cream of tartar
(bitartrate of potassa) with twice its weight of salt of sorrel
(quadroxalate of potassa), both in fine powder. It is used to remove fruit
stains, &c., from linen, by rubbing a little of it on the part moistened
with warm water. It is poisonous, if swallowed in quantity.

=ETCH′ING.= A species of engraving, in which the design is formed on the
plate by the action of an acid, or some other fluid, instead of being cut
out by the graver.

_Proc._ In the ORDINARY PROCESS OF ETCHING the plate is covered with
‘etching ground’ (an acid-resisting varnish), and the design is scratched
on the metal through the ground, by means of a pointed tool of steel
called the ‘etching needle’ or ‘point.’ A border of wax is then placed
round the plate, and the ‘biting’ fluid poured on, and allowed to remain
till the ‘lights’ or finest portions of the design are sufficiently
‘bitten in,’ The etching fluid is then poured off, the plate washed, and
the light parts ‘stopped out’ with Brunswick black or other varnish; the
solvent is again poured on, and allowed to remain until the finest portion
of the exposed lines are sufficiently deep, when the acid is again poured
off, and the whole process is repeated till the very darkest lines or
shadows are sufficiently ‘bitten in,’ The plate is then cleaned, and is
ready to be printed from. Occasionally the etched design receives a few
finishing touches with the ‘graver.’

There are several varieties of etching, of which the following are the
principal:——ETCHING WITH A SOFT GROUND, when a coating of lard or tallow
is employed, and the design is drawn on a piece of paper, laid evenly on
the ground, by which means the fatty matter adheres to the paper, on the
parts pressed on by the point or pencil, and the copper beneath becomes
exposed, and is then acted on by the acid. The effect resembles that of
chalk or pencil drawings.——STIPPLING, or executing the design in dots
instead of lines.——AQUATINTA or AQUATINT, a mode of etching on copper for
producing an effect resembling a drawing in Indian ink. It is performed by
sifting powdered asphaltum or lac resin on the plate, previously slightly
greased, and, after shaking off the loose powder, gently heating it over a
chafing dish; on cooling, the lights are covered with turpentine varnish
coloured with lampblack, by means of a hair pencil, and a rim of wax being
placed round the plate, a mixture of ‘aquafortis’ and water is poured on
it, and allowed to remain for 5 or 6 minutes, when it is poured off, the
plate dried, and recourse had to the pencil as before. The process of
‘stopping’ and ‘etching’ is repeated again and again, until the darkest
shades are produced. Sometimes, instead of using asphaltum, an alcoholic
solution of shell-lac or gum mastic is poured over the plate, placed in a
slanting direction; this varnish forms a film, which, on drying, leaves
innumerable cracks or minute fissures through which the acid acts on the
plate. The fineness or coarseness of the grain depends entirely upon the
condition of the powdered asphaltum, or on the quantity of matter
dissolved in the spirit employed to form the ground.

The fluids employed for ‘biting in’ the designs vary considerably, almost
every artist having his own receipt. Aquafortis, more or less diluted, is,
however, generally employed for COPPER, and this, with the addition of
pyroligneous acid, for etching on STEEL; but any fluid that rapidly
dissolves the metal may be used for the purpose. The ‘etching ground’ may
be formed of any substance capable of resisting the action of the etching
fluid, and which is, at the same time, sufficiently soft to allow of the
free use of the needle or point, and sufficiently solid to prevent an
injury to the design during the ‘scratching in,’

In ETCHING ON GLASS, the ground is laid on, and the design ‘scratched in’
in the usual way, when liquid hydrofluoric acid is applied, or the glass
is exposed to the action of hydrofluoric acid gas. The former renders the
surface of the etching transparent, the latter opaque. A simple
modification of the process is to wet the design with sulphuric acid, and
then to sprinkle on some finely pulverised fluor spar (fluoride of
calcium), by which means hydrofluoric acid is set free and attacks the
glass. This method may be very easily applied to the graduation of glass
vessels, thermometer tubes, &c.

ETCHING ON GLASS BY ELECTRICITY. Planté (‘Ann. Chem. Phys.’ [5], xiii,
143-144). The author had previously drawn attention to the fact that when
an electric current is passed through saline solutions in glass vessels,
platinum wire serving as electrodes, the glass is immediately attacked,
and he therefore proposes the following method for etching on glass:

The surface of the glass to be engraved is coated with a concentrated
solution of potassium nitrate, and beneath the layer of liquid a platinum
wire, connected with one of the poles of a battery, is stretched across
the plate. With the other pole is connected another platinum wire, the
whole of which, except the point, is insulated; with this the designs are
drawn on the glass, which is engraved wherever the wire comes in contact
with it, flashes of light being emitted at the same time.

The depth of engraving depends on the rate at which the platinum wire
moves; the slower the rate the deeper the line.

A RAPID METHOD OF ETCHING ON IRON OR STEEL, capable of very general
application, is as follows:——“The metal is warmed until it is capable of
melting a piece of beeswax, or ‘etching ground,’ which is then carefully
rubbed over it, so as to form a thin and even coating; when cold, the
design is ‘scratched in’ in the common way; a little powdered iodine is
then sprinkled on the exposed parts, and at the same time a few drops of
water are added, and the two worked into a liquid paste with a camel-hair
pencil. The paste is then moved about over the intended etching, for a
period varying from one to five minutes, according to the depth of the
lines required to be produced. Afterwards the whole is removed, and
reapplied, &c., as with the usual etching fluids. The same etching-paste,
by being kept for a few days, again acquires the property of dissolving
iron, and may be used again and again; but independently of this, the
iodide of iron formed during the process, if rapidly evaporated to dryness
in a clean iron vessel by a moderate heat, and placed in stoppered
bottles, will sell for more than the original cost of the iodine. To
travellers and amateurs who amuse themselves with the delightful art of
etching, iodine, from its portability and convenience, will, doubtless,
prove invaluable. We have adopted it with considerable success, and have
found it especially useful in marking surgical instruments, razors, and
other edge tools. We published this method many years ago. Several parties
have since availed themselves of our suggestions and formulæ, but without
the slightest acknowledgment of the source from which they obtained them.”
(A. J. Cooley.)

=Etching, Electro-.= This mode of etching, which is in many respects
superior to the ordinary mode, is based upon the destructive action of
certain ‘anions’ during ‘electrolysis.’[281] If two plates of copper be
connected with the opposite ends of a voltaic battery, and placed in a
vessel containing very dilute sulphuric acid, the plate connected with the
copper of the battery will be attacked by the anion oxygen which is
released during the decomposition of the acid. This destructive action can
be localised at pleasure by covering certain parts of the plate with a
protecting stratum of varnish, ordinary ‘etching ground’ for instance. In
the practice of electro-etching, the drawing is ‘scratched in’ in the
usual way through an ordinary ground; a stout wire is then soldered to the
plate, and this, as well as the back of the plate, is coated with
sealing-wax varnish. Thus prepared, the plate is placed in a suitable
‘decomposition cell’ opposite a plate of somewhat similar size, and the
two are connected respectively with the copper and zinc of a ‘Daniell’s
cell,’ or the silver and zinc of a ‘Smee’s cell.’[282] After about ten
minutes the plate is removed, washed, and dried; and when the ‘fine work’
has been stopped out with Brunswick black, it is returned for another
space of ten minutes. By alternately exposing the plate to the action of
the decomposing fluid, and ‘stopping out’ parts of the work, the required
gradation in tints is obtained. The exact duration of the various
exposures, as well as their number, must, of course, be regulated by
circumstances. See ETCHING FLUIDS (_below_).

[Footnote 281: See ELECTROLYSIS and ELECTROTYPE, pages 428 and 429.]

[Footnote 282: See VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.]

=Etching Fluids.= 1. (For COPPER.)——_a._ From ‘aquafortis,’ 2-1/2 fl. oz.;
water, 5 fl. oz.; mix.

_b._ To the last add of verdigris, 1 oz.; water, 2-1/2 fl. oz.; dissolve.
For light touches.

_c._ (EAU FORTE,——Callot and Piranesi.) Alum, sal-ammoniac, sea salt, and
verdigris, of each 4 oz.; vinegar (pyroligneous acid), 8 fl. oz.; water,
16 fl. oz.; mix, dissolve, boil for 1 or 2 minutes in a glazed or
stoneware vessel, cool, and decant the clear portion. Used as the last.

_d._ Water acidulated with sulphuric acid. Used in the process of
electro-etching.

2. (For STEEL.)——_a._ From iodine, 1 oz.; iron filings or wire, 1/2 dr.;
water, 4 fl. oz. It must be kept in a stoppered bottle, until required for
use.

_b._ From iodine, 3 dr.; iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 1 fl.
oz.; water, 2 fl. oz. As the last.

_c._ (Mr Turrel.) Pyroligneous acid, 4 fl. oz.; alcohol (rectified
spirit), 1 fl. oz.; mix, and add of nitric acid or double aquafortis (sp.
gr. 1·28), 1 fl. oz.

_d._ From hydrochloric acid, 5 parts; water, 95 parts; mix, and add the
liquid to a solution of chlorate of potassa, 1 part, in water, 50 parts.

_e._ A solution of common salt. Used in the process of electro-etching.

=Etching Ground.= _Syn._ ETCHING VARNISH. _Prep._ 1. Beeswax, 5 parts;
linseed oil, 1 part; melted together.

2. (Callot’s HARD VARNISH, FLORENTINE V., FLORENCE V.) From linseed oil
and mastic, equal parts, melted together.

3. (Callot’s SOFT VARNISH.) From linseed oil, 4 oz.; gum benzoin and white
wax, of each 1/2 oz.; boil to two thirds.

4. (Lawrence.) White wax, 2 oz.; black pitch and Burgundy pitch, of each
1/2 oz.; melt, add by degrees, of powdered asphaltum, 2 oz.; and boil
together, until a piece, when thoroughly cold, will break by being bent
double 2 or 3 times between the fingers; next pour it into warm water,
make it into small balls, and place each of them in a piece of taffety for
use.

_Obs._ The preceding compositions are applied to the surface of the
plates, previously made sufficiently warm to melt them easily, their even
diffusion being promoted by dabbing them with a wad of cotton. Those that
are white are then generally blackened on the surface by skilfully passing
them over the smoky flame of one or more candles, by which the marks of
the etching point on the bright metal are rendered the more visible.

=E′THER.= _Syn._ OXIDE OF ETHYL. Described under ETHYL, OXIDE OF. Several
substances are known under the name of ethers besides the true ethers or
salts of ethyl, and are given below.

=Ether of Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ ÆTHER CANTHARIDALIS, L. _Prep._
(Œttinger.) From powdered cantharides, 1 part; ether, 2 parts; digested
together for 3 or 4 days, and the tincture expressed. Used as a vesicant,
&c.

=Ether, Chlo′′ric.= This name was applied by Dr T. Thomson to the CHLORIDE
OF OLEFIANT GAS, or ‘DUTCH LIQUID,’ and afterwards, by Guthrie and
Silliman, to CHLOROFORM, which they took for an alcoholic solution of
chloride of olefiant gas. It now forms one of the synonyms of chloroform.
The medicinal ‘CHLORIC ETHER’ of the shops is a solution of chloroform, 1
part, in rectified spirit 8 parts; of which the _dose_ is 20 or 30 drops
in water, as an antispasmodic and anodyne. See CHLOROFORM.

=Ether, Chlorinet′ted.= Formed by the action of dry chlorine on pure
ether. When the action is long continued, a heavy, oily product
(BICHLORINETTED ETHER), smelling like fennel, is formed. By the still
further action of chlorine, aided by sunlight, a white, crystalline
substance (PENTACHLORINETTED ETHER), a compound resembling sesquichloride
of carbon, is obtained.

=Ether, Cu′′preous.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CUPRI CHLORIDI ÆTHEREA, L. _Prep._
(Van Mons.) Sulphate of copper, 6 parts, and chloride of barium, 5 parts,
are triturated together, and the mixture digested in ether, 3 or 4 parts,
until all the chloride of copper is dissolved.——_Dose_, 2 to 5 drops; in
epilepsy, &c.

=Ether, Methy′lic.= _Syn._ OXIDE OF METHYL, WOOD-ETHER, METHYL-ETHER;
ÆTHER METHYLICUS, L. _Prep._ From wood spirit, 1 part; concentrated
sulphuric acid, 4 parts; mix in a retort, apply heat, pass the evolved gas
(methylic ether) through a little strong solution of potassa, and then
collect it over mercury. See METHYL.

=Ether, Spirits of Nitrous.= See SPIRITS.

=Ether, Washed.= _Syn._ ÆTHER LOTUS, L. Ordinary ether, agitated first
with 2 or 3 times its volume of distilled water, and a few grains of
carbonate of potassa, or a few drops of milk of lime; and after
decantation, again agitated with a like quantity of water only. Used for
inhalations. For other purposes the washed ether is afterwards digested on
chloride of calcium, to deprive it of retained water.

=E′THERIN.= _Syn._ CAMPHOR OF OIL OF WINE. A volatile, white, crystalline
substance, deposited by light oil of wine when left in a cold situation
for some time. It is isomeric with etherole, and received its name from
the assumption of its being the base of the ethereal compounds. According
to this hypothesis, ether is a hydrate of etherin. Etherin forms brilliant
prisms and plates; is tasteless; soluble in alcohol and ether; fuses at
230° Fahr., and boils at 500° Fahr.; and is a little lighter than water.
The crystals are purified by pressure between the folds of bibulous paper,
solution in ether, and evaporation.

=E′THEROLE.= The yellowish, oily liquid, forming the residual portion of
light oil of wine, after it has deposited its etherin. It is lighter than
water; is freely soluble in both alcohol and ether; and has a rather high
boiling-point. See ETHERIN and OIL OF WINE.

=ETHION′IC AC′ID.= _Prep._ An alcoholic solution of the crystals of
sulphate of carbyle is diluted with water, the whole neutralised with
carbonate of baryta, the filtered liquid evaporated by a very gentle heat
to a small bulk, and a large quantity of alcohol added; the precipitate
(ethionate of baryta) is treated (cautiously) with dilute sulphuric acid
(avoiding excess), by which the baryta is withdrawn, and ethionic acid
left in solution.

_Prop., &c._ Ethionic acid closely resembles sulphovinic acid. It is
decomposed by heat. Its salts (ethionates), however, differ completely
from the sulphovinates. They are all soluble in water, and are said to be
anhydrous. The ethionates of ammonia, potassa, and soda crystallise
readily; those of lead, baryta, lime, and the other earths are
uncrystallisable. See ISETHIONIC ACID, and _below_.

=ETHION′IC ANHY′DRIDE.= _Prep._ Pure and dry olefiant gas is passed over
anhydrous sulphuric acid (‘sulphuric anhydride’) contained in a U-shaped
tube.

_Prop., &c._ When thus produced, it is in white, milky crystals, which
speedily deliquesce in the air, giving rise to ethionic acid. It is
similar in appearance, and probably identical with, ‘sulphate of carbyle,’
which results from the absorption of the vapour of anhydrous sulphuric
acid by absolute alcohol.

=E′THIOPS.= _Syn._ ÆTHIOPS, L. A name given by the older chemists to
several black powders on account of their colour, and still occasionally
employed in medical works.

=Ethiops, Graphi′tic.= _Syn._ ETHIOPS OF PLUMBAGO; ÆTHIOPS GRAPHITICUS, L.
From plumbago, 2 parts; quicksilver, 1 part; triturated together until the
globules disappear.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.; in herpes, and some other
obstinate skin diseases.

=Ethiops, Martial.= Black oxide of iron, prepared by keeping iron filings
under water, and occasionally shaking them. It is washed with water, dried
as quickly as possible, and preserved from the air, to prevent further
oxidation. Formerly much esteemed as a tonic.

=Ethiops, Min′eral.= _Syn._ ETHIOPS MINERAL; ÆTHIOPS MINERALIS, HYDRARGYRI
SULPHURETUM CUM SULPHURE, L. Black sulphuret of mercury, with excess of
sulphur.

(Tyson’s.) Oxide of mercury (prepared by decomposing calomel with an
equivalent proportion of liquor of potassa to which a little liquor of
ammonia has been added) and flowers of sulphur, equal parts, triturated
together. This is recommended as an efficient substitute for the old and
uncertain preparation commonly sold under the name of _Ethiops mineral_.
It is, however, of more than double the usual strength, and should
therefore be taken in proportionate doses. See MERCURY (Sulphide).

=Ethiops, Veg′etable.= _Syn._ ÆTHIOPS VEGETABILIS, PULVUS QUERCÛS MARINÆ,
L. Bladder wrack (_Fucus vesiculosus_), burned in a close vessel till it
becomes black and friable. Used in bronchocele, scrofula, &c. Like burnt
sponge, it owes its virtues to the presence of a very minute quantity of
iodine.——_Dose_, 20 gr. to 1 dr., or more, made into an electuary with
honey or sugar.

=E′THYL.= C_{2}H_{5}. _Syn._ ETHYLE. The hydrocarbon assumed to be the
radical of the ether-compounds (ethyl-series). A body containing carbon
and hydrogen in the proportions indicated by the formula of ethyl,
2(C_{2}H_{5}), has been obtained by exposing dry iodide of ethyl in sealed
tubes for several hours to the action of finely divided zinc, at a
temperature of from 320° to 338° Fahr. In this reaction the iodine of the
iodide of ethyl combines with the zinc, and the hydrocarbon supposed to be
ethyl is set free. On opening the sealed tubes and allowing the gas (which
is a mixture of the ‘ethyl’ and certain secondary products) to pass into a
freezing mixture, the temperature of which is kept below -9° Fahr., the
‘ethyl’ condenses to a colourless, mobile liquid. Hitherto no compound
ether has been produced from the ‘ethyl’ thus prepared.

According to the beautiful theory of Liebig, ethyl is a ‘salt-basyle,’
forming ‘haloid salts’ with chlorine, iodine, and bromine; its oxide is
ether, and the hydrate of this oxide alcohol. The compound ethers may be
compared with ordinary salts in which the metal is replaced by the radical
ethyl.

=Ethyl, Oxide of.= (C_{2}H_{5})_{2}O. _Syn._ ETHER, SULPHURIC ETHER, ÆTHER
(B. P.), ÆTHER SULPHURICUS (PH. E. D. & U. S.), Æ. RECTIFICATUS, Æ.
VITRIOLICUS, Æ. SPIRITUS VITRIOLI DULOIS, L. A colourless, highly
volatile, fragrant, inflammable liquid, obtained by distilling a mixture
of sulphuric acid and alcohol. It was not known before the 13th century.

_Prep._ There are two methods employed for the preparation of ether. The
one is by mixing the whole of the ingredients at once, and immediately
subjecting them to distillation at a proper temperature; the other is by
adding the alcohol in a slender streamlet to the acid, previously heated
to the etherifying point. The former, though less economical, is the one
more generally employed.

1. Rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 2 lbs.; carbonate of potassa
(previously ignited), 1 oz.; pour 2 lbs. of the spirit into a glass
retort, add the acid, and place the vessel on a sand bath, so that the
liquor may boil as quickly as possible, and the ether, as it forms, pass
over into a well-cooled receiver; continue the distillation until a
heavier fluid begins to pass over, then lower the heat, add the remainder
of the spirit, and distil as before; mix the distilled liquors together,
pour off the supernatant portion, add the carbonate of potassa, and
agitate occasionally for one hour; finally, distil the ether from a large
retort, and keep it in a well-stoppered bottle. Sp. gr. ·750.

2. The strongest oil of vitriol, 3 parts, are mixed with alcohol, q. s.
(about 2 parts at ·830) to reduce its sp. gr. to 1·780; an object which
may be easily obtained by distilling off some of the ether if required.
The still or retort is then connected with a vessel full of alcohol, of at
least 90%, by means of a small syphon tube, furnished with a stop-cock;
the longer limb of which should be of glass, and so arranged that it just
dips into the mixture of acid and alcohol. Heat is next applied, and the
contents of the still raised to the boiling-point as rapidly as possible,
and as soon as full ebullition commences the stop-cock of the syphon is
cautiously turned, so as to allow the alcohol to flow down in such a
manner as to keep the boiling liquid exactly at the same level; or, in
other words, to supply a quantity of alcohol exactly equal to that of the
liquid which distils over. By careful manipulation the whole of the
alcohol which enters the retort passes over as ether and water, and this
decomposition proceeds for some time, and would continue for an unlimited
period did not the sulphuric acid ultimately become too weak to form
ether, from the gradual absorption of the superfluous water contained in
the alcohol. Were it convenient or practicable to use absolute alcohol, a
given weight of sulphuric acid of the proper strength, would maintain the
power of producing ether for an indefinite period. In practice, the
quantity of alcohol that may thus be etherified is twice or thrice as much
as by the common process, while neither sulphurous acid, sulphovinic acid,
nor sweet oil of wine is generated, and the residual liquid of the
distillation continues limpid, and has only a pale-brown colour. This is
termed the ‘continuous,’ or ‘Boullay’s’ method. (This process is similar
to that given in the B. P.)

3. Alcohol of 90%, five parts are mixed with oil of vitriol, 9 parts, in a
vessel of copper or iron immersed in cold water; the mixture is next
introduced into a still or retort, and raised to a state of ebullition as
rapidly as possible, as before. A fresh quantity of alcohol, equal in bulk
to the liquid distilled over, is then added to the liquid in the still,
and distillation again had recourse to. As much concentrated alcoholic
solution of potassa as will give it a perceptible alkaline reaction is
next added to distilled liquor, which is then rectified by the heat of a
water bath, as long as the ether which distils over has the sp. gr. ·720
to ·725 at 80° Fahr. Instead of the potassa, a little milk of lime may be
used, along with its own bulk of water. By allowing the product to stand
for some days over chloride of calcium or quicklime, and again rectifying
it along with one of these substances, perfectly pure ether may be
obtained.

_Obs._ The mixture of alcohol with sulphuric acid requires some caution.
It is best done by introducing the alcohol into a suitable vessel, and
imparting to it a rapid whirling motion, by which a considerable conical
cavity is formed in the centre, and into which the acid may be gradually
poured with perfect safety. The mixed fluids should be brought to a state
of rapid ebullition, as quickly as possible, as without this precaution
much of the alcohol distils over before the liquor acquires the proper
temperature for etherification. On the small scale, a tubulated retort,
connected with a Liebig’s condensing tube, and two globular receivers
surrounded with a freezing mixture, or ice-cold water, may be employed as
the distillatory apparatus. The second receiver should be connected with
the first one by means of a bent glass tube, reaching nearly to the bottom
of the former; and the whole of the joints should be securely luted, as
soon as the expanded air has been allowed to escape. We have employed the
following convenient little apparatus for the preparation of small
quantities of ether, and it will be found very suitable for the
distillation of most other highly volatile liquids, and particularly for
boiling mixtures of alcohol and organic acids. By connecting the neck of a
flask or digester containing volatile fluids with the lower instead of the
upper end of the refrigerator, ebullition may be carried on without loss,
as the vapour will be condensed, and run back into the vessel from which
it has distilled.

[Illustration:

  _a._ Condenser tube.
  _b, c_ Glass tube.
  _d._ Funnel by which cold water runs in from the water bottle _h_.
  _e._ Pipe by which water escapes through _f_ into the bottle _g_.
  _i._ Retort.
  _k._ Adapter, connecting the retort with the condenser.
  _l._ Adapter, connecting the condenser with the bottles _t, t_.
  _A._ Wooden tressel, with movable arms _n, o_, for supporting and
      adjusting the heights of the condenser.
  _B._ Wooden stool for supporting the water bottle.
  _q._ Furnace.
  _r._ Support for the furnace.
  _p._ Gutter for carrying off water that overflows the funnel _d_,
      and preventing its escape along the pipe _c_.
  _s._ Leg of syphon connected with bottle containing alcohol.
  _t, t._ Glass globes, placed in the basins _v, v_, and surrounded
      with pounded ice or ice-cold water.
  _w._ Safety tube, containing a little mercury at _x_.]

For the rectification of ether, a water bath is employed along with the
above simple refrigerator, and the receivers surrounded by ice or a
freezing mixture.

_Chem. comp., &c._ Ether is generally regarded as the oxide of ethyl, and
alcohol as the hydrate of this base. This view is borne out by analysis,
which proves that ether differs from alcohol by the elements of water.
Recent experiments have also shown that the relation existing between the
two compounds is——if alcohol be expressed by the formula C_{2}H_{6}O, the
true formula of ether will be (C_{2}H_{5})_{2}O. We cannot describe these
experiments here, but we may remark that ether cannot be made to combine
with water directly, nor can alcohol be converted into ether by the
abstraction of water, pure and simple, without the aid of other
substances.

The compound ethers may be compared to ordinary salts in which the metal
is replaced by a radical termed ethyl, having the formula C_{2}H_{5}. This
view is, of course, in accordance with the theory which regards ether as
the oxide of ethyl.

According to theory, 1 equivalent, or 46 parts of absolute alcohol, should
produce 1 eq., or 37 parts, of pure ether; but in practice, the greatest
product obtained by operating according to Boullay’s method, which
produces more ether than any other, does not exceed 33-1/2 parts for the
preceding quantity of alcohol, or 71·5%. A mixture of 9 parts of oil of
vitriol, and 5 parts of alcohol of 90%, ceases to produce ether after 31
parts of such alcohol have been added.

The most economical method of etherification is that known as the
continuous ether process, or the process of Boullay. When this is adopted,
the retort or flask should be fitted with a sound cork, perforated by an
aperture to receive a thermometer, and the application of the heat, and
the flow of alcohol, should be so managed, that a temperature of 300°
Fahr. and a state of rapid and violent ebullition (points of essential
importance) are maintained.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Pure ether is a colourless, transparent, and very
limpid fluid, having a penetrating and agreeable smell, and a burning,
sweetish taste; its evaporation produces the sensation of extreme cold;
when prevented, a sensation of heat is experienced. Its specific gravity
varies between ·712 and ·724. If it contains water it begins to
crystallise in brilliant white plates when cooled to -24° Fahr., and
become a white crystalline mass at -46° or -47° Fahr.; but if absolutely
pure, ether cannot be solidified by any degree of cold that can be
produced, it remaining fluid when placed in contact with solid carbonic
acid, at a temperature of about -148° Fahr. Boils at 96° or 97° Fahr.; is
very combustible; is soluble in about 10 parts of distilled water, and
mixes with alcohol in all proportions. It abstracts corrosive sublimate,
terchloride of gold, sesquichloride of iron, and many of the alkaloids,
from their watery solutions, and is hence invaluable in analysis and
pharmacy. It readily dissolves the volatile and fixed oils, and most fatty
matters, as well as sulphur and phosphorus in small quantities. By
exposure to light and air it absorbs oxygen, and water and acetic acid are
gradually formed. It is decomposed by exposure to a high temperature. Its
evaporation occasions intense cold. The greatest degree of cold yet
produced (-166° Fahr.) has resulted from the admixture of ether with solid
carbonic acid. Ether is powerfully stimulant, narcotic, and antispasmodic,
and externally refrigerant, if allowed to evaporate, or stimulant and
counter-irritant if its evaporation is prevented, and is used in various
diseases. Applied to the forehead by means of the fingers or a strip of
linen, it generally relieves simple cases of nervous headache. In
_pharmacy_ it is largely employed in the preparations of tinctures
alkaloids, spirits, &c.; and in _chemistry_ is invaluable in organic
analyses. Its principal commercial application is as a solvent for
pyroxyline, in the manufacture of collodion. It is also employed as a
solvent of resins, india rubber, &c., in the preparation of varnishes, and
for several other useful purposes.——_Dose_, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.; in
water or wine. Excessive doses of ether produce intoxication resembling
that from alcohol, and require similar antidotes. Sulphuric ether is said
to be taken largely in the north of Ireland as a stimulant, particularly
in Antrim. Shortly before the discovery of chloroform, it was found that
when the vapour of ether was inhaled it gradually produced insensibility
to pain. It was therefore employed as an anæsthetic in surgical
operations. Having been found less efficient than chloroform, and more
troublesome to administer, its use for this purpose has been abandoned.

_Tests._ Ether may be recognised by its volatility, odour, taste, sparing
solubility in water, admixture with alcohol in all proportions, great
inflammability (burning with a yellowish-white flame), and its power of
dissolving fats and resins. Its further identification can only be
effected by ultimate analysis.

_Pur._ The ether of the shops generally contains alcohol, water, or acetic
acid, and sometimes all of them. Its usual specific gravity fluctuates
between ·733 and ·765. Exposed to the air, it volatises entirely. It turns
litmus paper red; sometimes very slightly, and occasionally even not at
all. 1/2 fl. oz. mixes completely with 1/2 pint of water. Pure ether
should, however, be neutral to test-paper, although seldom so. When shaken
in a minim measure with half its volume of concentrated solution of
chloride of calcium, its volume should not lessen. 10 fluid ounces of
water should only dissolve 1 fluid ounce of ether, and remain transparent.

[Illustration]

_Preserv._ Ether rapidly evaporates at common temperatures when kept in
corked bottles, and even in bottles secured with ground-glass stoppers and
tightly tied over with bladder and leather; it also becomes sour by age.
To prevent this waste, the stoppers should fit accurately, and the bottles
should be placed in as cool a situation as possible. Bottles furnished
with ground-glass caps, as well as stoppers, are frequently employed. (See
_engr._) Dewar’s ‘ether phial’ is formed on a similar principle. We have
seen bottles of ether accurately stoppered, tied over with bladder, and
thickly coated with wax, which have yet become quite empty by a voyage to
the tropics, though they still appeared to be as closely secured as when
they were first filled.

_Caution._ The vapour of ether is very inflammable, and when mixed with
atmospheric air, it forms a violently explosive mixture. The density of
this vapour is 2·586, that of air being 1; hence it rapidly sinks, and
frequently accumulates in the lower parts of buildings, especially cellars
which are badly ventilated, in the same way as water does. The only remedy
is thorough ventilation. Many serious accidents have arisen from this
cause, for no sooner is a light carried into an apartment where such
vapour is present than an explosion takes place.

=Ethyl, Acetate of.= C_{2}H_{5}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2} _Syn._ ACETATE OF OXIDE OF
ETHYL, ACETIC ETHER, PYROLIGNEOUS ETHER; ÆTHER ACETICUS, L. A compound
discovered by the Count de Lauraguais in 1759.

_Prep._ 1. Acetate of potassa, 3 parts (or an equiv. quant. of acetate of
soda), alcohol (85%), 3 parts, oil of vitriol (strongest), 2 parts, are
mixed together and distilled, by the heat of a sand bath, from a glass or
earthenware retort into a well-cooled receiver; the distillate is agitated
with a little water to remove undecomposed alcohol, and then digested
first with a little chalk to remove acidity, and afterwards with fused
chloride of calcium, to absorb water; it is, lastly, rectified by a gentle
heat.

2. Rectified spirit (sp. gr. ·84), 50 parts, acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·075),
33 parts, are mixed together, and oil of vitriol (strongest), 10 parts,
added; the distillation is continued until 65 parts have passed over, and
the distillate, after digestion for some hours on a little dry carbonate
of potassium, is rectified as before, the first 50 parts only being kept
for use.

_Prop., &c._ Acetic ether is colourless, and bears a considerable
resemblance to ordinary ether, but it has a much more agreeable and
refreshing odour. It boils at 165° Fahr.; has a sp. gr. of ·89 at 60°
Fahr., dissolves in about 7 parts of water; and mixes in all proportions
with alcohol and ether. It is decomposed by alkalies and the strong acids.

Acetic ether is diaphoretic, stimulant, antispasmodic, and
narcotic.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in similar cases to those in which
sulphuric ether is employed, and especially in nervous and putrid fevers,
spasmodic vomitings, and diseases of the bowels and stomach, arising from
debility, and not of an inflammatory character. Its principal consumption
is in the manufacture of British brandy.

=Ethyl, Benzoate of.= C_{2}H_{5}C_{7}H_{5}O_{2}. _Syn._ BENZOIC ETHER,
BENZOATE OF ETHER, B. OF OXIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER BENZOICUS, L. _Prep._
Alcohol (sp. gr. ·830), 4 parts; benzoic acid (cryst.), 2 parts;
concentrated hydrochloric acid, 1 part, are distilled together; as soon as
the product turns milky when mixed with water, the receiver is changed,
and the liquid that distills over collected; to this liquid water is
added, and the supernatant ether is decanted, and boiled with water, and a
little oxide of lead (to separate benzoic acid); it is, lastly, freed from
water by allowing it to stand over chloride of calcium.

_Prop., &c._ A colourless oily liquid, slightly heavier than water, and
possessing an aromatic odour and taste. It boils at 410° Fahr., and is
miscible with alcohol and ether.

=Ethyl, Bromide of.= C_{2}H_{5}Br. _Syn._ ÆTHER HYDROBROMICUS, L. A
volatile, ethereal liquid, discovered by Serullas.

_Prep._ Bromine, 8 parts; alcohol, 32 parts; dissolve, place the mixture
in a retort, add of phosphorus, 1 part, and distil by a gentle heat as
soon as the liquid becomes cold. The ether is separated from the
distillate by the addition of water.

_Prop., &c._ A very volatile liquid, with a penetrating taste and smell;
boiling at 105° Fahr., and heavier than water.

=Ethyl, Bu′tyrate of.= C_{2}H_{5}C_{4}H_{7}O_{2}. _Syn._ BUTYRIC ETHER,
PINE-APPLE OIL; ÆTHER BUTYRICUS, L. _Prep._ By passing hydrochloric acid
gas into an alcoholic solution of butyric acid, and purifying the product
from free acid.

Commercially, from crude butyric acid saponified with caustic potassa or
baryta, and the resulting soap distilled along with alcohol and oil of
vitriol.

_Uses._ Crude butyric ether forms the ‘pine-apple oil’ of commerce, and
when largely diluted with rectified spirit, the ‘pine-apple essence’ so
much employed as a flavouring substance by confectioners, liqueuristes,
&c. It imparts a delicious flavour to sweetmeats, rum, arrack, punch, &c.
The Germans add it to common rum, to form the flavouring for their
‘pine-apple ale.’

=Ethyl, Carbonate of.= (C_{2}H_{5})_{2}CO_{3}. _Syn._ CARBONIC ETHER,
CARBONATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER CARBONICUS, L. _Prep._ Fragments of
potassium are added to oxalic ether, gently warmed, as long as bubbles of
gas are formed; the excess of metal is removed from the semi-solid mass,
some water added, and the whole distilled. The carbonic ether floats on
the surface of the liquid in the receiver, and is collected, dried by
contact with chloride of calcium, and rectified along with some potassium
or sodium, till it ceases to yield acetate of potassa when acted on by
caustic potassa.

_Prop., &c._ Colourless, limpid, and aromatic; tastes pungent and burning;
boils at 259° to 260° Fahr. It greatly resembles oxalic ether. It is
decomposed by alkalies.

=Ethyl, Chlo′ride of.= C_{2}H_{5}Cl. _Syn._ LIGHT HYDROCHLORIC E.,
CHLORIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER HYDROCHLORICUS, L. A highly volatile compound,
formed of ethyl and chlorine.

_Prep._ Rectified spirit of wine is saturated with dry hydrochloric acid
gas in the cold, and the product is distilled in a retort connected with a
Wolfe’s apparatus, the first bottle of which should be two thirds filled
with tepid water (70° to 75° Fahr.), and the remainder surrounded with a
mixture of ice and salt. To render it perfectly anhydrous, it must be
digested on a few fragments of fused chloride of calcium.

A mixture of oil of vitriol, 3 parts, and alcohol, 2 parts, is poured upon
common salt (dried), 4 parts; and the whole distilled as before.

_Prop., &c._ This ether has a sweetish taste; is soluble in about 15 parts
of water, and miscible in all proportions with alcohol; boils at 54°
Fahr.; burns with a flame edged with green; is neutral to test paper; and
does not affect a solution of nitrate of silver. Sp. gr. ·921, at 32°
Fahr.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops, as an antispasmodic and a powerful
diffusible stimulant. Owing to its extreme volatility it can only be taken
dissolved in spirit.

=Ethyl, Cy′anide of.= C_{2}H_{5}CN. _Syn._ ÆTHER HYDROCYANICUS. L. _Prep._
Cyanide of potassium and sulphovinate of baryta, equal parts, are mixed
and distilled in a glass retort by a moderate heat. The product separates
into two strata; the lighter one is impure hydrocyanic ether; this is
decanted and agitated with 4 or 5 times its bulk of water at 120° to 140°
Fahr., and the operation is repeated with about 2 parts of water; the
ether is again decanted, and placed in contact with chloride of calcium
for 24 hours, and then rectified.

_Prop., &c._ It boils at 190° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·788. In its therapeutical
effects it resembles hydrocyanic acid, but is less active. Its odour is,
however, more penetrating and offensive.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 drops, in
mucilage or emulsion; in obstinate or convulsive coughs, gastrodynia,
hysterical affections, &c.

=Ethyl, Cy′anate of.= C_{2}H_{5}CNO _Syn._ CYANIC ETHER, CYANATE OF OXIDE
OF ETHYL. _Prep._ By distilling a dry mixture of cyanate of potassa and
sulphovinate of potassa in nearly equivalent proportions. A mixture of
cyanic and cyanuric ethers passes over into the receiver. By distilling
this mixture the two are readily separated; that which passes over by the
heat of a water bath being the first, and the residuum in the retort the
second.

_Prop., &c._ An ethereal, very mobile liquid, boiling at 140° Fahr.

=Ethyl, Cyan′urate of.= (C_{2}H_{5})_{3}C_{3}N_{3}O_{3}. _Syn._ CYANURATE
OF OXIDE OF ETHYL. _Prep._ See CYANIC ETHER.

_Prop., &c._ Tasteless, inodorous, colourless, transparent, needles and
prisms; fusing at 185° Fahr.

=Ethyl, I′odide of.= C_{2}H_{5}I. _Syn._ ÆTHER HYDRIODICUS, L. _Prep._
Phosphorous, 4 parts, alcohol (sp. gr. ·84), 70 parts, and iodine, 100
parts, are gradually and cautiously mixed together, and distilled.

_Prop., &c._ A colourless liquid, possessing a strong ethereal odour, and
boiling at 158° Fahr.; sp. gr. 1·92. It is reddened and decomposed by
exposure to air and light.

=Ether, Methy′lic.= _Syn._ OXIDE OF METHYL, WOOD-ETHER, METHYL-ETHYL. See
METHYL.

=Ether, Muriatic (Heavy).= _Syn._ ÆTHER MURIATICUS PONDEROSUS, L. _Prep._
Alcohol, of 80 to 85%, is saturated, in the cold, with chlorine gas, water
is next added, and the oily fluid that separates collected and washed with
water, as long as any of it is dissolved.

_Prop., &c._ Heavy muriatic ether is a volatile, oily, colourless liquid,
boiling at about 245° Fahr., and heavier than water. Its precise
constitution is undetermined. This ether enters into the composition of
the SPIRITUS MURIATICO-ETHEREUS, a remedy occasionally used on the
Continent.

=Ethyl, Nitrate of.= C_{2}H_{5}NO_{3}. _Syn._ NITRIC ETHER, NITRATE OF
OXIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER NITRICUS, L.

_Prep._ Nitric acid (sp. gr. about 1·375), 50 parts; nitrate of urea, a
little (say 2 or 3 parts); dissolve, add alcohol, 50 parts, and distil
with the usual precautions, until 7-8ths of the whole (of the liquid
portion) have passed over; agitate the distillate with a little water to
separate the ether, and preserve the heavier portion.

_Prop., &c._ Nitric ether possesses an agreeable sweetish taste and odour;
it is insoluble in water; the alcoholic (but not the aqueous) solution of
potassa decomposes it rapidly; sp. gr. 1·112. Its vapour is very apt to
explode when strongly heated, and therefore a small quantity only should
be prepared at a time.

=Ethyl, Nitrite.= C_{2}H_{5}NO_{2}. _Syn._ NITRIC ETHER, HYPONITROUS
ETHER, NITRITE OF ETHER, NITRITE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL, HYPONITRITE OF E.;
ÆTHER NITROSUS, Æ. HYPONITROSUS, L. This is a compound, of which ‘sweet
spirit of nitre’ is an impure alcoholic solution.

_Prep._ 1. Starch (potato farina), 1 part; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·30), 10
parts; mix in a capacious retort, connected with a wide tube, 2 or 3 feet
long, bent at right angles, and terminating near the bottom of a
two-necked bottle, containing a mixture of alcohol (of 85%), 2 parts, and
water, 1 part, and surrounded with a freezing mixture, pounded ice, or
very cold water; the other neck of the bottle being connected by a long
glass tube with a good refrigerator or condenser. All elevation of
temperature must be avoided. The heat of a water bath only must be
cautiously applied to the retort. The gas liberated passes into the
alcohol, causing the ether to distil in a gentle stream. The tube
connecting the retort and bottle must be cooled by means of rag or moist
paper, kept wetted with ice-cold water; as, if the temperature of the tube
and the alcohol rises only a little, the latter becomes spontaneously hot,
and boils violently, by which the product is vitiated. This process is
very productive and economical, and yields pure nitrous ether.

2. A mixture of oil of vitriol, 8 parts, and alcohol, 9 parts, is poured
upon crystallised nitrate of ammonia, 11 parts, contained in any suitable
distillatory vessel connected with a well-cooled receiver. Nitrous ether
gradually distils over on the application of a gentle heat. An admirable
process, but more expensive than the preceding. Even a common fire may be
employed without danger, as the liberation of the ether proceeds
gradually, and not almost instantaneously, as in operating in the usual
way. Sulphate of ammonia is left in the retort. The product is scarcely
inferior to that of the last formula.

3. Rectified spirit, 46 fl. oz.; pure nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 7 fl.
oz.; put 15 fl. oz. of the spirit, with a little clean sand, into a quart
matrass, fitted with a cork, and a safety tube reaching to within an inch
of the spirit, and a second tube leading to a refrigeratory. Fill the
safety tube with pure nitric acid, then add through it, gradually and
cautiously, 3-1/2 fl. oz. of the acid. When the violent action that ensues
is nearly over, gradually add the remaining portion of the acid, 1/2 fl.
oz. at a time, and at intervals. Agitate the ether that distils over,
first with a little milk of lime, till it ceases to redden litmus paper,
and then with half its volume of concentrated solution of chloride of
calcium. The pure hyponitrous ether thus obtained should have a density of
·899.

4. (Mr John Williams.) Nitrite of ethyl is best made by passing nitrous
acid gas into alcohol.

The nitrous acid gas is prepared by acting upon such bodies as starch,
copper, mercury, or arsenious acid with nitric acid. The alcohol is
generally recommended in the text-books to be diluted with half its bulk
of water; this, however, I consider a decided mistake. The alcohol should
be as concentrated as possible, even absolute alcohol is preferable. The
main points to be attended to are that the current of nitrous acid gas
should be slow and steady, so as to give time for the reaction to proceed
properly, and that the vessel containing the alcohol should be kept as
cool as possible; in this way much of the production of bye-products will
be avoided, and the gas can be passed through the alcohol, as long as it
continues to be absorbed.

The resulting liquid is anything but pure; it contains much nitrite of
ethyl, some aldehyde, acid——it is even stated to contain malic acid. In
fact it is well known that the reaction between the nitrous acid, and such
products as alcohol, however pure, is not sharp, but is always accompanied
by secondary products.

From the crude alcoholic solution obtained by the method I have described,
the pure nitrite of ethyl can be obtained without difficulty. Nitrite of
ethyl is an extremely volatile liquid; it boils at about 61° F., whereas
aldehyde boils at 90° F., and alcohol at 180° F. Taking advantage of this
fact, we are enabled to separate it from the crude liquid by distillation.
Some precautions are, however, necessary, to ensure the purity of the
product. The flask containing the crude product is placed in a water bath,
and connected by bent tubes with several other flasks and bottles. The
first tube should be passed into a small empty flask, this will condense
most of the alcohol which may pass over during the operation. Then a
second bent tube passes into a second flask containing a little water;
this condenses any alcohol which may not have been stopped in the first
flask, together with free acid, and nearly all the aldehyde.

From this wash bottle a third tube proceeds into a somewhat shallow flask,
containing a strong solution of caustic potash; the gas, however, is not
allowed to pass through this alkaline liquid, but simply over the surface.
In this way the last portion of the aldehyde is absorbed, and the potash
solution gradually assumes an amber colour. From this vessel, the gas (for
such at the ordinary temperature of the laboratory, the nitrite of ethyl
is——in very cold weather it would be necessary to gently warm the
different flasks) is passed through a tube charged with anhydrous chloride
of calcium to absorb moisture, and the pure and dry nitrite of ethyl thus
produced, finally passes into alcohol, which readily absorbs it.

It is only necessary to note the weight of the alcohol used for absorbing
the gas, and its weight at the end of the operation, to know the strength
or per-centage of nitrite of ethyl which must be in solution. Thus, if 9
oz. of alcohol becomes 10 oz., it is evident we have a solution of 10 per
cent.; if it becomes 12 oz., then the strength must be 25 per cent., and
so on. Ordinary spirits will answer for condensing the nitrite of ethyl,
but it is better to use absolute alcohol, as it is very desirable to avoid
the presence of water in any form. The solutions made with weaker spirit
soon turn acid; those made with absolute alcohol, on the other hand, keep
a long time. It is very true the very strong solutions of 50 and 25 per
cent. show traces of acidity when tested with moistened litmus paper, but
the 10 per cent. solution is quite neutral.[283]

[Footnote 283: The object of Mr Williams’ paper, which is published in the
‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ for Dec. 8th, 1877, is to give instructions for
the preparation of a pure nitrite of ethyl, which when mixed with alcohol
in definite proportions, shall supersede the variable compound sold under
the name of “Sweet Spirits of Nitre.”]

One point I have not mentioned; it is that the distillation must be
conducted at the very lowest possible temperature; in fact, the water in
the water-bath should only be kept gently warm, and the process should be
continued only so long as the conducting tubes feel cool to the touch;
when they become warm the distillation should be discontinued. By passing
the gas into a tube in a freezing mixture, instead of into alcohol, the
pure nitrite of ethyl is readily obtained in a liquid form; it is,
however, necessary to seal the tube, otherwise the very volatile liquid
would soon be lost.

_Prop., &c._ Pure nitrous ether has a pale-yellow colour, an agreeable
odour of apples, and boils at 62° Fahr.; sp. gr. ·947 at 60° Fahr.
Commercial nitrous ether contains aldehyde, boils at 70° Fahr., has a more
or less suffocating odour combined with that of the pure ether, has a sp.
gr. of ·886 at 40° Fahr., and turns brown when mixed with alcoholic
solution of potassa, while the latter remains unaltered. It also acidifies
by age, whilst pure nitrous ether remains neutral. They are both very
inflammable, and burn with a white flame. Ordinary nitrous ether dissolves
in about 48 parts of water, and mixes in all proportions with alcohol and
sulphuric ether.

Nitrous ether is refrigerant, diaphoretic, and diuretic, but is seldom
employed alone, though, when largely diluted with alcohol (sweet spirits
of nitric, spirit of nitric ether), it is a common remedy in several
diseases. It is also used to flavour malt spirit, in imitation of brandy
(British brandy), although for this purpose it is vastly inferior to
acetic ether. See SPIRITS (Medicinal).

=Ethyl, Œnanthate of.= _Syn._ ŒNANTHIC ETHER, PELARGONIC ETHER, ŒNANTHATE
OF OXIDE OF ETHYL. _Prep._ 1. The oil obtained towards the end of the
distillation of fermented liquors, especially wines, consists, in a great
measure, of the crude ether. It is purified by agitation with a weak
solution of carbonate of potassa, freed from water by a few fragments of
chloride of calcium, and then re-distilled.

_Prop., &c._ Œnanthic ether is colourless; lighter than water; boils at
about 500° Fahr.; and has a powerful, intoxicating vinous odour,
resembling that of an empty wine cask or bottle that has been exposed to
the air for some time. It is very sparingly soluble in water, but freely
soluble in alcohol. Its sp. gr. is ·862. As obtained by distillation, it
is united with a little ŒNANTHIC ACID. 2200 imperial gallons of wine
(about 35 hogsheads) only yielded 2-1/5 lbs. of the mixed oil.

=Ethyl, Oxalate of.= (C_{2}H_{5})_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. _Syn._ OXALIC ETHER,
OXALATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER OXALICUS, L. _Prep._ Alcohol and dry
oxalic acid, equal parts, are digested together in a glass flask furnished
with a very long glass tube of small bore, so that the spirit, volatilised
by the heat, may be condensed, and flow back into the flask. After 6 or 8
hours the process is generally complete, and the liquid contains merely a
trace of free acid, from which it may be separated.

_Prop., &c._ A colourless, oily liquid, slightly heavier than water,
boiling at 363° Fahr., only slightly soluble in water, and having an
aromatic smell. Alkalies decompose it. Sp. gr. 1·09.

=Ethyl, Sulphate of.= (C_{2}H_{5})_{2}SO_{4}.

_Prep._ The vapour of pure anhydrous sulphuric acid is passed (with the
usual precautions) into perfectly anhydrous ether; the resulting syrupy
liquid is agitated with a mixture of 4 volumes of water, and 1 volume of
ether, and after repose the upper stratum, which is an ethereal solution
of the sulphate of ethyl, is decanted, and the oxide of ethyl volatilised
by a very gentle heat. The colourless liquid forming the residuum is the
true sulphuric ether or sulphate of ethyl just referred to. It is a very
unstable compound, and cannot be distilled without suffering
decomposition.

=Ethyl, Valerianate of.= C_{2}H_{5}C_{5}H_{9}O_{2}. _Syn._ VALERIANIC
ETHER, VALERATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER VALERIANICUS, L. _Prep._ By
passing dry hydrochloric acid gas into an alcoholic solution of valeric
acid. It is a fragrant, volatile liquid, lighter than water, having a high
boiling-point, and a rich fruity odour, said to closely resemble that of
butyric ether or pine-apple oil. It is used to flavour liqueurs, &c.

=ETHYL′AMINE.= NH_{2}(C_{2}H_{5}). _Syn._ ETHYL-AMMONIA. One of the bases
of the ethyl-series, obtained by substituting one atom of hydrogen in
ammonia NH_{3} by ethyl C_{2}H_{5}.

=EUCALYP′TIN.= A peculiar substance existing in Botany Bay kino. A
substance exuded by several species of the _Eucalyptus_. It has been
employed medicinally in diarrhœa.

=EUCALYPTOL.= See EUCALYPTUS.

=EUCALYPTUS.= The _Eucalypti_, of which there are many species, belong to
the natural order _Myrtaceæ_, and are natives of Australia, where they are
known under the names of “gum-trees,” or as “stringy-bark trees.” The most
interesting and important characteristic of these plants is the power they
undoubtedly possess of correcting, if not of removing, the pestilential
exhalations which are regarded as the origin of the fevers that occur in
marshy localities. This discovery is due to M. Ramel, and was made by him
in 1856.

M. Gimbert, amongst other cases, cites one of a farm, twenty miles from
Algiers, the atmosphere surrounding which was of a very pestilential
character. In the spring of 1867 13,000 eucalyptus trees were planted on
the farm, and M. Gimbert states that since then not a single case of fever
has taken place, the freedom from disease occurring the same year the
plants were placed in the ground, and the good effects commencing whilst
the trees were only two or three mètres in height.

The following is extracted from ‘Les Mondes’ (1876):——“Between Nice and
Monaco there is a locality so unhealthy that the Paris, Lyons, and
Mediterranean Railway Company have been obliged to change every two or
three months the watchman at a crossing there.

“Plantations of the eucalyptus have been formed there, and at present the
same watchman has resided there for several months with his family without
experiencing the least inconvenience.”

Again:——“In the Campagna, about three miles from Rome, there stand some
deserted church buildings and a monastery, the latter having been
abandoned because of the mortality amongst the monks caused by the noxious
exhalations. Some six years since a company of French trappists, having
obtained permission from the Italian Government, planted the grounds in
and around the monastery with eucalyptus trees, and the result is stated
to have been so total an immunity of the building from fever, although
situated in the worst part of the Campagna, that the monastery is now
tenanted, the health of the occupants being, it is said, unimpaired.”

The writer in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ who contributes this
statement, adds:——“Whether this grand result has been obtained through the
efficacy of the extract of the eucalyptus taken each morning with their
cup of black coffee, or whether it is to be attributed to the effects of
the plantations, I leave to scientific men to determine.”[284]

[Footnote 284: Bentley.]

It seems very probable that the effects above described are due to the
eucalyptus having such extensive and far-spreading roots, which suck up
and appropriate the moisture of the surrounding soil, the presence of
which, aided by heat, giving rise to vegetable decomposition, is believed
to be the cause of malarial poisoning.

The avidity of the plant for water is very great; it has been computed
that one tree will absorb ten times its weight of moisture from the
soil.[285] It is most likely owing, at any rate in very large measure, to
this cause, rather than to the supposed antiseptic and disinfecting odours
exhaled by its leaves, that the salubrious effects of the eucalyptus are
due. The blue gum tree, or _Eucalyptus globulus_ (so distinguished because
of the rounded form of the lid which covers its unexpanded flower bud),
has been successfully introduced into Asia, Africa, and Southern Europe.
If, as asserted, it can only exist in a climate where the temperature is
never lower than the freezing point, its domestication (save in
hot-houses) is impossible in our own country.

[Footnote 285: ‘Pharm. Journal,’ February 5th, 1876.]

[Illustration: EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS (from the ‘Archiv der Pharm.,’ 1873, p.
129.)]

The _Eucalyptus globulus_ is a very rapidly-growing tree, and attains to
great proportions. “In some cases it has been known to attain the colossal
dimensions of 350 feet in height and a 100 in circumference.”[286]

[Footnote 286: Bentley.]

This magnitude is entirely out of proportion to the size of the seed,
which is very minute; so minute that it has been computed one pound weight
of the seed could produce 162,000 trees. Various preparations of the
leaves and bark of the eucalypti have been introduced into medicine,
which will be found under the respective pharmaceutical preparations. They
were asserted to be specially serviceable in intermittent fevers and
bronchitis. The idea that their efficacy in the former class of disease
was due to the presence in the barks of the eucalypti of an alkaloid
similar to, if not the same as, quinine, has been shown to be an erroneous
one, from the experiments of the Government chemist of Ootacamund (Mr
Broughton), who, after a most careful chemical analysis, failed to
discover either quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine, or the least
trace of any one of the cinchona alkaloids.

When the leaves of the _Eucalyptus globulus_ are held to the light they
reveal the presence of little semi-transparent dots, which are found to be
receptacles for a volatile oil, that may be obtained in large quantity by
submitting the plant to aqueous distillation.

This volatile oil has been examined by Cloez, who found it to consist
chiefly of a substance allied in chemical characters to camphor, which
substance he named _eucalyptol_.[287] Any therapeutic power possessed by
the eucalyptus may be referred to this substance, since, as just stated,
it cannot be due to a bark alkaloid.

[Footnote 287: Messrs Faust and Homeyer state that Cloez’s “Eucalyptol” is
a mixture of terpen and cymol.]

Before finishing our notice of the reputed curative effects of the
eucalyptus we may mention that Dr Gimbert employs the leaves instead of
lint for dressing wounds and fetid ulcers, and says he has found them,
when thus used, excellent deodorisers; that another method of employing
the leaves of the eucalyptus consists in having them made into cigarettes,
which are reported to be useful in asthma and bronchial complaints.
Lastly, let us state that another species of eucalyptus exudes a very
astringent substance, which, from its appearance and properties, being so
analogous to kino, has been denominated _Botany Bay kino_. (See
EUCALYPTIN.)

The essential oil of eucalyptus, which, according to the species of the
plant from which it is obtained, varies in colour from light yellow to
light blue, is now largely employed as a diluent for the more delicate
volatile oils used in perfumery.

Many species of the eucalyptus yield excellent timber, possessed of great
hardness and durability, and little affected by moisture. This timber has
the power of resisting the attacks of insects. The wood of the eucalyptus
is also very rich in potash. The maple and the elm, which are regarded as
yielding a large per-centage of this substance, afford only about half as
much as can be obtained from the eucalyptus, this latter tree yielding 21
per cent. of potash.

The barks of different species have also been advantageously utilised for
paper making, as well as for tanning.

In this country eucalyptus seeds are reared in a greenhouse. They may be
sown in a mixture of loam, peat, and ordinary soil, with a sprinkling of
sand on the surface.

The following directions for the cultivation of the eucalyptus in England
were communicated to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ of 1873 by Mr Bennett
Stanford, of Pyt House, Tisbury:——“I have successfully reared from seed
two dozen of these trees, and they are now growing well out of doors. I
obtained the seed five years ago from South Australia, and forced it in a
hothouse; in one year it was four feet high, and now, in its fifth year,
it is growing rapidly in a sheltered position in the park, having attained
a height of thirty feet. The first three years the tree must be taken
under cover in the winter, and the fourth and fifth years should be
protected for several feet up with wisps of hay or straw. When the trees
are kept indoors in winter it should be in an orangery or very high
greenhouse, with plenty of light and a little water.”

=EUCHLO′′RINE.= A bright-yellow gas, prepared by gently heating chlorate
of potassa with hydrochloric acid. It is probably a mixture of chlorous
acid and free chlorine. Prof. Stone, of Manchester, has found Euchlorine
of a great service as an aerial disinfectant.

=EUGLENÆ.= These are ciliated infusorial animalcules inhabiting ponds and
water-tanks. Sometimes they abound in water in quantities so enormous as
to impart to that fluid a blood-red appearance. The principal species are
the _Euglena viridis_ and the _Euglena pyrum_. Their presence is supposed
to indicate the existence in the water in which they are found, of
decaying animal and vegetable matter upon which they are believed to feed.

=EUPHOR′BIUM.= _Syn._ GUM EUPHORBIUM; EUPHORBIUM (Ph. E.), L. The concrete
resinous juice of the _Euphorbia canariensis_, and other species of the
same genus. It is a powerful acrid, purgative, rubefacient, sternutatory,
and vesicant, and the violence of its action has led to its disuse.

=EU′PIONE.= An ethereal liquid forming the chief portion of the light oil
of wood-tar, and which also exists in the tar obtained during the
destructive distillation of animal substances, and in the fluid product of
the distillation of rape oil. It is separated from these substances by
agitating them with oil of vitriol, or a mixture of oil of vitriol and
nitre, and subsequent cautious distillation. Pure eupione is tasteless,
exceedingly thin, limpid, and aromatic; boils at 116° Fahr.; and is the
lightest fluid known; sp. gr. ·655. It is very inflammable, burns with a
very bright flame, and gives a transient greasy stain to paper. It is
isomeric with hydride of amyl. Other volatile hydrocarbons of like origin
are often confounded with eupione by chemical writers.

=EUPYR′ION.= Any contrivance for obtaining instantaneous light; as a
lucifer match, &c.

=EVAC′UANTS.= _Syn._ EVACUANTIA, L. Medicines which augment the secretions
or excretions. CATHARTICS, DIAPHORETICS, DIURETICS, EMETICS, ERRHINES,
EXPECTORANTS, and SIALOGOGUES, belong to this class.

=EVAPORA′TION.= The conversion of a fluid into vapour by means of heat,
diminished atmospheric pressure, or exposure to a dry atmosphere.
Evaporation is had recourse to——1. For the vapour as a source of heat or
power, as in the case of steam-boilers, &c.;——2. To separate volatile
fluids from impurities or other bodies, which are either fixed or less
volatile;——3. To recover solid bodies from their solutions, as in the
preparation of extracts, chemical salts, &c.;——4. To concentrate or
strengthen a solution by the expulsion of some of the fluid matter that
forms the menstruum;——5. To purify liquids by the dissipation of the
volatile matters which may contaminate them.

It is found that, under ordinary circumstances, evaporation is confined to
the surface of the heated liquid, and is therefore slower or quicker, in
proportion to the extension of that surface. Hence has arisen the adoption
of wide, shallow vessels for containing fluids during their exposure to
heat for this purpose. Evaporation proceeds most rapidly when a current of
air (especially hot and dry air) is made to pass over the surface of the
fluid; as, in this ease, the vapour is prevented from resting upon the
surface, and impeding the process by its pressure. For a similar reason,
liquids evaporate more rapidly in vessels partially covered than in open
ones. In the former case the cool incumbent air condenses and throws back
a portion of the vapour, which thereupon, besides its cooling action,
offers mechanical resistance to the diffusion of the vaporous particles as
they arrive at the surface of the liquid. In the latter case these
obstacles are avoided, and the impetus of the vapour pouring forth from a
contracted orifice (or pipe), not only readily overcomes the pressure of
the atmosphere, but offers less surface for its cooling action, until it
has passed much beyond the points at which it can exert any influence on
the fluid from which it has escaped. In this way the chemical action of
the atmosphere on the liquid operated on is also considerably lessened. On
the small scale, shallow capsules of glass, wedgwood-ware, porcelain, or
metal, are commonly employed as evaporating vessels, and these are exposed
to heat by placing them over a lamp, or naked fire, or in a water bath, or
sand bath, according to the temperature at which it is proper to conduct
the process. On the large scale, high-pressure steam is usually employed
as the source of heat. The term ‘spontaneous evaporation’ is applied to
the dissipation of a fluid by mere exposure in open vessels, at the common
temperature of the atmosphere, and without the application of artificial
heat. The celerity of this species of evaporation wholly depends on the
degree of humidity of the surrounding air, and differs from the former, in
which the rate of evaporation is proportionate to the degree of heat at
which the process is conducted, and the amount of pressure upon the
surface of the liquid. Evaporation ‘_in vacuo_’ (as it is called) is
conducted under the receiver of an air-pump, or in an attenuated
atmosphere, produced by filling a vessel with steam, by which means the
air is expelled, when all communication with the external atmosphere is
cut off, and the vapour condensed by the application of cold. Fluids are
also evaporated in air-tight receivers over sulphuric acid, by which they
are continually exposed to the action of a very dry atmosphere. When such
a receiver is connected with an air-pump in action, evaporation proceeds
with increased rapidity, and intense cold is produced. It appears, from
the experiments of Dr Ure, that “if the bottom of a pan, and the portion
of the sides immersed in a hot fluid medium (solution of chloride of
calcium, for example), be corrugated, so as to contain a double expanse of
metallic surface, that pan will evaporate exactly double the quantity of
water, in a given time, which a like pan, with smooth bottom and sides,
will do, immersed equally deep in the same bath. If the corrugation
contain three times the quantity of metallic surface, the evaporation will
be threefold in the above circumstances. But if the pan, with the same
corrugated bottom and sides, be set over a fire, or in an oblong flue, so
that the current of flame may sweep along the corrugations, it will
evaporate no more water from its interior than a smooth pan of like shape
and dimensions placed alongside it in the same flue, or over the same
fire.”

In the laboratory, steam heat is now almost exclusively employed. Copper,
or tinned, glazed, or silvered coppered pans, boilers, and stills, are
surrounded by a ‘jacket’ of cast iron, and high-pressure steam admitted
between the two. By due management of the supply-cock, a range of
temperature may be thus obtained extending from about 90° to 325° Fahr.

It is found that, under ordinary circumstances, 10 square feet of heated
surface will evaporate fully 1 lb. of water per minute; and that a thin
copper tube exposing 10 feet surface will condense about 3 lbs. of steam
per minute, with a difference of temperature of about 90° Fahr. This is
equal to 30° Fahr. per lb.; and, consequently, the heat of the steam
employed to produce the evaporation should be 212° + 30° = 242° Fahr.

An attention to the facts and principles thus briefly explained above will
be found of great value in the laboratory.

=EXCIP′IENT.= See PRESCRIPTION.

=EXCI′TANTS.= See STIMULANTS.

=EXCORIA′TIONS.= _Syn._ _Sprays_, CHAFINGS.

In _surgery_ and _pathology_, superficial injuries or affections of the
skin, consisting of the removal of the scarf-skin or cuticle, accompanied
with more or less irritation and slight inflammations. When arising from
rough friction or attrition, they are more commonly called abrasions.
Young children are very apt to be chafed under the arms, behind the ears,
between the thighs, and in the wrinkles and folds of the skin generally,
unless great attention is paid to cleanliness, and wiping the skin
perfectly dry after washing them. Whenever there is a tendency to
excoriations of this kind, either in adults or children, a little finely
powdered starch, or violet powder, applied by means of a puff, or a small
bag of muslin, once or twice a day, will generally remove them, and
prevent their occurrence in future. Mild unguents, as cold cream, or
spermaceti cerate or ointment, may also be used with advantage. The
preference should, however, be given to the remedies first named, from
their not soiling the linen. See ABRASION.

=EXCRETA.= The excrementitious matter evacuated from the bowels varies of
course in composition and quantity according to the food from which it is
derived.

Berzelius found a sample analysed by himself to yield about seventy-five
per cent. of water, the remainder being made up of alimentary waste, and
biliary matter. A large amount of phosphates of calcium and magnesium was
found in the ash remaining after the incineration of the solid matter. A
specimen of fæcal matter examined by Playfair yielded 15 per cent. of
nitrogen and 45 per cent. of carbon. Marcet states that he has obtained
from excrement a crystallisable body possessing an alkaline reaction; to
which he gives the name _excretin_; also a fatty substance, which
he terms _excretolic acid_. To excretin he assigns the formula
C_{7}_{8}H_{1}_{5}_{6}SO_{2}; the composition of the acid has not been
determined.

Hinterberger has succeeded in getting excretine (excretin), free from
sulphur, and gives as its simplest formula C_{2}_{0}H_{3}_{6}O; which
shows a close resemblance to cholesterin, C_{2}_{6}H_{4}_{4}O.

But cholesterin is less easily dissolved in vinegar than excretin, and the
solution deposits crystals which, when viewed by the microscope, are found
to be beautiful silky six-sided prisms, while the excretin solution yields
round masses.

Treated with bromine, excretin gave a crystalline body having the formula
C_{2}_{0}H_{3}_{4}Br_{2}O; but the author did not succeed in preparing a
chlorinated compound of excretin.

In the excreta of carnivorous animals no excretin has been discovered,
although a substance resembling it has been found. Cholesterin has been
obtained from the fæces of the crocodile, but no urates; whilst the
excreta of the boa contain urates, but are destitute of cholesterin.

The fæces of animals that live on vegetables contain neither excretin,
butyric acid, nor cholesterin.

The excreta of birds and serpents, which mixed with the secretion from the
kidneys, are discharged from the animals by the cavities, are very similar
to urine, and consist chiefly of alkaline urates and earthy phosphates.

The excrements of insects consist mainly of the remnants of the tissues,
animal or vegetable which they have swallowed as food, mixed with
constituents of the urine, provided the insect has no special urinary
organs.

Briéger examined the fæces of healthy persons, and of convalescents, and
found in addition to acetic, butyric, and isobutyric acids, small
quantities of phenol and indol, and a new crystallisable body, which he
terms _skatol_ (_skatos_, fæces). It crystallises in irregular-dentate
shining plates, resembling indol, which by frequent recrystallisation from
hot water, can be obtained snow white. Skatol forms the chief constituent
of the volatile aromatic components of human fæces. Fæces of dogs (whether
fed on meat or bread diet) contained no skatol, but indol, and in addition
a yellow oil, with a revolting and peculiarly irritating smell.

Briéger has not yet been able to analyse this yellow oil, although it
forms the chief volatile constituent of dogs’ fæces. He has repeatedly
obtained it from distillation from human pathological fluids. In the
pancreas after putrefaction, and in the fæces of typhus patients, no
skatol was found. The author considers skatol identical with the substance
which Secretan obtained by the decomposition of egg albumen under water
for six months.

Skatol injected under the skin of rabbits, passes out in the urine as a
substance yielding colouring matter. Skatol is believed by the author to
be the substance in human urine which, according to Jaffé, yields a red or
violet colour on the addition of hydrochloric acid and chloride of lime.

Phenol, the author finds, is a constant component of human fæces. The
above results show that specific products of decomposition are normal
components of intestinal digestion.[288]

[Footnote 288: ‘Deut. Chem. Ges. Berg.,’ x, 1027-1031.]

Liebig calculated that the daily average amount of fæcal matter passed by
a man is 5-1/2 oz; Lawes says that it averages in healthy male adults, 4·2
oz; Parkes estimates it (in Europe) at 4 oz. on the average; Letheby at
2·784, and Frankland at 3 oz. In India, a native on the average excretes
as much as 12 oz., this increase over the above quantities being due to
the large proportion of rice and farinaceous food of which the Hindoos’
diet consists.

The daily average amount of urine excreted by a human being has been given
by Lawes at 46 oz.; Parkes places it at 50 oz. by measure for each male
adult; Letheby at 31·851, and Frankland at nearly 40 oz. by measure.
According to Parkes’ figures a population of a thousand persons, would
thus void daily 156 lbs. of solids, and 260 gallons of urine; or 25 tons
of fæces, and 91,250 gallons of urine per annum; whilst according to
Letheby, from the same number of people, the daily discharge would be 2266
lbs. avoirdupois of urine and 177·5 lbs. of fæces.

Messrs Lawes and Gilbert estimate the manurial value of the urine and
fæces together at 6s. 8d. per annum for every individual, which
corresponds to a yearly produce of about 10 lbs. of ammonia; but Messrs
Hoffman, Witt, and Thudichum assess it at 8s. 6d. for a mixed population
of both sexes and of all ages, which they say represents about 13 lbs. of
ammonia.

Fæcal matter decomposes much more rapidly when mixed with urine than it
would otherwise do, ammonia and fetid gases being given off in
considerable quantities. Should much water be also present, and the
temperature moderately high, light carburetted hydrogen, carbonic
anhydride, nitrogen, and sulphuretted hydrogen are likewise evolved.

Unless human excreta be effectually as well as speedily removed from the
dwellings, streets, &c., of a community, that community will assuredly pay
the penalty of their neglect in the shape of health seriously endangered
and deteriorated. If this be so with healthy evacuations, the peril
becomes considerably intensified when the excreta are discharged by
patients labouring under contagious or many other diseases. See URINE,
SEWAGE.

=EX′ERCISE= is essential to the healthy performance of the functions of
both body and mind. Without it, the stomach acts feebly, the bowels become
inactive, and the circulation of the blood languid and imperfect; the
chest contracts, the respiration becomes impeded, the brain is
insufficiently supplied with pure arterial blood, the mind grows
lethargic, the complexion assumes a sickly and effeminate hue, and the
features generally lack the energy and expression which they possess in
perfect health. With exercise, the bodily functions are performed with
vigour and regularity, the constitution is thereby strengthened, and the
attacks of disease repelled. By exercise the mind too is excited to
healthy action, its gloomy reveries are dispelled, and the fair face of
creation is presented to the mind’s eye in its proper hues. It robs undue
mental exertion of half its injurious effects upon the body, whilst it
stimulates and directs it in its proper course. It improves the temper,
and humanises the character. The disposition is refined, the passions
restrained, violent emotions checked, the habits improved, and the
personal charms promoted under the stimulus of judicious exercise.

To females, bodily exercise is even more necessary than to males. The
disposition and education of females are such as tend to produce habits of
sloth and indolence to a greater degree than in the other sex. Hence to
them exercise is doubly important——it is inseparable from health. The more
retiring dispositions of females lead them almost unconsciously into
habits of inactivity, which, above all, they should endeavour to shake off
and avoid. By so doing——by replacing habits of indolence and inactivity by
liveliness and moderate exercise, the development of the body will be
promoted, additional grace and elegance imparted to its natural movements,
and the enjoyments arising from both mental and bodily health increased,
whilst disease and deformity will be prevented by the removal of their
cause.

The necessity of exercise exists equally in every grade of society and age
of life. Those who are engaged in sedentary employments or in-door
occupations, should particularly seek refreshing out-door exercise during
the periods of relaxation from their diurnal duties. To the studious and
delicate of both sexes, this is absolutely necessary to preserve the
health and vigour of the body.

In infancy, exercise of a suitable kind should be almost the constant
occupation of the little beings that claim our protection and care. It
should, however, be always borne in mind, that the muscular exercise of
very young children must be of the gentlest class. Prejudice and ignorance
frequently induce nurses and parents to teach their children to walk, as
they falsely call it, and thus their feeble limbs are urged to make
premature efforts to totter along, before the bones and muscles have
acquired sufficient strength to support the body in an erect position.
From this course the legs and joints frequently become bent and
misshapened, and severe injuries are often inflicted on the head and body
by blows and falls. It should never be forgotten, that crawling and
rolling are their first modes of progression, and require the least
exertion. Next comes the sitting posture; from this the child gradually
advances to the erect one; then to walk by slight assistance; and, lastly,
to walk safely alone. All this should come naturally, and never be
promoted, further than by laying the infant on the carpet or floor, for
the full exercise of its little strength. As soon as a healthy child is
able to walk instead of crawl, its own disposition induces it to do so.
The faculty of imitation, the spirit of enterprise, and the pride of doing
what others do, present even in infancy, is rather apt to lead the infant
to over-exertion than the contrary. The practice of constantly ‘dolling’
children in the arms is most prejudicial to the early development of their
feeble powers.

It is injudicious to take an infant out during the hottest part of the day
in summer; such a proceeding tends to enervate and depress, rather than to
strengthen him. Whenever he goes out his head should be protected from the
direct rays of the sun by means of a large brimmed hat made of cotton or
straw and an umbrella. The neglect of these precautions frequently gives
rise to the disordered stomach, sickness, and diarrhœa, so prevalent
during very hot weather. During other periods of the day, the weather
being favorable and the locality healthy, an infant cannot be too much out
of doors, especially during teething.

Infants of three or four months’ old may, under certain precautions, be
sent out into the open air during the winter. They must be well wrapped
up; they should be carried in the nurse’s arms, and not consigned to a
perambulator; they should never go out in foggy nor wet weather; if the
wind be neither in the east nor the north-east there will be no objection
to their being sent out on a clear frosty day. Spring is a trying period
for infants and children, because of the prevalence of east winds; hence
the necessity of seeing that they are well and warmly clad when sent out
during this season. There is much less danger of a child taking cold
during the autumn than the spring, as in autumn the winds frequently blow
from the south, or warm quarter.

In childhood the exercise should be regulated according to constitution
and age; avoiding inactivity, on the one hand, and excessive exercise on
the other. The out-door plays and pastimes of BOYS will generally be found
sufficient, and in some cases will even require to be curbed, to prevent
fatigue and the overtasking of the young frame. With girls it is
frequently difficult to find sufficient exercise without trespassing on
the prejudices of the ignorant, or the routine of their daily education.
With them walking, and some healthy amusement, as skipping, hooping, or
the like, should be indulged in for some hours daily. When this is
impossible or inconvenient, they may be habituated to the practice of the
more simply and cleanly portion of the domestic duties. In the performance
of the latter, the health will be promoted, whilst the care and attention
which is always due by a female to herself and others, at all periods of
her life, will become an easy acquisition, and assist the cultivation of
the best feelings of her nature.

In youth exercise matures and promotes the development of the frame; and
in manhood it is equally necessary, as already noticed, to keep it in
healthy action. In age it will be found to assist the vital functions, and
put off decay. In fact, to all——young, old, rich, and poor, physical
exercise is essential to the permanent enjoyment of health.

In a medical point of view, “exercise, employed moderately, has a tonic
and stimulating influence on the system, and is calculated to prove
beneficial in a great variety of complaints. Used immoderately, it
exhausts both the mental and bodily powers, and produces great debility.”
(Pereira.) Well-directed exercise favours the preservation of the general
health, by calling into direct action the majority of the organs of the
body; and it also acts powerfully on the skin, by stimulating its
functions, increasing its temperature, awakening its tone, and subjecting
it to a current of atmosphere favorable to its respiratory offices. But to
be beneficial in the highest degree, exercise must be accompanied by
feelings of present interest and enjoyment. The mind must direct and go
with it; to ensure its full benefits, the “soul must be present.”

“During convalescence, properly regulated exertion is highly serviceable;
but it should never be carried so far as to produce exhaustion, and should
be pursued for some time in doors, before it be attempted in the open air;
the latter, at first, should always take place in a carriage, that can be
opened or closed at will; the patient may then attempt short walks in the
open air; but, in all cases, it is of importance that he is not unduly
fatigued, as, otherwise, injury instead of benefit will be the result. One
of the most serious errors, committed with regard to exertion, is that of
permitting a convalescent to sit up too frequently, or for too long a
time, under the mistaken notion of giving him strength. A patient should
never be allowed to sit up longer than is agreeable to his feelings, and
never so long as to produce a sense of fatigue.” (Dr R. E. Griffith.)

The physiological effects of exercise have been studied by numerous
scientific observers. The carefully conducted experiments of Dr Edward
Smith have satisfactorily demonstrated that during bodily exertion the
circulation of the blood through the lungs is much increased in velocity,
that these latter inspire air and eliminate carbonic anhydride in
quantities proportionate to the exercise taken, and that these quantities
show an enormous increase over the amounts of these gases inhaled and
exhaled during a state of rest.

Adopting the recumbent position as unity, Dr Edward Smith has given the
following table, illustrating the quantities of air inhaled during various
forms of exercise:

  Lying position                 1·
  Sitting                        1·18
  Standing                       1·33
  Singing                        1·26
  Walking 1 mile per hour        1·90
  Walking 2 miles per hour       2·76
  Walking 3 miles per hour       3·22
  Walking and carrying 34 lbs.   3·50
  Walking and carrying 62 lbs.   3·84
  Walking and carrying 118 lbs.  4·75
  Walking at 4 miles per hour    5·
  Walking at 6 miles per hour    7·
  Riding and trotting            4·05
  Swimming                       4·33
  Treadmill                      5·50

Since a man takes into his lungs 480 cubic inches of air per minute, in
walking four miles an hour he draws in 2400 cubic inches, and if six miles
3260 cubic inches a minute.[289]

[Footnote 289: Parkes.]

Dr Smith estimated the amount of carbonic anhydride evolved under
differing conditions, and found that——

                                Carbonic acid exhaled
                                per minute in grains.
  During sleep                             4·99
  Lying down, and almost
    asleep (average of three
    observations)                          5·91
  Walking at the rate of 2
    miles an hour                         18·10
  Walking at the rate of 3
    miles an hour                         25·83
  Working at the treadmill,
    ascending at the rate of
    26·65 feet per minute (average
    of three observations)                44·97

The relative amounts of carbonic anhydride eliminated from the lungs
during periods of rest and exercise have also been investigated by
Pettenkofer and Voit. The following table, which gives the results of
their experiments, also records the quantities of oxygen absorbed, and of
water and urea excreted at the same time:——

  -----------------------------------------------------------
                   |          | Elimination in Grammes of——  |
                   |Absorption|------------------------------|
                   |of Oxygen |        |        |            |
                   |   in     |Carbonic| Water. | Urea.      |
                   |Grammes.  | Acid.  |        |            |
                   |-----------------------------------------|
  Rest-day.        |   708·9  |  911·5 |  828·0 | 37·2       |
  Work-day.        |   954·5  | 1284·2 | 2042·1 | 37·0       |
                   |          |        |        |            |
  Excess on        | }        |        |        |            |
    work-day       | }        |        |        |            |
    (with exception| } 246·6  |  372·7 | 1214·1 |  0·2       |
    of urea)       | }        |        |        |            |
  -----------------------------------------------------------

If the quantities in the above table be converted into ounces it will be
found that nearly 8-3/4 oz. more oxygen were absorbed and 13 oz. more of
carbonic anhydride eliminated by the lungs during a work-day than during a
rest-day.[290] It must be stated that during the work-day an interval of
rest was taken, and that the labour was by no means excessive.

[Footnote 290: Parkes.]

Hirn and Speck appear to have conclusively proved that the formation of
the carbonic anhydride occurs in the muscles, and that it is rapidly
carried off from them. In short, this latter result seems essential for
the development of muscular energy. At any rate it is found that if the
respiratory movements be in any way interfered with during exercise, and
the elimination of carbonic anhydride in any degree checked, the muscular
power rapidly diminishes.

An examination of Pettenkofer and Voit’s table shows that exercise gives
rise to the escape of a large amount of water from the body, and to a
slightly diminished quantity of urea.

Since the accumulation of the superfluous carbon supplied by the food
gives rise to morbid and diseased states of the body,[291] we shall now be
enabled to understand why deficient exercise should be a source of
physical ill-being, and why, on the contrary, the proper use of the
muscles should be so essential a condition for the maintenance of health,
since it is in them that the great formation of the eliminated carbon is
effected. We shall also not fail to see why, since during exercise the
excretion of water is so largely increased, the blood necessarily becomes
less diluted and richer in quantity.

[Footnote 291: “Deficient exercise is one of the causes which produce
those nutritional alterations in the lung which we class as
tuberculosis.”——PARKES.]

Whilst insufficiency of exercise gives rise to a weak action of the heart,
and very frequently to fatty degeneration of that organ, exercise that is
not excessive, although it increases the beats of the heart from ten to
thirty beyond this acceleration, and imparting greater force to the
pulsations, does not interfere with their regularity. Furthermore,
muscular exercise, by considerably augmenting the flow of the blood
through the whole body, the heart included, exercises a most beneficial
function, “since it causes in all organs a more rapid outflow of plasma
and absorption——in other words, a quicker renewal. In this way also it
removes the products of their action, which accumulate in organs, and
restores the power of action to various parts of the body.”[292]

[Footnote 292: Parkes.]

Palpitation, enlargement, and valvular disease of the heart result from
excessive or injudicious exercise. Wherever, therefore, fatigue or
embarrassment of the heart shows itself rest must be had recourse to.
Persons having weak hearts suffer greatly in ascending mountain or other
heights.

The effect of exercise upon the kidneys is to diminish the quantity of
water, as well as the chloride of sodium and other chlorides in the urine.
As we have seen, the urea is very slightly lower; but after much exertion
the uric acid is increased. There is also a slight increase in the amounts
of sulphates and carbonic anhydride. Parkes could find no alteration in
the phosphates. The diminution of water and the chlorides is due to the
excretion of these by the skin, the function of which is greatly augmented
by exercise. No urea escapes by the skin, but many acids (probably fatty
ones) are liberated by that organ. Speck has shown that during exercise
the amount of fluid is nearly double what it is when the body is
quiescent.

This escape of fluid by perspiration doubtless affords an explanation of a
diminution in the quantity of the excreta from the bowels. The fæces
exhibit no decrease in nitrogen.

Exercise increases the growth of the muscles, making them at the same time
harder, and also causing them to obey more readily the behests of the
will. Prolonged or excessive exertion, without sufficient rest, has been
found to interfere with their nutrition, and to cause them to become soft.

There is a tolerably general impression that much exercise tends to
cripple the development of the mental faculties, and this idea is said to
have received support from the circumstance that the athletes at our
universities seldom signalise themselves in contests of learning. But this
fact, it has been suggested, may be explained by the athletic exercise
being indulged in to such an extent as to leave no time for cultivating
the mind. If an illustration were required to prove that great bodily
energy is quite consonant with mental vigour it might be found in the life
of the late Professor Wilson, of Edinburgh. On this point Dr Parkes says:
“Considering that perfect nutrition is not possible except with bodily
activity, we should infer that sufficient exercise would be necessary for
the perfect performance of mental work.”

As regards the changes that take place in the muscles during exercise Dr
Parkes writes: “The chief changes that take place in the muscles during
action appear to be these: there is a considerable increase of temperature
(Helmholtz), which, up to a certain point, is proportioned to the amount
of work; it is also proportioned to the kind, being less when the muscle
is allowed to shorten than if prevented from shortening (Heidenhain); the
neutral or alkaline reaction of the tranquil muscle becomes acid from
para-lactic acid and acid potassium phosphate; the venous blood passing
from the muscles becomes much darker in colour, is much less rich in
oxygen, and contains much more carbonic acid (Sczelkow); the extractive
matters soluble in water lessen, those soluble in alcohol increase
(Helmholtz, in frogs); the amount of water increases (in tetanus, J.
Ranke), and the blood is consequently poorer in water; the amount of
albumen in tetanus is less, according to Ranke, but Kühne has pointed out
that the numbers do not justify the inference.”

Liebig stated that the creatin is increased (but this was an inference
from old observations on the extractum carnis of hunted animals, and
requires confirmation). Sarokin has stated the same fact in respect to the
frog. The electro-motor currents show a decided diminution during
contraction.

That great molecular changes go on in the contracting muscles is certain,
but their exact nature is not clear; according to Ludimar Hermann there is
a jelly-like separation and coagulation of the myosin, and then a
resumption of its prior form, so that there is a continual splitting of
the muscular structure into a myosin coagulum, carbonic acid, and a free
acid, and this constitutes the main molecular movement. But no direct
evidence has been given of this.

The increased heat, the great amount of carbonic acid, and the
disappearance of oxygen, combined with the respiratory phenomena already
noted, all seem to show that an active oxidation goes on; and it is very
probable that this is the source of the muscular action. The oxidation may
be conceived to take place in two ways——either during rest oxygen is
absorbed and stored up in the muscles, and gradually acts there, producing
a substance which, when the muscle contracts, splits up into lactic acid,
carbonic acid, &c.; or, on the other hand, during the contraction an
increased absorption of oxygen goes on in the blood, and acts on the
muscles, or on the substances in the blood circulating through the
muscles. The first view is strengthened by some of Pettenkofer and Voit’s
experiments, which show that during rest a certain amount of storage of
oxygen goes on, which no doubt in part occurs in the muscles themselves.

Indeed, it has been inferred that it is this stored-up oxygen, and not
that breathed in at the time, which is used in muscular action. The
increased oxidation gives us a reason why the nitrogenous food must be
increased during periods of great exertion.

An increase in the supply of oxygen is a necessity for increased muscular
action; but Pettenkofer and Voit’s observations have shown that the
absorption of oxygen is dependent on the amount and action of the
nitrogenous structures of the body, so that, as a matter of course, if
more oxygen is required for increased muscular work, more nitrogenous food
is necessary. But, apart from this, although experiments on the amount of
nitrogenous elimination show no very great change on the whole, there is
no doubt that, with constant regular exercise, a muscle enlarges, becomes
thicker, heavier, contains more solid matter, and, in fact, has gained in
nitrogen. This process may be slow, but it is certain; and the nitrogen
must either be supplied by increased food, or be taken from other parts.

So that, although we do not know the exact changes going on in the
muscles, it is regarded as certain that regular exercise produces in them
an addition of nitrogenous tissue.

Whether this addition occurs, as usually believed, in the period of rest
succeeding action, when in some unexplained way the destruction which it
is presumed has taken place is not only repaired, but is exceeded (a
process difficult to understand), or whether the addition of nitrogen is
actually made during the action of the muscle, must be left undecided for
the present.

The substances which are thus oxidised in the muscle or in the blood
circulating through it, and from which the energy manifested as heat or
muscular movement is believed to be derived, may probably be of different
kinds. Under ordinary circumstances the experiments of Fick and
Wislicenus and others, and the arguments of Traube, seem sufficient to
show that the non-nitrogenous substances, and perhaps especially the fats,
furnish the chief substances acted upon. But it is probable that the
nitrogenous substances also furnish a contingent of force. The exact mode
in which the energy thus liberated by oxidation is made to assume the form
of mechanical motion is quite obscure.

There seems little doubt that the exhaustion of muscles is chiefly owing
to two causes——first and principally to the accumulation in them of the
products of their own action (especially para-lactic acid); and secondly,
from the exhaustion of the supply of oxygen. Hence rest is necessary, in
order that the blood may neutralise and carry away the products of action,
so that the muscle may recover its neutrality and its normal electrical
currents, and may again acquire oxygen in sufficient quantity for the next
contraction.

In the case of all muscles these intervals of action and of exhaustion
take place, in part even of the period which is called exercise; but the
rest is not sufficient entirely to restore it. In the case of the heart
the rest between the contractions (about two thirds of the time) is
sufficient to allow the muscle to perfectly recover itself.

The foregoing remarks on the effects of muscular exercise will have
prepared us for the inference which statistics abundantly support, viz.
that, other conditions being favorable, the healthiest occupation is that
which consists in the practice (of course within reasonable limits) of
manual labour in the open air.

The Rev. Professor Haughton, in his work entitled ‘A New Theory of Manual
Labour,’ has drawn up a table (which we append) of the amount of force
expended during various kinds of work. It represents the number of tons
lifted one foot per diem:——

  ------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            Labouring Force of Man.
  ----------------------------------+-------------------------+-----------
            Kind of Work.           |     Amount of Work.     | Authority.
  ----------------------------------+-------------------------+-----------
  Pile-driving                      | 312 tons lifted 1 foot. | Coulomb.
  Pile-driving                      | 352      ”      ”       | Lamaude.
  Turning a winch                   | 374      ”      ”       | Coulomb.
  Porters carrying goods,           | 325      ”      ”       |    ”
    and returning unladen           |                         |
  Pedlars always loaded             | 303      ”      ”       |    ”
  Porters carrying wood up a stair, | 381      ”      ”       |    ”
    and returning unloaded          |                         |
  Paviours at work                  | 352      ”      ”       | Haughton.
  Military prisoners                | 310      ”      ”       |    ”
    at shot drill (3 hours),        |                         |
    and oakum-picking and drill     |                         |
  Shot drill alone (3 hours)        | 160·7    ”      ”       |    ”
  ----------------------------------+-------------------------+-----------

Professor Haughton has devised a formula by means of which a certain
amount of walking exercise may be made to represent its equivalent in
manual labour. He points out that walking on a level surface is equivalent
to raising one twentieth part of the weight of the body through the
distance walked.

When ascending any height, the whole weight of the body is, of course,
raised through the ascent. The formula is——

  (W + W_{l}) × D
  ---------------
     20 × 2240

where W is the weight of the person; W_{l} the weight carried (if any); D
the distance walked in feet; 20 the co-efficient of traction; and 2240 the
number of pounds in a ton. The result is the number of tons raised one
foot. To get the distance in feet 5280 must be multiplied by the number of
miles walked.

Supposing a man to weigh 150 lbs. with his clothes, by the employment of
the above formula we should arrive at the following results:——

  +----------------------+------------+
  |                      |Work done in|
  |  Kind of Exercise.   |tons lifted |
  |                      |  1 foot.   |
  +----------------------+------------+
  |  Walking 1 mile      |   17·67    |
  +----------------------+------------+
  |  Walking 2 miles     |   35·34    |
  +----------------------+------------+
  |  Walking 10 miles    |   176·7    |
  +----------------------+------------+
  |  Walking 20 miles    |   353·4    |
  +----------------------+------------+
  |  Walking 1 mile      |            |
  |  and carrying 60 lbs.|   24·75    |
  +----------------------+------------+
  |  Walking 2 miles     |            |
  |  and carrying 60 lbs.|    49·5    |
  +----------------------+------------+
  |  Walking 10 miles    |            |
  |  and carrying 60 lbs.|   247·5    |
  +----------------------+------------+
  |  Walking 20 miles    |            |
  |  and carrying 60 lbs.|    495     |
  +----------------------+------------+

From the above data something like a rough approximation may be formed of
the daily amount of exercise requisite for a healthy male adult.

Since 500 tons lifted a foot is extremely hard work, the number of miles
corresponding to this extreme amount of labour would, if persevered in, be
objectionable.

Dr Parkes, regarding 300 tons lifted a foot as an average day’s work for a
healthy man, thinks that walking exercise equivalent to half that amount
should be taken daily. This, or a 150 tons, represents a nine miles’
walk. He, however, qualifies the suggestion by adding “that, as there is
much exertion taken in the ordinary business of life, this amount may be
in many cases reduced;” and concludes by saying, “It is not possible to
lay down rules to meet all cases, but probably every man with the above
facts before him could fix the amount necessary for himself with tolerable
accuracy.”

For muscular exercise to be safe and efficient, it must be taken under
certain conditions and precautions. We have noticed the evil effects of
immoderate bodily exertion on the heart. The lungs are no less seriously
affected by an excessive indulgence in it, which shows itself in spitting
of blood and in congestion of the pulmonary vessels. Congestion of the
lungs brought on by overtaxed bodily strength very frequently causes the
death of horses in the hunting field.

These facts, therefore, not only point to the importance of avoiding undue
or extreme exertion,[293] but also to the necessity of ensuring the full
and uncramped play of the respiratory organs during exercise, and the
consequent removal of any impediment in the way of tight clothing that in
any manner interferes with their freedom of exercise. Laboured respiration
and sighing are indications of pulmonary congestion, and counsel temporary
rest and abstention from exercise.

[Footnote 293: “There must be proper intervals of rest, or the store of
oxygen, and of the material in the muscles which is to be metamorphosed
during contraction, cannot take place.”

                                                           ——PARKES.]

The great augmentation in the excretion of carbon which leaves the lungs
in the form of carbonic anhydride during exercise has been already
referred to. As this carbon is derived from the food, it follows that in
the intervals of exercise an increase of carbonaceous diet is necessary.
For this purpose physiologists prefer the fatty to the amylaceous
varieties of diet. It has been already stated why at the same time the
nitrogenous food must be increased during periods of great exertion. There
seems little doubt that water is the best drink that can be taken during
moderate as well as great exercise.... It is best taken in small
quantities and frequently. Spirits are decidedly prejudicial, and
indispose to bodily exertion. They are hurtful because they lessen the
exhalation of carbonic anhydride from the lungs. Trainers never allow
them, and but very little wine or beer.

The thirst that not unfrequently accompanies exercise is due to the great
escape of water from the skin which has been already alluded to. This
liberation of moisture, being also accompanied, as already explained, by a
large excretion of the chlorides and, perhaps, by other salts. Dr Parkes
advises the use of an additional supply of chloride of sodium to the diet
of those taking much exercise; he suggests that probably potassium
chloride and phosphate might be added with advantage.

The evaporation from the skin has the effect of reducing the bodily
temperature and rendering it equable. This temperature, however, falls
very rapidly after exertion is over; and hence at this time it is always
advisable to guard against the chance of a chill by covering the body
over. Flannel forms the best protection. Keeping the skin clean by daily
ablution greatly aids in the escape of fluid during exercise.

The large amount of carbonic anhydride given off by the lungs during
bodily exercise explains the advantages of open air exercise, and why
walking in the fresh air produces such excellent effects in some forms of
dyspepsia. This increased exhalation of carbonic anhydride also points to
the importance of thorough ventilation when indoor exercise is taken,
particularly by large bodies of men or women, as in riding schools and on
the treadmill. The mortality amongst miners, whose labour is performed in
confined and ill-ventilated spaces is very great. According to Mr Simon,
with the exception of those who work in the well-ventilated mines of
Durham and Northumberland, the 300,000 miners in England break down
prematurely from bronchitis and pneumonia, caused by the atmosphere in
which they are compelled to work.

=EXPAN′SION.= All substances, solid, liquid, and gaseous, when chemical
change does not take place, expand by heat, and contract by cold. In some
of them this property occurs in a greater degree than in others, but is
constant for the same substance under the same circumstances. The chemist
avails himself of this property in the construction of his thermometer;
the wheelwright, in fixing on the tire of his wheels; the engineer, in
restoring to the perpendicular the leaning walls of buildings, &c.

This expansion by heat is of great importance in the manufactures, as
allowance has to be made of it in every purpose where metals are employed.

The following is a list of the expansion of the chief metals, &c., when
heated from 32° to 212° Fahr., or from 0° to 100° Cent.:——

  _Substance._ _Expansion._
               In bulk.   In length.
  Glass        1 in 384   1 in 1150
  Platinum     1 in 377   1 in 1311
  Steel        1 in 309   1 in  926
  Iron         1 in 282   1 in  846
  Gold         1 in 227   1 in  682
  Copper       1 in 194   1 in  582
  Brass        1 in 179   1 in  536
  Silver       1 in 175   1 in  524
  Tin          1 in 172   1 in  516
  Lead         1 in 117   1 in  351
  Zinc         1 in 113   1 in  340

Of the liquids, they expand as follows, when heated from 0° to 100°
Cent., or from 32° to 212° Fahr.:——

  Mercury         1 in 55 in bulk.
  Water           1 in 21 in bulk.

Gases practically all expand alike; that is to say, for every degree
Fahrenheit a gas expands 1/491 of its bulk at 32°, and for every degree
Centigrade 1/273 of their volume at 0°C.

An example will show the importance of this. Suppose an iron bar,
connecting two sides of a building, and of a length of about 85 feet. The
increase in length by heat of this bar would make it 1 inch longer in
summer than in winter; and it would, if no allowance be made, pull or
thrust the walls to this extent each year.

=EXPEC′TORANTS.= _Syn._ EXPECTORANTIA, L. Medicines that promote the
secretion of the trachial and bronchial mucus. According to Dr Good, true
expectorants are “those medicines which rather promote the separation of
the viscid phlegm with which the bronchiæ are loaded, than simply
inviscate and dilute it; though these are also treated as expectorants by
many writers.” Ammoniacum, antimonials, assafœtida, the balsams of Peru
and tolu, benzoic acid, benzoin; the fumes of vinegar, tar, and several of
the volatile oils; garlic, ipecacuanha, the oleo-resins, squills,
tartarised antimony, and the smoke of tobacco and stramonium, are among
the principal substances commonly called expectorants. Tartarised
antimony, squills, chlorine, and ammoniacal gases, have also been used
(diluted) to provoke the coughing and favour the expulsion of foreign
bodies from the air-passages; and also to favour the expectoration of
mucus, pus, and membranous concretions, when the local irritation is not
sufficiently great. (Schwilgue.) Expectorants are commonly employed in
pulmonary complaints and affections of the air tubes, attended by a
vitiated state of the mucus, or an imperfect performance of the natural
functions of the secretory vessels. “Of all classes of the materia medica,
none are more uncertain in their action than expectorants.” (Pereira.) The
act of ejecting matter from the chest is called EXPECTORATION.

=EXPER′IMENTS= are acts or operations intended to develop some unknown
fact, principle, or effect; or to establish or demonstrate it, when
discovered. Similar operations, performed merely for amusement, are also
often, though incorrectly, called by this name. In rational experiments
these two objects are combined. To experimental research is due the
present high state of advancement and usefulness of the various sciences
most intimately connected with our happiness and well-being. The danger of
taking things for granted has been thus pleasantly and instructively
pointed out by Archbishop Whately:——“It was objected to the system of
Copernicus, when first brought forward, that if the earth turned on its
axis, as he represented, a stone dropped from the summit of a tower would
not fall at the foot of it, but at a great distance to the west; in the
same manner as a stone dropped from the masthead of a ship in full sail
does not fall at the foot of the mast, but towards the stern. To this it
was answered, that a stone, being a part of the earth, obeys the same
laws, and moves with it; whereas it is no part of the ship, of which,
consequently, its motion is independent. The solution was admitted by
some, but opposed by others; and the controversy went on with spirit; nor
was it till one hundred years after the death of Copernicus that, the
experiment being tried, it was ascertained that the stone, thus dropped
from the head of the mast, _does_ fall at the foot of it.”

=EXPORTATION.= (EXPORTATION ON DRAWBACK.) By law, a certain allowance, or
drawback of duty, is payable on certain articles, when exported from any
part of the United Kingdom, either as merchandise or ship stores. Thus:——

SUGAR, refined in the United Kingdom, from 4_s._ to 6_s._ per cwt.,
according to quality.

TOBACCO, manufactured in the United Kingdom, 3_s._ 3_d._ per lb. The full
drawback is only allowed on normal tobacco, which contains 13 per cent. of
moisture. If the moisture exceeds 13 per cent., a proportionate reduction
is made in the drawback; if it is found less than 13 per cent., a
proportionate increase is granted.

SNUFF is entitled to drawback at 3_s._ 3_d._ per lb., subject, however, to
an increase if the moisture is less than 13 per cent., and the inorganic
matter not over 18 per cent., and to a decrease if the moisture in organic
matter exceeds these per-centages.

BEER. The amount of this drawback is proportional to the quantity of malt
or sugar used in the brewing of the beer, and is nearly equivalent to the
duty originally paid on such malt or sugar. It is computed according to
the following scale:——For every barrel, or 36 gallons of beer, the
original gravity of which was not less than 1040°, a drawback of 4_s._
3_d._, and for every additional 5 degrees, from 1040° to 1125° inclusive,
a further sum of 6_d._ per barrel.

SOLIDIFIED WORTS, made by a licensed brewer, from malt or sugar, or malt
and sugar, a drawback of 2_s._ 10-5/100_d._ per 28 lbs.

MALT. Under certain restrictions, a drawback of the duty charged, after
deducting 7-1/2 per cent. of the measured quantity.

SPIRITS, from 10_s._ to 10_s._ 3_d._ per proof gallon.

In all cases samples are taken by the Custom House officer, and forwarded
to the Inland Revenue laboratory, where they are examined previous to the
payment of the drawback.

=EXPRES′SION.= In the _useful arts_, the mechanical operation by which a
fluid contained in the pores or cells of a solid is pressed out or
expelled. Many of the fluid substances employed in pharmacy and chemistry
are obtained by expression. Thus, the unctuous vegetable oils, as those
of almonds, linseed, &c., are procured by submitting these substances to
powerful pressure between iron plates, which are either made warm, or the
bruised seeds are previously exposed in bags to the steam of boiling
water. The juices of fresh vegetables are also obtained by expression. The
substances are first bruised in a marble mortar, or, on the large scale,
in a mill, and immediately submitted to the press, to prevent them passing
into a state of fermentation, which would injure the quality of the
product. Fruits which contain highly flavoured or fragrant seeds, or which
have rinds containing essential oil, are generally deprived of them before
being sent to the press. The subacid fruits are also allowed to lay
together for some days before pressing them, as the quantity and quality
of the product is thereby increased. The fluid matter absorbed by the
ingredients employed in the preparation of tinctures, infusions,
decoctions, extracts, &c., is generally obtained by powerful pressure.
Expression is also frequently had recourse to for the purpose of obtaining
solids in a state of purity, as in the expulsion of olein from stearin,
water from bicarbonate of soda, &c. On the small scale, the common
screw-press, or one of like construction, is usually employed; but the
power thus obtained is insufficient to expel the whole of a fluid diffused
through the pores of a solid. Hence has arisen the use of the hydraulic
press, which is now almost alone employed on the large scale. In all these
cases the substances are placed in bags made of haircloth, or coarse
canvas, previously to their being submitted to pressure. For tinctures and
like pharmaceuticals, a small screw-press (TINCTURE PRESS) made of
‘galvanised’ or tinned iron, and varying in capacity from 1 quart to
several gallons, is employed.

=EXSICCA′TION.= See DESICCATION.

=EX′TRACT.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM, L. Among _chemists_ this term is understood
to apply to the residuum of the evaporation of aqueous decoctions or
infusions of vegetable matter. In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, it has a less
definite signification, being applied to various preparations obtained by
evaporating the expressed juices, or the decoctions, infusions, or
tinctures of vegetable substances, until a mass, of a solid or semi-solid
consistence is formed. Extracts vary in their nature and composition with
the substances from which they are prepared, and the fluids employed as
solvents. When water is employed as the menstruum, the products (AQUEOUS
EXTRACTS, WATERY E.; EXTRACTA AQUOSA, E. SIMPLICIORA, L.) usually consist
of gum, starch, sugar, albumen, extractive and saline and other matter,
along with the peculiar principles on which the medicinal virtue of the
vegetable depends. When spirit is employed as the solvent, the products
(ALCOHOLIC EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA ALCOHOLICA, L.) contain most of the
substances above enumerated, except the gum and starch, together with
several other substances which are soluble in spirit, but which are either
wholly or nearly insoluble in water; as resins, essential oils, and the
proximate principles of vegetables. These preparations, with scarcely an
exception, are considerably more powerful than the aqueous extracts of the
same vegetables. In some cases proof spirit or under-proof spirit is
employed, when the extracts (SPIRITUOUS EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA SPIRITUOSA, L.)
generally possess properties between those of the above. In other cases,
dilute acetic acid or acidulated water is employed as the menstruum, when
the products (ACETIC EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA ACETICA, L.) possess much greater
activity than when prepared with water; and would in many cases prove
fatal, if exhibited in doses as large as those of the aqueous extracts.
Still more active extracts are obtained by a combination of the last two
menstrua. According to Ferrari, plants treated with rectified spirit of
wine, mixed with 1/36th part of acetic acid, yields extracts of remarkable
activity. On the Continent ether is sometimes used as the menstruum for
the active principles of certain substances, as cantharides, cubebs,
worm-seed, &c. (ETHEREAL EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA ETHEREA, L.) The term ‘simple
extract’ is applied to an extract prepared from a single plant or
vegetable substance, and the term ‘compound extract’ to one prepared from
two or more of such substances. The FLUID EXTRACTS (EXTRACTA FLUIDA, L.)
of modern pharmacy are those which are only evaporated to the consistence
of a thin syrup, and then mixed with 1-10th to 1-8th of their volume of
rectified spirit.

_Prep._ The preparation of medicinal extracts may be conveniently
considered under two divisions, viz.——1. The production of a solution of
the soluble portion of the substances operated on; and, 2. The reduction
of this solution by evaporation to the consistence of an extract.

1. PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS:——The preliminary operations in the
manufacture of extracts are similar to those employed in the preparation
of DECOCTIONS, INFUSIONS, and TINCTURES. The proper quantity of the
ingredients being taken, the whole is well bruised or reduced to coarse
powder, or otherwise divided by slicing with a knife, that every portion
may be fully exposed to the solvent action of the fluid. In some few cases
(as with gentian, &c.) the ‘slicing,’ or reduction to fragments, is often
conveniently deferred until the action of the menstruum shall have so far
softened the ingredients as to render them of easy division by the knife.
Those substances (as sarsaparilla, chamomiles, &c.) whose medicinal
principles reside in the cortical portion, of which are of easy
solubility, are commonly subjected to the action of the menstruum without
being subjected to any particular preparation.

In the preparation of AQUEOUS EXTRACTS, the ingredients are treated with
water until all the soluble matter that it is desirable to obtain is
dissolved out. There are several methods of effecting this object,
depending upon the nature of the substances acted on. In some cases
maceration in cold water is resorted to; in others percolation with that
fluid in a ‘displacement apparatus.’ More generally, however, boiling
water is poured on the substance, and is digested on it for some time, as
in the preparation of infusions; or the substance is exhausted by boiling
in water, as in the preparation of decoctions. After the ebullition or
infusion has continued a sufficient time, the heat is removed, and the
liquid portion drawn off. The ingredients are then pressed to extract the
remaining liquid; or they are washed or ‘sparged’ with hot water, which
expels it by displacement. According to the usual practice in the majority
of cases, a second quantity of water is poured on after the first has been
thoroughly drained off, and the effusion or decoction is repeated a second
and even a third time, or until the ingredients are perfectly exhausted of
their soluble portion. The liquor or liquors thus obtained being allowed
to repose for 15 or 20 minutes, for the purpose of depositing the sand or
other gritty and heavy matter that is mechanically mixed with them, are
carefully decanted from the sediment, and, after being run through a fine
hair-sieve, or flannel bag, are ready for concentration. In some
instances, however, this method proves insufficient to render the liquid
clear. In such cases, the solution may generally be rendered transparent
by clarification with a little white of egg, removing the scum as it
rises, straining the liquid through flannel, as before; or the liquid may
be filtered through a bag made of fine ‘Welsh flannel,’ or of ‘tweeled
cotton cloth’ (Canton flannel), both of which should be soaked in clean
water for at least an hour before use. In the small way, filters of linen
or paper are sometimes employed; but as all media sufficiently fine to
render vegetable solutions transparent soon choke up, this filtration is
objectionable, from the length of time it occupies. In some houses the
aqueous infusion or decoction is allowed to repose for 24 hours, and then
decanted and evaporated; but such a plan is objectionable, as, however
smooth and glossy extracts so prepared may appear, their medicinal virtues
are lessened by the lengthened exposure to the atmosphere.

When about one half of an aqueous solution has evaporated, it is often
advantageous to repass it through a flannel or horsehair strainer, to
remove the flocculi that generally form by the action of the heat and air.
This is especially necessary with vegetable solutions prepared without
boiling, and should be adopted whenever a smooth and slightly extract is
desired.

II. REDUCTION OF SOLUTIONS:——The reduction of the solution to the proper
consistence is effected by evaporation. The mode in which this is
performed varies for different extracts. The London College directs that,
“unless otherwise ordered, the evaporation should be conducted as quickly
as possible, in a broad, shallow pan, placed in a water bath, until a
proper consistence is acquired for forming pills; stirring assiduously
with a spatula towards the end of the operation.” The Dublin College
orders that “all simple (aqueous) extracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA), unless
otherwise ordered, are to be prepared by boiling the vegetable matter in 8
times its weight of water, till the liquid is reduced to one half; the
liquor is then to be expressed, and, after a short time allowed for
defecation, to be decanted, filtered, and evaporated in a steam or water
bath, until it begins to thicken, and then finally inspissated by a
reduced heat, with continual stirring, until a consistence for forming
pills be attained.” The instructions of the Edinburgh College are similar,
with the one important exception, however, of ordering the evaporation to
be conducted in a water bath saturated with chloride of sodium.

Though the water bath has the sanction of the London College, it is ill
adapted for the purpose to which it is here ordered to be applied, as from
its low evaporative power the advantages which are derived from its
equable temperature are vastly overbalanced by the lengthened exposure of
the solution in a heated state to the action of the atmosphere. It has
been shown that a vegetable extract so prepared is inferior in quality to
a similar one formed by rapid evaporation in a shallow pan over a naked
fire, or placed in a sand bath, provided proper care is taken, and
assiduous stirring is adopted during the whole time of the exposure to
heat. In practice, however, the use of a naked fire is perfectly
inadmissible, as the least neglect on the part of the operator would
probably lead to the incineration of the whole. These objections are
obviated by the addition of the 1/5th part of salt to the water of the
bath, which raises its boiling-point to 218-3/4° Fahr., when the
temperature of the contained extract is fully 212°; the remaining 6° being
lost by the interposition of the substance of the evaporating vessel.

ON THE LARGE SCALE, the evaporation of infusions or decoctions for
extracts is usually conducted in very wide, shallow, copper or
tinned-copper pans, having steam-tight jackets of cast iron, and heated by
steam ‘playing’ between the two.

The rapid deterioration which vegetable juices and solutions undergo by
exposure to the air, especially at high temperatures, has led to the
introduction of apparatus, by which they may be concentrated without
contact with the atmosphere, and at a less degree of heat than is required
for that purpose in open vessels. Such is the method, commonly called
‘Barry’s process,’ in which the air is removed from certain air-tight
refrigerators by the introduction of steam, which is then condensed by the
application of cold, by which means a partial vacuum is obtained. Another
process for attenuating the atmosphere over the surface of fluids during
evaporation is by the action of an air-pump. This plan was introduced by
Howard, and is commonly applied to the concentration of syrups in the
sugar refineries. Extracts obtained by either of these methods are said to
be prepared ‘in vacuo,’ and are found in practice to be immensely superior
to the common extracts of the shops, and consequently require to be
exhibited in proportionably small doses.

‘The American Journal of Pharmacy’ for September, 1877, contains a new
process for the preparation of extracts without heat, by Professor
Herrara. We extract the following from the Professor’s paper:——

“The results of my observations have satisfied me that, when the water
partially congeals, the dissolved principles remain in solution in the
mother liquors, and that two or three congelations are generally
sufficient for obtaining the solutions concentrated enough to finish the
extract by exposure upon plates to the heat of the sun, or of a drying
closet, heated to about 30° cent. (86° Fahr.). The extracts prepared by
this method accurately represent the properties of the plants, and the
principles which are changed by the influence of heat remain unaltered;
even the volatile constituents are not dissipated, though most of the
water be removed by freezing. Owing to the small cost of the necessary
apparatus, it appears to me that my process for preparing extracts should
be preferable even in those countries where ice is less readily obtainable
than combustibles.

“Extract of conium prepared with unpurified juice by the process
mentioned, has preserved the characteristic odour of conia, and by
dissolving it in water. I have obtained a solution exactly representing
the juice of the plant in appearance and properties, and giving when
heated an abundant coagulation, proving that even albumen had remained
unaltered. 1750 grams of cow’s milk at 9° R., left, after three
congelations, 750 grams of a liquid having a density of 148, and by
evaporation in the sun this left a dry extract of milk, which again formed
that liquid on being dissolved in water. A number of other liquids
similarly treated, gave corresponding results, and it seems to me,
therefore, that medicinal extracts are best prepared by congelation. It
may be objected that the medical juices should be previously purified, but
it should be remembered that coagulated albumen always encloses a
considerable portion of the active principles, and that the heat necessary
to effect the coagulation and the evaporation by means of a water-bath is
sufficient to change many principles; also that the extracts thus prepared
are sometimes inert or less active. The careful experiments made by Orfila
and the clinical experience of others demonstrate that extracts prepared
with unpurified juice are stronger.

“The apparatus employed by me is the so-called sorbetière;[294] for larger
quantities the apparatus of Gougaud is preferable. The frigoric mixture is
composed of ice and sodium chloride, or preferably of crystallised calcium
chloride. After a large portion of the solution has congealed, the mass is
enclosed in a cloth and subjected to pressure, the press-cake of ice is
broken and again pressed, to separate the mother liquor as completely as
possible, and the congelation is repeated two or three times, with the
precaution that it is not carried far enough to cause the precipitation of
the sparingly soluble principles. The mother liquor is then put into
shallow dishes and exposed to the heat of the sun or of a drying room, the
temperature of which does not exceed 30° C. (86° F.) until the extract has
attained the desired consistence.”

[Footnote 294: An apparatus similar to that used for ice-cream.]

_Obs._ When water, acidulated with acetic acid, is employed in the
preparation of extracts, the vegetable substances are usually macerated in
it, in the cold, or the dilute acid is sprinkled over the bruised plant in
the fresh or recent state, and the whole is then submitted to strong
pressure, to expel the juice, which is strained and evaporated in the
usual way, but preferably in a well-tinned or plated-copper pan.

ALCOHOLIC and SPIRITUOUS EXTRACTS are prepared by evaporating a filtered
concentrated tincture of the ingredients in any suitable vessel, by which
the volatilized spirit may be saved. In general, rectified spirit is used
as the menstruum; but in some cases proof spirit is employed; and, in
others, the substances are first digested in proof spirit, and afterwards
in water, and the mixed tincture and infusion evaporated in the usual
manner.

ETHEREAL EXTRACTS are obtained in a similar manner to alcoholic ones; but
being merely prepared in small quantities at a time, the process may be
conveniently performed in glass vessels. When it is required to boil
either of the above fluids (alcoholic or ethereal), or any other volatile
liquid on the ingredients, a vessel fitted with a long tube, or a Liebig’s
condenser reversed, as noticed under ether, may be used to prevent any
loss of the menstruum.

The INSPISSATED VEGETABLE JUICES (JUICES, E.; SUCCI, L.) of the British
Pharmacopœia are obtained by expressing the juices from the fresh plants,
and preserving them by the addition of spirit. “By thus preserving the
juice of the plant its properties are not impaired by the action of the
air during the time necessary to dry the leaf for tincture, nor by the
action of both air and heat during the time necessary to evaporate the
juice to the consistence of an extract.”——Squire. The directions of the
Edinburgh College for preparing their inspissated juices (SUCCI SPISSATI,
L.) are——“Beat the fresh substance, and press it strongly through a canvas
bag, in order to obtain the juice; which, being put into a wide, shallow
vessel, and heated by means of boiling water saturated with sea-salt, is
to be reduced to the consistence of honey. The mass, when cold, is to be
put into glazed earthen vessels, and moistened with strong alcohol.” By
operating in this way a considerable portion of the activity of narcotic
vegetables is lost. Some of their juices, as that of aconite, are impaired
in so short a time as scarcely to compensate for the trouble of preparing
them. This deterioration does not, however, take place in any remarkable
degree, if the expressed juice from the recent vegetable be evaporated by
exposing it in a thin stratum to a current of very dry air, as adopted by
Mr Squire. This may be managed by putting the juice into small, flat trays
or dishes, placed on shelves in a suitably arranged apparatus, alternated
with similar vessels of concentrated sulphuric acid; or by causing a
current of very dry air, at the common temperature of the atmosphere, to
pass over them. It has been shown that 10 gr. of extract, thus prepared,
were more than equal to 20 gr. prepared _in vacuo_; and to more than 60
gr., and in some cases, 90 gr., of those prepared by the common process of
boiling down the juice to an extract.

The concluding portion of the process of extract-making, technically
termed ‘finishing-off,’ requires the most scrupulous attention. As the
evaporation advances, the heat should be lessened, and as soon as the
extract acquires the consistence of thick treacle it should be removed
altogether, and the remainder of fluid matter evaporated by the heat
retained by the copper pan, the escape of vapour being promoted by
assiduous and laborious stirring with a suitably shaped wooden spatula.
This part of the process should be continued until a proper consistence is
attained and the extract is nearly cold. When high-pressure steam or a
chloride of calcium bath is employed, care must be taken to withdraw the
heat before stirring the semi-liquid mass; as, if an extract having a
temperature of about the boiling-point of water, or even a few degrees
below it, is agitated, it becomes full of bubbles, and appears rough and
puffy, and this appearance cannot be removed by subsequent stirring, or by
any method but redissolving it in water and re-evaporation. This is
especially the case with the extracts of sarsaparilla (simple and
compound), gentian, liquorice, and most others of a similar class. A good
laboratory man knows from experience the proper time for the removal of
the heat, but unpractised persons often fail in this particular. In such
cases should the heat retained by the evaporating pan, and by the extract,
prove insufficient to complete the process, a little more may be
cautiously applied. Without assiduous and laborious stirring in the way
described, a very smooth and glossy extract cannot be produced. To promote
this artificial appearance, some persons add 3% or 4% each of olive oil
and gum arabic, dissolved in water, with about 1% or 2% of spirit of wine.

The consistence of the ordinary extracts of the shops is the same as that
of electuaries and confections, and is described in the Ph. E. as equal to
that of “thick honey.” The instructions of the Ph. L. and D., to evaporate
the mass “until it acquires a consistence proper for making pills,” except
in 2 or 3 cases (as _Ext. Colocynth. Comp._, &c.), is not adopted, and,
indeed, would be found inconvenient in practice. Extracts evaporated to
such a consistence are commonly termed ‘pilular extracts,’ and when
evaporated so that they are quite dry, and brittle when cold, they are
called ‘hard extracts’ (EXTRACTA DURA, L.).

_Pres._ Extracts should be put into pots as soon as taken from the pan,
and, after being carefully and securely tied over with bladder, should be
‘stored’ in a dry situation. The London College orders “a small quantity
of rectified spirit to be sprinkled upon all the softer extracts, to
prevent them becoming mouldy.” A better way is to employ a little spirit,
holding in solution a few drops of oil of cloves, or a still less quantity
of creasote. This should be added to them the last thing before removing
them from the evaporating pan, and when they are nearly cold. The same
object is effected by moistening the inside of the bladder (used to tie
them over) with a few drops of oil of cloves or creasote. Hard extracts
should be kept in bladders or gut skins, placed in stone pots, and well
covered over. With care, extracts prepared from recent vegetable
substances may be preserved twelve months, or from season to season; and
those from dry ingredients, or such as are less inclined to spoil, for
perhaps double that time; but beyond these periods their virtues cannot be
relied on, and they should consequently be discarded, if remaining unused
or unsold.

_Pur., &c._ The quality of an extract cannot be ascertained by mere
inspection, nor is it readily discovered by chemical tests. A knowledge of
these facts has induced the mercenary and fraudulent manufacturer to
employ damaged and inferior drugs in their preparation, alike regardless
of the welfare of the patient and the credit of the practitioner. A common
practice with some manufacturers is, not only to pick out the least
expensive variety of every drug for the preparation of their extracts, but
the most inferior and often damaged and worthless portion of this already
inferior article. The production of a smooth, bright, and glossy extract
is all that is usually attempted by these individuals, and all that is
sought after by the mass of purchasers, who mistake the simulation of the
mere external signs of good quality for its actual existence. It is a
fact, which we can verify from extensive experience in the laboratory,
and from years of practical observation on this point, that extracts
faithfully prepared from good materials do not possess the sightly and
pleasing appearance of those commonly vended by the wholesale druggists.
On comparing the extracts prepared by different metropolitan houses, we
have found that those which have exhibited a remarkably bright and glossy
appearance have been uniformly inferior, and sometimes nearly inert;
whilst others, with a less prepossessing appearance, have been generally
of good quality. These facts are well established by reference to the
extracts of those houses and institutions that are remarkable for the
superior quality of their preparations, and by comparing them with the
common extracts of the shops supplied by the wholesale trade.

A good extract should be——1. Free from grit, and wholly soluble in 20
parts of the menstruum employed in its preparation, forming a nearly clear
solution.——2. It should have a uniform texture and colour, and be of a
proper consistence.——3. If a narcotic or active extract, it may be
exhibited in proper doses, and its effects watched. Its activity may also
be tested on any small animal.——4. An assay for the proximate vegetable
principle (alkaloid, &c.) contained in the plant from which it has been
prepared may be made. The extracts prepared from the expressed juices of
plants, without straining off the coagulated albumen, are, of course,
exceptions to the first test. Unfortunately, these tests are not always
easily performed, and the last two are inapplicable to those extracts that
exercise no very marked physiological action, unless when taken in
repeated doses, long continued. This want of a ready means of accurately
testing the qualities of extracts has enabled the fraudulent manufacturer
to sell inferior articles with impunity, and often without the least fear
or danger of detection.

In general, an extract more than six months old contains only half the
activity of a similar one newly made. When more than twelve months old
they should be rejected as worthless, and the stock renewed.

_Uses, &c._ The extracts of the shops are generally acknowledged to be the
most varying, imperfect, and uncertain class of medicines belonging to
modern pharmacy. They are mostly used in the same cases as the plants from
which they are prepared, but in smaller doses.

_Concluding Remarks._ In the preparation of extracts the great desiderata
to be aimed at are——to suit the menstrua and the methods of manipulating
to the peculiar characteristics of the active constituents of the
vegetable substances operated on. The pharmaceutist should always bear in
mind that a perfect extract should be a concentrated, solid mass,
representing, as near as possible, in medicinal efficacy, the materials
from which it has been prepared, and capable of being redissolved, so as
to form a solution closely resembling that from which it has been derived.
An extract possessing equal strength to the whole mass of the ingredients
from which it has been prepared is almost next to an impossibility,
however desirable such a degree of perfection may be. The medicinal
properties of all solutions of vegetable matter are injured by being
reduced to the solid state; and this deterioration, more or less, takes
place, whether the solvent be water, acetic acid, proof spirit, or
alcohol. The volatile portions (the essential oils, the aroma, &c.) are
nearly or wholly dissipated; and though these do not always form the
principal or active ingredients of the vegetables from which extracts are
prepared, yet they generally exercise a modifying and controlling
influence over the other ingredients, which considerably alters their
therapeutical action. The loss of aroma may often be a trifling
deficiency, but in the extracts of aconite, henbane, hemlock, belladonna,
and other narcotic plants, this is not the case. In these cases it is well
known that the inert preparations are wholly deficient of the odour of the
recent plant, and that in proportion as the odour is developed, so is
their activity preserved. The powerful smell of the recently expressed
juice of hemlock, with the scarcely perceptible odour of the extract
(EXTRACTUM CONII, Ph. L.), offers an excellent example of this fact. The
dose of the one often reaches 20 or 30 gr., whilst that of the other
seldom exceeds 5 or 10 drops, or a portion equivalent in dry ingredients
to considerably less than 1/2 gr.

When extracts are ordered in prescriptions, those of the ‘Pharmacopœia’
should be alone employed by the dispenser, as the substitution of others
for them would not only be violating faith with the prescriber, but might
also produce consequences alike injurious to the dispenser and the
patient. Many medical gentlemen prefer extracts prepared by particular
processes or persons, but such intention is always indicated in their
prescriptions.

=Extract of Ac′onite.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF WOLFSBANE, E. OF MONKSHOOD,
INSPISSATED JUICE OF ACONITE; EXTRACTUM ACONITI (B. P., Ph. L. E. & U.
S.), SUCCUS SPISSATUS ACONITI (Ph. D. 1826), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Take
112 lbs. of the fresh leaves and flowering tops, bruise them, press out
the juice, heat it gradually to 130° F., and separate the green matter by
a calico filter. Heat the strained liquor to 200° F. to coagulate albumen,
and again filter. Evaporate the filtrate by a water bath to the
consistence of a thin syrup; then add to it the green colouring matter
previously separated, and stirring the whole together assiduously,
evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 140° F. to a pill
consistence.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) Take of fresh leaves of aconite, 1 lb.; bruise them in a stone
mortar, express the juice, and evaporate it, unstrained, to a proper
consistence. The formulæ of the Ph. D. & U. S. are similar.

3. (Ph. E.) Beat the fresh leaves of aconite to a pulp, and express the
juice, then subject the residuum to percolation with rectified spirit
until the latter passes through without being materially coloured; unite
the expressed juice and the percolated tincture, filter, distil off the
spirit, and evaporate in a vapour or a water bath to a proper consistence.
Stronger than the preceding.

_Obs._ A variable and uncertain preparation. Numbness and tingling follow
its application to the limbs or tongue when it is of good
quality.——_Product._ 1 cwt. of fresh leaves yield between 5 lbs. and 6
lbs. of extract. _Prop._ Anodyne, sudorific, and narcotic; very
poisonous.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 2 gr., made into a pill with liquorice
powder; once or twice a day, in neuralgic pains, chronic rheumatism,
glandular swellings, &c., gradually and cautiously increased to 5 or 6 gr.

4. (Alcoholic; E. A. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——_a._ (P. Cod.) Aconite (in coarse
powder), 1 lb.; proof spirit, 3-1/2 lbs. (say 2-1/2 pints); proceed by the
method of displacement, and when all the spirit has penetrated the
powdered mass, keep this covered with distilled water, until the liquid
begins to cause a precipitate in falling into that which has previously
passed through; next distil the spirit from the tincture, and evaporate
the residuum to the proper consistence.

_b._ (Ph. U. S.) Aconite 1 lb.; spirit, sp. gr. ·935 (= 13 u. p.), 1
quart, or q. s.; as last.

_c._ (Ph. Baden.) From the tincture prepared with rectified spirit, and by
either maceration or displacement. Stronger than the last two.

_d._ (Ph. Bor.) The juice is expressed from the fresh herb, which is then
sprinkled with about 1/3 of its weight of water, and again pressed; the
mixed and strained liquid is evaporated in a vapour bath, at 122° to 140°
Fahr., to about one half; to this, as soon as cold, an equal weight of
spirit (sp. gr. ·900) is added, and after frequent agitation for 24 hours,
the whole is filtered, with pressure; the marc is treated with fresh
spirit (equal to about 1-4th that first used) and again pressed; the mixed
liquors are next filtered, and are, lastly, evaporated, as before, to the
proper consistence.

_Obs._ Resembles the simple extract, but is much more powerful. It has
been exhibited internally in the form of pills, and used externally,
combined with ointment or spread on simple plaster.——_Dose_, 1/12 to 1/6
gr. every three hours.

5. (Ammoniated; E. A. AMMONIATUM, L.——Dr Turnbull.) Extract of aconite, 1
dr.; liquor of ammonia (strongest), 10 or 12 drops; mix.

6. (Dried); E. A. SICCUM, L.——P. Cod.) The expressed juice, strained
through a sieve or coarse linen, is at once, without depuration, exposed
in earthen dishes, in layers of about 2 lines deep, in a stove or current
of dry air, to a temperature ranging between 95° and 104° Fahr., until
reduced to dryness. The dried extract is to be packed in bottles.

7. (Saccharated; E. A. SACCHARATUM, L.) From extract of aconite (Ph.
Bor.), 4 oz.; sugar of milk (in powder), 1 oz.; mix, and dry the mass in a
warm place, adding sugar of milk, q. s. to make the whole equal in weight
to that of the extract used (4 oz.). An excellent preparation, which keeps
well. The other NARCOTIC EXTRACTS, as those of BELLADONNA, HEMLOCK,
HENBANE, &c., are to be treated in a similar manner. See ACONITE, and
_below_.

=Extract of Aconite Root.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ACONITI RADICIS ALCOHOLICUM,
L. _Prep._ (Dr Fleming; Dr Turnbull.) From a tincture of the root made
with rectified spirit. It is said to be 12 times as strong as the extract
of the leaves.

=Extract of Ag′aric=. _Syn._ EXTRACTUM AGARICI, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) From
the infusion of white agaric (_Polyporus officinalis_) prepared with cold
water. Purgative.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 gr.

=Extract of Alcorno′co.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ALCORNOCÆ, L. _Prep._ From a
decoction of alcornoco bark (South American). Astringent and
tonic.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr. in phthisis, &c.

=Extract of Al′oes.= _Syn._ PURIFIED ALOES, WASHED A.; EXTRACTUM ALOËS
BARBADENSIS (B. P.), EXTRACTUM ALOËS (Ph. L.), E. A. AQUOSUM (Ph. D.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Barbadoes aloes, in small pieces, 1 lb.; treated with 1
gall. of boiling water for 12 hours, and the clear liquid
evaporated.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr. B. P. 2 to 6 gr.

2. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 1 lb., treated with 1 gall. of boiling water
for 12 hours, and the clear liquid evaporated to dryness.

3. (Ph. D.) Aloes (hepatic), 4 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil till dissolved;
when cold, decant the clear liquid, and evaporate as before.

4. (Ph. Bor. 1847.) By macerating powdered aloes in cold water for 48
hours, with frequent agitation, and then evaporating in a water bath at a
temperature not exceeding 150° to 165° Fahr., until a pilular consistence
is attained.

_Obs._ The second is the form commonly adopted in the laboratory. When
made with the juice of borage, burgloss, &c., it forms the old ‘ALOES
INSUCCATA,’——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr. See ALOES and EXTRACT OF BARBADOES ALOES.

=Extract of Aloes, prepared with Sulphuric Acid.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ALOËS
ACIDO SULFURICO CORRECTUM (Germ. Ph.). _Prep._ Dissolve extract of aloes,
8 ounces, in distilled water 32 ounces, then gradually add sulphuric acid,
1 oz. (by weight), and evaporate to a dry extract.

=Extract of Anem′one.= See EXTRACT OF PASQUE FLOWER.

=Extract of Angel′ica.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ANGELICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph.
Baden.) From a tincture of the root, prepared with spirit sp. gr. ·944 (=
21-1/2 u. p.).

2. (Ph. Bor.) Angelica root and rectified spirit, of each 2 parts; water,
9 parts; digest, strain, and evaporate. Inferior to the preceding.

3. (Dr Moir.) Angelica root, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; make a
tincture; to the ‘marc’ add proof spirit, 1 gall., and repeat the
digestion; filter the two tinctures separately, mix, distil off the
spirit, and evaporate. Balsamic, stomachic, and tonic.——_Dose_, 10 to 20
gr. The last is the most balsamic and agreeable.

=Extract of Ap′ples.= _Syn._ CHALYBEATED E. OF A.; EXTRACTUM FERRI
POMATUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. Bor.) Crab-apples (unripe), 6 lbs.; peel them
and reduce them to a pulp; add iron wire (in small coils), 1 lb.; digest
in a vapour bath for about a week, express, strain, decant, and evaporate
in a porcelain vessel, with constant stirring, to the consistence of a
soft extract; dissolve the residuum in water, 4 parts, strain and
evaporate as before.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.; as a chalybeate tonic. The
formula of the Ph. Baden is nearly similar.

2. (Ph. Germ.) Reduce 5 lbs. of unripe apples to a pulp; mix them with cut
straw, and press. To the strained juice after removal of the sediment add
1-1/2 oz. of reduced iron. When this has dissolved, to the cooled liquid
add as much water as will make up 4-3/4 lbs. Filter, and reduce to a thick
extract.

=Extract of Ar′nica.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF ARNICA FLOWERS; EXTRACTUM ARNICÆ
FLORUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) From the dried flowers, as ALCOHOLIC
EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod.

2. (Ph. Græca, 1837.) From a tincture of the flowers, prepared with
rectified spirit, 3 parts, and water, 5 parts.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 gr.; as a
stimulant in various diseases accompanied with debility, deficient nervous
sensibility, paralysis, dropsies, diarrhœa, amenorrhœa, dysentery, &c.

=Extract of Arnica-Root.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF ARNICA; EXTRACTUM ARNICÆ
RADICIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ANGELICA——Ph. Baden.

2. (Ph. Græca.) From tincture of the root, prepared as No. 2 (_above_).
The form of the Hamburg Codex is nearly similar.——_Dose, &c._ As the last.

=Extract of Art′ichoke.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CYNARÆ, L. _Prep._ From the
fresh leaves of the artichoke, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L.——_Dose_, 3 to
6 gr., twice or thrice daily; in rheumatism, &c.

=Extract of Aspar′agus.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ASPARAGI, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Soubeiran.) From the expressed juice of the shoots, clarified and
evaporated by a gentle heat.

2. From the juice of the roots, as No. 1. Both are diuretic.——_Dose_, 15
gr. to 1/2 dr., or more.

=Extract of Bael.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM BELÆ LIQUIDUM, L. B. P. Bael, 1;
distilled water, 15; rectified spirit, 1/8; macerate for 12 hours in 5 of
the water, pour off the liquid, repeat the operation twice for 1 hour;
press, filter, and evaporate to 1, including the spirit. A fluid ounce is
equal to a solid ounce.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

=Extract of Balsam Apple.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM BALSAMIMÆ. The inspissated
juice of the balsam apple.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 drops in dropsy.

=Extract of Bark.= See EXTRACT OF CINCHONA.

=Extract of Belladon′na.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF DEADLY NIGHTSHADE, INSPISSATED
JUICE OF BELLADONNA; EXTRACTUM BELLADONNÆ (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), SUCCUS
SPISSATUS BELLADONNÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Take 112 lbs. of fresh leaves
and tender branches, bruise in a stone mortar or other suitable apparatus,
and press out the juice, heat it gradually to 130° F., separate the green
colouring matter by a calico filter, heat the strained liquor to 200° F.
to coagulate the albumen, and again filter; evaporate the filtrate by a
water bath to the consistence of a thin syrup, then add to it the green
colouring matter previously separated, and, stirring the whole together
assiduously, continue the evaporation at a temperature not exceeding 140°,
until the extract is of a suitable consistence for forming pills.——_Dose_,
1/4 to 1/2 gr., gradually increased to 1 or 2 gr.

2. (Ph. E.) Express the juice from the bruised fresh plant, sprinkle the
‘marc’ with water, and again apply pressure; mix the expressed liquids,
filter them, and evaporate the filtered liquor in a vapour bath to the
consistence of an extract.

3. (Ph. D.) From the leaves, collected when the plant begins to flower.
The expressed juice is allowed to stand for 24 hours, and the clear
portion is decanted; the sediment is placed on a calico filter, washed
with an equal bulk of cold water, and the filtrate mixed with the
expressed juice. The mixed liquid is next heated in a water bath, to
coagulate its albumen, and after being skimmed, and filtered through
flannel whilst hot, the washed sediment is added, and the whole
evaporated, as before.

4. (Ph. U. S.) The expressed juice is heated to the boiling-point,
filtered and evaporated (see _below_).

_Obs._ The P. Cod. directs this extract to be made by two different
formulæ. The product of the one resembles that of the Ph. L.; that of the
other, that of the Ph. E. That of the Ph. L., from retaining the fecula,
is the weakest preparation.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 1 gr., gradually increased
to 3 or 4 gr.; as an anodyne in neuralgia, tic-douloureux, &c.; as an
antispasmodic to relieve rigidity and spasms, in various affections of the
uterus, rectum, urethra, bladder, &c., and in hooping-cough; in various
maladies of the eyes; and as a resolvent and discutient in several
glandular diseases. It has been highly recommended as a preservative
against scarlet fever. It is most frequently employed externally, under
the form of a plaster, ointment, or lotion. It is poisonous.

5. (Alcoholic; E. B. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——_a._ (P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT
OF ACONITE——P. Cod.

_b._ (Ph. U. S.) As the last (nearly), using spirit of ·935 (=about 13 u.
p.).

_c._ (Moir.) The expressed juice is coagulated by heat, cautiously
applied, and filtered; the filtrate is reduced to the consistence of a
syrup, and mixed with an equal volume of nearly anhydrous alcohol (say of
90%); the clear portion is lastly evaporated, as before.

_Obs._ The above is much more powerful than the common extract, and is
chiefly used in external applications. See BELLADONNA, and _below_.

=Extract of Belladonna Ber′ries.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM BACCARUM BELLADONNÆ, L.
_Prep._ (P. Cod.) From the expressed juice of the berries, evaporated to
the consistence of thick honey.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 gr.

=Extract of Bis′tort.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM BISTORTÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.)
From the dried root of bistort or snake-weed (_Polygonum Bistorta_), by
percolation with temperate distilled water.

2. From the infusion made with boiling water, or from the decoction.
Astringent and tonic.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.

=Extract of Bit′ter-sweet.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF WOODY NIGHTSHADE; EXTRACTUM
DULCAMARÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From the decoction of the stalks.

2. (Ph. U. S.) From the dried stalks, by percolation with temperate water.
Diaphoretic, diuretic, and narcotic.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 gr.; in chronic
asthma, rheumatism, and chest diseases; and particularly in chronic skin
diseases.

=Extract, Black.= See EXTRACT OF COCCULUS.

=Extract of Black Pepper.= See EXTRACT OF PEPPER.

=Extract of Bladder-wrack.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM FUCI VESICULOSI. From the
dried plant of the bladder-wrack. Given in obesity.

=Extract of Bor′age.= Syn. EXTRACTUM BORAGINIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.)
From the dried herb (_Borago officinalis_).

2. (Ph. Lusit.) From the clarified juice of the fresh plant. Exhilarating,
restorative, and pectoral.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., or more.

=Extract of Box.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM BUXI, E. CORTICIS B., L. _Prep._ (P.
Cod.) From the tincture of the root bark, prepared (with proof spirit) by
displacement, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod.

=Extract of Broom.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF BROOM TOPS; EXTRACTUM SCOPARII, E.
SPARTII SCOPARII, L. From decoction of broom tops. Diuretic and cathartic;
and, occasionally, emetic.——_Dose_, 20 gr. to 1 dr.; in dropsy, &c. It is
now seldom used.

=Extract of Bry′ony.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM BRYONIÆ, E. B. ALBÆ, E. RADICIS B.
A., L. _Prep._ From the infusion or decoction of the root of white bryony
(_Bryonia dioica_). Purgative, diuretic, and emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 10 gr.
to 1/2 dr. It was once a favourite remedy in asthma, dropsy, epilepsy, &c.

=Extract of Bu′chu.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM BUCHU, E. DIOSMÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From
buchu leaves, as the last.

2. (Ethereo-alcoholic; E. B. ÆTHERO-ALCOHOLICUM, L.——W. Procter.) Buchu
(in coarse powder), 1 lb.; ether, 4 fl. oz.; alcohol (rectified spirit),
12 fl. oz.; percolate without digestion, adding dilute alcohol until a
pint of ethereo-alcoholic tincture is obtained, and suffer this to
evaporate spontaneously; treat the residue in the displacer with dilute
alcohol, till 2 pints are obtained; evaporate to a syrup, add the product
of the first tincture, mix, and complete the evaporation.——_Dose_, 5 to 10
gr.; in diseases of the urinary organs, &c.

3. (Fluid; E. B. FLUIDUM, L.——W. Procter.) Buchu leaves, 8 oz.; rectified
spirit, 16 fl. oz.; for a tincture by displacement, adding water, until 12
fl. oz. have passed through; allow this to evaporate spontaneously until
reduced to one half; next digest the mass in the percolator with cold
water, 1 pint, for 12 hours, express a pint, and evaporate this to 10 fl.
oz.; lastly, add the 6 fl. oz. of residual tincture, agitate together, and
in a few days filter, or decant the clear portion.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
teaspoonfuls. See DIOSMA.

=Extract of Buck′bean.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM MENYANTHIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (P.
Cod.) From the expressed juice of the fresh plant.

2. (Ph. Bor.) From the infusion made with boiling water. Bitter, tonic and
astringent.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr. In large doses it is purgative,
cathartic, and even emetic.

=Extract of Buck′thorn.= Syn. EXTRACTUM RHAMNI, E. BACCARUM R., L. _Prep._
From the filtered expressed juice of buckthorn berries. Some persons allow
it first to run into a state of fermentation; but the quantity of the
product is thereby greatly lessened. Hydragogue and purgative.——_Dose_, 15
gr. to 1 dr., or more.

=Extract of Bur′dock.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM BARDANÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From the
decoction of burdock root.

2. (P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod. In gout, rheumatism, skin
diseases, &c.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1 dr. Sir Robert Walpole praised burdock
root as a gout medicine; and others have considered it an excellent
substitute for sarsaparilla. (Lindley.)

=Extract of Butter-nut.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM JUGLANDIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. U.
S.) From the inner bark of the root of the butter-nut or white walnut
(_Juglanda alba_), as EXTRACT OF BITTER SWEET——Ph. U. S. A mild, yet
efficacious aperient and vermifuge.——_Dose._ As a laxative, 5 to 10 gr.;
as a purgative, 15 to 30 gr.

=Extract of Cainca Root.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CAINCÆ. (P. Pharm.) _Prep._
Put 10 oz. of the dried root of cainca into a percolator, pour on it proof
spirit q. s. to penetrate the powder in every part, and let it remain 12
hours; then let the liquid drain, and pass successively through the powder
in the percolator as much proof spirit as will amount with that previously
used to 60 oz. by weight. Distil off the spirit and evaporate to a soft
extract.

=Extract of Calabar Bean.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM PHYSOSTIGMATIS. (B. P.)
Calabar bean in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 5; macerate the bean
for 48 hours in one fourth of the spirit in a closed vessel, agitating
occasionally, then transfer to a percolator, and when the fluid ceases to
pass add the remainder of the spirit, so that it may slowly penetrate
through the powder; subject the residue of the bean to pressure, adding
the pressed liquid to the product of the percolation; distil off the
spirit, and evaporate what is left to the consistence of a soft extract by
a water bath.——_Dose_, 1/16 to 1/4 gr.

=Extract of Calum′ba.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CALUMBÆ, E. RADICIS C., L. _Prep._
1. (B. P.) Calumba cut small, 1; water, 5; macerate in half the water for
12 hours, strain, and press; macerate again with the remaining water,
strain, and press; mix and filter the liquors, and evaporate with the heat
of a water bath to pill consistency.——_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr.

2. (Alcoholic——Ph. Bor.) Nearly as No. 3 (_below_), but using stronger
spirit; the evaporation is to be conducted at a heat not above 167° Fahr.,
until it acquires the consistence of a pill-mass, which, after being
rendered quite dry by a very gentle heat, is to be reduced to fine powder.
It should have a brownish-yellow colour, and give a turbid solution with
water.——_Dose_, 4 to 12 gr. They are all tonic and stomachic.

3. (Spirituous——P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BOX. The Ph. Baden orders spirit of
·944 to be used.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr.

=Extract of Cannabis Indicæ.= See EXTRACT OF INDIAN HEMP.

=Extract of Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF SPANISH FLIES; EXTRACTUM
CANTHARIDES, E. LYTTÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) From the tincture, as
EXTRACT OF BOX.

2. (Soubeiran.) From a tincture prepared with spirit of the sp. gr. ·923
(about 2 u. p.).

3. (Acetic; E. C. ACETICUM, L.) From a tincture prepared with acetic acid,
sp. gr. 1·048.

4. (Ethereal; E. C. ÆTHEREUM, L.) From the ethereal tincture.

_Obs._ The ether, acid, and spirit distilled from the above must be either
thrown away or used to make fresh extract, as it is highly poisonous. They
are all for external use only, and should have the consistence of soft
butter.

=Extract of Car′damoms.= _Syn._ ETHEREAL E. OF C.; EXTRACTUM CARDAMOMI
ÆTHEREUM, L. _Prep._ (W. Procter.) By spontaneous evaporation of the
ethereal tincture. It consists of the volatile and fixed oils of the seeds
and is used to aromatise pills, powders, &c.

=Extract of Ca′rob Beans.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CERATONIÆ, L. Prep. From the
decoction of the pods (CAROB, or ALGAROBA BEANS) of the ‘_Ceratonia
siliqua_,’ or ‘St. John’s bread tree.’ See ALGAROBA.

=Extract of Caroli′na Pink.= See EXTRACT OF PINK-ROOT.

=Extract of Car′rot.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CAROTÆ, E. RADICIS C., L. _Prep._
(Swediaur.) From the clarified expressed juice, evaporated to the
consistence of honey. Recommended as an application to ulcerated cancers.

=Extract of Cascaril′la.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CASCARILLÆ, E. CORTICIS C., L.
_Prep._ 1. (Guibourt.) From the alcoholic (rectified spirit) tincture.

2. (Ph. Baden.) As the last, but using spirit of the sp. gr. ·944.

3. (Ph. L. 1788.) As EXTRACT OF JALAP——Ph. L.

_Obs._ This extract is tonic, aromatic, and stomachic.——_Dose_, 5 to 15
gr., or more, 2 or 3 times a day. 28 lbs. of bark yield about 5-1/4 lbs.
of extract.

=Extract of Cas′sia.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CASSIÆ, L. See CASSIA PULP.

=Extract of Cat′echu.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CATECHU, L. _Prep._ 1. From
decoction of catechu.

2. (P. Cod.) From the infusion in boiling water. Astringent and
tonic.——_Dose_, 5 to 25 gr. See CATECHU.

=Extract of Cel′andine.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CHELIDONII, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph.
Bor.) From the herb (_Chelidonium majus_), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF
ACONITE——Ph. Bor.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr.

2. (Van Mons.) From the expressed juice, coagulated by heat, filtered, and
evaporated, towards the end adding the coagulum.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr., or
more. Used as a drastic hydragogue in dropsies; and in scrofula, &c.

=Extract of Cen′taury.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CENTAURII, L. Extracts under this
name are prepared from ‘American centaury’ (_Sabbatia angularis_), and
‘common centaury’ (_Erythræa Centaurium_). Prep. 1. By evaporating the
decoction, or the infusion made with hot water. The dose and properties
resemble those of extract of gentian.

2. (Alcoholic; E. C. ALCOHOLICUM, L.) As EXTRACT OF BOX (see _above_).

=Extract of Cevadil′′la.= _Syn._ ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF SABADILLA; EXTRACTUM
SABADILLÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr Turnbull.) From tincture of cevadilla seeds,
made with rectified spirit. Employed by Dr Turnbull as a remedy in painful
rheumatic and neuralgic affections, and, generally, as a substitute for
VERATRIA.——_Dose_, 1/10 to 1/6 gr. It is extremely poisonous.

=Extract of Cham′omile.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ANTHEMIDIS (Ph. E.), E. A.
NOBILIS, L. _Prep._ By evaporating the decoction of the flowers to the
proper consistence.

_Obs._ This extract contains only the bitter portion of the chamomile, the
aromatic volatile oil being dissipated during the evaporation. This,
however is remedied in the formulæ given by the British Pharmacopœia,
which is as follows:---

Boil chamomile flowers 1 lb., in one gallon of distilled water, until the
volume is reduced to one half; strain, press and filter. Evaporate by a
water bath to a proper consistence, adding oil of chamomile, 15 minims at
the end of the process.

It is usually prepared from old flowers that have lost their smell and
colour, and are thus rendered unsaleable. The extract of chamomile that
smells strongly of the flowers, frequently vended by the druggists, is
prepared by adding 1 dr. of the essential oil of chamomile to every pound
of extract, when nearly cold, and just before removing it from the
evaporating pan. This addition, unlike many which are made in the
laboratory, vastly increases the medicinal virtues of this article. The
mass of extract of chamomile met with in the shops is nothing but extract
of gentian scented with a little oil of chamomile. 1 cwt. of chamomiles
yields about 48 lbs. of extract.

Extract of chamomile is bitter, tonic, and stomachic.——_Dose_, 10 to 20
gr., made into a pill, either alone or combined with a little rhubarb and
ginger. See PILLS, &c.

=Extract of Chenopo′′dium.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF STINKING GOOSE-FOOT;
EXTRACTUM CHENOPODII, L. _Prep._ 1. From the stinking orache or goose-foot
(_Chenopodium olidum_), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE.——Ph. L.

2. (Mr Houlton.) From the expressed juice by spontaneous evaporation. A
better plan is to expose it to heated air. Antihysteric, emmenagogue, and
vermifuge.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr.

=Extract (Fluid) of Wild Cherry.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM PRUNI VIRGINIANÆ
FLUIDUM. (Ph. U. S.) Wild cherry in fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); glycerin,
4 oz. (old measure); water, 8 oz. (old measure). Mix the glycerin and the
water, and digest the wild cherry in 8 oz. of the mixture for 4 days, then
pack in a percolator and pour on the remaining 4 oz. of glycerin and
water. When this has disappeared from the surface pour on rectified spirit
(·817) until 12 oz. (old measure) of fluid have been obtained, and set
this portion aside. Then percolate with spirit, until 20 oz. (old measure)
more have been obtained; evaporate to 4 oz. (old measure), and mix with
the reserved portion.

=Extract of Cincho′na.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF BARK. Three simple extracts,
prepared respectively from YELLOW, PALE, and RED CINCHONA, are given in
Ph. L.:——_Prep._ 1. (From CALISAYA or YELLOW BARK:——EXTRACT OF CINCHONA,
E. OF YELLOW C., E. OF HEART-LEAVED C.; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ, L.)——_a._
EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ FLAVÆ LIQUIDUM (B. P.). Yellow cinchona bark in coarse
powder, 16; distilled water, a sufficiency; rectified spirit, 1; macerate
the bark in 40 of water for twenty-four hours, then pack in a percolator,
and add water until 240 have passed through, or until the bark is
exhausted; evaporate the liquor to 20, at a temperature not exceeding
160°; then filter, and continue the evaporation to 3, or until the sp. gr.
of the liquid is 1·200; when cold, add the spirit gradually, constantly
stirring. Sp. gr. 1·100.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims.

_b._ (Ph. L.) Yellow cinchona (coarsely bruised), 3 lbs.; distilled water
(temperate), 4 pints; macerate for 24 hours (constantly stirring), and
strain through linen; what remains, again macerate in water, 1 quart, for
24 hours, and strain; evaporate the mixed liquids to a proper consistence.

_Obs._ The aqueous extracts of cinchona bark possess little medicinal
virtue, owing to the insolubility of the alkaloids (quinine, cinchonine,
&c.) in water, and also from the rapid oxidation of their extractive
matter, when exposed in solution to the joint action of heat and
atmospheric oxygen.——_Dose_, 5 gr. to 1/2 dr., in mixtures, faintly
acidulated with sulphuric acid. Cinchona bark yields from 24% to 30% of
aqueous extract.

2. (From PALE BARK:——EXTRACT OF PALE CINCHONA, E. OF PALE BARK, E. OF
LANCE-LEAVED B.; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ VALLIDÆ, L.)——_a._ (Ph. L.) From pale
bark, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. L. (_above_).

_b._ (Ph. L. 1836.) From the decoction.

_Obs._ This forms the EXTRACT OF BARK of the shops. The red and yellow
cinchona barks are scarcely ever used for making extracts. Their richness
in quinine leads to their almost, exclusive employment for the manufacture
of that alkaloid, by which their value is greatly enhanced. As far as our
knowledge extends, no other extract of bark than this is either employed
or asked for.

3. (From RED BARK:——EXTRACT OF RED CINCHONA, E. OF RED BARK, E. OF
OBLONG-LEAVED B.; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ RUBRÆ, L.)——_a._ (Ph. L.) From red
bark, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. L. (_above_).

_b._ (Ph. L. 1836.) From the decoction.

_Obs._ These extracts are ordered to be kept in two states, the one (SOFT
EXTRACT OF CINCHONA; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ MOLLE) for making pills, &c.; the
other (HARD EXTRACT OF CINCHONA; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ DURUM) for
powdering.——The dose, &c., of all the above are the same.

4. (Dry:——ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ SICCUM, L.)——_a._ (P.
Cod.) From an aqueous infusion of pale bark (prepared by displacement with
water at a temperature not above 77° Fahr.), evaporated to the consistence
of a thick syrup, and then spread thinly and uniformly on earthenware
dishes, or sheets of glass, and dried in a stove, by a very gentle heat.
It is separated from the plates with a knife, and preserved in well-closed
phials. Prior to spreading it out on the plates, about 4% or 5% of thick
mucilage is commonly added.

_b._ (Ph. Bor.) As the above (nearly).

_c._ (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Similar to the above; but the liquid, when it
acquires the consistence of treacle, is diluted with water, and again
evaporated to a like consistence; and this dilution and evaporation is
repeated until, on the addition of water, it forms a clear
solution.——_Dose_, 5 to 25 gr. The product of the last formula is nearly
inert, and that of the others possesses little activity.

5. (Fluid:——EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ FLUIDUM, L.)——_a._ See LIQUOR OF CINCHONA.

_b._ (Dr Neligan.) From yellow bark, as FLUID EXTRACT OF BUCHU.

6. (Resinous:——ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF BARK; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ ALCOHOLICUM,
E. CINCHONÆ, L.)——_a._ (Ph. E.) From any variety of cinchona bark (in
powder), 4 oz.; proof spirit, 24 fl. oz.; prepare a tincture by
displacement, distil off most of the spirit, and evaporate the residuum to
the consistence of an extract. This is the only EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ of the
Edinburgh College.

_b._ (Ph. U. S.) Peruvian bark, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 4 pints; make 4
pints of tincture by displacement; add water to the mass in the
percolator, digest, and obtain 6 pints of infusion; distil off the spirit
from the tincture, and evaporate the infusion to the consistence of syrup,
then mix the two, and complete the evaporation. More active than the
aqueous extract.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr.

_c._ (Ellis.) Yellow bark, 2 lbs.; hydrochloric acid, 4 fl. dr.; water, 1
gall.; boil, strain, and repeat the decoction with fresh water and acid;
mix the decoctions, filter, and agitate it with fresh-slaked lime, 2-1/2
oz.; filter or decant; dry the residuum, and exhaust it with hot alcohol,
q. s.; lastly, evaporate the alcoholic tincture to a pilular
consistence.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 gr. Some persons have proposed to call this
‘ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK,’

7. (Vinous:——EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ VINOSUM, L.——Ph. Hesse.) Peruvian bark (in
powder), 1 part; white wine (sherry), 8 parts; digest 3 days, express,
filter, and evaporate.

=Extract of Coc′culus.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF COCCULUS INDICUS, BLACK EXTRACT,
EXTRACT (Brewer’s), BEER STRENGTHENER, HARD MULTUM; EXTRACTUM COCCULI, E.
C. INDICI, L. _Prep._ From _cocculus indicus_, by decoction. It is kept in
two states——one having the consistence of thick treacle; the other, that
of a pilular extract. The first is ‘put up’ in bladders; the last is made
into 1/2-lb. rolls, like lead-plaster-or roll-chocolate. It is narcotic
and poisonous, and is employed by fraudulent brewers and publicans to give
a false strength to their liquors. See COCCULUS INDICUS, BEER, &c.

=Extract of Col′chicum.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF MEADOW SAFFRON, E. OF THE CORMS
OF COLCHICUM; EXTRACTUM COLCHICI (B. P.). _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) The expressed
juice of fresh colchicum corms, cleared of deposit, boiled, strained, and
evaporated to a proper consistency at a temperature of 160° Fahr.——_Dose_,
1 to 2 gr.

2. (Wholesale.) From the decoction of the dried corms. _Prod._ 50% to 55%.

_Obs._ This extract is given in the usual cases in which colchicum is
employed.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 gr., every third or fourth hour. (Thomson.) “A
favorite remedy of Dr Hue, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, in the early
stages of acute rheumatism. The dose is 1 gr. every four hours.”
(Pereira.)

3. (Acetic; ACETIC EXTRACT OF MEADOW SAFFRON; EXTRACTUM COLCHICI ACETICUM
(B. P.)——_a._ (B. P.) Crushed fresh corms, previously peeled, 19; acetic
acid, 1; stir together, press, boil, and strain through flannel, and
evaporate to a soft extract.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 gr. with an equal weight of
liquorice powder.

_b._ (Wholesale.) Dried corms, 14 lbs.; acetic acid (pyroligneous), 6
pints; distilled water, 5-1/4 gall.; digest for 14 days, express, filter,
and evaporate. Product, 2-1/2 to 3 lbs.

_Obs._ The above extracts are generally prepared from the dried corms, and
hence the very uncertain and inferior quality of those commonly met with.
They also possess less activity than pharmacopœial preparations. They
rapidly get dry and crumbly, and, unless a little spirit and oil of cloves
are added, will scarcely keep a week in warm weather without becoming
mouldy.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr. two or three times a day. It is much stronger
than the common extract, and contains the acetate of colchicine. Sir C.
Scudamore prefers the acetic extract prepared by the formula _b_
(_above_).

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM COLCHICI ALCOHOLICUM, L.——P. Cod.). As EXTRACT OF
BOX. More active than even the acetic extract. All the preparations of
colchicum are poisonous in large doses.

=Extract of Colo′cynth.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF BITTER APPLE; EXTRACTUM
COLOCYNTHIDIS (Ph. L. & E.), E. C. SIMPLEX, E. C. MOLLE, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Ph. L.) From colocynth pulp (cut in pieces and the seeds removed), by
simple maceration in cold water for 36 hours, frequently pressing it with
the hands, and afterwards strongly pressing out the liquor, which must be
strained before evaporating it.

2. (Ph. E.) From the decoction. This is the plan adopted at Apothecaries’
Hall, and in the laboratory generally. Many houses do not even remove the
seeds.

_Obs._ This extract rapidly gets hard, crumbly, and mouldy by keeping. For
the remedy, see observations on EXTRACT OF COLCHICUM, _above_.——_Dose_, 5
gr. to 20 gr.; as a cathartic. Colocynth pulp yields above 65% of extract.

3. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——_a._ (Ph.
Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ANGELICA——Ph. Bad.)

_b._ (P. Cod.) From a tincture prepared with proof spirit. Much more
active than the simple extract.——_Dose_, 2 to 7 gr.

4. (Dry; EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS SICCUM, L.)——(Ph. Bor.) As the last, but
using spirit of the sp. gr. ·900 (about 16 o. p.), digesting at a tepid
heat, evaporating to dryness, and powdering.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr.

=Extract of Colocynth (Compound).= _Syn._ COMPOUND EXTRACT OF BITTER
APPLE, CATHARTIC EXTRACT; EXTRACTUM CATHARTICUM, E. COLOCYNTHIDIS
COMPOSITUM, B. P. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Colocynth free from seeds, 6; extract
of Socotrine aloes, 12; scammony, or resin of scammony in powder, 4; hard
soap in powder, 3; cardamoms free from capsules in fine powder, 1; proof
spirit, 160. Macerate the colocynth in the spirit for four days, press out
the tincture, distil off the spirit, and add to it the extract of aloes,
the soap, and the scammony; then evaporate the residue by a water bath to
a pilular consistence, adding the cardamoms towards the end of the
process.——_Dose_, 2 to 5 gr., with 2 or 3 gr. of extract of hyoscyamus to
prevent griping.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Colocynth pulp (sliced, without the seeds), 6 oz., proof
spirit, 1 gal.; digest with a gentle heat for 4 days, express, strain, and
add, of extract of aloes (Ph. L. 1836), 12 oz., powdered scammony, 4 oz.,
Castile soap (cut small), 3 oz., and evaporate (distil) to a proper
consistence; adding, towards the last, powdered cardamoms, 1 oz.

3. (Wholesale.) The formulæ adopted by the wholesale druggists are mere
modifications of that of the Ph. L. 1809; water being used instead of
spirit as the menstruum, with actual benefit, as we honestly believe, to
the quality of the preparation. The following are extensively employed by
those who do most in this article, and we can speak highly of the quality
of the products obtained by their use.

_a._ Turkey colocynth, 18 lbs., is boiled in about 20 times its weight of
water for five or six hours; to the strained decoction is added hepatic
aloes, 40 lbs., which are boiled until dissolved, when the solution is
decanted. In the mean time the colocynth is exhausted with a second
quantity of water (less than the first), and the strained liquor is added
to the undissolved residuum of the aloes, and boiled for a few minutes;
after which it is drawn off and mixed with the first decoction of aloes;
the mixed liquors are then allowed to stand until quite cold (commonly
until the next day), to deposit the resinous portion. The liquor is next
decanted or drawn off, and set evaporating as quickly as possible; as soon
as the consistence of treacle is arrived at, the whole is allowed to cool
considerably, and moist sugar (clean), 4 lbs., and Castile soap, 10 lbs.
(previously melted with a little water), are added; powdered scammony, 6
lbs., is next gradually sifted in, the extract all the time being
assiduously stirred by a second person. Lastly, the heat is further
moderated, and the stirring continued until a rather harder consistence is
acquired than is proper for the extract, when the steam is wholly ‘shut
off,’ or the vessel removed from the heat, and as soon as the whole has
become sufficiently cool to prevent any considerable evaporation of the
spirit, essence of cardamoms, 2 lbs. (say 1 quart), is expertly stirred
in; and the extract at once (whilst still warm) put into stone jars or
pots, and tied or covered over for store or use. The product is usually
labelled ‘EXT. COLOCYNTH. COMP. OPT.’ It looks well, and smells very
aromatic, and is really an excellent preparation.

_b._ Turkey colocynth, 2-1/4 lbs.; hepatic aloes, 5-1/2 lbs.; powdered
scammony, 1-1/2 lb.; powdered cardamoms, 6 oz. (or essence, 1/2 pint);
Castile soap (genuine), 1 lb. 2 oz.; pale moist sugar, 1/2 lb.; proceed as
last. This produces a beautiful article, and of unquestionable quality,
equally effective, and milder in its action than the College preparation.
It is labelled and sent out as EXT. COLOCYNTH. COMP. PH. L. (1836).

4. (Ph. L. 1809.) Colocynth, 6 dr. (6 parts); aloes, 1-1/2 oz. (12 parts);
scammony, 1/2 oz. (4 parts); hard soap, 3 dr. (3 parts); cardamoms, 1 dr.
(1 part); as No. 3, _a_ (nearly).

_Qual., &c._ Compound extract of colocynth is often adulterated with acrid
cathartics to make up for the deficiency or inferiority of its proper
ingredients, and foreign matter often becomes mixed with it by the use of
impure scammony. The presence of cape aloes may usually be detected by the
nauseous odour; chalk (an article frequently present in bad scammony), by
placing a little ball of the extract in a glass tube, and pouring over it
some dilute hydrochloric or acetic acid, when an effervescence will ensue
if that substance be present; jalap, scammony adulterated with fecula, and
other starchy substances, by the filtered decoction of the extract turning
blue on the addition of tincture of iodine; gamboge, by the decoction
becoming deep red on the addition of liquor of potassa, and by a filtered
alcoholic solution of the extract forming a yellow emulsion with water,
which becomes transparent and assumes a deep-red colour on the addition of
caustic potassa; and further, by this solution (if the alkali is not in
excess) giving a yellow precipitate with acids and with acetate of lead, a
brown precipitate with sulphate of copper, and a very dark brown one with
the salts of iron; also by the ethereal solution of the extract dropped on
water yielding an opaque yellow film, soluble in caustic potassa if it
contains gamboge.

_Dose_, 3 gr. to 15 gr. It is a safe and mild, yet certain, purgative. It
may be mixed with calomel without the latter being decomposed. 2-1/2 or 3
gr., mixed with an equal weight of blue pill and taken overnight forms an
excellent aperient in dyspepsia, liver complaints, &c. See ABERNETHY
MEDICINES.

_Obs._ There are few formulæ which have undergone so many alterations in
the hands of the College as that for compound extract of colocynth. Before
1809, proof spirit was ordered to be employed as the menstruum, and,
omitting the soap, the preparation resembled that of the Ph. L. 1836. In
1809, the College directed water to be used instead of spirit, and added a
certain quantity of soap. In the next edition of the Pharmacopœia (1815),
the soap was again omitted; but in the edition of 1824, the formula of
1809 was again adopted, substituting, however, proof spirit for the water.
These directions were also continued in the edition of 1836. In the last
London Pharmacopœia (1851) the formula for this extract is omitted
altogether, and in its place a pill (PILULA COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITA) is
inserted.

The compound extract of colocynth and the simple and compound extracts of
sarsaparilla are in greater demand in the wholesale trade, and are sold in
larger quantities at a time, than all the other medicinal extracts put
together. As a proof, if it were necessary, that honesty is the best
policy, it may be mentioned that a certain metropolitan druggist,
remarkable for the superiority of this preparation, has obtained no
inconsiderable fortune by its sale alone; while the host of miserable
vendors of the evaporated decoction of musty colocynth seed, Cape aloes,
worthless scammony, and scentless cardamoms, sold under the name, attempt
to ruin each other by offering their rubbish at a price that precludes the
possibility of a large profit, or even of the establishment of a
respectable connection.

=Extract of Conia.= See EXTRACT OF HEMLOCK.

=Extract of Contrayer′va.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CONTRAYERVÆ, L. _Prep._
(Palat. Cod.) From contrayerva root, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph.
L.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.; as a diaphoretic tonic in low conditions of
the system.

=Extract of Copai′ba.= _Syn._ RESINOUS EXTRACT OF COPAIBA; EXTRACTUM
COPAIBÆ, E. C. RESINOSUM, L. _Prep._ (Mr Thorn.) From balsam of copaiba,
by distilling off the oil until the residuum assumes the consistence of an
extract.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr., or more. One of the many useless
preparations which encumber modern pharmacy. It may be taken in 3 dr.
doses without any perceptible effect beyond a fit of indigestion.

=Extract of Copal′che.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM COPALCHI, E. CORTICIS C., L.
_Prep._ From copalchi bark (_Croton pseudo-China_), as EXTRACT OF
CASCARILLA, which it for the most part resembles.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr.

=Extract (Fluid) of Cotton Root.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM GOSSYPII RADICIS
FLUIDUM (Ph. U. S.). Cotton root in very fine powder, 16 oz. (troy);
macerate with glycerin, 3 fluid oz. (old measure); rectified spirit, 8 oz.
(old measure); water, 5 oz. (old measure), in closed percolator for 4
days; then let the percolation commence, and finish it by adding dilute
alcohol (eq. vols. of alcohol ·835 and water) until 24 oz. (old measure)
have been obtained; reserve the first 14 oz., and evaporate the remaining
10 oz. (to which previously add 1 fluid oz., old measure) of glycerin to 2
fluid oz. (old measure), and mix with the reserved portion.

=Extract of Couch Grass.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF DOG’S GRASS; EXTRACTUM
GRAMINIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) From the root of couch grass, or dog’s
grass (_Triticum repens_), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

2. From the fresh root, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L.

3. (Fluid; MELLAGO GRAMINIS, EXTRACTUM GRAMINIS FLUIDUM, L.——Ph. Hann.
1831.) From the decoction of the fresh root of couch grass, evaporated to
the consistence of new honey. Pectoral.——_Dose_, 15 gr. to 1/2 dr., or
more.

=Extract of Cu′bebs.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CUBEBÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From the
alcoholic tincture evaporated by a very gentle heat.——_Dose_, 5 gr. to 30
gr.

2. (Mr Toller.) To the last add a little powdered Castile soap, when it
begins to thicken, and evaporate to a pilular consistence.——_Dose_, 10 gr.
to 30 gr.

3. (Fluid: LIQUOR CUBEBÆ, EXTRACTUM C. FLUIDUM, L.)——_a._ Cubebs (ground
in a coffee-mill), 1-1/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; prepare a
tincture, either by displacement or by digestion for a week, and reduce
it, by distillation at a very gentle heat, until the whole measures
exactly 1 pint. Every fl. oz. represents 2 oz. of cubebs.——_Dose_, 20 to
40 drops.

_b._ (M. Puche.) From cubebs and proof spirit, equal parts, by
percolation; without subsequent evaporation. Represents its own weight in
cubebs.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr.

_c._ (Ph. U. S. 1851.) Cubebs, 1 lb. (nearly); ether, q. s.; make 1 quart
of tincture; then distil off 1-1/2 pint of the ether by the heat of a
water bath, and expose the residuum in a shallow vessel until the
remainder of the ether has evaporated.

_d._ (Ph. U. S.) EXTRACTUM CUBEBÆ FLUIDUM. Cubebs in moderately fine
powder, 16 oz. (troy); alcohol (·817), 16 oz. (old measure). Macerate in a
closed percolator for 4 days, and then let the percolation commence, and
finish it by adding more menstruum until 24 oz. (old measure) have been
obtained; reserve the first 14 oz., evaporate the remaining 10 oz. to 2
oz., and mix this with the reserved portion.

4. (Oleo-resinous; EXTRACTUM CUBEBÆ, E. CUBEBRUM, E. C. OLEO-RESINOSUM,
L.)——_a._ (M. Dublanc.) The essential oil resulting from the careful
distillation of any given quantity of cubebs, is mixed with the resinous
extract obtained by evaporating a tincture of the dried residuum made with
rectified spirit; the whole being reduced to the consistence of a thick
syrup. 1 lb. of cubebs yields about 6 oz. of this extract.

_b._ (Labelonge.) Cubebs are first exhausted with ether, and then with
proof spirit, in a displacement apparatus; the alcoholic tincture is
evaporated to an extract over a water bath, and when cold, the ethereal
tincture is mixed with it, and the mixture abandoned to spontaneous
evaporation until the ether is volatilised.

_c._ (W. Procter.) An ethereal tincture (by displacement) is poured into a
large retort, and 5-6ths is drawn over by the heat of a water bath; the
evaporation of the residuum, to the proper consistence, is carried on at a
heat not exceeding 120° Fahr. The formula of the Ph. Baden is nearly
similar. Said to represent 6 to 8 times its weight in cubebs. 1 lb. yields
2 oz. of this extract.

_d._ (Hamb. Cod. 1845.) This resembles _a_ (_above_).

_Obs._ This extract has a darkish brown colour, and tastes and smells
strongly of cubebs. It is only slightly soluble in water.——_Dose_, 5 gr.
to 20 gr.; made into an emulsion or pills, or enclosed in a capsule. See
CUBEBS.

=Extract of Cu′cumber.= See ELATERIUM.

=Extract of Cuspa′′ria.= EXTRACT OF ANGOSTURA BARK; EXTRACTUM CUSPARIÆ, E.
CORTICIS C., E. ANGOSTURÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From angostura bark, as EXTRACT
OF CINCHONA——Ph. L.

2. (Alcoholic.) As EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. E. Stronger than the last.
Both are aromatic, bitter, tonic, and stimulant.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2
dr.; in dyspepsia, chronic diarrhœa, dysentery, &c.

=Extract of Daff′odil.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM NARCISSI, L. _Prep._ 1. From the
fresh flowers of daffodil or yellow narcissus (_Narcissus
pseudo-narcissus_), as EXTRACT OF ANCONITE——Ph. L.

2. (Alcoholic.) From the dried flowers, as EXTRACT OF BOX. Both are
pectoral and expectorant; and in large doses nauseant and emetic.——_Dose_,
1/2 gr. to 2 gr.; in hooping-cough, &c.

=Extract of Dandeli′on.= See EXTRACT OF TARAXACUM.

=Extract of Digita′lis.= See EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE.

=Extract of Dog’s Grass.= See EXTRACT OF COUCH GRASS.

=Extract of Dog′wood.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CORNÛS, E. CORNI, L. _Prep._ From
American or tree dogwood (_Cornus Florida_), as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA BARK.

_Obs._ In its general effects, American dogwood approaches the cinchonas,
and is said to be not inferior to them in the cure of intermittents.
(Bigelow.) It contains a peculiar bitter principle, called cornine.
Several other varieties of the genus _Cornus_, as round-leaved dogwood
(_Cornus circinata_), swamp dogwood (_Cornus sericea_), &c., are used in
America, but are less valuable.

=Extracts, Dried or Powdered.= _Syn._ EXTRACTA SICCA VEL PULVERATA (Ph.
Prus.). These are made by mixing 4 parts of the extract with 1 part of
powder of sugar of milk, and setting the mixture in a warm place till dry.

Triturate the mass to powder, adding more of the sugar of milk if
necessary, to make the weight the same as the extract used. The German
Pharmacopœia directs them to be mixed with dextrin, and then dried at a
temperature of 122° Fahr., and, while still warm, triturated into a
uniform powder, with dextrin q. s. to make the weight of the powder equal
to twice the weight of the extract employed.

=Extract of Dulcama′′ra.= See EXTRACT OF BITTER SWEET.

=Extract of Elate′rium.= _Syn._ INSPISSATED JUICE OF THE SQUIRTING
CUCUMBER; SUCCUS SPISSATUS MOMORDICÆ ELATERII. For preparation and recent
synonyms, see ELATERIUM.

=Extract of El′der Berries.= _Syn._ ELDER ROB; ROOB SAMBUCI, EXTRACTUM
SAMBUCI, E. S. NIGRÆ, E. BACCARUM S., SUCCUS SAMBUCI INSPISSATUS, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1788.) The expressed and depurated juice of elder
berries, evaporated to the consistence of honey.

2. (Ph. E. 1744.) To the above, when it begins to thicken, add 1-5th part
of sugar.

3. (Ph. Bor.) As the last (nearly), but adding only 1 oz. of white sugar
to each pound of the extract whilst still warm.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 dr.; in
rheumatism, gout, and various skin affections.

=Extract of El′ecampane.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM INULÆ, E. RADICUM I. CAMPANÆ,
E. HELENII, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) From a decoction of the dried
root.

2. (P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

3. (Ph. Suec 1845.) From a tincture prepared with proof spirit and water,
equal parts.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.; as a diaphoretic, expectorant,
and tonic; in asthma, hooping-cough, various skin diseases, &c.

=Extract of Elm.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ULMI, E. CORTICUS U., L. _Prep._ 1.
From the decoction of the bark of the common elm (_Ulmus campestris_).

2. (Soubeiran.) As EXTRACT OF BOX. Astringent and alterative.——_Dose_, 20
gr. to 1 dr.; in secondary syphilis, chronic skin affections, &c.

=Extract of Er′got.= _Syn._ AQUEOUS EXTRACT OF ERGOT, HÆMOSTATIC EXTRACT;
EXTRACTUM ERGOTÆ, E. E. AQUOSUM, E. SECALIS CORNUTI, E. HÆMOSTATICUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) _Extractum Ergotæ Liquidum._ Ergot in coarse powder,
16; ether, 20; distilled water, 70; rectified spirit, 8. Shake the ether
in a bottle with half its bulk of the water, and, after separation, decant
the ether. Place the ergot in a percolator, and free it from oil by
passing the washed ether through it; remove the marc and digest it in the
remainder of the water for twelve hours at 160° F. Press out the liquor,
and evaporate it to 9, and when cold add the 8 of spirit; allow it to
stand for an hour to coagulate, filter, and make up the quantity to
16.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 minims.

According to Squire, the amount of ether employed should be double the
above, in two percolations, and the marc should be dried in the air before
digesting with water. See ERGOTINE (Bonjeau’s).

2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM ERGOTÆ ALCOHOLICUM, L.) See ERGOTINE (Wigger’s).

=Extract of Eucalyptus Globulus.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM EUCALYPTI GLOBULI.
(Griffith.) _Prep._ Eucalyptus leaves cut at will. Distil the volatile oil
with water; exhaust the residue in the still with water, prepare an
extract, exhaust this with alcohol, evaporate to the consistence of an
extract, and, while cooling, stir in the volatile oil.——_Dose_, 2 gr. to 8
gr.

=Extract of Fern.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM FILICIS 1IQUIDUM——B. P. see EXTRACT OF
MALE FERN.

=Extract of Fleabane (Canadian).= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ERIGERONIS. _Prep._ 1.
From Canadian fleabane, by evaporating an aqueous infusion.——_Dose_, 5 to
10 gr.

2. (EXTRACTUM ERIGERONTIS CANADENSIS FLUIDUM——Ph. U. S.) Canadian erigeron
in moderately coarse powder, 16 oz. (troy); rectified spirit, 16 oz. (old
measure). Proceed as for fluid extract of cubebs (Ph. U. S.).

=Extract of Flesh.= See EXTRACT OF MEAT, ESSENCE OF BEEF, TEA (Beef), &c.

=Extract of Fox′glove.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM DIGITALIS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1.
(Ph. L. 1836.) From the leaves of _Digitalis purpurea_, as EXTRACT OF
ACONITE——(Ph. L.)

2. (Ph. E.) From the filtered expressed juice, either evaporated _in
vacuo_, with the aid of heat, or by exposure to a current of dry air.

3. (P. Cod.)——_a._ As EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

_b._ As EXTRACT OF BOX——P. Cod.

4. (Ph. Baden.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. Bad.

_Obs._ The juice of foxglove is very readily injured by exposure to air
and heat. The evaporation should therefore be conducted as rapidly as
possible, but at a low temperature. It is narcotic, sedative, and is
powerfully poisonous.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr., cautiously increased to 2 or 3 gr.
It is principally given in fevers, dropsy, diseases of the heart,
pulmonary consumption, epilepsy, scrofula, and asthma. This extract spoils
by long keeping. The last two are stronger than the rest, and keep better.
It is omitted in the present Ph. L.

=Extract of Fu′mitory.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM FUMARIÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From
either the infusion or decoction of the dried leaves of common fumitory
(_Fumaria officinalis_).

2. (B. Cod.) From the clarified juice of the fresh herb. Slightly
aperient, diaphoretic, and alterative. It has been given in obstructions
of the liver and cutaneous affections of the leprous kind.

=Extract of Galls.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM GALLÆ, E. GALLARUM, L. _Prep._ 1.
From the infusion by maceration or displacement with cold water.

2. From the hot infusion or decoction. The first is to be preferred.
Astringent. Used chiefly in ointments and injections for piles, foul
ulcers, &c., and, internally, in hæmorrhages, spitting of blood, &c.

=Extract of Gen′tian.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM GENTIANÆ (B. P.), L. _Prep._ 1.
(Ph. L.) Gentian root (sliced), 3 lbs.; distilled water (temperate), 4
pints; macerate for 12 hours, and gently express the liquor; repeat the
maceration with water, 1 quart, for 6 hours; and evaporate the mixed
liquors.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the ordinary infusion of the root made with 10 or
12 times its weight of boiling water, the maceration being continued for
24 hours.

3. (Ph. E.) From an infusion prepared by percolation with cold water. The
formulæ of the Ph. Baden, Paris, and U. S. are similar.

4. (B. P.) Gentian, 1 lb.; water (boiling), 10; macerate for 2 hours, boil
15 minutes, strain, and evaporate to a soft pilular consistence.——_Dose_,
10 to 15 gr.

5. (Ph. D. 1826.) From the decoction.

_Obs._ On the large scale, this extract is almost universally prepared by
exhausting the root by coction with water, as in the last formula. When
well prepared it is one of the smoothest and brightest extracts of the
Pharmacopœia. Good gentian root yields by infusion in hot water fully 50%,
and by decoction about 60% of extract.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 30 gr., two or
three times daily, as a stomachic bitter and tonic; either alone or
combined with rhubarb, ginger, or aloes. It is, however, more especially
used as a vehicle for chalybeates and other metallic preparations. The
principal consumption of extract of gentian is by the brewers, in lieu of
hops.

6. (HARD E. OF G.; E. D. DURUM, L.) The last dried by a gentle heat until
brittle enough to powder.

=Extract (Fluid) of Ginger.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ZINGIBERIS FLUIDUM. (Ph. U.
S.) As fluid extract of cubebs, but using rectified spirit.

=Extract (Fluid) of Golden Seal.= _Syn._ (Ph. U. S.) EXTRACTUM HYDRASTIS
FLUIDUM. _Prep._ Hydrastis (Golden Seal) in very fine powder, 16 oz.
(troy); macerate with 2 oz. (old measure) of glycerine; rectified spirit,
14 oz. (old measure), in closed percolator for 4 days; then let the
percolation commence, and finish it by adding a mixture consisting of 2
parts of spirit and 1 of water, until 24 oz. (old measure) have been
obtained. Remove the first 14 oz.; evaporate the remaining 10 oz. to 2
oz. (old measure), and mix with the reserved portion.

=Extract, Goulard’s.= See SOLUTION OF SUBACETATE OF LEAD.

=Extract of Guaiac′um.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM GUAIACI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.
1746.) From lignum vitæ shavings or sawdust, exhausted by coction with
water; as soon as the mass becomes thick, 1-8th of rectified spirit is to
be added.

2. As the last, omitting the spirit. Diaphoretic, diuretic, and
alterative; in dropsy, gout, rheumatism, skin diseases, &c.

=Extract of Guarana′.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM GUARANÆ, E. PAULLINIÆ, L. _Prep._
(Dr Gavrelle.) From tincture of guarana (seeds of _Paullinia sorbilis_),
prepared by coction with proof spirit. Tonic and alterative.——_Dose_, 2 to
5 gr., twice or thrice daily.

=Extract, Hæmostat′ic.= See EXTRACT OF ERGOT.

=Extract of Hedge Hyssop.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM GRATIOLÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph.
Bor.) From the herb (_Gratiola officinalis_), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF
ACONITE——Ph. Bor.

2. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. Baden.

3. (Vinous.) As VINOUS EXTRACT OF CINCHONA. Purgative, diuretic, and
vermifuge.——_Dose_, 2 to 5 gr., gradually increased, watching its effects;
in dropsy, jaundice, gout, &c. It has been said to be the basis of the
celebrated ‘EAU MÉDICINALE D’HUSSON,’

=Extract of Hel′lebore.= The extracts prepared from three different plants
may be included under this head:——

1. (EXTRACT OF BLACK HELLEBORE; EXTRACTUM HELLEBORI, E. H. NIGRI,
L.)——_a._ (Ph. L., 1788.) From the infusion or decoction of black
hellebore (_Helleborus officinalis_).——_Dose_, 5 to 12 gr.

_b._ (Alcoholic——P. Cod. & Ph. U. S.) As EXTRACT OF BOX (nearly). That of
the Ph. Bad. is similar.——_Dose_, 3 to 8 gr.

_c._ (Vino-alcoholic——Cottereau.) Powdered black hellebore, 2 lbs.; salt
of tartar, 1/2 lb.; dilute alcohol (sp. gr. ·935), 7 pints; digest 12
hours, and express the tincture; add to the marc, white wine, 7 pints;
digest for 24 hours, express, mix the tincture, filter, and
evaporate.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 gr.

_Obs._ When prepared by coction with water till exhausted of soluble
matter, black hellebore root yields about 40% of extract. In small doses
it is alterative, purgative, and resolvent; in larger ones, it is a
drastic, hydragogue cathartic, and emmenagogue, dangerous unless combined
and its effects carefully watched.

2. (EXTRACT OF GREEN HELLEBORE, E. OF AMERICAN H., E. OF ITCH-WOOD;
EXTRACTUM VERATRI VIRIDIS, L.) From the fresh root (rhizome) of the green
hellebore (_Veratrum viride_), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L.——_Dose_, 1/6
to 1/2 gr. Used in America in the same cases as white hellebore.

3. (EXTRACT OF WHITE HELLEBORE; EXTRACTUM VERATRI, E. HELLEBORI ALBI, L.)
From the root (rhizome) of the white hellebore (_Veratrum album_), as
EXTRACT OF BLACK HELLEBORE.——_Dose_, 1/12 gr. to 1/4 gr. Emetic,
purgative, stimulant, and highly acrid. In gout, rheumatism, and nervous
affections, mania, &c. See VERATRINE.

=Extract of Hem′lock.= _Syn._ INSPISSATED JUICE OF HEMLOCK; EXTRACTUM
CONII (B. P.), SUCCUS SPISSATUS CONII, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) The
inspissated juice of the fresh plant, prepared as directed for EXTRACTUM
BELLADONNÆ.——_Dose_, 4 to 6 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) From the fresh plant (_Conium maculatum_), as EXTRACT OF
ACONITE.——Ph. L.

3. (Ph. E.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE——Ph. E.

4. (Ph. D.) As EXTRACT OF BELLADONNA——Ph. D.

_Obs._ Of all the inspissated juices (not even excepting that of aconite),
this is the one most readily injured by exposure to the air and heat, and
which soonest loses its qualities by age. Its active principle is CONINE.
Extract of hemlock has a greenish colour, and a strong odour of the
fresh-bruised plant. It is “of good quality only when a very strong odour
of conia (a ‘mouse-odour’) is disengaged by degrees, on its being
carefully triturated with liquor of potassa.” (Ph. E.) “The extracts of
hemlock may become feeble, if not inert, in one of two ways,——either by
the heat being continued after the concentration has been carried to a
certain extent, or by long keeping. On the one hand, I have always
observed that from the point at which the extract attains the consistence
of thin syrup, ammonia begins to be given off in abundance, together with
a modified odour of conine; and, on the other hand, I have found extracts
which were unquestionably well prepared at first, entirely destitute of
conine in a few years.” (Christison.) “The most active extract is that
which is procured by moderate pressure from the leaves only.” (Brande.)
“The extract of the Ph. D., being freed from the inert albumen and
chlorophyll, contains most of the active principle, and is nearly soluble
in water.” (Royle.) On the large scale, the whole of the green portion of
the plant is pressed for juice. 1 cwt. of hemlock yields from 3 to 5 lbs.
of extract.——_Dose_, 2 gr., gradually increased to 5 gr., or more, until
some obvious effect is produced; as an anodyne, alterative, and resolvent
in various obstinate disorders, as glandular and visceral enlargements,
foul and painful ulcers, scrofula, cancer, neuralgia, rheumatism,
troublesome coughs, &c.

5. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM CONII ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——_a._ (Ph. Baden.) As
ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. Baden.

_b._ (P. Cod.) As the last, but using proof spirit.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 gr.

6. (Dried; EXTRACTUM CONII SICCUM, L.)——_a._ As the DRIED EXTRACT OF
ACONITE——P. Cod.

_b._ (Archer.) By drying the extract of the Dublin College with a
continuous current of warm air.

7. (EXTRACTUM CONII SEMINIS ALCOHOLICUM.) (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Hemlock seeds
in coarse powder, 1 lb; percolate with proof spirit until exhausted.
Distil off most of the spirit, and evaporate residue in a water bath to
pilular consistence.

=Extract of Hemp.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF AMERICAN HEMP; EXTRACTUM APOCYNI, E.
A. CANNABINI, L. _Prep._ From the root of the _Apocynum cannabinum_, as
EXTRACT OF GENTIAN. A hydragogue cathartic.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 gr.; in
dropsy, &c. The plant from which this extract is prepared is called
‘Indian HEMP’ in the United States of America, a practice which should be
avoided, as this name is now almost exclusively appropriated to _Cannabis
Indica_, a variety of the common hemp (_Cannabis sativa_, var. _Indica_)
growing in India. See EXTRACT OF INDIAN HEMP.

=Extract of Hen′bane.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF HYOSCYAMUS; EXTRACTUM HYOSCYAMI
(B. P.), SUCCUS SPISSATUS HYOSCYAMI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) From the fresh
leaves and leafstems of common henbane (_Hyoscyamus niger_), as EXTRACT OF
ACONITE——Ph. L.

2. (Ph. E.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE——Ph. E.

3. (Ph. P.) From the fresh leaves and young branches, as EXTRACT OF
BELLADONNA.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 gr.

4. (Ph. U. S.) From the expressed juice coagulated by heat and strained.

_Obs._ In the Paris Codex Extracts are ordered to be prepared from henbane
both by the processes Nos. 1 and 4 above.——_Product_ (by the ordinary
method):——1 lb. of the fresh leaves yielded fully 8 dr. of extract
(Geiger); 1 cwt. yielded 4 to 5 lb. (Brande); 1 cwt. of the recent plant
yielded, by an ordinary screw press, 59-1/2 lbs. of juice, and this
evaporated in a water bath gave 5 lbs. 9 oz. of extract (Squire); 1-3/4
cwt. of the green herb yielded 11 lbs. of extract (Gray).——_Dose_, 2 to 10
gr.; as an anodyne, hypnotic, antispasmodic, sedative, and narcotic, more
especially in those cases in which the use of opium is objectionable.
_Externally_, as a topical application to sore or inflamed parts, either
made into an ointment or spread on plaster.

5. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM HYOSCYAMI ALCOHOLICUM, L.) The formulæ of the Ph.
Bad., Par. & U. S. are similar to those for ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE.

6. (E. OF HENBANE SEEDS; EXTRACTUM SEMINUM HYOSCYAMI, L.——P. Cod.) An
extract of the seeds made with spirit sp. gr. ·900 (=about 16 o. p.) is
dissolved in 4 parts of cold water, and the solution filtered and
evaporated. Stronger than the simple extract.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 3 gr.

=Extract of Ho′ly This′tle.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CARDUI BENEDICTI, L. _Prep._
1. (Ph. Baden.) From holy or blessed thistle (_Carduus Benedictus_) by
displacement with cold water.

2. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF GENTIAN——Ph. L. (nearly). Tonic, diaphoretic,
febrifuge, often diuretic, and occasionally emetic.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr.,
as a tonic or stomachic chiefly.

=Extract of Hops.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM LUPULI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), E. HUMULI
(Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Hop, 8; rectified spirit, 15; distilled
water, 80. Macerate the hop in the spirit for 7 days, press out the
tincture, filter, and distil off the spirit, leaving a soft extract; boil
the residual hop with the water for one hour, then express the liquor,
strain, and evaporate on a water bath to the consistence of a soft
extract. Mix the two extracts, and evaporate at a temperature not
exceeding 160° to a pilular consistence.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) From commercial hops (the strobiles or catkins of _Humulus
Lupulus_), 2-1/2 lbs.; boiling distilled water, 2 galls.; macerate for 24
hours, boil to a gallon, strain whilst hot, and evaporate to a proper
consistence. The form of the Ph. E. is nearly similar.

3. (Ph. D.) As EXTRACT of ALOES——Ph. D. Tonic and stomachic, and slightly
anodyne and hypnotic.——_Dose_, 5 gr. to 30 gr.; in dyspepsia, and cases
that do not permit of the use of opium. 1 cwt. of ordinary hops yield
about 40 lbs. of extract. (Brande.) The druggists usually employ hops 2 or
more years old, called by the dealers ‘yearlings,’ ‘olds,’ or ‘old olds,’
because these may be purchased at 2/3 to 1/2 the price of those of the
last season’s growth. The first of the above are estimated to have only
2/3 the strength of new hops; the second about 1/2; and the last little or
none, at least in a medical point of view.

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM LUPULI ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Cottereau.) By
displacement with proof spirit. Stronger than the aqueous extract.

=Extract of Hore′hound.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM MARRUBII, L. _Prep._ 1. From the
fresh herb, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE.

2. From the infusion or decoction. Antispasmodic, pectoral, tonic, and
emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1 dr.

3. (Ph. Baden.) By displacement with cold water.

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM MARRUBII ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——_a._ From a tincture
made with proof spirit. Said by M. Thoriel to possess considerable power
as a febrifuge.——_Dose_, 5 gr. to 20 gr.

_b._ (Ph. Lusit.) From a tincture made with a mixture of rectified spirit,
1 part, and water, 7 parts. Inferior to the last.

=Extract of Ind′ian Hemp.= _Syn._ CANNABINE, HEMP RESIN, ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT
OF INDIAN HEMP; EXTRACTUM CANNABIS INDICÆ, E. C. I. ALCOHOLICUM, RESINA
CANNABIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Indian hemp in coarse powder, 1;
rectified spirit, 5; macerate seven days, press out the tincture, distil
off the spirit, and evaporate.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1 grain in pill.

2. (O’Shaughnessy.) The dried resinous tops of Indian hemp (‘GUNJAH’) are
boiled in rectified spirit until all the resin is taken up, when most of
the spirit is distilled off, and the evaporation completed by the heat of
a water bath. 1 cwt. yields about 7 lbs.

3. (Robertson). By slowly acting on the ‘gunjah’ with the vapour of
alcohol, by a species of percolation; the spirit of the resulting tincture
is partly removed by distillation, and the rest by slow evaporation at a
temperature not above 150° Fahr. 1 cwt. yields about 8 lbs.——_Dose_ of the
last two, 1 to 3 gr., gradually increased.

4. (Messrs Smith.) The bruised ‘gunjah’ is exhausted with tepid water,
then with a solution of carbonate of soda (1 of carbonate to 2 of gunjah),
and next with pure water; it is then pressed, dried, and exhausted by
displacement with rectified spirit; the tincture is agitated with a milk
of lime (containing 1 oz. of lime for every lb. of gunjah), and, after
filtration or decantation, any retained lime is precipitated by a little
sulphuric acid in slight excess; the tincture is next agitated with animal
charcoal, and again filtered; most of the spirit is now removed by
distillation, and 3 or 4 times its bulk of water being added, the
remaining spirit is removed by a gentle heat; lastly, the remaining water
is poured off, and the resin remaining washed with fresh water, and dried.
Product, 6%.——Commencing dose, 1/4 gr.

3. (Purified; EXTRACTUM CANNABIS INDICÆ PURIFICATUM, L.——Ph. D.) From the
crude extract of Indian hemp, as imported (‘CHURRUS’), 1 oz.; rectified
spirit, 4 fl. oz.; dissolve, and after defecation, decant, and evaporate.

_Obs._ The preparations of Indian hemp are said to be anæsthetic, anodyne,
hypnotic, stimulant, phrenic, and aphrodisiac, and, in overdoses, to
produce catalepsy. They have been recommended in hysteria, hydrophobia,
cholera, rheumatism, chorea, convulsions, and various other painful
spasmodic and nervous affections of a serious character. According to the
observations of Dr O’Shaughnessy, 1 gr. of the extract produced catalepsy
in a rheumatic patient. The extract prepared with the plant grown in our
botanic gardens has quite a different effect to that of the Indian plant;
and it also appears that the inhabitants of this country are less
susceptible to its action than those of India, and consequently bear the
drug in larger doses. This hemp is known in India as the ‘increaser of
pleasure,’ the ‘exciter of desire,’ the ‘cementer of friendship,’ the
‘causer of a reeling gait,’ the ‘laughter-mover,’ &c. See EXTRACT OF HEMP
(_above_), HEMP, &c.

=Extract of Ipecac′uanha.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM IPECACUANHA, L. _Prep._ 1. (P.
Cod.) From ipecacuanha, as EXTRACT OF BOX.——P. Cod.

2. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF HENBANE SEEDS. Expectorant and
emetic.——_Dose_, 1-1/2 to 8 gr.

=Extract of I′ron.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM FERRI, E. MARTIS, L. _Prep._ 1. From
tincture of tartarised iron.——_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr.; as a chalybeate tonic.

2. (Compound.) See EXTRACT OF APPLE.

=Extract of Jabor′andi (Fluid).= (F. V. Greene, ‘Amer. Journ. Pharm.,’
1877.) _Prep._ Jaborandi leaves in moderately fine powder, 16 troy oz.;
alcohol (50 per cent.), a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder
thoroughly with the menstruum, pack in a conical glass percolator, place a
layer of two inches of well-washed sand on the top of the cloth covering
the material, add menstruum until the liquid begins to drop from the
percolator, when the lower orifice is to be closed with a cork, and the
percolator securely covered; set aside in a moderately warm place for four
days. At the expiration of this time remove the cork, and add more
menstruum by degrees until the material is exhausted. The first 14 ounces
(old measure) of the percolate are to be reserved, and the remainder
evaporated on a water bath, with constant stirring towards the close, to 2
fluid ounces (old measure), which are to be added to the reserved portion.
If the percolation and evaporation have been properly performed the fluid
extract will not be required to be filtered.

=Extract of Jal′ap.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM JALAPÆ (B. P.), E. SIVE RESINA
JALAPÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Jalap in coarse powder, 1;
rectified spirit, 5; distilled water, 10; macerate the jalap in the spirit
for seven days, press out the tincture, then filter, and distil off the
spirit, leaving a soft extract; again macerate the residual jalap in the
water for four hours, express, strain through flannel, and evaporate by a
water bath to a soft extract; mix the two extracts, and evaporate at a
temperature not exceeding 140° F. to a proper consistence for forming
pills.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) Jalap (powdered) 2-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; digest
four days, and express the tincture; boil the ‘marc’ in water, 2 galls.;
until reduced to 1/2 gall.; filter the tincture and decoction separately,
and let the one distil and the other evaporate until each thickens;
lastly, mix the two and complete the evaporation.——_Product._ About 66% =
16% of alcoholic and 50% of aqueous extract. (Brande.) 18 lbs. yield 12
lbs. of extract. (Lab. Journ.)——_Dose_, 6 to 15 gr.

3. (Ph. E.) From tincture of jalap prepared by displacement with rectified
spirit. It consists of impure resin of jalap. It is more active than the
last.——_Prod._ 16%.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 gr.

4. (Ph. Ed. 1744, EXTRACTUM JALAPÆ ALKALINUM.) As extract jalap (B. P.)
adding for every pound of jalap, 1 oz., or q. s. of carbonate of potash.

_Obs._ Extract of jalap is an active purgative. It should be well beaten
up with a little sulphate of potassa, sugar, or some aromatic powder, to
prevent it griping. The substance commonly sold as extract of jalap in the
shops is prepared by boiling jalap root for 3 or 4 hours in water, when it
is taken out, and well bruised or sliced, and again boiled with water
until exhausted of soluble matter. The mixed decoctions are then allowed
12 or 14 hours for defecation, after which the supernatant portion is
decanted and evaporated.

Extract of jalap “should be kept in the soft state (EXTRACTUM JALAPÆ, E.
J. MOLLE), so as to form pills; and in the hard state (HARD EXTRACT OF
JALAP; EXTRACTUM JALAPÆ DURUM), that it may be rubbed to powder.” (Ph. L.)

=Extract of Jasmine (Yellow).= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM GELSEMII FLUIDUM. (Ph. U.
S.) _Prep._ Yellow jasmine in very fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); rectified
spirit, 16 oz. (old measure). Proceed as for fluid extract of cubebs. (Ph.
U. S.)

=Extract of Ju′niper.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM JUNIPERI, E. BACCARUM J., L.
_Prep._ (P. Cod.) Macerate juniper berries in water at 77° to 86° Fahr.,
for 24 hours, strain, repeat the process with a fresh quantity of water,
mix the liquors, filter, and evaporate.——_Dose_, 20 gr. to 1 dr.; as a
stimulant diuretic, in dropsy, &c.; and also as a pill-basis.

=Extract of Kalada′na.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM KALADANÆ, L. _Prep._ (Bengal
Disp.) From the tincture of the seeds of kaladana (_Pharbitis Nil_).
Purgative said to be equal to EXTRACT OF JALAP, and of double the
strength.

=Extract of Lettuce=. _Syn._ INSPISSATED JUICE OF LETTUCE; EXTRACTUM
LACTUCÆ (B. P.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) The inspissated juice evaporated to
a pillular consistence, according to the directions given for EXTRACTUM
BELLADONNÆ.

2. (Ph. L.) From the fresh leaves of garden lettuce (_Lactuca sativa_), as
EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L. Anodyne, sedative, hypnotic, and
antispasmodic.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr. 1 cwt. of lettuce yields 4 lbs. to 5
lbs. of extract.

3. (Probait.) From the external parts of the stalks and the old and yellow
leaves, after the plants have flowered, by maceration in water for 24
hours, and decoction for 2 hours; the expressed liquid is first evaporated
by a gentle heat, and afterwards spread on shallow dishes, and dried by
exposure to a current of air. Stronger than the last.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 gr.

4. (E. OF WILD LETTUCE, INSPISSATED JUICE OF W. L.; EXTRACTUM LACTUCÆ
VIROSÆ, SUCCUS SPISSATUS L. V.——Ph. E., L.)——_a._ (Ph. E.) From the leaves
of strong-scented wild lettuce (_Lactuca virosa_).[295]

[Footnote 295: See general instructions, p. 682.]

_b._ (P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE.——P. Cod.

_c._ (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE——Ph. Baden. See LACTUCARIUM.

=Extract of Liq′uorice.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ (B. P.), L. _Prep._
1. (SOFT E. OF L.; EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ MOLLE, L.)——_a._ (Ph. L.) From
fresh liquorice root, as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.

_b._ (Ph. E.) From the fresh root, cut into slices, dried, and powdered,
as EXTRACT OF GENTIAN——Ph. E. The form of the Ph. Baden is very similar.

_c._ (Ph. D.) As ordered for simple extracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA——Ph.
D.).

_d._ (B. P.) Liquorice root in coarse powder, 1; cold distilled water, 5;
macerate the root in half the water for twelve hours, strain, and press;
again macerate the pressed marc with the remainder of the water for 6
hours, strain and press, mix the strained liquors, heat to 212° F.,
strain, and evaporate to a pill consistence.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr.

_e._ (B. P. EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ LIQUIDUM.) _Prep._ Liquorice root in
coarse powder, 1 lb.; distilled water, 4 pints. Macerate the liquorice
with two pints of water for twelve hours, strain, and press; again
macerate the pressed marc with the remainder of the water for six hours,
strain, and press. Mix the strained liquors, heat to 212° Fahr., and
strain through flannel; then evaporate by a water bath until it has
acquired, when cold, a specific gravity of 1·160; add to this one eighth
of its volume of rectified spirit; let the mixture stand for twelve hours
and filter.

_f._ (U. S. Disp.) Crude liquorice (SPANISH JUICE), q. s. is dissolved in
water, and the solution filtered and evaporated. To produce a good article
(EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ PURIFICATUM) in this way, the solution should be
allowed some hours for defecation, and should not be decanted and strained
until quite cold.

_Obs._ Soft extract of liquorice is often employed as a pill-basis, and
the hard extract (SPANISH JUICE, &c.) is used as a lozenge to allay
tickling cough. The principal portion of the latter is, however, consumed
by the porter brewers and brewers’ druggists. The product of the last
formula, evaporated until it is quite solid when cold, and made into small
pipes, sticks, or rolls, forms the BEST REFINED LIQUORICE or REFINED JUICE
of the shops.

2. (HARD E. OF L., SPANISH JUICE, S. LIQUORICE, GLYCYRRHIZIN, BLACK SUGAR;
EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ SIMPLEX, E. G. DURUM, SUCCUS G., S. G. SPISSATUS,
L.) This is seldom prepared by the English druggists, being principally
imported in the dry state from Spain and Italy. That from Solazzi (SOLAZZI
JUICE) is the most esteemed. A great deal of the foreign extract is mixed
with fecula, or the pulp of plums, hence its inferior quality. It also
frequently contains copper, derived from the boilers in which it is
prepared. The extract prepared from the fresh root is usually preferred to
the best foreign, as the latter has a less sweet and agreeable taste.
REFINED JUICE is prepared by dissolving the foreign juice in water,
filtering and evaporating. See LIQUORICE, and _above_.

=Extract of Lobe′lia.= _Syn._ ACETIC EXTRACT OF INDIAN TOBACCO; EXTRACTUM
LOBELIÆ, E. L. INFLATÆ, L. _Prep._ (W. Proctor.) Lobelia seeds (bruised),
8 oz.; dilute alcohol (sp. gr. ·935), 4 pints; acetic acid, 1 fl. oz.; by
maceration for 24 hours, and subsequent displacement. Expectorant and
diaphoretic, in small doses; emetic and narcotic, in larger ones. It is
principally used in asthma and other chest diseases.——_Dose_, 1/4 gr. to 5
gr.

=Extract of Log′wood.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM HÆMATOXYLI (B. P.), E. H.
CAMPECHIANI, (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Logwood in chips, 1; boiling
distilled water, 10; macerate 24 hours, boil to 5, strain, and evaporate
to an extract, but not in iron vessels.

2. (Ph. L.) From cut logwood (logwood chips), as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.

3. (Ph. E.) As the last (nearly).

4. (Ph. D. 1826 and Wholesale.) From the decoction.

_Obs._ The Ph. U. S. 1841 orders the wood to be rasped. The Ph. Baden
directs displacement with cold water. On the large scale, this extract is
prepared solely by decoction. 1 cwt. of wood yields about 20 lbs. of
extract (Brande); 80 lbs. yield 14 lbs. of extract (Gray.) It is kept in
two states——hard (EXTRACTUM HÆMATOXYLI DURUM) and soft (E. H. MOLLE). The
dose of the first is 10 to 20 gr., dissolved in wine, or any cordial
water; as an astringent, after each motion in diarrhœa; the second is
often employed as a lozenge in the same disease, and is an inexpensive and
agreeable remedy for simple relaxation of the bowels.

=Extract of Lov′age.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM LEVISTICI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Baden.)
From lovage (_Levisticum officinale_), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.
Aromatic, stomachic, and diaphoretic.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr.

=Extract of Lu′puline.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM LUPULINÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From
lupuline (the powder separated from hops by rubbing and sifting), by
infusion in cold water, or by displacement.

2. (EXTRACTUM LUPULINÆ COCTIONE PARATUM.) From the decoction. Both similar
to extract of hops, but stronger. The first is the most aromatic; the last
the most bitter.

=Extract of Mad′der.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM RUBIÆ. L. _Prep._ (Ph. Hamb.) From
the tincture of dyer’s madder (_Rubia tinctorum_), made with rectified
spirit, 1 part, and water, 3 parts.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 30 gr.; as a
diuretic, emmenagogue, and parturifacient; and in jaundice, &c.

=Extract of Mahog′any.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM SWIETENIÆ, L. From the chips and
sawdust of mahogany (_Swietenia Mahogoni_). It is astringent, and is
frequently sold for kino. It is also employed in tanning.

=Extract of Male Fern.= _Syn._ ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF MALE FERN; EXTRACTUM
FILICIS, B. P. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Ebers.) From the tincture of the dried root
of male fern (_Lastræa Filix-mas_), made with rectified spirit. In
tape-worm.——_Dose_, 20 gr. to 1/2 dr., twice a day, made into an electuary
with powdered sugar, and followed by a strong dose of castor oil.

2. (Ethereal.) B. P. (EXTRACTUM FILICIS LIQUIDUM.) Fern root, in coarse
powder, 1; ether, 2-1/2, or a sufficiency. Pack closely in a percolator
with 1 of the ether, add the rest at intervals, until it passes through
colourless, distil off the ether, and the liquid extract remains.——_Dose_,
30 to 60 minims. See OIL OF MALE FERN.

=Extract of Malt.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM MALTI, E. BYNES, L. _Prep._ 1. From
the infusion made with water at a temperature ranging between 160° and
170° Fahr., drained off, without pressure, and evaporated to the
consistence of honey. Nutritious and laxative.——_Dose._ A table-spoonful,
or more, _ad libitum_.

2. EXTRACT OF MALT, FERRATED. (Ph. G.) Extract of malt, 47-1/2 oz., mixed
with 1 oz. of pyrophosphate of iron and citrate of ammonia, dissolved in
1-1/2 oz. of water.

=Extract of Ma′′rygold.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CALENDULÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Guibourt.) By maceration of the herb and flowers of the common marygold
(_Calendula officinalis_) in tepid water for 24 hours, and subsequent
coction for 15 or 20 minutes.

2. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ANGELICA——Ph. Baden.——_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr.;
cordial, diaphoretic, alterative, and emmenagogue; in dyspepsia, and
scirrhous and cancerous affections.

=Extract of May-apple.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM PODOPHYLLI. L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S.
1841.) From the tincture of the root (rhizomes) of may-apple (_Podophyllum
peltatum_).——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr.; as a substitute for extract of jalap.
See PODOPHYLLIN.

=Extract of Mea′dow Saf′fron.= See EXTRACT OF COLCHICUM.

=Extract of Meat.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF FLESH; EXTRACTUM CARNIS, L. _Prep._
(Liebig.) The lean of recently killed meat (chopped very small), 1 part;
cold water, 8 parts; agitate it well together for 10 minutes; then heat it
gradually to the boiling-point, let it simmer gently for a few minutes,
and strain through a hair sieve whilst still hot; lastly, evaporate to a
soft mass. 1 lb. of meat yields barely 1 oz. See ESSENCE OF BEEF, TEA
(Beef), &c.

=Extract of Mezere′on.= _Syn._ MEZEREON RESIN; EXTRACTUM MEZEREI, RESINA
MEZEREI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Alcoholic; E. M. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——_a._ (Ph.
Hamb.) By distilling off 5/6ths of the tincture made with rectified
spirit, and filtering the residue, retaining what is left on the filter.

_b._ By the simple distillation of the tincture.

_Obs._ Green or brownish green; insoluble in water. 1/2 oz. mezereon
root-bark yielded 1-1/2 oz. (Hamb. Disp.) It is chiefly used in preparing
blistering ointments and plasters.

2. (Ethereal; GREEN OIL OF MEZEREON; EXTRACTUM MEZEREI ÆTHEREUM. B.
P.)——_a._ B. P. Mezereon bark cut small, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 8 pints;
ether, 1 pint. Macerate the mezereon in 6 pints of the spirit for 3 days,
with frequent agitation, strain, and press. To the residue of the mezereon
add the remainder of the spirit, and again macerate for 3 days, with
constant agitation, strain, and press. Mix and filter the strained
liquors, recover the greater part of the spirit by distillation, evaporate
what remains to the consistence of a soft extract, put this in a stoppered
bottle with the ether, and macerate for 24 hours, shaking them frequently;
decant the etherial solution, recover part of the ether by distillation,
and evaporate what remains to the consistence of a soft extract.

_b._ (Ph. Bor.) By digesting alcoholic extract of mezereon in ether for
some days with agitation, reducing the tincture to 1-4th by careful
distillation, and evaporating the residuum by a gentle heat to the
consistence of an extract.

_c._ (Ph. U. S. EXTRACTUM MEZEREI FLUIDUM.) Mezereon in moderately coarse
powder, 16 oz. (troy); alcohol (·817), 16 oz. (old measure); proceed as
for fluid extract of cubebs. (Ph. U. S.)

_Obs._ Both the alcoholic and ethereal extract of mezereon must be kept in
stoppered bottles. The latter, like the former, is used as an external
irritant.

=Extract of Mil′foil.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM MILLEFOLII, _E. Achiliæ m._, L.
_Prep._ From the herb milfoil or yarrow (_Achillea millefolium_), as
EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L. Astringent, tonic, and alterative.——_Dose_, 10 gr.
to 1/2 dr.

=Extract of Mimo′sa Bark.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CORTICIS MIMOSÆ, L. _Prep._
From the bark of several Australian species of Acacia or Mimosa (_Acacia
mollissima_, _A. decurrens_, _A. melanoxylon_, &c.). It is chiefly
imported from Van Diemen’s Land. Astringent. Said to be superior to oak
bark for tanning.

=Extract of Mone′sia Bark.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM MONESIÆ, E. M. PURIFICATUM,
L. _Prep._ From the monesia or buranheim bark (bark of _Chrysophyllum
Buranheim_); or from commercial monesia, as EXTRACT OF CATECHU.
Astringent.——_Dose_, 4 to 8 gr.

=Extract of Mug′wort.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ARTEMISIÆ, L. _Prep._ From the
tops of the common mugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris_), as EXTRACT OF BOX,——P.
Cod. An active emmenagogue.

=Extract of Myrrh.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM MYRRHÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Aqueous;
EXTRACTUM MYRRHÆ AQUOSUM, L.)——_a._ From the strained decoction.

_b_. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF ALOES——Ph. Bor., afterwards reducing it to a
fine powder. The formula of the Ph. Baden is similar.——_Dose_, 6 to 15
gr., or more.

2. (Alcoholic; RESIN OF MYRRH; EXTRACTUM MYRRHÆ ALCOHOLICUM, E. M.
RESINOSUM, L.) From the tincture. Tonic and stimulant.——_Dose_, 5 to 10
gr., or more.

3. (Compound; EXTRACTUM MYRRHÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Swediaur.) Myrrh, 2 oz.;
gum arabic (in powder), 2 dr.; triturate, add water, q. s. to form a thick
emulsion, and add extract of couch grass, 4 oz. Much recommended in
phthisis and uterine ulcerations.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr. in water, twice or
thrice daily.

=Extracts, Narcotic, with Sugar.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM NARCOTICA CUM SACCHARO.
(Guager.) _Prep._ Dissolve 6 oz. of alcoholic extract of the plant in 14
dr. or 2 oz. of strong alcohol by trituration in a porcelain mortar, and
mix with it 30 oz. of powdered white sugar, gradually added, with constant
stirring. Set the mixture in a warm situation until dry. Add sugar q. s.
to make up 36 oz. These preparations are less liable to lose their
efficacy than the simple extracts. 6 gr. represent one of the extract.

=Extract of Net′tles.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM URTICÆ, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) From
the juice of nettles (_Urtica dioica_), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L.
Antiscorbutic, diuretic, and narcotic.

=Extract of Nose′gay.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF NOSEGAY; EXTRAIT DE BOUQUET, Fr.
_Prep._ Flowers of benzoin, 1 dr.; essence of ambergris, 2 fl. oz.;
spirits of jasmine and extract (esprit) of violets, of each 1 pint;
spirits of cassia, roses, orange flowers and gillyflowers, of each 1/2
pint; mix. A delightful perfume.

=Extract of Nux Vom′ica.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF KOOCHLA NUTS; EXTRACTUM NUCIS
VOMICÆ, B. P. _Prep._ 1. (Aqueous; E. N. V. AQUOSUM, L.——Ph. Bor.) From
the powdered nut, as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L. (nearly.)——_Dose_, 1 to 5 gr.

2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM NUCIS VOMICÆ——Ph. L. E. and D., E. N. V.
ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——_a._ (B. P.) Soften nux vomica by steam, dry rapidly,
and reduce to fine powder; boil with rectified spirit until exhausted,
strain, distil off the spirit, and evaporate to the consistence of a soft
extract.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 gr.

_b._ (Ph. L.) Koochla or poison nuts (seed or fruit of _Strychnos
Nux-vomica_), 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 pints; expose them to steam until
softened, then bruise, slice, and dry them, and macerate them in 2-3rds of
the spirit for 7 days; express the tincture, and repeat the maceration
with the remaining 1-3rd of the spirit; again express the liquid; lastly,
filter the mixed tinctures, distil off the greater part of the spirit, and
complete the evaporation by a gentle heat. The formula of the P. Cod. is
similar, but using spirit sp. gr. ·863 (=41 o. p.).

_c._ (Ph. E.) The sliced and dried nuts are to be ground in a coffee-mill,
and either exhausted by percolation with rectified spirit or by boiling
the powder in repeated portions of the menstruum. The formulæ of the Ph.
Baden and U. S. are similar.

_d._ (Ph. D. 1826.) From a tincture of the rasped nut made with proof
spirit, observing that the extract, whilst thickening, should be properly
stirred.

_Obs._ This extract consists chiefly of impure igasurate of strychnia, and
is exhibited in similar cases to that alkaloid. Used as a stimulant of the
nervous system in paralysis.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr., gradually and cautiously
increased to 2 gr. It is very poisonous. On the large scale, the nuts are
ground in a drug-mill.

=Extract of Oak Bark.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM QUERCÛS, E. CORTICIS QUERCÛS, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) From the decoction. Astringent.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to
1/2 dr. Now seldom used.

=Extract of O′pium.= _Prep._ 1. (AQUEOUS EXTRACT OF OPIUM, SIMPLE E. OF
O.; EXTRACTUM OPII (B. P.), E. O. AQUOSUM (Ph. D.), E. O. PURIFICATUM,
L.)——_a._ (B. P.) Opium in thin slices, 1 lb.; distilled water, 6 pints.
Macerate the opium in 2 pints of the water for 24 hours, and express the
liquor. Reduce the residue of the opium to a uniform pulp, macerate again
in 2 pints of the water for 24 hours, and express. Repeat the operation a
third time. Mix the liquors, strain through flannel, and evaporate by a
water bath to a proper consistence for forming pills.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1
gr., or more.

_b._ (Ph. L.) Opium (powdered), 1-1/2 lb.; distilled water (cold), 2-1/2
pints; mix gradually, and macerate for 24 hours, frequently stirring with
a spatula; (press), strain, and repeat the maceration for 24 hours with a
fresh quantity (2-1/2 pints) of water; lastly, evaporate the (mixed)
strained liquors to a proper consistence. The formulæ of the Ph. E. D. and
Baden, and P. Cod., are essentially the same.

_c._ (Ph. D. 1826.) As the last, but using boiling water, and exposing the
mixed liquors to the air for 2 days, before filtering, and evaporating
them. Inferior to the last.

_d._ (Purified.) The extract, prepared with cold water, is evaporated to
dryness, powdered, and redissolved in cold water; after 48 hours’
exposure, and defecation, it is decanted from the dregs, filtered, and
gently evaporated, as before. Superior to any other extract of opium made.

_Obs._ Good opium yields from 60% to 70% of its weight of extract, but
much depends upon the variety used.——_Dose_, 1/4 gr. to 2 gr., as an
anodyne, sedative, and hypnotic. It is less stimulating than ordinary
opium. That prepared by the third formula is, indeed, scarcely inferior in
its action to the salts of morphine.

This extract is kept in both the hard and soft state (EXTRACTUM OPII
DURUM, E. O. MOLLE). A solution of the former, in distilled water, with
the addition of a little spirit to keep it, forms Battley’s ‘LIQUOR OPII
SEDATIVUS,’ The Dublin formula is that adopted by the wholesale druggists.

Besides the aqueous extract, there are the following preparations:——

2. (EXTRACTUM OPII LIQUIDUM, B. P.; EXTRACT OF OPIUM.) Distilled water,
16; rectified spirit, 4. Digest the extract of opium in the water for an
hour, stirring frequently; filter, and add the spirit. The product should
measure 20.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims.

3. (Acetic; EXTRACTUM OPII ACETICUM, L.——Soubeiran.) Opium, 1 oz.;
distilled vinegar, 1 quart; digest 2 days (with heat), decant, filter, and
evaporate.

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM OPII ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Ph. Antwerp.) From the
tincture.

5. (Aqueo-alcoholic; E. OPII AQUO-ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Taddei.) The opium,
exhausted by spirit, is digested in warm water, and the infusion and
tincture, separately filtered, are mixed and evaporated.

6. (De-narcotised; EXTRACTUM OPII ABSQUE NARCOTINA, L.——_a._ (P. Cod.) The
aqueous extract is reduced with hot water to the consistence of a syrup,
and when cold this is mixed with 8 times its volume of ether, and the
whole is frequently shaken for a day or two; the ethereal solution is then
decanted, and the process repeated with fresh ether, as long as it
dissolves anything. The original form of Robiquet is similar. Said to
consist entirely of impure MURIATE OF MORPHINE, GUM, and EXTRACTIVE.

_b._ (M. Lamousin-Lamothe.) Aqueous extract, 4 parts; resin, 1 part; beat
well together; add boiling water, 16 parts; boil to one half; add cold
water, 8 parts, filter, and evaporate.

7. (By fermentation; EXTRACTUM OPII PER FERMENTATIONEM, L.)——_a._ Opium
and sugar, of each 4 oz.; water, 1 quart; rub together, and keep the
mixture, loosely covered, in a warm situation (about 70° Fahr.), for 10
days or more; then add of cold water, 1 quart, and the next day filter and
evaporate.

_b._ (Duyeux.) From an unstrained mixture of opium, 1 part, with water, 8
parts, and a little yeast; left for a week at a temperature of 68° to 77°
Fahr., and then diluted, filtered, and evaporated. Some parties have
recommended quince juice as the menstruum.

8. (Roasted; EXTRACTUM OPII TORREFACTI, L.——Guibourt.) Powdered opium is
heated on a flat dish over a moderate fire, with constant stirring, as
long as fumes are given off; it is then exhausted by treating it twice
with 6 times its weight of water, and the mixed liquor, after filtration,
is evaporated.

9. (Vinous; EXTRACTUM OPII VINO PARATUM, L.——P. Cod.) From wine of opium.
The above extracts of opium (excepting the alcoholic) are regarded as less
exciting than the other preparations of the drug. The dose of each is
similar to that of the aqueous extract.

=Extract of Or′ange Peel.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CORTICIS AURANTII, L. _Prep._
1. From the thin yellow peel, as EXTRACT OF MADDER.

2. See AURANTII.

=Extract of Ox-gall.= _Syn._ INSPISSATED OX-GALL; EXTRACTUM FELLIS BOVINI,
L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) From ox-gall, strained, and evaporated in a water
bath.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr.; in pills.

2. (Hunter Lane.) As the last, but reducing the gall to dryness, and then
powdering it. It must be preserved in well-corked bottles.——_Dose_, 3 to
12 gr.

=Extract of Parei′ra.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM PAREIRÆ (B. P.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B.
P.) Pareira root in coarse powder, 1; boiling distilled water, 10, or a
sufficiency; digest the pareira with 1-1/2 of water for twenty-four hours,
then pack in a percolator, and water till by slow percolation
10 has passed through; evaporate in a water bath to a pilular
consistence.——_Dose_, 13 to 20 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) From the root of velvet leaf or pareira brava (_Cissampelos
Pareira_), as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.

3. (P. E.) As EXTRACT OF LIQUORICE——Ph. E. The P. Cod. formula is similar.
Alterative, tonic, and diuretic.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.; chiefly in
affections of the bladder.

4. EXTRACTUM PAREIRA LIQUIDUM (B. P.). Pareira in coarse powder, 16;
boiling distilled water, 160, or a sufficiency; rectified spirit, 3;
macerate in 20 of water for twenty-four hours; pack in a percolator,
adding more of the water; allow the liquor slowly to pass until 160 has
been collected, or the pareira is exhausted; evaporate to 13, and, when
cold, add the spirit; filter and make up to 16.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr.

=Extract of Par′sley.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM PETROSELINI, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.)
From the root, as EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

2. (M. Peraibe.) From the fresh leaves, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE. Febrifuge
and tonic.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.

=Extract of Pasque Flower.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ANEMONIS, L. _Prep._ (P.
Cod.) From the recent or dried flower, as either of the EXTRACTS OF
ACONITE——P. Cod.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 gr.

_Obs._ Several species of _Anemone_ have been used in medicine, especially
_Anemone pratensis_ and _A. pulsatilla_. According to Baron Stoerck, the
former is resolvent, and is an effectual remedy in various chronic
diseases, particularly in amaurosis, cataract, opacity of the cornea,
nocturnal pains, suppressions, &c. 1/2 to 1 gr., combined with sugar of
milk, has been highly recommended in hooping-cough.

=Extract of Pa′tience Dock.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM PATIENTIÆ, L. _Prep._ From
the root of _Rumex Patientia_ or garden patience, as EXTRACT OF HOPS.
Aperient and stomachic. Used in double doses in lieu of extract of
rhubarb.

=Extract of Paullin′ia.= See EXTRACT OF GUARANA.

=Extract of Peach Blos′som.= _Prep._ From essence of lemons, 1 oz.; pure
balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; essence (oil) of bitter almonds, 1 dr.; rectified
spirit, 3 pints; spirit of orange flowers, 1 pint; spirit of jasmin, 1/4
pint; mix. A pleasant and powerful perfume.

=Extract of Pel′litory.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM PYRETHRI, E. P.
ÆTHERO-ALCOHOLICUM, L. Prep. (W. Procter.) Alcohol (rectified spirit), 1
pint; ether, 1/2 pint; mix, and pour it gradually on root of pellitory
(_Anacyclus Pyrethrum_), 1 lb., placed in a percolator; afterwards pour on
alcohol, 1 pint; and subsequently sufficient dilute alcohol (proof spirit)
to displace 2-1/2 pints of tincture (ESSENCE OF PELLITORY, TOOTHACHE
ESSENCE); the latter is either suffered to evaporate spontaneously, or by
a very gentle heat, until a soft extract is attained. Used to destroy the
sensibility of the nerves of the teeth, previous to plugging, and for
toothache.

=Extract of Pep′per.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM PIPERIS, E. P. NIGRI, L. _Prep._ 1.
From decoction of black pepper (bruised). Stimulant; stronger tasted than
the berries, but less aromatic.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1 dr.; in agues.

2. (Fluid; EXTRACTUM PIPERIS FLUIDUM, L.)——Ph. U. S. From black pepper, as
FLUID EXTRACT OF CUBEBS——Ph. U. S., separating the PIPERINE by expression
through a cloth, and keeping the fluid portion for use.

=Extract of Pimpinel′la.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM PIMPINELLÆ, L. _Prep._ From the
root of burnet saxifrage (_Pimpinella saxifraga_), as EXTRACT OF HOPS.
Astringent.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.

=Extract of Pink′root.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF WORM GRASS, E. OF WORMSEED ROOT;
EXTRACTUM SPIGELIÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From Carolina pinkroot (_Spigelia
Marylandica_), as EXTRACT OF BOX——P. Cod.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr.

2. (Fluid; ESSENCE OF PINKROOT, LIQUOR OF P.; EXTRACTUM SPIGELIÆ FLUIDUM,
L.) Pinkroot, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 3 pints; make a tincture, evaporate to
10 fl. oz., add sugar, 3/4 lb., and rectified spirit, q. s. to make the
whole measure exactly a pint.——_Dose._ For a child, beginning with 1/2 a
teaspoonful.

3. (Compound; COMPOUND LIQUOR OF PINKROOT; EXTRACTUM SPIGELIÆ FLUIDUM
COMP., L.)——_a._ (Estlack.) Carolina pinkroot or spigelia (bruised), 4
oz.; senna, 3 oz.; savine, 1 dr.; pour on boiling water, 1 quart; when
cold, add rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; digest 24 hours, express (or
percolate), filter, evaporate to 12 fl. oz., in which dissolve, manna, 1
oz.; sugar, 8 oz. Every fl. oz. is equal to 2 dr. of pinkroot and 1-1/2
dr. of senna.——_Dose._ For a child, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful; for an adult, a
tablespoonful.

_b._ (W. Procter.) Pinkroot, 16 oz.; senna, 8 oz. (both in coarse powder);
dilute alcohol (sp. gr. ·935), 2 pints; macerate for 2 days, then proceed
by displacement, adding fresh spirit, until 4 pints have passed through;
filter, evaporate to 20 fl. oz., and add carbonate of potassa, 1 oz.; next
add oils of caraway and aniseed, of each 1/2 dr.; (previously triturated
with) powdered sugar, 24 oz.; lastly, apply a gentle heat to dissolve the
sugar.

_c._ (EXTRACTUM SPIGELIÆ ET SENNÆ FLUIDUM——Ph. U. S.) As the last
(nearly).——_Dose._ As above. All the above preparations of pinkroot are
regarded as powerful and certain anthelmintics; particularly the last two.

=Extract of Pipsis′sewa.= See EXTRACT OF WINTER-GREEN.

=Extract of Poi′son Oak.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM RHOIS TOXICODENDRI, L. _Prep._
(P. Cod.) From the expressed juice of the leaves of _Rhus toxicodendron_.
Narcotic, stimulant, and alterative.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 1 gr., gradually
increased; in chronic rheumatism, obstinate skin diseases, &c.

=Extract of Pomegran′ate.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM GRANATI, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Soubeiran, & P. Cod.) From the root-bark of pomegranate, as EXTRACT OF
BOX. In tapeworm.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.; followed by a purgative.

2. (E. G. CORTICIS FRUCTUS, L.) From the decoction of the fruit-rind. As
the last.

=Extract of Pop′pies.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM PAPAVERIS (B. P.), E. P. ALBI, L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Capsules coarsely powdered, 16; rectified spirit, 2;
distilled water, a sufficiency; mix the poppy capsules with 40 of the
water, stirring them frequently during 24 hours; then pack in a
percolator, and pass water slowly through them until about 160 have passed
through; evaporate the liquor by a water bath to 20; when cold, add the
spirit. After 24 hours filter the liquor, and evaporate to a pilular
consistence.——_Dose_, 2 or 5 grains.

2. (Ph. L.) Bruised poppy-heads (without the seeds), 15 oz.; boiled
distilled water, 1 gall.; macerate 24 hours, boil to one half, strain, and
complete the evaporation.

3. (Ph. E.) As the last, with “capsules not quite ripe.”

_Obs._ The medical action of extract of poppies, for the most part,
resembles that of opium; but it is considerably weaker, and is generally
regarded as less prone to produce headache and delirium.——_Dose_, 2 to 12
gr. It is usually prepared by the large manufacturers, by exhausting the
capsules, by coction with water; hence the inferior quality of the extract
of the shops, which contains a considerable quantity of inert matter.

The principal consumption of this extract is among the brewers, brewers’
druggists, and wine merchants. For this purpose it is evaporated until it
becomes hard on cooling, when it is formed into half-pound rolls, and
covered with paper, like lead plaster. One of these rolls added to a
hogshead of ale, stout, or sherry, materially increases the ‘headiness’ or
apparent strength of these beverages.

=Extract of Pota′to.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM SOLANI TUBEROSI, L. _Prep._ (Dr J.
Latham.) From the stem and leaves of the potato plant, as EXTRACT OF
ACONITE——Ph. L. Narcotic.——_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr.

=Extract of Pur′ging Flax.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM LINI CATHARTICI, L. _Prep._
(Dr B. Lane.) From the dried herb, as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L. Aperient and
diuretic——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.; 14 lbs. yielded 2-1/4 lbs. of extract.

=Extract of Quas′sia.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM QUASSIÆ (B. P.), EX. Q. LIGNI, L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Quassia scraped, 1 lb.; distilled water, a sufficiency;
macerate the quassia in 8 oz. of water for 12 hours; pack in a percolator;
add water till the quassia is exhausted; evaporate, filter before it
becomes thick, and again evaporate in a water bath to a proper consistence
for pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 5 gr.

2. From the decoction of quassia chips. Product, 5% to 6%.

3. (Ph. E.) From the rasped wood, as EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod. Bitter
and stomachic.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr., or more.

_Obs._ This extract is almost universally prepared by coction, and is
principally consumed by the brewers, who employ it as a substitute for
hops, in large quantities. The bark is frequently substituted for the
wood, but is considerably less bitter. The Ph. Baden has an extract
prepared with spirit of ·944.

=Extract of Quince Seeds.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CYDONIÆ, E. C. SEMINUM.
_Prep._ From the decoction. Sucked as a lozenge, in hoarseness, &c.

=Extract of Ragwort.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM JACOBή. The inspissated juice of
rag-wort.

=Extract of Rha′tany.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM RHATANIÆ; E. KRAMERIÆ (B. P.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Rhatany in coarse powder, 1; cold distilled water, 15;
macerate 24 hours in 2 of the water, then percolate the whole; evaporate
by water bath to dryness.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 grains.

2. (Ph. E. Baden and U. S.) From dried rhatany root (_Krameria
triandria_), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

3. (Ph. Bor.) By two successive macerations in boiling water of 24 hours
each, and evaporating at a temperature not exceeding 165° Fahr.

_Obs._ Extract of rhatany is astringent and tonic.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr. A
large quantity of this extract, of very inferior quality, is imported from
Brazil, and other parts of South America. It is kept in two states, hard
and soft; the former resembles KINO, and is often sold for it; the latter
is chiefly consumed by the manufacturers and ‘improvers’ of port wine.

=Extract of Rhu′barb.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM RHEI (B. P.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B.
P.) Rhubarb (sliced or bruised), 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 5 oz.; distilled
water, 50 oz.; macerate 4 days, strain, and set it aside, that the fæces
may subside; next decant the clear portion, strain, mix, and evaporate to
a proper consistence over a water bath at 160° F.

2. (Ph. L.) As EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. L. (nearly). “The extract is
obtained of finer quality by evaporation in a vacuum with a gentle heat.”
The Baden formula is similar.

_Obs._ This extract is usually prepared by decoction from inferior and
damaged rhubarb, picked out from the chests on purpose; hence the inferior
quality of the extract of the shops. When made of good Turkey, or even
East India rhubarb, it is a very valuable preparation.——_Dose._ As a
stomachic, 5 to 10 gr.; as a purgative, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr. It is seldom
exhibited alone. _Product._ 5%.

3. (Fluid; LIQUOR OF RHUBARB, ESSENCE OF R.; LIQUOR RHEI, EXTRACTUM RHEI
FLUIDUM, L.)——_a._ (W. Procter.) Rhubarb (in coarse powder), 8 oz.; mix it
with an equal bulk of coarse sand, and moisten it with dilute alcohol (sp.
gr. ·935, = 13 u. p.) to form a pasty mass; in a short time introduce it
into a percolator, shake it until uniformly settled, and cover it with
cloth or paper; then pour on the rest of the spirit (the remainder of 2
pints) until the product has little odour or taste of the root; next
gently evaporate the tincture to 5-1/2 fl. oz., and add sugar, 5 oz., when
the whole should measure 8 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 drops.

_b._ (Ph. U. S.) As the last, adding of oils of fennel and anise, of each
4 drops; (dissolved in) tincture of ginger, 4 fl. dr.

4. (Compound; EXTRACTUM RHEI COMPOSITUM, E. PANCHYMAGOGUM, L.——Ph. Bor.)
Extract of rhubarb, 3 dr.; extract of aloes, 1 dr. (softened with) water,
4 dr.; mix, and add of soap of jalap, 1 dr. (dissolved in) proof spirit, 4
dr.; lastly, evaporate to an extract, dry this in a warm place, and
powder. Stomachic and purgative.——_Dose_, 4 to 20 gr.

=Extract of Rue.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM RUTÆ, E. FOLIORUM RUTÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
From rue leaves (_Rutæ graveolens_), as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.

2. (Alcoholic——P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod. (nearly.)
The formula of the Ph. Wert. is similar.

_Obs._ This extract is stomachic, carminative and emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 10
to 20 gr., twice a day. It is usual to add a little of the essential oil
to the extract, just before taking it out of the evaporating-pan, and when
nearly cold. The first is the form adopted in trade in this country.

=Extract of Saf′fron.= _Syn._ POLYCHROITE, EXTRACTUM CROCI, L. _Prep._ 1.
From hay saffron, as EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH——Ph. L.

2. (P. Cod.) From the tincture. Superior to the last.

_Obs._ The first is used chiefly as a colouring and flavouring substance
by cooks, confectioners, wine and cordial brewers, &c.——_Dose_, 5 to 15
gr.; as an excitant, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue.

=Extract of Sarsaparil′la.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM SARZÆ, E. SARSAPARILLÆ, L.;
EXTRAIT DE SALSEPAREILLE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) From sarsaparilla,
as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L. The Ph. D. 1826 is similar.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to
1 dr. _Product._ (From Jamaica sarsaparilla) 32% to 36%.

2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM SARZÆ ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——_a._ From a tincture of
the root-bark, prepared with proof spirit, either by digestion or
percolation.

_b._ (P. Cod. and Ph. U. S.) From sarsaparilla root (powdered), as
ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod. Superior to the aqueous
extract.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.

3. (Fluid; LIQUOR OF SARSAPARILLA, ESSENCE OF S.; LIQUOR SARZÆ, ESSENTIA
SARSAPARILLÆ, EXTRACTUM SARZÆ LIQUIDUM——Ph. L., E. S. FLUIDUM——Ph. E. &
D., L.); EXTRACTUM SARZÆ LIQUIDUM——(B. P.) _a._ Jamaica sarsaparilla cut
transversely, 16; distilled water (temp. 160° Fahr.), 280; rectified
spirit, 1. Macerate in half the water for 6 hours, and decant the liquor;
digest the residue in the remainder of the water for 6 hours more, mix the
liquors, express and filter; evaporate by water bath to 7, or until it has
a sp. gr. of 1·130; when cold add the spirit. Sp. gr. should be about
1·025.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 dr.

_b._ (Ph. L.) Sarsaparilla, 3-1/2 lbs.; distilled water, 3 galls.; boil to
12 pints, pour off the liquor, and strain whilst hot; again boil the
sarsaparilla in water, 2 galls., to one half, and strain; evaporate the
mixed liquors to 18 fl. oz.; and when cold, add of rectified spirit, 2 fl.
oz. Each fl. oz. represents 2-1/8 oz. of the root (nearly).

_c._ (Ph. E.) Sarsaparilla, 1 lb.; boiling water, 4 pints; digest 2 hours,
then bruise the root, boil it for 2 hours, filter, and express the liquid;
repeat the coction with water, 2 pints, as before; evaporate the mixed
liquors to the consistence of a thin syrup, and, when cold enough, add of
rectified spirit q. s. to make up 16 fl. oz. Each fl. oz. represents 6 dr.
of the root, and 6 fl. oz. of the decoction.

_d._ (Ph. D.) Sarsaparilla, 1 lb. (avoir.); proceed as before, and add of
rectified spirit, q. s. to make the product up to 20 fl. oz. Strength, as
the last (nearly). In the Ph. D. 1826 the decoction of sarsaparilla, 1 lb.
(troy), was ordered to be evaporated to 30 oz., which with the spirit (2
oz.) made the preparation only half the strength of the present one.

4. (Compound; EXTRACTUM SARZÆ COMPOSITUM, E. SARSAPARILLÆ COMP., L.) There
is no form for this preparation in the Pharmacopœias, but it is
nevertheless in immense demand, from its great convenience in dispensing.
The following formulæ are employed by one of the wholesale houses that
does largest in this preparation:——

_a._ Guaiacum shavings (from which the small has been sifted), 30 lbs.,
Italian juice, 24 lbs., mezereon root, 6 lbs., are boiled with water
q. s., for 1 hour; the decoction is then drawn off, and the boiling
repeated with fresh water a second and a third time; the mixed decoctions
are allowed to deposit for 6 or 8 hours, or longer, and the clear portion
decanted and strained through flannel; the liquid is now reduced to the
consistence of treacle, when extract of sarsaparilla, 9 lbs., is added,
and the evaporation conducted at a considerably lower temperature until
near its completion, when the source of heat is removed, and the remaining
evaporation conducted at the expense of that retained by the metal of the
‘pan,’ when nearly cold, and just before removing the extracts to the
‘pots’ or ‘jars,’ essential oil of sassafras, 2 dr., dissolved in
rectified spirit, 1 quart, is added, and quickly but completely stirred
in. The product is a very showy article, if well managed, and weighs about
45 lbs., the precise quantity depending on the quality of the juice
employed. It is labelled ‘EXT. SARZÆ COMP.’

_b._ As the last, but only using 15 lbs. of juice, and that Solazzi.
_Prod._ About 35 lbs. It is labelled and sent out as ‘EXT. SARZÆ CO. OPT.’

_c._ By any of the forms given under COMPOUND DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA,
either common or concentrated, by continuing the evaporation.——_Dose._
Same as that of the simple extract.

5. (Fluid Compound; COMPOUND LIQUOR OF SARSAPARILLA.)——_a._ From any of
the preceding formulæ by arresting the evaporation when the fluid has
acquired the consistence of a thin syrup, and adding to each pint, when
cold, rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz.

_b._ (Alcoholic——W. Hodgson.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 16 oz.; liquorice
root (bruised), guaiacum wood (rasped), and sassafras bark (sliced), of
each 2 oz.; mezereon (sliced), 6 dr.; spirit, sp. gr. ·935 (= 13 u. p.) 7
pints; digest 14 days, express, filter, evaporate to 12 fl. oz.; add of
sugar, 8 oz., and as soon as this is dissolved, withdraw the heat.
Stronger than the last.——_Dose_, 1 fl. dr.

_c._ (Ph. U. S. EXTRACTUM SARSAPARILLÆ COMPOSITUM FLUIDUM.) _Prep._
Sarsaparilla in moderately fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); liquorice root in
moderately fine powder, 2 oz. (troy); sassafras in moderately fine powder,
2 oz. (troy); mezereon in moderately fine powder, 360 grains; glycerin, 4
oz. (old measure); rectified spirit, 8 oz. (old measure); water, 4 oz.
(old measure). Macerate in a closed percolator for 4 days, and then let
the percolation commence, and finish it by adding diluted alcohol (equal
volumes of alcohol at ·835, and water), until 2 pints (old measure) have
been obtained. Reserve the first 12 oz., having added 4 oz. (old measure)
of glycerin to the remainder of the percolate, which evaporate to 6 oz.
(old measure), and mix with the reserved portion.

6. (From the root-bark; EXTRACTUM CORTICIS SARZÆ, L.) From the decoction
or tincture of the root-bark. The cortical portion of sarsaparilla yields
fully 50% of aqueous extract. “Five times as much as the meditullium.”
(Pope.)

_Obs._ Each of the above extracts of sarsaparilla (simple, fluid, and
compound), when of good quality, dissolves in water, forming a deep
reddish-brown solution, perfectly transparent, and depositing little
sediment, even by standing some days. See SARSAPARILLA.

1. =Extract of Savine.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM SABINÆ. (Ph. L. 1788.) By
evaporating a decoction of dry savine.

2. (Ph. U. S. EXTRACTUM SABINÆ FLUIDUM.) As fluid extract of cubebs. (Ph.
U. S.)

=Extract of Scam′mony.= _Syn._ RESIN OF SCAMMONY; RESINA SCAMMONII, E. S.
ALCOHOLICUM, E. SIVE RESINA SCAMMONII (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. From
powdered scammony, exhausted with proof spirit, and the resulting tincture
distilled until little but water passes over; the remaining water is then
poured from the resin, which is next well washed in boiling water and
dried at a temperature below 240° Fahr. Brown; impure.

2. As the last, but using either alcohol of 90% or ether, and animal
charcoal. White; pure.

_Obs._ Scammony resin is translucent, fusible, and combustible; and freely
soluble in alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine. It is frequently
adulterated with jalap resin, a fraud readily detected by its insolubility
in the last two menstrua.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr. “When pure or virgin
scammony can be procured it is an unnecessary preparation.” (Pereira.)

=Extract of Scurvy-grass.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM COCHLEARIÆ, L. _Prep._ (P.
Cod.) From the clarified juice of fresh scurvy-grass, by exposure to warm
air. Anti-scorbutic, stimulant, anti-rheumatic, and diaphoretic.——_Dose_,
1 to 2 dr. The valuable principles of the juice are dissipated by much
heat.

=Extract of Sen′ega.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM SENEGÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.)
From seneka or snake-root (_Polygala Senega_), as EXTRACT OF BOX——P. Cod.

2. Compound; EXTRACTUM SENEGÆ, COMPOSITUM, E. S. ET SCILLÆ, L.——Ecky.)
From equal parts of squills and senega, as the last, but by displacement.
Both the above are stimulant, expectorant, sudorific, and
diuretic.——_Dose_, 1 to 12 gr.

3. (Ph. U. S. EXTRACTUM SENEGÆ FLUIDUM.) As EXTRACT OF COTTON-ROOT. (Ph.
U. S.)

=Extract of Sen′na.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM SENNÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (EXTRACTUM
SENNÆ AQUOSUM, L.)——_a._ As EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH——Ph. L.

_b._ (P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

_c._ (Ph. Bor.) From senna leaves, by maceration in tepid water (104°
Fahr.) for 24 hours, and expression and filtration; the operation is
repeated with fresh water, and the strained liquors evaporated to a thick
extract (at 149° to 157° Fahr.), which is dissolved in water, 4 parts, the
solution filtered, and again evaporated.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr. It is
principally used as a basis for purgative pill. When prepared by decoction
it is nearly inert. A better extract is prepared from the common tincture
made with proof spirit.

2. Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM SENNÆ ALCOHOLICUM, L.——(Guibourt.) Senna (in
powder), 1 part; rectified spirit, 5 parts; heat gradually to boiling, let
it cool; in 24 hours express, strain, and repeat the process with fresh
spirit; lastly, distil and evaporate. Proof spirit answers for this
purpose.

3. (Fluid; EXTRACTUM SENNÆ FLUIDUM, L.——Ph. (U. S.) Senna (in coarse
powder), 2-1/2 lbs.; spirit (at or near proof), 64 fl. oz.; macerate 24
hours, then act by displacement, subsequently adding weak spirit (1 of
rectified spirit to 3 of water) until 10 pints of tincture are obtained;
evaporate to 1 pint, filter, add sugar, 20 oz., and oil of fennel, 1 fl.
dr. (dissolved in) compound spirit of ether, 2 fl. dr. Every fl. oz.
represents 1 oz. of senna.

=Extract of Smoke.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM FULIGINIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Aqueous.)
Wood-soot, 2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil to 16 fl. oz., filter, and
evaporate.

2. (Acetic.) Wood-soot, 2 oz.; distilled vinegar and water, of each, 1/2
pint; as the last. Formerly reputed antispasmodic, alterative,
&c.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 gr., 2 three times a day; in dyspepsia, hysteria,
cancer, scrofula, and various syphilitical affections.

=Extract of Snake-root.= See EXTRACT OF SENEGA.

=Extract of Black Snake-root (fluid).= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CIMICIFUGÆ FLUIDUM
(Ph. U. S.). _Prep_. As FLUID EXTRACT OF CUBEBS. (Ph. U. S.)

=Extract of Soap′wort.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM SAPONARIÆ, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod. &
Ph. Bad.) From the dried roots of soapwort (_Saponaria officinalis_), as
EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod. Aperient and alterative.——_Dose_, 15 gr. to
1/2 dr.

=Extract of Spruce.= See ESSENCE OF SPRUCE.

=Extract of Squills.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM SCILLÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Aqueous; E.
S. AQUOSUM.——_a._ (Ph. Baden.) From squills, as EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH——Ph.
L. (nearly).

_b._ (Ph. Bor.) From squills, as EXTRACT OF SENNA——Ph. Bor. (nearly), but
using boiling water, avoiding ebullition during the evaporation, and
powdering the residuum.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 gr.

2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM SCILLÆ ALCOHOLICUM, L.——P. Cod.) From the
tincture prepared with proof spirit, by distillation and
evaporation.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 3 gr., as an expectorant and diuretic, twice
or thrice a day. In larger doses it is nauseant and emetic.

3. (Acetic; EXTRACTUM SCILLÆ ACETICUM.) Digest powder of squills, 1 lb.,
in acetic acid, 3 oz.; and distilled water, 1 pint, with a gentle heat,
for 48 hours.

Express strongly, and without straining; evaporate to a proper
consistence. (One grain of this is said to equal three of the powder.)

=Extract (fluid) of Stillingiæ.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM STILLINGÆ FLUIDUM (Ph.
U. S.). _Prep._ Stillingia, in fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); macerate with
12 oz. (old measure) of rectified spirit; 3 oz. (old measure) of glycerin;
and 1 oz. (old measure) of water, for four days in a closed percolator,
and proceed as for FLUID EXTRACT OF COTTON-ROOT. (Ph. U. S.)

=Extract of Stor′ax.= See STYRAX.

=Extract of Stramo′′nium.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF THORN-APPLE; EXTRACTUM
STRAMONII, (Ph. L. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Pack stramonium seeds,
coarsely powdered, in a percolator, and pass about their own weight of
washed ether slowly through them, remove the ether, and set aside. Now
pour over them proof spirit until the seeds are exhausted; distil off the
spirit, and evaporate the residue by a water bath to a proper pill
consistence.——_Dose_, 1/4 gr., gradually increasing.

2. (Ph. L.) Seeds of thorn-apple (_Datura stramonium_), 15 oz.; boiling
distilled water, 1 gall.; macerate for 4 hours in a vessel lightly
covered, near the fire; afterwards take out the seeds, bruise them in a
stone mortar, and return them to the liquor; then boil down to 4 pints,
strain whilst hot, and evaporate. The Ph. D. is similar. _Product._
(About) 12%, Anodyne and narcotic.——_Dose_, 1/4 gr. to 1/2 gr., gradually
increased, twice or thrice a day; neuralgia, rheumatism, tic doloureux,
spasmodic asthma, epilepsy, worms, &c.

3. (P. Cod. & Ph. U. S.) From the expressed juice of the fresh leaves,
heated to boiling, and filtered. The P. Cod. also orders it to be prepared
as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L. Anodyne and narcotic.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 1
gr.

_Obs._ On the large scale, this extract is prepared by expressing the
juice of the fresh herb, and boiling the remainder in water; the juice and
decoction are then mixed, filtered, and evaporated. 1-1/2 cwt. of
stramonium yielded 37 lbs. of juice, and this, with the decoction, gave 31
lbs. of extract. (Gray.)

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM STRAMONII——Ph. E., E. S. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——_a._
(Ph. E. & Ph. U. S.) From the seeds (ground in a coffee-mill), by
percolation with proof spirit. _Product._ (About) 14%; 1 lb. yielded 2-1/4
oz. (Recluz.)

_b._ (P. Cod.) From the leaves, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod.——_Dose_,
1/4 gr. gradually increased. (See _above_.)

=Extract of Suc′cory.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CHICORII, L. _Prep._ (Guibourt.)
From the fresh root, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L. Aperient, deobstruent,
and tonic.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.

=Extract of Sweet Flag.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ACIDI, E. CALAMI AROMATICI, L.
_Prep._ From the rhizomes, as EXTRACT OF RHUBARB——Ph. L. See SWEET FLAG.

=Extract of Tan′sy.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM TANACETI, L. _Prep._ 1. From the
herb (_Tanacetum vulgaris_), as EXTRACT OF HOP——Ph. L.

2. (Giordano.) As EXTRACT OF HOREHOUND——Ph. Lusitan.

_Obs._ This extract is said to be tonic, stomachic, anthelmintic,
emmenagogue, and febrifuge. Dr Clark says that in Scotland it was found to
be serviceable in various cases of gout. The infusion is, however,
preferable.——_Dose_, 5 gr. to 20 gr.

=Extract of Taraxacum.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF DANDELION; EXTRACTUM TARAXACI
(Ph. L. & E.), E. T. HERBÆ ET RADICIS (Ph. D. 1826), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.)
Crush fresh dandelion root, press out the juice, and allow it to deposit;
heat the clear liquor to 212° F., and maintain the temperature for 10
minutes; then strain and evaporate by a water bath, at a temperature not
exceeding 160° F. to a proper consistence.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 grains.

2. (Ph. L.) From the recent root of dandelion (_Leontodon Taraxacum_), as
EXTRACT OF HOP——Ph. L. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & U. S. are nearly
similar.

3. (Ph. D.) From the herb and root, as the other simple extracts (EXTRACTA
SIMPLICIORA).

4. (P. Cod.) From the expressed juice, as EXTRACT OF STRAMONIUM——P. Cod.)

5. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF SENNA——Ph. Bor. (nearly).

6. (Ph. Baden.) By displacement with cold water.

7. (Wholesale.) From the decoction.

8. (Fluid.) See LIQUOR OF TARAXACUM.

_Obs._ The extract of the shops is usually prepared by exhausting the root
by coction with water. The products of the first two of the above formulæ,
when recent, have a faint and agreeable odour, and a sweet bitter taste;
those of Nos. 4, 5, and 6, smell strongly of the recent root, have a pale
and lively brownish-yellow colour, and a bitter acidulous taste, without
any trace of sweetness; that of the last one is devoid of odour, and
possesses a coffee-brown colour, and a sweetish, burnt taste, not much
unlike a solution of burnt sugar. The medicinal virtue of this extract is
greatest when the aroma and bitter taste of the recent root is well
developed; and when sweet, its efficacy as a remedy is impaired. (Squire.)

Taraxacum root should be gathered during the winter months, when the
quantity of the product is looked at; as then a given weight of the juice
yields more extract; but in summer and autumn it possesses more bitterness
and aroma. 4 lbs. of juice from roots gathered in November and December
yielded 1 lb. of extract, while it took from 6 to 9 lbs. of juice from the
root, gathered in spring or summer, to yield a like quantity. (Squire.)
The herb yields by the evaporation of its expressed juice about 5% of
extract. According to Mr Jacob Bell, the average yield of 1 cwt. of root
is about 7-1/8 lbs. (‘Pharm Journ.,’ x, 446.)

Good extract of taraxacum should be wholly soluble in water.——_Dose_, 10
gr. to 1/2 dr.; as a resolvent, aperient, and tonic, in liver and stomach
complaints, &c.

=Extract of Tea.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM THEÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From an infusion of
any of the rougher kinds of black tea. Astringent. Has been recommended in
diarrhœa; formed into pills.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr. A hard,
black-looking substance, smelling and tasting faintly of tea, is imported
under the same name from China.

2. (Pidding’s.) The joint products of distillation and infusion combined.
Proposed to be made in China, and exported as a condensed preparation of
tea. (ESSENCE OF TEA; ESSENTIA THEÆ); to be used as a substitute for the
leaves, in order to save the expense of freight, &c.

=Extract of Thorn-Apple.= See EXTRACT OF STRAMONIUM.

=Extract of Tobac′co.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM TABACI, E. NICOTIANÆ, L. _Prep._
1. (Chippendale.) From decoction of tobacco. Proposed as an external
application in neuralgia, &c.

2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM TABACI ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Ph. Bor.) Tobacco leaves,
1 lb.; spirit (sp. gr. ·900), 2 lbs.; digest in a warm place for some
days, express strongly, and again digest in a mixture of water and spirit
(·900), of each, 1 lb., for 24 hours; again press out the liquor, and
evaporate the strained and mixed liquors into a vapour bath, at a
temperature not exceeding 167° Fahr.

=Extract of Tor′mentil.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM TORMENTILLÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
Amst.) From the root of _Potentilla Tormentilla_, as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph.
L. The Ph. Baden directs its preparation by displacement with cold water.
Astringent and febrifuge.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 gr.; in diarrhœa. It was
formerly regarded as a specific in syphilis. (Lindley.)

=Extract of U′va Ur′si.= See EXTRACT OF WHORTLEBERRY.

=Extract of Valer′ian.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM VALERIANÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From
valerian root, as EXTRACT OF HOP——Ph. L.; but using a covered vessel.

2. (Ph. Bor. and Baden.) As EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. L. (nearly),
employing strong force in the expression of the liquor, and only
evaporating to the consistence of syrup.

_Obs._ It is usual to add to this extract a little of the ESSENTIAL OIL OF
VALERIAN, dissolved in a small quantity of rectified spirit, just before
removing it from the evaporating-pan, and when nearly cold. Anti-spasmodic
and nervine.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr. In hysteric and spasmodic
diseases. Valerian yields about 40% of soft extract.

3. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM VALERIANÆ ALCOHOLICUM, L.——P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF
BOX.——P. Cod.

4. (Fluid; EXTRACTUM VALERIANÆ FLUIDUM, L.——Ph. U. S.). Rectified spirit,
12 fl. oz.; mix, add of valerian (in coarse powder), 8 oz. digest and
percolate, adding, subsequently, spirit (at or near proof) until 16 fl.
oz. of tincture have passed through; let this evaporate spontaneously, in
a shallow vessel, until reduced to 5 fl. oz.; in the meantime add fresh
spirit to the mass in the percolator, until 10 fl. oz. more of tincture
are obtained, which add to the above residuum of the evaporation,
observing to dissolve any oleo-resinous deposit in a little rectified
spirit, and add to it to the rest; lastly, filter, and add of rectified
spirit, q. s. to make the whole measure 16 fl. oz.

=Extract of Vanil′la.= See LIQUOR OF VANILLA.

=Extract of Wall Pel′litory.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM PARIETARIÆ, L. _Prep._ From
fresh wall-pellitory (_Parietaria officinalis_), as EXTRACT OF
ACONITE——Ph. L. Aperient, diuretic, and pectoral.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2
dr.

=Extract of Wal′nut.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM JUGLANDIS IMMATURÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
From unripe walnuts (_Juglans regia_), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L.

2. From the decoction of the green shells. Vermifuge.——_Dose_, 20 to 30
gr. in cinnamon water.

=Extract of Walnut Leaves.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM JUGLANDIS FOLIORUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. From the decoction of dried walnut leaves.

2. (Soubeiran.) By displacement with tepid water. Diaphoretic and
alterative.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 gr., twice or thrice a day; in scrofula,
scirrhus, &c.

3. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM JUGLANDIS FOLIORUM ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Ph. Bor.)
From walnut leaves (cut), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF TOBACCO——Ph. Bor.
(nearly).

=Extract of Wa′ter-dock.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM RUMICIS AQUATICI, L. _Prep._
From the root, as EXTRACT OF HOPS, Ph. L. Astringent and
antiscorbutic.——_Dose_, 15 gr. to 1 dr.; in skin diseases, &c.

=Extract of Whor′tleberry.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF BEARBERRY; EXTRACTUM UVÆ
URSI. (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. From the dried leaves of the bearberry
(_Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi_), as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.——_Dose_, 5 to 15
gr., twice or thrice a day; in chronic diseases of the bladder and
kidneys, attended with increased secretion of mucus, without inflammation.

2. (Ph. U. S. EXTRACTUM UVI-URSI ELUIDUM.) As fluid extract of
cotton-root. (Ph. U. S.)

=Extract of Willow Bark.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM SALICIS. (Ph. Par.) From
Powdered willow bark, as EXTRACT OF RHATANY.

=Extract of Win′ter Cher′ry.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ALKEKENGI, L. _Prep._ From
the berries of _Physalis alkekengi_, as EXTRACT OF ELDER. Aperient,
detergent, and diuretic. _Dose_, 2 to 4 dr.

=Extract of Win′ter-green.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF PIPSISSEWA; EXTRACTUM
CHIMAPHILÆ, L. _Prep._ From the herb winter-green or pipsissewa
(_Chimaphila umbellata_), as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to
1/2 dr.; in dropsy, scrofula, and chronic affections of the urinary
organs.

=Extract of Wood Sor′rel.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ACETOSELLÆ, L. _Prep._
(Pideret.) From the expressed juice of the fresh herb (_Oxalis
acetosella_.) Acid, bitter, and antiscorbutic.——_Dose_, 15 gr. to 1/2 dr.

=Extract of Worm Grass.= See EXTRACT OF PINKROOT.

=Extract of Worm′seed.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM CINÆ ÆTHEREUM, E. SEMINUM C. Æ.,
L. _Prep._ (Hamb. Cod. 1845.) Wormseed, 1 oz.; ether, 4 oz.; digest 3 or 4
days, press, filter, distil off 4-5ths, and evaporate the residuum to a
proper consistence. _Prod._ 25% to 30%. Vermifuge.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr.,
night and morning, for 2 or 3 successive days, followed by a brisk purge.

=Extract of Worm-wood.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM ABSINTHII; EXTRACTUM ARTEMESIÆ
ABSINTHII, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D., 1826.) From the dried flowering tops of
wormwood, as the other simple extracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA——Ph. D.)

2. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF RHATANY——Ph. Bor.

3. (P. Cod. and Ph. Baden.) By displacement by cold water.

_Obs._ Bitter, stomachic, tonic, and vermifuge.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 20 gr.,
2 or 3 times daily; in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, gout, &c. It is usual
to add a few drops of the oil of wormwood to the extract before taking it
from the pan.

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM ABSINTHII ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Guibourt.) From a
tincture prepared from the dried tops of wormwood boiled in proof spirit.
More active than the last.

=Extract of Yew.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM TAXI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Loder.) From the
inspissated juice of the fresh leaves of the yew (_Taxus baccata_). Its
action on the circulation greatly resembles that of digitalis, but is more
manageable.——_Dose_, 1 to 7 gr.; in epilepsy, &c.

2. (Alcoholic,——Ph. Baden.) From the dried leaves, as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF
ACONITE——Ph. Baden.

_Obs._ In addition to the preparations given above, there are many others
which are often called ‘EXTRACTS,’ These may be grouped under the
following heads:——

=Extracts, Concentra′ted.= _Syn._ RESINOIDS. Pharmaceutical preparations
of more or less value, largely employed by the American physicians who
style themselves ‘ECLECTICS,’ They are supposed to present in the most
concentrated form the medicinal virtues of the plants from which they are
derived. See RESINOIDS.

=Extracts, Fluid.= _Syn._ EXTRACTA FLUIDA, EXTRACTA LIQUIDA, L. This name
has been applied in modern pharmacy to various preparations differing
materially from each other in their degree of fluidity and concentration.
Some of these have been already noticed, and others will be found under
one or other of their synonyms. Much confusion would be avoided by
confining the name ‘FLUID EXTRACT’ to those preparations only which differ
from the ordinary officinal extracts in being in the liquid form; whilst
others of a like character, but of less consistence or concentration,
might be conveniently classed under the general denomination of ‘LIQUORS’
(LIQUORES, L.). The various condensed preparations of vegetable
substances, now common in trade, professedly several times stronger than
the common DECOCTIONS, INFUSIONS, and TINCTURES, might be simply and
advantageously distinguished by the addition of ‘CONCENTRATED’ to their
names. Tinctures made with rectified spirit, and of (say) at least 8 times
the usual strength, might be appropriately termed ‘ESSENCES,’ See
DECOCTION, ESSENCE, EXTRACT, INFUSION, OLEO-RESIN, SYRUP, TINCTURE, &c.

=Extracts, Perfu′matory.= See EXTRAIT.

=Extracts, Pulver′ulent.= _Syn._ DRIED EXTRACTS, DESICCATED E.;
SACCHARATED E.; EXTRACTA PULVERATA, E. SICCA, E. CUM SACCHARO, L. _Prep._
1. Ordinary soft extract of the drug, 4 parts; white sugar (in powder), 1
part; mix, and dry by exposure in a warm situation; lastly, reduce the
mass to powder, and if it weighs less than 4 parts, triturate it with more
powdered sugar until its weight is equal to the original weight of the
extract used in its preparation. The strength of the extract thus
continues unchanged.

2. (Ph. Bor.) As the last, but using powdered sugar of milk, in lieu of
cane sugar.

3. (Gauger.) Alcoholic extract, 3 parts, rectified spirit, 1 part, are
triturated together in a porcelain mortar until thoroughly incorporated,
when white sugar (in powder), 15 oz., is gradually added, and the two
carefully and completely blended together; the mixture is dried as before,
and more sugar added until the whole weighs exactly 18 oz. Six grains
represent one grain of the unprepared extract.

_Obs._ The above are admirable preparations, intended chiefly to render
the perishable extracts of the narcotic plants (EXTRACTA NARCOTICA) less
liable to suffer by age. See EXTRACT OF ACONITE (Saccharated), &c.

=EXTRAC′TIVE.= _Syn._ EXTRACTIVE PRINCIPLE. Fourcroy entertained the
belief that all vegetable extracts contained a common basis of definite
composition, to which he gave the name of _extractive_. Chevreul and other
chemists have shown, however, that Fourcroy’s _extractive_ is not a
chemical compound but a heterogeneous mixture, varying in composition with
the plant from which it is obtained. Extractive has a brown colour, or one
becoming so in the air; it speedily putrefies, and becomes oxidised, and
is rendered insoluble by long exposure to air, and by repeated solutions
and evaporations. In its unaltered state it is soluble in water and in
alcohol, is nearly insoluble in ether, and is precipitated from its
solutions by the acids and metallic oxides. With alumina it forms the
basis of several brown dyes.

=EXTRAIT.= [Fr.] Literally an extract. Among perfumers, extraits are
mostly spirituous solutions of the essential oils or odorous principles of
plants and other fragrant substance. The French commonly apply the term to
any concentrated spirit, either simple or compound. In the shops of the
Parisian perfumers upwards of 60 preparations of the kind are
distinguished by this name. The extracts of JASMINE, JONQUIL, MAY-LILY,
ORANGE BLOSSOMS, VIOLETS, and other like flowers of delicate perfume, are
obtained by agitating and digesting the ‘huiles’ and ‘pomades’ of the
flowers with the purest rectified spirit in the manner described under
SCENTED SPIRITS (‘esprits’). This process is repeated with fresh oil or
pomade until the spirit is rendered sufficiently fragrant. The other
extracts (both simple and compound) are made by the common methods of
infusion and distillation. See ESSENCE, EXTRACT, SPIRIT, &c.

=EYE.= In _anatomy_ and _physiology_, the organ of vision. In order that
vision may be distinct, it is necessary that the pencil of rays diverging
from each point of the object and entering the pupil should converge to a
focus on the retina. Near-sightedness (‘MYOPIA,’ L.) is due to the too
great convexity of either the ‘lens’ or ‘cornea,’ causing the rays to
converge to a focus before reaching the retina. The spectacles worn by
myopic persons have concave glasses, which, by increasing the divergence
of the rays falling upon the eye, have the effect of carrying back each
focal point towards the retina. In the long sight of old people
(‘PRESBYOPIA,’ L.) the foci of the refracted pencils are situated behind
the retina, the ‘lens’ or the ‘cornea’ being not sufficiently convex. This
defect is corrected by convex glasses, which increase the convergence of
the incident rays.

_Foreign Bodies in the Eye._——Particles of dust, small insects, hairs, and
such like minute bodies frequently get under the eyelid, and thus become a
source of considerable discomfort, and very frequently of great pain.
Hence the necessity of their prompt removal. In order to effect this the
inside of the lids should be so exposed as to reveal the intruding
substance. The lower lid may be easily turned down so as to show the inner
surface, but the upper lid cannot be so easily manipulated. The end,
however, may be attained by taking firm hold of the lid with the finger
and thumb, drawing it downward and forward, placing a quill or a small
pencil-case on the outer upper part, and turning the lid backwards over
it. When the annoying particle is seen it should be removed by gently
drawing over it, with a wiping motion, a piece of rag or linen
handkerchief, wrapped round the finger, or by means of a camel-hair brush,
if this latter be at hand.

If these means fail to remove it, and it should be imbedded too firmly in
the membrane, it may be picked off with a tooth-pick, the end of a pair of
tweezers, a fine ivory paper-knife, or with a stiff hair from a
clothes-brush bent at right angles. If lime-dust has blown into the eye it
is only the larger particles that can be removed in this manner; the finer
particles may be dissolved out by washing the eye with a lotion made of
one part of common vinegar and two parts of water. A drop or two of pure
sugar syrup will also frequently dissolve the lime. When a powerfully
destructive substance, such, for instance, as sulphuric acid or oil of
vitriol, is, as sometimes happens, thrown by some person into the eye, the
best course is to wash it out with a solution containing four grains of
washing soda in an ounce of water. This should be done as quickly as
possible, and pending the time the soda lotion is being got ready, the
eye, being kept open, should be diligently washed with cold water. Grains
of gunpowder should be carefully removed. Hot fluid, such as melted fat or
pitch, may be got rid of by putting into the eye a few drops of almond or
olive oil.

Upon removal of the foreign body the pain generally subsides; but it
sometimes happens that the membranes may be lacerated, in which case more
or less inflammation may ensue. Under these circumstances a medical
practitioner should be consulted. For _animals_ the same treatment may be
followed. See BLINDNESS, COLOUR BLINDNESS, VISION, &c.

=Eye Balsam=, Vegetable (Martin Reichel, Würzburg). Opium, 5 parts; oxide
of mercury, 5 parts; camphor, 2 parts; wax cerate, 52 parts. (Hager.)

=Eye Drops.= See WATER (Eye).

=Eye Essence= (Dr Romershausen). A tincture prepared from fennel seeds and
fresh young fennel. (Hager.)

=Eye Powder= (Laeyson, Paris), also known as Odorous Powder. For the
strengthening, restoration, and preservation of the sight. A powder
composed of——Burnt chalk, 100 parts; ammonia, 50 parts; charcoal, 6 parts;
oxide of iron, 2 parts; cinnamon bark, 2 parts. (P. L. Geiger.)

=Eye Pow′ders.= See COLLYRIA.

=Eye Salt.= Powdered alum. (G. Graefe.)

=Eye Salve.= See OINTMENT (Eye).

=Eye Snuff.= See SNUFF.

=Eye Water= (Biedermann, Annaberg). 2 grms. sulphate of zinc in 60 grms.
distilled water, with a little infusion of cloves.

=Eye Water= (Brun) is a solution of 4 parts of aloes in 32 parts of white
wine, with 32 parts of rose water, and 1-1/2 part of tincture of saffron.

=Eye Water= (Chantomelanus) “makes spectacles superfluous.” A turbid
yellow-brownish liquid, consisting of a weak extract of lavender flowers
in diluted spirit, in which some oil of lavender has also been dissolved.
(Opwyrda.)

=Eye Water, Dr Graefe’s= (L. Roth, Berlin). Sulphate of zinc, 1·5 grms.;
fennel water, 100 grms., slightly coloured with fennel seed tincture.
(Schädler.)

=Eye Water= (J. P. H. Hette). A solution of ethereal oils of lavender,
bergamot, rosemary, and tincture of opium in spirits of wine, 50 per cent.
(Wittstein.)

=Eye Water= (Bernhard Kraft, Calbe) for acute inflammation of the eyes and
for strengthening the sight. Seven grammes of an impure muddy
sediment-leaving spring water containing half a gramme of native sulphate
of zinc containing iron. (Schädler.)

=Eye Water= (Inspector Stroinski, Neisse). One part of sulphate of zinc
dissolved in 500 parts of common river water. (Schreiber.)

Once a trace of patchouli perfume was added to this water. (Hager.)

=Eye Water, Dr White’s= (T. Ehrhard, Altenfeld, Thuringia). Four cloves, a
piece of cinnamon the size of a large pea, 2 teaspoonfuls of rose water, 1
drop of vinegar, 10 drops of arnica tincture. Digest for an hour and
filter. Dissolve in the filtrate some white vitriol of the size of a pea.
(Hager.)

Sulphate of zinc, 3 parts; honey, 4 parts; water, 80 parts; perfumed with
oil of cloves and a trace of mustard oil. (Wittstein.)

=Eye Waters.= See WATER.


=FACE A′GUE.= The common name for the intermittent form of facial
NEURALGIA or TIC DOULOUREUX. See NEURALGIA.

=FACE PAINTS.= _Syn._ FARDS, Fr. See BLOOM, CARMINE, PEARL WHITE, ROUGE,
&c.

=FAC-SIM′ILE.= An exact imitation of an original in all its traits and
peculiarities. The term is chiefly used in relation to copies of old
manuscripts, or of the handwriting of famous men, or of interesting
documents, produced by engraving or lithography. See SIGNATURES.

=FACTI′′TIOUS.= _Syn._ FACTITIUS, L. Artificial; made by art, in
distinction from that produced by nature. Numerous illustrations of the
application of this word occur in the pages of the present work.

=FÆCES.= Excrement. In the _laboratory_, the ‘settling’ or sediment
deposited by a liquor. See DEFECATION, EXCRETA.

=FAINT′ING.= _Syn._ SWOONING; SYNCOPE, DELIQUIUM ANIMI, L. In _pathology_,
a state in which the respiration and circulation are apparently suspended
for a time, or are extremely feeble. The symptoms are too well known to
require description. The causes are supposed to be——diminished energy of
the brain, and organic affections of the heart or neighbouring vessels.
This has led nosologists to divide syncope into two varieties:——

1. _Occasional_ (SYNCOPE OCCASIONALIS, S. ACCIDENTALIS, L.), primitively
induced by sudden and violent emotions of the mind, powerful odours,
derangement of the stomach or bowels, constrained position of the body,
tight-lacing, pressure, loss of blood, debility from disease, &c. This
variety is frequently followed by vomiting, and, occasionally, by
convulsions or epileptic fits. The recovery is accelerated by the
horizontal position, without the head being the least elevated, by which
the arterial blood is more vigorously thrown upon the brain, and thereby
stimulates it to resume its usual functions. Pungent substances
(smelling-bottle, vinaigrette, &c.) may be applied to the nostrils, and
cold water sprinkled on the face and chest. In all cases the dress
(corset, waist-band, neck-cloth, &c.) should be instantly loosened, and
indeed this is the first assistance which should be given, either in
syncope or apoplexy. As soon as the patient can swallow, a little
brandy-and-water, or wine, or a few drops of ether or spirit of sal
volatile, may be given.

2. _Cardiac_ (SYNCOPE CARDIACA, L.), arising without any apparent cause,
with violent palpitation during the intervals, and altogether of a more
formidable character than the preceding. The subsequent treatment must
here be directed to the cure or alleviation of the original disease.

=FAINTS.= The first and last runnings of the whiskey-still. The one is
technically termed the ‘strong faints,’ the other, the ‘weak faints.’ They
are both purified by rectification, &c. See DISTILLATION.

=FAITH.= Dr Pereira remarks, that “faith in the beneficial agency of
remedies, and confidence in the skill of the medical attendant, are
important adjuvants in the treatment of disease. To them both the
physician and empiric owe part of their success.”

=FAL′LING SICK′NESS.= See EPILEPSY.

=FAMILIENSALBE=, Family Ointment (Göring). 16 grammes of a hard yellow
salve in a round box; a mixture of 9 parts wax, 3 parts fat; 2 parts
turpentine, 2 parts inspissated juice of _Ornithogalium scilloides_
Jacquin, or _O. candatum_ Aiton. These plants are known to the public as
Meerzwiebel (sea onion or squill), but they are only related to that plant
in appearance. (Hager.)

=FAR′CY.= See GLANDERS.

=FARDEL-BOUND.= _Syn._ CLUE-BOUND, WOOD-EVIL. An affection of the third
stomach of cattle, induced by their unduly partaking of coarse
indigestible food. Cattle are most commonly attacked by fardel in summer
and autumn, when they are able to get at tough, strong, and hard grass. It
is also frequently caused by rye-grass in seed and ripe vetches, as well
as by eating largely of the shoots of trees or the cuttings of hedges, a
circumstance which has given rise to the disease being called ‘wood-evil.’
Sometimes an attack may be brought on through over-feeding, combined with
a deficiency of water. The symptoms vary greatly in intensity, and are
often some days before they definitely manifest themselves. The animal
ceases to ruminate, refuses food, and, if a cow, the secretion of milk is
stopped. Then, after a day or two fever (indicated by heat and dryness in
the nose and mouth) comes on, with somewhat quickened circulation and
breathing, the breathing by the second or third day being accompanied by a
grunt at the beginning and end of respiration, which is very noticeable
when an attempt is made to move the animal.

In all attacks the animal suffers from obstinate constipation. The first
stomach is frequently much distended, and if any fæces are passed they are
caked, dark coloured, and of variable consistence.

When the disease is attended with most of these symptoms, the animal may
live ten days or a fortnight; but unless relief is afforded, nausea very
frequently sets in, and continues to increase, the pulse at the same time
getting gradually weaker, and the strength failing. In some instances the
animal has an epileptic fit, and in others death is preceded by great
stupor; whilst in others, again, if it be a horse, it is attacked with
stomach staggers.

“The _treatment_ consists in removing the obstinate constipation by
powerful purgatives, advantage being taken to gain their utmost efficacy
by combining several together, and giving them along with plenty of fluid.

“Three-quarters of a pound each of Epsom and of common salt, twenty croton
beans, and a drachm of calomel, will suffice for a full-grown,
middle-sized ox or cow, and must be administered in three or four bottles
of water or very thin gruel. In this disease there is little fear of
giving too much medicine.

“The action of the purgatives is greatly expedited by the use of
occasional stimulants, which in diseases of the digestive organs of cattle
may be given without fear of engendering or aggravating inflammation.
Every encouragement must be used to get the animal to drink, for large
quantities of fluid are obviously most essential in washing out the
obstruction which causes the evil. The cessation of the grunt, the passage
of some hard cakes of dung, with the subsequent abatement of the fever,
are the signs of amendment for which we watch; but even after the first
movement of the bowels considerable attention, a sloppy diet, and several
doses of purgative medicine, are requisite to empty the canal and prevent
the recurrence of the obstruction. If twenty hours elapse after the
administration of the above combination without any action of the bowels,
the same dose may be repeated, along with a good quantity of some
stimulant, such as a bottle of ale, with two ounces of oil of turpentine
and two ounces of ginger. Half the quantity of the purgative may be given
at the end of a like interval, if no effect be produced; but the further
employment of purgatives is injurious, inasmuch as it increases the nausea
without expediting the action of the bowels.

“A week will sometimes elapse without any alvine evacuation; in some cases
I have known ten or eleven days, and in some fifteen days. Yet even in
these recovery took place; and so long as stupor and frenzy are staved
off, there is always hope of a cure. After the prompt and energetic
adoption of the treatment recommended, little further remains to be done
except to withhold all solid indigestible food, administer frequent
quantities of water, or any simple fluid, which must be horned over if the
beast will not take it; allow also plenty of treacle, and encourage the
action of the medicine by clysters, scalding the belly, and occasional
exercise. Blood-letting is not only useless, but even injurious.” (FINLAY
DUN.)

=FAR′INA.= The flour of any species of corn, pulse, tuber, or starchy
root. The most important kinds of farina are noticed under their
respective heads. The following dietetic articles of a farinaceous
character are extensively advertised:——

BAKER’S ALIMENTARY COMPOUND. Fine flour (pastrycook’s), 2 parts; finely
ground rice, 1 part.

BASTER’S COMPOUND FARINA. Wheat flour, 14 oz.; white sugar, 2 oz.

BRADEN’S FARINACEOUS FOOD. Similar to Hard’s (_below_).

BRIGHT’S NUTRITIOUS FARINA. Rice flour and potato starch, equal parts.

BRIGHT’S BREAKFAST POWDER. Chocolate, 1 part; nutritious farina (Bright’s)
2 parts.

BULLOCK’S SEMOLA. Wheat flour, from which a portion of the starch has been
removed, so as to leave an excess of gluten.

DENHAM’S FARINACEOUS FOOD. Wheat flour, 3 parts; barley meal, 1 part; the
mixture is slightly baked, and again ground and sifted. Said to be
slightly laxative.

DURYEA’S MAIZENA. Indian corn starch prepared for food.

GARDINER’S ALIMENTARY PREPARATION. Pure rice flour, very finely ground.

HARD’S FARINACEOUS FOOD. Wheat flour, slightly baked, and resifted.

KINGSFORD’S OSWEGO PREPARED CORN. An excellent preparation of Indian corn.

LEATH’S ALIMENTARY FARINA. Wheat flour (baked), with some sugar, Indian
corn meal, and tapioca. According to some, it also contains potato starch.

MAIDMAN’S NUTRITIOUS FARINA. Potato starch tinged with beet-root or other
pink colouring matter.

PLUMBE’S FARINACEOUS FOOD. South-sea arrow-root, with about 1-3rd its
weight of pea flour.

POLSON’S CORN FLOUR. The starch of Indian corn or maize prepared with
great care. It is much used as a substitute for arrow-root, and for
custards, puddings, &c.

SMITH’S NURSING FARINA. Equal parts of baked wheat flour and rice flour.

_Obs._ Many of the above compounds are deficient in the nitrogenous
elements of nutrition, and all of them nearly destitute of the mineral and
saline matters which are absolutely necessary to the formation of the
bones and tissues, and the support of the body in health, and are
consequently utterly unsuitable as an exclusive article of diet,
especially for young children. Unfortunately, it has been too much the
fashion of medical men of late years to recommend these compounds, and
even to furnish testimonials as to their excellence, apparently relying
solely on the representation of their proprietors or vendors. We deem it,
however, to be a public duty to caution parents and nurses against their
injudicious use. As mere adjuvants or auxiliaries, when the natural food
supplied by the mother may be insufficient for the nutrition of the
infant, some of them may doubtless be of value; but in all other cases
they should be largely combined with pure cow’s milk, beef tea, meat
broths or gravies, eggs, or other substances rich in the nitrogenous and
saline elements of nutrition.

=FARM′ING.= The business or management of a FARM. Formerly farming was
looked upon as a profession easily understood, and successfully pursued
only by an empiric. It is now, however, regarded in a different light, and
the farmer, to succeed, not only requires perseverance and observation,
but also a sound knowledge of natural sciences. See BUTTER, CHEESE,
IMPLEMENTS, MANURES, SOILS, &c.

=FARMS, SEWAGE.= See SEWAGE FARMS.

=FAT.= _Syn._ ADEPS, L. The fat of animals is a concrete oil contained in
the cellular membrane of their bodies, more especially round the kidneys,
in the folds of the omentum, at the base of the heart, upon the surface of
the intestines, and among many of the muscles. Fat varies in consistence,
colour, and odour, with the animal from which it is obtained. That of the
carnivora is usually soft and rank-flavoured; that of the ruminantia solid
and nearly scentless. It is generally whitest and most copious in the
well-fed young animal, and yellowish and more scanty in the old. That
under the skin and surrounding the kidneys (suet) is also more solid than
that in the neighbourhood of the movable viscera. In the cetacea, or whale
tribe, the fatty secretion assumes the form of oil. These variations in
consistency depend upon the relative proportions of solid stearin and
liquid olein present in the fat.

The vegetable fats are found in various parts of certain plants, but are
generally most abundant in the seeds. They are extracted by simple
pressure or else by boiling. Two kinds of vegetable fat, namely, palm-oil
and cocoa-nut oil, are extensively employed in the useful arts.

All fats are lighter than water. They are all soluble in ether, benzol,
and turpentine, and may be mixed with each other in any proportion.

In former times the fats of many animals were employed in pharmacy, but at
present those principally used are lard and suet. In perfumery, in
addition to these, beef marrow and bear’s grease are employed. For both
these purposes the crude material is cut into small pieces, and freed as
much as possible from all extraneous membranes; after which it is placed
in a boiler with water, and heated until it is completely fused, when the
whole is strained, and allowed to cool very slowly. By this means a cake
of cleansed fat is obtained, which may be readily separated from any
adhering water.

Fats and the fat oils are best preserved by being run into glazed jars,
and secluded from the action of the air. A little benzoic acid or
gum-benzoin, dissolved in them by heat, will generally prevent, and in all
cases greatly defer, the accession of rancidity. We introduced this method
into the laboratory in our early days of manipulation, and ourselves, and
others to whom we have made it known, have since employed it with
undeviating advantage in the manufacture of cerates, ointments, and other
preparations containing fatty matter or the fixed oils. It has been shown
by Dr Griesler that nitric ether, and its alcoholic solution, act in the
same manner. A few drops are not only sufficient to prevent rancidity,
but, it is said, will even destroy the disagreeable odour of rancid fat.
When heated to remove the alcohol, they immediately become bright, clear,
and scentless. See OIL, GLYCERIN, OLEIN, PALMITIN, STEARIN, TALLOW, &c.,
also _below_.

=Fat, to melt down.= Let all the small pieces of fat cut off joints, &c.,
be collected, divided into small pieces, put in a stew pan (a little water
being added to prevent their burning), and placed on the fire. This must
be stirred carefully at intervals to prevent any of the pieces of fat
sticking to the bottom.

When thoroughly melted (which it will be in about an hour and a half) pour
through a strainer into a basin with some cold water in it. Thus prepared,
dripping or fat may be used instead of suet, and there are few who would
know any difference between them. Dripping, if clarified as above, may be
used over and over again for frying, provided it has not been previously
employed in dressing fish, in which case it will impart a fishy taste. But
it can be used repeatedly for fish if it is kept for that purpose only.
The skimmings off the top of the saucepans, while a piece of meat is
boiling, will also do capitally for light puddings.[296]

[Footnote 296: ‘Artisan Cookery.’ Griffith and Farran.]

=FAT′TY ACIDS.= In _chemistry_, compounds having acid properties derived
from the various fats and oils. The radicals of these acids exist in the
natural fats combined with a base called glyceryl. When fats are
saponified by an alkali, stearate, palmitate, and oleate of potassa or
soda, as the case may be, are produced and glycerin is set free. On
decomposing either of these compounds with sulphuric acid a sulphate of
the alkali is formed, and the fatty acid is precipitated. Some of the
fatty acids, as stearic, cerotic, palmitic, and lauric, are solid at
ordinary temperatures; others, as oleic, are liquid. The hard fatty acids
are extensively used as candle materials, being superior in every respect
to the natural fats from which they are derived.

=FAT′TENING.= Until comparatively a recent date, the plan used to fatten
domestic animals was to prevent their taking exercise, and to gorge them
with food. The excessive fat produced by these means was, however, found
to be far from wholesome, and was less delicate than that arising in the
natural way. This system was therefore gradually abandoned in favour of
the present one, which consists in supplying the animal with abundance of
wholesome food, and with the means of taking exercise as far as the
disposition or feelings dictate. Hence the farmers “in the most
enlightened districts, such as Berwickshire, East Lothian, &c., instead of
tying up their fattening cattle in stables like horses, and placing their
food before them, put two or three together in small yards with sheds
attached, in which they can run about, eat when they choose, and take
shelter from the rain, or cold, or the sun, at pleasure, under the open
shed. Swine are treated in the same manner, and also spring lambs that are
fattened for the market. Poultry are no longer kept in coops and crammed,
or rabbits in hutches; but the former are allowed to take exercise in
fields sown with various herbs, and the latter are kept in a species of
artificial warren, where they can take exercise by burrowing.” (Loudon.)

=FAVOURITE PRESCRIPTION (Dr Pierce’s)= for the cure of those chronic
weaknesses and complaints peculiar to females. 280 grammes of a turbid
greenish-brown fluid with a bulky deposit of the same colour, made
according to the following recipe:——Savin tops, 10 grammes; larch agaric
and cinnamon, of each 5 grammes; China Jaën (ash cinchona bark), 10
grammes; boil with sufficient water to make 220 grammes when strained.
Dissolve in the filtrate gum Arabic, 10 grammes; white sugar, 5 grammes;
and add tinct. digitalis and tinct. opii, of each 2 grammes; star anise
oil, 8 drops; 90 per cent. spirit, 45 grammes. (Hager.)

=FEAR.= Although fear is a depressing and debilitating emotion, and
sometimes acts prejudicially on the health, it frequently acts as a
curative or preventive of disease. It is a well-known fact that females
who are the most faint-hearted and desponding during the period of their
sex’s trial, generally experience a more rapid convalescence than those
who are more confident and resolute. During the raging of an epidemic fear
generally induces temperance, cleanliness, and the adoption of other
precautions which tend powerfully to prevent disease. Boerhaave, according
to Pereira, is said to have prevented the occurrence of epileptic attack
(brought on by the sight of a person falling down in a fit in the sight of
the hospital patients), by directing a red-hot iron to be applied to the
person who should next be affected.

=FEA′THERS.= Ostrich feathers are those most esteemed as articles of
personal decoration, and goose feathers for beds; but the feathers of
other birds are commonly used for both purposes.

Feathers are prepared for ornamental purposes by scouring them with white
soap-and-water (1 oz. to the pint), used hot; they are next well rinsed in
several successive portions of pure water, and after being drained and
shaken, are, lastly, passed through water slightly blued with pure indigo,
and dried out of the dust. When dry, the ribs are generally rubbed with a
piece of glass, having a curved notch in it, for the purpose of increasing
their pliancy, and the filaments are curled by drawing them, between the
edge of a blunt knife and the ball of the thumb of the hand which holds
it.

=Feathers, Bleaching of:=——

A new trade has sprung up within the past ten years, by which black,
brown, or grey feathers are bleached sufficiently to enable them to be
dyed any required colour.

The process is as follows:——The feathers are first thoroughly washed with
soap-and-water, to free them from any oil they may contain. They are next
transferred to a bath composed of bichromate of potash dissolved in water,
to which has been added a few drops of nitric or sulphuric acid. In this
bath they rapidly lose their black, brown, or grey colour, and become
almost white. On being removed from this bath they are well rinsed in
water, and are then fit to be dyed, even the most delicate colour. Great
care is required in the process, as the flue of the feather is apt to be
destroyed, if kept too long in the bath. A bleached feather may be readily
known by the yellow colour of its stem.

Other methods have been adopted, such as a bath of chloride of lime,
peroxide of hydrogen, or sulphurous acid, &c., but the bichromate bath
gives the best results.

=Feathers, Dyeing of:=——

BLACK. By immersion for 2 or 3 days in a bath (at first hot) of logwood, 8
parts, and copperas or acetate of iron, (about) 1 part.

BLUE. With the indigo vat.

BROWN. By any of the brown dyes for silk or woollen.

CRIMSON. A mordant of alum, followed by a hot bath of brazil wood, and
afterwards by a weak one of cudbear.

PINK or ROSE. With safflower and lemon juice.

PLUM. The red dye, followed by alkaline bath.

RED. A mordant of alum, followed by a hot brazil-wood bath.

YELLOW. From an alum mordant, followed by a bath of turmeric or weld.
Other shades may be obtained by a mixture of the above dyes.

Feathers may also be dyed by simple immersion, for two or three minutes,
in a bath of any of the aniline colours.

Goose feathers for BEDS are generally PURIFIED by simply exposing them to
the sun or in a stove until perfectly dry, and then beating them to remove
loose dirt. When carelessly collected and dirty, they are sometimes first
cleansed with lime water, or, better still, with a weak solution of
carbonate of soda, or water to which a little solution of chloride of lime
has been added; after which they are rinsed in clean water, and dried or
stoved as before. Old feathers are cleansed or purified in the same way.

=FEB′RIFUGES.= _Syn._ FEBRIFUGA, L. In pharmacy, substances or agents
which cure or alleviate fever. The term is more particularly applied to
medicines used against the ague, as CINCHONA BARK and ARSENIOUS ACID, and
their preparations. The extreme value of cold water, as a drink in ardent
fever, has been known in all ages. In 1723 Dr Hancocke published a work
entitled——‘Febrifugum Magnum, or Common Water the best Cure for Fevers,
and probably for the Plague,’ which in a short time ran through several
large editions, but appears to have been overlooked by the hydropaths of
the present day.

=FEC′ULA.= _Syn._ FÆCULA, L. The matter which subsides from cold water in
which bruised or rasped vegetable substances have been washed. The fecula
obtained from the seeds of the cereals and leguminosæ, and from tuberous
or bulbous roots, consists of nearly pure STARCH. In some cases the starch
is associated with the green colouring matter (CHLOROPHYLL) and the
narcotic principles of the vegetables which yield it. The green fecula
obtained by straining the expressed juices of the leaves and herbaceous
parts of plants is of this character.

The fecula of all the amylaceous roots, rhizomes, and tubers, may be
easily obtained, on the small scale, by rasping them, pressing, and
working the pulp in cold water, and after straining the resulting milky
liquid through a hair sieve, allowing it to settle. The sediment may be
again washed by diffusion through clean cold water, and must be, lastly,
collected, and dried out of the dust, and, without artificial heat.

The fecula of narcotic plants for medicinal purposes is obtained by
allowing the expressed juice to repose for 24 hours, and then decanting
the clear portion, and drying the residue. Sometimes heat is employed. See
ARROW-ROOT, STARCH, &c.

=FEEDING BOTTLES.= We extract from ‘The Sanitary Record’ the following
valuable paper on ‘Feeding Bottles,’ by Dr Eustace Smith,
assistant-physician to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the
Chest, and Physician to the East London Hospital for Children:——“In the
artificial rearing of infants it is of importance that food should be
given to them from a feeding-bottle. By this means the natural method of
taking nourishment is imitated; the muscles of the mouth and cheeks are
brought into play; and the secretion of saliva——a secretion which, very
scanty at birth, becomes gradually more copious and takes so active a part
in digestion——is encouraged and increased.

“Almost all babies will take their food more readily by this method, their
instinct teaching them to suck everything that is put into their mouths.
Even in cases where a deficiency in the hard palate presents so great an
obstacle to sucking, on account of the impossibility of creating the
necessary vacuum in the mouth, the difficulty can be overcome by a simple
mechanical contrivance. Therefore, in every case of hand-feeding, a
suitable bottle is the first thing to be desired.

“To be satisfactory a feeding-bottle must fulfil three indispensable
conditions: it must be simple in construction and easily manageable; it
must be capable of being readily cleaned; and in its use the milk must
flow easily and without great effort on the part of the infant. The
ordinary feeder in use at the present time consists of a flattened glass
flask, closed at the mouth by a cap, which fits over the neck. A
caoutchouc tube passes through the cap, and is connected inside the bottle
with a straight glass pipe. The other end of the elastic tube is attached
to the teat, or mouth-piece, by means of a short hollow cylinder called
the ‘union-joint.’ The teat is firmly fixed to this by means of the
shield. In the construction of the cap and union-joint, metal,
earthenware, or wood, is employed. The metal used by the best makers is
tin, and this, if cleanliness be properly attended to, is not
objectionable. In cheaper bottles, sold in the shops for sixpence, the
mouth is closed by a perforated cork, through which the flexible tube
passes. Here there is no cap, but in all essential points the construction
is the same as in the more expensive articles.

“In this apparatus it is important that the channel through the tubes
should be perfectly free. The point at which the channel is narrowest is
the union-joint, which connects the mouth-piece with the flexible tube. In
a badly made bottle an impediment may exist at this point from
carelessness in the manufacture, and may present a great obstacle to the
ready passage of the fluid. Care also should be taken that the flexible
tube passes completely through the cap, before it becomes connected with
the glass pipe. This is very important. In the early feeding-bottles
constructed upon this model by O′Connel, the glass pipe passed from within
the bottle through the cap, and was attached outside this to the
caoutchouc tube. It was thus held rigidly in the centre of the bottle, and
as a natural consequence, when the apparatus was in use, unless the bottle
was held upright during the whole meal, long before its contents were
exhausted the milk ceased to flow, as the end of the pipe soon came to be
above the surface of the fluid, which necessarily gravitated to the lowest
part as the bottle lay on its side.

“When, however, the connection between the two tubes is made within
instead of outside the bottle, this disadvantage no longer exists, for the
glass tube being free to move, its end is able to sink to whichever side
of the bottle is undermost, and therefore always remains below the level
of the fluid. The best bottles have a small cylindrical stop, _i.e._ a
thick ring of metal or wood placed within the flexible tube, just above
its junction with the glass pipe. The object of this is to prevent the
latter being drawn through the cap, and thus held rigidly in the centre of
the bottle.

“The method of connection of the cap with the neck of the bottle is not
unimportant. It should not be too tight or air will be prevented from
entering the bottle to supply the place of the milk which is withdrawn. A
common plan is to line the interior of the cap with cork, but this
substance, besides its risk of being broken and detached by careless
handling, has the further disadvantage of absorbing milk, which turns sour
and may afterwards set up fermentation in fresh milk put into the bottle
for a subsequent meal. In the best bottles the cap is constructed to screw
on to the neck, as in the ‘Alexandra’ Feeding bottle made by the Messrs
Maw; or is united to it by an application of the ‘bayonet catch,’ as in
the ‘Improved’ feeding-bottle made by Messrs Lynch and Son. In this very
admirable apparatus three grooves in the inside of the cap pass over
corresponding projections on the neck of the bottle; the cap is then
turned to the right, with a slight screwing motion, and becomes securely
fastened.

“With badly made bottles infants often have very great difficulty in
drawing up the milk, and can only do so by violent efforts, which soon
exhaust their strength or their patience. There are two reasons why milk
in these cases may not flow easily——either the cap fits too tightly, so
that air cannot enter with sufficient facility in proportion as the liquid
contents become diminished, as has just been mentioned; or the caoutchouc
forming the flexible tube is too thin, so that it collapses when suction
is applied. In the first case a small hole should be made through the cap,
so as to allow a free admission of air, or if the bottle be a simpler
one, closed at the mouth by a perforated cork, this may be slightly eased
at the neck of the bottle, so as to fit less closely. In the second case,
stouter caoutchouc should be used in the construction of the tube. In
weakly infants, or those much reduced in strength by acute disease,
special attention should be paid to these points, as such children will
often refuse to take the bottle, if they find any difficulty in drawing up
the milk.

“Infants born with a cleft palate cannot suck from an ordinary bottle, as
the deficiency in the hard palate prevents the necessary vacuum being
formed in the mouth. Such children are, therefore, usually brought up with
a spoon, and often waste and die through insufficient nourishment. An
ingenious contrivance first suggested by Mr Oakley Coles will, however,
entirely remove the difficulty, and enable them to suck with as much ease
as if they suffered from no such congenital difficulty. The plan is a very
simple one, and consists in attaching to the nipple of any ordinary
feeding-bottle a flap of sheet elastic, cut to fit the roof of the mouth.
This flap must be of the shape and about the size of the bowl of a
teaspoon, and is to be sewn to the upper part of the stalk of the teat,
where this projects from the shield. In the mouth of the child the flap
forms an artificial palate, which if the sheet elastic chosen be
sufficiently stout, offers firm resistance to the tongue pressing against
in sucking, and prevents fluid from passing into the nose in the act of
swallowing.

“The closest attention must be paid to the cleaning of feeding-bottles.
Each time after being used the whole apparatus should be well washed out
with water containing a little soda in solution.

“The inside of the cap must be carefully cleaned, and the brush should be
carried several times through the whole length of the tubing. Afterwards
the bottle and tubes should be laid in cold water until again wanted. An
objection to the common brush usually supplied with each feeder is, that
after a few days’ use the softened bristles are apt to get detached and be
caught in the joints of the tubing, whence they may afterwards be washed
by the stream of fluid and be swallowed by the child. Accordingly, a new
cleaner has been manufactured by Messrs Maw and Sons, in which bristles
are entirely dispensed with. They are replaced by a thin strip of
caoutchouc, which is wound round in a spiral form, at the end of the
ordinary wire handle. This instrument answers all the purposes of a brush,
without the disadvantages alluded to, and is besides far more durable.

“Excellent feeding-bottles are now made by many different manufacturers,
and are sold at prices which place them within the reach of the poorest.
These cannot all be mentioned, but some of the bottles more commonly met
with, may be shortly referred to. The six-penny feeder made by Messrs Maw,
Son, and Thompson, can be recommended for its simplicity of construction,
and at the same time for its perfect efficiency. In this instrument there
is no cap, instead the mouth of the bottle is closed by a cork, which is
perforated for the passage of the flexible tube. In all other respects the
construction of this apparatus is the same as in the more expensive
instruments. The ‘Alexandra’ feeding-bottle, price half-a-crown, by the
same makers, is an admirable bottle. The cap screws on to the neck, and is
furnished with a small hole for the admission of air. A ‘stop’ in the
lower part of the flexible tube prevents the glass pipe being drawn into
the cap, and the instrument is supplied with all the latest improvements.
The bottles made by Messrs Maw are all furnished with the new patent
cleaner just described. The improved feeding-bottle made by Messrs Lynch
and Son, at one shilling and eighteen pence, has been before referred to.
The material used for the cap is boxwood. It is a capital bottle, and will
give the fullest satisfaction to the purchaser. Mr Lang’s ‘Alma Mater’
feeding-bottle can also be recommended. In this instrument the cap is made
of earthenware and is lined with cork. A good bottle is made by Mr Elam,
of Oxford Street, price two shillings; the cap is formed of britannia
metal, and screws on to the neck. A cheaper bottle, but one which for
elegance of design and accuracy of detail cannot be surpassed, is Mr
Mather’s ‘Princess’ feeding-bottle. A tin cup screws on the neck, and is
pierced by a small hole for the admission of air. The opening is fitted
with a ‘cone valve’ of simple and ingenious construction, which allows air
to enter freely when suction is applied to the tube, but closes firmly
against any escape through the air-hole of the fluid contents of the
bottle. The bottle itself has a double curve towards the neck to provide
against too sudden bending of the flexible tube against the tap. This is
apt to happen when the curve is single, if the bottle lie with the
convexity downwards, and partial obstruction of the tube may be the
result. The ‘Princess’ feeding-bottle is sold in the shops for eighteen
pence.

“All bottles bear their name in raised letters upon the glass, but a
report which has obtained currency that these letters are hollow in the
interior, and difficult to cleanse is without any foundation in fact. Any
one may test this for himself by placing a finger within the bottle
underneath the letters, when the internal surface will be found perfectly
plain and uniform. In all cases where cork enters into the construction of
a feeding-bottle, especial care should be taken in cleansing the
apparatus, and the cork should be well soaked in soda and water in order
that any sour milk it may contain may be neutralised at once.”

=FEET (The).= To preserve the feet in a proper condition, they should be
frequently soaked, and well washed in warm or tepid water. The nails of
the toes should be pared, to prevent their becoming inconveniently long,
and from growing into the flesh, soaked, and well washed in warm or tepid
water. Many persons suffer severely from TENDER FEET. This generally
arises from the use of thin cotton or silk stockings, and boots or shoes
that are either too tight or stiff, or not sufficiently porous to permit
of the escape of the perspiration. Waterproof boots and shoes which are
also air-tight (as those of gutta percha and India rubber), are common
causes of tender feet, and even of headaches, dyspepsia, and apoplexy. The
best treatment of tender feet is the immediate adoption of worsted
stockings or socks, and light, easy shoes of buckskin, goatskin, or some
other equally soft kind of leather. It is highly necessary for the
preservation of health to preserve the feet DRY; persons who are,
therefore, exposed to the wet, or who are frequently passengers through
the public streets in bad weather, should regard sound and good boots and
shoes as of the first importance. In fact, in a hygienic point of view, a
wet back should be less shunned than wet feet. Many persons frequently
experience EXTREME COLDNESS and NUMBNESS OF THE FEET. The best and most
natural remedy for this is active exercise or friction, the former being
always adopted when possible. In such cases the use of warm woollen
stockings is absolutely necessary, and the debilitated and aged may
advantageously keep them on throughout the night, or at all events until
the feet acquire a comfortable degree of warmth. The DISAGREEABLE ODOUR
which is evolved by the feet of some individuals in hot weather may be
removed by the observance of extreme cleanliness, and by occasionally
soaking the feet in warm water, to which a small quantity of chloride of
lime or sal ammoniac has been added. A good deodoriser for unpleasant
smelling feet is said to be the following, invented by M Paulcke:——A
mixture of equal parts of salicylic acid, soap, talc, and starch, to be
applied in the form of powder.

DISTORTION OF THE FEET is not uncommon in childhood, being sometimes
congenital, but as frequently the result of weakness or bad nursing. “A
child with its feet turned inwards is called VARUS; when they are turned
outwards it is styled VALGUS. The proper use of bandages, early applied,
will generally correct these deformities; but if they be neglected in
infancy they become incurable.” (‘Med. Lex.’) CLUBFOOT, of which there are
several varieties, may also be frequently relieved by a simple surgical
operation. See BOOTS and SHOES, DISTORTIONS.

=FELT′ING.= This is a process by which various species of fur, hair, and
wool, are blended into a compact texture, in many respects resembling
cloth. It depends on the peculiar anatomical construction of these
substances, enabling them to interlace and intertwine with each other, by
which they become permanently matted together. Felt was formerly chiefly
employed for hats. It is now commonly used for mill-bands, filters, &c.;
and when varnished or japanned, or saturated with asphalte or bitumen, is
a durable substitute for japanned leather, and for roofing.

=FENNEL.= _Syn._ FŒNICULUM (Ph. L.), L. The fruit (seed) of _Fœniculum
dulce_, or sweet fennel; the oil distilled from the fruit (OIL OF FENNEL;
OLEUM FŒNICULI, L.) as well as a distilled water (FENNEL WATER; AQUA
FŒNICULI, L.), are officinal in the Pharmacopœias. They are stimulant and
carminative; but are now seldom employed.

=FEN′UGREEK.= The seeds of _Trigonella Fœnum Græcum_. Resolvent and
stomachic. The seeds dye yellow; formerly roasted for coffee; now chiefly
employed in veterinary medicine.

=FER′MENT.= _Syn._ FERMENTUM, L. A substance which induces fermentation.
According to one view ferments are compounds whose decomposition proceeds
simultaneously with that of the body undergoing metamorphosis. They all
contain albuminous or azotised principles, which in a moist state putrefy
and suffer decomposition. According to Pasteur, however, fermentation is
excited by living organisms——fungi and infusoria. See FERMENTATION and
YEAST.

=FERMENTA′TION.= _Syn._ FERMENTATIO, L. In _chemistry_, a peculiar
metamorphosis of a complex organic substance, by a transposition of its
elements under the agency of an external disturbing force. Fermentation,
according to the theory proposed by Liebig, is a metamorphosis, by which
the elements of a complex molecule group themselves so as to form more
intimate and stable compounds. It is excited by the contact of all bodies
the elements of which are in a state of active decomposition or
fermentation. “In nitrogenised substances of a very complex constitution,
putrefaction or fermentation is spontaneously established when water is
present, and the temperature sufficiently high, and it continues till the
original compounds are wholly destroyed. Substances destitute of nitrogen,
on the contrary, require, in order to their undergoing this metamorphosis,
the presence of a nitrogenised substance, already in a state of
putrefaction (fermentation).” (Liebig.) The substances which promote this
change are termed FERMENTS, and among these the principal are gliadin,
gluten, vegetable albumen, and all nitrogenous substances in a state of
spontaneous decomposition or fermentation. “It is imagined that when these
substances, in the act of undergoing change, are brought into contact with
neutral ternary compounds of small stability, as sugar, the molecular
disturbance of the body, already in a state of decomposition, may be, as
it were, propagated to the other, and bring about the destruction of the
equilibrium of forces to which it owes its being. The complex body, under
these circumstances, breaks up into simpler products, which possess
greater permanence.” (Fownes.) YEAST, the ferment most commonly employed
for inducing the vinous fermentation, is such a substance in an active
state of putrefaction, and whose atoms are in continual motion. Putrefying
animal substances are equally capable of exciting the same action. “If we
add to a solution of pure sugar an albuminous substance, a caseous or
fleshy matter, the development of yeast becomes manifest, and an
additional quantity of it is found at the end of the operation. Thus, with
nourishment, ferment engenders ferment. It is for this reason that a
little fermenting must, added to a body of fresh grape juice, excite
fermentation in the whole mass. These effects are not confined to
alcoholic (vinous) fermentation. The smallest portion of sour milk, of
sour dough, or sour juice of beet-root, of putrefied flesh and blood,
occasions like alterations in fresh milk, dough, juice of beet-root,
flesh, and blood. But further, and which is a very curious circumstance,
if we put into a liquid containing any fermenting substance another in a
sound state, the latter would suffer decomposition under the influence of
the former. If we place urea in the presence of beer-yeast, it experiences
no change; while if we add it to sugar-water in a fermenting state, the
urea is converted into carbonate of ammonia. “We thus possess two modes of
decomposition; the one direct, the other indirect.” (Ure.)

A very remarkable circumstance connected with fermentation is that it is
always accompanied by the development of microscopic living
organism——fungi and infusoria. “So constantly, indeed, is this the case,
that many chemists and physiologists regard these organisms as the
existing cause of fermentation and putrefaction; and this view appears to
be corroborated by the fact that each particular kind of fermentation
takes place most readily in contact with certain living organisms.”
(Fownes.) Thus the vinous or alcohol-producing fermentation is
accompanied, or caused, by two fungi, called _Torula cerevisiæ_ and
_Penicillium glaucum_; the acetous or vinegar-producing fermentation by
_Torula aceti_; the lactous fermentation (souring of milk) by _Penicillium
glaucum_.

The butyric fermentation by an animal——an _infusorium_, which cannot exist
in free oxygen, but flourishes in an atmosphere of hydrogen, &c.

Of late years these latter views as to the cause of fermentation have been
accepted by most of the scientific world, notwithstanding the opposition
they experienced from so powerful an antagonist as Liebig.

From the researches of Pasteur, the distinguished author of the modern
theory of fermentation, as opposed to the chemico-physical theory of
Liebig, it appears that when yeast is placed in a solution of sugar and
water, or in a solution of sugar and water containing albuminous
substances, under proper conditions as to temperature, the fermentation
that ensues is due to the process of growth taking place in the yeast
plant; the new cells of which, in assimilating part of the sugar and
converting it into cellulose and fat, cause, at the same time, the
breaking up of the sugar molecule, and resolve it into the more stable
combinations of alcohol and carbonic acid.

In order that the ferment or fungus should grow it is essential that, in
addition to the cellulose and fat, it should be supplied with ammoniacal
salts and soluble phosphates. These are generally present in the liquid
about to be fermented; but when yeast is added to pure sugar and water “it
lives at the expense of the sugar, and of the nitrogenous and mineral
substances contained within itself.”[297]

[Footnote 297: Pasteur.]

Speaking of the influence of oxygen on the development of yeast on
alcoholic fermentation, Pasteur states that ready-formed yeast can
germinate and grow in a liquid containing sugar and albuminous matters,
even when oxygen is completely excluded. The quantity of yeast formed,
however, in this case, is but small, and the fermentation goes on slowly;
nevertheless, a large quantity of sugar disappears (sixty to eighty parts
to one part of yeast). If the air has access to a large surface the
fermentation goes on quickly, and a much larger quantity of yeast is
formed in proportion to the quantity of sugar which disappears.

In this case, also, oxygen is absorbed by the yeast, which grows quickly,
but does not act so decidedly as a ferment, inasmuch as only four to ten
parts of sugar disappear for one part of yeast produced.

When the air is excluded the same yeast again acts as a powerful ferment.
Pasteur, therefore, infers that yeast which acts as a ferment in the
absence of air abstracts oxygen from the sugar, and that upon this
deoxidising power its action as a ferment depends. The violent activity of
the yeast at the commencement of the fermentation is due to oxygen
dissolved in the liquid. In liquids containing albumen (yeast and water,
&c.) yeast likewise grows, though sparingly, even if the solution does not
contain a trace of sugar, provided there is a sufficient access of air.
But if the air is excluded this does not take place, even though the
liquid may contain, besides albumen, a non-fermentable sugar, such as milk
sugar. The yeast formed in a liquid not containing sugar possesses all the
properties of a ferment, and excites fermentation in a solution of sugar
excluded from the air.[298]

[Footnote 298: ‘Bull. Soc. Chem.,’ 1861, pp. 61, 79.]

Similarly, Pasteur regards putrefaction as a kind of fermentation, set up
and maintained by an animal organism, or ferment belonging to the genus
_Vibrio_. Putrefaction, when taking place in contact with the air, is
always accompanied by decay or EREMACAUSIS. The abandonment of the old
theory as to the nature of eremacausis, viz. that it consisted in the
gradual combustion of decaying organic matters by atmospheric oxygen, has
been necessitated by the experiments of Pasteur, Schröder, and others,
which have conclusively established the facts that organic substances are
not oxidised by perfectly pure air, and that their decomposition and
subsequent destruction are due to the presence in the air of the sporules
or seeds of certain low organisms. Pasteur cites numerous instances
corroborative of the statement that perfectly pure oxygen fails to affect,
save to a very limited extent, organic substances.

In one case an aqueous infusion of yeast mixed with sugar was enclosed in
a sealed flask with double its volume of air, which had been previously
depurated by being made to pass through a red-hot tube. At the end of
three years the liquid (which had during part of the time been kept at a
temperature of from 25° to 30° Cent.) was found to be perfectly fresh and
transparent, and the air when examined gave 18·1 vols. of oxygen, 80·5
vols. of nitrogen, and 1·4 of carbonic acid. Under the same conditions
urine and milk, whether fresh or previously boiled, showed minute traces
only of oxidation; crystals of uric acid and phosphates formed in the
urine, but the milk was unaltered, having preserved its alkaline reaction,
and showed no disposition to curdle.

Very different, however, was the result when either of the above
substances was enclosed with ordinary air. It was then found that in a few
days the whole of the oxygen was absorbed, carbonic acid being at the same
time simultaneously formed. A certain quantity of moistened oak sawdust
kept in contact with ordinary air for a fortnight was found at the end of
that time to have absorbed 140 cubic centimètres of oxygen; whilst the
same amount of sawdust enclosed with an equal volume of purified air had
removed only a few cubic centimètres of the gas in a month. In the former
experiment a microscopic film of mycelia and spores of Mucidineæ formed on
the sawdust.

From numerous experiments of a like nature with the above, and attended
with analogous results, chemists and physiologists now generally regard
eremacausis as effected by agencies similar in character to those which
produce fermentation and putrefaction.

“The observations of Schröder upon the processes of fermentation and
putrefaction are remarkable. He has shown that any organic liquid may be
prevented from fermenting or putrefying if it be heated under pressure to
about 266° F. (130° C.), then transferred to a flask and boiled, the mouth
of the flask being plugged whilst boiling with a pellet of cotton wool,
which is left in the neck of the flask. In this way he preserved, during a
hot summer, various liquids, including freshly-boiled wort, blood, white
of egg, whey, urine, broth, and milk; but when afterwards the plug of
cotton wool was withdrawn these liquids in a few days began to undergo
decomposition. He explains these results by supposing that the spores of
some organism must find access to the substance in order to set up the
process of decomposition. By a temperature of 260° F. (126·7° C.) any such
spores which the substance itself might contain are destroyed, and as the
air is filtered through the cotton wool before it reaches the interior of
the flask, none of these organic germs can afterwards gain access to the
body under experiment. I have repeated some of these experiments with
complete success.[299]

[Footnote 299: The Editor of this work has also repeated Schröder’s
experiments on milk, and obtained the same results.]

“If air be transmitted with suitable precautions slowly through narrow
ignited platinum tubes, so as to destroy all suspended organic particles,
no fermentation or putrefaction will take place on admitting such air into
contact with putrescible substances previously heated to 260° for an
hour.”[300]

[Footnote 300: Miller.]

Pasteur has shown the existence of these floating germs in the air by
drawing a large volume of atmospheric air, by means of an aspirator,
through a narrow tube obstructed by collodion wool. On subsequently
dissolving this wool in a mixture of alcohol and ether various microscopic
sporules were left undissolved.

The entire absence of the exciting causes——warmth, air, and
moisture——leaves even those substances which under ordinary circumstances
are most liable to change, in a state in which they may remain for an
almost indefinite period without perceptible alteration. Thus, animal
substances in a frozen or dry state do not undergo decomposition, nor does
a solution of sugar or the juice of grapes (must) when perfectly excluded
from the air; but on the mere exposure of these substances to warmth,
moisture, or atmospheric air, putrefaction or fermentation immediately
commences. Remove the cork from the bottle of ‘capillaire’ on the parlour
sideboard, or pierce the skin of one of the grapes on the dessert table
with a needle, and these bodies, which would have otherwise suffered no
change for weeks, or even months, will soon exhibit symptoms of
spontaneous decomposition. The knowledge of this fact has been practically
applied to the preservation of animal and vegetable substances for food.
Even the most putrescible of these may be preserved for an unlimited
period by enclosure in metallic cases, or glass bottles, from which the
air has been completely removed and excluded.

The important duties which fermentation or putrefaction performs in the
economy of our globe, and in several of the arts of life and civilisation,
have long rendered the development of its principles an object of the
highest interest and importance, both in a scientific and practical point
of view. In its most extended sense, this subtile process of nature,
though occasionally productive of injurious effects, may be regarded as
one of the most necessary and beneficial with which we are acquainted.
Like the labours of a scavenger, it speedily removes from the surface of
our globe those matters which would otherwise remain for some time without
undergoing decomposition. It either dissipates in air, or reduces to more
fixed and useful forms of matter, those organic substances which, by their
presence, would prove noxious, or, at all events, useless to the animal
and vegetable kingdoms. It is the giant power that cleans the Augean
stable of nature, at the same time that it provides some of the most
esteemed articles of utility and luxury for the well-being and enjoyment
of man.

Chemists have distinguished fermentation into different varieties, which,
in general, are named after the more important products of its action. Of
late years, the number of these varieties has been greatly increased by
the extension of the term to several operations besides those formerly
included under it. See ACETIFICATION, BREAD, PUTREFACTION, BREWING, &c.

=FERN (Male).= _Syn._ MALE SHIELD FERN, FILIX MAS, RADIX FILICIS, L. The
root (rhizome) of the _Lastræa Filix-mas_, or male fern. It is bitter,
astringent, or vermifuge.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 dr. in powder, or made into a
decoction, repeated for 3 or 4 days, and followed by a purge. It is
chiefly given in tapeworm. In Switzerland it is deemed almost infallible,
but has proved less successful in these countries. See OILS.

=FERRICY′ANIDE.= _Syn._ FERRIDCYANIDE, FERRIDCYANURET. A compound of
ferricyanogen with a metal or other basic radical. The FERRICYANIDE OF
POTASSIUM, or ‘RED PRUSSIATE OF POTASH,’ as it is often improperly called,
is a well-known example. The ferricyanides of AMMONIUM and the ALKALIES
and ALKALINE EARTHS are soluble; those of most of the METALS, insoluble.
See _below_.

=FERRICYAN′OGEN.= _Syn._ FERRIDCYANOGEN, FERRIC-CYANOGEN. The peculiar
salt-radical which exists in the so-called red prussiate of potash. It is
isomeric with ferrocyanogen, from which it differs in capacity of
saturation (being tribasic), and in the behaviour of its compounds with
solutions of the metals. It has not been isolated. See POTASSIUM
(Ferricyanide).

=FERROCY′ANIDE.= _Syn._ FERROCYANURET, PRUSSIATE; FERROCYANIDUM,
FERROCYANURETUM, L. A compound of ferrocyanogen with a metal or other
basic radical. The principal substance of this kind is the FERROCYANIDE OF
POTASSIUM or ‘YELLOW PRUSSIATE OF POTASH,’ as it is often called. See the
respective basis——AMMONIUM, POTASSIUM, SODIUM, &c., and _below_.

=FERROCYAN′OGEN.= _Syn._ FERROCYANOGENIUM, L. A bibasic salt radical,
composed of the elements of 3 equivalents of CYANOGEN and 1 equivalent of
the metal IRON. It has never been isolated. It unites with the various
bases to form FERROCYANIDES. See CYANOGEN, HYDROFERROCYANIC ACID, IRON,
&c.

=FERRU′GO.= [=L=.] Rust of iron. See IRON (Sesquioxide).

=FE′VER.= _Syn._ FEBRIS, PYREXIA, L. In pathology a condition
characterised by loss of appetite, thirst, languor, debility,
unwillingness to move, accelerated pulse, increased heat of surface, and
general disturbance of all the functions. A large number of diseases in
which all or some of these symptoms appear are called FEVERS. They have
been divided by nosologists into intermittent (INTERMITTENTES), remittent
(REMITTENTES), and continued fevers (CONTINUÆ). The first of these are
generally known as AGUES; the second differ from agues in there being one
or more marked exacerbations and remissions of the symptoms every 24
hours, but without any entire intermission. The terms ‘hectic,’ ‘nervous,’
‘bilious,’ ‘inflammatory,’ &c., have also been applied to particular
varieties of fever; and names indicative of certain cutaneous appearances
connected with them have been given to others; as ‘scarlet’ fever,
‘yellow’ fever, &c.

The usual symptoms of incipient fever (febrile symptoms) are——chilliness
(varying from a simple shiver to a sensation of cold water running down
the back), a quick pulse, hot and dry skin or flushing, languor, often
evinced by yawning, depression of spirits, alternate fits of shivering and
heat, hurried and uneasy respiration, flying pains in various parts of the
body, as the head, back, and loins; loss of appetite, nausea or vomiting,
dry mouth, furred tongue, costiveness, urine small in quantity, and
usually of a deep colour, &c. When any of these symptoms appear, their
progress may often be arrested by the timely exhibition of an emetic,
followed by a saline purgative, and diaphoretics; at the same time
promoting the action of these remedies by a low diet and drinking
copiously of diluents, and carefully avoiding animal food, spirits,
fermented liquors, or anything at all stimulant. Whenever symptoms of
fever become established, medical advice should be sought and implicitly
followed. In parts where it cannot be obtained the treatment recommended
under AGUE, INFLAMMATION, REMITTENT FEVER, and TYPHUS, may be followed
with advantage.

In visiting or attending persons labouring under fevers, it is advisable
to avoid immediate contact with them or their clothing, or standing near
them in such a position as to inhale their breath, or the effluvia evolved
(in some cases) by their bodies; and when remaining for some time in the
apartment it is preferable to sit or stand near the fireplace, or between
the window and door, as such parts of the room are generally better
ventilated than the other portions. The greatest purifier of the
atmosphere of a sick chamber is a good fire, because it occasions a
continual current of the impure air up the chimney, and a corresponding
influx of fresh air from without. Chloride of lime, or chloride of zinc,
or their solutions, are also good purifiers. The first, however, should
not be used in quantity, as the evolved chlorine might in that case impede
the respiration of the patient. It is also advisable to avoid entering the
room of a patient labouring under contagious diseases of any class when
the stomach is empty or the spirits depressed; and it has been recommended
to clear the mouth of the saliva immediately after quitting the chamber.
See ABLUTION, &c.

=FEVER DROPS (C. Warburg’s Vegetable).= Camphor and aloes, 2-1/2; orange
peel, 10; elecampane root, 12; digest with 90 per cent. spirit 240, mixed
with ac. sulphuric dil. 24. To the tincture add quinine sulphate 9; tinct.
opii crocatæ, 2-1/2. (Ragsky.)

=FEVER POWDERS (James’s, also called James’s Powder and Pulvis Jacobi).=
It consists essentially of phosphate and antimoniate of lime with free
antimonic acid.

=FEVERSTONE——Lapis Anti-febrilis——Fieber Stein.= Lead oxide, 54 parts;
arsenic acid, 46 parts; melted together. (Winckler.)

=FI′BRIN.= _Syn._ FIBRINE. An azotised substance, forming the coagulable
portion of fresh-drawn blood, and the principal constituent of the
muscular or fleshy parts of animals. It is eminently nutritious, and
capable of yielding in the animal body albumen, caseine, and the tissues
derived from them. (Liebig.)

_Prep._ Fibrin is easily obtained in a nearly pure state, by agitating or
beating newly drawn blood with a small bundle of twigs, when it attaches
itself to the latter under the form of long reddish filaments, which
become white when worked with the hands in a stream of cold water. It may
also be procured by washing the coagulum of blood, tied up in a cloth, in
cold water, until all the soluble portions are removed. A small quantity
of fat, which it still contains, may be removed by digesting it in ether.

_Prop., &c._ Pure fibrin occurs as long, white, elastic filaments, which
are tasteless, inodorous, and insoluble in both hot and cold water. Wetted
with acetic acid, it forms, after a time, a transparent jelly, which is
slowly soluble in pure water. Very dilute solutions of the caustic
alkalies dissolve it completely, and the new solution greatly resembles
liquid albumen. Dried by a gentle heat it loses about 80% of water.

=FICHTENNADEL-BRUSTZUCKER (Pine-needle Pectoral Sugar).= (L. Morgenthau,
Mannheim.) For irritable cough, hoarseness, tightness of the chest,
asthma, stubborn lung affections, chronic catarrh, &c. Little sticks of
bonbon, containing a very little opium, and wrapped in tinfoil. (Hager.)

=FICHTENNADEL-TABAK (Pine-Needle Tobacco.= (L. Morgenthau.) Is said to be
patented in England. Ordinary tobacco moistened or sprinkled with a weak
spirituous solution of wood wool extract and wood wool oil and dried; made
up in cigars for smoking. (Hager.)

=FIG.= _Syn._ FICUS (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), CARICA, CARICÆ FRUCTUS, L.
The figs of commerce are the dried fruit of _Ficus Carica_, the common
fig-tree. They are demulcent, emollient, laxative, and pectoral. Roasted
and boiled figs are occasionally employed as poultices to gumboils and
other affections of the mouth.

=FILARIA DRACUNCULUS.= The Guinea worm. The female of this parasite is to
be met with in tropical climates only, infesting the subcutaneous cellular
tissue of man and some animals. In appearance it resembles a piece of
white whip-cord of uniform thickness. According to Mr Ewart it varies in
length from twelve and three quarters to forty inches, and is on an
average twenty-five and a half inches long. It usually contains only one
young worm, although rare instances have occurred in which as many as
fifty of its progeny have been discovered in the same parent. In almost
every case when this creature leaves the body, it does so by the lower
extremities; occasionally, however, it does so by the mouth, the cheeks,
or below the tongue. When the young of the guinea worm are placed in pure
water they survive only four or five days; in foul water they will exist
for three weeks. It appears that immersion in water, of the body of the
person afflicted with the parasite, sometimes has the effect of inducing
the creature to leave his human quarters, since Dr Lorimer states “that
many people belonging to the bazaars in the vicinity of the lines,
affected with the parasite, come, for the express purpose of extracting
the worm, to the same tank where the men of the regiment bathe. The people
so infested swim about in the water, with the worm hanging loose, drawing
the limb quickly backwards and forwards, and from side to side, until the
expulsion is affected.” Outside the body the guinea worm is generally
found beneath organic débris in wells, tanks, and other reservoirs for
water, from whence it appears to be now pretty universally admitted it
effects an entrance through the skin during bathing or wading.

=FILARIA SANGUINIS HOMINIS.= In 1872, Dr T. R. Lewis, in examining
microscopically the blood and urine of some of his patients in India,
discovered a worm enveloped in an extremely delicate tube, closed at both
ends, within which it could either elongate or shorten itself. This
parasite (called from its principal habitat the _Filaria Sanguinis
Hominis_) is about 1/75th of an inch in length, and about 1/35000th of an
inch in diameter. When removed from the body with a small quantity of
blood, it is described as being in a state of incessant motion,
unceasingly coiling and uncoiling itself, lashing the blood-corpuscles in
all directions, and insinuating itself between them.

The worms are said, when first taken from the body, to present a
translucent appearance; the larger specimens, however, frequently exhibit
an aggregation of granules towards the junction of the lower and middle
half. Occasionally a bright spot, suggestive of a mouth, is seen at the
thicker extremity. It is stated that they continue active from six to
thirty hours. Mr Lewis does not believe they are able to perforate the
tissues.

“These parasites,” says Mr Lewis, “are so persistently ubiquitous, as to
be obtained day after day by simply pricking any portion of the body, even
to the tips of the fingers and toes of both hands and both feet of one and
the same person, with a finely pointed needle. On one occasion six
excellent specimens were obtained in a single drop of blood by merely
pricking the lobule of the ear.”

Dr Lewis estimates, from the number of the Filaria found in one drop of
the blood of one patient, that his body must have contained more than
140,000. The presence of these creatures in the blood is believed to be
the cause of chylous urine, which is a very common disease in the East. It
seems probable they gain admission into the body from being present in
drinking water.

=FIL′BERT.= _Syn._ FILBERD. The fruit of the cultivated hazel or nut-tree
(_Corylus Avellana_). Filberts are distinguished from common nuts by their
lengthened figure and larger size. The best are imported from Spain.

=FILES.= The manufactures of these articles do not come within the limits
of this work. It may, however, be useful to mention that FILES, FLOATS,
and RASPS, which “cut dull” from age, dirt, or being much worn, are
greatly improved by being kept wet, immersed in water for some hours, or
even for a day or two.

Mr Ernest Spon recommends the following method for renovating files:——The
file to be first cleansed from all foreign matter, and then dipped in a
solution of one part of nitric acid, three parts of sulphuric acid, and
seven parts of water; the time of immersion will be according to the
extent the file has been worn, and the fineness of the teeth, varying from
five seconds to five minutes. On taking it out of the mixture, wash in
water, then dip in milk of lime, wash off the lime, dry by a gentle heat,
rub over equal parts of olive oil and turpentine, and finally brush over
with powdered coke.

=FIL′TER.= _Syn._ FILTRUM, L. An instrument or apparatus for straining or
filtering liquids.

=FIL′TERING POWDERS.= _Prep._ 1. Fuller’s earth washed, dried without
heat, and reduced to coarse powder.

2. Pipe clay or potter’s clay, as the last. Both the above are used to
filter and bleach oils.

3. Clay or fuller’s earth, 1 part; fine siliceous sand, 2 parts; the two
are separately washed, after which they are drained, and mixed together,
and dried as before. Used for GLUTINOUS OILS.

4. Granulated animal charcoal, sifted and fanned from the dust. Used to
filter and bleach SYRUPS and VEGETABLE SOLUTIONS.

_Obs._ Filtering powders are prepared of several degrees of coarseness,
and should be chosen with reference to the degree of fluidity of the
liquid to be filtered through them. In no case should they be reduced to
fine powder, as not only is the process of filtration thereby rendered
unnecessarily tedious, but in some cases (as when charcoal dust is mixed
with glutinous vegetable solutions and syrups) the filtrate carries off a
portion of the powder, which can afterwards be separated from it only with
considerable difficulty. See CHARCOAL, FILTRATION, OIL, &c.

=FILTRA′TION.= _Syn._ FILTRATIO, L. The separation of liquids from
substances mechanically suspended in them, by passing them through media
having pores sufficiently fine to retain or keep back the solid matter.
Filtration is one of the most common and useful of the chemico-mechanical
operations of the arts, and its successful performance in an economical
and expeditious manner is therefore a matter of the highest importance in
the laboratory, and, indeed, in almost every branch of human skill and
industry, in which liquids are employed. Simple in principle, and
apparently easily performed, it is, nevertheless, one of those operations
which require no less of care than of tact and experience to conduct it
with certainty and success. The losses sustained in the laboratory, by
defective manipulation in this particular, often exceed those arising from
ignorance and accidents in every other department conducted in it.

Filtration is generally resorted to for the purpose of freeing liquids
from feculence, dirt, and other foreign matter, and for obtaining them in
a clear or transparent state; but, in some cases, it has for its object
the collection of the suspended substances, as precipitates, &c., and in
others both these intentions are combined. The word ‘filtration’ is
absolutely synonymous with ‘straining,’ but in the language of the
laboratory it is usually applied to the operation of rendering liquids
transparent, or nearly so, by passing them through fine media, as
filtering paper, sand, and the like; whilst the term ‘straining’ is
employed to designate the mere separation of the grosser portion, by
means of coarse media, flannel, horsehair cloth, &c., through which they
flow with considerable rapidity. Filtration is distinguished from
‘clarification’ by its mere mechanical action, whereas the latter operates
by depuration, or the subsidence of the suspended substances or fæces,
arising from their gravity being naturally greater than the fluid with
which they are mixed, or being rendered so by the application of heat, or
by the addition of some foreign substance.

The apparatus, vessels, or media, employed for filtration, are called
‘FILTERS,’ and are technically distinguished from ‘STRAINERS’ by the
superior fineness of their pores.

Both strainers and filters act on the same principles as the common sieve
on powders; they all, in like manner, retain or hold back the coarser
matter, and permit the liquid or smaller and more attenuated particles to
pass through. The term ‘medium’ (pleural ‘media’) is applied to the
substance or substances through the pores of which the liquid percolates.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

The form of filters, and the substances of which they are composed, are
various, and depend upon the nature of the liquids for which they are
intended. On the small scale, funnels of tin, zinc, copper, wedgwood-ware,
earthenware, glass, or porcelain, are commonly employed as the containing
vessels. (See _engr._) The filtering medium may be any substance of a
sufficiently spongy or porous nature to allow of the free percolation of
the liquid, and whose pores are, at the same time, sufficiently small to
render it limpid or transparent. Unsized paper, flannel, linen, calico,
cotton wool, felt, sand, coarsely powdered charcoal, porous stone, or
earthenware, and numerous other substances of a similar kind, are employed
for this purpose.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

For many liquids that filter easily, and in which the suspended matter is
of a coarse and porous nature, it is often sufficient merely to place a
little cotton wool or tow, or a small piece of sponge, in neck of the
funnel, as at (_a_, fig. 1) in the above engr.; but such an apparatus,
from the small extent of the filtering surface, acts either slowly or
imperfectly, and soon gets choked up. Filters of unsized paper are well
suited for all liquids that are not of a corrosive or viscid nature, and
are universally employed for filtering small quantities of liquids in the
laboratory. A piece of the paper is taken of a size proportionate to the
quantity of the liquid to be filtered, and is first doubled from corner to
corner into a triangle (see _engr. a_), which is again doubled into a
smaller triangle _b_, and the angular portion of the margin being rounded
off with a pair of scissors _c_, it constitutes a paper cone, which is
placed on a funnel of proportionate capacity, and is then nearly filled
with the liquid. A piece of paper so cut, when laid flat upon the table,
should be nearly circular. Filtering paper is now sold ready cut in
circles of various sizes, which simply require doubling for use. Another
method of forming a paper filter, preferred by some persons, is to double
the paper once, as above, and then to fold it in a similar way to a fan,
observing so to open it and lay it on the funnel that a sufficient
interval be left between the two to permit of the free passage of the
filtered liquid on its descent towards the receiver. The ‘plaited filter,’
as thus formed, is exceedingly useful for general purposes; it exposes the
entire surface of the paper to the liquid, and allows filtration to
proceed more rapidly than a ‘plain filter’ does. (See Fig. 3.)

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

Mr Rother takes objection to the ordinary plain paper filter employed in
the laboratory, because of the superfluous fold which in two thicknesses
lies under one half of the extended surface of the filter. He says the
interposition of these two extra layers compels the liquid to pass through
three thicknesses of paper on the half side of the extended filter, whilst
the other half side presents only a single thickness. It is evident that
the two hidden layers are a very appreciable impediment to the current,
aside from the more important fact that the liquid will traverse this side
less rapidly than the other, and thus occasion an imperfect washing of the
precipitate, or at least prolong the operation beyond reasonable limits.
Recognising these objections to the old filter, Mr Rother has invented a
very simple modification of the plain filter which, whilst saving 50 per
cent. of the paper, he states, removes all the defects of the old form.
This new filter practically presents but a single thickness of paper to
penetrate, at the same time preserving an even surface, equal in all other
advantages to the plain filter.

The filtrations are said to be more rapid than with the usual form, and
the absence of the superfluous half sheet admits of more rapid drying.

To make the new filter:——Cut the circular disk of filtering paper in two
through the line of its diameter, take either half disk, and fold it
across the line of the radius, then turn down the double edge of the cut
side and fold it over several times——finally, run a hard smooth surface
along the seam thus produced, to compress it, and spread the finished
filter into an appropriate funnel, first moistening it with water before
the liquid to be filtered is poured in.

In reference to funnels, it may be remarked that those employed for
filtering rapidly should be deeply ribbed on the inside, or small rods of
wood or glass, or pieces of straw, or quills, should be placed between
them and the paper. The neck or tubular part of the funnel should, in like
manner, be deeply ribbed or fluted on the outside, to permit of the free
passage of the air, when it is placed in a narrow-mouthed bottle or
receiver. When this is not the case, filtration proceeds but slowly, and
the filtered liquid is apt to be driven up the outside of the neck of the
funnel by the confined air, and to be continually hissing and flowing over
the mouth of the vessel. The breadth of a funnel, to filter well, should
be about three fourths its height, reckoning from the throat (_a_). When
deeper, the paper is liable to be continually ruptured, from the pressure
of the superincumbent fluid; and when shallower, filtration proceeds
slowly, and an unnecessarily large surface of the liquid is exposed to the
atmosphere, and is lost by evaporation. To lessen this as much as
possible, the upper edge of the glass is frequently ground perfectly
smooth, and a piece of smooth plate-glass is laid thereon. When paper
filters are of large dimensions, or employed for aqueous fluids that
rapidly soften the texture of the paper, or for collecting heavy powders,
or metallic precipitates, it is usual to support them on linen or calico,
to prevent them breaking. This is best done by folding the cloth up with
the paper, and cutting the filter out of the two, in the same way as would
be done with doubled paper, observing so to place it in the funnel that
the paper and calico may remain close together, especially towards the
bottom.

[Illustration]

The filtration of small quantities of liquid, as in chemical experiments,
may often be conveniently performed by merely placing the paper on the
circular top of a recipient (see _engr._), or on a ring of glass or
earthenware laid on the top of any suitable vessel. A filter of this kind
that will hold one fluid ounce will filter many ounces of some liquids in
an hour.

Good filtering paper should contain no soluble matter, and should not give
more than 1/250 to 1/230 of its weight of ashes. The soluble matter may be
removed by washing it, first, with very dilute hydrochloric acid, and
secondly, with distilled water.

The ‘Munktell’ Swedish filtering paper[301] is composed of flax fibres
very much crushed and broken, and owes its value to the broken pieces of
the fibres filling up the pores, and thus preventing solids from passing
through the paper. Rhenish filtering paper is also made from flax, but in
consequence of the more perfect condition of its fibres, is more porous
than Munktell’s, and therefore inferior to it for filtering purposes.
Another kind of Rhenish paper, also of flax, in which the fibres are much
torn, is manufactured and is said to be a useful article, and to allow the
rapid passage of fluids through it. The white filtering papers of English
make have a small quantity of cotton mixed with the flax; and the fibres
are much torn and crushed; hence they make serviceable filters.

[Footnote 301: Dr F. Mohr says that Swedish filtering paper is now
undeserving its traditional reputation, and that it contains soluble
alumina.]

The grey, circular cut filtering paper of varying sizes, of foreign make,
as well as the grey sheet filtering paper of Dutch and English
manufacture, contains a large quantity of wool, much of which is coloured;
as well as jute and esparto grass, both of these latter in an unbleached
state. The amount of ash in the Munktell paper has of late increased in
quality.[302]

[Footnote 302: Greenish.]

[Illustration]

For filtering a larger quantity of a liquid than can be conveniently
managed with a funnel, and also for substances that are either too viscid
or too much loaded with feculence to allow them to pass freely through
paper, conical bags made of flannel, felt, tweeled cotton cloth or Canton
flannel, linen or calico, and suspended to iron-hooks by rings or tapes,
are commonly employed. The first two of the above substances are
preferable for saccharine, mucilaginous, and acidulous liquors; the third
for oily ones; and the remainder for tinctures, weak alkaline lyes, and
similar solutions. These bags have the disadvantage of sucking up a
considerable quantity of the fluid poured into them, and are therefore
objectionable, except for large quantities, or when they are to be
continued in actual use as filters for some time. On the large scale, a
number of them are usually worked together, and are generally enclosed in
cases to prevent evaporation, and to exclude dirt from the filtered liquor
that trickles down their sides. These arrangements will be noticed further
on.

[Illustration]

A simple mode of filtering aqueous fluids, which are not injured by
exposure to the air, is to draw them off from one vessel to another, by
means of a number of threads of loosely twisted cotton or worsted,
arranged in the form of a syphon. (See _engr._) The little cotton rope at
once performs the operations of decantation and filtration. This method is
often convenient for sucking off the water from a small quantity of a
precipitate.

For fuller information on the subject of laboratory filtration, the reader
is referred to the following papers (which are too long for quotation
here) in ‘The Chemical News’:——

“On a New Mode of Filtration,” by J. B. Cooke, May 30th, 1873; “Filtering
Apparatus,” by John F. Kerr, February 6th, 1874; “Implements for
Filtration,” by P. Casamajor, July 23rd, 1875, and 30th, 1875; Ibid, by W.
Jago, February 4th, 1876; “On Rapid Filtration,” by E. C. H. Hildebrand,
August 11th, 1876; also to ‘Journal of the Chemical Society,’ for papers
on:——“Simple Suction arrangement for Rapid Filtering,” by C. Holthof, vol.
xxxii, part 2, p. 508; “Employment of Compressed Air on Filtering
Solutions,” by W. Leübe, vol. xxxii, part 1, p. 270.

When solid substances, as porous stone or earthenware, are used as the
media for filtrations, vessels of metal, wood, or stone-ware, are employed
to contain them and the supernatant liquid. In these cases the filtering
medium is usually arranged as a shelf or diaphragm, and divides the vessel
into two compartments; the upper one being intended to contain the dirty
liquid, and the under one to receive the same when filtered. Such an
apparatus is set in operation by merely filling the upper chamber, and may
at any time be readily cleared out by reversing it, and passing clean
water through it in an opposite direction. Small arrangements of this
kind, intended to be screwed on to the water supply-pipe by either end,
and which answer the purpose intended in the most satisfactory manner,
have been manufactured and vended under the name of ‘REVERSIBLE’ or
‘SELF-CLEANING FILTERS,’ When pulverulent substances, as sand, coarsely
powdered charcoal, &c., are employed, a similar arrangement is followed;
but in this case the shelf or diaphragm must consist of any convenient
substance pierced with numerous holes, over which must be placed, first a
stratum of coarse pebbles, next some of a finer description, and on this a
proper quantity of the sand, charcoal, or other medium. Over the whole
should be placed another layer of pebbles, or a board or plate of metal or
earthenware, pierced with a number of holes, to allow the liquid to be
poured into the filter without disturbing its arrangement. Apparatus of
this kind, of a permanent description, and arranged for filtering large
quantities of liquids, are properly denominated ‘FILTERING MACHINES,’

Among the liquids usually submitted to filtration, the following may be
mentioned as the principal——water, oils, syrups, tinctures, vegetable
juices, infusions, and decoctions.

The filtration of water may now be considered. The water of our wells is
presented by nature ready filtered to the hand of man, and often exhibits
an admirable degree of transparency and purity. It acquires this state by
percolating through the mineral strata of the earth, which deprives it of
the organic matter it derives from the soil and subsoil, but, at the same
time, it dissolves a portion of the saline and earthy media through which
it passes, and hence acquires that peculiar ‘hardness’ which is constantly
found in spring water. On the large scale, this natural system of
filtration has been imitated by some of the commercial companies that
supply our cities and towns with water. Extensive beds of sand and gravel
have been employed, with variable success, as the filtering media; and
were it not that filters gradually lose their porosity by the accumulation
of the retained matter in their pores, such a method would be excellent.
But the great expense of such filters precludes the possibility of
frequently cleaning or renewing them, by which means they can alone be
kept in an efficient state.

A filter which possesses the advantages of being easily and cheaply
cleaned when dirty, and which frees water from mechanical impurities with
immense rapidity, may be formed by placing a stratum of sponge between two
perforated metallic plates, united by a central screw, and arranged in
such a manner as to permit of the sponge being compressed to any required
degree. Water, under gentle pressure, flows with such rapidity through the
pores of compressed sponge, that it is said that a few square feet of this
substance will perfectly filter several millions of gallons of water
daily. This method of filtration has been made the subject of a patent,
and has been favorably noticed by the legislature.

A few barrels or hogsheads of water may be easily filtered daily, by the
arrangement represented in the engraving.

[Illustration:

  _A._ A common water-pipe or cock.
  _b._ A false bottom fitting in perfectly water-tight.
  _c._ A perforated wooden or metallic vessel or box covered with a
      bag of felt or other filtering substance (not shown in the
      engraving). _d._ A small tube, fitting water-tight into the
      false bottom and uniting the _interior_ of the filter with the
      lower portion of the cask.]

It is evident that when water is poured into the upper portion _B_ of a
vessel, so arranged, it will sink through the filter _c_, and pipe _d_,
into the lower chamber _C_, and this filtration will go on as long as the
supply continues, and water is drawn from the cock _e_. By uniting the
cock _e_ with a tank or casks, and by keeping the upper portion _B_ always
full by means of a ball-cock, a considerable quantity of water may be thus
filtered. The advantage of this plan is, that the filter _c_ can be always
readily got at, and easily cleaned or renewed.

For filtering water on the small scale, and for domestic use,
‘alcarazzas,’ diaphragms of porous earthenware and filtering-stone and
layers of sand and charcoal, &c., already referred to, are commonly
employed as filtering media. The filtering power of porous stone or
earthenware may be greatly increased by adopting the arrangement
represented in the margin, which consists in making the diaphragm of the
shape of a disc (_d_), supporting plates of the same material, the whole
forming but one piece. The ‘PLATYLITHIC WATER-FILTERS,’ which are formed
of porous stone cut on this plan, present 200 to 300 square inches of
filtering surface. A cheap, useful form of portable filter, is the
following, given in the ‘Proceedings of the British Association,’ “Take
any common vessel, perforated below, such as a flower-pot, fill the lower
portion with coarse pebbles, over which place a layer of finer ones, and
on these a layer of clean coarse sand. On the top of this a piece of burnt
clay, perforated with small holes, should be put, and on this again a
stratum of three or four inches thick, of well burnt pounded animal
charcoal. A filter thus formed will last a considerable time, and will be
found particularly useful in removing noxious and putrescent substances
held in solution by water.”[303] The ‘PORTABLE-FILTERS,’ set up in
stone-ware, that are commonly sold in the shops, contain a stratum of
sand, or coarsely-powdered charcoal;[304] before, however, having access
to this, the water has to pass through a sponge, to remove the coarser
portion of the impurities. Among the many new kinds of portable filters
now offered for sale, which claim special notice, are the following,
viz.——

[Footnote 303: A very similar filter to this was invented by the late Mr
George Robins, the celebrated auctioneer. Mr Robins’ filter differed from
the above in having a lid with a hole in the centre in which a sponge was
placed; an arrangement which by keeping back the suspended matter
contained in the water, prevented the filter from being clogged up.]

[Footnote 304: Frankland and Byrne have shown that animal is greatly
superior to vegetable charcoal when employed for water-filters.]

[Illustration]

=1.= The MOULDED CARBON FILTER, consisting of a spherical or cylindrical
vessel formed of compressed carbon.

=2.= The SILICATED CARBON FILTER, in which the medium is a compact
substance, formed of animal charcoal and the ashes of Boghead coal.

Of the many forms of this filter, we may mention the ‘Syphon Filter for
Travellers,’ by means of which wholesome water may be drunk from any pond
or stream by simply immersing the filter therein and drawing the water
through the tube by suction. Of the ‘Silicated Carbon Filter,’ Professor
Wanklyn says that it will render river water containing a considerable
amount of free and albuminoid ammonia as pure as deep spring water.

=3.= BISCHOFF’S PATENT SPONGY-IRON FILTER.——This differs from one invented
many years ago by Dr Medlock, in bringing the water into contact with
spongy iron instead of thin iron rods, and thus effecting filtration much
more rapidly. Medlock believed that the iron rods brought about the
oxidation of the nitrogenous organic matter and its consequent conversion
into nitrites and nitrates. Bischoff states that he has experimentally
investigated the properties of spongy iron, and finds that it——

_a._ Decomposes even distilled water, which has been previously boiled.

_b._ That it reduces nitric acid to ammonia.

_c._ That the amounts of organic nitrogen and albuminoid ammonia are
always much reduced after filtration through spongy iron.

_d._ That a minute quantity of iron is dissolved by the carbonic acid
contained in the water, ferrous bicarbonate being formed. The latter being
soon oxidised and precipitated is easily removed by filtration.

_e._ That the action of spongy iron on impure water is two fold, viz.
chemical and mechanical. “The chemical action is clearly indicated by the
decomposition of water. The readiest explanation for the decomposition of
water, is, the intimate contact between the electro-positive and
electro-negative bodies, such as metallic iron and carbon, or even
metallic iron and any ferric oxide, which has escaped reduction, or which
has been reoxidised by exposure to air or water; and it may well be
supposed that, consequent to the galvanic current thus produced, the
atmospheric oxygen dissolved in water is ozonised, and caused to act as a
powerful oxidising agent in organic matter.”

We extract the tables on the next page from the Sixth Report of the Royal
Commission on Rivers’ Pollution. The Commissioners, we may here state,
speak in high terms of this filter.

=4.= The so-called MAGNETIC CARBIDE OF IRON FILTER. In this, the filtering
material is said to be prepared by heating hæmatite with sawdust. This
filter has a good repute.

⁂ The Royal Commission “on Rivers Pollution” strongly recommend filters of
animal charcoal to be recharged every three to six months, “since they
found that myriads of minute worms were developed in the animal charcoal,
and passed out with the water when these filters were used for Thames
water, and when the charcoal was not renewed at sufficiently short
intervals.”

_Cleansing of Filters._——Every two or three months (according to the kind
of water) air should be blown through, and if the charcoal be in the block
form it should be brushed. Then four to six ounces of the pharmacopœial
solution of potassium permanganate, or twenty to thirty grains of the
solid permanganate in a quart of distilled water, and ten drops of strong
sulphuric acid, should be poured through, and subsequently a quarter to
half an ounce of pure hydrochloric acid in two to four gallons of
distilled water. This plan would be useful on foreign stations where the
filter cannot be sent home, or taken to pieces; if it can be taken to
pieces, the charcoal should be spread out in a thin layer, and exposed for
some time to air or sun, or heated in an oven.

        _The Average Composition of Thames Water, before and
        after Filtration through Spongy Iron._

  ------------------+----------------------------------------------------------
                    |                     Dissolved Matters.
                    |---------+-------+---------+--------+-----------+---------
     Description.   |  Total  |Organic| Organic |Ammonia.| Nitrogen, |  Total
                    |  solid  |carbon.|nitrogen.|        |as nitrates|combined
                    |impurity.|       |         |        |    and    |nitrogen.
                    |         |       |         |        | nitrites. |
  ------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+-----------+---------
  As delivered from |         |       |         |        |           |
   Chelsea          |         |       |         |        |           |
   Waterworks       |  28·04  | ·198  |  ·042   | ·0009  |   ·117    |  ·220
  The same water    |         |       |         |        |           |
   filtered through |         |       |         |        |           |
   spongy iron      |  16·8   | ·069  |  ·018   |  ·019  |   ·018    |  ·049
  ------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+-----------+---------
  The mean of the   |         |       |         |        |           |
   14th and 15th    |         |       |         |        |           |
   taken after the  |         |       |         |        |           |
   spongy iron      |         |       |         |        |           |
   filter had been  |         |       |         |        |           |
   in operation in  |         |       |         |        |           |
   the Rivers       |         |       |         |        |           |
   Commission       |         |       |         |        |           |
   Laboratory for   |         |       |         |        |           |
   upwards of eight |         |       |         |        |           |
   months.[305] As  |         |       |         |        |           |
   supplied from    |         |       |         |        |           |
   Waterworks       |  24·47  | ·170  |  ·055   |  ·001  |   ·098    |  ·154
   After filtration |         |       |         |        |           |
    through spongy  |         |       |         |        |           |
    iron            |  14·26  | ·083  |  ·016   |   0    |     0     |  ·016
  ------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+-----------+---------

  ---------------+-------------------------------------------------------------
                 |                      Dissolved Matters.
                 +---------+---------+-------------------------------+---------
                 |         |         |           Hardness.           |
                 |         |         +----------+----------+---------+
   Description.  |Previous |Chlorine.|Temporary.|Permanent.| Total.  | No. of
                 | Sewage  |         |          |          |         | samples
                 |or Animal|         |          |          |         |analysed.
                 |contamin-|         |          |          |         |
                 | ation.  |         |          |          |         |
  ---------------+---------+---------+----------+----------+---------+---------
  As delivered   |         |         |          |          |         |
   from Chelsea  |         |         |          |          |         |
   Waterworks    |  1·464  |  2·01   |   15·5   |   6·2    |  21·7   |   15
  The same       |         |         |          |          |         |
   filtered      |         |         |          |          |         |
   through       |         |         |          |          |         |
   spongy iron   |   ·177  |  2·00   |   6·8    |   4·9    |  11·7   |   15
  ---------------+---------+---------+----------+----------+---------+---------
  The mean of the|         |         |          |          |Analysis |
   14th and 15th |         |         |          |          | of the  |
   samples taken |         |         |          |          |  15th   |
   after the     |         |         |          |          | sample. |
   spongy iron   |         |         |          |          |         |
   filters had   |         |         |          |          |         |
   been in       |         |         |          |          |         |
   operation in  |         |         |          |          |         |
   the Rivers    |         |         |          |          |         |
   Commission    |         |         |          |          |         |
   Laboratory for|         |         |          |          |         |
   upwards of    |         |         |          |          |         |
   eight         |         |         |          |          |         |
   months.[305] As         |         |          |          |         |
   supplied from |         |         |          |          |         |
   Waterworks    |  ·675   |  1·95   |   ———    |   ———    |  19·1   |   ———
  After          |         |         |          |          |         |
   filtration    |         |         |          |          |         |
   through spongy|         |         |          |          |         |
   iron          |    0    |  1·95   |   ———    |   ———    |   9·6   |   ———
  ---------------+---------+---------+----------+----------+---------+---------

[Footnote 305: The figures demonstrate that the purifying action of spongy
iron, if at all altered, has been _increased_, as regards the most
important impurities of water, viz., nitrogenous matters and hardness.]

If sponges are at all used, they should be removed from time to time, and
thoroughly washed in hot water.[306]

[Footnote 306: Parkes ‘Practical Hygiene.’]

Oils are filtered, on the small scale, through cotton-wool, or unsized
paper, arranged in a funnel; and on the large scale, through long bags,
made of tweeled cotton-cloth (Canton flannel). These bags are usually made
about 12 or 15 inches in diameter, and from 4 to 8 feet long (see
_engr._), and are inclosed in bottomless casings, or bags of coarse
canvas, about 5 to 6 or 8 inches in diameter, for the purpose of
condensing a great extent of filtering surface into the smallest possible
space. A number of these double bags (from 1 to 50 or 60) are connected
with corresponding holes in the bottom of a block-tin or tinned-copper
cistern, into which the oil to be filtered is poured. The mode in which
these bags are fastened to the cistern is of the utmost importance, as on
the joint being close and secure depends the integrity of the apparatus.
Three methods of doing this are figured in the engraving, which, with the
references, will explain themselves, the same letters referring to the
same parts of each.

[Illustration: Filtering-bag of cotton-cloth.

Cotton filtering-bag, ‘_creased_,’ or enclosed in its canvas envelope,
ready for fixing.]

The second of the above arrangements is the least expensive, and certainly
the most convenient in practice; and when the cylinder _l_ fits the hole
closely (allowing for the bag), is as safe, or safer, than an ordinary
screw.

[Illustration:

  _a._ Bottom of cistern.
  _b._ Filtering-bag.
  _c._ Screw of the conical nozzle fitting into the cistern.
  _d._ Binding cord connecting bag and nozzle.
  _e._ Binding cord connecting bag and lower nozzle.
  _f._ Bayonet-catch, connecting the lower portion of the nozzle
      fastened to the bag with the upper and fixed part, _g_.
  _i._ The thick hem at the top of the bag (purposely made large by
      enclosing a piece of thick cord therein), resting on the
      shoulders, _k_.
  _l._ A metallic cylinder, loosely fitting the hole in the cistern,
      and over which the top of the bag is drawn, before being put
      into its place; when fitted, as in the engraving, it retains
      the hem _i_ securely in its place above the shoulder _k_.]

The bags are surrounded by a wooden screen fitted up with doors for the
purpose of keeping off the dust; and the bottom of the apartment is
furnished with large steam-pipes, by which a proper temperature may be
kept up in cold weather. The use of heat should, however, never be had
recourse to when it can be avoided, as although it vastly increases the
rate of filtration, the oil so filtered is more apt to become opaque in
cold weather than when the process is conducted at the natural temperature
of the atmosphere. This is particularly the case with castor oil and sperm
oil. In the United States of America, where the latter is consumed in
enormous quantities for illumination, the best is always ‘winter
strained,’ as it is popularly called. In practice, it is more convenient
to have a number of small cisterns at work (say 50 or 100 galls. each),
than one or two larger ones, as any accident that may occur is more easily
remedied, and that without stopping the whole operation.

When cotton-cloth bags are employed without being ‘creased,’ or enclosed
in others of canvas, they should not be longer than about 3 or 4 feet, and
not wider than about 5 or 6 inches when filled. When larger they are
dangerous.

[Illustration]

A convenient method of filtering a single cask of oil is, to insert the
pipe of a two-way patent filter into the cork-hole, by which means the
whole will be filtered as drawn off, without any trouble on the part of
the operator. This filter consists of a porous bag stretched over a
perforated metallic vessel, nearly the shape and size of the exterior
casing, and its edge is tightly screwed between the sides and bottom of
the latter, so as to be quite water-tight. The cock communicates with the
interior of the perforated plate and filter, and the supply-pipe with the
exterior. By this means the interior chamber, which occupies 5/6ths of the
vessel, rapidly fills with filtered oil, and continues full as long as any
liquor remains in the cask. This arrangement is also well adapted to the
filtration of wines, beer, cordials, porter, and various other liquors. It
is unequalled in simplicity and usefulness. The same filter may be removed
from cask to cask, with the facility of a common cock.

The filtration of SYRUPS is now generally effected on the large scale by
passing them through the ‘CREASED BAG FILTER’ just described. On the small
scale, as employed by confectioners and druggists, they are usually passed
through CONICAL FLANNEL BAGS. (See page 726.) The filtration of thick
syrups is, however, attended with some difficulty, and it is therefore a
good plan to filter them in a somewhat dilute state, and afterwards to
reduce them to a proper consistence by evaporation in clean vessels of
tinned copper, by steam heat. Syrups, when filtered in a heated state, run
well for a time, but the pores of the fabric rapidly get choked, from the
thickening of the syrup and partial crystallization of the sugar,
occasioned by the evaporation of the aqueous portion from the surface of
the bag. This may be partially prevented by enclosing the bag in a
metallic casing. On the whole clarification is preferable for syrups to
filtration on the small scale. They need only be well beaten up while cold
with a little white of egg, and then heated; a scum rises, which must be
removed as soon as it becomes consistent, and the skimming continued until
the liquid becomes clear. Any floating portions of scum that may have
escaped notice are easily removed by running the syrup through a coarse
flannel strainer, whilst hot. The most extensive application of the
process of filtration in the arts is in the refining of sugars.

TINCTURES AND DILUTE SPIRITS are usually filtered, on the small scale,
through BIBULOUS or UNSIZED PAPER placed on a funnel; and on the large
scale, through thin and fine COTTON BAGS. In general, however, tinctures
clarify themselves by the subsidence of the suspended matter, when allowed
to repose for a few days. Hence it is the bottoms alone that require
filtering; the supernatant clear portion need only be run through a small
hair sieve, a piece of tow or cotton placed in the throat of a funnel, or
some other coarse medium, to remove any floating substances, as pieces of
straw, &c. Spirits which are largely loaded with essential oil, as those
of ANISEED, &c., run rapidly through paper or calico, but usually require
the addition of a spoonful or two of magnesia before they will flow quite
clear. When possible, tinctures, spirits, and all similar volatile fluids,
are better and more economically cleared by subsidence or clarification
than by filtration, as, in the latter way, a portion is lost by
evaporation, and the strength of the liquid is thereby altered.

Vegetable juices should be allowed to deposit their feculous portion
before filtration. The supernatant liquid will then be often found quite
clear. It is only when this is not the case that filtration should be had
recourse to. A small quantity may be filtered through coarse or woollen
filtering paper, supported on a piece of coarse calico placed on a funnel;
when the quantity is large, one of the CONICAL BAGS before described
should be employed. The bottoms from which the clear portion has been
decanted should be placed on a separate filter, or else not added until
the whole of the other portion has drained through. Vegetable juices are
often rendered clear by simply heating them to about 180° or 200° Fahr.,
by which their albumen is coagulated; they are also frequently clarified
by the addition of a little white of egg and heat, in the same way as
syrups. Many of them (as those of hemlock, henbane, aconite, &c.) are
greatly injured by heat, and must consequently be filtered, or only simply
decanted after repose. In all cases they should be exposed to the air as
little as possible, as they rapidly suffer decomposition.

Vegetable infusions and decoctions may be cleared by defecation followed
by filtration. The conical bags of flannel before described are usually
employed for this purpose. When the liquid is to be evaporated to an
extract, they are commonly suspended by a hook over the evaporating pan. A
convenient method of straining these fluids, practised in the laboratory,
is to stretch a square of flannel on a frame or ‘horse,’ securing it at
the corners by pieces of string. (See _engr._) Such a frame, laid across
the mouth of a pan, is more easily fed with fresh liquid than a bag, whose
mouth is 40 or 50 inches higher. The same purpose, for small quantities of
liquid, is effected by laying the flannel across the mouth of a coarse
hair sieve. The concentrated infusions and decoctions being usually weak
tinctures, may be filtered in the same way as the latter. (See _above_.)
Many vegetable solutions, that from the viscidity of the suspended matter
can scarcely be filtered, may be readily clarified with white of egg in
the cold, or pass the filter rapidly if a very small quantity of acetic,
tartaric, sulphuric, or other strong acid, is previously added.

[Illustration]

Corrosive liquids, as the STRONG ACIDS, are filtered through powdered
glass, or SILICEOUS SAND, supported on pebbles in the throat of a glass
funnel, or through asbestos or gun-cotton placed in the same manner.
Charcoal has also been employed for the same purpose, but is not fit for
some acids. Strong caustic alkaline lyes are also filtered through
powdered glass or sand. Weak alkaline lyes may be filtered through fine
calico, stretched across the mouth of a funnel. Many corrosive liquids, as
solution of potassa, &c., require to be excluded from the air during
filtration. The simplest apparatus that can be employed for this purpose
is that figured in the margin:——(_a_) is a globular bottle fitted with the
ground stopper (_d_), and having a perforated neck (_f_) ground to the
bottle (_b_); (_c_) is a small tube, wrapped round with as much asbestos,
linen, or calico, as is required to make it fit the under neck of the
bottle through which it passes. The tube (_c_) may also be fixed by
placing pebbles and powdered glass or sand round it, as before mentioned.
For use, the solution to be filtered is poured into the bottle (_a_)
nearly as high as the top of the tube (_c_), and the stopper is replaced.
The liquid then descends into (_b_), and a similar quantity of air passes
up the tube into (_a_). LIQUOR POTASSÆ may be always obtained fine by
depuration in close vessels, when the sediment of lime only need be
filtered, which may be effected with calico fixed across the mouth of a
funnel.

[Illustration]

When a precipitate, or the suspended matter in a liquid, is the object of
the filtration, the filter should be of such a nature that the powder may
be easily separated from it, when dry, and that with the least loss
possible. Linen filters are for this reason preferable for large
quantities, and those of smooth bibulous paper for small ones. The powder
should be washed down the sides of the filter, and collected, by means of
a small stream of water, in one spot at the bottom, assisting the
operation with a camel-hair pencil; and, when the whole is dry, it should
be swept off the paper or cloth with a similar pencil or brush, and not
removed by a knife, as is commonly done, when it can be possibly avoided.

The ‘first runnings’ of liquid from a filter are commonly foul, and are
pumped back or returned until the fluid runs perfectly limpid and
transparent, when it is ‘turned into’ the ‘filtered liquor cistern,’ or
proper receiver. In many cases the liquid does not readily become
transparent by simply passing through the filter; hence has arisen the use
of FILTERING POWDERS, or substances which rapidly choke up the pores of
the media in a sufficient degree to make the fluid pass clear. In the
employment of these powders care should be taken that they are not in too
fine a state of division, nor used in larger quantities than are
absolutely necessary, as they are apt to choke up the filter, and to
absorb a large quantity of the liquid. The less filtering powder used, the
more rapid will be the progress of the filtration, and the longer will be
the period during which the apparatus will continue in effective action.
For some liquids these substances are employed for the double purpose of
decolouring or whitening, as well as rendering them transparent. In such
cases it is preferable first to pass the fluid through a layer of the
substance in coarse powder, from which it will ‘run’ but slightly
contaminated into the filter; or, if the powder is mixed with the whole
body of the liquid, as in bleaching almond oil, &c., to pass the mixture
through some coarser medium to remove the cruder portion before allowing
it to run into the filter. Another plan is, after long agitation and
subsequent repose, to decant the clearer portion from the grosser
sediment, and to employ separate filters for the two. Granulated animal
charcoal is used according to the first method, to decolour syrups, oils,
&c.; and filtering powder by the second and third, to remove a portion of
the colour, and to clarify castor and other oils. The common plan of
mixing large quantities of filtering powder with castor oil, and throwing
the whole into the filter, as adopted by the druggists, is injudicious.
When simple filtration is required, it is better to use little or no
powder, and to continue returning the oil that ‘runs’ through, until, by
the swelling of the fibres of the filter bags, it flows quite clear. By
this plan the same filters may be used for a long period of time (for many
years), and will continue to work well; whilst, by the usual method, they
rapidly decline in power, and soon deliver their contents slowly, and
after a short time scarcely at all.

It is often of great advantage to render a filter ‘self-acting,’ or to
construct it in such a way that it may ‘feed itself,’ so that it may
continue full and at work without the constant attention of the operator.
On the small scale, this may be readily effected on the principle of the
common fountain lamp (see _engr._); and on the large scale, by placing the
vessel containing the unfiltered liquid on a higher level than the filter,
and by having the end of the supply-pipe fitted with a ball-cock, to keep
the liquid in the filter constantly at the same height.

[Illustration]

The rapidity of filtration depends upon——the porosity of the filtering
medium——the extent of the filtering surface——the relative viscidity or
mobility of the filtering liquid——the pressure or force by which the
liquid is impelled through the pores of the filter, and——the porosity and
fineness of the substances it holds in suspension. The most efficient
filter is produced when the first two or the first three are so graduated
to the others that liquid filters rapidly, and is at the same time
rendered perfectly transparent.

In the common method of filtration no pressure is exerted beyond that of
the weight of the column of the liquid resting on the filtering medium,
but in some cases additional pressure is employed. This is had recourse to
for the purpose of producing a more rapid filtration, and more especially
for filtering liquids that, from their viscidity, will scarcely pass
through the pores of substances sufficiently fine to remove their
impurities in the ordinary way.

[Illustration]

One of the easiest means of employing pressure in filtration is to
increase the height of the column of the filtering liquid. From the
peculiar properties of fluids, by which they transmit pressure in an equal
degree in all directions, this column need not be of equal diameter
throughout, but may be conveniently contracted to the size of a small
pipe, as in the accompanying engraving, which represents a small filter on
this construction at work. (_a_) Is the funnel or reservoir of foul
liquid; (_b_) a small pipe conveying the liquid to the filter; (_c c_) a
chamber, of which the upper portion (_d_) is filled with the descending
liquid, and the lower portion (_e_) with the filtering media; (_i i_) are
screws by which the bottom plate is fastened on, which plate is removed to
clean out or renew the filter. For use, the cocks (_k_) and (_l_) are
closed, and the liquid poured into the funnel (_a_); the cock (_k_) is
next opened, and, in a few minutes after, the cock (_l_), when an
uninterrupted flow of filtered liquor will be obtained as long as any
fluid remains in the funnel (_a_) and the tube (_b_). The length of the
tube determines the degree of pressure. Care must be taken first to pass
the foul liquid through a hair sieve, or some other strainer, to remove
any substance that might choke up the pipe (_b_).

Another method of employing pressure in filtration is the withdrawal of
the air from the receiving vessel, as in the vacuum filter, by which a
pressure of about 14-1/2 lbs. to the square inch becomes exerted on the
surface of the liquid by the atmosphere. The vacuum in the receiving
vessel may be produced by the air-pump, by steam, or by the Bunsen or
Sprengel pump.

A commoner method of applying pressure than either of those already
mentioned is to condense the air over the surface of the liquid by means
of a forcing-pump, or by steam.

On the small scale, pressure may be applied to filtration by means of a
syphon, whose shorter leg has its mouth blown into the shape of a bell or
funnel, over which filtering paper or fine calico may be stretched.

The application of pressure to filtration is not always advantageous, and
beyond a certain limit is generally attended with inconvenience, if not
with absolute disadvantage. It is found in practice that fluids under
pressure take a longer period to run clear than without pressure, and that
ruptures of the media more frequently take place in the former case, or
with pressure, than in the latter. Great pressure is in no case
advantageous.

The filters already noticed are those that act by the fluid descending
through the media; but in some cases the reverse method is employed, and
the liquid filters upwards, instead of downwards. These are called
ascending filters, and are often preferable to those on the descending
principle, because the suspended matters that require removal by
filtration usually sink, and thus a portion escapes being forced into the
pores of the filter. They are also more convenient when pressure is
employed. The construction depends upon the same principles as the common
filter, and merely requires that the feeding vessel should be higher than
the upper surface of the filtering media. OILS are conveniently filtered
in this way, because of their little specific gravity. By fixing a small
filter on this principle into the head of a cask, and pouring in water
through a funnel, whose neck reaches nearly to the bottom of the cask, the
oil will float up and pass the filter, leaving the sediment behind. In
cold weather hot water may be employed.

[Illustration:

  _a._ Cask of oil.
  _b._ Stand.
  _c._ Funnel for water.
  _d._ Filter.]

In some cases the upward and downward systems of filtration are united in
the same apparatus, and this plan is advantageous where the space for
operating is limited. For this purpose it is merely necessary to connect
the bottom of an ascending filter with the top of a descending one, or the
reverse; the proper pressure being in either case applied.

=Filtration, the Laws of.= The ‘Revue Universelle des Mines,’ 1874, pp.
469, 551 contains a paper by M. Paul Havre recording his investigations on
the rapidity of the filtration of water through sand, wool, &c., which
resulted in ascertaining and measuring the influences which may modify the
flow of water. In all cases of filtration, the influences which are
exerted are:——the pressure and temperature of the water, the thickness of
the filtering medium, compression in the case of fibrous filters, the size
of the grains and their mixture in the case of a filtering medium
analogous to sand. The influence of obstruction, due to the dirtiness of
the filter, depends on circumstances too variable to be taken into
account. The delivery of a filter per square mètre per 24 hours is equal
to two cubic mètres multiplied by the pressure of water in mètres, divided
by the thickness of the filtering medium in mètres. An application of this
formula is made to existing filter beds, including those at Southwark and
at the Chelsea waterworks.

The first experiments for ascertaining the influence of a head of water on
the delivery led to the following results:——The delivery increases in a
higher ratio than the square root of the pressure, due to the height
(TORRECELLI’S LAW); the delivery increases in direct ratio to the height
of the column of water above the filter, admitting a previous initial
delivery, due solely to the pressure of water above the filter; the
co-efficient of the increase of delivery is constant, and in this case of
a filtering substance 8·662 inches (22 centimètres) thick, is equal to
0·106 pint (6 centilitres) for sand to 0·528 pint (30 centilitres) for
compressed wool, and to 0·792 pints (45 centilitres) for wool only
slightly compressed.

The subsequent experiments were made with graduated transparent cylinders,
3·28 feet (1 mètre) high, with the ends perfectly level, the filtering
substances being kept in place by a thick double cloth tied tightly under
the bottom of the tube. This apparatus presented no other obstacle to the
running of the water than the layer of filtering substance; it permitted
experiments to be made at all temperatures, and the thickness of the
filtering medium to be measured exactly.

In these experiments sand is ‘taken as the type of pulverulent
substances,’ but an unexpected difficulty was encountered in the settling
or partial agglomeration of the large and small grains of the unsifted
sand, thus diminishing the delivery of water to one half, one third, and
ultimately to one fifth of its previous volume. This led to the adoption
of sand——the grains of which were uniform in size, and to the discovery
of the fact that, other tissues being equal, the resistance of filtration
is constant when the sand is coarse, when the grains of fine sand are of
nearly equal size, and when there is but little fine sand mixed with the
coarse. From experiments in filtering through a layer of coarse sand
approximately 4 inches (10 centimètres) thick, it was found that the
higher the temperature the more rapid was the delivery, and by filtering
through a layer of coarser sand 11·8 inches (30 centimètres) thick, the
conclusion was arrived at that the temperature exerts an influence in
proportion to the thickness of the layer.

See AIR-PUMP, BUNSEN’S WATER-AIR PUMP; CLARIFICATION; DEFECATION; FININGS,
&c.

=FI′NINGS.= Substances used by publicans, brewers, wine merchants, &c., to
clarify their liquors.

_Prep._ 1. (BREWER’S FININGS; COOPER’S F.) Isinglass (finely shredded), 1
lb., and sour beer or cider or vinegar, 3 or 4 pints, are macerated
together, and more of the sour liquor added as the isinglass swells, until
about a gallon has been used, agitation with a whisk or a small bundle of
twigs being occasionally had recourse to, for the purpose of promoting the
solution. As soon as the whole of the isinglass is dissolved, the mixture
is reduced to the consistence of thin syrup, with weak mild beer, or
cider, or any other liquid that the finings are intended for. The whole is
next strained through a tammy cloth or a hair sieve, and at once reduced
to a proper state of dilution, by the addition of more liquor. _Product_,
6-1/2 to 7 galls. “A pound of good isinglass will make about 12 galls. of
finings.” (Ure.) Used to clarify fermented liquors, especially beer. 1 to
1-1/2 pint is the usual dose for a barrel of ale or porter; and a quart
for a hogshead of cider or wine.

2. (SPIRIT FININGS.)——_a._ Alum (ord. cryst.), 1 lb.; powder, and divide
it into 12 equal portions, which are to be separately wrapped in blue
paper, and marked No. 1. Next take of carbonate of soda (sesquicarbonate
of the shops), 6 oz.; divide this as the last, wrap it in white paper, and
mark each parcel No. 2. Keeps dry anywhere.

_b._ From alum, 1 lb.; salt of tartar (dry), 1/4 lb.; proceed as before.
The white papers containing the salt of tartar must be kept in a dry,
well-corked, wide-mouthed bottle or jar. Both of the last two are used to
clarify gin and cordials. The contents of one of the blue papers are
dissolved in about a pint of hot water, and the resulting solution is well
‘rummaged up’ with the liquor. A solution of the contents of one of the
white papers, in about 1/2 pint of hot water, is then added, and the
agitation continued for some minutes longer; after which the cask is
‘bunged’ close and the whole allowed to repose until the next day. This is
sufficient for a barrel (say 30 to 36 galls.), but many persons use double
the quantity. The effect is not only to clarify, but also to ‘blanch’ the
liquor.

_Obs._ Good liquors, either fermented or spirituous, need no artificial
‘fining,’ as they always clarify themselves by repose. With those,
however, which are out of ‘condition,’ or of inferior quality, it is often
necessary, as, without such a proceeding, they remain unsaleable. This is
particularly the case with malt liquor. “Attempts to clarify it in the
cask seldom fail to do harm. The only thing that can be used with
advantage for fining foul or muddy beer is isinglass.” (Ure.) The
disadvantages resulting from the artificial clarification of fermented
liquors are——that they do not afterwards ‘stand well on draught,’ that
much of the conservative astringent matter which they contain is
precipitated with the ‘finings,’ that their piquancy and flavour is more
or less diminished, and that they are more than usually liable to become
flat and vapid, whether in cask or bottle. The larger the proportion of
‘finings’ used, the more marked are their injurious effects, and the
shorter the interval which elapses before the accession of the several
symptoms referred to. We have seen the most disastrous consequences follow
the injudicious use of ‘finings,’ more especially in respect to those
liquors in which a certain amount of piquancy, astringency, and briskness,
is an essential condition. In one instance which came under our notice
upwards of 30 barrels of ‘underground’ (a very strong old ale) was thus
reduced in value to less than 1-3rd its original cost; and in another, a
large bottled stock of the ‘finest old Burton’ was found to be utterly
unsaleable. In both cases the ‘spoiled liquor’ was got rid of by mixing it
in and selling it with 3d. and 4d. beer.

Liquors which ‘refuse to fine’ or become clear, when treated with
‘finings’ in the usual manner, are called ‘stubborn’ by coopers and
cellarmen. See BREWING, GIN, MALT, LIQUORS, WINES, &c.

=FIRE.= The calamities resulting from this destructive agent are of such
frequent occurrence, as to justly claim a notice of the subject here. The
causes of fires are numerous, and of a varied character, and, in most
instances, difficult to determine, because it is the interest of those
concerned to suppress all evidence connected with the matter. Accident,
that convenient word given to the imaginary hack to which so many fires
are referred, if truthfully interpreted, will, in general, be found to be
equivalent to carelessness, recklessness, or guilt. We believe that there
are few fires which have happened that might not have been prevented by
the exercise of common prudence, and that a vast number have been caused
by direct negligence, arising from sheer laziness and indifference, to use
no harsher terms. As familiar instances, may be mentioned——allowing
sparks to fall on the ground and remain there without extinguishing them;
carrying a naked candle into rooms containing inflammable substances;
smoking carelessly and in dangerous places, as workshops, warehouses, on
shipboard, &c.; keeping instantaneous light matches in improper places,
and neglecting to pick up those that may happen to fall on the ground, &c.
&c. The list might easily be extended, but we believe every reflecting
reader can do so for himself. The great increase in the number of fires
since the introduction of lucifer matches, and the almost general use of
tobacco, cannot fail to have attracted the attention of every one. The
danger of matches falling about might be avoided by the use of those which
can only be ignited by rubbing them on the prepared surface of the box.
These ‘safety matches’ are coming into general use, and must eventually
supersede all the more dangerous kinds.

The late Mr Braidwood classes the causes of fires under the following
heads:——1. Inattention in the use of fires and lights. 2. Improper
construction of buildings, &c. 3. Furnaces or close fires, for heating
buildings, or for mechanical purposes. 4. Spontaneous ignition. 5.
Incendiarism.

Amongst many other causes of fire, too numerous to specify, may be
noticed——incautiously approaching window- and bed-curtains with a candle
or lamp, airing linen before the fire, allowing children to play with
fire, women’s dresses taking fire, and taking off the burning coals from a
fire and laying them on the hearth. Another very common cause of fire is
covering up a fire-place when not in use with wood, or paper and canvas,
&c. The soot falls either from the flue itself or an adjoining one into
the grate; a neighbouring chimney takes fire, a spark from this falls down
the blocked-up flue, ignites the soot in the grate, which smoulders until
the covering is burnt through, and thus sets the building on fire.

Another cause of fire, and one which cannot be too strongly condemned, is
the dangerous practice of reading in bed by candle-light. A very serious
annual loss of property is also caused by want of proper care in hanging
up or removing the goods in linendrapers’ shop windows when the gas is
burning. Another frequent cause of fire is the employment of young
children in lighting fires, from their propensity to play with flame.

The employment of close fires with brick flues is also a frequent source
of danger. Frequently, from various causes, the furnace almost always
cracks, thus giving egress to smoke and flame. When this occurs no time
should be lost in thoroughly repairing the defect, or building a new
furnace; merely plastering over the surface will be found an ineffective
and dangerous remedy.

To guard against the dangers arising from the ignition of wearing apparel
many methods have been suggested for rendering fabrics flame proof, all of
them consisting in soaking the dress in a weak solution of a
non-inflammable substance, such as chloride of zinc, alum, tungstate of
sodium, sulphate of ammonia, &c. Of these alum has the advantage of
greatly improving the appearance of the fabrics, especially if they be
coloured.

Fire-guards, particularly where there are children, ought to be adopted
much more generally than they appear to be.

_Prev._ This consists of the exercise of those ordinary precautions which
the good sense of every careful and trustworthy man, be he taskmaster or
servant, cannot fail to suggest. It would be useless to enumerate them.

Immediately on the fire being discovered, secure an alarm being given to
the nearest of the fire escape stations, not delaying an instant; do not
wait “to see if it is wanted.” Life is more valuable than property, and
events have often proved how fatal even a moment’s hesitation is in
sending for the fire-escape.[307]

[Footnote 307: ‘Handbook for Emergencies,’ Cassell.]

The late Mr Braidwood’s advice was, “that if the fire appears at all
serious, and there are fire-engines within a reasonable distance, that it
is best to wait until they arrive; many buildings have been destroyed from
opening doors, and trying to extinguish fires with insufficient means. If
no engines are within reach it is advisable to keep a hand-pump. If that
is not to be had, the next best thing is to collect as many buckets
outside the room on fire as can be obtained, keeping the door shut; then
to creep into the room on hands and knees (if the heat and smoke are
considerable), and throw the water as nearly in the direction of the fire
as possible, keeping the door shut while more water is being collected.

“The police of the metropolis understand shutting up fires so well, that
they have in many instances kept fires two or three miles distant from the
engine-stations, shut up till the fireman arrived in time to extinguish
them.”

Fires might often be readily extinguished when first discovered by the
timely application of a few buckets of water. When an apartment is found
to be on fire, the door, chimney, and windows should be immediately
closed, if possible, and only opened for the purpose of projecting water
on the flames. By this means the supply of air will be cut off, and rapid
combustion prevented. The same applies to the lower doors and windows of a
house (especially the shop window), which are often injudiciously kept
open or removed, under the pretence of rendering assistance. The neglect
of this precaution has often caused a mere smouldering fire, that might
have been easily put out, to burst into an unextinguishable mass of flame.

It has been proposed at various times to make certain additions to the
water used for the purpose of extinguishing fires, in order to render its
action more certain and effective. It is found that sal ammoniac (5 oz.
to the gall.) exerts this property in a remarkable degree. Several other
articles, as common salt, pearlash, and kitchen soda, act in the same way,
though less effectively. A few buckets of such water will speedily arrest
the progress of a fire before it has much extended itself. Such a plan is
easily applied, by adding the saline matter to the buckets of water, which
are either used by hand, or to feed the engine for the first few minutes
of its working. When, however, a fire has made much progress, the action
of such substances becomes scarcely perceptible.

Chimneys on fire are readily extinguished in several ways, without having
recourse to throwing water down them from the top, by which much damage is
frequently done to the furniture in the rooms. One of the simplest methods
is, to cautiously scatter a handful of flowers of sulphur over the dullest
part of the burning coals; the sulphurous vapours, being incapable of
supporting combustion, rapidly extinguish the flames. Another method is,
to shut the doors and windows, and to stop up the bottom of the chimney
with a piece of wet carpet or blanket, throwing a little water or flowers
of sulphur, or even common salt, on the fire immediately before doing so.
By this means the draught is stopped, and the burning soot extinguished
for want of air. In many of the first-class houses recently erected,
‘fire-place shutters’ are provided, which, when partly drawn down, act as
powerful bellows or ‘blowers’ and which, when wholly drawn down, so as to
touch the hearth-stone, entirely close up the fireplace, and instantly
extinguish the combustion of the fuel in the grate, or that of the soot in
the chimney. This simple arrangement, the advantages of which were pointed
out in an early edition of this work, renders fires in chimneys of little
moment, as it is only necessary to draw down the shutter to put them out.
If a chimney is stopped at top, instead of at the bottom, the whole of the
smoke must, of necessity, be driven into the apartment.

In France, M. Marateuh has successfully applied the principle of Davy’s
safety lamp for the prevention of fires in chimneys. He places fire-frames
of iron work near the base of the chimney, one above the other, about one
foot apart; no flame passes through them, whilst the draught in the
chimney is not interfered with, the result being that no fire can happen
in the chimney.

Escape from apartments on fire may be best effected by creeping on the
hands and knees. In this way the window or door may be reached. It is
found that the atmosphere of a room so full of smoke as to produce
suffocation to a person standing upright, may generally be safely breathed
on nearly a level with the floor. A damp cloth, or handkerchief, tied over
the mouth and nostrils, or, still better, over the whole face and head,
will enable a person to effect a passage through the densest smoke, and,
in many cases, to escape from buildings on fire, when otherwise it would
be impracticable. Should descent by the staircase be found impossible,
then the window should be immediately sought, and a ladder or fire-escape
waited for. In the absence of either, if the danger is imminent, a rope
should be made by tying the sheets and blankets of the bed together, one
end of which should be firmly secured to a chair or table, or preferably
to one of the bed-posts, and with this apparatus descent should be
cautiously attempted. Jumping out of the window should be avoided, as
persons who have not been brought up as clowns, or harlequins, run just as
much danger in performing such an exploit as they do by remaining in the
burning building. When it is impossible to escape from a burning building
by the stairs or windows, retreat may be sometimes secured by a trap door
opening on to the roof, or by a skylight, when, unless it be an isolated
house, the roof of one of the adjoining buildings may probably be gained
with safety.

Fire-escapes of various kinds have been employed of late years in the
metropolis, and have proved of the greatest value in rescuing persons from
burning buildings.

It is said that there is no instance on record of a person being burnt to
death in a dwelling-house in Edinburgh, where the houses are usually high;
yet in London, where fire-engines and fire-escapes are provided in greater
numbers, deaths are very frequent from this cause. The reason of this
difference is, that in the former city the stairs are all made of stone,
by which means a road of escape is secured.

The clothes of females and children, when on fire, may be most readily
extinguished by rolling the sufferer in the carpet, hearth-rug,
table-cover, a great-coat, cloak, or any other woollen article at hand. If
this be expertly done, the flames may be rapidly put out, unless the
skirts of the dress be distended by hoops or crinoline, when there is
great difficulty in staying the progress of the flames. Should assistance
not be at hand, the person whose clothes are on fire should throw herself
on the ground, and roll the carpet round her, as before described; or if
such a thing is not in the room, she should endeavour to extinguish the
flames with her hands, and by rapidly rolling over and over on the floor.
In this way the fire will be stifled, or at least the combustion will
proceed so slowly that less personal injury will be experienced before
assistance arrives. The advantage of assuming the horizontal position is
manifest from the fact that nine times out of ten it is the lower parts of
the dresses of females that first catch fire.[308]

[Footnote 308: For the mode of rendering muslin and other inflammable
articles of ladies’ apparel fire-proof, see INCOMBUSTIBLE FABRICS.]

The extinction of fires on board ships by means of carbonic-acid gas was
some years since suggested to the Admiralty by Mr J. R. Hancorn. He
proposes that a simple and economical apparatus should be attached to
every decked vessel capable of supplying this gas, which is a well-known
non-supporter of combustion, and will extinguish fire at the very instant
of coming in contact with the burning matter. Chalk with sulphuric acid
diluted with water (vinegar with any other acid will do) yields 44% of the
gas; hence, a ton of chalk, and a fourth part of that quantity of
sulphuric acid, will be found sufficient to extinguish any fire on board a
ship. Mr Hancorn also proposed this as a method of destroying vermin in
ships, such as rats and cockroaches, for which purpose it is more easily
applied and more effectual than that usually adopted. This plan was
rejected by the Admiralty, from a fear that the destructive action of the
gas might extend to the crew as well as the fire. But “it surely is
possible by mechanical means to expel the gas before again entering the
ship’s hold. At any rate, the grand point would be obtained of
extinguishing the fire, though the crew might have only the deck to stand
on.”

_Precautions to be taken against a Fire amongst Farming Stock._——The
following are the suggestions of Mr Beaumont, the secretary of the County
Fire Office:——

“Forbid your men to use lucifer matches, to smoke or light pipes or
cigars, destroy wasp nests, or fire off guns in or near the rickyard, or
to throw hot cinders into or against any wooden out-building on the farm,
on pain of instant dismissal.

“Place your ricks in a single line, and as far distant from each other as
you conveniently can. Place hayricks and cornstacks alternately; the
hayrick will check the progress of the fire. Keep the rickyard, and
especially the spaces between the stacks and ricks, clear of all loose
straw, and in all respects in a neat and clean state. The loose straw is
more frequently the means of firing than the stack itself. Have a pond
close to the rickyard, although there may be a bad supply of water. When a
steam thrashing machine is to be used, place it on the lee-side of the
stack or barn, so that the wind may blow the sparks away from the stacks.
Let the engine be placed as far from the machine as the length of the
strap will allow. Have the loose straw continually cleared away from the
engine; see that two or three pails of water are kept close to the ashpan,
and that the pan itself is kept constantly full of water.”

It is often difficult to get horses out of buildings on fire, but it is
said that they will readily come out if, after being blindfolded, the
saddle and bridle, or the harness, &c., to which they are accustomed, are
thrown over them as usual.

We learn from the last report issued by Captain Shaw that the actual
number of fires in the year 1877 in London was 1533. Of these fires 1374,
or 90 per cent., were slight, no persons being endangered, and no
considerable destruction of property taking place. The number of really
serious conflagrations was 150; in 88 of these life was endangered, and in
24 cases there was loss of life. The actual number of persons whose lives
were in danger was 165; but of these 136 were saved, and the lives
eventually lost amounted only to 29. The smallness of the loss is due in
great degree to the courage of the members of the Brigade, seven of whom
have been commended for special efforts for saving life during the year.
Even of the twenty-nine persons who perished fourteen were taken alive out
of the burning buildings, and died in hospital of their wounds. It is very
satisfactory in view of the vast height of buildings used in business, and
the flimsy character of so many London houses, that the risk of death from
fire should be so small. It is one of the very slightest risks to which we
are exposed in modern London. The fire-escapes must of course be credited
with much of this security. There are now 108 stations of these useful
machines; and instances of their utility in rescuing the inmates of
burning houses are constantly occurring.

The various tables which Captain Shaw appends to his report give some very
curious details as to the character of London fires. The hours at which
they most commonly break out are by no means those which are popularly
supposed to be the most dangerous. No considerable proportion occur after
people have gone to bed. From seven o’clock in the evening till eleven
o’clock there are more alarms of fire than in an equal portion of the
twenty-four hours. Not a third of the number which occur in these evening
hours take place in the small hours of the morning, which are in fact less
destructive than the same period in the afternoon. There are, moreover, in
the detailed list of fires some curious statistics, illustrating the
comparative security of private houses over places of business. A very
large part of the half million houses in London must come under the
description of private dwellings, yet the alarms of fire in this class of
buildings were only 316 in the year, and only in five of those were there
serious conflagrations. In the lists of business premises nearly every
trade in the metropolis is mentioned; and next to houses let out in
lodgings, public-houses seem to suffer most. The causes of fires tell the
old story of carelessness. They were instances of the almost inconceivable
folly of seeking for an escape of gas with a lighted candle. The throwing
down of lights is responsible for a considerable number of fires. Ordinary
cases of chimneys on fire are not included in Captain Shaw’s summary; but
they give the brigade a good deal of work. The number of calls of this
kind was 3744, of which 1256 proved to be false alarms. The number of
these false alarms will probably be reduced when the stations at which men
with hose are situated are more numerous.

=Fire Anni′hilator (Phillips’s).= This is essentially a gaseous fire
engine, which at any moment can be made to discharge a stream of mixed
gases and vapours having the power of checking combustion. When first
introduced it was generally regarded as a most important invention, but it
has not proved an effective substitute for the common water engine. For
extinguishing fires on board ship and in close apartments it is
undoubtedly well adapted, but as a street engine it is comparatively
useless, owing to the unmanageable nature of its fire-annihilating
vapours.

The composition with which the ‘Fire Annihilator’ is charged is a mixture
of dried ferrocyanide of potassium, sugar, and chlorate of potassa. It is
set in action by a blow on a glass vessel containing oil of vitriol,
which, being fractured, permits the acid to flow over the ‘charge,’ when
the anti-combustion gas is liberated, and rushes forth with great
impetuosity.

=Fire-damp.= See HYDROGEN (Light Carburetted).

=Fire-engine.= The common fire-engine is a compound forcing-pump,
consisting of two ‘forcing-pumps’ placed on opposite sides of an
‘air-vessel,’ with which both communicate. The ‘fulcrum’ of the ‘lever’ by
which both pumps are worked is placed midway between them; consequently
they act alternately in charging the air-vessel. In order to obtain a very
forcible jet it is necessary to prevent the escape of any portion of the
contents of the air-vessel until the confined air is considerably
compressed. The lever is connected with handrails on each side of the
engine, and these are alternately raised and depressed by the workers.
Engines worked by steam power are now common in London and most of our
large towns.

=Fire-Extinguishing Powder (Feuerloschpulver)=, Bucher Leipzig. Nitre, 59
parts; sulphur, 36 parts; coal, 4 parts; iron oxide, 1 part. (Wittstein.)

=Fire, how to light a.= In a close stove the first thing is to empty the
fireplace. Take out the larger cinders and half-burnt coal with your
fingers, and lay them on one side for lighting the fire; then rake out all
the ashes (this can be done with the lids on, then it will not make so
much dust). Next take off all the lids, and sweep all the soot carefully
out; once or twice a week the flue pipe must be taken off and cleared out,
also the flues under the oven. The soot should be carried away at once, as
it blows about. Then blacklead the stove; put in a few cinders, lay on
them a piece of paper and a few sticks crossing each other; on these lay
very lightly some pieces of half-burnt coal and a few cinders, leaving
space for the draught.

Do not fill the grate full; put the lids on, draw out the damper, light
the fire, and shut the front door. An open fire is lighted in much the
same way. There are no flues to clean out; but the chimney, as high as one
can reach and behind the register door, should be cleared from soot
daily.[309]

[Footnote 309: ‘Household Management, &c.,’ by W. T. Tegetmeier.]

=Fire-proofing.= See INCOMBUSTIBILITY, &c.

=Fireworks.= See PYROTECHNY, and _below_.

=FIRES.= (In pyrotechny.) Coloured fires may be termed, not inaptly, the
_chefs-d’œuvre_ of the pyrotechnist’s art, since on their excellence the
attractions of most other varieties of fireworks depend. The following
forms, under judicious management, yield fires of remarkable beauty.

=Blue Fire.= _Prep._ 1. From metallic antimony, 1 part; sulphur, 2 parts;
nitre, 5 parts.

2. From realgar, 2 parts; charcoal, 3 parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts;
sulphur, 13 parts; nitrate of baryta, 77 parts.

3. (Mr A. Bird.) Charcoal and orpiment, of each 1 part; black sulphuret of
antimony, 16 parts; nitre, 48 parts; sulphur, 64 parts.

4. (Fownes.) Tersulphuret of antimony, a part; sulphur, 2 parts; dry
nitre, 6 parts. This is the composition used for the Bengal or blue signal
light employed at sea.

5. (Prof. Marchand.) Sulphur, sulphate of potassa, and ammonio-sulphate of
copper, of each 15 parts; nitre, 27 parts; chlorate of potassa, 28 parts.
For theatrical illuminations. This may be rendered either lighter or
darker coloured by lessening or increasing the quantities of the sulphate
of potassa and ammonio-sulphate of copper.

6. (LIGHT BLUE——Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; calcined alum, 23 parts;
chlorate of potassa, 61 parts.

7. (DARK BLUE——Marchand.) Calcined alum and carbonate of copper, of each
12 parts; sulphur, 16 parts; chlorate of potassa, 60 parts.

8. (Marsh.) Sulphate of copper, 7 parts; sulphur, 24 parts; chlorate of
potassa, 69 parts.

9. (Ruggieri.) Nitre, 2 parts; sulphur and zinc, of each 3 parts;
gunpowder, 4 parts.

10. From sulphur, 1 part; dried verdigris, 2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 9
parts.

=Fire, Crimson.= _Prep._ 1. (Marsh.) Chlorate of potassa, 4-1/4 parts;
charcoal (alder or willow), 5-3/4 parts; sulphur, 22-1/2 parts; nitrate of
strontia, 67-1/2 parts. For pots.

2. (Marsh.) Charcoal, 4-1/4 parts; sulphuret of antimony, 5-1/2 parts;
chlorate of potassa, 17-1/4 parts; sulphur, 18 parts; nitrate of strontia,
55 parts. For boxes and stars.

3. (Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; chalk (dry), 23 parts; chlorate of
potassa, 61 parts. Turns on the purple. See RED FIRE (_below_).

=Fire, Green.= _Prep._ 1. Nitrate of baryta, 77 parts; chlorate of
potassa, 8 parts; fine charcoal, 3 parts; sulphur, 13 parts.

2. From metallic arsenic, 2 parts; charcoal, 3 parts; chlorate of potassa,
5 parts; sulphur, 13 parts; nitrate of baryta, 77 parts. Very beautiful,
particularly when burnt before a reflector.

3. (Mr A. Bird.) Charcoal and black sulphuret of antimony, of each 2
parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; sulphur, 6 parts; nitrate of baryta,
80 parts.

4. (Fownes.) Lampblack, 1 part; chlorate of potassa, 4 parts; sulphur, 6
parts; dry nitrate of baryta, 18 parts.

5. (Marchand.) Boracic acid, 10 parts; sulphur, 17 parts; chlorate of
potassa, 73 parts. Very beautiful.

6. (Marchand.) Chlorate of potassa, 18 parts; sulphur, 22 parts; nitrate
of baryta, 60 parts. For theatrical illuminations.

7. (LIGHT GREEN——Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; carbonate of baryta, 24
parts; chlorate of potassa, 60 parts. Extremely delicate.

8. (Marsh.) Charcoal and sulphuret of arsenic, of each 1-3/4 parts;
sulphur, 10-1/2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 23-1/4 parts; nitrate of
baryta, 62-1/2 parts. For pots or stars.

=Fire, Lilac.= _Prep._ 1. (Marsh.) Black oxide of copper, 6 parts; dry
chalk, 20 parts; sulphur, 25 parts; chlorate of potassa, 49 parts. For
pans.

2. (Marsh.) From black oxide of copper, 3 parts; dried chalk, 22 parts;
sulphur, 25 parts; chlorate of potassa, 50 parts. For stars.

=Fire, Orange.= See RED FIRE, No. 8 (_below_).

=Fire, Pink.= _Prep._ (Marchand.) Charcoal, 1 part; chalk and sulphur, of
each 20 parts; chlorate of potassa, 27 parts; nitre, 32 parts. For
theatrical illuminations. See RED FIRE, No. 10 (_below_).

=Fire, Purple.= _Prep._ 1. From lampblack, realgar, and nitre, of each 1
part; sulphur, 2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; fused nitrate of
strontia, 16 parts.

2. (Marsh.) Sulphuret of antimony, 2-3/4 parts; black oxide of copper, 10
parts; sulphur and nitrate of potassa, of each 22-3/4 parts; chlorate of
potassa, 42 parts. For pans.

3. (Marsh.) Sulphate of copper, 9-3/4 parts; sulphur, 13 parts; chlorate
of potassa, 77-1/4 parts. For stars.

4. From sulphur, 12 parts; black oxide of copper, 12 parts; chlorate of
potassa, 30 parts. See CRIMSON FIRE, No. 3 (_above_), and RED FIRE, No. 9
(_below_).

=Fire, Red.= _Prep._ 1. From sulphur, sulphuret of antimony, and nitre, of
each 1 part; dried nitrate of strontia, 5 parts.

2. (Mr A. Bird.) Charcoal, 1 part; black sulphuret of antimony, 4 parts;
chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; sulphur, 13 parts; dried nitrate of
strontia, 40 parts.

3. (Fownes.) Lampblack, 2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 8 parts; sulphur, 9
parts; dried nitrate of strontia, 32 parts.

4. (Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; carbonate of strontia, 23 parts;
chlorate of potassa, 61 parts.

5. (Marchand.) Chlorate of potassa, 20 parts; sulphur, 24 parts; nitrate
of strontia, 56 parts. For theatrical illuminations.

6. (Marsh.) Coaldust, 2 parts; gunpowder, 6 parts; sulphur, 20 parts;
dried nitrate of strontia, 72 parts.

7. (Ruggieri.) Sulphuret of antimony, 4 parts; chlorate of potassa, 5
parts; sulphur, 13 parts; fused nitrate of strontia, 40 parts. A little
charcoal or lampblack makes it burn quicker.

8. (ORANGE RED——Marchand.) Sulphur, 14 parts; chalk, 34 parts; chlorate of
potassa, 52 parts.

9. (PURPLE RED——Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; chalk, 23 parts; chloride of
potassa, 61 parts.

10. (ROSE-RED——Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; dried chloride of calcium, 23
parts; chlorate of potassa, 61 parts. See PINK FIRE.

11. From charcoal, 2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; sulphur, 13
parts; dried nitrate of strontia, 40 parts.

=Fire, Violet.= _Prep._ 1. From charcoal, 8 parts; sulphur, 10 parts;
metallic copper, 15 parts; chlorate of potassa, 30 parts.

2. (DARK VIOLET——Marchand.) Alum and carbonate of potassa, of each 12
parts; sulphur, 16 parts; chlorate of potassa, 60 parts.

3. (PALE VIOLET——Marchand.) Sulphur, 14 parts; alum and carbonate of
potassa, 16 parts; chlorate of potassa, 54 parts.

=Fire, White.= _Prep._ 1. From nitre, 60 parts; sulphur, 20 parts; black
antimony, 10 parts; meal powder, 6 parts; powdered camphor, 4 parts. For
either pans or stars.

2. (Mr A. Bird.) White arsenic, 1 part; charcoal, 2 parts; black antimony,
16 parts; nitre, 48 parts; sulphur, 64 parts.

3. (Marchand.) Charcoal, 2 parts; sulphur, 22 parts; nitre, 76 parts. For
theatrical illuminations.

4. (Marchand.) Gunpowder, 15 parts; sulphur, 21 parts; nitre, 64 parts. As
the last.

5. (Marsh.) Gunpowder, 12-1/2 parts; zinc filings, 18 parts; sulphur, 23
parts; nitre, 46-1/2 parts. For pans.

6. (Marsh.) Zinc dust or filings, 15 parts; sulphur, 28 parts; nitre, 57
parts. For stars.

7. (Ruggieri.) Sulphur, 13-1/4 parts; sulphuret of antimony, 17-1/4 parts;
nitre, 48 parts.

8. (Ruggieri.) From realgar, 2 parts; sulphur, 7 parts; nitre, 24 parts.

9. (Ruggieri.) Charcoal, 1 part; sulphur, 24 parts; nitre, 75 parts.

10. (Ruggieri.) Iron or zinc borings, 25 parts; gunpowder, 100 parts.

=Fire, Yellow.= _Prep._ 1. From sulphur, 16 parts; dried carbonate of
soda, 23 parts; chlorate of potassa, 61 parts.

2. (Marchand.) Gunpowder, 14 parts; sulphur, 16 parts; dried soda, 20
parts; nitre, 50 parts.

3. (Marchand.) Charcoal, 1-1/2 parts; sulphur, 17-1/2 parts; dried soda,
20 parts; nitre, 61 parts.

        _Green-coloured Fires._[310]

  ------+----------------------+-----------------+--------------------
   No.  | Potassium Chlorate,  | Barium Nitrate, | Sulphur, per cent.
        |     per cent.        |    per cent.    |
  ------+----------------------+-----------------+--------------------
    1   |        36            |      40         |        24
    2   |        29            |      48         |        23
    3   |        24            |      53         |        23
    4   |        21            |      57         |        22
    5   |        18            |      60         |        22
    6   |        16            |      62         |        22
    7   |        14            |      64         |        22
    8   |        13            |      66         |        21
    9   |        12            |      67         |        21
   10   |        11            |      68         |        21
   11   |        10            |      69         |        21
   12   |         9·5          |      69·5       |        21
   13   |         9            |      70         |        21
   14   |         8·5          |      70·5       |        21
   15   |         8            |      71         |        21
  ------+----------------------+-----------------+--------------------

[Footnote 310: Kern (‘Chemical News,’ September 29th, 1876).]

        _Red-coloured Fires._

  ----+-------------------+------------------+---------+--------------
   No.|Potassium Chlorate,|Strontium Nitrate,|Sulphur, |Carbon Powder,
      |    per cent.      |   per cent.      |per cent.|   per cent.
  ----+-------------------+------------------+---------+--------------
    1 |        40         |       39         |    18   |      3
    2 |        32         |       46         |    19   |      2
    3 |        27         |       51         |    20   |      2
    4 |        23         |       55         |    20   |      2
    5 |        20         |       58         |    20·5 |      1·5
    6 |        18         |       60         |    21   |      1
    7 |        16         |       61·6       |    21·2 |      1·2
    8 |        15         |       63         |    21   |      1
    9 |        13         |       64         |    22   |      1
   10 |        12         |       65         |    22   |      1
   11 |        11         |       66         |    22   |      1
   12 |        10         |       67         |    22   |      1
   13 |        10         |       67·25      |    22   |      0·75
   14 |         9·25      |       68         |    22   |      0·75
   15 |         9         |       68·35      |    22   |      0·65
  ----+-------------------+------------------+---------+--------------

        _Violet-coloured Fires._

  ----+-------------------+------------------+-------------------+---------
   No.|Potassium Chlorate,|Calcium Carbonate,|Malachite powdered,|Sulphur,
      |   per cent.       |   per cent.      |     per cent.     |per cent.
  ----+-------------------+------------------+-------------------+---------
    1 |       52          |       29         |        4          |    15
    2 |       52          |       28         |        5          |    15
    3 |       52          |       26         |        7          |    15
    4 |       52          |       24         |        9          |    15
    5 |       52          |       23         |       10          |    15
    6 |       52          |       21         |       13          |    15
    7 |       51          |       20         |       14          |    15
    8 |       51          |       18         |       16          |    15
    9 |       51          |       16         |       18          |    15
   10 |       51          |       15         |       19          |    15
   11 |       51          |       13         |       21          |    15
   12 |       51          |       11         |       23          |    15
   13 |       51          |       10         |       24          |    15
   14 |       51          |        8         |       26          |    15
   15 |       51          |        6         |       28          |    15
  ----+-------------------+------------------+-------------------+---------

4. (Marsh.) Charcoal, 6 parts; sulphur, 19-1/2 parts. For pans. Very
beautiful.

In preparing coloured fires for fireworks according to the usual formulæ
given in manuals of pyrotechny, it is often important to know the speed at
which they burn; as in some cases, such as decorations and lances, they
should burn slowly; whereas in others, such as wheels, stars for rockets,
and Roman candles, they ought to burn quicker. The foregoing tables are so
arranged that every formula with a higher number yields a slower burning
mixture than one with a lower number. Thus No. 5 burns quicker than No. 6,
and slower than No. 4.

_Obs._ The ingredients in the above compounds are to be separately reduced
to powder and sifted through lawn, after which they should be kept in
well-corked wide-mouthed bottles until the time of mixing them for use.
The chlorate of potassa, more especially, must be separately treated and
cautiously handled, in order to prevent the possibility of explosion from
friction whilst it is in contact with combustible matter. The requisite
quantity of each of the ingredients being weighed out and placed on a
clean sheet of white paper, the whole is to be thoroughly but carefully
mixed together with a light hand, by means of a bone or wooden knife. The
compound is next lightly packed into small cups or pans for illuminations,
or into small pill-boxes for stars and trains, a little priming and
quick-match being lastly attached to each. To ensure success the several
ingredients must be dry and commercially pure; and though reduced to the
state of a uniform powder, care must be taken that they are not absolutely
‘dusty,’ or too finely pulverised. The nitrate of strontia, alum,
saltpetre, carbonate of soda, &c., before being weighed, require to be
gently heated in an iron pot or pan until they fall to powder, and lose
their hygrometric moisture, or water of crystallisation. To ensure the
perfect admixture of the ingredients, the whole, after they have been
stirred together on paper, as before directed, may be passed through a
hair or perforated zinc or brass sieve. Further, as coloured fires rapidly
deteriorate by keeping, and even sometimes inflame spontaneously, to
prevent disappointment and accidents they should not be prepared long
before they will be required for use, and should be stored in some
situation in which their spontaneous combustion would be productive of no
disastrous consequences.

Of the above formulæ, those bearing the name of the late Mr Marsh, of
Woolwich, more especially deserve the attention of the pyrotechnist. To
guard against the danger sometimes arising from the spontaneous combustion
of coloured fires containing sulphur and chlorate of potash, Mr Saunders
recommends intimately mixing 120 grains of bicarbonate of potash with each
pound of sulphur before using it in the manufacture of any composition
into which chlorates enter. See FLAME, PYROTECHNY, &c.

=FISH.= _Syn._ PISCES, L. Fishes form the _fourth class_ of vertebrate
animals (VERTEBRATA) in the Cuvierian arrangement of the animal kingdom,
and in the variety of their genera and species are second only to the
INSECTA, whilst in prolificness and number they probably exceed all other
animated beings that reach a size equal to that of even the smallest
member of their prodigious race. Besides their value to man as food, they
furnish him with oil, isinglass, and various other articles of utility and
luxury, and provide, either directly or indirectly, an inexhaustible
supply of manure for the fertilisation of his fields. As food fish are
undoubtedly wholesome and nutritious, although less so than the flesh of
animals or the grains of the cereals. Of all the various substances used
as aliments by man, fish are, however, the most liable to run into a state
of putrefaction, and should therefore be only eaten when perfectly fresh
or, if not recently taken, then only when their perfect preservation has
been ensured by any of the ordinary methods employed for the purpose.
Those that are the whitest and most flaky when cooked, as cod, flounders,
haddock, hake, soles, turbot, whiting, &c., are the most easily digested;
and those abounding in oily matter, as eels, herrings, mackerel, salmon,
&c., are most nutritious, though the most likely to offend the stomach.
Salt-water fish have been said to be more wholesome than river fish, but
without sufficient reason. Salted fish are hard of digestion, unless when
carefully cooked and well masticated. Skin diseases are said to be more
common among those who live continually on fish than among those who
abstain from it; but this probably arises from their use being
unaccompanied by a proper quantity of fresh vegetables or fruit, both of
which are scarcer on the sea-coast than further inland. As one of the
components of a mixed diet, the value of fish is indisputable. Acid sauces
and pickles are the proper additions to fish, from their power of
retarding the progress of putrefaction, and of correcting the relaxing
tendency of large quantities of oil and butter.

_Artificial Propagation._ The fecundity of fish is positively marvellous.
According to the recent observations of Mr Frank T. Buckland, salmon yield
about 1000 ova or eggs to every lb. of their weight; a trout weighing 1
lb. produced upwards of 1000; a mackerel (1 lb.), 86,120; a herring (1/2
lb.), 19,840; a sole (1 lb.), 134,466; a turbot (8 lbs.), 385,200; and a
cod (20 lbs.), 4,872,000. The ova here spoken of form what is commonly
called the ‘hard roe’ of the female fish; the ‘soft roe’ is ‘the milt’ of
the male fish. To protect the spawn, and the fry, when hatched, is the
object of the art of fish culture, which has made great progress during
late years. When the spawn is not artificially protected, the greater
portion is always wasted, being swept away by the stream, and devoured by
fish, birds, and insects. The natural enemies of the newly hatched fish
are, again, so numerous, that it is really surprising that any should
escape destruction. According to given data and accurate calculations of
the returns of fisheries made by Messrs Ashworth and Buist, only one
salmon egg out of every thousand deposited ever becomes a fish fit for
human food. Other fish, both fresh and salt water, suffer in proportion.
The hatching of fish by artificial means has been carried out on a large
scale in France, and has been commenced in Scotland and Ireland, and on a
small scale in England. The spawning fish, having been caught by a net, is
made to deposit her eggs by gently pressing on the abdomen; these are
impregnated by ‘milt’ expressed from the male fish in a similar manner,
and mixed with them in a shallow tub or other vessel prepared for the
purpose. The impregnated eggs are placed in long shallow boxes, bottomed
with gravel and pebbles, and so arranged that a small stream of water from
a reservoir may flow from one to another. The time of hatching depends
entirely upon the temperature of the water; from 40° to 45° Fahr. seems to
be the healthiest temperature. After about 50 days (in the case of
salmon), when all goes well, the young fish makes its appearance as a
misshapen creature about an inch long, with a bag containing the yolk of
the egg attached to its abdomen. At 3 days old the fry is about 2 gr. in
weight; at 16 months it has increased to 2 oz. To preserve the young fish
in health, the boxes must be covered with shades of slate or zinc. The
French fish-breeders generally feed the young fry with boiled frogs
powdered fine. The Scotch give boiled liver. Mr Buckland prescribes a diet
of roe of sole, or plaice, or whiting. As to the age at which it is
advisable to turn the young fish out of the nursery, there is much
difference of opinion. Some breeders recommend turning them out as soon as
the ‘umbilical bag’ is absorbed; others think they should be taken care of
till they are older and stronger, and better able to defend themselves or
escape from attack. For full details respecting the artificial propagation
of fish, the reader is referred to Mr Buckland’s recent work, entitled
‘Fish-Hatching.’

_Nutritive Value of Fish._——The white varieties of fish, such as
_whiting_, _cod_, _haddock_, _sole_, _plaice_, _flounder_, and _turbot_,
according to Letheby, contain only about twenty-two per cent. of solid
matter, of which eighteen is nitrogenous. To increase their nutritive
value, therefore, these fish should be eaten with butter.

According to the same authority _mackerel_, _eels_, and _salmon_ are
richer in fat than the above kinds; mackerel containing about seven per
cent., and salmon about six, whilst the oily matter of eels amount to
nearly fourteen per cent. The same is the case with the _sprat_, the
_herring_, and the _pilchard_, as well as with most of our fresh-water
fish.

As regards _shell-fish_, all the different varieties of them afford about
the same amount of nutrition. They contain about thirteen per cent. of
solid matter, which in composition is similar to that of white fish.
Shell-fish vary in digestibility; _mussels_, _limpets_, and _whelks_ being
rather difficult of digestion, whilst _scallops_, _cockles_,
_periwinkles_, _lobsters_, and _crabs_ are a trifle more easy of
digestion, and _oysters_ still more so. All shell-fish are unsuited for
delicate stomachs; although they are largely eaten by the poorer dwellers
on the coast.

On the Continent, _vineyard snails_, and in China, _slugs_, are eaten, and
are said to possess a delicate flavour and nutritive properties.[311]

[Footnote 311: Letheby.]

_Choice, &c._ “The flesh of any fish is always in the highest perfection,
or in season, as it is called, during the period of the ripening of the
milt and roe. After the fish has deposited the spawn, the flesh becomes
soft, and loses a great deal of its peculiar flavour. This is owing to the
disappearance of the oil or fat from the flesh, it having been expended in
the function of reproduction.” (Fleming’s ‘Phil. Zoology.’) Fish should be
dressed as soon after being caught as possible, as much of their peculiar
delicacy and flavour is lost by keeping, even for a few hours. Turbot and
salmon are said by the fishmongers to be improved in flavour when 2 or 3
days old, but this is surely a mistake, as the former, when dressed
immediately after being caught, possesses a fine creamy taste, which it
afterwards loses; whilst the latter, by the loss of a single tide, loses a
portion of the fine white curd which is previously found between the
flakes, and by longer keeping, this curd, with the larger flakes,
disappear altogether. In the eyes of some epicures the richness, is
however, increased by this change. Mackerel, and some other fish suffer so
much from keeping only a few hours, that they become quite unwholesome.
Herrings offer a remarkable example of the advantage of dressing fish as
fresh as possible. When cooked soon after being caught, they possess
considerable delicacy and flavour, but after being kept for only a few
hours, the oil separates from the flesh, and they become soft, greasy, and
strong-flavoured.

In the choice of every kind of fish, stiffness, brightness of the eyes,
and redness of the gills, may be regarded as invariable signs of
freshness. A peculiar elasticity will also be perceived in fish recently
caught, little or no permanent impression being made by the ordinary
pressure of the fingers, from the flesh immediately rising when the
pressure is withdrawn. Fresh fish also lie in a partly curled position,
and never quite straight, as in the case when they have been kept for some
time. Thickness and fleshiness are deemed marks of the good condition of
all fish.

_Cleaning, dressing, &c._ On the proper cleaning of fish preparatory to
dressing it, depends much of its delicacy and flavour. Ordinary cooks
seldom do this well, from not slitting the fish sufficiently open to
permit the inside to be thoroughly washed, and seldom using sufficient
water. The superior flavour of fish cleaned by the fishmongers arises from
their performing the operation more completely, and from the large
quantity of water they employ about them. The flavour of all fish is
improved by adding a little salt or vinegar to the last water in which
they are washed. The sound, milt, and roe, should be carefully cleaned and
preserved.

Fish is preferably ‘dressed’ by simple boiling, broiling, or frying; in
fact, the finer kinds of fish are often injured by the excessive
interference of the cook. When boiled, “all large fish, with the skin
whole, must be placed on the fire in cold water; if crimped, or cut into
slices or pieces, in boiling water; if whole, it must not be covered with
more than two or three inches of water, or the skin will crack, and not
only spoil the appearance of the fish, but will diminish the gelatine and
gluten it contains, and instead of eating firm and full of flavour, it
will be soft and woolly, especially if over-boiled.” (Soyer.) As soon as a
scum rises from boiling, it should be removed by the skimmer. The addition
of a little salt or vinegar to the water improves the flavour of most
fish, and renders the flesh firmer. The proportions should be “two
teaspoonfuls of salt to every quart of water.” “If the fish be whole, as
soon as it begins to boil remove the cover on one side, and let it simmer
gently until done. (Soyer.) A fish is known to be sufficiently dressed by
the flesh in the thicker parts separating easily from the bone. “If a
large fish I generally try it by gently pushing a wooden skewer through
the thickest part; if it goes in easily it is done.” (Soyer.) When this is
the case it should be removed from the kettle, as by soaking in the water
fish loses its firmness, and becomes soddened. Sole, skate, and mackerel,
are usually put into boiling water, whether whole or sliced. Fish for
broiling should be well washed in strong vinegar, wiped dry with a towel,
and floured before placing them on the gridiron; and the bars of the
latter should be hot, and well buttered. (Rundell.) Fish for frying should
be prepared as for broiling, and the butter, oil, or lard should be
allowed to boil for a minute or two before putting them into the
frying-pan. The latter should be perfectly smooth and bright, and the
butter or oil in abundance, to prevent the fish sticking to it and
burning. As the fish are cooked solely by the heat of the melted fat, to
fry them in the highest perfection there should be enough of it to cover
them. Butter or oil is the best for the purpose. To avoid loss, the
contents of the frying-pan, after the fish is removed, should be poured
into a clean jelly-jar or basin, and reserved for another occasion. The
fish being removed from the pan, the superfluous fat should be drained
from them preparatory to ‘serving’ them. When fish is divided into fillets
or cutlets before being cooked, it is usual to take out the bones, and to
dress it with force-meat, &c.

In serving fish of the finer kinds, no other additions are required than
melted butter and the ordinary fish sauces and pickles. The dishes are
commonly garnished with raw parsley, for the sake of appearance, but
boiled parsley, chopped small, should accompany it. All kinds of fish
should be served on a napkin.

_Caution._ It sometimes happens that a fishbone accidentally swallowed
remains in the œsophagus, and occasions serious inconvenience; in fact,
instances have been known where so much irritation has arisen that death
has followed. In such cases it is advisable, as soon as possible, to take
of tartar emetic, 4 gr., dissolved in warm water, 1/2 pint; and
immediately afterwards the whites of six eggs. The coagulated mass will
not remain in the stomach more than two or three minutes, and the remedy
has been known to “remove no less than 24 pins at once.”

=FISH GLUE.= See GLUE and ISINGLASS.

=FISH POISONING.= See ACCIDENTS.

=FISH SKIN.= _Syn._ SHARK SKIN. The skin of the spotted dog-fish or rough
hound (_chien de mer_, Fr.), stretched and dried. Used for polishing wood
and ivory. Several other varieties of fish skin are employed in the arts.
The dressed skin of the ‘rousette’ (_peau de rousette_, F.), is
transparent, and very beautiful. Cemented on green paper, and rubbed down
and polished, it is used as veneer for fancy boxes. The skins of several
varieties of Squalus are also used for both the above purposes. See
SHAGREEN.

=FIVE HERBS.= See SPECIES.

=FIX′ATURE= _Syn._ BANDOLINE, CLYSPHITIQUE, EAU COLLANTE, FIXATEUR, Fr.
This consists of any of the simple vegetable mucilages, combined with a
little spirit, to preserve it, and with a little perfume, to render it
more agreeable.

_Prep._ 1. From carrageen, Irish, or pearl moss, soaked in cold water for
an hour or two, and after being drained, and pressed dry in a clean
napkin, dissolved by boiling in soft water, q. s. The decoction is
strained through cambric, and when nearly cold is mixed with about 1/3rd
or 1/4th of its volume of eau de Cologne or other scented spirit, with the
further addition of a few drops (5 or 6) of oil of cloves. Sometimes a
little brandy is added to the mucilage, and when it is intended for
present use, as is common with home manufactures, the spirit is frequently
omitted altogether. 1/4 oz. of the prepared moss is fully enough for 3/4
pint of strained decoction, if rightly managed.

2. From quince seed boiled in water, as the last. 1/4 oz. yields nearly
3/4 pint of strained decoction.

3. Pale gum arabic (picked), 1-1/2 oz.; rose water, 2 fl. oz.; pure water,
3 fl. oz.; dissolve.

4. Gum arabic, 3-1/4 oz.; water, 1/2 pint; dissolve, and drop in eau de
Cologne, gradually, until the cloudiness at first occasioned ceases to be
removed by agitation; the next day decant the clear portion. All of the
above are very superior, and keep well.

5. (Redwood.) Gum tragacanth, 1-1/2 dr.; water, 7 oz.; proof spirit, 3
oz.; otto of roses, 10 drops; macerate 24 hours, and strain.

6. Malt, 7 oz.; hot water (that will barely permit the finger to be held
in it without pain), 1/2 pint; infuse in a covered jug or basin, gently
press out the liquid, and as soon as cold add of proof spirit (or brandy
or Cologne water), 2-1/2 fl. oz. and strain.

_Obs._ Bandoline is used by ladies and by hairdressers for stiffening the
hair, and to make it curl firmly and remain in place. It is applied either
by moistening the fingers and passing the hair through them, or by means
of a small sponge. See POMMADE.

=FIXED AIR.= See CARBONIC ACID.

=FIXED OILS.= See FAT and OILS.

=FLAKE WHITE.= See WHITE PIGMENTS.

=FLAME.= Gas or vapour in an incandescent state. The light emitted from
pure flame is exceedingly feeble; illuminating power being almost entirely
dependent upon the presence of solid matter. See ILLUMINATION, and
_below_.

=Flame Colours.= The vapours of metallic compounds communicate colours to
flames. The characteristic colours of some metals are very beautiful, and
their exhibition forms a favorite experiment of chemical lecturers. The
coloured flames are generally produced by the combustion of alcohol or
rectified spirit upon certain salts in fine powder. In this way a GREEN
colour is communicated by boracic acid or chloride of copper; a RED one by
the nitrates of iron, lime, or strontia; a VIOLET, by potassa and its
salts; and a YELLOW, by nitrate of soda. Messrs Church and Crookes have
recently described a mode of exhibiting the characteristic flames of the
metals which is admirably adapted for the lecture-table.[312] ‘Gun-paper,’
made in the same way as ‘gun-cotton,’ is to be soaked in solutions of the
chlorates of the different metals, dried with care, and kept dry. A good
‘gun-paper’ for the purpose is prepared by soaking strips of Swedish
filtering-paper for ten minutes in a mixture of 4 parts oil of vitriol
with 5 parts strong nitric acid, both by measure. The strips, when taken
out of the acid, should be washed first with cold, and then with hot rain
or distilled water, till the washings are no longer sour to the taste. The
solutions of the metallic salts need not be very strong; but if they are
warm, the strips of ‘gun-paper’ will be more easily and completely
saturated with them. Since some of the chlorates attract moisture from the
air, it is better to dry the papers prepared with them before the fire
previous to lighting them. They are shown to best advantage when a strip
is loosely crumpled up into a pellet, lighted quickly at one corner, and
thrown up into the air against a dark back ground. They leave after
burning, if properly prepared, no ash whatever. Paper prepared with the
salt of potassa gives a flash of VIOLET flame, that prepared with the soda
salt the characteristic YELLOW flame, and that with chlorate of baryta a
very beautiful GREEN light. The chlorates of strontium, lithium, and
calcium, when thus ignited, give intense colours. The VIOLET-BLUE flame of
copper is well seen, even with the chloride of that metal, while paper
soaked in nitrate of potassa shows the potassium flame better than if the
chlorate be used. ‘Gun-paper’ prepared with a very weak solution of
chloride or chlorate of thallium shows the characteristic SPRIG-GREEN
flame of that metal with great distinctness. Chlorate of barium, being an
article of commerce, may be employed for the preparation of the other
chlorates, it being merely necessary to add to this salt in solution an
exactly equivalent quantity of the sulphate or carbonate of the metal
whose chlorate is desired. For instance, in order to make ‘chlorate of
copper,’ 15·1 gr. of chlorate of barium being dissolved in hot distilled
water, a boiling solution containing 12·5 gr. of pure crystallised
sulphate of copper is to be added to it. Insoluble white ‘sulphate of
baryta’ falls, while the solution, filtered and evaporated, yields the new
chlorate in crystals. See FIRES, PYROTECHNY, &c.

[Footnote 312: See ‘Intellectual Observer,’ April, 1863.]

=FLAN′NEL.= It has been shown by the experiments of Count Rumford that the
conducting power of the different materials employed for clothing varies
considerably. A thermometer surrounded with cotton wool, and heated by
immersion in boiling water, took 1046 seconds to lose 135° Fahr., when
plunged into a bath of melting ice; but, under the same circumstances,
when sheep’s wool was employed, 1118 seconds elapsed before a like sinking
of the thermometer took place (‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1792); thus showing the
greater conducting power of the former, and consequently the superiority
of the latter substance for the manufacture of warm clothing. But the
chief advantage of wool, as an article of underclothing, depends less upon
its actual power of conducting heat than its peculiar texture. Flannel
acts as a gentle stimulus on the skin, and exercises the most beneficial
action, by keeping the pores clean, and in a state most favorable to
perspiration. This action is a species of friction similar in character,
although inferior in degree, to that of the common flesh-brush or
horse-hair glove, so long employed as a skin stimulant. Flannel has also
the advantage of absorbing the perspiration as soon as emitted, and
allowing its watery portion to pass off into the atmosphere almost as soon
as formed, but this is not the case with cotton and linen fabrics. The
different effects of flannel and linen are particularly susceptible during
brisk exercise. When the body is covered with the former, though
perspiration be necessarily increased, the perspired matter freely passes
off through the flannel, and the skin remains dry and warm. If the same
exercise be taken in linen shirts, perspiration, as in the former case, is
indeed also increased, but the perspired matter, instead of being
dispersed into the atmosphere, remains upon the linen, and not only clogs
the pores of the skin, but gives a disagreeable sensation. From this
property of flannel, persons who wear it next the skin seldom catch cold
from changes of temperature, even though perspiring profusely; but in
similar cases, when linen or calico shirts are worn, chilliness
immediately comes on, followed by sniffling, sneezing, and cough, and all
the other symptoms of severe catarrh.

The common objections raised against the use of flannel are founded on
vulgar prejudices, ignorance, obstinacy, or bravado, and are undeserving
of the notice of sensible people. In a fickle and moist climate like that
of England, every person should wear a robe of flannel next the skin, or
at all events a waistcoat of flannel reaching below the loins; and this
should not be discarded as soon as the cold weather has passed, but its
use should be continued all the year round; for in reality flannel is, if
possible, even more required in summer than in winter, because persons
perspire more freely in hot than in cold weather, and are consequently
more susceptible of cold, while at that period of the year their clothing
is less capable of protecting them from the effects of sudden changes of
temperature and draughts of cold air, moisture, &c. Females, children,
persons of delicate constitutions, and all others who from their habits of
body or life perspire freely, or are much exposed, should wear flannel.

In washing flannels it is recommended that they should only be put into
warm water, by which method their colour will be preserved, and they will
be prevented from shrinking.

=FLASH.= _Prep._ From burnt-sugar colouring, 1 gall.; fluid extract of
capsicum or essence of Cayenne, 3/4 pint, or enough to give a strong fiery
taste. Used to colour spirits, and to give them a false strength. It is
made by the brewers’ druggists, and labelled ‘ISINGLASS AND BURNT SUGAR,’

=FLASKS.= The late lamented and ingenious Mr Fownes suggested the
employment of Florence oil-flasks as cheap substitutes for retorts,
receivers, digesters, and some other vessels used for chemical purposes.
His plan was to cut the neck smoothly round with a hot iron, and softening
it in the flame of a good argand gas-lamp, to turn over the edge so as to
form a lip, or border. The neck will then bear a tight-fitting cork
without splitting.

=FLATULENCE.= _Syn._ FLATULENCY, WIND. In _pathology_, a morbid collection
of gas in the stomach and bowels. Its most common cause is indigestion.
When the natural fluids of the stomach are secreted in a healthy state,
they exercise an antiseptic and digestive action on the food, by which it
is speedily reduced to a magma that is little liable to spontaneous change
whilst in the body; but when the reverse is the case, fermentation soon
commences, and the stomach and associated viscera become distended with
gas, and all the well-known symptoms of flatulency are developed in rapid
succession. The quantity of gas thus accumulated in the ‘primæ viæ’ is
often enormous. An ordinary apple during fermentation yields about 600
times its bulk of gas, and many vegetables yield much more. (Dr Hales.) It
is, therefore, not at all surprising that so much inconvenience should be
felt when the food, instead of being digested and assimilated, runs into
the state of active fermentation.

The treatment of flatulency consists mainly in the selection of proper
articles of food. Oleraceous vegetables, peas, beans, under-dressed
potatoes, and indigestible fruits should be especially avoided, as well as
the use of large quantities of weak or warm liquids. The diet should
consist principally of animal food, carefully but not over-cooked, with a
sufficient quantity of good mealy potatoes (mashed, not whole), and good
wheaten meal-bread, moderately seasoned with common salt and spices. The
most suitable beverages are toast-and-water, and a little good brandy
largely diluted with water. The healthy tone of the stomach may be
re-established by the proper use of tonics, bitters, and mild aperients.

To relieve the fit of flatulency, carminatives and aromatics, as black
pepper, mustard, peppermint, ginger, cinnamon, lavender, and most spices,
may be had recourse to. A glass of peppermint cordial, or of brandy
strongly flavoured with peppermint or ginger, is a popular and efficient
remedy. A few drops (15 to 30) of ether, with a little tincture of
capsicum or spirit of sal volatile, seldom fail to give relief. See
DYSPEPSIA.

=FLAVOURING SUBSTANCES.= See ESSENCE, OIL (Volatile), SPICE, WINE, &c.

=FLAX.= See LINEN, LINSEED, and OIL.

=FLEA.= This troublesome little animal is the _Pulex irritans_ of Linnæus,
and belongs to the _Suctoria_, or fourth order of the _Insecta_. Its
favorite haunts are our warm underclothing, and its most productive
breeding-places are in the ‘flue’ which careless servants allow to
accumulate underneath our beds. Cold, light, perfumes, and ventilation,
are inimical to its propagation.

=FLECHTENKAPSELN (Tetter Capsules, or Dr Berkeley’s Antiherpetic Capsules
for Skin Diseases, Tetter, &c.)= Capsules filled with tar. (Hager.)

=FLECHTENMITTEL——Tetter Cure.= (Paris). 1. A Washing Fluid.——Common water,
containing 1-1/2 per cent. sulphuric acid. 2. A Salve. A mixture of lard
and spermaceti, with 1/24 of their weight of calomel. (X. Schmidt.)

=FLECHTENPULVER——Tetter Powder= (St Lube’s, France). Nitre, 100; antimony
chloride, 10; antimony oxide, 200, 1·5 grammes for a dose. (Wittstein.)

=FLECHTENSALBE——Tetter Salve= (Fontaine, Paris). For all skin diseases.
Olive oil and white wax, with 1/16 of white precipitate. (Wittstein.)

=Flechtensalbe= (Bruno Reichel, Apolda). A mixture of wax and lard
coloured green. (Schädler.)

=Flechtensalbe= (F. Schwarzlose, Berlin, and S. G. Schwartz, Breslau). For
salt-flux, tetters, and similar skin diseases. Peru balsam, 1; carbolic
acid, 2; yellow wax, 10; lard, 30. (Schädler.)

=Flechtensalbe= (Surbi, Paris). For all kinds of skin diseases. A mixture
of beef tallow, 30; olive oil, 10; zinc oxide, 2; steatite, 2.
(Wittstein.)

=FLECHTENSEIFE, Tetter Soap= (Dr Berkeley). Ordinary tar soap. (Hager.)

=FLECHTENWASSER.= The wonderful wholesome mineral vegetable tetter-water
(Dr A. von S.). Corrosive sublimate, ·25 grammes; water, 180 grammes;
benzoin tincture, 6 grammes. (Weber.)

=FLECKENWASSER= (Bronner). Cleansing fluid (literally spot or stain water)
for the removal of grease and dirt spots. Benzine only.

=Fleckenwasser, Englisches= (English cleansing fluid for removing acid,
resin, wax, tar, and grease spots.) A mixture of 95 per cent. alcohol, 100
grammes; liq. ammon., sp. gr. ·875, 30 grammes; benzine, 4 grammes.
(Artus.)

=FLEISCH-EXTRACT-LIQUEUR (Eau de Vie Alimenteuse——Extract of Meat
Liqueur——Aqua Vitæ Incarnativa)= (A. Hensel, Berlin). A beautiful red
spicy liquor, leaving, when distilled, 32 per cent. of solid matter. This
residue contains in 100 parts (besides anilin-red), resin and extractive
(partly from ginger and partly from cinnamon), 3-1/4; sugar, 27-1/2;
extract of meat, 1-1/4. (Hager.)

=Fleisch-Extract-Syrup (Syrup of Extract of Meat)= (Meyer, Berk).
Blood-serum made into a syrup with sugar. (Hager.)

=FLEISCHFASER-ZWIEBACK FÜR HUNDE——Fibrin Dog Biscuits= (New York). Said to
be made of pure meal, fibrin, dates, and other ingredients, and
recommended as an excellent food for dogs. According to the prospectus its
use makes all other foods unnecessary, as it gives the animals peculiar
endurance, strong muscles, and sound bones. The directions for use say
that it is most advantageously given in its unprepared form, as dry,
heavy, hard cakes, and only in case it is refused should it be softened
for a short time in cold water. According to the analysis performed in the
laboratory of the Poppelsdorf Agricultural Academy the proportion of
nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous ingredients is 1 to 3·70. Microscopic
analysis detects the presence of dried fibrin, and also a considerable
admixture of structureless hyaline cartilaginous matter. From this it
follows that the nitrogen revealed by analysis does not all represent
protein or fibrin, and that the proportion which arises from indigestible
gelatinous matter will be of smaller value. (Dr E. Kern.)

=FLESH.= _Syn._ CARO, L. The muscular substances of animals; the softer,
solid portions of the body, as distinguished from the bones and fluids.
See FIBRIN, FOOD, &c.

=Flesh-brush.= This simple instrument is used for exciting the cutaneous
circulation. Those which have the bristles set on a leather back are
esteemed the best. The flesh-glove or hair flesh-rubber is a useful
modification of the common flesh-brush. Those manufactured by Messrs
Savory and Moore, in imitation of the Indian kheesah or mitten, are
superior to all others. In the absence of both flesh-brush and glove, a
rough towel wound round the hand is no bad substitute. See FRICTION.

=FLIEGENPAPIER, GIFTFREIES——Non-Poisonous Fly Papers= (Bergmann & Co.,
Rochlitz). Contains abundance of arsenious acid. (Hager.)

=FLIEGENPULVER——Fly Powder= (Baumann, now Markel, Austria). 93 to 94 per
cent. of dry sandy ferruginous clay (ordinary loam) saturated with a
decoction of some bitter substance, as quassia or gentian. (Hager.)

=FLIES.= See FLY.

=FLIP.= See EGG FLIP.

=FLÖHEMITTEL——Flea Powder= (Leipsic). Powdered soap. (Fischer.)

=FLÖHEWASSER——Flea Water= (Koch, veterinary surgeon, Vienna). 7 brandy, 1
benzine, 1 black soap. (Hager.)

=FLORILINE——Vegetable Tooth Paste= made by John Yates (Albin Müller,
Brünn). It is contained in a quadrangular china pot, and is a red, dry,
rather hard mass made from prepared chalk, 20 grammes; starch powder, 10
grammes; glycerin, 8 grammes; pellitory tincture, 3 grammes; peppermint
oil, 10 drops; and water q. s., coloured with Florentine lac. (Hager.)

=FLOUN′DER.= A flat fish, very like the plaice, but smaller, and of more
obscure colour. It is very common about the British coast, and is found in
the Northern, Baltic, and Mediterranean seas. Its flesh is very wholesome.

=FLOUR.= _Syn._ FARINA, L. The finely ground and ‘dressed’ meal of bread
corn, and of the seeds of some of the leguminosæ. That known specifically
as ‘flour’ in this country is obtained from spring varieties of _Triticum
vulgare_ (the common wheat).

_Var., &c._ Of varieties of flour there are several, depending chiefly on
the amount of bran which they contain, and the relative fineness of the
sieves through which they are passed:——

FINE WHEAT FLOUR, PASTRY FLOUR; FARINA, F. TRITICI, F. SEMINIS TRITICI.
The finest flour, obtained from the meal produced in the first grinding of
wheat between sharp stones, by means of a sieve of 64 wires to the inch.
Used for pastry.

MIDDLINGS. The remainder of the flour of the first grinding, obtained by
means of a slightly coarser sieve. Used for making household bread, but is
mostly reground for the next variety.

SECONDS. The finest part of the flour, obtained by regrinding ‘middlings’
between blunt stones. Used by the bakers for their finest wheaten bread.

POLLARD. The coarse flour, from which the seconds has been sifted. Used
for making sea biscuits and gingerbread, and to fatten poultry and hogs.

COUNTRY HOUSEHOLD FLOUR. This is usually ground only once, and sifted to
4/5ths of the weight of the wheat.

AMMUNITION FLOUR is ground and sifted to nearly 5/6ths the weight of the
wheat.

According to Mr Accum, thirty-two pecks of wheat in the London mills
yield, of flour 38-1/2 parts; pollard, 8 parts; and bran (_furfur
tritici_), 12 parts; the bulk of the wheat being doubled by grinding.

According to Mr Hard, miller, of Dartford, quoted by Dr Pereira, the wheat
having been ground in the usual way, is allowed to remain in the state of
meal for some time before ‘dressing,’ which removes the heat caused by the
process, and enables the miller to obtain more flour, and the baker a
better quality, than if ‘dressed’ immediately it is ground.

“The process of dressing is by a wire cylinder containing a certain number
of sheets of different texture or fineness, which cylinder contains eight
hair brushes attached to a spindle passing through the centre of the
cylinder, and laid out so as to gently touch the wire. This cylinder is
fed by a ‘shoe’ with the meal; then the ‘flour’ and ‘offal,’ after passing
through the wire in this way, are divided by wooden partitions fixed close
to the outside of the cylinder.” “The produce of the wheat-meal dressed
through the wire machine consists of——1, Flour;——2, White Stuff, or
Boxings, or Sharps;——3, Fine Pollard;——4, Coarse Pollard, or Horse
Pollard;——5, Bran. The 2nd product (_i. e._ the white stuff) is then
submitted to another ‘dressing’ through a fine cloth machine, and
produces——1, Fine Middlings, for biscuits;——2, Toppings, or Specks;——3,
Dustings;——4, Best Pollard, Turkey Middlings, or Coarse Middlings.

        TABLE _of the Produce of One Quarter of Wheat_ (= 504
        lbs.) By MR HARD.

  Flour                           392 lbs.
  Biscuit or fine middlings        10  ”
  Toppings or specks                8  ”
  Best pollard, Turkey p., or
    twenty-penny                   15  ”
  Fine pollard                     18  ”
  Bran and coarse pollard          50  ”
  Loss by evaporation and waste    11  ”
                                 ————
                                  504  ”
                                 ————

                                _Analysis of Flour._
  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  |                                | PELIGOT. |          |         |  WANKLYN.  |
  |                                |Mean of 14| LETHEBY. |  PAYEN. |Fine Wheaten|
  |                                | Analyses.|          |         |   Flour.   |
  |--------------------------------+----------+----------+---------+------------|
  |                                |Per cent. | Per cent.|Per cent.|  Per cent. |
  |Water                           |  14·0    |   15·0   |  14·22  |    16·5    |
  |Fat                             |   1·2    |    2·0   |   1·25  |     1·2    |
  |Nitrogenous matters, gluten, &c.|  12·8    |   10·8   |  14·45  |    12·0    |
  |Ditto, soluble in water         |   1·8    |    ——    |   ——    |     ——     |
  |Non-nitrogenised substances,    |          |          |         |            |
  |  dextrin, sugar, &c.           |   7·2    |}         |         |            |
  |Starch                          |  59·7    |} 70·5    |  68·48  |    69·6    |
  |Cellulose                       |   1·7    |}         |         |            |
  |Salts (ash)                     |   1·6    |    1·7   |   1·6   |     0·74   |
  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

According to Vauquelin, French wheat flour contains about 10% of water,
11% of gluten, 71% of starch, 5% of sugar, and 3% of gum; and the water of
the dough amounts to about 50%. The quantity of the bran in wheat ranges
under 2%.

_Pur._ This article of food is very frequently adulterated both by the
miller and the baker, as has been before alluded to in the article on
bread. The principal physical characteristics of wheat flour of good
quality are the following——it has a dull white colour, somewhat inclining
to yellow;——it exhibits no trace of bran, even when pressed smooth with
the hand, or with a polished surface;——its cohesiveness is so great that,
on being squeezed in the hand, the lump is some time before it loses its
shape;——it has a homogeneous appearance, and does not lose more than from
6% to 12% by being carefully dried in a stove. The smaller the loss in
this way the finer is the quality, other matters being equal, and the more
economical in use.[313] (See _below_.)

[Footnote 313: See also BREAD, _Adult_, and _Exam_.]

_Tests._ 1. Solution of ammonia turns pure wheat flour yellow; but if any
other corn has been ground with it, pale brown; or if peas or beans have
been ground with it, a still darker brown.

2. Solution of potassa, containing about 12% of caustic alkali, dissolves
pure wheat-flour almost completely; but when it is adulterated with the
flour of the leguminous seeds (beans, peas, &c.), the cellulosæ of these
substances remains undissolved, and its hexagonal tissue is readily
identified under the microscope. Mineral substances (chalk, plaster of
Paris, bone dust, &c.) are also insoluble in this test, and appear as a
heavy white sediment.

3. Boiling water poured on the sample causes the evolution of the peculiar
odour of pea or bean flour when these substances are present. Bread made
with such flour evolves a like odour on being toasted.

4. Pure hydrochloric acid poured on potato flour, or on wheat flour
adulterated with it, develops a smell of rushes; it also dissolves starch,
but changes the colour of pure wheat-flour to a deep violet.

5. Nitric acid turns wheat flour of an orange-yellow colour, but forms a
stiff and tenacious jelly with potato fecula, the colour of which it does
not alter.

6. A portion of the suspected sample submitted to dry distillation in a
stoneware retort, and the distillate collected in a receiver containing a
little water, the latter is found to remain perfectly neutral if the wheat
flour is pure, but acquires a distinctly alkaline reaction when beans,
pulse, or pea meal is present. (Rodrigues.)

7. Triturate 300 gr. of the sample with an equal weight of clean siliceous
sand, and after five minutes form a homogeneous paste with water;
afterwards further adding more water, until about 2 fl. oz. have been
used. The filtered liquid, treated with an equal quantity of a strong and
pure aqueous solution of iodine, develops a pink colour, which gradually
disappears when the specimen examined consists of pure wheat flour; but
assumes a deep-purple colour, which disappears much more slowly, if the
flour is adulterated with even 10% of fecula or potato flour. This test
succeeds, not only with flour and meal, but also with macaroni,
vermicelli, &c. (M. Chevallier.)

8. The milky liquid holding the starch in suspension (see Anal., page 749)
is poured into a small conical glass, and left at rest for some time; the
clear liquid is then decanted, and any remaining water carefully sucked up
with a pipette, and the whole left for some time, in order that the
deposit may harden. The upper gray layer is next removed with a teaspoon,
and the harder and stiffer second layer left undisturbed until it becomes
quite solid by drying. When in this state, it may be upset in the form of
a cone, upon a lump of dry plaster. The fecula or potato starch (if any is
present), being heavier than that of wheat, forms the apex of the cone,
and its quantity may be estimated in the following manner:——The operator
cuts from the apex of the little cone above mentioned a slice, which he
triturates only for a short time in an agate mortar (one of glass, or
porcelain, or wedgwood-ware, will not do), and he tests that with aqueous
solution of iodine. If it turns blue, it is fecula. Another slice is
treated in the same manner, until the operator comes to the wheat starch,
which, in the present instance, is not affected by the aqueous solution of
iodine. This difference of behaviour of the two species of starch with
iodine is due to the friction of the pestle and mortar, which is
sufficient to divide or tear the envelopes of the particles of the potato
starch, which then become blue when treated by solution of iodine. The
particles of wheat starch, on the contrary, are not disaggregated by that
treatment, and being therefore protected by their envelope, are not acted
upon by the solution of iodine, or, at most, assume only a brown tinge.
(M. Robine.)

9. Wheat flour adulterated with plaster of Paris, ground bones, chalk, and
potato flour, has a higher specific gravity than a sample of the pure
flour. This may be readily ascertained by any person by filling a small
vessel with some pure flour, and then with the given sample. “A vessel
which will contain 1 lb. of wheat flour will contain 1-1/2 lb. of fecula”
(potato flour), and hence “the proportion of this adulteration may be
easily estimated.” (Ure.)

10. If to a sample of wheat flour is added a solution of potassa,
containing about 1-3/4% of the pure alkali, the granules of potato farina,
or of bean meal, or pea meal, present (if any), will acquire 4 or 5 times
their original volume, while those of the pure wheat starch will be
scarcely affected by it. This change is very perceptible under a
microscope of small power. 2 parts of liquor of potassa (Ph. L.) and 5
parts of distilled water form a mixture that answers for the above
purpose.

11. By means of the microscope the admixture of the cheaper feculas and
meals with wheat flour is readily detected by the characteristic
appearance of the starch grains; and when the adulteration exceeds 9% or
10%, its extent may be readily estimated with considerable accuracy. As
the range of adulteration is generally from 12% to 27%, this method is
applicable in the greater number of cases.

_Analysis._ The value of wheat flour as an aliment depends upon the
quantity of gluten, sugar, starch, and phosphate of lime, which it
contains; and its superiority over the flour of the grains of the other
cereals is referred to its containing a larger proportion of the first and
last of these substances than they do. The quantitative analysis of flour
is very simple, and may be easily made by persons unacquainted with
chemistry, by attending to the instructions below:——

_a._ Make 1000 gr. of the sample into a dough with a little water, let it
rest an hour and then gently knead it in successive water, until the
starchy particles are perfectly removed. Collect the portion (GLUTEN) left
in the hand, drain off the water, place it on a piece of filtering or
blotting paper, several times doubled, and set it aside.

_b._ Mix the several waters employed in the preceding process, and set
them aside in a tall vessel, to deposit the suspended portion (STARCH).
After a sufficient time pour off the clear liquid, and throw the whole of
the sediment on a weighed paper filter, placed in a funnel, observing to
remove the portion adhering to the bottom of the vessel by means of a
little clean water, that none may be lost.

_c._ Evaporate the decanted liquid, as well as what runs from the filter,
until it becomes curdy, then filter it through a piece of weighed blotting
paper, and preserve the sediment (ALBUMEN); next evaporate the residuum to
the consistence of a syrup, agitate it with 10 times its weight of
alcohol, and filter, observing to wash the paper filter clean with a
little alcohol after the solution has passed through it. The substance on
the paper is PHOSPHATE OF LIME and GUM, and must be set aside. By
subsequent digestion in water, filtration, and evaporation, the two may be
obtained separately.

_d._ Evaporate or distil off the spirit from the solution and washings, as
above; the residuum is SUGAR.

_e._ Dry the substances educed as above, by a gentle heat, and weigh them.
The weight of the albumen may be taken with that of the gluten, as it
possesses about the same nutritive value, and also because it has been
asserted by some persons that the former substance is in reality gluten,
and not albumen. By dividing the given weights by 10, the per-centage
value of the sample is obtained. The pieces of filtering paper employed
should be carefully dried and weighed before using them, and the same
degree of heat should be employed for this purpose as that to which they
will be afterwards exposed in the drying of the substances resulting from
the operations.

_Obs._ The above method of ascertaining the actual value of any sample of
flour as an article of food, though not strictly accurate, approximates
sufficiently to the truth for all practical purposes, and is well adapted
to the wants of the baker and large purchaser. In many cases it will only
be necessary to perform the first part of the process (_a_), which will
give the per-centage of the most important constituent of the flour; the
rest being of minor consequence.

In addition to what has been already stated in the article on BREAD, it
may be useful to mention that a pound of the best flour, from thoroughly
dried wheat, will take 10 fl. oz. of water to form it into ordinary dough,
or 9 fl. oz. to form it into bread dough. Under the old parliamentary
acts, a sack of flour (280 lbs.) was presumed to produce 80 loaves
(quartern or quarter-peck), the weight of which, within 48 hours after
being baked, was to be 4 lbs. 5-1/2 oz. each. At the present time fully 92
loaves, weighing 4 lbs. each, are produced by the London bakers from one
sack of flour, when honest weight is given; but as the latter is rarely
the case, and the bread is frequently ‘slack’ or ‘under-baked,’ and thus
contains more water than good bread ought to do, a much larger product is
commonly obtained. The dough loses about 1/7th of its weight in baking, if
in batches; but fully 1/6th, if baked in small loaves, and placed in the
oven separately. The best bread contains about 1/4-1/6th of its weight of
added water; and common bread, often much more than 1/4th. The proportion
of water in the London bread has greatly increased during the last few
years, owing to the introduction of the fraudulent plan of making the
dough with rice jelly or moss jelly. This is the reason why the bread of
some bakers suffers such a loss of weight in a few hours after being taken
from the oven. A 4 lbs. loaf of bread purchased from a baker at Lambeth,
after remaining on the sideboard of a sitting-room for 24 hours, was found
to have lost no less than 6-1/2 oz. by evaporation, and in two days longer
its interior cells were covered with green mould, and the whole was unfit
for food. The bakers, aware of these facts, are particularly careful not
to bake more bread than they can dispose of whilst ‘new,’ and are in the
habit of refusing to weigh their bread before selling it, when it is more
than 10 or 12 hours old, although they are liable to be ‘fined’ for such a
refusal. See BREAD, CAKES, FARINA, &c., also _below_.

=Flour, Baked.= _Syn._ FARINA TOSTA, F. TRITICI TOSTA, L. _Prep._ From
wheat flour, carefully baked in a ‘slack’ oven, until it acquires a
pale-buff hue. Astringent; used to make food for infants troubled with
diarrhœa. See FARINA.

=Flour, Barley (Prepared).= _Syn._ FARINA HORDEI PREPARATA, L. _Prep._
(Ph. Bor.) From barley flour, compressed into a tin cylinder until the
vessel is 2-3rds full, which is then suspended at the upper part of a
still 2-3rds filled with water, and after the ‘head’ is fitted on, the
water is kept boiling for 30 hours (2 days of 15 hours each). Lastly, the
upper layer being removed, the rest is reduced to powder, and kept in a
dry place.

=Flour, Boiled.= _Syn._ TRITICINA, FARINA PREPARATA, L. _Prep._ From fine
flour, tied up in a linen cloth as tight as possible, and after it has
been frequently dipped into cold water, the outside of the cloth is
dredged over with flour, until a crust is formed round it, to prevent the
water soaking into it whilst boiling; it is then boiled for a long time,
and when cold, it is divided into small oblong pieces. For use, it is
reduced to powder, either by grinding or grating it, and is then prepared
like arrow-root. It forms a good diet for children, in diarrhœa, &c.; and
as it may be easily prepared at home, it has the advantage of being free
from adulteration.

=Flour, Jones’s Patent.= _Prep._ From kiln-dried flour, 1 cwt.; tartaric
acid, 10-1/2 oz.; mix thoroughly; after 2 or 3 days, add, of bicarbonate
of soda, 12 oz.; lump sugar, 1/2 lb.; common salt, 1-1/2 lb.; mix, and
pass the compound through the ‘dressing-machine.’ It is necessary that the
whole of the ingredients should be perfectly dry, and separately reduced
to fine powder before adding them to the flour. By simply mixing it with
cold water, and at once baking it, it produces light, porous bread.

_Obs._ We have already had occasion to pay a passing tribute to the
excellence and usefulness of Jones’s Patent Flour.[314] It is, indeed,
invaluable to every household, as furnishing the means of producing, with
great economy, and extemporaneously, not merely cakes, puddings, pastry,
and fancy bread, but the ‘staff of life’ itself, household bread, of a
purity, flavour, and lightness, seldom, if ever, met with in that
purchased of the bakers.

=Flour, Sewell’s Patent.= _a._ (No. 1.) Flour, 1 sack (280 lbs.);
hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1·14), 45 oz.; mix, by adding the acid in a
‘spray,’——_b._ (No. 2.) To the last, add (expertly) bicarbonate of soda,
39 oz.; mix thoroughly, and pass the whole through a sieve or ‘dressing
machine.’

_Obs._ This flour is used as the last, to which, however, it is inferior
in quality. No. 1 will keep 5 weeks. No. 2 will keep a month. Jones’s
flour will keep good in a dry place for years. If No. 1 is alone employed
for the dough, to each pound of the flour, 65 gr. of bicarbonate of soda,
with salt q. s., must be added. The patentee claims for his invention the
merit of the soda and acid being converted into culinary salt in the
process of making up the flour and baking the dough.[314]

[Footnote 314: See UNFERMENTED BREAD.]

=FLOWER DEW= (F. J. Weber, successor of Rau, Bamberg). A flat bottle with
the name of Rau moulded on it; its gross weight is more than 80 grammes,
but it contains scarcely 22 grammes of a nearly colourless but slightly
yellow fluid, consisting of a pleasant aromatic solution of oils of
bergamot, lemon, orange flowers, and rose in strong spirit.

=FLOWERS.= _Syn._ FLORES, L. These beautiful and fragrant ornaments of our
gardens and our dwellings are too highly esteemed by all classes of the
community to require anything in favour of their cultivation to be said
here. Our remarks will, therefore, chiefly refer to their collection,
improvement, and preservation.

‘Full’ or ‘double flowers,’ or those in which the internal organs become
petals, are so much more beautiful than the ‘single flowers’ of the
corresponding species and varieties, that their production, with tolerable
ease and certainty, has long been a desideratum with both the professional
and amateur florist. Various plans have been proposed having this object
in view, among which are the following:——1. The use of the best seed only,
but not before it is at least 3 or 4 years old. 2. The selection of the
outer row of seed only, and its careful preservation intact for at least 2
seasons before sowing it. We are assured that this method is particularly
successful with dahlias. 3. The removal of the plants to a shady situation
as soon as the flower-buds begin to develop themselves, and stinting them
with water and nourishment for a few weeks. In this method a few only of
the buds are permitted to mature; the rest being snipped off with a pair
of scissors as early as possible. 4. The use of small pots and a scanty
supply of water until the flowers are partly developed, when water is
supplied in abundance, with or without the addition of a little liquid
manure.

To hasten the blooming of flowers, it is a common practice with some
gardeners to grow them in as small pots as is consistent with their
healthy existence, and carefully to avoid transplanting them to larger
pots, for several weeks before their usual time of blossoming. A plant on
the point of flowering, if transferred to a larger pot and a richer soil,
immediately commences making roots and leaves, whilst the embryo flowers
either wholly decay, or their development is checked until the usual
season of their production has passed over.

The following liquid has been used with great advantage to promote the
vigorous growth and the early flowering of plants:——Sulphate or nitrate of
ammonia, 4 oz.; nitrate of potassa, 2 oz.; sugar, 1 oz.; hot water, 1
pint; dissolve and keep it in a well-corked bottle. For use, put 8 or 10
drops of this liquid into the water of a hyacinth glass or jar, for
bulbous-rooted plants, changing the water every 10 or 12 days. For
flowering plants in pots, a few drops must be added to the water employed
for them. The preference should be given to rain water for this purpose.
The fluid sold under the name of liquid guano may be used in the same
manner.

Flowers may be preserved in a fresh state for a considerable time, by
keeping them in a moist atmosphere. When growing on the parent stem, the
large amount of evaporation from the surface of their leaves is
compensated for by an equivalent proportion of moisture supplied by the
roots; but when they are plucked, the evaporation from the surface
continues, while the supply of moisture is cut off. To supply, in part,
this loss of moisture by evaporation, has arisen the almost universal
practice of placing flowers in water; but their mutilated stems possess a
far inferior power of sucking up fluids to that of the roots, and thus
their decay is only deferred for a time. To preserve them more
effectually, or at least to render their existence less ephemeral, we may
surround them with a moist atmosphere, by which the loss of water from the
surface of their leaves will be reduced to the smallest possible amount.
“It is now eighteen years ago since we first saw, in the drawing-room of a
gentleman, in the hot dry weather of the dog-days, flowers preserved day
after day in all their freshness by the following simple contrivance——A
flat dish of porcelain had water poured into it. In the water a vase of
flowers was set; over the whole a bell-glass was placed, with its rim in
the water. This was a ‘Ward’s case’ in principle, although different in
its construction. The air that surrounded the flowers being confined
beneath the bell-glass, was kept constantly moist with the water that rose
into it in the form of vapour. As fast as the water was condensed it ran
down the sides of the bell glass back into the dish; and if means had been
taken to inclose the water on the outside of the bell-glass, so as to
prevent its evaporating into the air of the sitting-room, the atmosphere
around the flowers would have remained continually damp. We recommend
those who love to see plenty of fresh flowers in their sitting-rooms in
dry weather to adopt this method. The experiment can be tried by inverting
a tumbler over a rose-bud in a saucer of water.” (‘Gardener’s Chron.’)

Another method by which some flowers may be preserved for many months is
to carefully dip them, as soon as gathered, in perfectly limpid gum water,
and after allowing them to drain for 2 or 3 minutes, to set them upright,
or arrange them in the usual manner in an empty vase. The gum gradually
forms a transparent coating on the surface of the petals and stems, and
preserves their figure and colour long after they have become dry and
crisp.

Yet another method (given in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’) is as
follows:——“A vessel with a movable cover is provided, and having removed
the cover from it, a piece of metallic gauze of moderate fineness is fixed
over it, and the cover replaced. A quantity of sand is then taken
sufficient to fill the vessel, and passed through a sieve into an iron
pot, where it is heated with the addition of a small quantity of stearin,
carefully stirred so as to thoroughly mix the ingredients.

“The quantity of stearin to be added is at the rate of half a part to 100
parts of sand. Care must be taken not to add too much, as it would sink to
the bottom and injure the flowers. The vessel with its cover on and the
gauze beneath it is then turned upside down, and the bottom being removed,
the flowers to be operated upon are carefully placed on the gauze and the
sand gently poured in, so as to cover the flowers entirely, the leaves
being thus prevented from touching each other. The vessel is then put in a
hot place, such, for instance, as the top of a baker’s oven, where it is
left for 48 hours. The flowers thus become dried, and they retain their
natural colours. The vessel still remaining bottom upwards, the lid is
taken off, and the sand runs away through the gauze, leaving the flowers
uninjured.

Faded flowers may be generally more or less restored by immersing them
half-way up their stems in very hot water, and allowing them to remain in
it until it cools, or they have recovered. The coddled portion of the
stems must then be cut off, and the flowers placed in clean cold water. In
this way a great number of faded flowers may be restored, but there are
some of the more fugacious kinds on which it proves useless.

Flowers may be produced in winter by taking up the plants, trees, or
shrubs in the spring, at the time when they are about to bud, with some of
their own soil carefully preserved around the roots, and placing them
upright in a cellar till Michaelmas; when, with the addition of fresh
earth, they are to be put into proper tubs or vessels, and placed in a
stove or hot-house, when they must be treated in the usual manner. By this
method, in the month of February, fruits or roses will appear. Flowers
sown in pots about Michaelmas may thus be made to bloom at Christmas.

The apparently instantaneous flowering of plants, exhibited a few years
ago by M. Herbert to an astonished audience, was, we believe, effected by
the heat generated by fragments of quicklime concealed in the mould close
to, but not in immediate contact with, the roots. The plants selected by
M. Herbert——a group of geraniums and a rose tree——were planted in two
rather deep boxes of garden mould, and were covered with glass shades. The
operator commenced by pouring over the roots, from a small watering-pot, a
liquid which, uniting to the ingredients already in the earth, caused a
great heat, as was shown by an intense steam or vapour, which was evolved
within the shades, and allowed, to some extent, to escape through a small
hole in the top, which at first was kept closed. The effect upon the
geraniums was certainly almost instantaneous; the buds beginning to burst
in about five or six minutes, and the plants being in full bloom within
ten minutes, when the blossoms were gathered by M. Herbert, and
distributed amongst the ladies present. With the rose tree the exhibitor
was less fortunate. The invention may prove useful where ladies require to
decorate their drawing-rooms or boudoirs with the beauties of the floral
world somewhat earlier in the season than they can otherwise be obtained.
It must not, however, be forgotten that the plants are, as it were,
parboiled during the process, and die after a few days.

As regards the sanitary value of flowers, Mantegazza, of Pavia, states
that ozone is generated in larger quantities by certain plants possessing
spicy aromatic odours, than by the action of electricity upon the air. He
says that in some plants this ozone is developed by the direct rays of the
sun, whilst in others the action, once begun in solar light, is continued
in darkness; and that cherry-laurel, clove, lavender, mint, lemon, fennel,
narcissus, heliotrope, hyacinth, mignonette, &c., all produce ozone
largely on exposure to the rays of the sun.[315] He also finds that whilst
the ozonigenic properties of flowers reside mainly in their perfumes, the
most odoriferous yielding the largest amount of ozone, certain others
possessing no particular perfume, have extraordinary ozonigenic power; as,
for instance, the sunflower, broad belts of which were planted by the late
Commodore Maury around the grounds of the national observatory at
Washington, to the effect of which he attributed the after immunity of his
family from intermittent fevers.[316]

[Footnote 315: The experiments of Mr Kingzetti on the limited oxidation of
essential oils, lead to the inference that instead of ozone, peroxide of
hydrogen is the body evolved.——ED.]

[Footnote 316: Recent researches seem to have shown that the hygienic
properties of the sun-flower, like those of the Eucalyptus, are chiefly,
if not wholly due to the power the plant possesses of abstracting enormous
quantities of moisture from the soil, and thus removing from certain
localities an active element in the production of malaria.——ED.]

The collection and preservation of flowers for medicinal purposes and
distillation, will be found noticed under VEGETABLES.

=Flowers, Artificial.= The beauty and value of these pleasing articles of
personal decoration mainly depend upon the taste and ingenuity of the
maker. The delicate fingers of woman, and her ready powers of imitation
and invention, combined with her natural affection for the chaste and
beautiful, have enabled her the more especially to excel in this
manufacture. The productions of the female artificial florists of the
French capital are justly admired everywhere.

The French employ velvet, kid, and fine cambric for the petals, and
taffeta for the leaves. Very recently thin plates of bleached whalebone
have been used with great success for some portions of artificial flowers.

As colours and stains, the following are employed in Paris:——

BLUE. Indigo dissolved in oil of vitriol, and the acid partly neutralised
with salt of tartar or whiting.

GREEN. A solution of distilled verdigris.

LILAC. Liquid archil.

RED. Carmine dissolved in a solution of salt of tartar, or in spirits of
hartshorn.

VIOLET. Liquid archil, mixed with a little salt of tartar.

YELLOW. Tincture of turmeric.

The above colours are usually applied to the petals with the fingers.

=Flowers.= _Syn._ FLORES, L. Among chemists, this term is applied to
various pulverulent substances obtained by sublimation, as flowers of
antimony, benzoin, zinc, sulphur, &c. The term has been discarded from
modern chemical nomenclature, but is still commonly employed in familiar
language and trade.

=FLUID CAM′PHOR.= _Prep._ (Sir J. Murray.) From camphor (in powder), 1
dr.; freshly precipitated carbonate of magnesia, 2 dr.; cold distilled
water, 1 pint; the solution is effected by forcing in carbonic acid gas
under pressure. Each fl. oz. contains 3 gr. of camphor, and 6 gr. of
carbonate of magnesia. See ESSENCE OF CAMPHOR.

=FLUID MAGNE′SIA.= _Syn._ LIQUOR MAGNESIÆ CARBONATIS, L. M. BICARBONATIS,
L. The preparations sold under this name are mere solutions of freshly
precipitated carbonate of magnesia in water, formed by means of carbonic
acid gas, under powerful pressure, and long agitation. Those best known
are Sir J. Murray’s and Mr Dinneford’s, each fl. oz. of which is said to
contain about 17-1/2 gr. of the carbonate, but their actual richness in
the latter seldom exceeds 10 or 12 gr., and by the time they reach the
consumer is often as low as 5 or 6 gr. Recently precipitated carbonate of
magnesia placed in a bottle or other suitable vessel, which is then filled
by means of a soda-water apparatus with water fully charged with carbonic
acid gas, readily dissolves on slight and cautious agitation, and the
aërated water becomes saturated with magnesia. A scruple of carbonate of
magnesia put into a soda-water bottle, and thus treated, is all taken up
in from 20 minutes to half an hour, and the beverage continues beautifully
clear.

=FLUID-OZON= (J. Krohn, Munich, with a certificate from Justus von
Liebig). A mouth wash and toilet water. An aqueous solution of
permanganate of soda, 1 in 9, contaminated with traces of sodium sulphate
and chloride. (Wittstein.)

=FLUM′MERY.= A species of thick hasty-pudding made with oatmeal or rice,
flavoured with milk, cream, almonds, orange flowers, lemons, &c.,
according to fancy.

_Prep._ 1. (DUTCH FLUMMERY.) From blancmange and eggs, flavoured with
lemon peel and sweetened with sugar.

2. (FRENCH FLUMMERY.) From equal parts of blancmange and cream, sweetened,
and flavoured. The above are poured into forms, and served cold, to eat
with wine, spirit, cider, &c.

3. (A. T. Thomson.) Take oatmeal or groats, 1 quart; rub it for a
considerable time with hot water, 2 quarts; and let the mixture stand
until it becomes sour; then add another quart of hot water, and strain
through a hair sieve. Let stand till a white sediment is deposited,
decant the fluid portion, and wash the sediment with cold water. This is
now to be boiled with fresh water, until it forms a mucilage, stirring the
whole time. A light and nutritious food, during early convalescence.

=FLUOBORIC ACID.= _Syn._ BOROFLUORIC ACID. This may be easily prepared by
saturating hydrofluoric acid with boracic acid, keeping the mixture cool,
and then concentrating it in platinum vessels till dense fumes arise.

=FLUOHYDRIC ACID.= See FLUORIDE OF HYDROGEN.

=FLU′ORIDE OF HYDROGEN.= HF. _Syn._ FLUOHYDRIC ACID; HYDROFLUORIC ACID; A.
HYDROFLUORICUM, L. An acid composed of hydrogen and fluorine. It was
discovered by Scheele, but was first obtained in a pure state by
Gay-Lussac and Thénard, in 1810.

_Prep._ Pour concentrated sulphuric acid on half its weight of fluor spar,
carefully separated from siliceous earth, and reduced to fine powder. The
mixture must be made in a capacious leaden retort, and a gentle heat only
applied, and the evolved gas must be collected in a leaden receiver,
surrounded by ice.

_Prop., &c._ A colourless fluid below 59° Fahr., which speedily evaporates
in dense white fumes when exposed to the air. Its affinity for water
exceeds that of sulphuric acid, and its combination with that fluid is
accompanied with a hissing noise, and a considerable increase of its sp.
gr. up to a certain point. It attacks glass and silica, for which reason
it cannot be preserved in glass vessels. Bottles of lead, silver,
platinum, or pure gutta percha, are used to keep it in. It is highly
corrosive, instantaneously destroying the skin on contact, and producing
deep and serious ulcerations; its vapour is pungent, irritating,
irrespirable, and poisonous. With the bases it unites to form FLUORIDES.

In the arts, hydrofluoric acid is used for etching on glass.

=FLU′ORIDES.= Compounds of fluorine with metals and other basic radicals.
The fluorides of the metals are, with the exception of those of the
alkaline metals, insoluble in water, while the fluorides of hydrogen,
boron, and silicon, are gaseous, condensing at a low temperature to
volatile liquids.

=FLU′ORINE.= F. _Syn._ FLUORINIUM, L. An element that has not yet been
isolated, owing to its attacking and combining with every element or
compound that at present has been exposed to it, except oxygen. It is
presumably gaseous, and of a pale greenish-yellow colour.

=FLU′OSILICIC ACID.= _Syn._ FLUORIDE OF SILICON AND HYDROGEN;
HYDROFLUOSILIC ACID. _Prep._ From powdered fluor spar, and siliceous sand
or powdered glass, of each 1 part; concentrated sulphuric acid, 2 parts:
mix in a glass retort, apply a gentle heat, and pass the evolved gas into
water through a layer of mercury. Decomposition ensues, silica being
deposited in a gelatinous state, and hydrofluosilicic acid or fluosilic
acid remains in solution. The acid liquor is used as a test for potassium
and barium, with whose salts it yields nearly insoluble precipitates.

=FLUX.= _Syn._ FLUXUS, FLUOR, L. In _medicine_, a term formerly applied to
several diseases attended with a copious discharge, as diarrhœa (FLUX),
dysentery (BLOODY FLUX), English cholera (BILIOUS FLUX), fluor albus
(WHITE FLUX), &c. These terms are still current among the vulgar.

=Flux.= In metallurgy, &c., a term applied to various substances of easy
fusibility, which are added to others which are more refractory, to
promote their fusion.

_Prep._ 1. (BLACK FLUX.) Nitre, 1 part; crude tartar or cream of tartar, 2
parts; mix, and deflagrate, by small quantities at a time, in a crucible,
heated to dull redness. The product consists of carbonate of potassa,
mixed with charcoal in a finely divided state. Used for smelting metallic
ores. It exercises a reducing action, as well as promotes the fusion. It
must be kept in a dry corked bottle.

2. (CHRISTISON’S FLUX.) Carbonate of soda (cryst.), 8 parts; charcoal (in
fine powder), 1 part; heat the mixture gradually to redness. For reducing
arsenic.

3. (CORNISH REDUCING FLUX.) Crude tartar, 10 parts; nitre, 4 parts; borax,
3 parts; triturate together.

4. (CORNISH REFINING FLUX, WHITE FLUX.) Crude tartar and nitre, equal
parts, deflagrated together. See BLACK FLUX.

5. (CRUDE FLUX.) Same as BLACK FLUX, omitting the deflagration. Reducing.

6. (FRESENIUS’S FLUX.) Carbonate of potassa (dry), 3 parts; cyanide of
potassium, 1 part. For the arsenical compounds.

7. (LIEBIG’S FLUX.) Carbonate of soda (dry) and cyanide of potassium,
equal parts. As the last. See ARSENIOUS ACID.

8. (MORVEAU’S REDUCING FLUX.) Powdered glass (free from lead), 8 parts;
calcined borax and charcoal, of each, 1 part; all in fine powder, and
triturated well together. Used as BLACK FLUX.

9. (WHITE FLUX.) See _above_.

10. (FLUXES FOR ENAMELS.) See ENAMELS.

11. (Various.) Borax, tartar, nitre, sal-ammoniac, common salt, limestone,
glass, fluor spar, and several other substances, are used as fluxes in
_metallurgy_.

_Obs._ On the large scale, crude tartar is employed in the preparation of
fluxes; on the small scale, commercial cream of tartar or bitartrate of
potassa.

=FLY.= The common house-fly (_Musca domestica_) causes considerable
annoyance to the person in hot weather, as well as damage to handsome
furniture, especially to picture frames, gilding, and the like. The best
way to exterminate them is to expose on a plate one or other of the
mixtures given under FLY POISON (_below_). The blow-fly (_Musca
vomitoria_), and other insects, may be kept from attacking meat by dusting
it over with black pepper, powdered ginger, or any other spice, or by
skewering a piece of paper to it on which a drop or two of creasote has
been poured. The spices may be readily washed off with water before
dressing the meat.

It is a fact not generally known, that flies will not pass through a
netting made of fine silk, thread, or wire, even though the meshes may be
an inch apart, unless there is a window or light behind it. This affords
us a ready means of excluding these insects from all our apartments which
have windows only on one side of them, without keeping the latter closed.
It is merely necessary to have an ornamental netting stretched across the
opening, when, although flies may abound on the outside, none will venture
into the room so protected. If, however, there is a window on the other
side of the room, they will fly through the netting immediately. See
_below_.

=Fly-blow in Sheep.= Oil of turpentine, 3 oz.; oil of amber, 1 oz.;
corrosive sublimate, 1 dr. The sublimate must be first dissolved in a pint
of whey, and then mixed with the oils.

=Fly Papers.= Those papers which, a few years ago, were sold about the
streets of London by harsh-voiced cries of “Catch ′em alive-oh!” and which
might be seen in many shop-windows covered with dead and dying flies, were
prepared by rubbing factitious birdlime over sheets of paper. It would be
difficult to conceive a more cruel or more offensive mode of catching
flies than that of glueing their living bodies to an adhesive surface. A
preferable kind of fly-paper is that called ‘PAPIER MOURE,’ which contains
a large quantity of arsenic in its substance.[317] This paper is kept wet
when in use, and the flies, by sipping the moisture, are poisoned.

[Footnote 317: Mr Plowman, in a letter to the ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ June 22nd,
1878, says that in a specimen of “Papier Moure” examined by him he failed
to detect the least trace of arsenic.]

=Fly Poison.= _Prep._ 1. A strong solution of white arsenic (say 1 dr. to
the pint), sweetened with moist sugar, treacle, or honey. Sold under the
name of ‘FLY WATER,’

2. Treacle, honey, or moist sugar, mixed with about 1/12th their weight of
King’s yellow or orpiment.

_Obs._ Both the above are dangerous preparations, and should never be
employed where there are children.

3. (Redwood.) Quassia chips (small), 1/4 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil 10
minutes, strain, and add of treacle, 4 oz. “Flies will drink this with
avidity, and are soon destroyed by it.”

4. Black pepper, 1 teaspoonful; brown sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; cream, 4
teaspoonfuls. See _below_.

=Fly Powder.= The dark grey-coloured powder (so-called ‘sub-oxide’)
obtained by the free exposure of metallic arsenic to the air. Mixed with
sweets, it is used to kill flies.

=Fly Water.= See FLY POISON (_above_).

=FOG.= The influence of very intense foggy weather upon the death-rate is
well illustrated by a reference to the Registrar-General’s returns for
1873. From the 8th to the 12th of December of that year an unprecedently
thick fog prevailed in London. The mortality in the metropolis for the
week ending December 6th was twenty-three persons per thousand; in the
week following, during which the fog occurred, the death-rate rose to
twenty-seven; and in the week after that, when the full effects of the fog
could be estimated, the deaths were found to be thirty-eight in the
thousand. In the same periods the deaths from phthisis and diseases of the
respiratory organs were respectively 520, 764, and 1112. That this
increased death-rate was not the result of the inclement weather by which
the fog was accompanied is evidenced by the circumstance that in large
provincial towns, where the weather was equally severe, but in which no
fog occurred, the increase in the mortality, when compared to London, was
slight.

The mean of the deaths registered in London, in the two weeks ending
December 20th, showed an increase of 41 per cent. upon the number returned
in the first week of the month; whilst during the same date the deaths in
seventeen large English towns were only 8 per cent. This fatal fog
occurred during the London cattle-show week, and killed a great number of
the animals sent for exhibition.

In a specimen of the air of Manchester, obtained during the visitation of
that city by a very dense fog, Dr Angus Smith discovered it contained a
diminished amount of oxygen when compared with a favorable sample of air.

=FOILS.= These are thin leaves of polished metal, placed under precious
stones and pastes, to heighten their brilliancy, or to vary the effect.
Foils were formerly made of copper, tinned copper, tin, and silvered
copper, but the last is the one wholly used for superior work at the
present day.

Foils are of two descriptions:——white, for diamonds and mock diamonds,
and——coloured, for the coloured gems. The latter are prepared by
varnishing or lacquering the former. By their judicious use the colour of
a stone may often be modified and improved. Thus, by placing a yellow foil
under a green stone that turns too much on the blue, or a red one under a
stone turning too much on the crimson, the hues will be brightened and
enriched in proportion.

_Prep._ 1. (CRYSTAL, DIAMOND, or WHITE FOIL.)——_a._ This is made by
coating a plate of copper with a layer of silver, and then rolling it into
sheets in the flatting mill. The foil is then highly polished, or covered
with crystal varnish.

_b._ The inside of the socket in which the stone or paste is to be set is
covered with tin foil, by means of a little stiff gum or size; when dry,
the surface is polished and the socket heated, and whilst it is warm,
filled with quicksilver; after repose for two or three minutes the fluid
metal is poured out, and the stone gently fitted in its place; lastly, the
work is well fitted round the stone, to prevent the alloy being shaken
out.

_c._ The bottom of the stone is coated with a film of real silver, by
precipitating it from a solution of the nitrate in spirit of ammonia, by
means of the oils of cassia and cloves.[318] This method vastly increases
the brilliancy both of real and factitious gems, and the work is very
permanent.

[Footnote 318: See SILVERING.]

2. (COLOURED FOILS.) The following formulæ produce beautiful coloured
effects, when judiciously employed:——

_a._ (Amethyst.) Lake and Prussian blue, finely ground in pale drying oil.

_b._ (Blue.) Prussian blue (preferably Turnbull’s), ground with pale,
quick-drying oil. Used to deepen the colour of sapphires.

_c._ (Eagle marine.) Verdigris tempered in shell-lac varnish (alcoholic),
with a little Prussian blue.

_d._ (Garnet.) Dragon’s blood dissolved in rectified spirit of wine.

_e._ (Vinegar garnet.) Orange lake finely tempered with shell-lac varnish.

_f._ (Green.)——α. From pale shell-lac, dissolved in alcohol (lacquer), and
tinged green by dissolving verdigris or acetate of copper in it.

β. From sesquiferrocyanide of iron and bichromate of potassa, of each 1/2
oz.; ground to an impalpable powder, first alone, and then with gum mastic
(clean and also in fine powder), 2 oz.; a little pyroxilic spirit is next
added, gradually, and the whole again ground until the mass becomes
homogeneous and of a fine transparent green. The beauty increases with the
length of the grinding. The predominance of the bichromate turns it on the
yellowish green; that of the salt of iron on the bluish green. For use it
is to be thinned with pyroxilic spirit. (‘Chem.,’ iii, 231.) Used for
emeralds.

_g._ (Red.) Carmine, dissolved in spirit of hartshorn, or in a weak
solution of salt of tartar, and a little gum (dissolved) added.

_h._ (Ruby.)——α. From lake or carmine, ground in isinglass.

β. Lake ground in shell-lac varnish. Both are used when the colour turns
on the purple.

γ. From bright lake ground in oil. Used when the colour turns on the
scarlet or orange.

_i._ (Yellow.)——α. Various shades of yellow may be produced by tinging a
weak alcoholic solution of shell-lac or mastic, by digesting turmeric,
annotta, saffron, or socotrine aloes in it. The former is the brightest,
and is used for topazes.

β. From hay saffron digested in 5 or 6 times its weight of boiling water
until the latter becomes sufficiently coloured, and a little solution of
gum or isinglass added to the filtered liquor. When dry, a coating of
spirit varnish is applied.

_Obs._ By the skilful use of the above varnishes, good imitations of the
gems may be cheaply made from transparent white glass or paste; and by
applying them to foils set under coloured pastes (FACTITIOUS GEMS), a
superior effect may be produced. The pigments employed must be reduced to
the finest state possible by patient grinding, as without this precaution
transparent and beautiful shades cannot be formed. The palest and cleanest
mastic and lac, dissolved in alcohol, and also the palest and quickest
drying oil should alone be used when these substances are ordered. In
every case the colour must be laid on the foil with a broad soft brush;
and the operation should be performed, if possible, at once, as no part
should be crossed, or twice gone over, whilst wet. If the colour turns out
too pale, a second coat may be given when the first one has become quite
dry, but this practice should be avoided if possible.

=FOMENTA′TION.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO, FOMENTUM, FOTUS, L. A liquid, either
simple or medicated, used for local bathing. Fomentations are
distinguished from lotions chiefly in being applied in a heated state, and
in larger quantities, and for a longer period at a time.

Fomentations are chiefly employed to allay pain or irritation, or to
promote suppuration or the healthy action of the parts. As the intention
is to convey heat, combined with moisture, to the part fomented, the
utmost care must be taken to manage the application so as to promote the
object in view as much as possible. Flannel cloths wrung out of the hot or
boiling liquid, by means of two sticks, turned in opposite directions,
form the best vehicles for fomentations. If they are shaken up, and laid
lightly over the part, they involve a considerable quantity of air, which,
being a bad conductor, retains the heat in them for a considerable time.
“In every process of fomenting there should be two flannels, each (say)
three yards long, with the ends sewed together, to admit of the boiling
water being wrung out of them; and the one flannel should be got ready
whilst the other is applied. The fineness or the coarseness of the flannel
is not a matter of indifference. The coarser it is the less readily does
it conduct heat, and the longer it retains its warmth; therefore it is
more efficient for fomenting. White flannel also retains the heat longer
than coloured flannel.” (Dr R. E. Griffith.) More harm than good is
frequently done by allowing the patient to become chilled during the
application. “If only one (flannel) is used, the skin becomes chilled
during the time occupied in removing the flannel, soaking it in the water,
wringing it out, and reapplying it; but if two are used, one of them is
ready, and can be applied the moment the other is taken off, by which
means the part is never exposed to the air, no matter how long the
fomentation is continued. In some diseases (rheumatism, peritonitis, &c.),
the patient is scarcely conscious of a degree of heat which scalds the
nurse’s hands. In this case the fomenting flannels should be put in a
towel, by which means they may be wrung out without being handled by the
nurse, and may be applied far hotter than can be done by any other
method.” (Dr J. B. Nevins.)

The quantity of liquid forming a fomentation, as well as the size of the
cloths employed, must entirely depend upon circumstances. In some cases
(as in slight affections of the face, &c.) the application may be
effectually made by holding the part in the steam of the hot liquid, and
bathing it continually by means of a sponge or cloth. In some instances
1/2 pint to a pint of liquid may be found a sufficient quantity; whilst in
others several quarts will be required. Under all circumstances, care must
be taken to keep the fomentation as near as possible at the temperature
ordered, during the whole time of its application; and, as soon as the
operation is finished, to quickly wipe the part dry, and to cover it with
ample clothing, in order that the reaction set up may not be prematurely
checked.

Fomentations usually consist of simple water, or the decoction of some
simple vegetable substance, as chamomiles, elder flowers or mallows; but,
occasionally, the leaves and flowers of aromatic and narcotic plants, and
saline matter, are employed under this form. The following formulæ are
given as examples:——

=Fomentation, Acetic.= _Syn._ FOTUS ACETICUS (Paris Codex). Fomentations
of vinegar are sometimes prepared with white, with rose, or with aromatic
vinegar (Paris Codex) in the proportion of one of vinegar to four of
water.

=Fomentation, An′odyne.= _Syn._ FOTUS ANODYNUS, FOMENTATIO ANODYNA,
FOMENTUM ANODYNUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Simple decoction of poppy-heads.

2. (Hosp. F.) Poppy-heads (without the seeds), 1-1/2 oz.; water, 3-1/2
pints; boil to 2-1/2 pints; add of elder flowers, 3/4 oz.; boil to a quart
and strain. Used to allay pain.

3. (Pierquin.) Opium, 1 oz.; wine, 1 quart; boil to a pint and strain.
Used in severe gouty, rheumatic, neuralgic, and syphilitic pains.

4. Opium, 1 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to 3/4 pint, add pyroligneous acid,
2 fl. oz.; boil for 10 minutes longer, then further add of sherry wine,
3/4 pint; and as soon as the whole again boils, strain it for use.
Superior to the last, and cheaper.

=Fomentation, Antineural′gic.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO ANTINEURALGICA, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Mialhe.) Acetate of morphia, 2 gr.; acetic acid, 2 or 3 drops;
eau de Cologne, 2 or 3 dr.; dissolve. In facial neuralgia.

2. (Trousseau and Reveil.) Cyanide of potassium, 1 dr.; distilled water, 6
fl. oz.; dissolve and keep it in a well-closed bottle in the dark. Used in
neuralgia, especially in that of the face (tic douloureux). A compress of
lint or soft linen is dipped in it and applied to the part. It must not be
used internally or applied to a wounded surface, as it is very poisonous.
See FOMENTATIONS, ANODYNE, Nos. 3 and 4 (above), also FOMENTATION,
STIMULANT.

=Fomentation, Antiseptic.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO ANTISEPTICA, L. _Prep._ 1.
Decoction of mallows, 4 pints; sal ammoniac, 2 oz.; dissolve, and add of
disulphate of quinine, 20 gr., dissolved in camphorated spirit, 4 fl. oz.

2. (Hosp. F.) Decoction of bark, 1 quart; infusion of chamomile, 1 pint;
camphorated spirit, 2 fl. oz.; hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. dr. Both are used
when there is a tendency to gangrene or putrescence.

=Fomentation of Ar′nica.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO ARNICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Flowers
of arnica, 1 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil to a quart, and strain. Used in
contusions.

2. (Graefe.) Flowers of arnica, 2 oz.; rue (leaves), 1 oz.; boiling water,
q. s. to strain 12 fl. oz. of infusion after an hour’s maceration at
nearly the boiling temperature. Used in contusions and extravasations,
especially as an application to black eyes.

3. (Radius.) Flowers of arnica, 1/2 oz.; boiling vinegar, q. s. to strain
6 fl. oz. of infusion, in which dissolve of carbonate of ammonia, 2 dr.
Used in œdema of the scrotum.

=Fomentation, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO AROMATICA, FOTUS AROMATICUS,
L. _Prep._ 1. Sea wormwood, southernwood, and chamomiles, of each 1 oz.;
laurel leaves, 1/2 oz.; water 5 pints; boil to half gall., and strain. In
rheumatism, cutaneous affections, colic, &c.

2. (Augustin.) Rosemary, 1/2 oz.; red wine, and water, of each 3 fl. oz.;
infuse and strain with expression. In contusions, especially black eyes.

3. (Hosp. F.) Cloves and mace, of each 1 oz.; opium, 20 gr.; red wine
(boiling), 1 pint; digest at near boiling for 1 hour, and strain. Used as
both the last.

4. (Rideau.) Bay leaves, rosemary, southernwood, and wormwood, of each 1
oz.; water, 2 quarts; boil 5 minutes, and strain. As No. 1.

=Fomentation, Astrin′gent.= _Syn._ FOTUS ASTRINGENS, F. ROBORANS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Decoction of oak bark.

2. To each quart of the last add of alum 1 dr.

3. (Ph. Chirur.) Bruised galls, 1 oz.; boiling water, 2-1/2 pints; digest
1 hour, and strain.

4. (Ricord.) Tannin, 2-1/2 dr.; aromatic wine (hot), 1/2 pint; dissolve.

5. Bistort and pomegranate peel, of each 2 oz.; sal ammonia, 1/4 oz.; red
wine, 1 pint.; infuse at a gentle heat. The above are used in hæmorrhages,
piles, prolapsus, &c.

=Fomentation of Belladon′na.= _Syn._ FOTUS BELLADONNÆ, L. _Prep._
(Ophthalmic Hosp.) Extract of belladonna, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint.
Used to dilate the pupil in certain affections of the eye; it is usually
applied on the forehead.

=Fomentation of Bitter-sweet.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM DULCAMARÆ, L. _Prep._
Bitter-sweet stalks, 10 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and
strain.

=Fomentation of Cham′omile.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO ANTHEMIDIS, L. _Prep._
Chamomiles, 2 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil 10 minutes, and strain with
expression. Emollient.

=Fomentation, Com′mon.= _Syn._ FOTUS COMMUNIS. (L. 1744.) _Prep._ Dried
southernwood, sea wormwood, chamomile, of each 1 oz.; dried bay leaves,
1/2 oz.; water, 5 pints; boil slightly, and strain.

=Fomentation, Compound of Hemlock.= (Guy’s Hosp.) _Syn._ FOMENTUM CONII
COMPOSITUM. _Prep._ Dried hemlock, 2 oz.; dried chamomiles, 1/2 oz.;
boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; macerate for 2 hours, strain, and press.

=Fomentation, Diuret′ic.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO DIURETICA, L. _Prep._
(Trousseau.) Tinctures of squills and foxglove, of each 2 oz.; hot water,
6 fluid oz.; mix. Applied by lint or linen compresses to the insides of
the thighs, in dropsies, when the stomach will not bear diuretics.

=Fomentation of El′der Flowers.= _Syn._ FOTUS SAMBUCI, L. _Prep._ From
elder flowers, 1 oz.; boiling water, 2 quarts; digest in a hot place for 1
hour, and express the liquor. Emollient.

=Fomentation, Emol′lient.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO EMOLLIENS. L. _Prep._ 1.
Marshmallow root and poppy heads, of each 1 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil to a
quart, and strain.

2. (P. Cod.) Emollient herbs, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1 quart; infuse 1
hour, and strain with expression. (See _above_.)

=Fomentation, Foxglove.= _Syn._ FOMENTUM DIGITALIS. Dried foxglove, 1 oz.;
boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; infuse, and strain.

=Fomentation of Galls.= _Syn_ FOMENTUM GALLÆ. _Prep._ Bruised galls, 1/2
oz.; boiling water, 2 lbs.; macerate for an hour and strain.

=Fomentation, Narcot′ic.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO NARCOTICA, L. _Prep._ (P.
Cod.) Narcotic herbs, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; infuse as last.

=Fomentation, Poppy.= _Syn._ FOMENTUM PAPAVERIS. As DECOCTION OF POPPIES.

=Fomentation, Resol′vent.= _Syn._ FOTUS RESOLVENS, L. _Prep._ (Richard.)
Fomentation of elder flowers, 8 fl. oz.; liquor of diacetate of lead, 1/2
fl. dr.; mix. Used to discuss tumours, &c.

=Fomentation, Stim′ulant.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO STIMULANS, L. _Prep._ 1.
Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1 oz.; tincture of cantharides, 2 fl. oz.;
warm water, 1 pint.

2. Household mustard, 4 oz.; hot water, 1-1/2 pint; mix. Both the above
are rubefacient and counter-irritant, and excellent in rheumatism,
neuralgia, &c.

=Fomentation, Tannin.= _Syn._ FOMENTUM TANNINI. (Ricord.) _Prep._ Tannin,
2 dr.; aromatic wine, 8 oz.

=Fomentation, Ver′mifuge.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO VERMIFUGA, FOTUS
ANTHELMINTICUS, L. _Prep._ Leaves and flowers of tansy, wormwood, and
chamomile, of each 3 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to 1-1/2 pint, and strain.
Applied to the abdomen, &c., in worms.

=Fomentation, Wine.= _Syn._ FOTUS VINOSUS (Par. Cod.) _Prep._ Red wine, 2
pints; honey 4 oz.

=FOOD.= _Syn._ CIBUS, MATERIA ALIMENTARIA, L. Anything which feeds or
promotes the natural growth of organic bodies, by supplying them with
materials which, by assimilation, may be converted into the substances of
which they are composed; or which, by its decomposition or slow
combustion, maintains the temperature, or some other essential condition
of life, at the proper standard. The numerous articles employed as food
are all compounds; and in many cases they consist of mechanical mixtures
or chemical combinations of two or more compounds. Organized matter, or
that which has possessed either animal or vegetable life, or which has
been produced by living organs, seems to be alone capable of assimilation,
to any extent, by the animal system; and hence it is from the organic
kingdom that our aliments are necessarily derived. Water, iron, earthy
phosphates, chloride of sodium, and other salts, which form the inorganic
constituents of the body, though not of themselves nourishing, are also
assimilated when taken in conjunction with organic aliments, and then
contribute essentially to nutrition. In the animal and vegetable
substances employed as food, these inorganic compounds are provided in
small but sufficient quantities to meet the requirements of the healthy
body, and in this state of combination alone can they be regarded in the
light of aliments. A complete consideration of this subject embraces, not
only all the substances used as food, but also those things which when
taken with them improve their flavour, promote their digestion, and render
them more wholesome and nutritive; and also their preparation for the
table in its various relations with health and disease.

The following ‘BILLS OF FARE,’ for which we are indebted chiefly to Soyer,
Rundell, and others, exhibit the various articles in season at different
periods of the year.

FIRST QUARTER. January.——Poultry and game: Pheasants, partridges, hares,
rabbits, woodcocks, snipes, turkeys, capons, pullets, fowls, chickens, and
tame pigeons.——Fish: Carp, tench, perch, lampreys, eels, cray-fish, cod,
soles, flounders, plaice, turbot, thornback, skate, sturgeon, smelts,
whitings, lobsters, crabs, prawns, and oysters.——Vegetables: Cabbage,
savoys, colewort, sprouts, leeks, onions, beet, sorrel, chervil, endive,
spinach, celery, garlic, scorzonera, potatoes, parsnips, turnips, brocoli
(white and purple), shalots, lettuces, cresses, mustard, rape, salsafy,
and herbs of all sorts (some dry and some green); cucumbers, asparagus,
and mushrooms are also to be had, though not in season.——Fruit: Apples,
pears, nuts, walnuts, medlars, and grapes.

February and March.——Meat, fowls, and game, as in January, with the
addition of ducklings and chickens.——Fish: As the last two months (cod is
not thought so good from February to July, although it is still sold at
the fishmonger’s).——Vegetables: The same as the previous months, with the
addition of kidney-beans.——Fruit: Apples, pears, and forced strawberries.

SECOND QUARTER. April, May, and June.——Meat: Beef, mutton, veal, lamb, and
venison (in June).——Poultry: Pullets, fowls, chickens, ducklings, pigeons,
rabbits, and leverets.——Fish: Carp, tench, soles, smelts, eels, trout,
turbot, lobsters, chub, salmon, herrings, cray-fish, mackerel, crabs,
prawns, and shrimps.——Vegetables: As before; and in May, early potatoes
and cabbages, peas, radishes, kidney-beans, carrots, turnips,
cauliflowers, asparagus, artichokes, and numerous salads (forced).——Fruit:
(in June) strawberries, cherries, melons, green apricots, and currants and
gooseberries for tarts; pears, grapes, nectarines, peaches, and some other
fruit.

THIRD QUARTER. July, August, and September.——Meat, as before.——Poultry,
&c.: Pullets, fowls, chickens, rabbits, pigeons, green geese, leverets,
and turkey poults. Two former months, plovers and wheat-ears (in
September), partridges, geese, &c.——Fish: Cod, haddocks, flounders,
plaice, skate, thornback, mullets, pike, carp, eels, shellfish (except
oysters), and mackerel (during the first two months of the quarter, but
they are not good in August).——Vegetables: Of all sorts, beans, peas,
French beans, &c.——Fruit: (In July)——Strawberries, gooseberries,
pine-apples, plums (various), cherries, apricots, raspberries, melons,
currants, and damsons. (In August and September)——Peaches, plums, figs,
filberts, mulberries, cherries, apples, pears, nectarines, and grapes.
(During the latter months)——Pines, melons, strawberries, medlars, and
quinces. (In September)——Morella cherries, damsons, and various plums.

FOURTH QUARTER. October, November, and December.——Meat, as before, and doe
venison.——Poultry and Game: Domestic fowls, as in first quarter; pheasants
(from the 1st of October); partridges, larks, hares, dotterels (at the end
of the month), wild-ducks, teal, snipes, widgeon, and grouse.——Fish:
Dories, smelts, pike, perch, halibuts, brills, carp, salmon-trout, barbel,
gudgeons, tench, and shellfish.——Vegetables: (As in January),
French-beans, last crops of beans, &c.——Fruit: Peaches, pears, figs,
bullace, grapes, apples, medlars, damsons, filberts, walnuts, nuts,
quinces, services, and medlars. (In November)——Meat, &c.: Beef, mutton,
veal, pork, house-lamb, doe venison, and poultry and game as in the last
month.——Fish: As the last month.——Vegetables: Carrots, turnips, parsnips,
potatoes, skirrets, scorzonera, onions, leeks, shalots, cabbage, savoys,
colewort, spinach, chardbeats, chardoons, cresses, endive, celery,
lettuces, salad-herbs, and various pot-herbs.——Fruit: Pears, apples, nuts,
walnuts, bullace, chestnuts, medlars, and grapes. (In December)——Meat,
&c.: Beef, mutton, veal, house-lamb, pork, and venison.——Poultry and Game:
Geese, turkeys, pullets, pigeons, capons, fowls, chickens, rabbits, hares,
snipes, woodcocks, larks, pheasants, partridges, sea-fowls, guinea-fowls,
wild ducks, teal, widgeon, dotterels, dun-birds, and grouse.——Fish: Cod,
turbot, halibuts, soles, gurnets, sturgeon, carp, gudgeons, codlings,
eels, dories, and shell-fish.——Vegetables: As in last month. Asparagus,
&c., forced.——Fruit: As before, except bullace.

=Food, Inspection of.= The Public Health Act enacts that——

“Any medical officer of health or inspector of nuisances may at all
_reasonable times_, inspect and examine any animal, carcase, meat,
poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk
exposed for sale, or deposited in any place for the purpose of sale, or of
preparation for sale, and intended for the food of man, the proof that the
same was not exposed or deposited for any such purpose, or was not
intended for the food of man, resting with the party charged; and if any
such animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables,
corn, bread, flour, or milk, appears to such medical officer or inspector
to be diseased, or unsound, or unwholesome, or unfit for the food of man,
he may seize and carry away the same himself or by an assistant, in order
to have the same dealt with by a justice.” (P. H., s. 116.)

“If it appears to the justice that any animal, carcase, meat, poultry,
game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk so
seized is diseased, or unsound, or unwholesome, or unfit for the food of
man, he shall condemn the same and order it to be destroyed, or so
disposed of, as to prevent it from being exposed for sale, or used for
such food; and the person to whom the same belongs or did belong at the
time of sale, or of exposure for sale, or in whose possession, or on whose
premises the same was found, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding
£20 for every animal, carcase, or fish, or piece of meat, flesh, or fish,
or any poultry or game, or for the parcel of fruit, vegetables, corn,
bread, or flour, or for the milk so condemned, or at the discretion of the
justice, without the infliction of a fine, to imprisonment for a term of
not more than _three months_.

“The justice who, under this section, is empowered to convict the
offender, may be either the justice who may have ordered the article to be
disposed of or destroyed, or any other justice having jurisdiction in the
place.” (P. H., s. 117.)

“Any person who in any manner prevents any medical officer of health or
inspector of nuisances from entering any premises and inspecting any
animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables,
corn, bread, flour, or milk exposed or deposited for the purpose of sale,
or of preparation for sale, and intended for the food of man, or who
obstructs or impedes any such officer or inspector, or his assistant, when
carrying into execution the provisions of this Act, shall be liable to a
penalty, not exceeding £5.” (P. H., s. 118.)

“Any complaint made on oath, by a medical officer of health, or by an
inspector, or other officer of a local authority, any justice may grant a
warrant to any such officer, to enter any building, or part of a building
in which any such officer has reason for believing that there is kept or
concealed any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit,
vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk which is intended for sale for the
food of man, and is diseased, unsound or unwholesome, or unfit for the
food of man and to search for, seize, and carry away any such animal, or
other article, in order to have the same dealt with by a justice under the
provisions of this Act.

Any person who obstructs any such officer in the performance of his duty,
under such warrant shall, in addition to any other punishment to which he
may be subject, be liable to a penalty not exceeding £20.” (P. H., s.
119.)

=FOOL.= Cooks give this name to a species of jam made of boiled and
crushed fruit, mixed with milk or cream, and sweetened.

=Fool, Ap′ple.= From the peeled and cored fruit, placed in a jar, with
moist sugar, q. s. to render it palatable, and a very little cider or
perry; the jar is set in a saucepan of water over the fire, and the heat
continued until the apples become quite soft, when they are pulped through
a colander, and a sufficient quantity of milk, a little cream, and some
sugar, added to bring them to the proper ‘palate.’

=Fool, Goose′berry.= From gooseberries, as the last. Those which are
unripe are generally preferred. These preparations, when nicely made, are
very pleasant and wholesome.

=FOOT (Human).= See FEET.

=FOOTS.= Coarse moist sugar. The scrapings of the sugar hogsheads, refuse
sugar, waste, and dirt, is also sold to the publicans under this name, who
use it in the adulteration of their beer; chiefly to make it stand more
water, and to impart ‘briskness.’

=FORCE′MEAT.= _Syn._ FARCE, STUFFING. A species of sausage meat, either
served up alone, or employed as an ingredient in other dishes.

Mrs Rundell truly remarks that “at many tables, where everything else is
done well, it is common to find very bad forcemeat or stuffing.” To avoid
this error, care should be taken to so proportion the ingredients that “no
one flavour should predominate; yet if several dishes be served the same
day, there should be a marked variety in the tastes of the forcemeats as
well as of the gravies. A general fault is, that the tastes of lemon peel
and thyme overcome all others; therefore they should only be used in small
quantities.” Forcemeats should be just consistent enough to cut with a
knife, but not dry and heavy. Herbs are very essential ingredients; and it
is the copious and judicious use of them that chiefly gives the cookery of
the French its superior flavour. “To force fowls, meat, &c., is to stuff
them.” (Mrs Rundell.)

=FOR′CING.= Horticulturists apply this term to the art of accelerating the
growth of plants, so as to obtain fruits or flowers at unusual seasons.
Dung-beds, bark-beds, and frames, pits, and houses, with glass roofs, are
commonly employed by the gardeners for this purpose.

=FORGERIES, PROTECTION FROM.= See PAPER, PROTECTIVE.

=FORMATE.= _Syn._ FORMIATE. Salts, in which one atom of hydrogen in formic
acid is replaced by a metal or other basic radical. They are best obtained
either by direct saturation of the acid, or by double decomposition; most
of them are very soluble, and are decomposed by hot oil of vitriol.
Formate of ammonium crystallises in square prisms; formate of sodium, in
rhombic prisms; formate of potassium is deliquescent, and crystallises
with difficulty; the formates of barium, calcium, magnesium, and
strontium, form small prismatic crystals; formate of lead assumes the
shape of small colourless needles, soluble in 40 parts of water; the
formates of cobalt, iron, manganese, nickel, and zinc, are easily
crystallisable, whilst that of copper forms very beautiful, large,
bright-blue rhombic prisms; formate of silver is less soluble than the
salt of lead, and is decomposed at a gentle heat.

=FORMIC ACID.= HCHO_{2}. _Syn._ HYDROGEN FORMIATE. An organic acid,
obtained by oxidizing many organic substances, and found in the red ant.

_Prep._ Sugar, 1 part; water, 2 parts; binoxide of manganese, 3 parts; mix
in a retort capable of holding fully 10 times the bulk of the ingredients,
and add, cautiously, oil of vitriol, 3 parts, diluted with an equal weight
of water; as soon as the first violent effervescence has subsided, heat
may be applied, and the product collected and purified, as below.

Formate of lead in fine powder is introduced into a long glass tube, one
end of which is connected with an apparatus evolving sulphuretted
hydrogen, and the other with a receiver. As soon as the salt is entirely
decomposed (blackened) a very gentle heat is applied, and the distilled
liquid collected; the product is, lastly, boiled for a minute or less, to
expel any adhering sulphuretted gas. This furnishes chemically pure formic
acid.

From wood spirit, 1 part; bichromate of potassium and sulphuric acid, of
each 3 parts; the sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal weight of water,
being gradually added last. A portion of wood spirit distils over with the
acid, and may be again treated with bichromate of potassium and sulphuric
acid, when a fresh portion of formic acid will be produced. This process
yields a large product.

_Prop., purific., &c._ The products of the above processes are limpid and
colourless; the stronger ones fume slightly in the air, and possess an
extremely penetrating odour. The acid obtained by the second process boils
at 209° Fahr., crystallises in brilliant scales below 32°, and has the sp.
gr. 1·2353. Its vapour is inflammable, and burns with a blue flame. It is
extremely corrosive, and rapidly destroys the texture of living organic
substances. The products of the other processes are very dilute, and
possess the above properties in only a minor degree. They may all be
purified and concentrated by saturating them with pure carbonate of sodium
or of potassium, and after subjecting the liquid to a gentle heat for a
short time, and liberating the formic acid from the salt by means of
dilute sulphuric acid, finally submitting the mixture to distillation,
when the hydrated acid will come over perfectly pure.

Formic acid reduces the salts of mercury and silver, and forms salts with
the bases termed formiates.

Formic acid is readily distinguished from acetic acid, which in many
points it resembles, by heating it with a little solution of oxide of
silver or mercury; the metal is reduced, and precipitated in a pulverulent
state, while carbonic acid is extricated. The odours of the two acids also
vary.

=FORMICA.= _Syn._ THE ANT. The following are the principal species of the
genus _Formica_. _F. flava_, the yellow ant. Many careful observers say
this species keeps in its nest the _Aphis radicans_, which when its
abdomen is touched by the ant, excretes a saccharine substance on which
the ants feed. _F. rufa_, or large red ant, _F. fusca_; or brown ant,
_Polyergus rufescens_, and _F. sanguinea_. These two latter are sometimes
called amazon ants, from their pugilistic propensities. They have been
known to make regular raids against other species of ants, and to carry
off their larvæ and pupæ to their own nests, where they rear the insects
that come of them, and afterwards employ them as slaves, causing them to
excavate passages, to collect food, to carry larvæ and (so dependent do
the masters become on the exertions of their bondsman) even to feed them;
it being a well-attested fact that the slave holders would starve if left
to themselves. See ANT.

=FORMOBENZOIC ACID.= (HC_{7}H_{6}O,CHO_{2}). _Syn._ FORMIATE OF HYDRIDE OF
BENZOYLE. MANDELIC ACID. When the distilled water of bitter almonds
(containing hydrocyanic acid and the essential oil) is boiled with
hydrochloric acid, a curious reaction occurs; the hydrocyanic acid is
decomposed——into ammonia which unites with the hydrochloric acid, and
formic acid which enters into combination with the oil of
almonds——producing a new body possessed of acid properties, and termed
_Formobenzoic acid_. On evaporating the solution the acid may be obtained
in mixture with ammonia hydrochlorate, from which it may be separated by
ether; the ethereal solution deposits it in rhomboidal tables. It has a
sour taste and is easily soluble in alcohol. When heated it fuses at a low
temperature, emitting an agreeable odour of hawthorn blossoms. (Miller.)

=FORM′ULA.= [L.] In _pharmacy_ and _medicine_, a short form of
prescription; a recipe. By chemists the term is applied to a grouping of
symbols, expressing the composition of a body; thus, HCl (standing for 1
atom of hydrogen united to 1 atom of chlorine) is the formula for
hydrochloric acid. A chemical formula is termed empirical when it merely
gives the simplest possible expression of the composition of the substance
to which it refers. A rational formula, on the contrary, aims at
describing the exact composition of molecule, or combining weight of the
substance, but stating the absolute number of atoms of such of the
elements essential to that object, as well as the mere relations existing
between them. The empirical formula is at once deduced from the analysis
of the substance, reckoned to 100 parts; the rational formula requires, in
addition, a knowledge of its combining quantity, which can only be
obtained by direct experiment, by synthesis, or by the careful examination
of one or more of its most definite compounds. Thus, the composition of
acetic acid is expressed by the formula CH_{2}O, which exhibits the
simplest relations of the three elements; if we want to express the
quantities of these, in atoms required to make up one molecule of acetic
acid, we have to adopt the formula C_{2}H_{4}O_{2} or HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}.

=FOR′MYL.= _Syn._ FORMYLE. A hypothetical organic radical, having the
composition C_{2}H. Its existence was inferred from the constitution of
certain organic compounds which are now referred to the methyl-series.
Formic acid was supposed to be an oxide of formyl; and chloroform, the
terchloride of formyl.

=FOXGLOVE.= _Syn._ DIGITALIS (B. P.), L. A genus of plants belonging to
the natural order _Scrophulariacæ_. The leaves of the uncultivated
‘_Digitalis purpurea_,’ or purple foxglove, are officinal in our
pharmacopœias. They must be gathered before the terminal flowers have
expanded. “The petiole and midrib of the leaf being cut off, dry the
lamina.” (Phar. L.) The seeds (DIGITALIS SEMINA), which were ordered, as
well as the leaves, in former pharmacopœias, are said to be in many points
preferable to them. When good, the leaves are of a dull-green colour, and
possess a feeble narcotic odour, and a bitter, unpleasant taste. Both the
dried leaves and the powder should be preserved in corked bottles covered
with dark-coloured paper, or in well-closed tin canisters, and kept in a
dark cupboard; and the stock should be renewed yearly, as age considerably
diminishes the medicinal activity of digitalis.

_Action, uses, &c._ Foxglove is diuretic, sedative, and antispasmodic, and
exerts a specific action over the cerebro-spinal system, promoting the
functions of the absorbents, and reducing the force of the circulation in
a remarkable manner. It is administered in fevers and inflammations, to
reduce the frequency of the pulse, and to allay excessive vascular
excitement; in dropsy (unless the habit is full and pulse tight and
cordy), as a diuretic, either alone, or combined with squills, calomel,
salines, or bitters; in internal hæmorrhages, as a sedative, when the
pulse is full, hard, and throbbing; in diseases of the heart and great
vessels, and in phthisis, to reduce the force and velocity of the
circulation; in epilepsy and insanity, to repress vascular excitement; and
in spasmodic asthma, scrofula, and several other diseases, with one or
other of the above intentions.

The greatest caution is required in the use of foxglove, as its effects
accumulate in the system, and the unwary practitioner is occasionally
surprised at the sudden demise of his patient, even after he has left off
the use of this drug.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 1-1/2 gr., in powder, every 6
hours. See EXTRACT, INFUSION, TINCTURE, &c.

=FOX′ING.= See MALT LIQUORS.

=FRACT′URE.= _Syn._ FRACTURA, L. The breaking or disrupture of a bone.
When the bone is nearly divided into two parts, it is called a SIMPLE
FRACTURE; when the integuments are also lacerated, a COMPOUND FRACTURE;
and when the bone is splintered, a COMMINUTED FRACTURE.

=FRAGRANT PAIN-CURER= (Five-minute). Dr Walter Scott, New York. A remedy
to remove all kinds of pain in five minutes. A clear colourless fluid
containing ether, 6 grammes; glycerin, 21 grammes; common salt, 3·4
grammes; distilled water, 170 grammes. (Hager.)

=FRANK′INCENSE.= _Syn._ COMMON FRANKINCENSE; THUS (Ph. L.), L. The
turpentine which exudes from the bark of _Abies excelsa_ (Norway spruce
fir) and _Pinus palustris_ (pitch or swamp pine), hardened by the air.
(Ph. L.) The gum-resin olibanum, which is the produce of the _Boswellia
thurifera_, is the ‘odorous frankincense’ of commerce.

=Prepared Frankincense.= _Syn._ THUS PRÆPARATUM (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph.
L.) Frankincense, 1 lb.; water, q. s. to cover it; boil until the resin is
melted, and strain through a hair sieve; when the whole has cooled, pour
off the water, and keep the frankincense for use. Resembles common resin
in its general properties.

=FRAX′ININ.= _Syn._ FRAXIN; FRAXINA, L. A peculiar bitter, neutral, and
crystallisable substance, soluble in boiling water, extracted from the
bark of _Fraxinus excelsior_, or common ash. It is febrifuge.

=FREC′KLES.= These are round or oval-shaped yellowish spots, similar to
stains, developed on the skin. There are two varieties——FRECKLES, or
SUMMER FRECKLES, resulting from the action of the sun and heat during the
summer season, and disappearing with the hot weather or exposure;
and——COLD FRECKLES, which occur at all times of the year. The former are
chiefly confined to persons of fair complexion, whilst the latter attack
persons of all complexions indifferently, and sometimes assume a lively
yellow or greenish colour.

_Treatment._ Common freckles may generally be removed by the frequent
application of dilute spirits, acids or alkaline solutions; the last two
just strong enough to prick the tongue. Cold freckles commonly occur from
disordered health, or some general disturbance of the system, to which
attention should be chiefly directed. In both varieties the solution of
bichloride of mercury (Ph. L.), or Gowland’s lotion, will be found a most
useful external application. See _below_.

=Freckles, Lotion for.= _Prep._ 1. Bichloride of mercury, 5 gr.;
hydrochloric acid, 30 drops; lump sugar, 1 oz.; rectified spirit of wine,
2 oz.; rose water, 7 oz.; agitate together until the whole is dissolved.

2. Petals or leaves of red roses, 1 oz.; hot water, 12 fl. oz.; infuse an
hour, and strain, with expression, 1/2 pint; add of citric acid, 30 gr.;
dissolve, and in a few hours, decant and clear.

3. Rose leaves (dried), 1/4 oz.; lemon juice (freshly expressed) and rum
or brandy, of each 1/4 pint; digest 24 hours, and squeeze out the liquor
for use.

4. (Kittoe’s.) Sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; spring water, 1 pint; lavender water
or eau de Cologne, 1/4 oz; mix. The above are applied with the fingers
night and morning, or oftener.

=Freckles, Pomade for.= _Prep._ 1. Citrine ointment, 1 dr.; simple
ointment, 7 dr.; otto of roses, 3 drops.

2. Elder flower ointment, 1 oz.; sulphate of zinc (levigated), 20 gr.; mix
by porphyrization, or by trituration in a wedgwood-ware mortar. Both the
above, applied night and morning, are excellent for either cold or summer
freckles.

=FREEZ′ING MIXTURES.= See ICE and REFRIGERATION.

FRENCH BER′RIES. _Syn._ PERSIAN BERRIES, AVIGNON B.; GRAINES D’AVIGNON,
Fr. The unripe berries or fruit of the _Rhamnus infectorius_. They are
imported from France and Persia; those from the latter country being
esteemed the best. Some writers state that the Persian berries are the
product of a distinct species, namely, _R. amygdalinus_. They are chiefly
used for dyeing morocco leather yellow. Their decoction dyes cloth,
previously mordanted with alum, tartar, or protochloride of tin, of a
yellow colour; with sulphate of copper, an olive; and with red sulphate of
iron, an olive-green colour.

=FRENCH POL′ISH.= Several varnishes are used under this name. That most
generally employed is a simple solution of pale shell-lac in either
methylated spirit or wood naphtha. Sometimes a little mastic, sandarac, or
elemi, or copal varnish, is added to render the polish tougher.

_Prep._ 1. From pale shell-lac, 5-1/2 oz.; finest wood naphtha, 1 pint;
dissolve.

2. Pale shell-lac, 3 lbs.; wood naphtha, 1 gall. Methylated spirit (68 o.
p.) may be substituted for the naphtha in each of the above formulæ.

3. Pale shell-lac, 5 oz.; gum sandarac, 1 oz.; spirit (68 o. p.), 1 pint.

4. Pale shell-lac, 5-1/2 oz.; gum elemi, 3/4 oz.; spirit, 1 pint.

5. Pale shell-lac, 1-1/4 lbs.; mastic, 1/4 lb.; spirit, 2 quarts.

6. Pale shell-lac, 2-1/4 lbs.; mastic and sandarac, of each 3 oz.; spirit,
1 gall.; dissolve, add copal varnish, 1 pint, and mix by roughly agitating
the vessel. All the above are used in the manner described below.

7. Shell-lac, 12 oz.; wood naphtha, 1 quart; dissolve, and add of linseed
oil, 1/2 pint.

8. Shell-lac, 1/2 lb.; gum sandarac, 1/4 lb.; spirit, 1 quart; dissolve,
add of copal varnish, 1/4 pint; mix well, and further add of linseed oil,
1/2 pint. The last two require no oil on the rubber.

_Obs._ The preparation of French polish is precisely similar to that of
other spirit or naphthalic varnishes. Sometimes it is coloured, in order
to modify the character of the wood. A REDDISH TINGE is given with
dragon’s blood, alkanet root, or red sanders wood; and a YELLOWISH TINGE,
by turmeric root or gamboge. When it is simply desired to DARKEN the wood,
brown shell-lac is employed to make the polish; and when the object is to
keep the wood LIGHT COLOURED, a little oxalic acid (2 to 4 dr. to the
pint) is commonly added. These substances are either steeped in or
agitated with the polish, or with the solvent, before pouring it on the
‘gums,’ until they dissolve, or a sufficient effect is produced. French
polish is not required to be so clear and limpid as other varnishes, and
is, therefore, never artificially clarified. See VARNISH, and _below_.

=FRENCH POL′ISHING.= This process, now so generally employed for furniture
and cabinet work, is performed as follows:——The surface to be operated on
being finished off as smoothly as possible with glass paper, and placed
opposite the light, the ‘rubber’ being made as directed below, and the
polish (see above) being at hand, and preferably contained in a
narrow-necked bottle, the workman moistens the middle or flat face of the
rubber with the polish, by laying the rubber on the mouth of the bottle
and shaking up the varnish against it, once, by which means the rubber
imbibes the proper quantity to cover a considerable extent of surface. He
next encloses the rubber in a soft linen cloth, doubled, the rest of the
cloth being gathered up at the back of the rubber to form a handle. The
face of the linen is now moistened with a little raw linseed oil, applied
with the finger to the middle of it, and the operation of polishing
immediately commenced. For this purpose the workman passes his rubber
quickly and lightly over the surface uniformly in one direction, until the
varnish becomes dry, or nearly so, when he again charges his rubber as
before, omitting the oil, and repeats the rubbing, until three coats are
laid on. He now applies a little oil to the rubber, and two coats more are
commonly given. As soon as the coating of varnish has acquired some
thickness, he wets the inside of the linen cloth, before applying the
varnish, with alcohol, or wood naphtha, and gives a quick, light, and
uniform touch over the whole surface. The work is, lastly, carefully gone
over with the linen cloth, moistened with a little oil and rectified
spirit or naphtha, without varnish, and rubbed, as before, until dry.

The RUBBER for French polishing is made by rolling up a strip of thick
woollen cloth (list) which has been torn off, so as to form a soft elastic
edge. It should form a coil, from 1 to 3 inches in diameter, according to
the size of the work.

=FRES′CO-PAINTING.= See PAINTING.

=FRICANDEAU.= [Fr.] Among _cooks_, a ragoût, or fricassée of veal. The
same term is also sometimes applied to stewed beef, highly seasoned.

=FRICASSEE.= [Fr.] A dish prepared by stewing or semi-frying, highly
flavoured with herbs, spices, or sauce. Small things, as chickens, lamb,
&c., and cold meat, are usually formed into fricassees.

=FRIC′TION=. In a general sense, the act of rubbing one body against
another; attrition.

=Friction.= In _mechanics_ this is the resistance which the surface of a
moving body meets with from the surface of the body on which it moves. To
lessen the amount of friction in machines, various unctuous substances, as
oil, tallow, soap, black-lead, &c., are used by engineers. These
substances act by imparting smoothness to the points of contact, and thus
reduce their resistance to each other. The full consideration of the
subject belongs to engineering.

=Friction.= In _medicine_, friction, whether simple or conjoined with
liniments, is a therapeutical agent of considerable power. By it the
circulation is promoted in debilitated parts, and medicinal substances
(iodine, mercurials, opium, &c.) are made to penetrate the pores of the
skin. “The benefit of friction, which consists of motion and heat, whether
or not the same be raised by rubbing the body with a coarse cloth or the
flesh-brush, has advantages inconceivable and scarcely credible, by which
the obstructions of the pores and cutaneous glandules are opened, their
stagnating juices broken into small particles, dissolved, and rendered fit
to be carried off in perspiration, in the room of which, as my Lord
Verulam well observes, new juice will succeed with new vigour to the body;
and longevity, saith that great naturalist, is this way most certainly
promoted” (Daniel Turner).

Simple friction is performed by the hand alone, or with a piece of
flannel, a hair glove, or a flesh-brush. “If it be properly
performed——namely, by short, brisk strokes with the tips of the fingers,
and with great celerity, when the naked hand is the agent; and if it be
continued for an hour or upwards, and repeated several times a day——its
influence in reducing swelled glands and swellings of the joints, as well
as in alleviating rheumatic pains, is very great; but, besides being well
performed, the friction should be continued for (at least) half an hour,
in order to render it useful.” (Dr R. E. Griffith.)

Gentle, slow, and equable friction, by producing a continued repetition of
an agreeable impression on the nervous system, acts both as an anodyne and
hypnotic. For this purpose “the operator should sit by the side of the
bed, and introducing the hand under the bedclothes, rub the legs or the
arms (or other parts) gently with equally lengthened but slow movements.
When the invalid is a child, its influence is more powerful when aided by
a monotonous, but a soft tune, which, although it operates upon a distinct
sense, yet, by combination, renders the friction more soporific.”
(Griffith.)

When the friction is accompanied with the use of any acrid or irritating
substance, or is intended to introduce any active remedy into the system,
the rubbing should be brisk, and of sufficient force to slightly abrade
and inflame the cuticle; and should be continued until the substance,
which is usually in the form of an ointment, either wholly or partially
disappears, owing to its absorption by the skin. The hand of the operator
should, in most cases, be guarded by a glove; otherwise he is likely to
share with the patient the effects of the medicine, a result not always
agreeable or even safe.

=FRIGORIFIC MIXTURES.= See REFRIGERATION.

=FRIT.= The pulverulent materials of glass, heated until they coalesce
without melting. See ENAMEL, GLASS, &C.

=FRIT′TERS.= Fried batter. A species of pancake, containing fruit,
sweetmeats, poultry, meat, or fish.

_Prep._ 1. (M. Alexis Soyer.) “The following is thirty receipts in
one:”——Soak crum of bread, 1 lb., in cold water, q. s.; take the same
quantity of any kind of boiled or roasted meat (a little fat), and chop it
into fine dice; press the water out of the bread; put into the pan butter,
lard, or dripping, 2 oz., with chopped onions, two teaspoonfuls; fry two
minutes, add the bread, stir with a wooden spoon until rather dry, then
add the meat, and season with salt, 1 teaspoonful, pepper, 1/2 do., and a
little grated nutmeg if handy; stir till quite hot; then further add two
eggs, one at a time, mix very quickly, and pour it on a dish to cool; next
roll it into the shape of small eggs, then in flour, ‘egg’ them, and
bread-crum them; lastly, fry in abundance of fat to a nice yellow colour,
and serve either plain or with any sharp or other savory sauce you fancy.
Innumerable dishes can be made in this way; in fact, from everything that
is eatable, and at any season of the year——from the remains of meat,
poultry, game, fish, vegetables, &c. The same can be done with chopped,
dried, or preserved fruits, simply using a 1/4 lb. more bread, and sifting
powdered sugar and cinnamon over them. Cream may also be used for fruit,
or curds.

Fritters are also (and more commonly) fried in ordinary batter, instead of
bread-crumbs. “There is no end to what may be done with these receipts.”
“They can be ornamented and made worthy the table of the greatest epicure
if the bread be soaked in cream, and spirits or liquor introduced into
them.” (Soyer.)

2. Mrs Rundell:——_a._ (APPLE FRITTERS.) See FRUIT FRITTERS.

_b._ (BUCKWHEAT FRITTERS, B. CAKES, BOCKINGS.) Made by beating up
buckwheat flour to a batter with some warm milk, adding a little yeast,
letting it rise before the fire for 30 or 40 minutes, then beating in some
eggs and milk or warm water, as required, and frying them like pancakes.
Buckwheat fritters, when well prepared, are excellent. Made without eggs
and served up with molasses, they form a common dish in almost every
breakfast in North America.

_c._ (CURD FRITTERS.) From dried curd, beaten with yolk of egg and a
little flour, and flavoured with nutmeg.

_d._ (FRENCH FRITTERS.) Common pancakes, beaten up with eggs, almonds, and
flavouring sugar, orange-flower water, and nutmeg, and the paste dropped
into a stew- or frying-pan half full of boiling lard, so as to form cakes
the size of large nuts, which are cooked till brown.

_e._ (FRUIT FRITTERS.) From the sliced fruits, with rich batter.

_f._ (SOUFFLÉ FRITTERS.) Rich pancakes, flavoured with lemon.

_g._ (SPANISH FRITTERS.) From slices of French rolls soaked in a mixture
of cream, eggs, sugar, and spices, and fried brown.

=FROG.= The esculent variety, in Europe, is the common green or gibbous
frog, the _Rana esculenta_ of Linnæus. As an aliment, it is much esteemed
on the Continent, the hind legs only being eaten. Its liver is among the
simples of the Ph. L. 1618, and was once considered a useful remedy in
certain forms of ague.

The Americans eat the bull-frog (the _Rana taurina_). This variety of the
edible frog, which is a native of the Northern States and is much prized
as a table delicacy, has been lately introduced into France by the Société
d’Acclimatisation. Its flesh, when cooked, is said to have a taste very
like that of turtle. In South Africa, a large frog called Matlamétlo is
eaten. Frogs are also favourite food with the natives of China and
Australia.

=FROG OINTMENT or Thrush Mixture.= Brown syrup, 90 grammes; verdigris, 6
grammes; strong acetic acid, 10 grammes; solution of perchloride of iron,
2 grammes. (Hager.)

=FROST-BITES.= When those parts of the body in which the circulation of
the blood is most languid are exposed to extreme cold, they quickly become
frozen, or, as it is called, ‘frost bitten.’ The fingers, toes, ears,
nose, and chin are most liable to this attack. The remedy is
long-continued friction with the hands or cold flannel, avoiding the fire,
or even a heated apartment.

=FROSTBEULENTINCTUR, FROSTBEULENWASSER——Chilblain Tincture, Chilblain
Water.= Manufactured by a chiropodist of Munich. It is a solution of 2
grammes zinc sulphate in 60 grammes water. (Wittstein.)

=FROSTSALBE——Frost Ointment= (Wahler, Kupferzell). Mutton tallow, 24;
hog’s lard, 24; iron oxide, 4; heat it in an iron vessel, stirring
continually with an iron rod until the whole has become black; then add 4
parts Venice turpentine, 2 parts bergamot oil, and 2 parts Armenian bole
rubbed smooth with olive oil.

=FRUIT.= _Syn._ FRUCTUS, L. Among botanists this is the mature ovary or
pistil, containing the ripened ovules or seeds. In familiar language, the
term is applied to any product of a plant containing the seed, more
especially those that are eatable.

Fruits are extensively employed as articles of diet by man, both as
luxuries and nutriment. The fruit of the cereals furnishes our daily
bread; that of the vine gives us the well-known beverage, wine, whilst
other varieties enrich our desserts, and provide us with some of our most
valuable condiments and aromatics. The acidulous and subacid fruits are
antiseptic, aperient, attenuant, diuretic, and refrigerant. They afford
little nourishment, and are apt to promote diarrhœa and flatulency. They
are, however, occasionally exhibited medicinally, in putrid affections,
and are often useful in bilious and dyspeptic complaints. The farinaceous
fruits (grain), as already stated, furnish the principal and most useful
portion of the food of man. The oleo-farinaceous (nuts, &c.) are less
wholesome and less easy of digestion than those purely farinaceous. The
saccharine fruits, or those abounding in sugar, are nutritious and
laxative, but are apt to ferment and disagree with delicate stomachs when
eaten in excess. Stone fruits are more difficult of digestion than the
other varieties, and are very apt to disorder the stomach and bowels.

As a rule, fruit should never be eaten in large quantities at a time, and
only when quite ripe. It then appears to be exceedingly wholesome, and to
be a suitable corrective to the grossness of animal food. It also
exercises a powerful action on the skin, and is a specific for scurvy in
its early stages. Many cutaneous diseases may likewise be removed by the
daily use of a moderate quantity of fruit, or other fresh vegetable food.
Cases are not uncommon which, after resisting every variety of ordinary
medical treatment, yield to a mixed fruit or vegetable diet.

Fruits should be gathered in dry weather, and preferably about noon,
because the dew and moisture deposited on them during the night and
earlier part of the morning has then evaporated. They should be quite ripe
when gathered, but the sooner they are removed from the tree after this
point is arrived at, the better. Immature fruit never keeps so well as
that which has ripened on the tree; and overripe fruit is liable to be
bruised and to lose flavour. The less fruit is handled in gathering the
better. Some of them, as PEACHES, NECTARINES, GRAPES, PLUMS, &c., require
to be treated with great delicacy, to avoid bruising them or rubbing off
the bloom. Some fruit, as a few varieties of APPLES, PEARS, and ORANGES,
&c., are gathered before they are fully ripe, in order that they may the
better undergo the perils of transit and storage.

_Pres._ Ripe fruits are commonly preserved in the fresh state by placing
them in a cool dry situation, on shelves, so that they do not touch each
other; or by packing them in clean, dry sand, sawdust, straw, bran, or any
similar substance, with like care, to preserve them from the action of air
and moisture. An excellent plan, commonly adopted for dessert fruit in
this country, is to wrap each separately in a piece of clean, dry paper,
and to fill small, wide-mouthed jars or honey-pots with them. The filled
pots are then packed one upon another (see _engr._) in a dry and cold
place (as a cellar), where the frost cannot reach them. The space (_a_)
between the two pots may be advantageously filled up with plaster of Paris
made into a paste with water. The joint is thus rendered air-tight, and
the fruit will keep good for a long time. The mouth of the top jar is
covered with a slate. For use, the jars should be taken one at a time from
the store-room as wanted, and the fruit exposed for a week or ten days in
a warm dry room before being eaten, by which the flavour is much improved.

[Illustration]

Fruit is preserved on the large scale for the London market by placing in
a cool situation first a layer of straw or paper, and so on alternately,
to the height of 20 or 25 inches, which cannot be well exceeded, as the
weight of the superincumbent fruit is apt to crush or injure the lower
layers. Sometimes alternate layers of fruit and paper are arranged in
baskets or hampers, which are then placed in the cellar or fruit-room. The
baskets admit of being piled one over the other without injury to the
fruit. The use of brown paper is inadmissible for the above purposes, as
it conveys its peculiar flavour to the fruit. Thick white-brown paper is
the cheapest and the best.

=Fruit Essences (Artificial).= These remarkable products first attracted
attention at the Exhibition of 1851. To speak somewhat generally, they are
mixtures of amylic, butyric, pelargonic, valerianic, and other ethers, in
alcohol. By judicious mixture, the flavour of almost any fruit can be more
or less perfectly imitated. The artificial essences are generally coloured
to represent the juice of the fruit from which they are supposed to be
derived. The ESSENCE OF JARGONELLE PEAR and the ESSENCE OF APPLE, which
are, perhaps, the best of all the artificial essences, are respectively
formed from the ACETATE and VALERIANATE OF AMYLE. See AMYLE, ESSENCE, &c.

=FRU′MENTY.= Wheat boiled in water until quite soft, then taken out,
drained, thinned with milk, sweetened with sugar, and flavoured with
nutmeg. When currants and eggs are added, it forms ‘SOMERSETSHIRE
FRUMENTY,’ Some persons boil the wheat like rice. “Eaten with milk, in the
evening, for some time, it will often relieve costiveness.” (Griffith.)

=FRY′ING.= “The frying-pan is, without doubt, the most useful of all
kitchen implements, and, like a good-natured servant, is often imposed
upon and obliged to do all the work, while its companion, the gridiron, is
quietly reposing in the chimney corner.” “The usual complaint of food
being rendered greasy by frying is totally remedied by sautéing the meat
in a small quantity of fat, butter, or oil, which has attained a proper
degree of heat, instead of placing it in cold fat, and letting it soak
while melting.” “According to the (common) mode in which all objects are
cooked which are called fried, it would answer to the French word ‘sauté,’
or the old English term ‘frizzle,’ but to fry any object, it should be
immersed in very hot fat, oil, or butter.” “To frizzle, sauté, or, as I
will now designate it, semi-fry, is to place in the pan any oleaginous
substance, so that, when melted, it shall cover the bottom of the pan by
about two lines; and when hot, the article to be cooked is to be placed
therein. To do it to perfection requires a little attention, so that the
pan shall never get too hot. It should also be perfectly clean——a great
deal depends on this.” (Soyer.)

According to the writer quoted above, a chop or steak, for frying, should
be chosen 3/4 of an inch thick, and should “never exceed one inch, nor be
less than half an inch, and to be as near as possible of the same
thickness all over.” “An ill-cut chop (or steak) never can be but
ill-cooked; you can always equalise them (when badly cut) by beating them
out with a chopper.”

“The motive of semi-frying food is to have it done quickly; therefore, to
fry a whole fowl, or even half (for example), is useless, as it could be
cooked in a different way in the same time; but to semi-fry a fowl (in
joints or pieces), with the object of having it quickly placed on the
table, in order to satisfy a good, and perhaps fastidious appetite, it
should be done in a similar way to that practised in Egypt some 3000 years
since, and of late years for the great Napoleon——that is, cooked in oil.
In France this dish is called ‘_Poulet à la Marengo_,’ It is related that
the great conqueror, after having gained that celebrated victory, ate
three small chickens at one meal done in this way, and his appetite and
taste were so good, and he approved of them so highly, that he desired
that they may always be served in the same way during the campaign.”

“For many objects I prefer the frying-pan to the gridiron; that is, if the
pan is properly used. As regards economy, it is preferable, securing all
the fat and gravy, which is often lost when the gridiron is used.” “This
simple _batterie de cuisine_” may be employed “equally as well in the
cottage as in the palace, or in the bachelor’s chamber as in the rooms of
the poor.” (Soyer.)

=FUCH′SIN.= See TAR COLOURS.

=FUCUS′AMID, FU′CUSINE, and FU′CUSOL.= Compounds obtained by Dr Stenhouse
from several varieties of FUCUS by treatment with sulphuric acid, as in
the preparation of FURFURINE (which _see_).

=FU′EL.= Matter used for the production of heat by burning. The principal
substances employed as fuel are——ANTHRACITE, CHARCOAL, COAL GAS, COKE,
OIL, SPIRIT, PITCOAL, TURF, and WOOD.

The heating power of almost every description of fuel has been determined
by the direct experiments of Lavoisier, Regnault, Andrews, and others; the
general principle of their methods consisting in the use of an apparatus
wherein the entire heat of combustion was absorbed by a known weight of
water, the whole arrangement being protected from the influence of
external changes of temperature, and the increase of the temperature of
the water being known by the simultaneous indication of several delicate
thermometers suspended in it. The real value of such determinations is
simply relative. The imperfect character of most boiler and furnace
arrangements, and the large quantity of fuel which passes into the
‘ash-pit’ unconsumed, together with the irregular ‘draught,’ and the
amount of heat absorbed by excess of cold air, result practically in an
enormous loss of heating power, even under the most careful management.
The mechanical condition of a fuel must be considered in estimating its
value. In a series of trials instituted by the Government it was a _sine
quâ non_ that the toughness of each kind of coal must be such, for naval
use, as to resist, without crumbling, the constant friction in the ship’s
hold, at the same time that its ‘fracture’ must be such that it packs into
the smallest possible space.[319]

[Footnote 319: For full information on coal and other fuels, refer to
Ure’s ‘Dict. of Arts, Manufactures, &c.,’ Percy’s ‘Metallurgy,’ and Watt’s
‘Dict. of Chemistry.’]

In the _chemical laboratory_ COAL GAS is now generally employed as fuel.
It is cheap and manageable, and, with proper apparatus, may be made to
supply almost any amount of heat. Where gas cannot be conveniently
procured, OIL and SPIRIT are used as fuel for lamps. See ANTHRACITE,
CHARCOAL, COKE, FURNACE, PITCOAL, &c., also _below_.

=Fuel, Econom′ical.= Various mixtures have been recommended under this
name. The following is one of the best:——

_Prep._ Small coal, charcoal, or sawdust, 1 part; clay, loam, or marl, 1
part; sand, or ashes, 2 parts; water, q. s.; make the mass up wet into
balls. For use, these balls are piled on an ordinary fire to a little
above the top bar. They are said to produce a heat considerably more
intense than that of common fuel, and ensure a saving of one half the
quantity of coals, whilst a fire thus made up will require no stirring,
nor fresh fuel for ten hours. The quantity of the combustible ingredient
in them should be doubled, when they are intended to be used with a very
little foundation of coal.

_Obs._ Of late years simple FIRE-CLAY BALLS have been much used for
radiating heat from parlour-grates, and so effecting saving in the
consumption of fuel. They are very useful for partially filling up those
roomy, old-fashioned, badly-constructed grates, which are still to be
found in many private houses.

PEAT and TURF, both recent and charred, are commonly used as fuel by the
lower classes, in neighbourhoods where they are plentiful. FIR CONES or
TOPS contain a great quantity of solid woody in addition to the resinous
matter, and are well adapted for domestic fires.

=Fuel, Prepared.= _Syn._ COMPRESSED FUEL, PATENT F., STEAM F. Many
artificial fuels are now in use. The greater number have one character in
common——they are composed of small coal cemented by some bituminous
matter. The following are the principal kinds:——

FUEL, ABERDARE PATENT STEAM. From the ‘small’ of the South Wales Steam
Coal mixed with coal, pitch, and compressed by hydraulic machinery. The
pitch is broken up, and thoroughly mixed with the small coal over a
furnace, in iron pans, in which shafts with obliquely attached blades are
continually revolving. The mixture is afterwards pressed into iron moulds
by a force equal to about 2-1/2 tons per inch. The weight of a cubic foot
of this excellent fuel is 80 lbs.; the space occupied by 1 ton, 28 cubic
feet.

FUEL, CASE AND MORRIS’S PATENT. From the ‘small’ of the ‘best steam coal,’
ground moderately fine, treated so as to absorb a certain portion of
liquid coal tar, and then pressed by machinery into blocks. It is said to
occupy less space by about 10% than ordinary coal.

FUEL, GRANT’S PATENT. This is formed of coal dust, 1 cwt., and coal-tar
pitch, 20 lbs., melted together by a heat of 220° Fahr., and moulded into
blocks the size of common bricks, under a pressure of 5 or 6 tons. These
are, lastly, whitewashed. It is heavier than common steam coal, and is
said to go fully one third further, by which facility of transport and
economy is combined.

FUEL, PURIFIED BLOCK. This is prepared by the torrefaction of washed coal
dust, and is said to possess in a remarkable degree the advantages of both
coke and steam coal.

=FU′LIGOKA′LI.= _Prep._ (Dr Polya.) Caustic potassa, 1 part; water, q. s.;
dissolve; add of wood soot, 5 parts; boil 1 hour, dilute with water,
filter, evaporate the filtrate to dryness, and put the product at once
into warm, dry bottles.——_Dose_, 2 to 3 gr., thrice a day, made into
pills, which must be coated with gum and kept from the air. (See _below_.)

=Fuligokali, Sulphuretted.= _Syn._ FULIGOKALI SULPHURETUM, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Polya.) Caustic potassa, 7 parts; sulphur, 2 parts; water, q. s.; dissolve
with heat, add of fuligokali, 30 parts, evaporate to dryness, and preserve
it in well-corked dry bottles.——_Dose, &c._ As the last.

_Obs._ M. Gibert states that he has tried both fuligokali and sulphuretted
fuligokali on his patients at the Hospital Saint-Louis, both internally
and externally, with manifest advantage in various obstinate chronic skin
diseases. He made a pomade of 30 grammes (say 1 oz.) of lead ointment, and
1 or 2 grammes (say 20 to 25 gr.) of fuligokali, in which he recognised
positive resolvent, detersive, and stimulant properties. See ANTHRACOKALI.

=FULLER’S EARTH.= _Syn._ CIMOLIA, C. TERRA, L. A soft, unctious, friable,
greenish or yellowish-grey species of clay, containing 53% of silica, 10%
of alumina, and about 9% of oxide of iron. After being dug out of the
earth it is thoroughly dried in ovens, and then thrown into cold water,
where it soon falls to powder, and is purified by the common process of
edulcoration or washing-over. It is extensively used to extract oil and
grease from cloth in the process of ‘fulling,’ it forms an excellent
filtering powder for oils, and is applied as a cooling and healing
dressing by the poor to inflamed breasts, excoriations, &c.

=FUL′MINATING COMPOUNDS.= These are numerous, and are scattered through
several distinct classes of bodies. Among the most powerful and dangerous
are the chloride and iodide of nitrogen and the fulminates of silver and
mercury.

=Fulminating An′timony.= _Syn._ PYROPHORUS OF ANTIMONY, L. _Prep._ Tartar
emetic (dried), 100 parts; lampblack or charcoal powder, 3 parts;
triturate together, put it into a crucible that it will three fourths fill
(previously rubbed inside with charcoal powder), cover it with a layer of
dry charcoal powder, and lute on the cover; after 3 hours’ exposure to a
strong heat in a ‘reverberatory furnace,’ and 6 or 7 hours’ repose to
allow it to cool, &c., cautiously transfer the solid contents of the
crucible, as quickly as possible, without breaking it, to a wide-mouthed
stoppered phial, where, after some time, it will spontaneously crumble
down into a powder.

_Obs._ When the above process is properly conducted, the resulting powder
contains potassium, and fulminates violently on contact with water. A
piece the size of a pea introduced into a mass of gunpowder explodes it on
being thrown into water, or on its being moistened in any other manner.

=Fulminating Bis′muth.= _Prep._ From bismuth, 120 parts; carburetted cream
of tartar, 60 parts; nitre, 1 part. Very rich in potassium.——_Prop., &c._,
resemble those of the last. We have been assured that this is the compound
used by the late Capt. Warner for some of his secret fusees.

=Fulminating Cop′per.= _Syn._ FULMINATE OF COPPER. _Prep._ Digest copper
(in powder or filings) with fulminate of mercury or of silver, and a
little water. It forms soluble green crystals that explode with a green
flame.

=Fulminating Gold.= _Prep._ Recently precipitated peroxide of gold is
digested in strong liquor of ammonia for 24 hours, and the resulting
product is dried in the open air or at a temperature below 180° Fahr.,
care being taken to avoid the slightest friction, lest it should explode.
A deep olive-coloured powder.

_Obs._ This compound can only be safely made in very small quantities at a
time, as without great care it explodes with extreme violence. This is
caused by the slightest friction or sudden increase of heat. Its
fulminating property may be destroyed by boiling it in pearlash lye, or
weak oil of vitriol; and by heating the residuum after washing it in
water, pure gold will be obtained.

=Fulminating Mer′cury.= _Syn._ FULMINATE, FULMINATE OF MERCURY. _Prep._ 1.
Mercury, 1 part; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·375), 12 parts; dissolve, add at
intervals, to this solution, alcohol (sp. gr. ·850), 16·3 parts; apply
heat till the effervescence and cloud of gas disappears, adding,
gradually, on the action becoming violent, 16·3 parts more of
alcohol.——_Product._ 112% of the mercury employed.

2. Mercury, 100 parts; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·4), 1000 parts (or 740 parts
by measure); dissolve by a gentle heat, and when the solution has acquired
the temperature of 130° Fahr., slowly pour it through a glass funnel tube
into alcohol (sp. gr. ·830), 830 parts (or 1000 parts by measure); as soon
as the effervescence is over, and white fumes cease to be evolved, filter
through double paper, wash with cold water, and dry by steam (not hotter
than 212°) or hot water. The fulminate is then to be packed in 100 gr.
paper parcels, and these stored in a tight box or corked
bottle.——_Product_, 130% of the weight of mercury employed.

_Prop., &c._ Small brownish-grey crystals, which sparkle in the sun;
entirely soluble in 130 parts of boiling water, and deposited as the
solution cools under the form of beautiful pearly spangles. It greatly
resembles fulminate of silver in its appearance and general properties. It
explodes violently by both friction and percussion, but unlike the
silver-salt, merely burns with a sudden and almost noiseless flash when
kindled in the open air.

_Obs._ The second formula is not only the cheapest, but the best and
safest. The first is more expensive and dangerous. There is no little
hazard in pouring the alcohol into the nitric solution; for at each
effusion an explosive blast takes place; whereas, by pouring the solution
into the alcohol, no danger whatever is incurred. This preparation is used
for priming the copper percussion caps for fowling-pieces, muskets, &c. Dr
Ure, in his first report to the Board of Ordnance, recommended the use of
a spirituous solution of gum sandarac, as the best substance for diluting
the fulminate, and fixing it in the caps; but in a subsequent report to
the same Board, he stated that a solution of mastic in spirit was to be
preferred. At the present time the following composition is applied to the
interior of percussion caps in quantities varying from ·2 to ·3 of a
grain:——Chlorate of potassium, 26 parts; nitre, 30; fulminate of mercury,
12; sulphur, 17; ground glass, 14; gum, 1, making altogether 100 parts.
(Watts.)

_Caution._ Fulminate of mercury should only be dried in small parcels at a
time, and these should be placed at a distance from each other. The
dreadful explosion which occurred some years ago at Apothecaries’ Hall,
and by which Mr Hennel, the talented chemist of the Apothecaries’
Company, lost his life, was occasioned by the spontaneous detonation of
this substance.

=Fulminating Plat′inum.= _Syn._ PLATINUM FULMINANS, L. _Prep._ By acting
on binoxide of platinum with pure ammonia. It is analogous to the gold and
silver ammonio-compound.

=Fulminating Powder.= _Syn._ DETONATING POWDER; PULVIS FULMINANS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Nitre, 3 parts; carbonate of potash (dry), 2 parts; flowers of
sulphur, 1 part; reduce them separately to fine powder, before mixing
them. A little of this compound (20 to 30 gr.), slowly heated on a shovel
over the fire, first fuses and becomes brown, and then explodes with a
deafening report.

2. Sulphur, 1 part; chlorate of potassa, 3 parts. When triturated, with
strong pressure, in a marble or wedgwood-ware mortar, it produces a series
of loud reports. It also fulminates by percussion.

3. Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; pure lampblack, 4 parts; sulphur, 1 part.
A little placed on an anvil detonates with a loud report, when struck with
a hammer. No. 1 is the substance commonly known as ‘FULMINATING POWDER,’
See BLASTING POWDER.

=Fulminating Sil′ver.= _Syn._ ARGENTUM FULMINANS, L. Two very distinct
compounds are known by this name, the one containing oxide of silver and
ammonia, and the other being a true fulminate of silver.

_Prep._ 1. (AMMONIA-COMPOUND OF SILVER, BERTHOLLET’S FULMINATING
SILVER.)——_a._ Digest oxide of silver (recently precipitated and dried by
pressure between bibulous paper) in concentrated liquor of ammonia, for 12
or 15 hours, pour off the liquid, and cautiously dry the black powder in
the air, in divided portions. The decanted ammoniacal liquor, when gently
heated, yields, on cooling, small crystals, which possess a still more
formidable power of detonation than the black powder, and will scarcely
bear touching, even whilst under the liquid.

_b._ Dissolve chloride of silver in strong liquor of ammonia, cautiously
add pure potassa (in fragments), and when effervescence ceases, decant the
fluid portion, and wash and dry the powder, as before.

2. (FULMINATE OF SILVER, BRUGNATELLI’S FULMINATING SILVER; ARGENTI
FULMINAS, L.)——_a._ Pour alcohol, 1 oz., on nitrate of silver (in fine
powder), 100 gr., previously placed in a capacious flask or beaker glass,
and shortly afterwards add strong nitric acid, 1 oz.; as soon as all the
powdered nitrate assumes the form of white clouds, add cold distilled
water, q. s. to suspend the ebullition, and next collect the powder on a
filter, and otherwise proceed as with the ammonia-compound (_above_).

_b._ (Fownes.) Metallic silver, 40 to 50 gr.; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·37),
3/4 fl. oz.; dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat, add, whilst the
solution is still hot, alcohol, 2 fl. oz., and again apply heat until
reaction commences; the fulminate slowly separates from the hot liquid
under the form of small, brilliant, white, crystalline plates, which,
after being slightly washed with a little cold distilled water, are to be
distributed upon separate pieces of filtering paper, in portions not
exceeding 1 or 2 gr. each, and left to dry in the air. When dry, the
papers are to be folded up, and carefully preserved in a box or bottle. A
sixpence and the strongest commercial nitric acid and rectified spirit
answer for the above purpose.

_c._ (Liebig.) Grain silver, 1 part; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·36 to 1·38),
10 parts; dissolve at a gentle heat, and add the solution to alcohol of
85%, 23 parts; apply a gentle heat till the liquid begins to boil, then
remove it from the fire and set it aside to cool; the fulminate of silver
is deposited in lustrous, snow-white, acicular crystals, and when washed
and dried, equals in weight that of the silver employed.

_Prop., &c._ The properties of both compounds are very similar. Those of
the true FULMINATE OF SILVER (No. 2) need only be considered here. This
dissolves in 36 parts of boiling water, but the solution deposits the
greater portion of the fulminate as it cools. It is one of the most
dangerous substances for which we are indebted to modern chemistry. It
explodes with unparalleled violence by friction or percussion, or when
strongly heated, or when touched with strong sulphuric acid; the metal is
reduced, and a large volume of gaseous matter suddenly liberated. Strange
to say, though its explosive tendency is so great that it can be hardly
made, handled or kept, with safety, it may, when very cautiously mixed
with oxide of copper, be burned in a tube to determine its composition, in
a similar manner to that employed in the analysis of other organic
substances. Many frightful accidents have happened from the spontaneous
explosion of this substance. 1 or 2 gr. are the most that can be exploded
with safety in a building or confined space.

=Fulminating Zinc.= _Syn._ FULMINATE OF ZINC; ZINCUM FULMINANS, ZINCI
FULMINAS, L. _Prep._ From fulminate of silver, zinc filings, and a little
water, digested together, as FULMINATING COPPER.

=FULMINA′TION.= _Syn._ FULMINATIO, L. Detonation. A sudden explosion,
accompanied with a loud report and extreme violence. Some chemists,
without sufficient reason, have endeavoured to confine the application of
the term to the explosion of a fulminate.

=FUMIGA′TION.= _Syn._ FUMIGATIO, SUFFUMIGATIO, L. Fumigations
(FUMIGATIONES) are vapours of gases extemporaneously extricated for the
purpose of destroying contagious or noxious miasmata or effluvia, or to
mask unpleasant odours, or to produce a medicinal action on those parts of
the body with which they are brought in contact.

Fumigations, for the purpose of obviating or masking unpleasant odours in
the sick chamber, must never be employed to the neglect of cleanliness and
ventilation; for most of them, instead of purifying the air, actually
render it less fit for respiration. The common practice of burning scented
paper, pastilles, sugar, juniper berries, benzoin, cascarilla, &c., so as
to create an odoriferous smoke, is of this character. As disinfecting
agents, they are probably useless, and are relics of an ancient custom of
burning frankincense and other odorous substances in vitiated air, to
overcome the fetor which is more or less present. The fumes thus diffused
through the atmosphere “disguise unpleasant odours; but they accomplish
nothing more. The infection remains not only unaltered by the diffusion of
the most powerful aromatic vapours, but its deleterious properties are
sometimes augmented by them.”[320]

[Footnote 320: We deem it right to remark that a different opinion
respecting the disinfecting power of odoriferous smoke is now held by many
scientific men. According to this opinion, the minute particles of
aromatic substances do really destroy or render inert the noxious
miasmata.]

Among the various substances used as DISINFECTING FUMIGATIONS, chlorine,
by almost general consent, holds the first place. Dr Carmichael Smyth
recommended nitrous acid, which is even now preferred by Dr Christison to
chlorine; whilst Prof. Graham regarded the fumes of burning sulphur as
more efficacious than either of these substances. The vapours of
hydrochloric acid and of vinegar, and the smoke of gunpowder, which once
had their advocates, have now justly sunk into disfavour.

No apartment should be submitted to fumigation until it is vacated; as
until then its thorough disinfection is impossible, and but little benefit
or immunity from contagion is conferred by any aërial disinfecting agent,
the presence of which fails to cause discomfort to the patient.

Of all common diseases, scarlet fever appears to be the one most requiring
fumigation. For this purpose, chlorine gas or heat should be employed. The
infectious matters of certain diseases, especially scarlet fever, are
either dissipated or destroyed at a heat slightly above that of boiling
water. (Dr Henry.) Contagious diseases are very commonly propagated in
this metropolis by persons having their linen washed by laundresses who
perform their operations in the same sinks of dirt and misery in which
they live. See CIGARS (in _pharmacy_), DISINFECTANT, INHALATION, &c., and
_below_.

=Fumigation, Ace′tic.= _Syn._ FUMIGATIO ACETICA, L. The fumes of strong
vinegar or acetic acid, obtained by heating the liquid over a lamp, or by
sprinkling it on a hot shovel. Aromatic vinegar in this way yields very
refreshing fumes, and was formerly thought more efficacious than simple
acetic acid.

=Fumigation, An′odyne.= _Syn._ FUMIGATIO ANODYNA, L. _Prep._ (Trousseau &
Reveil.) Stramonium and sage, equal parts, sufficient to fill a small
pipe. Smoked in spasmodic asthma, irritating coughs, &c.

=Fumigation, Aromat′ic.= See BALSAMIC FUMIGATION.

=Fumigation, Balsam′ic.= _Syn._ AROMATIC FUMIGATION; FUMIGATIO AROMATICA,
F. BALSAMICA, L. _Prep._ 1. From gum benzoin, either alone or mixed with
olibanum or styrax, thrown on hot cinders or a heated shovel.

2. (Dr Dohrn.) Gum olibanum, 4 parts; gum benzoin, styrax, and flowers of
roses and lavender, of each 1 part; to be reduced to powder, and used as
before.

3. Amber, mastic, and olibanum, of each 3 oz.; benzoin and styrax, of each
1 oz.; camphor, 1 dr. As last. The above are used in hooping-cough,
asthma, &c.; a small quantity only being employed at a time.

=Fumigation, Belladon′na.= _Syn._ FUMIGATIO BELLADONNÆ, L. _Prep._ (M.
Schroeder.) From dried belladonna leaves, 1 to 2 dr.; as before. In
spitting of blood, asthma, tickling cough, &c.

=Fumigation, Chlorine.= _Syn._ DISINFECTING FUMIGATION, GUYTON-MORVEAU’S
F.; FUMIGATIO CHLORINII, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Common salt, 3 parts;
water and sulphuric acid, of each 2 parts; black oxide of manganese 1
part; mix in a shallow vessel, placed in the centre of the apartment. This
is used to disinfect unoccupied rooms.

2. Hydrochloric acid and powdered black oxide of manganese mixed in
proportions so as to make a thin paste. Used as directed under 1.

3. Chloride of lime, either sprinkled on the floor (if uncarpeted) or (if
carpeted) placed about the room in shallow dishes. Used for inhabited
rooms, and on shipboard, &c.

4. A solution of chloride of lime (1 oz. of the chloride to each quart of
water). Used as the last but more freely.

_Obs._ Chlorine fumigations, although so popular, and so much relied on by
many medical practitioners, are apparently useless in preventing the
progress of certain contagious diseases. “In Moscow, chlorine was
extensively tried and found unavailing, nay, even injurious, in cholera.”
(Dr Pereira.) “At the time that the cholera hospital was filled with
clouds of chlorine, then it was that the greatest number of the attendants
were attacked.” (Dr Albers.) At the Smallpox Hospital, where chlorine was
tried, with the view of arresting the progress of erysipelas, “all
offensive smell was removed, but the power of communicating the disease
remained behind.” (‘Lond. Med. Gaz.’) Notwithstanding these marked
failures, the confidence of many eminent members of the profession
continues unabated. “As a fumigating agent, disinfectant and antiseptic,
chlorine, I believe, stands unrivalled.” “For destroying miasmata, noxious
effluvia, and putrid odours, it is the most powerful agent known.” (Dr
Pereira.) Our own experience leads us to the conclusion that chlorine is
more useful in neutralising the contagious or morbific matter of fevers
(especially of scarlet fevers) and putrid diseases generally, than of the
other diseases in which it has been employed.

=Fumigation, Hydrochlo′′ric.= _Syn._ MURIATIC FUMIGATION; FUMIGATIO
MURIATICA, F. ACIDI HYDROCHLORICI, L. _Prep._ From common salt placed in a
cup or saucer, and an equal weight of sulphuric acid poured over it. Now
seldom used. It rapidly neutralises ammoniacal fumes.

=Fumigation, I′odine.= _Syn._ FUMIGATIO IODINII, L. _Prep._ 1. From
iodine, 5 to 25 gr., or more, according to extent of surface, placed on a
heated iron contained in a box or case in which the limb is enclosed. In
the usual skin diseases in which the use of iodine is indicated. Iodine
may be readily diffused through the atmosphere by placing a small quantity
on a hot plate. Duroy says iodine powerfully arrests putrefaction.

2. (Compound; FUMIGATIO IODINII COMPOSITA——Sellers.) Iodine, 20 gr.; red
sulphide of mercury, 40 gr.; sulphur, 6 dr.; mix, and divide into 12
powders. One to be used, as the last, 3 times daily; in lepra, psoriasis,
&c.

=Fumigation, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ FUMIGATIO MERCURIALIS, L. _Prep._
(Bouchardat.) Olibanum (in powder), 2 parts; red sulphide of mercury, 3
parts. A little is sprinkled on red-hot coals or a heated shovel held
beneath the part; or the fumes are inhaled. _Obs._ Abernethy used the
black oxide of mercury (1-1/2 to 2 dr.), and applied it to the whole body,
excepting the head, in a similar way to the sulphur bath, and continued
the application for about a quarter of an hour. See CANDLES, (Mercurial),
and No. 2 (_above_).

=Fumigation, Mu′riatic.= See HYDROCHLORIC F. (_above_).

=Fumigation, Ni′trous.= _Syn._ FUMIGATIO NITROSA. _Prep._ (P. Cod.)
Sulphuric acid, diluted with half its weight of water, is placed in a
porcelain cup (any shallow vessel of glass or earthenware will do), placed
over heated cinders, and small quantities of powdered nitre added to it
from time to time.

_Obs._ Heat causes the gas to be evolved more rapidly, and thus renders
the fumes more offensive, without increasing their efficacy. Equal weights
of oil of vitriol and water are the proportions usually employed, 1/4 oz.
of nitre is said to be sufficient for a small room. (Dr Bateman.) The
vessel containing the ingredients should be placed in an elevated position
in the centre of the apartment.

Dr Carmichael Smith, who introduced nitrous acid gas as a fumigation
(1799), received a reward of £5000 from Parliament for publishing his
formula.

=Fumigation, Sulphu′rous.= _Syn._ FUMIGATIO SULPHUROSA, F. SULPHURIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. The gas produced by burning sulphur, sulphurous anhydride, or,
as Mr Keates has suggested, by burning bisulphide of carbon.

To guard against the danger arising from fire, when sulphur is burnt for
the purposes of fumigation, the operator is advised to proceed as
follows:——Having closed the fireplace, windows, &c., of the apartment to
be disinfected, procure a common pail or a large earthenware pan, and
place it in the centre of the room; then into the middle of the pail or
pan put upside down an ordinary flower-pot. Then pour water into the pail
or pan (as the case may be) until it nearly reaches to the top of the
inverted flower-pot. Now stand on the flower-pot a plate or saucer of
earthenware or common crockery, sufficiently large to hold the quantity of
sulphur required; place this quantity of sulphur in the plate or saucer,
and put on it a few live coals; then close the door of the apartment, and
leave it undisturbed for six or eight hours. At the expiration of this
time the door may be opened, as well as the windows, the barricade being
at the same time removed from the fireplace; a thorough draught of air
being thus established, the sulphurous smell will soon disappear. During
the fumigation all articles within the room should be spread out so as to
expose as great a surface as possible. “The cubic space to be thus
disinfected should be calculated by multiplying the length, height, and
breadth together, and taking an ounce and a half of sulphur for every 100
cubic feet. For a small bedroom one pound of sulphur would be sufficient.
Indeed, eighteen ounces would suffice for a room measuring 12 ft. × 10 ft.
× 10 ft.”[321]

[Footnote 321: ‘Water, Air, and Disinfectants,’ by Noel Hartley.]

2. Flowers of sulphur, 7 parts; nitre, 4 parts; benzoin and olibanum, of
each 2 parts; camphor, 1 part; pressed into the bowls of tobacco-pipes,
and lighted with a quick-match. See BATH and DISINFECTANT.

=Fumigation, Tar.= _Syn._ FUMIGATIO PICEA, SUFFUMIGATIO PICIS LIQUIDÆ, L.
_Prep._ 1. Vegetable tar, 1 part; water, 7 or 8 parts; mix, and let it
simmer in an open vessel set over a spirit lamp placed near the centre of
the apartment.

2. (Sir A. Crichton.) Norway tar, 1 lb.; powdered carbonate of potash, 1/2
oz. or 1 oz.; mix, and heat it as last. The potash is added to neutralise
any volatile acid. Formerly highly thought of in bronchitis and pulmonary
consumption.

=Fumigation, Tooth′ache.= _Syn._ FUMIGATIO ODONTALGICA, F.
ANTI-NEURALGICA, L. _Prep._ 1. From henbane seeds, powdered and thrown
into a basin of boiling water, and the affected part held in the steam.
Sometimes a little of the seed is placed on a heated iron spoon, and the
part exposed to the fumes.

2. (Beasley.) A popular remedy is to throw henbane seed on hot cinders,
inverting a cup over them to receive the smoke and empyreumatic oil
produced. The cup is then filled with hot water, and the steam conveyed to
the affected side of the mouth.

=FU′′MING LIQUORS.= See AMMONIUM SULPHYDRATE, ARSENIC TRICHLORIDE, TIN
BICHLORIDE, &c.

=FUNG′I.= In _botany_, a natural order of cellular plants, producing their
fructification in the air; growing in or upon decaying or living organic
substances, and nourished through their vegetative structure called the
spawn or mycelium. Fungi have very variable properties. Some are medical,
others edible, others are deadly poisons. The various diseases of plants
known as blight, mildew, rust, smut, vine-mildew, potato-disease, ergot,
&c., are either caused by or accelerated by the agency of fungi. See
AGARIC, MUSHROOM, &c.

=FUR′NACE.= An enclosed fireplace for obtaining a high degree of heat.
Furnaces vary much in construction and size, according to the particular
manufacture in which they are employed. They may be broadly divided into
two classes——WIND-FURNACES and BLAST FURNACES. In the former a high
temperature is produced without the aid of bellows by means of a powerful
draught. In the latter heated air is blown in through a pipe or pipes at
the bottom. For many metallurgic and large chemical operations
REVERBERATORY FURNACES are employed. A furnace of this kind is usually
long, with a low roof to keep down the flame and hot air upon the ‘hearth’
or space between the fireplace and the flue.[322] For the smaller
operations in chemistry, a variety of furnaces have been invented, and the
introduction of coal-gas as a fuel by Develle, Griffin, Gore, Fletcher,
and others, has wrought a complete change in the arrangements of the
laboratory. The GAS-FURNACES of Mr J. J. Griffin are adapted for almost
every operation performed by the aid of heat. Those more recently
introduced by Mr W. Gore are very compact and portable, and will rapidly
produce a ‘white heat,’ without the help of bellows or high chimney, by
means of ordinary coal-gas and atmospheric air. The first and smallest
size consumes 33 cubic feet of gas (value seven farthings) per hour, and
is suitable for assayers, jewellers, analytical chemists,
experimentalists, dentists, and others. It is capable of fusing eight
ounces of copper or six ounces of cast iron, copper begins to melt in it
in about twelve minutes from the time of lighting. The second-sized one
consumes about twice that quantity of gas, is suitable for manufacturing
jewellers generally, and for a great variety of practical persons who
require to melt small quantities of gold, silver, copper, german silver,
brass, cast iron, glass, and other substances, or require a small crucible
heated to high temperatures. It is capable of melting 45 ounces of copper,
or 40 ounces of cast iron, and with its heat up it melts one pound of
copper in eight minutes; copper begins to melt in about twenty minutes
from the time of lighting.

[Footnote 322: For an illustration of this kind of furnace, see SODIUM,
Carbonate of.]

Fletcher’s[323] UNIVERSAL FURNACES for high temperatures, which are said
to require neither blast nor attention, are intended for laboratory
purposes, enamel burning, heating soldering irons, and for jewellers’ and
dentists’ work. These furnaces are made in two distinct types; one with a
perforated cover to the crucibles and muffles to attain the maximum heat;
the other with a slide chimney and a double lid over the crucible.

[Footnote 323: Manufactured by Thos. Fletcher, Museum Street, Warrington.]

The power and rapidity of working depend in each case on the length of the
chimney used. A furnace with a four-feet chimney will melt a crucible of
cast-iron in thirty-five minutes; a furnace with an eight-feet chimney
will melt the same quantity of iron in about twenty minutes, starting with
the furnace cold. The stove with the side chimney, although more
convenient in use, is slower in working, taking about twice as long to
obtain the same temperature.

The following are varieties of Fletcher’s UNIVERSAL FURNACE:——

1. SMALL LABORATORY FURNACE for crucibles, with nickel-plated burner
tubes. This takes crucibles up to 2-1/2 by 2-1/4 inches outside, and with
a three-feet chimney, as supplied with the furnace, will, it is stated,
melt copper, gold, silver, &c., in about ten minutes, or cast-iron in
thirty-five minutes from the time the gas is lighted. Small muffle
fittings, with muffles 2-1/4 by 3 by 2-1/2 inches inside, can be supplied
with this furnace.

2. SMALL CRUCIBLE FURNACE, with fixed chimney. This furnace is more
especially designed for gold, silver, copper, &c., and, as sent out with a
four-feet chimney and a single lid, is amply powerful, and practically of
a very convenient form.

3. SMALL MUFFLE FURNACE, with three feet chimney. This requires about
eighteen inches longer chimney than the small crucible furnace to obtain
the same temperature in the same time, owing to a slight loss of heat by
radiation from the stoppers.

4. _a._ LARGE MUFFLE FURNACE. This is identical in design and construction
with the smaller one. The clear working space inside the muzzle is 3-7/8
by 5 inches, by about 3 inches deep. This is recommended as a useful
furnace for watch dial enamellers, assayers, photo-enamel burning, and for
all purposes where exact temperatures are required not exceeding the
fusing point of cast iron.

The burner of this furnace is twice the size of the small laboratory
furnace, and requires a gas supply from a pipe and tap of half-an-inch
bore. The burner is the same shape as the muffle, and is unfit for
crucible work.

_b._ EXTRA LARGE MUFFLE FURNACE 4-1/2 by 3-3/4 by 7 inches clear inside
working space. This will take a No. 3 plumbago pot, and with half an inch
gas pipe, giving a supply of about 35 feet per hour, will, it is affirmed,
melt 3 or 4 lbs. of brass in about 25 minutes, and the same quantity of
cast iron in 60 or 70 minutes from the time the gas is first lighted,
without the slightest trouble or attention.

5. LADLE FURNACE. This takes ladles up to 6-1/2 inches diameter, and will
melt 6 or 8 lbs. of zinc in about 15 minutes, or the same quantity of
lead, tin, &c., in about half the time. It is said to be a convenient and
powerful arrangement for dentists, heating soldering-irons, making
granulated zinc, sand baths, &c.

6. SMALL LABORATORY FURNACE, complete for crucibles, muffles, ladles, and
sand baths.

7. FLETCHER’S INJECTOR GAS FURNACE (with Blast). This furnace is intended
for general purposes, and for the treatment of refractory substances at
high temperatures. The patentee states “that it will burn perfectly in the
same space any available gas supply from 10 to 50 feet per hour, or more,
if required, giving temperatures in exact proportion; and any operation
may be repeated at any time by taking a note of the position of the air
slide which governs the combustion of the gas.”

Mr Fletcher gives the power of the small furnace as follows:——With an 1/2
inch gas supply-pipe, day pressure, starting with the furnace cold, it
will melt silver in 3 minutes, cast iron in 8 minutes, cast steel in 25
minutes.

With a supply of 50 feet per hour, the same results are stated to be
obtained in a little over half the time, and so on in proportion with a
greater or less gas supply. It is also said to work satisfactorily for
gold, &c., melting it with a supply of gas too small for any other
furnace, and the maximum temperatures obtained are limited, only by the
available gas supply and the fusibility of the casing. The highest
temperature as obtained by measuring by Wedgwoods’ Pyrometer, is said to
be 9000 Fahrenheit. This furnace is stated to be particularly suited for
gold and silver melting, and refining, iron assays, and general crucible
work, and safe in the hands of the most careless workman. It is adapted
for crucibles not exceeding 4 inches by 2-1/4, 5 inches by 3-1/2, 7-1/2
inches by 5. For further information respecting furnaces intended for use
in the laboratory and assay office, the reader is referred to ‘Watt’s
Dictionary of Chemistry,’ also to ‘Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures,
and Mines,’ for description of the furnaces employed in the different
metallurgical operations; and to the ‘Chemical News’ (June 30th, 1876, and
February 2nd, 1877), for a description of a new decomposing furnace. See
ASSAYING, CHIMNEYS, COPPER, CRUCIBLE, FUEL, &c.

=FUR′NISHING.= It is essential for the sake of neatness, and for a
pleasing effect to the eye, that there should be a harmony of colours, and
also a similarity of style, in the main articles of furniture. The tints
of the carpet, of the paper or paint of the walls, and of the
window-curtains, should be all in harmony in each room; that is, either
possess a general resemblance of colour, or various colours in pleasing
contrast and harmony with each other. If the preponderating colour of the
curtains is scarlet, and the colour of the walls or carpet blue, a most
inharmonious and unpleasing effect is produced; but brown and green, or
green and gold, will be in harmony, and may, therefore, be placed
together. Carpets being the most expensive articles, it is safest to buy
them first, and then to let their colour guide us in the tone and style of
the curtains, paper-hangings, chair-covers, hearth-rugs, and the various
minor articles. It is also economical to buy carpets of the same pattern
for several rooms, because in the event of removal to a house with
different sized apartments, a piece of one carpet may be taken to alter
the size of another.

=FUR′NITURE.= See FRENCH POLISHING, OIL, POLISH, VARNISH, &c.

=FURS.= Of these the most valuable are Ermine and Sable. Fur skins, when
unprepared, or merely dried, go under the name of ‘Peltry.’ (Brande.)

Furs may be preserved from moths and other insects by placing a little
colocynth pulp (bitter apple), or spice (cloves, pimento, &c.), wrapped in
muslin, among them; or they may be washed in a very weak solution of
corrosive sublimate in warm water (10 to 15 gr. to the pint), and
afterwards carefully dried. As well as every other species of clothing,
they should be kept in a clean, dry place, from which they should be taken
out occasionally, well beaten, and exposed to the air, and re-turned.

=FU′SEL-OIL.= _Syn._ FOUSEL OIL, POTATO-OIL, OIL OF POTATO SPIRIT, GRAIN
OIL, GRAIN-SPIRIT OIL, MARC-BRANDY OIL, CRUDE HYDRATED OXIDE OF AMYL.
_Source._ An offensive, strong-smelling oil, produced along with alcohol
during the fermentation of grain, potatoes, &c., on the large scale, and
which gives the peculiar and disagreeable flavour and odour to raw
whiskey. It is found chiefly in the last portion of the spirit which
passes over, called the ‘faints,’ to which it imparts its characteristic
odour and flavour. By rectifying the faints at a very gentle heat, most of
the alcohol and water first pass over together with only a little fusel
oil, whilst the latter forms the residuum in the still. Various names (as
_above_) are given to the crude oil thus obtained, according to its
source. In each case it essentially consists of hydrated oxide of amyl,
but trifling and variable quantities of other organic compounds are mixed
with it, which slightly modify its character, more particularly its odour
and flavour. The oil of potato spirit is the purest form of crude fusel
oil.

_Obs._ The exertions of the distiller are directed, as much as possible,
to lessen the formation of fusel oil during the fermentation of his
‘worts,’ and to eliminate, during the distillation and rectification of
his liquors, the greatest possible proportion of that with which they may
be contaminated.

_Prop., &c._ Fusel oil is a nearly colourless volatile liquid, with a
rather high boiling point, a durable, penetrating, offensive smell, and an
acrid, burning taste; when swallowed, it occasions nausea, giddiness,
headache, &c.; in slightly larger quantities, vomiting, delirium,
oppressive respiration, and lessened sensibility to pain; its vapour also
produces these effects. In quantity, it is a narcotic poison. The greater
intoxicating power of whiskey, more especially that from raw grain, than
other spirit, is due to the larger quantity of fusel oil which it
contains. This appears to be well known to the lower class of whiskey
drinkers in these countries, and to the consumers of corn brandy in some
of the northern parts of Europe. The last are said to frequently demand to
be served with “a glass of good fusel.” In England fusel oil is chiefly
used for lamps and varnishes.

_Purific._ The AMYLIC ALCOHOL (ALCOHOL AMYLICUM) of the Dublin College is
thus prepared. Introduce the ordinary fusel oil of the distilleries into a
small still or retort, connected with a condenser, and apply heat; as soon
as the oil begins to flow over, unmixed with water, the receiver should be
changed, and the distillation resumed, and carried nearly to dryness; the
product in the second receiver, and the oily matter which separates from
the water in the first receiver, are to be reserved for use. It is
employed in the preparation of VALERIANATE OF SODA. See AMYL.

=FU′SIBLE ALLOY′.= _Syn._ FUSIBLE METAL. _Prep._ 1. Bismuth, 2 parts;
lead, 5 parts; tin, 3 parts. Melts in boiling water.

2. (D’Arcet’s.) Bismuth, 8 parts; lead, 5 parts; tin, 3 parts. Melts below
212° Fahr.

3. (Walker.) Bismuth 8, tin 4, lead 5 parts; antimony, 1 part. The metals
should be repeatedly melted and poured into drops, until they are well
mixed.

4. (Onion’s.) Lead, 3 parts; tin, 2 parts; bismuth, 5 parts. Melts at 197°
Fahr.

5. To the last, after removing it from the fire, add of quicksilver
(warm), 1 part. Liquid at 172°, solid at 140° Fahr.

_Obs._ The first four of the above are used to make TOY-SPOONS, to
surprise children by their melting in hot liquors. A little mercury may be
added to lower their melting points. Nos. 2 and 3 are specially adapted
for making ELECTROTYPE MOULDS. The beautiful casts of the French medals
known to all electrotypers as Clichée moulds are in the alloy No. 3. The
above alloys are also used to form PENCILS for writing on asses’ skin, or
paper prepared by rubbing burnt hartshorn into it, &c.; also as a METAL
BATH in the laboratory. The last is used for ANATOMICAL INJECTIONS.

=FU′SION.= _Syn._ FUSIO, L. The liquefaction of solid bodies by the action
of heat. The term AQUEOUS FUSION has been applied to the melting of salts
in their combined water when heated; and the term IGNEOUS FUSION, to the
liquefaction of bodies by heat alone.

The vessels in which substances are fused are formed of various materials
and shapes, according to the properties of the solid operated on, and
principally with reference to the degree of heat required for its fusion.
In every case the containing vessel should be capable of sustaining the
proper degree of heat, without either melting or cracking, and should also
be unacted on by the substances melted in them. See CRUCIBLE, FURNACE, &c.

=FÜRSTENBALSAM, Bamberger für Frauen=——BAMBERG PRINCE’S BALSAM FOR WOMEN.
An embrocation for strengthening women after confinement. A hexagonal eau
de Cologne bottle containing about 100 grammes of a clear reddish-brown
fluid, which is a filtered mixture of equal parts of spirit of lavender
(Sp. Lavand. Co.) and spirit of soap, mixed with a little camphor and
ammonia. (Hager.)

=FUS′TIC.= _Syn._ FUSTIC WOOD. Two distinct dye-stuffs are known by this
name, but are distinguished by the adjectives ‘old’ and ‘young.’

=Fustic, Old.= _Syn._ BOIS JAUNE, Fr. The wood of the _Maclura tinctoria_.
Its decoction dyes woollens yellow of different shades, according to the
‘mordant.’ Alum, tartar, and spirits of tin brighten the tint; acetate and
sulphate of iron and common salt darken it; with sulphate of iron it gives
olives and browns; with the indigo vat and sulphate of indigo green. These
colours are very permanent. Its yellow turns on the lemon when pale, and
on the orange when darker. 1 lb. of old fustic will dye 3 to 5 lbs. of
wool.

=Fustic, Young.= _Syn._ YELLOW FUSTIC; FUSTET, Fr. The wood of the _Rhus
Cotinus_ or Venice sumach. It gives a yellow turning on the green, but its
colours are not very permanent. It is chiefly used in combination with
other dye-stuffs.


=GAL′BANUM.= _Syn._ GUM GALBANUM; GALBANUM (B. P.), L. “A gum-resin
derived from an unascertained umbelliferous plant. In irregular tears
about the size of a pea, usually agglutinated into masses; of a
greenish-yellow colour, translucent, having a strong disagreeable odour,
and an acrid bitter taste.” (B. P.) Its properties are similar to the
other fetid antispasmodic gum-resins. It ranks between ASSAFŒTIDA and
AMMONIACUM.

=Galbanum, Strained.= _Syn._ PREPARED GALBANUM; GALBANUM COLATUM, G.
PRÆPARATUM (Ph. L.), L. From crude galbanum, as prepared ammoniacum.
Formerly the common practice was to melt it in the dry state, by heat
cautiously and quickly applied, and to strain it through a piece of coarse
canvas stretched across a wooden frame or ‘horse.’ The ‘strained galbanum’
of the shops is seldom pure. The following forms are current in the trade
for its ‘reduction,’ as this species of adulteration is technically
termed:——

1. Galbanum (true), 9 lbs.; strain as above, then add, towards the end
black resin (clean), 3 lbs.; and when the whole is melted, further add of
Venice turpentine, 2 lbs.——_Product._ 12 lbs.

2. Strained galbanum and black resin, of each 6 lbs.; melt, and add, of
strained assafœtida, 2 oz.; Venice turpentine, 3 lbs.——_Prod._ 14-1/2 lbs.

=Galbanum, Facti′′tious Strained.= _Syn._ GALBANUM COLATUM FACTITIUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. From black resin, 4 lbs.; melt, and add of Venice turpentine, 2
lbs.; assafœtida, 2-1/2 oz.; oils of juniper and fennel, of each 1-1/2
dr.; water, 1/2 pint.

2. As the last, adding soft soap, 5 oz. Sometimes the small and ‘waste’ of
the chests are added to the above to improve them.

=GALÈNE-EINSPRITZUNG——Galen’s Injection= (J. F. Schwarzlose Söhne,
Berlin). According to Hager:——Gum Arabic, 25 grammes; water, 65·5 grammes;
sugar of lead, 4·5 grammes; tinct. opii with saffron, 5 grammes. According
to Schädler:——Sulphocarbolate of zinc, 3 grammes; gum Arabic, 20 grammes;
tinct. opii, 2 grammes; water, 100 grammes.

=GALL.= _Syn._ BILE; BILIS, CHOLE, FEL, L. A bitter fluid secreted by the
liver; in part flowing into the intestines, and in part regurgitating into
the gall-bladder. Its uses in the animal economy appears to be——to
separate the chyle from the chyme, to promote digestion of oleaginous
substances, and to assist in exciting the peristaltic action of the
intestines. The fæces appear to owe their colour chiefly to the presence
of bile, since, without, they appear of a dirty pipe-clay colour.

The gall of various animals was formerly used in medicine. From whatever
source it was obtained, it was believed to be calefacient, desiccant,
detergent, discutient, and parturifacient; but besides these properties,
each variety was conceived to possess virtues peculiarly its own. Thus,
bear-gall (fel ursi) was reputed anti-epileptic; eel-gall (fel
anguillarum), parturifacient; hare-gall (fel leporis), “good in cataract;”
and ox-gall (fel bovis), “sovereign against stiff joints, rheumatics,
angry ulcers, and stomach colics.” The gall of the bat, goat, hen, hog,
partridge, silurus, &c., were also employed as remedies. At the present
time ox-gall is the only one used in medicine and the arts.

Ox-gall has been recently reintroduced into medicine by Dr Allnatt and
others, and in certain cases of dyspepsia and biliary derangement appears
to be a valuable remedy.

Crude ox-gall is extensively employed by the scourers of woollen cloth,
clothes renovators, &c. It rapidly extracts grease and oil from textile
fabrics without injuring the colour. See CONSTIPATION, DYSPEPSIA, OX-GALL,
&c.

=Gall, Glass.= See SANIVER.

=GAL′LATE.= _Syn._ GALLAS. L. A salt of gallic acid. The alkaline gallates
are soluble. They rapidly suffer decomposition in the presence of excess
of the base, and the liquor gradually acquires a blackish colour. The
gallates of most of the other metallic oxides are insoluble.

=GALLEN-MIXTUR FÜR PFERDE=——GALL MIXTURE FOR HORSES (F. Barth, veterinary
surgeon, Freibach-by-Altenhofen, Carinthia). A clear decanted solution of
8 parts wood tar in 92 parts common kienöl (ol. pini). (Hager.)

=Gallen-Mixtur=——GALL MIXTURE (Ph. Barth, Marburg in Steiermark). The same
preparation as the above, coloured with 3/4 per cent. of dragon’s blood.
(Wittstein.)

=Gallen-Tinctur=——GALL TINCTURE (Dr G. Krieger, Garz). 5 parts wood tar,
10 parts water, 30 parts spirit, 1 part corrosive sublimate, and 1/20 part
rosanilin, mixed with a gentle heat, allowed to deposit, and filtered.
(Hager.)

=GAL′LIC ACID.= H_{3}C_{7}H_{3}O_{5}.Aq. _Syn._ ACIDUM GALLICUM (B. P.),
L. “A crystalline acid prepared from galls.” (B. P. L.) It may be also
obtained from other vegetable substances. It appears to be a product of
the oxidation of tannic acid, and probably does not exist ready formed in
recent vegetables.

_Prep._ 1. (Dumas.) Nut-galls, reduced to powder, are moistened with
water, and exposed to the action of the air, in a warm situation (say 70°
to 80° Fahr.), for two or three months, adding more water, from time to
time, to make up for that lost by evaporation. At the end of the above
period the mouldy, dark-coloured mass is strongly pressed in a cloth, and
the solid portion boiled in a considerable quantity of water. The solution
(filtered whilst hot) deposits, on cooling, crystals of gallic acid,
which, after being thoroughly drained and pressed dry between bibulous
paper, are purified by boiling them along with about 1/6th of their weight
of prepared animal charcoal in 8 parts of water, and filtering, &c., as
before.

2. (Graham.) A strong infusion or decoction of galls is precipitated with
sulphuric acid in the cold; the resulting thick mass is mixed with dilute
sulphuric acid (cold), and the liquid expressed; the ‘marc’ is next
treated with sulphuric acid diluted with twice its weight of water, and
after boiling the mixture for some minutes the whole is allowed to cool;
the resulting crystals are purified as before.

3. (Liebig.) A strong aqueous solution of tannic acid (tannin) is added to
sulphuric acid as long as a precipitate falls; the powder is collected,
washed, and dissolved by the aid of heat in dilute sulphuric acid; the
solution, after being boiled for a few minutes, deposits, on cooling,
crystals of gallic acid in considerable quantity.

4. (Scheele.) A filtered decoction of galls is exposed for some months in
an open vessel; after a time it grows mouldy, and becomes covered with a
thick, glutinous pellicle; in two or three months the sides of the vessel
and the under portion of the pellicle are found to be covered with small
yellow crystals of gallic acid, which are purified as directed above. (See
No. 1.)

5. (Ph. D., B. P.) The Dublin contains two formulæ for gallic acid, the
one being based on that of Dumas or Scheele, the other on that of Graham
or Liebig.——_a._ From galls (in coarse powder), 1 lb.; water, q. s. to
make a stiff paste; a porcelain dish is ordered, and the exposure in the
moistened condition is to be continued for 6 weeks; the solution of the
first crop of crystals is to be made in 10 fl. oz. of boiling water, and
when the filtrate has cooled to 80° Fahr., it is to be poured off from the
crystals which have formed, which are then to be washed with ice-cold
water, 3 fl. oz., and dried——first in blotting paper, and finally by a
steam or water heat. By boiling the undissolved portion of the galls with
45 fl. oz. of fresh water, more crystals may be obtained.

_b._ Powdered gall-nuts, 1 lb., are steeped for 24 hours in water, 1 pint,
and after being placed in a porcelain displacement apparatus, are treated
with water, 1-1/2 pint, added in successive portions; oil of vitriol, 5
fl. oz., diluted with an equal volume of water, and allowed to cool, is
now added to the percolated infusion, and after thorough admixture the
liquid is filtered from the viscid precipitate which forms; oil of
vitriol, 5 fl. oz. (diluted as before), is then added to the filtrate, the
precipitates, enveloped in calico, are submitted to powerful pressure, and
subsequently dissolved in oil of vitriol, 16 fl. oz., previously diluted
with water, 56 fl. oz.; the solution is boiled for 20 minutes, and set
aside for a week; at the end of this time the deposit which forms is
dissolved in three times its weight of boiling water, and the solution
treated as before.

_Prop._ Gallic acid forms small, feathery, and nearly colourless crystals,
which have a beautiful silky lustre; that of commerce is usually of a
pale-yellow colour; it is soluble in 100 parts of cold water, and in 3
parts of boiling water; it is also soluble in alcohol, and slightly so in
ether; the aqueous solution is decomposed by exposure to the air;
dissolved in hot oil of vitriol, it forms a deep, rich, red solution,
which, when thrown into water, drops the gallic acid, deprived of some of
its water. This substance is soluble in the alkalies, and dyes cloth like
madder. When strongly heated, gallic acid is converted into metagallic
acid, or into pyrogallic acid, according to the manner in which the heat
is applied.

_Tests._ Gallic acid is distinguished from tannic acid by not affecting
solutions of gelatin, the protosalts of iron, or the salts of the
alkaloids, and by giving a deep bluish-black precipitate with the
sesquisalts of iron, which disappears when the liquid is heated. It is
distinguished from pyrogallic acid by its inferior insolubility in water,
and by its not affecting the solutions of the protosalts of iron. To
detect gallic acid mixed with tannic acid, the latter should be removed,
either by digesting the substance in ether, or by immersing for some time
in its solution a piece of skin depilated by lime, previously to applying
the tests.

_Pur._ Free from colour; decomposed by heat; soluble in water and in
rectified spirit. It turns preparations of the sesquioxide of iron,
dissolved in water, of a bluish black colour, but throws down nothing from
a solution of isinglass.

_Uses, &c._ The principal use of pure gallic acid is in the art of
_photography_. It has recently been employed in _medicine_, as an internal
astringent, in doses of 3 to 10 gr., thrice a day, or oftener; in
hæmorrhage and fluxes, as well as for checking the night sweats in
phthisis. Dr Todd says, that in all cases of internal hæmorrhage, or
hæmorrhagic tendency, it is the best astringent or styptic we possess. As
an external astringent, it is greatly inferior to tannic acid. It has been
given in doses of 15 to 30 gr. in tape-worm, “but without any benefit.”
(Pereira.)

_Purification._ Gallic acid, as obtained by either of the above forms, is
never quite pure; but it may be rendered absolutely pure by combining it
with oxide of lead, and decomposing the compound (gallate of lead) by
sulphuretted hydrogen. The sulphuret of lead acts like animal charcoal in
removing the colour. (Liebig.) Commercial gallic acid “may be rendered
nearly white by dissolving it in 20 times its weight of boiling distilled
water, and causing the solution to traverse a stratum of prepared animal
charcoal, spread upon a calico filter. When the liquid passes through
colourless, it should be evaporated to 1-6th its volume, and then suffered
to cool, in order to the separation of the crystallised acid.” (Ph. D.)

=GALLIC FERMENTATION.= This name has been given to the peculiar process by
which tannic acid is converted into gallic acid, under the joint influence
of moisture and atmospheric oxygen. According to the researches of M.
Antoine Larocque, the peculiar ferment of nut-galls which operates this
change also converts sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, in the same way
as yeast does; whilst beer yeast, muscular flesh, and caseous matter
change tannin into gallic acid. The similarity of the gallic and vinous
fermentation may hence be reasonably inferred.

=GALLIUM.= A new metal discovered in August, 1875, by means of the
spectroscope, by M. Lecoq Boisbaudran, in a specimen of blende from the
mines of Pierrefitte, in the Pyrenees. The new element was named gallium
in honour of France, the discoverer’s native country.

Gallium gives a spectrum composed of two bands in the violet, one of the
bands being brilliant, and of wave length 417, and the other, a feeble one
of wave length, 403·3.

The Pierrefitte blende contains one part of gallium in four hundred
thousand. It is, however, found much more abundantly in a black blende
from Bensberg, on the Rhine, one hundred thousand parts of this latter
yielding one part of gallium.

Gallium resembles lead in appearance, but is less blue in colour. Exposed
to moist air it tarnishes slightly. It is a little harder than lead, is
flexible, malleable, and may be easily cut with a knife. If melted and
poured upon glass, it adheres to it, and forms a mirror which is whiter
than that caused by mercury. A red heat fails to volatilise it to any
appreciable extent, and it is only slightly oxidised at that temperature;
therefore it is not tarnished when exposed to the air. Hot nitric acid
dissolves it, but the cold acid has scarcely any action on it. It melts at
30·15 C. When once fused, it preserves the liquid condition even for
several months at 0° C.,[324] until it is touched by some solid body, or
by a piece of solid gallium, when it congeals to a crystalline solid,
having a specific gravity of 5·93; when fused it has a specific gravity of
6·08. It crystallises in square octohedra. In properties gallium is more
or less intermediate between the metals aluminium and indium.

[Footnote 324: In consequence of this curious property gallium was first
described as a liquid metal.]

Chemical reactions of gallium:——The following are the chief reactions of
the salts of gallium when in solution. With ammonia they give a white
gelatinous precipitate, soluble, but not readily in excess of the
precipitant; potash gives a similar precipitate, soluble in excess;
acetate of ammonia, on boiling in a solution free from excess of acid,
precipitates a basic compound; barium carbonate readily precipitates
gallium salts in the cold. A sulphate and a chloride of gallium have
already been obtained. These salts are both very soluble; the sulphate is
a non-deliquescent substance, the chloride, on the contrary, is
excessively so, and decomposed by a large excess of water. Gallium also
forms an alum consisting of the double sulphate with ammonium. Gallium
alum is a beautifully crystalline body, more soluble in cold than in hot
water.

At a meeting of the ‘Academie des Sciences’ in March, 1878, M. de
Baubradon stated that he had determined the atomic weight of gallium. The
mean of two experiments showed it to be 69·9.

The ‘Comptes Rendus’ for February, 1878 (No. 7), contains a communication
from MM. Lecoq de Boisbaudran and E. Jungfleisch, on the extraction of
gallium from the ores in which it is found associated with indium.

The following is the process given by the authors:——The blende of
Bendsberg is pulverised and then roasted in a Perret furnace, by which
treatment the greater part of the indium is volatilised. The residue is
treated with sulphuric acid in quantity sufficient to dissolve almost all
the zinc, and there is thus obtained a residue which is treated with
excess of sulphuric acid.

The persalts of iron present are then reduced by means of metallic zinc,
and the filtrate fractionally precipitated with carbonate of sodium; the
precipitates are redissolved in sulphuric acid, and the reduction with
zinc and the fractional precipitation repeated, the latter operation being
in both cases watched by the spectroscope.

The precipitate containing the gallium concentrated in a small bulk, is
redissolved in acid, and the excess of the latter reagent removed by
evaporation, after which it is boiled with much water. The filtrate
separated from the sediment containing titanic acid, which form is treated
with sulphuretted hydrogen, then mixed with acetate of ammonium and again
treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, which throws down the galliferous
sulphide of zinc free from alumina. Again the precipitate is dissolved in
sulphuric acid, and the solution fractionally precipitated with carbonate
of sodium, which operation, guided as it is by spectral examination,
entirely removes the zinc. By once more dissolving in the exactly
necessary amount of sulphuric acid, and treating with sulphuretted
hydrogen, cadmium, lead, indium and zinc are removed, and the filtrate is
then largely diluted with water and boiled. The bulky sub-salt of gallium
which separates at this temperature is treated with potash, which leaves
iron, indium, &c., undissolved, and the alkaline liquor when treated with
sulphuretted hydrogen, and subsequently with sulphuric acid to slight
acidity, yields a deposit consisting mainly of sulphide of indium.

The slightly acid liquid is then boiled with much water, and the deposit
of sub-salt of gallium thus obtained is dissolved in potash, and the
solution subjected to electrolysis, by which means a metallic deposit of
gallium is obtained.

It is interesting to note how accurately many of the chemical physical
properties to gallium had, previously to its discovery, been predicted by
the Russian chemist, Mendelejeff, by reasoning on the so-called “periodic
law,” which he thus defines:——“The properties of the simple bodies, as
also the properties and constitution of their combinations, are periodic
functions of the atomic weights of the elements.”

In 1864 an English chemist named Mr Newlands, observing certain relations
existing between the atomic weights of many of the elements, was the first
to arrange them in such a manner or serial form as to suggest that when
certain gaps were observed in the atomic weights of a series, new elements
might be assumed to exist. Guided by this theory, Mendelejeff affirmed
that the “periodic law” not only indicates vacancies in the classificatory
scheme of the known elements, but enables us to predict the properties of
elements as yet undiscovered, and of their compounds. Thus, of one of the
vacancies observable in the table of the elements arranged according to
his classification, Mendeljeff asserted, that should the element (which he
named _Eka aluminium_) with the corresponding atomic number be discovered,
it would possess the following characteristics:——It would most probably,
like indium and thallium, be discovered by the aid of spectrum analysis.
Gallium, as we have seen, was found by this means. The formula of its
oxide would be El_{2}O_{3}; the oxide of gallium is best represented by
Ga_{2}O_{3}.

The salts would have the general formula ElX_{3}; the salts of gallium
have most probably the general formula GaX_{3}. It will form an alum
isomorphous with common alum, this we have seen gallium does. Its salts
would be precipitable by barium carbonate; the gallium salts are thrown
down by this reagent. It would not oxidise in the air; gallium does not
tarnish upon exposure to the air. It would decompose water at a red heat;
gallium readily does this at high temperatures. Its specific gravity (and
this is very remarkable) would be about 5·9; gallium has a specific
gravity of 5·93. Its atomic weight would be about 68; that of gallium is
69·9.

The hypothetical _Eka aluminium_ of Mendelejeff appears therefore to
correspond with the gallium of Boisbaudran.

=GALLS.= _Syn._ GALL-NUTS, NUT-GALLS; GALLA (B. P.); GALLÆ (Ph. E.).
“Excrescences on _Quercus infectoria_ caused by the puncture and deposited
ova of _Diplolepis Gallæ tinctoriæ_.” The best galls are blueish-black,
heavy, and not yet perforated; intensely astringent. They are imported
from Aleppo, and are known in commerce as black or blue galls (GALLÆ
NIGRÆ, G. CŒRULÆ). The next quality is termed, from their colour, green
galls (GALLÆ VIRIDES). Both are gathered before the insect has escaped,
and are styptic and powerfully astringent. White galls (GALLÆ ALBÆ) are
lighter, less astringent, and inferior.

_Uses, &c._ Galls are extensively employed in the art of dyeing, and
constitute one of the principal ingredients in all the shades of black,
and are also employed to fix or improve several other colours. A decoction
of galls, to which a little green copperas and gum Arabic has been added,
forms common writing ink. In _medicine_ they are used as an astringent, in
hæmorrhages and fluxes, in doses of 10 to 20 gr.; and topically, under the
form of infusion or decoction, as a gargle in relaxation of the uvula; as
an injection in gleet and leucorrhœa; as a lotion or fomentation in flabby
ulcers, prolapsus ani, &c.; and as an ointment in piles, watery ulcers,
&c. The infusion or decoction is also used as an antidote to poisoning by
the alkaloids, and was formerly given as a tonic in intermittents. See
GALLIC ACID, INK, &c.

=GALL′STONE.= _Syn._ CALCULUS BILIOSUS, C. CYSTICUS BOVINUS, L. Formed in
the gall-bladder of neat cattle in winter, when they are fed upon dry
food. Used as a yellow pigment, and in medicine——_Dose_, 1 gr.; in
dyspepsia and flatulency. Man is also subject to gall-stone, the presence
or passage of which is attended with the most acute pain, frequently
accompanied with nausea and sickness. In no case should a patient
suffering from a paroxysm such as above described delay to seek immediate
medical aid. The following treatment is recommended for the benefit of
those only who, like emigrants and others, may be unable to obtain
professional assistance.

The pain and spasm should be endeavoured to be alleviated by full doses of
laudanum, given in soda water. If there be much sickness, the laudanum
should be given in the form of an enema. If the paroxysm be excessive, the
cautious inhalation of ether or chloroform should be tried. When the pain
is of long duration, leeching should be had recourse to. Ice applied
freely to the pit of the stomach has sometimes been found to give relief.
See CALCULUS.

=GALV′ANIZED IRON.= See IRON and ZINCING.

=GAM′BOGE.= _Syn._ (CAMBOGE; CAMBOGIA, L. B. P.) GAMBOGIA, L. “A gum-resin
obtained from _Garcinia Morella_.” (B. P.) Gamboge is an active hydragogue
and drastic purgative, which occasionally proves useful in torpor of the
abdominal and pelvic viscera; but which is highly dangerous in an
irritable or inflammatory state of the stomach or bowels, and during
pregnancy. It is very apt to induce nausea and vomiting. In large
quantities it is a violent poison. “The deaths which have occurred from
the use of enormous quantities of Morrison’s pills are mainly ascribable
to the gamboge contained in those medicines.” (Pereira.)——_Dose_, 1 to 5
gr., made into pills or mixture, every 4 to 6 hours; in obstinate
constipation, in dropsies, in apoplexy and like cerebral affections, and
in worms (especially tape-worm), either alone or combined with other
cathartics. See COMPOUND EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH.

=GAME.= The flesh of game is believed to possess strengthening qualities
superior to that of poultry. It also contains less fat. Game is tender and
easy of digestion, and it has a delicate and marked flavour. It forms a
valuable diet for the invalid, by reason of its easy digestibility.

Respecting the choice and preservation of game, Eliza Acton writes——“Buck
venison, which is in season only from June to Michaelmas, is considered
finer than doe venison, which comes into the market in October, and
remains in season through November and December; neither should be cooked
at any other part of the year.

“The greater the depth of fat upon the haunch the better the quality of
the meat will be, provided it be clear and white, and the lean of a dark
hue.

“If the cleft of the hoof, which is always left on the joint, be small and
smooth, the animal is young; but it is old when the marks are the reverse
of these.[325] Although the haunch is the prime and favourite joint of
venison, the neck and shoulder are also excellent, dressed in various
ways, and make much-approved _pasties_. A free current of air in a larder
where venison is kept is always a great advantage.

[Footnote 325: Venison is not in perfection when young.]

“All moisture should be wiped daily, or even more frequently, from the
venison with soft cloths, when any appears upon the surface, and every
precaution must be taken to keep off the flies when the venison is not
hung in a wire safe. Black pepper thickly powdered on it will generally
answer the purpose.

“Hares and rabbits are stiff when freshly killed, and if young the ears
tear easily, and the claws are smooth and sharp. A hare in cold weather
will remain good for ten or fourteen days; care only must be taken to
prevent the inside from becoming musty, which it will do if it has been
emptied in the field. Pheasants, partridges, and other game, may be chosen
by nearly the same tests as poultry——by opening the bill the staleness
will be detected easily if they have been kept too long by the hardness of
the bill. With few exceptions game depends almost entirely for the fine
flavour and the tenderness of its flesh, on the time which it is allowed
to hang before it is cooked, and it is never good when very fresh; but it
does not follow that it should be sent to table in a really offensive
state.”

=Game, Hashed.= _Ingredients._——The remains of cold game, one onion stuck
with three cloves, a few whole peppers, a strip of lemon peel, salt to
taste, thickening of butter and flour, one glass of port wine, one
tablespoonful of lemon juice, one tablespoonful of ketchup, and one pint
of water or weak stock.

Proceed as follows:——Cut the remains of cold game into joints, reserve the
best pieces, and put the inferior ones and the trimmings into a stewpan
with the onion, pepper, lemon peel, salt, and water or weak stock; stew
these for about an hour, and strain the gravy; thicken it with butter and
flour; add the wine, lemon juice, and ketchup; lay in the pieces of game,
and place them by the side of the fire until they are warmed through,
avoiding boiling, otherwise the game will become too hard. Just on the
point of simmering serve, and garnish the dish with sippets of toasted
bread. _Time._ Altogether, an hour and a quarter.

⁂ The above recipe applies to any kind of game.

If desirable, the flavour may be varied by adding flavoured vinegars,
curry powder, &c.; these, however, cover the gamey taste of the dish, and
are, therefore, not to be recommended.

=Grouse, to Roast.= _Ingredients._——Grouse, butter, a thick slice of
toasted bread. _Mode._——Let the birds hang as long as possible; pluck and
draw them; wipe (but do not wash them) inside and out, and truss them
without the head, the same as for a roast fowl. Put them down to a sharp
clear fire, keep them well basted the whole of the time they are cooking,
and serve them on buttered toast, soaked in the dripping-pan, with a
little melted butter poured over them, or with bread sauce and gravy.
_Time._ Half an hour; if liked thoroughly done, thirty-five minutes.
Seasonable from the 12th of August to the beginning of December. (Mrs
Beeton.)

=Hare, Jugged.= _Ingredients._——One hare, a bunch of sweet herbs, two
onions, each stuck with three cloves, six whole allspice, half a
teaspoonful of black pepper, a strip of lemon peel, thickening of butter
and flour, two table-spoonfuls of mushroom ketchup, quarter of a pint of
port wine. _Mode._——Wash the hare nicely, cut it up into joints (not too
large), and flour and brown them; then put them into a stewpan with the
herbs, onions, cloves, allspice, pepper, and lemon peel; cover them with
hot water, and when it boils carefully remove all the scum, and let it
simmer gently till tender, which will be in about 1-3/4 hour, or longer
should the hare be very old. Take out the pieces of hare, thicken the
gravy with flour and butter, add the ketchup and port wine, let it boil
for about ten minutes, strain it through a sieve over the hare, and serve.
A few fried forcemeat balls should be added at the moment of serving, or,
instead of frying them, they may be stewed in the gravy, about ten minutes
before the hare is wanted for use. Do not omit to serve red-currant jelly
with it. _Time._ Altogether, two hours. Seasonable from September to the
end of February. (Mrs Beeton.)

=Hare, to Roast.= _Ingredients._——Hare, forcemeat, a little milk, and
butter. To be eaten in perfection, the hare must hang for some time. After
it is skinned wash it well, and soak it for an hour in warm water to draw
out the blood. Make a forcemeat, wipe the hare dry, fill the belly with
it, and sew it up. Bring the hind and fore legs close to the body towards
the head, run a skewer through each, fix the head between the shoulders by
means of another skewer, and be careful to leave the ears on. Put a string
round the body from skewer to skewer and tie it above the back.
_Mode._——The hare should be kept at a distance from the fire when it is
first laid down. Baste it well with milk for a short time, and afterwards
with butter; and particular attention must be paid to the basting, so as
to preserve the meat on the back juicy and nutritive. When it is almost
roasted enough, flour the hare, and baste well with butter. When nicely
frothed dish it, remove the skewers, and send it to table with a little
gravy in the dish, and a tureen of the same. Red-currant jelly must be
served with it. If the liver is good it may be parboiled, minced, and
mixed with the stuffing; but it should not be used unless quite fresh.
_Time._ A middling-sized hare an hour and a quarter; a large hare one and
a half to two hours. (Mrs Beeton.)

=Partridges, to Roast.= Let the birds hang as long as they can possibly be
kept without becoming offensive; pick them carefully, draw and singe them,
wipe the insides thoroughly with a clean cloth, truss them with the head
turned under the wing and the legs drawn close together, not crossed.
Flour them when first laid to the fire, and baste them plentifully with
butter. Serve them with bread sauce and good brown gravy; a little of this
last should be poured over them. _Time._ 30 or 40 minutes. In preparing
them for the spit the crop must be removed through a slit cut in the back
of neck, the claws clipped close, and the legs held in boiling water for a
minute, that they may be skinned more easily. (Eliza Acton.)

=Pheasant, to Roast.= Let it hang as many days as possible without
becoming tainted. Pluck off the feathers carefully, cut a slit in the back
of the neck to remove crop, then draw the bird in the usual way, and
either wipe the inside very clean with a damp cloth, or pour water through
it; wipe the outside also, but with a dry cloth; cut off the toes, turn
the head of the bird _under_ the wing, with the bill laid straight along
the breast; skewer the legs, which must not be crossed; flour the pheasant
well, lay it to a brisk fire, and baste it constantly and plentifully with
well-flavoured butter. Send bread sauce and good brown gravy to table with
it. _Time._ Three quarters of an hour, a few minutes less if liked very
much underdone, five or ten more for thorough roasting, with a _good_ fire
in both instances. In season from October to the end of January. (Eliza
Acton.)

=Rabbit, to Boil.= Rabbits that are three parts grown, or, at all events,
which are still quite young, should be chosen for boiling. Wash them well,
truss them firmly, with the heads turned and skewered to the sides, drop
them into sufficient boiling water to keep them quite covered until they
are cooked, and simmer them gently from thirty to forty-five minutes; when
_very_ young they will require even less time than this. Cover them with
rich white sauce mixed with livers parboiled, finely pounded, and well
seasoned with cayenne and lemon juice; or with white onion sauce, or with
parsley and butter, made with milk or cream instead of water (the livers,
minced, are often added to the last of these), or with good mushroom
sauce. _Time._ 30 to 45 minutes. (Eliza Acton.)

=Rabbit, to Roast.= This is much improved by having the backbone taken
out. When this is done line the inside with thin slices of bacon, fill it
with forcemeat, sew it up, truss, and roast it at a clear, brisk fire, and
baste it constantly with butter. Flour it well soon after it is laid down.
Serve it with good brown gravy, and with currant jelly, when this last is
liked. _Time._ 3/4 hour to 1 hour; less if small. (Eliza Acton.)

=Venison, Haunch of, to Roast.= To prepare the venison for the spit wash
it slightly with tepid water, or merely wipe it thoroughly with damp
cloths, and dry it afterwards with clean ones; then lay over the fat side
a large sheet of thickly-buttered paper, and next a paste of flour and
water about three quarters of an inch thick; cover this again with two or
three sheets of stout paper, secure the whole well with twine, and lay the
haunch to a sound, clear fire; baste the paper immediately with butter or
clarified dripping, and roast the joint from three hours and a half to
four and a half, according to its weight and quality. Doe venison will
require half an hour less time than buck. Twenty minutes before the joint
is done remove the paste and paper, baste the meat in every part with
butter, and dredge it very lightly with flour; let it take a pale-brown
colour, and send it to table as hot as possible, with gravy in a tureen
and good currant jelly. _Time._ 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 hours. The kind of gravy
appropriate to venison is a matter on which individual taste must decide.
(Eliza Acton.)

=Venison, Hashed.= _Ingredients._——The remains of roast venison, its own
or mutton gravy, thickening of butter and flour. _Mode._——Cut the meat
from the bones in neat slices, and, if there is sufficient of its own
gravy left, put the meat into this, as it is preferable to any other.
Should there not be enough put the bones and trimmings into a stewpan with
about a pint of mutton gravy; let them stew gently for an hour, and strain
the gravy. Put a little flour and butter into the stewpan, keep stirring
until brown, then add the strained gravy, and give it a boil up; skim and
strain again, and when a little cool put in the slices of venison. Place
the stewpan by the side of the fire, and when on the point of simmering
serve. Do not allow it to boil. Send red-currant jelly to table with it.
_Time._ Altogether, an hour and a half. A small quantity of Harvey sauce,
ketchup, or port wine, may be added to enrich the gravy.

=GAN′GRENE.= See MORTIFICATION.

=GAN′TEINE.= A composition used to clean kid and other leather gloves.

_Prep._ 1. (M. Buhan.) Curd soap (in small shavings), 1 part; water, 3
parts; mix with heat, and stir in of essence of citron, 1 part.

2. (SAPONINE,——Duvignau.) Soap (in powder), 250 parts; water, 155 parts;
dissolve with heat, cool, and add, of _eau de javelle_, 165 parts,
solution of ammonia, 10 parts, and rub the whole to a smooth paste.
Patent. A small portion of either of the above is rubbed over the glove
with a piece of flannel (always in one direction), until it is
sufficiently clean. See GLOVES.

=GARAN′CINE.= See MADDER RED.

=GAR′DENING.= See HORTICULTURE.

=GAR′GLE.= _Syn._ GARGARISM, THROATWASH; GARGARISMA, GARGARISMUS,
GARGARISMUM, L. A liquid medicine applied to the back part of the mouth or
upper part of the throat. Gargles are applied by allowing a small mouthful
to run as much as possible over the affected part, by holding the head
backwards and breathing through it, by which means the liquid is agitated
and its action promoted.

Gargles are not to be swallowed. It often happens, however, that patients,
either by accident or from negligence, do swallow a certain quantity,
notwithstanding the instructions given them to the contrary. Care should
therefore be taken to avoid making gargles of such substances as may
occasion unpleasant symptoms in small doses, though they may not, perhaps,
amount to poisoning.

Gargles usually have for their basis either simple water, or milk, wine,
or vinegar, diluted with water, to which, in both cases, sugar, honey, or
syrup is generally added. Their other ingredients vary with the
indication, but must, in all cases, be either in the liquid form, or
soluble in the liquid used as the excipient.

Gargles are commonly dispensed in mixture bottles. The quantity used at a
time, under ordinary circumstances, may be about 2-3rds of a
wine-glassful.

=Gargle.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA, G. COMMUNE, G. SIMPLEX, L. _Prep._ 1. (St. B.
Hosp.) Honey or honey of roses, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; strong vinegar, 2-1/2 fl.
oz.; barley water, 1 pint.

2. (St. George’s.) Oxymel, 1 fl. dr.; decoction of barley, 5 fl. dr. In
common sore throats, &c. The formulæ of several other hospitals are
similar.

=Gargle of Ac′etate of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ GARGARISMS AMMONIÆ ACETATIS, L.
_Prep._ (Wendt.) Solution of acetate of ammonia and honey of roses, of
each 1 fl. oz.; elder-flower water, 8 fl. oz.; mix. In the ulcerated sore
throat of scarlet fever.

=Gargle of Acetate of Manganese.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA MANGANESII ACETATIS.
_Prep._ Acetate of Manganese, 1 drachm; water, 7 fluid ounces; clarified
honey, 1 oz. The chloride and sulphate of manganese are also used, about
1/2 drachm or 2 scruples to 6 oz. of barley water.

=Gargle of Ace′tic Acid.= _Syn._ OXYMEL GARGLE; GARGARISMA ACIDI ACETICI,
L. _Prep._ 1. (St. B. Hosp.) Acetic acid, 1 dr.; oxymel, 2 fl. dr.; water
to make up 4 fl. oz.

2. Barley water, 12 fl. oz.; acetic acid, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; honey, 6 dr.
Antiseptic. For sore throat.

=Gargle of Aluminium Chloride.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA ALUMINII CHLORIDI.
_Prep._ (Throat Hosp.) Solution of chloride of aluminium 12 minims, water
1 fl. oz. Astringent and antiseptic.

=Gargle of Al′um.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA ALUMINIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Augustin.)
Oak-bark (in powder), 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, filter,
cool, and add, of alum, 1/2 dr.; brandy, 2 fl. oz. In inflammation of the
mouth and throat.

2. (Cavarra.) Alum, 3 dr.; water, 6 fl. oz.; dissolve. In offensive
breath.

3. (Foy.) Alum, 1 dr.; tincture of myrrh, 2 fl. dr.; tincture of bark, 4
fl. dr.; honey of roses, 2 oz.; laudanum, 20 drops; wine, 2/3 pint. In
scurvy.

4. (Grant.) Alum, 1 oz.; tincture of myrrh, 1/2 fl. oz.; peppermint water,
7 fl. oz. In relaxation of the uvula, &c.

5. (Mid. Hosp.) Alum, 1 dr.; honey, 2 dr.; water to make 6 fl. oz. As No.
4.

6. (P. Cod.) Alum, 40 gr.; honey of roses, 1 oz.; infusion of roses, 6 fl.
oz. As the last.

7. (Ratier.) Alum, 1 oz.; infusion of red roses and barley water, of each
3 fl. oz.; honey of roses, 2 oz. As No. 4.

8. (Westm. Hosp.) Alum, 1 dr.; dilute sulphuric acid, 1 fl. dr.; treacle,
4 dr.; water to 15 fl. oz.

9. (Ph. Wirtem.) Alum and nitre, of each 3 oz.; cream of tartar, 4 oz.;
dilute acetic acid, 4 lbs.; dissolve, evaporate to dryness, and powder the
residuum. For use, 1/2 oz. of the powder is dissolved in water, 8 fl. oz.
Highly recommended in inflammation of the fauces and tonsils. This forms
Zobel’s ‘SPECIFIC FOR QUINSY,’

=Gargle, Antiscorbu′tic.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA ANTISCORBUTICUM, L. _Prep._
(P. Cod.) Bitter species, 1 dr.; boiling water, 8 oz.; macerate 1 hour,
strain, and add, syrup of honey, 2 oz.; antiscorbutic tincture, 1 oz.

=Gargle, Antisep′tic.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA ANTISEPTICUM, L. _Prep._ (Fr.
Hosp.) Decoction of bark, 6 oz.; camphor, 20 gr.; sal-ammoniac, 12 gr. In
putrid sore throat, &c.

=Gargle, Astrin′gent.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA ASTRINGENS, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Collier.) Tincture of galls, 2 fl. dr.; honey, 1/2 oz.; water, 6 fl. oz.
In relaxation of the uvula and fauces.

2. (Collier.) Honey, 4 dr.; tincture of myrrh, 3 dr.; powdered alum, 40
gr.; compound infusion of roses, 5-1/2 fl. oz. As the last, and in fetid
sore throat.

3. (Sir A. Cooper.) Alum, 2 dr.; decoction of bark, 12 oz.; honey of
roses, 1-1/2 oz.

4. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Infusion of roses, 7 fl. oz.; dilute sulphuric
acid, 1 fl. dr.; tincture of catechu, 6 fl. dr.; laudanum, 1-1/2 fl. dr.
For relaxation of the uvula. See GARGLE OF ALUM.

=Gargle of Bo′′rax.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA BORACIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ellis.)
Borax, 1 dr.; tincture of myrrh, 4 fl. dr.; clarified honey, 1 fl. oz.;
rose water, 4 fl. oz.

2. (Fr. Hosp.) Borax, 2 dr.; honey or capillaire, 1 oz.; rose water, 7 fl.
oz.

3. (Guy’s Hosp.) Borax, 2 dr.; honey of roses, 1 oz.; barley water, 7 fl.
oz.

4. (Mid. Hosp.) Borax, 1 dr.; simply oxymel, 2 dr.; water to make 3 fl.
oz. The above are used in thrush or aphthous sore mouth, ptyalism, &c.

=Gargle of Bromide of Potassium.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA POTASSII BROMIDI.
_Prep._ (Throat Hosp.) Bromide of potassium, 10 grains; water, 1 fl. oz.
Sedative.

=Gargle of Cap′sicum.= _Syn._ GARGLE OF CAYENNE PEPPER; GARGARISMA
CAPSICI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Griffith.) Tincture of capsicum, 1/2 fl. oz.;
rose water, 8 fl. oz.

2. (St. B. Hosp.)——_a._ Capsicum, 3 dr.; common salt, 1 oz.; boiling
water, 1 pint; macerate for 12 hours, strain, and add of distilled
vinegar, 1 pint.

_b._ Tincture of capsicum, 1 fl. dr.; compound infusion of roses, 8 fl.
oz.

3. (U. C. Hosp.) Tincture of capsicum, 1 fl. dr.; honey, 6 dr.; water to 4
fl. oz. Used in ulcerated sore throat, scarlet fever, &c.

=Gargle of Carbolic Acid.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA ACIDI CARBOLICI. _Prep._
(Throat Hosp.). Carbolic acid, 2 gr.; glycerin, 25 minims; water, 1 fluid
ounce. Stimulant and antiseptic.

=Gargle of Chlo′′rate of Potas′sa.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA POTASSÆ CHLORATIS,
L. _Prep._ (Beasley.) Chlorate of potassa, 1 dr.; honey of roses, 1 oz.;
water, 7 oz. Used in malignant sore throat, scarlatina, &c.

=Gargle of Chlo′′ride of Lime.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA CALCIS CHLORINATÆ, L.
_Prep._ From chloride of lime, 1 dr.; water, 1/2 pint; agitate together
for 10 minutes, filter through linen, and add of simple syrup, 1 fl. oz.
Used in putrid sore throat, scarlet fever, &c.

=Gargle of Chloride of So′da.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA SODÆ CHLORINATÆ, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Copland.) Liquor of chloride of soda, 12 fl. dr.; honey, 1/2
oz.; water, 6 fl. oz.

2. (Hosp. Form.) Chlorinated solution of soda, 4 fl. dr.; water to 4 fl.
oz. Used as the last.

=Gargle of Chlo′′rine Water.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA CHLORINII, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Fr. Hosp.) Chlorine water, 1/2 fl. oz.; syrup, 1 fl. oz.; water, 4-1·2
fl. oz.

2. (Mid. Hosp.) Chlorine water, 2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 10 fl. oz.
_Use._ As the last.

=Gargle of Cincho′na Bark.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA CINCHONÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From
decoction of cinchona, 7 fl. oz.; simple oxymel, 1 fl. oz. Antiseptic and
astringent in relaxation, &c.

2. (Acidulated; GARGARISMA CINCHONÆ ACIDUS, L.) Hydrochloric acid, 1-1/2
fl. dr.; honey, 1-1/2 oz.; decoction of bark to make up 8 fl. oz.

=Gargle, Com′mon.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA COMMUNE, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ed. Hosp.)
Water, 6 fl. oz.; nitre, 1 dr.; honey of roses, 1 oz. For ordinary sore
throat, &c.

2. (Lond. Hosp.) Alum, 1 dr.; dilute sulphuric acid, 2 fl. dr.; tincture
of myrrh, 4 fl. dr.; water to 12 fl. oz.

=Gargle of Cy′anide of Mercury.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA HYDRARGYRI CYANIDI, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Brera.) Cyanide of mercury, 10 gr.; honey of roses, 1 oz.;
barley water, 1 pint.

2. (Cullerier.) Cyanide of mercury, 10 gr.; linseed tea, 1 pint. Used in
the same cases as mercurial gargle.

=Gargle, Deter′gent.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA DETERGENS, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.)
Alcoholised sulphuric acid, 1 fl. dr.; honey of roses, 2 oz.; barley
water, 8 oz.

2. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Nitre, 2 dr.; honey of roses, 4 fl. dr.; infusion
of roses, 5-1/2 fl. oz. In inflammatory sore throat.

=Gargle, Emol′lient.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA EMOLLIENS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Buchan.)
Marshmallow root, 1 oz.; figs, 2 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint and
strain. Demulcent, soothing.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Barley water, 8 oz.; honey, 1-1/2 oz. Both are
used in inflammatory affections of the throat and mouth.

=Gargle of Horserad′ish.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA ARMORACIÆ, L. _Prep._
(Collier.) Compound spirit of horseradish, 1 fl. oz.; honey, 2 oz.; water,
4 fl. oz. A good gargle for scurvy of the fauces and pharynx, vulgarly
called the ‘inward scurvy.’

=Gargle of Hydrochlo′′ric Acid.= _Syn._ MURIATIC ACID GARGLE; GARGARISMA
ACIDI HYDROCHLORICI. L. _Prep._ 1. (Guy’s Hosp.) Hydrochloric acid, 30
drops; honey of roses, 2 oz.; barley water, 6 fl. oz.

2. (Ratier.) Hydrochloric acid, 2 fl. dr.; clarified honey, 2 fl. oz.;
barley water, 1 pint.

3. (St. B. Hosp.) Red-rose leaves, 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint;
hydrochloric acid, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; digest 1 hour, and strain. In
inflammatory sore throat, ulcerations of the mouth, scarlet fever, &c.

=Gargle of I′odine.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA IODINII, L. _Prep._ 1. Iodine, 10
gr.; iodide of potassium, 12 gr.; rectified spirit and simple syrup, of
each, 1 fl. oz.; water, 5 fl. oz. In chronic enlargement of the tonsils,
in scrofulous habits.

2. (Dr Ross.) Tincture of iodine, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; tincture of opium, 1 fl.
dr.; water, 6 fl. oz.

3. (St. T. Hosp.) Compound tincture of iodine, 2 fl. dr.; water, 5 fl. oz.
In ulceration of the tonsils.

=Gargle, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA HYDRARGYRI, G. MERCURIALE, L.
_Prep._ 1. (G. HYD. BICHLORIDI.) Corrosive sublimate, 2 to 5 gr.; barley
water, 1 pint; honey of roses, 2 fl. oz. For syphilitic ulcers in the
throat.

2. (Plenck.) Calomel, 6 gr.; quicksilver, 30 gr.; powdered gum, 3 dr.;
syrup of poppies, 1/2 oz.; triturate till the globules of metal disappear,
and add of decoction of clematis, 26 fl. oz.; honey of roses, 1 oz.;
essence of myrrh, 1 dr. (or tincture of myrrh, 1 fl. oz.). In syphilitic
and putrid sore throat.

=Gargle of Mustard.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA SINAPIS. _Prep._ (Fleury). Black
mustard seed, bruised 4 ounces; salt, 4 scruples; vinegar, 8 scruples;
warm water, 7 ounces. Digest and filter.

=Gargle of Myrrh.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA MYRRHÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ainslie.)
Tincture of myrrh, 6 fl. dr.; vinegar, 1 fl. dr.; honey of roses, 1-1/2
fl. oz.; barley water, 12 fl. oz.

2. (Ph. Chirur.) Tincture of myrrh, 1/2 oz.; honey of roses, 1-1/2 oz.;
lime water, 6 fl. oz. In scarlatina and putrid sore throat. See ASTRINGENT
GARGLE, &c.

=Gargle of Ni′tre.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA SALIS NITRI, G. POTASSÆ NITRATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Nitre, 2 dr.; honey or syrup, 1/2 oz.; rose water, 5-1/2 fl.
oz.

2. (Brande.) Nitre, 2 dr.; oxymel, 1 fl. oz.; barley water, 7 fl. oz. In
inflammatory sore throat. See COMMON GARGLE.

=Gargle of Oak-Bark.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA CORTICIS QUERCÛS, L. _Prep._ 1.
Oak-bark, 2 dr.; boiling water, 6 fl. oz.; macerate 1 hour, and strain.

2. (Ellis.) Decoction of oak-bark, 1 pint; alum, 1/2 dr.; brandy, 2 fl.
oz. In chronic sore throat, relaxation of the uvula, &c.

=Gargle of Oxide of Manganese.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA MANGANESII OXIDI.
_Prep._ (Pareira). Black oxide of manganese, 2 dr.; decoction of barley, 5
fl. oz.

=Gargle of Pel′litory.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA PYRETHRI. _Prep._ 1. Pellitory
root, 4 dr.; water, 16 fl. oz.; boil to 8 fl. oz., and add of liquor of
ammonia 2 fl. dr.

2. (Swediaur.) Infusion of pellitory, 1 pint; vinegar, 3 fl. oz.;
sal-ammoniac, 3 dr. To promote the maturation and healing of throat
ulcers.

=Gargle of Permanganate of Potash.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA POTASSÆ
PERMANGANATIS. _Prep._ (Throat Hosp.) Solution of permanganate of potash
(B. P.), 6 minims; distilled water, 1 fl. oz. Antiseptic.

=Gargle of Ro′′ses.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA ROSÆ, G. ROSARUM, L. _Prep._
(Kendrick.) Conserve of roses, 3 oz.; boiling water, 16 fl. oz.; infuse 1
hour; add of dilute sulphuric acid, 2 fl. dr., and strain. Antiseptic,
astringent; used in several indications.

=Gargle of Subacetate of Lead.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA PLUMBI SUBACETATIS.
_Prep._ (Ratier.) Liquid subacetate of lead, 1/2 dr.; barley water, 1 lb.;
syrup, 1 fl. oz.

=Gargle of Turpentine.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA TEREBINTHINATUM. _Prep._
(Geddings.) Oil of turpentine, 2 dr.; mucilage, 6-1/2 fl. oz. In
salivation.

=Gargle, Spirit.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA SPIRITUOSUM, G. SPIRITÛS VINI, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Dr Watson.) French brandy, 1 fl. oz.; water, 1/4 pint.

2. (St. George’s.) Proof spirit, 1 fl. oz.; oxymel, 5 fl. dr.; decoction
of barley, to make up 6 fl. oz. In relaxations and salivation.

=Gargle, Stim′ulant.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA STIMULANS, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Copland.) Infusion of roses, 6-1/2 fl. oz.; dilute hydrochloric acid, 40
drops; tincture of capsicum, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; honey, 3 dr. See GARGLE OF
CAPSICUM.

=Gargle of Tan′nin.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA ACIDI TANNICI, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Beral.) Tannin, 1 dr.; honey of roses, 2 oz.; rose water, 2 fl. oz.;
distilled water, 8 fl. oz.

2. (Jannart.) As the last, but using only half the quantity of tannin. In
salivation and aphthous ulcerations.

=Gargle of Verd′igris.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA ÆRUGINUS, G. CUPRI ACETATIS, L.
_Prep._ (Guy’s Hosp.) Oxymel of verdigris, 4 dr.; honey of roses, 2 oz.;
barley water, 3-1/2 fl. oz. Used as a detergent for ulcers in the throat.
If swallowed it produces violent vomiting. The addition of 2-1/2 oz. of
water to the above produces a gargle sufficiently strong for most cases.

=Gargle of Vin′egar.= See GARGLE OF ACETIC ACID.

=Gargle of Zinc.= _Syn._ GARGARISMA ZINCI, G. Z. SULPHATIS, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Copland.) Sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; oxymel, 1 fl. oz.; rose water, 7 fl.
oz. In aphthous sores, relaxations, ulceration of the tonsils, &c.

=GAR′LIC.= _Syn._ ALLIUM, L. The _Allium sativum_ of botanists. It is
diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant, and tonic; and externally,
irritant, rubefacient, and even vesicant.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 1-1/2 dr.;
in enfeebled digestion, chronic diarrhœa, old chronic coughs, atonic
dropsies, and worms. An antispasmodic and counter-irritant liniment is
made of the juice, which was formerly esteemed in chest diseases and
infantile convulsions. A small clove of garlic, or a few drops of the
juice, was formerly introduced into the ear in certain forms of deafness.
As a condiment its properties resemble those of the onion, than which it
is much more powerful.

=GAR′NET.= In _mineralogy_, one of the precious stones or gems. The finest
specimens of noble garnet (SYRIAN or ORIENTAL GARNET) are brought from
Pegu. According to chemical analysis, the garnet is a double silicate of
alumina and lime, coloured with iron and manganese.

=Garnet, Facti′′tious.= See PASTES.

=GA′RUM.= [L.] A species of pickle or sauce prepared of fish, in a state
of incipient putrefaction, strongly salted and seasoned with aromatics.
According to Pliny, the Romans used a species of lobster for this purpose.

=GAS.= _Syn._ GAZ, Fr. A permanently elastic aëriform fluid. In English
the term ‘air’ is now usually restricted to the gaseous mixture forming
the atmosphere, but it was formerly used as a synonym for ‘gas.’ The
principal gases are the elementary bodies hydrogen, chlorine, oxygen and
nitrogen, and the compounds ammonia, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide,
carburetted hydrogen, hydrochloric acid, phosphoretted hydrogen, protoxide
of nitrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphurous acid. See these
substances under their respective heads.

=Gas.= _Syn._ COAL GAS, ILLUMINATING G. The term ‘gas’ is popularly
applied to the important mixture of hydrocarbons produced by the
destructive distillation of pit-coal, and now employed as a source of
artificial light in most of large towns of Europe and America. Although
artificial illumination by means of coal-gas was, previous to 1819, used
in Great Britain in isolated cases, and had been employed for the
occasional lighting up of the mansion of Culrose Abbey in Scotland, by
Lord Dundonald, as far back as 1787; and by Murdoch, in 1798, for lighting
the foundry of Boulton and Watts in Soho, it does not appear to have been
generally adopted in London, and the other large towns of England and
Scotland until that year; since which time to the present artificial gas
illumination has steadily progressed, and increased to so enormous an
extent, that some works are now delivering millions of cubic feet of
coal-gas a day. The apparatus used in the manufacture of gas on the large
scale consists essentially of a system of closed retorts (_a_) of cast
iron or fire-clay, generally having the form of a flattened cylinder, and
arranged in sets of three or five, and heated by the same coal fire, as
shown in the accompanying drawing.

[Illustration]

The quantity of coal required to charge each retort is about two bushels,
and it takes about four hours for the coal to give off all its gas. When
it has done this the resulting coke is removed from the retort, and a
fresh charge of coal is thrown into it, the mouth of the retort being then
closed with a thick iron plate, and luted with clay. An iron pipe ascends
from the upper side of the front of the retort, projecting from the
furnace, and after describing a curve at its upper extremity, this iron
pipe opens into a much wider tube, called the _hydraulic main_ (_b_),
which latter passes horizontally along the front of the range of furnaces,
the tubes from all the retorts dipping into it. The hydraulic main is
always kept half full of the water and the tar which condenses from the
ascending gas; owing to which arrangement the opening into each retort is
effectually closed by a water-valve, and thus permits a fresh charge of
coals to be thrown in, and of coke to be withdrawn in any one or more of
the retorts, without interfering with the distillation going on in the
others.

The aqueous portion of the liquid deposited in the hydraulic main, which
is known as the _ammoniacal liquor_, and forms the principal source of the
commercial salts of ammonia, consists principally of solution of carbonate
of ammonium, but contains also sulphide, cyanide, and sulphocyanide of
ammonium. After it leaves the hydraulic main, the gas passes into the
_condenser_ (_e_), which is composed of a series of bent iron tubes (shown
in the plate), these being kept cool either by the large surface they
expose to the air, or, if necessary, by means of a stream of cold water
applied to the outside.

Any of the volatile hydrocarbons or salts of ammonia escaping condensation
in the hydraulic main are arrested in the condensers, but not always;
hence it is necessary to afterwards carry the gas through a _scrubber_
(not figured in the plate) or case containing pieces of coke, over which a
stream of water being made to trickle, absorbs any remaining ammoniacal
vapours. The gas next passes through the _lime purifier_ (_f_), an iron
box fitted with shelves, on which is placed slaked lime, which absorbs the
carbonic acid, and part, but not the whole of, the sulphuretted hydrogen
contained in the gas. Of the many methods devised for the removal of the
sulphuretted hydrogen, none appears to be so successful and economical as
that which consists in passing the gas over a mixture of sulphate of iron,
slaked lime, and sawdust.

The gas, after it has become purified by the foregoing processes, is
passed into the gasometer (_g_) (part of which is represented in the
plate), whence it passes into the mains, by which it is conveyed to the
various condensers. Another prejudicial impurity formed in gas is carbon
disulphide, which when burned gives rise to small quantities of sulphuric
acid, and this in time attacks certain kinds of furniture, as well as the
bindings of books.

Dr Angus Smith effects the removal of the disulphide by passing the gas
through a solution of plumbic oxide in caustic soda, diffused through
sawdust.

The quality of coal-gas is largely dependent upon the temperature employed
in its manufacture. If the retorts are insufficiently heated, the result
will be the formation of certain easily-condensable hydrocarbons, which
not only diminish the bulk of the gas, but cause considerable
inconvenience by collecting in and blocking up the pipes. On the contrary,
should too much heat be used, the gas becomes partially decomposed by
contact with the red-hot retort, and deposits on its sides the substance
known as “gas carbon,” thus not only removing to a certain extent the
constituent to which the gas owes its illuminating power, but
impoverishing its lighting qualities still more, by diluting it with an
unnecessary quantity of liberated hydrogen. These latter effects are
forcibly illustrated in the following analysis of the gas collected from
Wigan cannel coal at different periods of the distillation.

The best gas is said to be produced when the retorts are heated to a
bright cherry red.

  In 100 Volumes.                      1st Hour.  5th Hour.  10th Hour.

  Olefiant gas and volatile hydro-carbons   13·0     7·0       0·0
  Marsh gas                                 82·5    56·0      20·0
  Carbonic oxide                             3·2    11·0      10·0
  Hydrogen                                   0·0    21·3      60·0
  Nitrogen                                   1·3     4·7      10·0

“The value of gas as an illuminating agent may be said to depend on the
amount of hydrocarbons present, and on the relation which the carbon bears
to the hydrogen in these substances. In marsh gas, CH_{4}, which is,
practically speaking, non-luminous, the per-centage composition is, carbon
75, and hydrogen 25. In olefiant gas, C_{2}H_{4}, the carbon is 85·7, and
the hydrogen 14·3, and the gas possesses a correspondingly greater amount
of illuminating value. In acetylene, C_{2}H_{2}, we have a gas of still
greater illuminating value, the proportion of carbon to hydrogen being
also greater, the per-centage composition being, carbon 92·3, and hydrogen
7·7. In benzol, C_{6}H_{6}, we have the same per-centages; while in
naphthalene, C_{10}H_{8}, a still higher ratio between the carbon and
hydrogen exists, and a corresponding increased value in light-giving
power. It was formerly taken as an axiom that the illuminating value of a
mixture of gases was also proportionate to the relation between the carbon
and hydrogen, but although this is very good as a rough criterion in
practice, the statement must not be accepted as strictly true. The
illuminating power of a mixture of gases is known now to depend far more
on the nature of the particular compounds present, than upon the absolute
proportion between the hydrogen and carbon; for while on the one hand it
is possible to have a gas (marsh gas) containing as much as 75·4 per cent.
of carbon, and yet which is valueless for illuminating purposes; it is
also possible to have a mixture of gases in which the per-centage of
carbon is far less, although the illuminating value is much greater.”[326]

[Footnote 326: ‘Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and
Analytical,’——Mackenzie.]

Coal gas consists of a mixture of the following bodies:

  Marsh gas (light carbonetted hydrogen).
  Olefiant gas (heavy   ”          ”   ).
  Hydrogen.
  Carbonic oxide.
  Nitrogen.
  Vapours of liquid hydro-carbons.
  Vapour of bisulphide of carbon.

The yield of gas, and also the illuminating power of the product, vary
greatly with different kinds of coal. The average yield may be roughly
estimated at 10,000 cubic feet of gas per ton of coal.[327]

[Footnote 327: For practical details respecting the manufacture of this
product, see the article COAL GAS in ‘Ure’s Dictionary of Arts,
Manufactures, &c.,’ ‘Wagner’s Chemical Technology,’ and ‘Chemistry,
Theoretical, Practical, and Analytical.’]

Anthracite is by no means suited for a gas coal. The best coals for this
purpose are those which are bituminous; they comprise caking coal, parrot
coal, and certain varieties of cannel coal. London gas (which is generally
deficient in illuminating power) is manufactured principally from Durham
and Newcastle coal.

In addition to the elementary composition of the coal, the amount and
nature of the volatile matter contained in it is an important factor in
its value as a source for gas. It should also yield a small amount of ash,
and be as free as possible from sulphur, besides which its ultimate
analysis should show a comparatively small proportion of oxygen. If there
be an excess of this latter element, the production of the hydrocarbon
illuminants will be diminished, since the hydrogen which would go to their
formation would unite with the oxygen to form useless water.

The late Charles Mansfield proposed to increase the illuminating power of
ordinary coal-gas, and to render water gas or even atmospheric air
luminiferous, by passing them through sponges or over trays containing
mineral naphtha or benzole; and a patent was taken out for this purpose.
The gas so treated imbibes or dissolves a portion of the liquid, and burns
with increased brilliancy. The method of saturating the gas with the
liquid hydrocarbon is as follows:——“The apparatus consists of a brass
reservoir or chamber attached to the end of the gas-pipe, near the burner.
This reservoir may be in the shape of an oil-flask, made air-tight, with a
screw-joint, or other means of supplying any highly volatile oil,
turpentine, or mineral naphtha, and should be kept about half full. Into
this reservoir the gas-pipe ascends a little above the surface of the oil;
a very small jet-pipe of gas, regulated by a stop-cock, is branched off
below this chamber, to supply a minute flame, so as to cause a sufficient
evaporation from the oil to unite with the gas in the flask receiver. The
whole is, of course, surmounted with the usual burner and lamp-glass.”

The naphthalising of gas did not work well on a large scale. Recently,
however, an attempt was made to get up a company in England to work a
French patented process, which differed only from that of Mansfield’s in
the substitution of another hydrocarbon (probably a petroleum product) for
benzol. The chemical and technical journals exposed this invention, and
prevented the sinking of capital in a worthless undertaking. On a small
scale, simple ‘naphthalisers’ appear to work very well.

The illuminating power of gas, as well as of other sources of light, may
be directly ascertained by what is termed the ‘comparison of shadows,’ or
indirectly, and more conveniently, by chemical analysis.[328] See AIR GAS,
ILLUMINATION.

[Footnote 328: See ‘Watts’s Dictionary of Chemistry,’ vol. i.]

=GASTROPHAN= (Apotheker J. Fürst, Prague). For strengthening the digestion
and improving the appetite. Quassia, 30 grammes; orange berries, 15
grammes; galangal, 4 grammes; cardamoms, 2 grammes; star anise oil, 10
drops; orange-peel oil, 10 drops; spirit, 180 grammes; water, 120 grammes;
digested and filtered. (Hager.)

=GASTROPHILE= (Dr Borchard). There are several numbers of this
preparation. Soda water, containing common salt, perhaps in some of the
numbers mixed with Glauber’s salts.

=GAZ′OGENE.= [Fr.] _Syn._ AËRATING MACHINE. A portable apparatus for
aërating water and other liquids. Many forms have been given to this
instrument, but in all the principle is the same. Powders for generating
carbonic acid gas are placed in a separate compartment, and the liquid to
be aërated in another. The two compartments are connected by a suitable
tube, and a second tube, furnished with a spring tap, affords an exit for
the aërated liquid. By the aid of the gazogene, water, wine, ale, &c., may
in a few minutes be fully saturated with carbonic acid gas, and so
rendered brisk and piquant. By using fruit syrups, manufactured from
English and foreign fruits, the most delicious aërated summer beverages
can be made, resembling those so much esteemed by travellers in the South
of Europe and the sea-board cities of the Western world.

The following are the proportions of soda and acid required for charging
gazogenes:

For 2 pints, powdered tartaric acid, 280 grains; bicarbonate of soda, 340
grains.

For 3 pints, powdered tartaric acid, 340 grains; bicarbonate of soda, 420
grains.

For 5 pints, tartaric acid, 620 grains; carbonate of soda, 760 grains.

Put the acid and soda in different coloured papers.

=GEDACHTNISS-LIMONADE——Mnemonic Lemonade= (manufactured by G. M. Raufer,
Vienna). A mixture of 15 parts phosphoric acid, 15 parts glycerin, 70
parts water. (Schädler.)

=GEHOR INSTRUMENT.= Instrument for deafness (Apotheker F. Brunner,
Troppau). A little tube of silver plate, 2 centimètres long and as thick
as a straw, with a small mussel-shaped widening at one end, which is
wrapped in cotton wool, to be inserted in the ear.

=GEHOR LIQUOR=, Schweizer——Swiss Cure for Deafness (Raudnitz). Water mixed
with a little coarse brandy. (Wittstein.)

=GEHOROL——Oil for Deafness= (C. Brockelmann, Soest). Provence oil
adulterated with sunflower oil and mixed with very small traces of camphor
and cajeput, sassafras, and rosemary oils. (Hager.)

=GEL′ATIN.= _Syn._ GELATINE; GÉLATINE, Fr.; GELATINA, L. Animal jelly,
obtained by the prolonged action of boiling water on the organic tissue of
the bones, tendons, and ligaments, the cellular tissue, the skin, and the
serous membranes. Glue and size are coarse varieties of gelatin, prepared
from hoofs, hides, skins, &c.; and isinglass is a purer kind, obtained
from the air bladders of some other membranes of fish.

_Prop., &c._ Gelatin is insoluble in cold water, but dissolves with
greater or less readiness on the application of heat, according to the
source where it is obtained, and in this state forms a tremulous and
transparent jelly on cooling; it is insoluble in both alcohol and ether,
and is decomposed by the strong alkalies and acids; with tannic acid it
forms an insoluble compound of a buff colour, which is the basis of
leather; when acted on by cold concentrated sulphuric acid, it yields
glycocoll or gelatin sugar; and when boiled with strong alkalies, it
yields glycocoll and leucine. Chlorine passed into a solution of gelatin
occasions a dense white precipitate (chlorite of gelatin), which
ultimately forms a tough, elastic, pearly mass, somewhat resembling
fibrin.

_Tests._ Its aqueous solution is recognised as follows:——1. It gelatinises
on cooling. 2. It is precipitated by alcohol. 3. Bichloride of mercury
gives a whitish flocculent precipitate. 4. Tannic acid or infusion of
galls gives a copious yellowish-white, curdy precipitate, which, on being
stirred, coheres into an elastic mass, insoluble in water, and incapable
of putrefaction, and which, when dried, assumes the appearance of
over-tanned leather. 5. The gelatinising property is destroyed by nitric
acid. 6. It is not affected by either alum or acetate of lead. In this
respect it differs from chondrin.

_Qual._ The goodness of commercial gelatin intended for food is readily
proved by pouring boiling water over it, and digesting the two together
for a short time. If it is pure and wholesome, its colour remains
unaltered, and during its solution it continues entirely free from smell.
The resulting solution and jelly are also odourless, neutral to
test-paper, free from unpleasant taste, and perfectly transparent. If it
forms a yellow gluey-looking mass, and evolves an offensive odour, it
should be rejected as of inferior quality, and unfit for culinary
purposes.

_Uses, &c._ Gelatin is largely employed as an article of food, as in
soups, jellies, &c.; but its value in this respect has been, perhaps,
overrated.[329] Animals fed exclusively on gelatin die of starvation. But
when mixed with other food, especially with substances abounding in
albumen, casein, or fibrin, gelatin may be useful as an aliment, and serve
directly to nourish the gelatinous tissues. (Liebig.) Hence gelatin is a
fitting substance to form part (but only a part) of the diet of
convalescents, as it conveys nutrition directly to these tissues, without
tasking the diminished powers of life for its conversion; but its use
should be accompanied by a proper quantity of azotised animal food to
supply the elements to the blood, for the support and increase of the
muscular tissue, or fleshy portion of the body. In France gelatin obtained
from bones is employed as a part of the diet in hospitals with the best
effect, materially abridging the period of convalescence; but when given
alone, all animals soon become disgusted with it, and die if not supplied
with other food. (D’Arcet.) See GLUE, ISINGLASS, and _below_.

[Footnote 329: The reader interested in this subject should consult a
paper by Carl Voit in the ‘Zeitschrift für Biologie,’ viii, 297-388.]

=Gelatin, Bone.= Obtained from crushed bones by boiling with water, or by
the action of steam and water successively, either with or without
pressure; or by maceration in dilute hydrochloric acid, to extract the
phosphate of lime, the remaining gelatinous mass being well washed in cold
water, and afterwards dissolved in boiling water in the usual manner. A
little carbonate of soda is commonly added to the last water. Gelatin has
even been extracted from fossil bones. “A soup was prepared from one of
the bones of the great mastodon by the préfet of one of the departments of
France.” (Pereira.) Butchers’ meat contains, on an average, 24% of dry
flesh, 56% of water, and 20% of bone. The last will yield, by proper
treatment, nearly 1-3rd of its weight of dry gelatin, or a quantity equal
to about 6% of the meat from which it is cut. This, as well as other
varieties of gelatin, is frequently blanched by sulphurous acid or animal
charcoal, and tinged of various colours with the ordinary vegetable dyes.
Thus, blue is given with sulphate of indigo or the juice of blue berries;
green, with the juice of spinach; and red, with juice of red-beet.

=Gelatin, French.= _Syn._ CAKE GELATIN. Gelatin made up into small thin
cakes, like the finer sorts of glue. A good deal of it is prepared in
Paris from the cuttings of the skins used in making kid gloves and
slippers.

=Gelatin, Patent.= Various qualities of gelatin are manufactured from glue
pieces, or cuttings of the hides of beasts and skins of calves, and from
inferior isinglass. According to Mr Nelson’s specification, the crude
materials, freed from hair, wool, flesh, and fat, after being thoroughly
washed and ‘scored,’ are macerated for 10 days in a lye of caustic soda,
and are then placed in covered vessels at a temperature varying from 60°
to 70° Fahr., until they become tender; they are next washed to free them
from alkali, and are then exposed to the vapour of burning sulphur until
they acquire a sensibly acid reaction; they are now dissolved in water
contained in earthen vessels heated to 150° Fahr., and the solution, after
being strained, is put into ‘settling vessels,’ and heated to 100° to 120°
Fahr., for 8 or 9 hours; at the end of this time the clear liquor is drawn
off, and poured on the ‘cooling slabs,’ to the depth of about 1/2 an inch.
As soon as the jelly is cold, it is cut into pieces, and washed in water
until perfectly free from acid. It is then redissolved in water at about
85°, the solution poured out on slabs as before, and when cold, it is cut
up, and, lastly, dried on nets.

According to another specification (Rattray’s Patent) glue-pieces are
steeped in water until they begin to putrefy, then washed with water,
drained, and put from 12 to 24 hours into water strongly soured with
sulphurous acid; they are afterwards washed first with cold water, and
then in water at 120° Fahr., and are lastly converted into size by
digestion for 24 hours in water at 120° Fahr., the resulting solution
being filtered through bags of double woollen-cloth.

Patent gelatins are often sold cut up in imitation of ‘picked isinglass,’
to which, for the preparation of jellies, soups, and blancmanges, they are
not much inferior.

=Gelatin, Rough.= _Syn._ GELATINE BRUT, Fr. From the skulls of oxen, the
spongy insides of the horns and ribs, and from several other soft bony
parts (deprived of fat), by washing them in water, digesting in an equal
weight of hydrochloric acid of 6° Baume, in cold weather, and 4° or 5° in
summer, for 10 days, then in acid of only 1° Baume for 24 hours longer;
afterwards soaking and washing in successive portions of cold water until
all the acid is washed out, adding an ounce of carbonate of soda to the
last water. Used to make glue, &c. A similar article is prepared from the
bones of sheep. The pieces, after being treated as above, are steeped in
boiling water for a few minutes, wiped dry, and shaken together in a bag
to remove the internal pellicle; after which they are cut into squares or
dice to disguise them, and finally dipped into a hot solution of gelatin
to varnish them. In this state the article is called ‘GELATINE BRUT FIN,’
Used to make soup. It keeps better than the cakes of portable soup. When
less carefully prepared, it is also used to make glue for fine work. See
BONE GELATIN.

=GELEE (pour le Goitre).= See LINIMENT OF IODIDE OF POTASSIUM.

=GELSEMIUM SEMPERVIRENS.= _Syn._ GELSEMIUM NITRIDUM, GELSEMIUM
SEMPERVIRENS, GELSEMIUM LUCIDUM, ANONYMUS SEMPERVIRENS, BIGNONIA
SEMPERVIRENS; LISANTHUS SEMPERVIRENS. The YELLOW JASMINE, or WOODBINE. The
CAROLINA JASMINE.

Different botanists have placed the plant in different natural orders. De
Candolle assigns it to the _Loganiaceæ_; Decaisne to the _Apocynaceæ_;
Chapman to the _Rubiaceæ_.

The root, which is the only part of this plant employed in medicine, and
of which a fluid extract has been introduced into the United States
Pharmacopœia, as met with in English commerce occurs in two states; either
in packets prepared by the shakers of New Lebanon, which contain the root
in small pieces, formed into a compact mass by hydraulic pressure, and in
which state it is difficult to powder; or it is simply sold cut up into
pieces varying from two to eight inches in length, and one-third to three
fourths of an inch in diameter. It is frequently mixed with about half its
bulk of long, wiry, pale-brown rootlets.

The so-called gelsemium root consists chiefly of subterranean stem with a
small proportion of true root, occasionally a slender piece of the aërial
stem may be found intermixed, and is readily distinguished by its purplish
colour and hollow centre, and by the silky and tow-like fibre, rendered
visible when the epidermis is peeled off (fig. 1 _e_).

The true root is hard and woody, slightly undulated in outline, very
sparingly branched, except in the slender pieces, externally of a pale
brown colour, nearly smooth, and furnished with a thin scurfy cuticle,
which is slightly cracked longitudinally. When a transverse section is
examined with a lens, the bark of the root is seen to be very thin, and to
consist of two layers, the inner one being usually almost as pale as the
woody portion, and of somewhat soft texture, the outer one is darker and
more compact (fig. 1 _b_, _c_).

The meditullium, or woody portion of the root occupies nearly its whole
diameter, is of a pale yellowish bright colour, the yellow tint becoming
much more distinct when the root is wetted. The medullary rays are white
and very distinct, and the woody tissue between the rays is very porous,
the pores being very small, but visible to the unaided eye, especially
when the root is broken instead of cut (fig. 1 _d_). There is no pith or
central cavity in the root. The root has a bitter taste and pleasant
flavour, somewhat between those of senega and green tea; this is more
readily perceived in the tincture.

The subterranean stem (fig. 1 _a_) is also furnished with rootlets, but is
easily distinguished from the root by the presence of a small, dark
coloured, central cavity representing the pith, and by the external
surface being rougher, and frequently variegated with dark longitudinal
lines, which are the remains of the same purplish cuticle which presents
so marked a feature in the aërial stem. The bark is thicker than that of
the true root, and the inner layer is usually dark brown. If the
subterranean stem is broken slowly and carefully, a thin row of silky
fibres projects fully a quarter of an inch from the broken edge. The
fibres do not appear when the bark of the root is broken, and thus serve
to distinguish the stem of this drug from the root. Experiments as to the
relative value of the bark of the root and stem are wanting. The bark of
the stem has the same bitter taste as that of the root, and if it be
hereafter shown that it is equally active, the above character of
scattered strong fibres, taken in conjunction with the flavour of the drug
and its porous structure, will serve to distinguish it from all other
roots and stems used in materia medica.[330]

[Footnote 330: Holmes.]

_Medicinal properties._——The American medical journals record the
successful administration of gelsemium in a great number and variety of
diseases, including intermittent, remittent, typhoid, and yellow fevers,
the irritative fevers of childhood, inflammation of the lungs and pleura,
dysentery, rheumatism, and other inflammatory affections, neuralgia,
obstinate menstruation, delirium tremens, morbid wakefulness, St. Vitus’
dance, hysteria, epilepsy, spasmodic stricture of the urethra, and
gonorrhœa. Dr Hurd, an American physician, reports very favorably of the
drug as a cardiac sedative, and considers it more efficient than any other
remedy in the palpitation and the difficult breathing that accompany heart
disease; and Dr Hill, of Maine, finds it when combined with bromide of
potassium useful in irritable bladder.

[Illustration]

Its principal use, however, in American medical practice has been as a
febrifuge. In periodic fevers it has been employed with great advantage,
as well as in cases of intermittent fever, which having failed to yield to
quinine alone, succumbed, when this latter medicine was combined with
gelsemium.

In England gelsemium has been successfully employed for the relief of
facial neuralgia, or of the pain caused in the face and jaws by decayed
teeth; as well as in obscure nervous affections and severe headaches. It
is given principally in the form of tincture; but sometimes in powder in
doses of from one to two grains.

The therapeutic action of gelsemium is believed to be due to the sedative
effect it exercises on the nervous and arterial systems——hence its power
in controlling the nervous irritability so prevalent during fever. In
moderate doses it causes a sensation of agreeable langour, accompanied
with muscular relaxation; in larger doses, dizziness, dilated pupil,
double vision, general muscular debility and prostration; these symptoms
being accompanied by a diminution in the force and frequency of the pulse
as well as in the respiration. At the same time the patient becomes
insensible to pain; but is free from stupor and delirium. These symptoms
are said to pass off, after a time, and to be attended with no unpleasant
results.

The ‘Lancet’ as well as many of the American medical journals record
several cases of poisoning arising from giving an overdose of this drug.
The symptoms are a great prostration of nervous energy, accompanied by
paralysis of sensation and motion. When death occurs it is probably owing
to syncope. The antidotes are, first, an emetic, and after this has acted,
stimulants, such as carbonate of ammonia with brandy, or aromatic spirits
of ammonia. In cases accompanied with insensibility, recourse should be
had to electricity.

Kollock, in the ‘American Journal of Pharmacy’ for 1855, states that he
found the root on analysis to yield volatile oil, dry acrid resin, fatty
resin, fixed oil, gallic acid, starch, pectic acid, albumen, extractive
matter, lignin, gum, a yellow colouring matter, mineral matter (chiefly
salts of potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron and silica), and an alkaloid,
to which the name gelseminine or gelsemia has been given. Kollock also
states that the leaves and flowers contain the same ingredients as the
root, although in much smaller quantities.

Eberle, in the ‘American Journal of Pharmacy’ for 1864, says he failed to
obtain gelseminine from the root. In a paper contributed to the ‘American
Journal of Pharmacy,’ for January, 1870, by Dr Wormley, the author stated
that he said he not only succeeded in obtaining pure gelseminine from the
root, but also a peculiar acid which he calls gelseminic, or gelsemic[331]
acid; which he regards as existing in combination with the gelsemia,
forming the gelsemate of gelsemia.

[Footnote 331: Professor Sonneschien, having submitted the so-called
_Gelseminic Acid_ to analysis thinks there can be no doubt that it is
perfectly identical with æsculin, a glucoside obtained from the bark of
the horse-chesnut——the _Esculus hippocastanum_.]

Probably the alkaloid gelseminine may at some future time be introduced
into medicine, since it would appear to be the chief ingredient to which
the root owes its activity. It is strongly poisonous. Dr Wormley injected
one eighth of a grain under the skin of a large cat, which in 40 minutes
exhibited great prostration, and died in an hour and a half from the time
of the injection of the poison. The properties of the gelseminic acid, the
resin, the volatile oil, and other ingredients of the root, have not been
fully investigated. See TINCTURE OF GELSEMIUM, GELSEMININE.

In the ‘American Journal of Pharmacy’ for April, 1877, Dr Wormley gives
the following directions for the preparations of gelseminic acid, and
gelsemine:——A given volume of fluid extract, acidulated with acetic acid,
is slowly added with constant stirring to about eight volumes of water;
after the separated resinous matter has completely deposited, the liquid
is filtered, and the filtrate concentrated on a water bath, to something
less than the volume of fluid extract employed. The gelseminic acid is
then extracted from the concentrated fluid by ether, after which the
liquid is treated with slight excess of carbonate of sodium, and the
gelsemine extracted with ether or chloroform. For the extraction of the
first of these principles, it is not essential that the liquid should be
acidulated, but in the presence of a free acid the results are more
satisfactory.

=GEMS=. _Syn_. JEWELS; GEMMÆ, L. “Gems are precious stones, which, by
their colour, limpidity, lustre, brilliant polish, purity, and rarity, are
sought after as objects of dress and decoration. They form the principal
part of the crown jewels of kings, not only from their beauty, but because
they are supposed to comprise the greatest value in the smallest bulk; for
a diamond, no larger than a nut, or an acorn, may be the representative
sign of the territorial value of a whole country, the equivalent in
commercial exchange for a hundred fortunes, acquired by severe toils and
privations.” “Among these beautiful minerals mankind have agreed in
forming a select class, to which the title of gems or jewels has been
appropriated; while the term precious stone is more particularly given to
substances which often occur under a more considerable volume than fine
stones ever do. Diamonds, sapphires, emeralds, rubies, topazes, hyacinths,
and chrysoberyls, are reckoned the most valuable gems;——crystalline
quartz, pellucid, opalescent, or of various hues, amethyst, lapis lazuli,
malachite, jasper, agate, &c., are ranked in the much more numerous and
inferior class of ornamental stones.” (Ure.)

_Tests._ The only tests applicable to gems and precious stones are the
determination of their relative hardness and their specific gravity. By
the first test, pastes or factitious gems are readily detected; but beyond
this, owing to the difficulty of applying it, it ceases to be useful to
persons unconnected with the trade. The determination of the specific
gravity is, however, of more general application, as gems are generally
dismounted when offered for sale, or are so set that they may be removed
from their ‘mountings’ without injury or inconvenience. See SPECIFIC
GRAVITY, and _below_.

_Obs._ The relative hardness of the different substances is measured by
the power they possess of cutting or scratching the other substances
having a smaller number attached to them in the table. Thus, no gem but
the DIAMOND (20) will scratch either the RUBY (17) or the SAPPHIRE (16);
and, for the same reason, a blue stone that will cut the EMERALD or the
TOPAZ can be no other than the SAPPHIRE. The sp. gr. is ascertained in the
usual manner, and will be found sufficiently indicative of the true nature
of the stone when considered in connection with its other characteristics.
The index of refraction is a certain key to the quality of the stone, in
the hands of those who are capable of determining it, and may be applied
to either mounted or unmounted gems. The most convenient instrument for
the purpose is Wollaston’s ‘REFLECTING-GONIOMETER,’

=Gems, Facti′′tious.= These, with few exceptions, are made of very pure,
fusible, highly transparent, and dense glass, usually termed ‘PASTE’ or
‘STRASS,’ which is generally formed of oxide of lead, potassa, and silica,
with small quantities of other ingredients to increase the brilliancy and
clearness. The characteristic tints are imparted by the addition of
metallic oxides. The beauty of artificial stones and gems depends,
chiefly, upon the tint of the real stones being exactly imitated, and upon
proper care and skill being exercised in the cutting, polishing, and
mounting them. All the coloured glasses, and enamels, may be worked up
into artificial gems.

        TABLE _of the Hardness, Specific Gravity, and
        Refractive Power of the principal_ GEMS _and_ PRECIOUS
        STONES, _and some other_ MINERALS; _compiled expressly
        for this work_.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  |   Name.                 | Relative  | Specific Gravity. | Index of Reflection. |
  |                         | Hardness. |                   |                      |
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
  | Agate                   |    12     |       2·6         |                      |
  | Amethyst (occidental)   |    11     |       2·7         |                      |
  | Calcareous spar         |     6     |       2·7         |                      |
  | Chalk                   |     3     |       2·7         |                      |
  | Chrysolite              |    10     |       3·7         |                      |
  | Cornelian               |    11     |       2·7         |                      |
  | Crystal                 |    11     |       2·6         |                      |
  | Diamond (bluish)        |    19     |       3·3         |       }              |
  |   ”    (cubic)          |    18     |       3·2         |       }              |
  |   ”    (from Ormus)     |    20     |       3·7         |       } 2·439        |
  |   ”    (pink)           |    19     |       3·4         |       }              |
  |   ”    (yellowish)      |    19     |       3·3         |       }              |
  |   ” (average colourless)| 19 to 20  |   3·3 to 3·55     |       }              |
  | Emerald                 |    12     |       2·8         |                      |
  | Fluor spar              |     7     |       3·5         |         1·434        |
  | Garnet                  |    12     |       4·4         |         1·815        |
  | Glass                   | {       } |   2·3 to 3·62     |    1·525 to 2·028    |
  |   ” (crystal or flint)  | {various} |   3·0 ”  3·6      |    1·830 ”  2·028    |
  |   ” (plate)             | {       } |   2·5 ”  2·6      |    1·514 ”  1·542    |
  | Gypsum                  |     5     |       2·3         |                      |
  | Jasper (green)          |    11     |       2·7         |                      |
  |   ”    (reddish yellow) |     9     |       2·6         |                      |
  | Onyx                    |    12     |       2·6         |                      |
  | Opal                    |    10     |       2·6         |                      |
  | Quartz                  |    10     |       2·7         |         1·548        |
  | Ruby                    |    17     |       4·2         |       } 1·779        |
  |   ” (pale, from Brazil) |    17     |       3·5         |       }              |
  |   ” (spinelle)          |    13     |       3·4         |         1·764        |
  | Sapphire (deep blue)    |    16     |       3·8         |       } 1·794        |
  |   ”      (paler)        |    17     |       3·8         |       }              |
  | Sardonyx                |    12     |       2·6         |                      |
  | Schoerl                 |    10     |       3·6         |                      |
  | Topaz                   |    15     |       4·2         |                      |
  |   ”   (Bohemian)        |    11     |       2·8         |                      |
  |   ”   (whitish)         |    14     |       3·5         |                      |
  | Tourmaline              |    10     |       3·0         |                      |
  | Zeolite                 |     8     |       2·1         |                      |
  | Zircon                  |    ——     |        ——         |         1·961        |
  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

MM. Fremy and Feil have lately succeeded in manufacturing artificial
corundum, ruby and topaz, having a composition the same as the natural
stones. The process by which they have effected this consists in fusing
together at a red heat, in the furnace of a glass works for a considerable
time, a fusible aluminate (such as aluminate of lead), and some silicious
body.

The silica is found to unite with the lead, and to liberate the alumina in
the crystalline form. When equal weights of alumina and red lead are
heated together in a crucible made of some refractory silicious substance,
the above conditions if the temperature has been maintained sufficiently
long and high ensue, and there is found in the crucible at the end of the
operation a layer of silicate of lead, and very frequently another of pure
crystallised alumina or corundum.

The ruby colour is given by adding to the mixture in the crucible two or
three per-cent. of bichromate of potash, the blue being produced by the
addition of a small quantity of oxide of cobalt, with a trace only of
bichromate of potash. A film of silicate of lead very frequently adheres
to the ruby crystals, and this has to be removed.

In some instances, however, the crystals occur nearly pure, and are
precisely similar to the natural gems in crystalline form, composition,
hardness, and lustre.

Upon being heated, the artificial ruby, like the natural one, loses its
rose colour, and recovers it again on cooling. It is said that the
factitious gems hitherto obtained are not, as a rule, equal in lustre to
the natural ones, and are consequently not so well suited for jewellers’
work; also that they do not present to the lapidary conditions favorable
to cleavage or cutting. They are, however, very well adapted for the works
of watches. See ENAMELS, PASTES, &c.

=GENE′VA.= See GIN and HOLLANDS.

=GEN′TIAN ROOT.= _Syn._ GENTINÆ RADIX, L. The dried root of _Gentiana
lutea_, or ‘yellow gentian.’ _Dose_, 10 to 30 gr.; as a simple bitter
tonic, and stomachic, in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, gout, &c. It was
formerly a favourite remedy in agues. “Joined with galls or tormentil, and
given in sufficient quantity, it has not failed in any intermittents in
which I have tried it.” (Dr Cullen.) In excessive doses it is apt to relax
the bowels and disturb the system. When taken for some time, it imparts
its bitter flavour to the perspiration and urine. See DECOCTION, EXTRACT,
&c.

=GEN′TIANIN.= _Syn._ GENTIANINE; GENTIANINA, L. A substance obtained by
MM. Henry and Caventou from the root of common gentian.

_Prep._ 1. Gentian root (in powder) is digested for 2 or 3 days in cold
ether, with agitation, and the filtered tincture evaporated to dryness;
the residuum is dissolved in rectified spirit, and the solution is again
evaporated; the semi-crystalline mass is, lastly, redissolved in either
alcohol or ether, and crystallised by careful evaporation.

2. (Magendie.) The ethereal extract is exhausted with cold alcohol
(rectified spirit), as before, and the resulting tincture is evaporated to
dryness; the residuum is dissolved in water, calcined magnesia added in
excess, and the whole boiled and filtered; the sediment is digested in
ether, and the ethereal tincture allowed to crystallise by slow
evaporation.

_Prop., &c._ Gentianin forms golden-yellow needles, scarcely soluble in
cold water, but very soluble in alcohol and ether. It is a powerful bitter
and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 2 gr.

=GER′MAN PASTE.= _Prep._ From pea-meal, 2 lbs.; sweet almonds (blanched),
1 lb.; fresh butter or lard, 1/4 lb.; moist sugar, 5 oz.; hay saffron, 1/2
dr.; beat to a smooth paste, adding cold water q. s., granulate the mass
by passing it through a colander, and expose the product to the air in a
warm place, until quite hard and dry. The addition of 2 or 3 eggs improves
it. Used to feed larks, nightingales, and other insectivorous birds. It
will keep good for 12 months in a dry place.

=GER′MAN SILVER.= _Syn._ ALBATA, ARGENTAN, _Electrum_, NICKEL SILVER,
TUTENAG, VIRGINIAN PLATE, WHITE COPPER. A well-known alloy, the finer
varieties of which nearly equal silver in whiteness and susceptibility of
receiving a high polish, whilst they surpass it in hardness and
durability. The following formulæ are from the highest authorities, or are
the results of actual analysis of the finest commercial samples:——

_Prep._ 1. Copper, 50 parts; nickel, 20 parts; zinc, 30 parts. Very
malleable, and takes a high polish.

2. Copper, 50 parts; nickel, 26 parts; zinc, 24 parts. Closely resembles
silver; an excellent sample.

3. Copper and zinc, of each 41 parts; nickel, 18 parts. Rather brittle.

4. (M. Gersdorff.) Copper, 50 parts; nickel and zinc, of each 25 parts.
Very white and malleable, and takes a high polish. Recommended as a
general substitute for silver.

5. (Gersdorff.) Copper, 60 parts; nickel and zinc, of each 20 parts. For
castings, as bells, candlesticks, &c.

6. (Gersdorff.) Copper, 60 parts; nickel, 25 parts; zinc, 20 parts. For
rolling and wire. Very tough and malleable.

7. (Sample made from the ore of Hilburghausen.) Copper, 40-1/2 parts;
nickel, 31-1/2 parts; iron, 2-1/2 parts; zinc, 25-1/2 parts. Equal to the
best Chinese sample.

8. (Pelouze.) Copper and nickel, equal parts. Recommended by M. Pelouze as
superior to any of the alloys containing zinc.

9. (Pelouze.) Copper, 2 parts; nickel, 1 part. Not so white as the last,
but more malleable.

10. (White Copper from China.)——_a._ Copper, 30 parts; nickel, 36 parts;
zinc, 34 parts.

_b._ (Said to be prepared from native ore.) Copper, 41 parts; nickel, 32
parts; iron, 2-1/2 parts; zinc, 24-1/2 parts. Silvery white, takes a high
polish, very sonorous, malleable both cold and at a dull-red heat, and may
be rolled into leaves or formed into wire.

11. (White metal spoon, sold as ‘German Plate.’) Copper, 55 parts; nickel,
24 parts; zinc, 16 parts; tin, 3 parts; iron, 2 parts.

_Anal._ This may be briefly described as follows:——_a._ 100 gr. of the
alloy is digested in nitric acid q. s., diluted with a little water. If
the sample is unequally attacked by the acid, and a white external shell
is observed which dissolves more slowly than the internal portion, it is
‘plated’ on those parts with silver. If this silver shell or casing has a
polished surface on both sides, the article has been ‘electro-plated,’ if
the contrary is the case, it has most probably been plated in the usual
way.

_b._ The solution being completed, heat is applied to expel the excess of
acid, and the remainder is largely diluted with distilled water; dilute
hydrochloric acid is now dropped in as long as it occasions a precipitate,
and the whole, after being moderately heated for a short time, and cooled,
is thrown upon a small paper filter; the precipitate on the filter is next
washed with distilled water, carefully dried, and ignited in a small
porcelain crucible, the filter itself being separately burnt on the cover
of the crucible, and the ashes added to its contents prior to ignition.
Every 143-1/2 gr. of the resulting fused chloride is equal to 108 gr. of
metallic silver.

_c._ The filtered liquid (see _b_) is next treated with a stream of
sulphuretted hydrogen, and the black precipitate is collected, washed, and
digested in strong nitric acid; when the solution is complete sulphuric
acid is dropped in to precipitate the lead (if any is present); if a
precipitate is formed, the whole is evaporated to dryness, and the excess
of sulphuric acid expelled by a rather strong heat applied towards the
end; the dry mass is now collected on a filter, washed with a mixture of
water and alcohol, dried, and exposed to slight ignition in a porcelain
crucible. Every 152 gr. of the resulting dry sulphate is equal to 104 gr.
of lead.

_d._ The liquor filtered from the sulphate of lead, or (in its absence)
the nitric solution of the precipitate produced by the sulphuretted
hydrogen (see _c_), is next treated with potassa, &c., as described under
the analysis of brass. Every 40 gr. of the dry protoxide thus obtained
represents 32 gr. of pure copper.

_e._ The liquor which was filtered from the precipitate produced by the
sulphuretted hydrogen (see _c_) is boiled until it loses its offensive
odour, and is then precipitated with carbonate of soda, in slight excess,
and again boiled for a few minutes; the precipitate (mixed oxides of
nickel and zinc) is collected, washed, and redissolved in dilute acetic or
nitric acid, in excess; a current of sulphuretted hydrogen is next passed
through the solution, the precipitate collected on a filter, washed,
redissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the solution again treated with
carbonate of soda; the last precipitate (oxide of zinc) is washed, dried,
and gently ignited. Every 40 gr. of this oxide is equivalent to 32 gr. of
metallic zinc.

_f._ The washings of the precipitated oxides and the liquid filtered from
the precipitate occasioned by the sulphuretted hydrogen (see _e_) are
mixed together, pure solution of ammonia added in considerable excess, and
the mixture agitated for some time; the undissolved portion of the
precipitate is then collected on a filter, washed with distilled water,
redissolved in dilute nitric acid, again precipitated with solution of
potassa, and this last precipitate (ferric oxide) washed, dried, ignited,
and weighed. Every 80 gr. represents 50 gr. of metallic iron.

_g._ The ammoniacal solution filtered from the precipitate of sesquioxide
of iron (see _f_) is precipitated with pure solution of potassa, boiled
for a few minutes, and, when cold, thrown on a filter; the precipitate is,
lastly, washed with hot water, dried, ignited, and weighed. Every 37-1/2
gr. of the oxide thus obtained is equal to 29-1/2 gr. of metallic nickel.

_Obs._ The manufacture of nickel or German silver has of late acquired an
importance which is second only to that of silver plate itself. The
superior quality of this alloy, and the graceful patterns which it is
often made to assume in the hands of the accomplished artist cannot fail
to have attracted the admiration of the majority of our readers. The value
of correct information regarding the preparation of this alloy, and of a
ready method of determining the composition of the most improved
commercial samples will, therefore, be fully appreciated by every
metallurgist who wishes to throw his wares into the arena of public
competition. Much that is vended under the name of GERMAN SILVER is little
better than the BRITANNIA METAL or PLATE PEWTER formerly so plentiful in
every establishment in this country. German silver has quite superseded
copper as the basis of ‘electro-plated goods.’[332]

[Footnote 332: See ELECTROTYPE.]

The union of the metals in the above formulæ is effected by heat with the
usual precautions. When iron is ordered, it is generally added under the
form of ‘tin plate.’ See ALLOY, BRASS, BRITANNIA METAL, BRONZE, &c.

=GER′MAN TIN′DER.= See AMADOU.

=GERMINA′TION.= The growth or vegetation of a seed by which a young plant
is produced. The conditions essential to germination are the presence of
warmth, air, and moisture. The most favorable temperature is between 60°
and 85° Fahr., according to the habitat of the respective plants. Below
40° Fahr. most of the more perfect seeds either refuse to vegetate, or
vegetate slowly and feebly; and at or near the freezing-point none of them
undergo this change. At a temperature above 100° Fahr. the young germ is
usually injured, and at about 125°, if it forms, it soon withers and dies.
See MALTING, SEED, &c.

=GERMS.= The ‘germ theory of disease’ may be briefly stated to be that
which supposes the cause of epidemic and contagious maladies to be due to
the agency of specific, inconceivably small germs,——different germs giving
rise to different diseases.

These disease germs gaining an entrance by means of air, water, or food
into the healthy body, and being possessed of extraordinary powers of
increase and subdivision, are supposed to set up the particular disease,
and at the same time to multiply to an incredible extent by feeding upon
the tissues best suited for their support. Further, they are conceived to
be thrown off into the atmosphere from the body of the patient, whence
they are conveyed as before described into other healthy animal organism,
in which, comporting themselves as in the previous case, they set up a
similar disease. See BACTERIA AS ORIGINATORS OF DISEASE.

=GHEE.= A sort of butter used by the natives of India. _Prep._ Milk is
boiled in large earthen pots for an hour or two, then allowed to cool, a
little curdled milk called ‘dhye’ being added, in order to make the whole
coagulate. After a lapse of some hours the contents of each to the depth
of 5 or 6 inches are removed and placed in a larger earthenware utensil,
in which they are churned by means of a piece of split bamboo for about
half an hour; then hot water is poured in, and the churning continued for
half an hour longer, after which time the butter is found to be formed.
When this becomes rancid, it is melted in an earthen vessel, and boiled
until all the water has evaporated; after which a little salt or
betel-leaf is put into it, and finally it is poured off into suitable
vessels in which it can be preserved from the air. Bottles are commonly
used for this purpose. See BUTTER.

=GHER′KINS.= _Syn._ GIR′KINS. Small cucumbers adapted for pickling. See
PICKLES.

=GILD′ING.= _Syn._ DORURE, Fr. The art or process of covering the surfaces
of bodies with a thin film of gold, for the purpose of increasing their
durability or improving their appearance. For the sake of brevity we shall
briefly notice the leading varieties of gilding, and their applications,
in alphabetical order.

GILDING, BURNISHED. This is distemper gilding to which a ‘face’ has been
given with the ‘burnisher.’ It is chiefly employed for the polished
portions of the frames of pictures and mirrors, the more prominent parts
of statuettes, &c.

GILDING, CHEMICAL. Those varieties in which the film of gold is formed on
the surface through the agency of chemical affinity, in opposition to
mechanical gilding, in which the gold is made to adhere by the
intervention of some glutinous substance.

GILDING, COLD. The articles (copper or brass) to be gilded, after being
softened, annealed, and polished in the usual manner, are rubbed with a
little gilding powder by means of a piece of cork moistened with a
solution of salt in water; after which the work is burnished with a piece
of hematite or polished steel. (See _below_.)

GILDING, DISTEMPER. This is applied to wood, plaster, marble, &c. It is
commonly performed in this country by giving the wood, first, a coating of
good size, and next, several successive coats of size thickened with
finely powdered whiting, Spanish white, or plaster of Paris until a good
face is produced; observing to let each coat become quite dry, and to rub
it perfectly smooth with fine glass paper, before the application of the
following one. When the proper ‘face’ is obtained, the surface is thinly
and evenly gone over with gold size, and when this is nearly dry, the gold
leaf is applied, and afterwards burnished with an agate or dog’s tooth.
The process, as adopted by the Parisian artists, who greatly excel in this
species of gilding, is very complicated, and is divided into at least 17
distinct operations, each of which they declare to be essential to its
excellence.

GILDING, ELECTRO-. See ELECTROTYPE.

GILDING, GRECIAN. In this variety sal-ammoniac and corrosive sublimate,
equal parts, are dissolved in nitric acid, and a solution of gold made
with this menstruum; after slight concentration the liquid is applied to
the surface of silver, which immediately becomes black, but on being
heated exhibits a rich gilded surface.

GILDING, JAPANNER’S. The surface is covered with oil size thinned with
spirits of turpentine, and gold, in powder, is gently dabbed on with a
puff of wash leather. This gives the appearance of ‘frosted gold.’ A
coating of varnish is next given, followed by exposure to a gentle heat in
the ‘stove.’

GILDING, LEAF. This term is commonly applied to the gilding of paper,
vellum, &c., by applying leaf gold to the surface, previously prepared
with a coating of gum water, size, or white of egg. It is usually
burnished with an agate or dog’s tooth.

GILDING, MECHANICAL. See CHEMICAL GILDING (_above_).

GILDING, MERCURIAL. See WASH GILDING (_below_).

GILDING, OIL. This species of gilding may be divided into several
operations. The following are the abridged instructions of a Parisian
artist on the subject:——1. The surface is prepared by a coating of white
lead in drying oil.——2. Another coat is given, made with calcined white
lead or massicot, ground in linseed oil and turpentine. 3 or 4 coats of
this mixture are often given, at intervals of at least 23 hours, observing
to carefully smooth off each coat with pumice stone or shave grass before
the application of the following ones.——3. The ‘Gold Colour,’ or paint, is
next applied. It is usually very adhesive gold size, or the bottom of the
pot or dish in which painters wash their brushes. For this purpose it is
thoroughly ground and strained.——4. When the gold colour becomes partially
dry and sufficiently tenacious, the gold leaf is applied, and pressed on
with a wad of cotton-wool or a soft brush. It is now left for several days
to harden.——5. A coat of spirit varnish is next given, and the object is
cautiously passed over a chafing-dish of charcoal, observing to avoid
stopping the motion of the piece whilst doing so, as the work would then
become discoloured and blistered.——6. The work is ‘finished off’ with pale
oil varnish. For out-door gilding and common work the varnishing process
is generally omitted. This species of gilding is applied to woodwork,
plaster, metal, &c.

GILDING, VARNISH. This is a mere variety of oil gilding, applied to
equipages, furniture, mirror and picture frames, &c., the surface being
highly varnished and polished before it receives the size or gold colour;
and after the gilding has become quite dry, a coat of spirit varnish,
fumed with the chafing dish as above, is applied, followed by 2, 3, or
more coats of the best copal varnish, at intervals of 3 or 4 days each.
The whole is, lastly, carefully polished with tripoli and water.

GILDING, WASH, AMALGAM G., MERCURIAL G., WATER G. This consists in the
application of a thin coating of amalgam of gold to the metallic surface
(brass, bronze, or copper) to be gilded, and the subsequent volatilisation
of the mercury by heat. It is the usual method of gilding articles of
copper and its alloys, and possesses great beauty and durability when
skilfully executed. The occupation is, however, an unhealthy one, owing to
the continual exposure of the workman to the fumes of mercury. The furnace
invented by M. D’Arcet obviates this evil, as the whole of the volatilised
mercury is carried off, and again condensed for further use. It should,
therefore, be adopted by every water-gilder who studies economy and the
health of those in his employ.

The process of water gilding consists in several distinct operations, and
can only be successfully performed by those who have been schooled in the
art by an apprenticeship to the trade. It would, therefore, be waste of
space to enter into details here. Formulæ for several of the articles
employed for the purpose will be found in the alphabetical places in this
work.

GILDING, WATER. See _above_.

Among the applications of the process of gilding that deserve a separate
notice are the following:——

The gold letters and figures on the covers of BOOKS are thus formed:——Gum
mastic, in fine powder, is dusted over the surface to be gilded; an iron
or brass tool bearing the design upon its face is then heated to a proper
temperature, and gently pressed upon a piece of leaf gold, which slightly
adheres to it; the two are then transferred to the cover, and the tool is
gently pressed on it, by which means the mastic softens and retains the
gold. The loose gold and powdered mastic are then dusted off with a brush.
Gold leaf will adhere to leather without the use of mastic, but not so
firmly as when it is employed.

The edges of the leaves of books and paper are first cut perfectly smooth,
and then washed over with a solution of isinglass in weak spirit, or with
a varnish made of Armenian bole, 4 parts, and powdered sugar-candy, 1
part, mixed up to a proper consistence with strained white of egg. The
coating is allowed to dry, and is then smoothed with a wet rag, after
which the gold leaf is applied and polished with the burnisher.

BRASS BUTTONS, formerly so much in demand, are covered by a rough species
of wash gilding. The buttons are polished in the lathe and thrown into a
pan with a little amalgam of gold, and as much aquafortis diluted with
water as will wet them all over. Here they are well stirred up, until they
assume a silvery appearance, when they are washed with clean water. They
are then submitted to a sufficient heat in a suitable apparatus, until the
mercury is volatilised. The buttons are next cooled, and well tossed and
rubbed about with a painter’s brush; and are, lastly, burnished by washing
them well with beer or ale grounds.

Twelve dozen (1 gross) of buttons, of 1 inch in diameter, may be perfectly
gilded on both sides with only 5 gr. of gold. By an Act of Parliament,
which is still unrepealed, this is the smallest quantity of gold permitted
to be used for a gross of buttons of the above size.

GLASS, PORCELAIN, and EARTHENWARE, are gilded by blending powdered gold
with gum-water and a little borax, and applying the mixture by means of a
camel-hair pencil; the article is then heated in an oven or furnace, by
which means the gum is burnt, and the borax, vitrifying, cements the gold
to the surface. It is afterwards polished with a burnisher. Names, dates,
or any fancy device, may thus be permanently and easily fixed on glass,
china, earthenware, &c.

JAPANNED WORK is gilded by the method explained as ‘Japanner’s gilding’
(_above_).

LEATHER is gilded in the same way as the covers of books. (See _above_.)
For common work, silver leaf, or even tin foil, is applied to the surface,
previously covered with size or white of egg, and after being burnished
down and dried, is washed over with gold-coloured lacquer.

The LETTERS of sign-boards and the ornamental gilding for out-door work
are done by first covering the design with yellow paint, then with oil
gold-size, and when this is nearly dry applying the leaf gold, observing
to shield it properly from the wind, lest it be blown away or become
crumpled before being properly attached. The work is, lastly, varnished.

POLISHED METALS may be gilded by one or other of the methods already
noticed. Articles in silver, copper, brass, and bronze, are usually coated
by the process of wash or water gilding; or, directly, by the application
of gold leaf, as follows:——The piece or article is heated to a bluish
tint, and gold leaf pressed gently and carefully on it with the burnisher;
heat is again applied, and the process repeated with fresh leaves of gold
until the gilding has acquired the proper thickness and tone. The surface
is lastly polished with the burnisher, or is coloured in the usual manner
at the stove. This succeeds with iron, steel, silver, copper and its
alloys, &c. Another method for polished articles in iron and steel, which,
however, is less durable than the preceding, is to apply an ethereal
solution of gold to the surface with a camel-hair pencil. The ether flies
off and leaves the surface coated with gold, which is then polished as
before. In this way, any fancy device or writing may be executed on steel
or iron with extreme facility.

SILKS, SATINS, WOOLLENS, IVORY, BONE, &c., may be readily gilded by
immersing them in a solution of neutral terchloride of gold (1 of the
salt, and 3 to 6 of water), and then exposing them to the action of
hydrogen gas. The latter part of the process may readily be performed by
pouring some dilute sulphuric acid on zinc or iron filings, in a
wide-mouthed bottle, and placing it under a jar or similar vessel,
inverted, at the top of which the articles to be gilded are suspended.
Flowers or other ornamental designs may be produced by painting them on
the surface with a camel-hair pencil dipped in the solution. The design,
after a few minutes’ exposure to the hydrogen, shines with all the
splendour of the purest gold, and will not tarnish on exposure to the air,
or in washing.

GILDED THREAD or GOLD THREAD is merely a thread of yellow silk covered
with a very thin flatted wire of gold, by means of a revolving wheel.

WIRE (copper, silver, or brass) is occasionally gilded, in coils, by a
similar process to that adopted for BUTTONS; but more frequently as
follows:——Rods (usually of silver) are covered with gold foil of a
thickness proportionate to the quality of the intended wire, and the
compound bar is then drawn into wire, in the usual way. 100 gr. of gold
was formerly the lowest legal quantity that could be employed for 1 lb. of
silver.

_Patents._ Among the varieties of chemical gilding may be mentioned

1. (Elkington’s patent——GERMAN GILDING, Bonnet’s GILDING PROCESS.) The
articles to be gilded, after being perfectly cleaned from scale or grease,
and receiving a proper ‘face,’ are suspended, by means of wires, in the
gilding liquid (boiling hot), and moved about therein for a period varying
from a few seconds to a minute, or longer; the precise time required
depending on the newness and strength of the liquid. When sufficiently
gilded, the articles are withdrawn from the ‘solution of gold,’ washed in
clean water, and dried; after which they undergo the usual operation of
‘colouring,’ &c. A dead gold appearance is produced by the application to
the articles of a weak solution of nitrate of mercury previously to the
immersion in the gilding liquor; or the deadening may be given by applying
a solution of the nitrate to the newly gilded surface, and then expelling
the mercury by heat.

The gilding liquor.——Take of fine gold, 5 oz. (troy); nitro-muriatic acid,
52 oz. (avoirdupois); dissolve by heat, and continue the heat until red or
yellow vapours cease to be evolved; decant the clear liquid into a
suitable vessel; add of distilled water, 4 galls.; pure bicarbonate of
potassa, 20 lbs.; and boil for 2 hours. The nitro-muriatic acid is made
with pure nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·45), 21 oz.; pure muriatic acid (sp. gr.
1·15), 17 oz.; and distilled water, 14 oz.

This process, though patented by Mr Elkington in England, was in reality
discovered and first practised by M. Bonnet, a foreigner. Articles thus
gilded do not bear friction and the operations of being put in colour
(_mise en couleur_) so well as those gilded by the mercurial process, or
by the methods of cold or leaf gilding as applied to polished metals.

2. (Talbot’s patent.) By this process polished metallic articles are
gilded by simple immersion in a solution of gallic acid in water, ether,
or alcohol, to which a solution of gold has been previously added.
SILVERING and PLATINISING may be effected in the same manner, by using a
solution of either of these metals instead of one of gold.

⁂ These and other chemical processes have been almost completely
superseded by the certain and economical process of ELECTRO-GILDING. See
ELECTROTYPE.

=Gilding Amalgam.= See AMALGAM.

=Gilding Liquor.= This name has been given to various solutions of gold,
and to other liquids employed in gilding. The former are noticed
elsewhere. Among the latter are the following:

DEADING AQUAFORTIS. From mercury, 1 part; aquafortis (sp. gr. 1·33), 3
parts; dissolve, and add of soft water, 7 parts. Used to produce a
dead-gold effect. It is applied (diluted) to the articles, before
spreading the amalgam over them, in water gilding; or before placing them
in the ‘gilding liquor,’ in the chemical processes.

MERCURIAL SOLUTION. From mercury, 10 parts, dissolved in aquafortis (sp.
gr. 1·33), 11 parts, and the solution diluted with 25 times its weight of
water. Used to moisten the scratch brush before drawing it over the
amalgam, in mercurial gilding; also to deaden the gilded surface, by
moistening the latter with it, and then exposing the piece to a heat
sufficiently high to drive off the mercury.

GILDER’S PICKLE. From alum and common salt, of each 1 oz.; nitre, 2 oz.;
dissolved in water, 1/2 pint. Used to impart a rich colour to gold
surfaces, especially of trinkets. Its application should not be too long
continued, as it dissolves a small portion of the gold. For common
purposes it is best used largely diluted with water.

VERMEIL, VERMEIL COATING, OR-MOLU C. From annotta and salt of tartar, of
each 1 oz.; dragon’s blood, 1/2 oz.; water, 1 quart; simmer down to about
one fourth, add saffron, 20 gr., and when merely tepid, strain through
fine muslin into a bottle. Used to give lustre and fire to distemper
gilding. A little is floated over the surface with a very soft, flat,
camel-hair brush.

=Gilding Metal.= The metal employed as a base for gilding is usually
brass, or a mixture of brass and copper. The following proportions have
been recommended:——

  1. Copper, 6 parts; brass, 1 part.
  2. Copper, 4 parts; Bristol brass, 1 part.
  3. Copper, 13 parts; old Bristol brass, 3 parts; tin, 14 parts.

=Gilding Powder.= _Prep._ 1. Pure gold, 5 dr.; pure copper, 1 dr.; aqua
regia, 10 oz.; dissolve, moisten clean linen rags with the solution, dry
them, and burn them to ashes. The latter contain the gold in a state of
minute division, and must be carefully collected.

2. Grain gold, 1 dr.; rose copper, 15 gr.; aqua regia, 2 fl. oz.; proceed
as last. Used in ‘Gold Gilding.’

3. See Gold (in powder).

=Gilding Shells.= See GOLD SHELLS.

=Gilding Size.= See GOLD SIZE.

=Gilding Wax.= _Syn._ GILDING VARNISH, GILDER’S WAX. _Prep._ 1. From
beeswax, 4 oz.; verdigris and sulphate of copper, of each 1 oz.; melted
together.

2. Beeswax, 4 oz.; verdigris, red ochre, and alum, of each 1 oz. Used to
give a red gold colour to water gilding.

=GIN.= _Syn._ GENE′VA. Corn spirit flavoured with either oil of juniper or
oil of turpentine.

Gin was originally and, for some time, wholly imported from Holland, and
was a rich, soft spirit, flavoured, chiefly, with juniper berries; on
which account it had obtained the name of ‘GENEVA,’ from ‘GENIÈVRE,’ the
French for juniper. After a time the distillation of an imitation geneva
sprung up in this country, when the foreign spirit came to be called
‘HOLLANDS,’ or ‘HOLLANDS GENEVA,’ to distinguish it from the spirit of
home manufacture. The English monosyllable ‘GIN’ is a corruption of
geneva, the primary syllable of which, as in numerous other instances, was
seized on by the vulgar, and adopted as a short and convenient substitute
for the whole word.

The liquor at present known by the name of ‘gin’ in this country is a very
different article to that imported from Holland, and consists of plain
corn-spirit, flavoured with oil of turpentine and small quantities of
certain aromatics. The thousand and one receipts for this article, which
have from time to time been printed in books, produce a flavoured spirit
bearing no resemblance to the more esteemed samples of English gin; and,
if possible, the products are even more unlike genuine Hollands. Any
persons may easily satisfy himself of the truth of this assertion by
actual experiment on the small scale. The cause of this incongruity has
arisen chiefly from the writers not being practically acquainted with the
subject, and from the disinclination of well-informed practical men to
divulge, gratuitously, what they conceive to be valuable secrets. Hence
the utter failure of any attempts to produce either gin or Hollands from
the receipts usually published. The authors appear to have all imbibed a
juniper-berry mania——probably from the imbibition of their favourite
beverage. Oil of juniper, in the hands of these gentlemen, appears to be a
perfect aqua mirabilis, that readily converts whisky into gin, and imparts
the rich creamy flavour of ‘Schiedam Hollands’ to crude corn or molasses
spirit. But theory and experiment sometimes disagree. In practice, it is
found that the true flavour of foreign geneva cannot be imparted to spirit
by juniper alone, and that the English gin of the present day depends for
its flavour on no such a substance. The following formulæ are merely given
as specimens; and it is proper to remark, that every distiller has his own
receipt for this notorious beverage. Hence it is that the gins of no two
distillers are of precisely the same flavour; and this difference is still
more marked when the distillers reside in parts of the country remote from
each other. Booth’s, Smith’s, and Nicholson’s gins have each a
characteristic flavour, readily perceived by their respective votaries;
whilst the difference between ‘Plymouth’ or ‘Bristol gin,’ and the ‘gin of
the metropolis,’ is as remarkable as that between ‘Barclay’s XXX’ and
‘Guinness’s bottled stout.’ These variations in flavour generally depend
on the use of more or less flavouring matter, or of a spirit more or less
clean or free from taint; and, less frequently, on the addition of a small
quantity of some peculiar aromatic, which exercises a modifying influence
on the chief flavouring ingredient. In many cases the flavour has
originated from accident, but the consumers having become accustomed to,
and hence relishing, that particular ‘palate,’ it is found to be unwise or
commercially impossible to alter it. Any change in these matters is
therefore looked upon in every distillery as a dangerous innovation, which
would prove more prejudicial to the prosperity of its exchequer than the
repeal of the duty on French wines and brandy, or even a frightful
conflagration. The distillers, like the brewers, are thorough
conservatives in all matters connected with the flavour of their liquors.

In the preparation of gin, both sweetened and unsweetened, and indeed of
liquors generally, the greatest possible care must be taken to avoid an
excess of flavouring. The most esteemed samples are those that consist of
very pure spirit, slightly flavoured.

_Prep._ 1. Clean corn spirit, at proof, 80 galls.; newly rectified oil of
turpentine, 1-1/4 pint; mix well by violent agitation, add culinary salt,
14 lbs., dissolved in water, 40 galls.; again well agitate, and distil
over 100 galls., or until the faints begin to rise. _Product._ 100 galls.
of gin 22 u. p., besides 2 galls. contained in the faints. If 100 galls.
at 17 u. p. are required, 85 galls. of proof spirit, or its equivalent at
any other strength, must be employed.

2. Proof spirit (as above), 8 galls.; oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; salt,
1-1/2 lb., dissolved in water, 4 galls.; draw over 10 galls., as before.
22 u. p.

3. Clean corn spirit, 80 galls.; oil of turpentine, 1 pint; pure oil of
juniper, 3 fl. oz.; salt, 21 lbs.; water, 35 galls.; draw over 100 galls.,
as before. 22 u. p.

4. To the last, before distillation, add, of oil of caraway, 1/2 fl. oz.;
oil of sweet fennel, 1/4 fl. oz.; cardamoms (ground), 8 oz.

5. To No. 3 add, of essential oil of almonds, 1 dr.; essence of lemon, 4
dr.

6. To No. 1, before distillation, add of creasote, 3 fl. dr.

7. To No. 3 add of creasote, 2 dr.

8. Proof spirit, 80 galls.; oil of turpentine, 3/4 pint; oil of juniper,
1/4 pint; creasote, 2 dr.; oranges and lemons, sliced, of each 9 in no.;
macerate for a week, and distil 100 galls. 22 u. p.

9. To No. 1 add of rectified fusel oil, 1/2 pint.

10. To No. 1 add of oil of juniper, 1/2 pint.

_Concluding Remarks._ The oil of turpentine for this purpose should be of
the best quality, and not that usually vended for painting, which always
contains resin and often fixed oil. Juniper berries, bitter almonds, and
the aromatic seeds, may be used instead of the essential oils; but the
latter are the most convenient. Turpentine conveys a plain-gin
flavour,——juniper berries or oil gives a Hollands flavour,——creasote
imparts a certain degree of smokiness, or whiskey flavour,——lemon and the
other aromatics, a creaminess, fulness, and richness. The flavour imparted
by cardamoms, when used judiciously, is peculiarly agreeable and
appropriate. That from caraways is also in general esteem. Cassia in
extremely small proportions also tells well. Fusel oil gives a whiskey-gin
flavour; and in conjunction with creasote or crude pyroligneous acid, a
full whiskey flavour. The only danger in the employment of all these
articles is using too much of them. When this misfortune happens, the
remedy is to add sufficient plain spirit to reduce the flavour to the
proper standard. The creaminess and smoothness so much admired in ‘foreign
geneva’ results chiefly from age. The English rectifier endeavours to
imitate this by the addition of a little sugar. A rich mellowness, that
combines well with gins turning on the ‘Hollands flavour,’ is given by a
very small quantity of garlic, and with Canadian balsam or Strasburg
turpentine. The peculiar piquancy, or the property of ‘biting the palate,’
regarded as a proof of strength and quality by the ignorant gin-drinker,
is imparted to the liquor by the addition of a little caustic potassa.
Sliced horseradish gives piquancy as well as mellowness. Grains of
paradise, cayenne pepper, and sulphate of zinc, are also commonly added by
fraudulent dealers.

Although gin is always prepared on the large scale by distillation, it may
also be made by the simple solution or digestion of the flavouring
ingredients in the spirit; but it is, of course, better for distillation.
If made in the former way, no salt must be employed. The gin produced by
the above formulæ is that denominated in the trade ‘UNSWEETENED GIN,’
‘GROG GIN,’ &c.; but the gin usually sold in the metropolis is a sweetened
spirit, and hence is technically distinguished by the terms ‘SWEETENED,’
or ‘MADE UP,’ The generality of London gin-drinkers prefer the latter
article, even when weaker and inferior, which it usually is, as the
addition of sugar permits adulteration and watering to an enormous extent
with absolute impunity. Sweetened spirit cannot be easily tested for its
strength, and is taken by the Excise at the strength which it is declared
to possess by the dealer. To ascertain whether gin is sweetened or not, a
little may be evaporated in a spoon, over a hot coal or a candle, when, if
it is pure, it will leave the spoon scarcely soiled; but if, on the
contrary, it has been sweetened, a small quantity of syrupy liquid, or
sugar, will be obtained, the sweetness of which may be easily recognised
by tasting it.

The whole of the casks and utensils employed for gin should be perfectly
clean, and properly prepared, so as not to give colour; as, if this spirit
acquires the palest coloured tint, its value is lessened, and if much
coloured it is rendered unsaleable. When gin has once become much stained,
the only remedy is to re-distil it; when it is only slightly stained, the
addition of a few lbs. of acetic acid (B. P.) to a pipe or butt, a
spoonful or two to a gallon, or a few drops to a decanterful, will usually
decolour it, either at once or as soon as it is mixed with water to make
grog. See ALCOHOLOMETRY, CASKS, DISTILLATION, HOLLANDS, SPIRITS, &c., and
_below_.

=Gin, Cor′dial.= This is gin sweetened with sugar, and slightly
aromatised.

_Prep._ Good gin (22 u. p.), 90 galls.; oil of almonds, 1 dr.; oils of
cassia, nutmeg, and lemon, of each 2 dr.; oils of juniper, caraway, and
coriander, of each 3 dr.; essences of orris root and cardamoms, of each 5
fl. oz.; orange-flower water, 3 pints; lump sugar, 56 to 60 lbs.;
dissolved in water, 4 galls. The essences are dissolved in 2 quarts spirit
of wine, and added gradually to the gin until the requisite flavour is
produced, when the sugar (dissolved) is mixed in, along with a sufficient
quantity of soft water, holding 4 oz. of alum in solution, to make up 100
galls. When the whole is perfectly mixed, 2 oz. of salt of tartar,
dissolved in 2 or 3 quarts of hot water, are added, and the liquor is
again well rummaged up; after which the cask is bunged up, and allowed to
repose. In a week, or less, it will have become brilliant, and may be
either ‘racked,’ or drawn from the same cask. _Product._ 100 galls., about
30 u. p.

=Gin, Sweetened.= _Prep._ From unsweetened gin (22 u. p.), 95 galls.; lump
sugar, 40 to 45 lbs., dissolved in clear water, 3 galls.; mix well, and
fine it down as above. _Product._ 100 galls., at 26 u. p. This, as well as
the last, is usually ‘permitted’ at 22 or 24 u. p., which is also done
when the gin has been further lowered with water so as to be even 30 or 35
u. p. See SPIRITS, and _above_.

=GIN′GER.= _Syn._ GINGER ROOT; ZINGIBERIS RADIX, ZINGIBER (B. P.), L. “The
scraped and dried rhizome” (rootstock or underground stem) of “_Zingiber
officinale_”——(B. P.). Ginger is an aromatic stimulant and stomachic,
very useful in flatulence and spasms of the stomach and bowels, and in
loss of appetite and dyspepsia, arising from debility, or occurring in old
or gouty subjects. A piece chewed an hour before dinner tends to provoke
the appetite; as a masticatory, it often relieves toothache, relaxation of
the uvula, tender gums, and paralytic affections of the tongue. Made into
a paste with warm water, and spread on paper, it forms a useful and simple
‘headache-plaster,’ which frequently gives relief when applied to the
forehead or temples. As a condiment and flavouring ingredient, it is
perhaps one of the most wholesome of the aromatic kinds, and is less acrid
than the peppers.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 teaspoonful, stirred up in any
simple liquid.

_Pur., &c._ The best is that known in commerce as ‘UNBLEACHED JAMAICA
GINGER,’ which is an uncoated pale variety, occurring in large, bold,
fleshy pieces (‘RACES’), which cut soft, bright, and pale-coloured. The
inferior varieties occur in smaller pieces, and are darker-coloured,
flinty, and shrivelled. The dealers frequently ‘dress up’ the common
dark-coloured gingers by washing them in water, drying them, and then
‘rouncing’ them in a bag with a little calcined whiting or magnesia
(WASHED GINGER); or they bleach them by dipping them into a solution of
chloride of lime, or by exposing them to the fumes of burning sulphur
(BLEACHED GINGER); or they dip them into a milk formed of quicklime or
whiting and water (WHITE-WASHED GINGER). The last has a chalk-white
surface, which cannot be mistaken for the natural one. POWDERED GINGER is
with difficulty obtained pure and good. The common adulterants are
wheat-flour, or East Indian arrow-root, and plantain-meal. The first may
be detected by the microscope, the others by the flavour and action of hot
water. See LOZENGES, &c.

=GINGERIN.= _Syn._ OLEORESINA ZINGIBERIS. _Prep._ (Pharm., U. S.) Put 1
lb. (Troy) of ginger in fine powder into a percolator, and pour on it 12
ounces (old measure) of pure ether. When this has been absorbed, add
rectified spirit until 12 ounces (old measure) have been obtained. Recover
the greater part of the ether by distillation over a water bath, and
expose the residue in a porcelain dish until the volatile part has
evaporated. Keep it in a stoppered bottle.

=GINSENG.= The root of the _Panax Schinseng_ (Ginseng) is greatly esteemed
in China, where it is regarded as a panacea for nearly all diseases, and
where it realises a high price in consequence. This opinion of its
therapeutic value is not shared by British and American practitioners, who
look upon it as a comparatively inert substance. An allied species, the
_Panax quinquefolium_, is sold in America, less for the sake of its very
feeble demulcent properties, than to supply the demand of those who have
acquired a taste for it. “The root has a somewhat bitter taste, and is
somewhat mucilaginous. It occurs in pieces usually about three or four
inches long, often partially divided, being joined together at the base;
when clean it has a semi-transparent appearance.”[333]

[Footnote 333: ‘Gardener’s Chronicle.’]

=Preserved Ginger.= _Syn._ CONDITUM ZINGIBERIS, L. An excellent stomachic
sweetmeat or preserve. It is chiefly imported from the West Indies and
China. See CANDYING, &c.

=A Factitious Preserved Ginger= is sometimes met with, prepared from the
stalks of lettuces just going to seed, using a concentrated syrup,
strongly flavoured with Jamaica ginger. See CANDY, &c.

=GIN′GER BEER.= See BEER.

=GIN′GERBREAD.= _Prep._ 1. (Dr Colquhoun.) Flour, 1 lb.; carbonate of
magnesia, 1/4 oz.; mix; add, of treacle, 1/2 lb.; moist sugar, 1/4 lb.;
melted butter, 2 oz.; tartaric acid (dissolved in a little water), 1 dr.;
make a stiff dough, then add of powdered ginger and cinnamon (cassia), of
each 1 dr.; grated nutmeg, 1 oz.; set it aside for half an hour or an hour
before putting it into the oven. _Obs._ It should not be kept longer than
two or three hours at the utmost, before being baked.

2. Flour and treacle, of each 1 lb.; butter, 1-1/2 oz.; carbonate of
magnesia, 1 oz.; add spices (ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cayenne,
corianders, &c.) to taste; mix as last. _Obs._ Fit for baking in from four
to six hours.

3. Flour, 2 lbs.; carbonate of magnesia, 1/2 oz.; mix; add, treacle, 1-1/2
lb.; butter, 2 oz.; spice, q. s.; tartaric acid, 1/4 oz.; mix quickly, and
make it into forms. _Obs._ Ripe for the oven in half an hour to one hour.

4. Instead of tartaric acid in the last formula, use cream of tartar
(dissolved in water), 2 oz. _Obs._ Ripens in 40 or 50 minutes.

5. Flour or fine pollard, 1 lb.; treacle, 3/4 lb.; salt of tartar, 1/2
oz., dissolved in water, q. s., butter, 1 oz.; spices, to palate. _Obs._
Takes several days to ripen; sometimes a fortnight.

6. (Extemporaneous.)——_a._ From flour, 1-1/4 lb.; moist sugar and treacle,
of each 1/2 lb.; butter, 2-1/2 oz.; baker’s salt (carbonate of ammonia),
1/4 oz., dissolved in cold water, q. s.; ginger, 3 dr.; nutmeg, 2 dr.;
cassia, 1 dr.; cayenne pepper (best), 1/2 dr.

_b._ From flour, 6 lb.; powdered ginger, 2-1/2 oz.; caraway seeds, 1 oz.
(and other spices to palate); candied lemon and orange peels, of each 2
oz.; moist sugar and melted butter, of each 1/2 lb.; treacle, 4 lb.;
volatile salt, 2 oz.; water, q. s.; mix as above. May be baked at once.

_c._ From Jones’s patent flour, 2 lbs.; treacle, 1 lb.; moist sugar, 3/4
lb.; butter, 2-1/2 oz.; spice, q. s.; mix as quickly as possible, and bake
it instantly. If the dough is expertly mixed up, the quality of the
product is fully equal, if not superior, to that of any of the preceding
formulæ.

_Obs._ Gingerbread is either rolled out into thin sheets and cut into
cakes or nuts (GINGERBREAD NUTS) with the top of a wine-glass or canister,
or is formed into thick cakes, which are baked in ‘batches’ (ordinary
GINGERBREAD). Both varieties require a pretty brisk oven; the thinner
kinds (nuts, &c.), especially, must be baked as crisp as possible, without
being burnt. The varieties called LEMON GINGERBREAD, CARAWAY G., &c., have
a perceptible predominance of these flavouring ingredients. The addition
of a little alum, dissolved in water, makes the bread both lighter and
crisper, and causes it to ripen quicker, but at the same time lessens its
wholesomeness.

=GIN′GER CAN′DY.= See CANDYING.

=GIN′GER DROPS.= See DROPS (Confectionery).

=GLAIRE.= White of egg. See ALBUMEN and EGG.

=GLAN′DERS.= _Syn._ FARCINOMA, L. A contagious disease, generally confined
to the horse, ass, and mule, but communicable to man, in whom it assumes a
highly malignant and often fatal character. This disease appears under two
forms——1. SIMPLE ACUTE GLANDERS, marked by copious discharge of foul
mucous matter from the nostrils and adjacent parts; and——2. FARCY, FARCIN,
or FARCY GLANDERS, when it attacks the lymphatics of the skin, either
generally, producing a distended appearance of the vessels, like moles or
buttons (LEAD or BUTTON FARCY), or locally, when it takes the form of
dropsical accumulations in the legs (WATER FARCY).

_Treat._ Mr Youatt considers it useless to attempt the cure of glandered
horses; but that farcy in its earlier stages and milder forms may be often
successfully treated. “All the mercurials have been used with benefit in
farcy; but they must be discontinued as soon as the mouth is sufficiently
affected, or sickness, loss of appetite, and like symptoms, are produced.”
(Blaine.) Feeding the animal entirely on green food appears to be the best
mode of treatment in both varieties. The buttons are generally removed
with caustic or a red-hot iron.

“Glanders is quite incurable, but by generous diet, good stabling, and
mineral tonics, life, except in extremely acute cases, may be prolonged
for many weeks. This, however, is not desirable; for it involves great
risk, not only to other horses, but also to the attendants.” (Finlay Dun.)

=GLASS.= _Syn._ VITRUM, L. This well-known substance is essentially a
mixture of silicates with an excess of silica or silicic acid. It
generally contains the silicates of potassa, soda, lime, baryta, magnesia,
alumina, and lead, coloured by small portions of iron, manganese, cobalt,
uranium, copper, or gold. In its usual form it is brittle, transparent,
noncrystalline, insoluble, and fusible; but it sometimes exhibits other
properties.

The manufacture of glass is one of the highest beauty, and, considering
the comparative worthlessness of the materials of which it is made, and
the various purposes of a useful, ornamental, and scientific nature which
it subserves, it may be regarded as, perhaps, the most important in the
history of inventions. The principle of its production is very simple,
although great skill and experience are necessary to ensure its
excellence. Silica (commonly under the form of sand) is heated with
carbonate of potassa or of soda, and slaked lime or oxide of lead, until
the mixture fuses, and combination takes place. After a time the melted
mass becomes perfectly limpid and free from air-bubbles, when it is
allowed to cool until it assumes the peculiar tenacious condition proper
for working. The operation of fusion is conducted in large crucibles of
refractory fire-clay, which, in the case of ‘lead-glass,’ are covered with
a dome at the top, and have an opening at the side by which the materials
are introduced, and the melted glass withdrawn.

The manufacture of glass is only conducted on the large scale, and the
precise character and proportions of the ingredients used by the
glass-maker must necessarily greatly depend upon the nature of the raw
materials furnished by his locality, or otherwise at his command. The
attention of the manufacturer should be directed to the use of his
materials in such proportions as will furnish, in the melting-pot, the
proper quantities of the essential ingredients, as determined from the
known composition of the best commercial samples. The purity of the raw
materials and the accuracy of his proportions and quantities are proved or
disproved by the excellence of the product; and the cause of error (if
any) may be at once determined by carefully ascertaining the quality of
the ingredients employed, and the composition of the defective glass.

A writer (in ‘Chem. Centr.,’ 1872, 528) points out that very generally the
soda used in glass making, contains sulphate, and that when this is so a
poor glass is produced. The addition of ·75-1 part of wood charcoal for
every 100 parts of true soda——improves the quality of the glass.

_Prep._ The following formulæ exhibit the composition of the leading
commercial glasses, as shown by chemical analysis, together with the
proportions of the raw materials used in their production.

BOTTLE GLASS. Sp. gr. 2·700 to 2·735.——

_a._ Composition by analysis:——

1. Silica, 53·55%; lime, 29·22%; mixed alkali, 5·48%; alumina, 6·01%;
oxide of iron, 5·74%. Dark green.

2. Silica, 52%; baryta, 21·6%; soda, 26·1%; oxides of iron and manganese,
·3%. Pale green; very superior.

_b._ Raw materials used:——

1. Yellow sand, 20%; kelp, 8%; lixiviated wood-ashes, 30%; fresh
wood-ashes, 8%; pale clay, 16%; ‘cullet’ (broken glass), 18%. This is the
common mixture for coarse bottles, in Belgium, France, and Germany.

2. To the last add of black oxide of manganese, 2-1/2 to 3%. Has a rich
yellowish colour; used for Rhenish-wine bottles.

3. Pale sand, 51%; lixiviated wood-ashes, 33%; pearl-ashes (dried), 8%;
common salt, 7-1/2%; white arsenic, 1/2%; charcoal, q. s. Very pale green.

4. Siliceous sand (pale), 68-1/2%; potash (or its equiv.), 4%; lime,
23-1/2%; heavy spar, 2-1/2%; peroxide of manganese, 1-1/2%. This forms the
celebrated ‘flask-glass’ of St. Etienne.

GLASS, BROAD, SPREAD WINDOW GLASS. Sp. gr. 2·642.——

_a._ By analysis:——

Silica, 69·70%; lime, 13·30%; soda, 15·25%; oxide of iron (and loss),
1·75%.

_b._ Materials used:——

1. White sand, 50%; dried sulphate of soda, 22%; charcoal (in powder), 9%;
‘cullet,’ 41%; peroxide of manganese, a little. Pale.

2. White sand, 60%; potashes (good), 24%; common salt, 10%; nitre, 5%;
white arsenic, 1%; peroxide of manganese, a little (1/12 to 1/10%); pale
‘cullet,’ at will (10 to 30%). Very pale. This is the ‘spread’ or ‘sheet
window-glass’ in common use.

GLASS, CHEMICAL. Sp. gr. 2·390 to 2·396.——

_a._ By analysis:——

1. Silica, 72·80%; potassa, 16·80%; lime (with a trace of alumina), 9·68%;
magnesia, 40%; traces of oxide of manganese and iron (and loss) ·32%. This
is the difficultly fusible ‘Bohemian tube-glass,’ so valuable in chemical
manipulations.

2. Silica, 69·3%; potassa, 15·8%; soda, 3%; lime, 7·6%; alumina, 1·2%;
magnesia, 2%; oxide of iron, ·5%; oxide of manganese (and loss), ·6%.
English chemical glass (without lead). More fusible than the last.

_b._ Materials used:——

1. Quartz (hyalin, in powder), 60%; calcined purified pearlash, 30%;
fresh-burnt lime (very pure), 9%; nitre (dried), 3/4%; arsenious acid or
peroxide of manganese, 1/4%. Said to be the proportions used in the
production of _a_, 1 (_above_).

2. (M. Peligot.) Quartz, 71-1/2%; carbonate of potassa (or its equiv.,
dry), 20%; quicklime, 8-1/2%; (manganese, a little). Said to be the
formula for the hardest and least fusible ‘Bohemian tube-glass.’ It is
very intractable and infusible, except at a very high temperature; but the
addition of an exceedingly small quantity of boracic acid, borax, or
arsenious acid, causes it to flow into a glass possessing great brilliancy
and hardness, and capable of being wrought at the highest heat of the
ordinary furnace.

GLASS, CROWN, WHITE WINDOW-GLASS. Sp. gr. 2·486 to 2·488.——

_a._ By analysis:——

1. Silica, 62·8%; potassa, 22·1%; lime, 15·5%; alumina (with traces of
oxide of iron and manganese), 2·6%. Crown-glass of Bohemia, according to
Dumas. Very beautiful.

2. Silica, 72·5%; soda, 17·75%; lime, 9·75%. English crown-glass;
excellent quality, but not so white as the last.

_b._ Materials used:——

1. Finest white siliceous sand, 64%; purified potashes (dry), 23%; lime,
12%; white arsenic, 3/4%; oxide of manganese, 1/4%. Said to be used in
Bohemia.

2. (Schweigger.) Pure sand, 57%; dry sulphate of soda, 28-1/2%; quicklime,
11-1/2%; powdered charcoal, 3 or 4%. Corresponds to _a_, 2, _above_
(nearly).

3. Pure sand, 40%; soda ash, 24%; lime, 5%; white ‘cullet,’ 31%, Rather
superior to the last.

CRYSTAL, CRYSTAL GLASS. The ‘crystal glass’ of England is flint glass’ of
superior quality; that of Bohemia is noticed under TABLE GLASS.

GLASS, FLINT, CRYSTAL. Sp. gr. 3·000 to 3·620.——

_a._ By analysis:——

1. (Berthier.) Silica, 59·19%; oxide of lead, 28·68%; potassa, 12·13%;
oxides of iron and manganese, traces. Finest colourless English crystal.

2. (Brande; Faraday.) Silica, 52%; oxide of lead, 34%; potassa, 34%.
Crystal.

3. (Faraday.) Silica, 44·30%; oxide of lead, 43·05%; potassa, 11·75%;
alumina, ·50%; oxides of iron and manganese, ·12%; (loss 28%). Heaviest of
three samples of flint glass examined.

_b._ Materials used:——

1. Finest Lynn-sand (calcined, sifted, and washed), 51%; litharge
(purest), 28% (or red lead, 29%), refined pearlashes (calcined before
being weighed), 16%; nitre (purified), 4-3/4% arsenious acid and peroxide
of manganese, of each, 1/8%. Very fine crystal.

2. (M. Payen.) Fine sand, 46%; red lead, 31%; purified carbonate of
potash, 23%. French crystal.

3. (Geddes.) White Lynn-sand, 51%; red lead or litharge, 33%; refined
pearlashes, 13%; nitre, 3%; a very little arsenious acid and peroxide of
manganese. Ordinary English flint-glass. Crystal ‘cullet’ may be added at
will to the above. This glass was originally prepared from powdered
flints, a fact to which it owes its common name.

GLASS, OPTICAL. 1. (Crown glass.) Purest siliceous sand, 55%; carbonate of
soda (dry), 12%; chalk (dry), 11%; carbonate of baryta, 22%.

2. (Flint glass.)——

_a._ By analysis:——

Silica, 44·30%; oxide of lead, 43·05%; potassa, 11·75%. This is Guinand’s
‘dense optical glass.’

_b._ Materials used:——

1. Purest quartz, 42%; red lead (finest), 42%; purified potash, 14-3/4%;
purified nitre, 1-1/4%. These are the proportions used for the last.

2. (Korner.) Finest quartz (reduced to powder, treated with hydrochloric
acid, washed, and dried), 47-1/2%; red lead, 38-1/4%; cream of tartar,
14-1/2%. The above are used by opticians in the construction of achromatic
object-glasses.

GLASS, PLATE. Sp. gr. 2·488 to 2·600.——

_a._ By analysis:——

1. (Dumas.) Silica, 75·9%; soda, 17·5%; lime, 3·8%; alumina, 2·8%. French
mirror-glass.

2. (Mitscherlich.) Silica, 60%; potassa, 25%; lime, 12·5%; loss, 2·5%(?).
Finest Bohemian plate.

_b._ Materials used:——

1. Finest siliceous sand, 45%; dried carbonate of soda, 25%; lime, 5%;
nitre (purified), 2%; plate-glass cullet, 23%; peroxide of manganese and
cobalt azure, a very little. Ordinary English plate.

2. Whitish quartz sand, 60%; purified carbonate of soda (dried), 20%; lime
(slaked by exposure to the air), 9%; plate-glass cullet, 11% (or more).
Sometimes as much cullet as sand is used; but in all cases 1% to 1-1/2% of
its weight in carbonate of soda is added with it, besides that ordered in
the formula, to compensate for loss of alkali by remelting. Used at the
celebrated plate-glass works at Saint-Gobain, France. The product
possesses an amount of excellence which British manufacturers have yet
failed to equal.

GLASS, TABLE BOHEMIAN CRYSTAL. Sp. gr. 2·6 to 2·8.——

_a._ By analysis:——

1. (M. Berthier.) Silica, 71·7%; potassa, 12·7%; soda, 2·3%; lime, 10·3%;
alumina, ·4%; oxides of iron and manganese (and loss), 2·6%. Very white,
hard, and beautiful table glass.

2. (Dumas.) Silica, 70%; potassa, 20%; lime, 4%; alumina, 5%; oxide of
iron, ·6%; peroxide of manganese, ·4%. A beautiful white wineglass.

_b._ Materials used:——

1. Finest sand, 50%; purified potashes, 25%; chalk, 10%; nitre, 2%;
crystal cullet, 27%; manganese, a little (say 1/16%). Used in England
recently for table glass.

2. Quartz (hyalin, in powder), 63%; purified potashes, 26%; slaked lime
(carefully sifted), 11%; manganese, a little; crystal cullet, at will.
Used in Bohemia.

3. (M. Perdonnet.) Powdered quartz, 44%; carbonate of potassa, 33%;
quicklime (in fine powder), 22%; nitre, 1%; and a very small quantity of
arsenious acid and peroxide of manganese. Said to be the formula used at
Neuwelt for the glass _a_, 1 (_above_).

_Qual., &c._ These are denoted by its hardness, transparency, homogeneity,
strength, and power of resisting the action of water, air, light, and the
stronger acids and alkalies. The power of glass to resist the action of
menstrua is readily tried by exposing it to boiling oil of vitriol, and
hot but dilute solution of caustic potassa. Neither of these tests should
cause the glass to lose its transparency or to become dim.

_Swallowed glass._ Glass and enamel, both in fragments and in powder, have
occasionally been swallowed, with different results. These bodies are
insoluble in the fluids of the body, and, consequently, any injurious
action they may exert upon the system whilst they are retained in it must
entirely depend upon mechanical attrition or irritation. As treatment, we
must administer an emetic, and assist its action by thick mucilaginous
liquids, and afterwards have recourse to antiphlogistics, if necessary.

_Anal._——_a._ A portion of the sample for examination is heated to dull
redness, and then suddenly thrown, whilst still hot, into a vessel of cold
water. It is next dried, and reduced to fine powder in an agate or
hardened-steel mortar.

_b._ 100 gr. of the prepared powder is thoroughly mixed with 200 gr. of
pure potassic hydrate, and the whole is exposed to heat in a silver or
platinum crucible or capsule until perfect fusion takes place; when cold,
the crucible and its contents are boiled in about half a pint of distilled
water; nitric acid is added to the resulting solution, in excess, and the
mixture, together with any sediment, is evaporated to dryness, after which
the heat is gradually increased to 400° or 500° Fahr.; the dry residuum is
next reduced to powder, and digested in water acidulated with nitric acid,
until exhausted of soluble matter; the insoluble portion is then carefully
dried, gently ignited and weighed. The weight in grains represents the
per-centage of silica in the sample examined.

_c._ The mixed liquid and washings of _b_ is next acidulated with nitric
acid, and treated to a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, which, if it
produces a precipitate, is continued for some time; the precipitate is
collected on a very small filter, washed, and dried; the filter with the
precipitate next placed in a beaker glass, and strong fuming nitric acid
is cautiously added, drop by drop, until complete solution takes place;
after boiling the solution for a few minutes, diluting with distilled
water, and allowing it to cool, it is precipitated with sulphuric acid, in
excess; this precipitate (sulphate of lead) is washed, dried, slightly
ignited in a porcelain crucible, and weighed. The weight in grains,
multiplied by ·7369, gives the per-centage of oxide of lead or litharge.

_d._ The filtered liquid from _c_ is evaporated to dryness, and
redissolved in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and treated with a
solution of ammonium chloride, and afterwards with ammonia, in excess; the
precipitate (alumina and oxide of iron) is collected, washed, and boiled
in a solution of potassium hydrate; the undissolved portion is collected
on a filter, washed with boiling water, ignited, and weighed. This gives
the per-centage of peroxide of iron.

_e._ The liquid filtered from the oxide of iron holds the alumina (if any)
in solution; a solution of carbonate of ammonium is dropped in; the
resulting precipitate is washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. This gives
the per-centage of alumina.

_f._ The filtrate from the alumina and oxide of iron (see _d_), after
being evaporated to dryness, is redissolved in a large quantity of
distilled water, and is treated with a solution of oxalic acid (a solution
of oxalate of ammonium is preferable when no baryta is present); the
precipitate is washed, dried, gently ignited, and weighed. The weight of
the resulting carbonate of calcium, in grains, multiplied by ·56292, gives
the per-centage of lime required.

_g._ The filtrate from _f_ is now mixed with carbonate of potassium, in
considerable excess, and boiled for a long time; the resulting precipitate
(if any) is then collected on a filter, slightly washed with hot water,
dried, and exposed to a full red heat for some time (say 2 hours); the
residuum of the calcination is then weighed. This furnishes the
per-centage value of the sample in magnesia.

_h._ The filtrate from _f_ is treated with dilute sulphuric acid or the
solution of a sulphate, as long as a precipitate falls; the precipitate
(sulphate of barytum,) is washed, dried, gently ignited, and weighed. The
weight, in grains, multiplied by ·6589, gives the per-centage of baryta in
the sample.

The above may be varied by gently concentrating the liquid filtered from
the precipitate of alumina and oxide of iron (see _d_), and precipitating
it with dilute sulphuric acid; the mixed precipitate is exhausted by
digestion in water holding chloride of ammonium in solution; the
undissolved residuum (sulphate of barytum,) is washed, dried, and
otherwise treated as before; whilst the solution with the washings is
treated with a solution of carbonate of ammonium; the precipitate is
carbonate of calcium, which is to be washed, &c., as directed under _f_.
The liquor, &c., filtered from the lime, is lastly tested for magnesia.
(See _g_.)

_i._ A second 100 gr. of the powdered glass (see _a_) is mixed with 200
gr. of fluor spar, also in powder; the compound is placed in a platinum or
leaden capsule, 500 gr. of strong sulphuric acid are added, and the whole
cautiously stirred together with a silver stirrer or spoon, care being
taken to avoid inhaling the fumes; the heat of a spirit lamp is next
applied, and at first is kept at about 212° Fahr., but towards the
conclusion of the process is raised to 300° Fahr., or even higher, and is
continued for at least 2 hours, or until fumes entirely cease to be
evolved; 5 or 6 fl. oz. of distilled water are next poured on the
residuary mass, and, after thorough agitation, the whole is thrown on a
filter, more water being at last poured on to wash out any remains of
soluble matter; to the filtrate, carbonate of ammonium is added in excess,
and after a time the earthy salts are removed by filtration; the filtered
liquor is now evaporated to dryness, and ignited to dull redness for 2 or
3 minutes; the residuum (sulphate of potassium or sodium, or of both),
after being weighed (the weight being carefully noted down), is
redissolved in distilled water; a solution of chloride of barium is then
added as long as it disturbs the liquor, and after a time the whole is
again filtered; the filtrate is concentrated by evaporation, and solution
of bichloride of platinum added in excess; the whole is now gently
evaporated to dryness, mixed with alcohol, collected on a filter,
carefully washed with weak alcohol, dried at a temperature under 212°
Fahr., and weighed. The weight, in grains, multiplied by ·1940, gives the
per-centage of potassa sought.

_k._ The weight of sulphate of potassium in the ignited residuum in _i_ is
calculated from that of the potassium last found (47 parts of the one
being equal to 87 parts of the other), and this weight is deducted from
the gross weight of the ignited sulphates; the remainder represents the
quantity of sulphate of sodium present. The weight of the latter, in
grains, multiplied by ·4367, gives the per-centage of pure soda required.

_Concluding Remarks._ One of the chief points to which the skilful glass
manufacturer directs his attention, is the quality of the materials. Great
care is exercised in the selection of the sand for all the finer varieties
of glass. The usual practice is to test it before using it, by exposing it
to a very high temperature. The purest sand is that which is the whitest
and freest from iron, and which, consequently, suffers the least
alteration by this treatment. The alkalies (potash, soda) employed are
purified by solution and crystallisation. The red lead and litharge must
be pure and absolutely free from oxide of copper (a common contamination),
which gives a green tint to the glass. The former, which is the most
costly, is preferable to the finest crystal. Care must also be taken that
the lime, clay, &c., are respectively of proper purity; and that the
‘cullet,’ or broken glass, which is almost always remelted with the other
materials, is of proper quality, and of the same kind as that to which it
is added. Potassa produces a better glass than soda, although the latter
is now very generally employed, from its lower price. It is, however,
quite inadmissible as an ingredient in the manufacture of the better class
of crystal and plate glass, as, however pure it may be, it imparts to the
product a slight greenish tinge more or less destructive of its beauty.
When sulphate of soda (Glauber salt) is used as a source of soda, it is
gently calcined to dissipate its water of crystallisation, and requires
the addition of about 8% of charcoal to effect its reduction in the
melting-pot. Common salt is also employed as a source of soda in the same
manner. Sometimes native sulphide of lead (galena) is used to decompose
the sulphate of soda, and in lieu of part of the oxide of lead; in which
case about 5 parts of the sulphuret are taken for every 9 parts of the
calcined sulphate.

To anticipate the results of his processes, and to carry out with
certainty his various intentions, the glass manufacturer, perhaps more
than any other person, requires the aid of science and experience. All his
most essential operations depend on chemical principles. The products of
his furnaces are not formed by the mere mechanical admixture of their
several ingredients whilst in the state of fusion, but result from the
play of delicate affinities which only act under certain conditions, and
when the materials are presented to each other in uniform and definite
proportions. Chemically speaking, the glasses are mixed super-silicates of
the respective bases which enter into their composition (potassium,
calcium, lead, &c.), and, like all other compounds which are formed by
elective attraction, obey the common laws of combination, as developed by
Dalton, and now so successfully applied in almost every department of
industrial art. It has been shown by the most careful analysis, that in
all the more valuable and beautiful commercial glasses the relative
proportions of the materials are conformable to these laws, and that
several of them are true atomic compounds, as perfect in this respect as
the crystalline bodies commonly denominated salts. In some of the harder
glasses of Bohemia the number of atoms or equivalents of silica are to
each of the bases with which it is united, nearly as 5 to 1; whilst in a
softer glass of German manufacture the proportions of the two are found to
be as 4 to 1. The celebrated plate glass of St. Gobain is an atomic
compound formed of 1 equivalent of trisilicate of soda united to 1
equivalent of trisilicate of lime, with a small per-centage of alumina in
combination with silicic acid, also in atomic proportion. Glasses in which
the ingredients bear no atomic ratio to each other are never homogeneous,
but always more or less striated and of unequal colour and refractive
power. The absence of atomic proportion between the substances entering
into its composition appears to be the only reason why the best English
plate and mirror glass is so greatly inferior to that of France and
Germany, that comparison of the two becomes absurd. The only variety of
glass in the production of which the English manufacturer excels is flint
glass or crystal, and here he certainly surpasses all his numerous
competitors. The subject is doubtless involved in difficulty, owing to the
precise temperature necessary to effect the perfect combination of the
bases with the silicic acid, varying with the character of the compound,
and not being satisfactorily settled by observation or experience. The
modifying influence of temperature is shown by the fact that the lower the
heat employed in the process, the smaller the quantity of silica which
enters into the composition of the resulting glass; whilst at higher
temperatures a part of the base is dissipated in fumes, until such
proportions of base and acid result as are required to produce a permanent
atomic compound corresponding to the temperature employed. If the heat is
excessive or improperly continued, the loss of base produces an opposite
effect, and an opaque, semi-vitrified mass is formed, resembling
‘Reaumur’s porcelain.’ The quality of the resulting glass depends on this
change being more or less complete. If the furnace yields the right
temperature, and the duration of the exposure to its action is neither too
short nor too prolonged, nature makes up for the unskilful conduct of the
operative, and removes the stumbling blocks which his ignorance had placed
in the way of his own attempts at excellence. The proceedings and their
results are accidental; but being once obtained, the first are repeated
without further trouble or inquiry. This accounts for the same mixture of
materials yielding products of different qualities at different times, and
in different works, which the operative contents himself with referring to
the ‘going of the furnace.’ The common plan in this country is to regulate
the proportions and firing by experience only, rather than by theory and
practice combined. Now, although the chemist has much yet to learn on the
precise constitution of the glasses, and although theory may not be able
to ensure unvarying success, it is nevertheless certain that, in all
cases, it can afford much valuable assistance in that direction. Indeed,
it has been asserted by one of the leading Continental chemists, that
ingredients that will yield the proper equivalent proportions in the
melting pot cannot produce a bad glass, if exposed to such a temperature
as to permit of perfect combination taking place.

It is found that those glasses which contain a predominance of alkali are
acted on by water, and when this is in great excess they are perfectly
soluble in that fluid. Ordinary flint glass is affected by long coction in
water, whilst crown glass, which contains less alkali, is unaltered by
that trial. Glass which contains any considerable quantity of lead is
acted on by sulphuretted hydrogen. This is the cause of the surface of
flint glass, under certain circumstances, becoming opaque and iridescent.
Glasses made of silica and alkali alone are incapable of permanently
resisting the action of water. The addition of lime or oxide of lead
appears to be necessary to give them this quality. Glasses that have a
slight greenish or bluish tint may be often whitened, or rendered
colourless, by exposure to light and air. This arises from the
peroxidation of the iron, to whose protoxide they owe their tint. Other
glasses become purpled by exposure, owing to the peroxidation of the
manganese.

Different colours are communicated to glass by the addition of metallic
oxides. Thus, oxide of manganese gives an amethyst; oxide of cobalt, a
blue; oxide of iron, a brown; black oxide of copper, a green; oxide of
gold, a purple; suboxide of copper, a ruby-red; oxide of tin, a white;
oxide of silver, a yellow, &c. These substances are either added to the
melted contents of the glass-pot, as in preparing artificial gems, &c., or
they are applied in a thin layer to the surface of the object, which is
then heated until fusion of the coloured compound occurs, as in enamelling
and painting on glass.

Glass is FORMED or FASHIONED into articles by the processes of blowing,
casting, drawing, rolling, or spreading. In the process of BLOWING GLASS
the workman begins by collecting a proper quantity of glass in a soft,
pasty state, at the end of his blow-pipe (an iron tube, five or six feet
in length, terminated by a mouth-piece of wood), which he then commences
blowing through, by which the lump is expanded into a kind of flask,
susceptible of having its form modified by the position in which it is
held, and the velocity of rotation continually given to the iron tube. If
an open-mouthed vessel is to be made, an iron rod, called a ‘pontil’ or
‘puntil,’ is dipped into the glass-pot and applied to the bottom of the
flask, to which it thus serves as a handle, the blow-pipe being removed by
the application of a cold iron to the neck. The vessel is now re-heated,
and the aperture enlarged, and the vessel otherwise altered in figure by
the aid of a few simple tools until completed. It is then detached, and
carried to the ‘annealing oven,’ where it undergoes slow and gradual
cooling during many hours. In this way bottles, flasks, carboys, and an
almost infinite variety of other articles, are formed. The large circular
tables of CROWN-GLASS are made by a joint process of BLOWING and
SPREADING. The globular flask at first produced, transferred from the
blow-pipe to the ‘pontil,’ is suddenly made to assume the form of a flat
disc by the centrifugal force of the rapid rotatory movement given to the
rod. SPREAD or BROAD GLASS is formed into sheets in a nearly similar
manner. PLATE-GLASS is cast upon a flat metal table, and, after very
careful annealing, is ground and polished by suitable machinery. TUBES are
made by rapidly drawing out a hollow cylinder; and from these a great
variety of useful small apparatus are constructed with the help of a lamp
and blowpipe, or, still better, the bellows-table of the barometer-maker.
GLASS BEADS are made from small tubes chopped into pieces of suitable
lengths, which are stirred first in a mixture of sand and wood-ashes, in
the cold, and afterwards in an iron pan over the fire until they assume a
rounded form. SMALL TUBES are bent in the flame of a spirit lamp or
gas-jet, and cut by a file, a scratch being made, and the two portions
pulled or broken asunder in a way easily learned by a few trials. LARGE
TUBES require the heat of a powerful blowpipe and lamp, or that of a
furnace.

The following hints respecting the MANAGEMENT OF GLASS may prove useful to
the inexperienced:——

ANNEALING. The process of annealing glass has been briefly referred to
before. The extreme brittleness of imperfectly annealed wrought glass may
generally be remedied on the small scale by immersing the articles in a
bath of oil, or a concentrated solution of chloride of calcium, or common
salt, and heating the whole gradually and cautiously to the boiling-point,
and letting it again cool——the slower the better. By this treatment the
glass will be enabled to bear any alterations of temperature between the
two extremes to which it has been exposed.

BLOWING. By the ingenious art of GLASS-BLOWING and GLASS-DRAWING, as
practised on the small scale, with a blowpipe lamp furnace, a variety of
articles of ornament and utility may be made, their number being limited
only by the ingenuity of the artist. The details of the various operations
are, however, too lengthy to describe here.

CLEANING. 1. Windows, looking-glasses, &c., may be quickly cleaned as
follows:——Dip a slightly moistened rag or flannel into whiting, fuller’s
earth, wood-ashes, or rotten-stone, in impalpable powder, with which smear
the glass, and wipe it off with a dry, soft cloth. This does well when the
surface is very dirty. In other cases, a little thumb blue, whiting, or
chalk, in fine powder, tied up in muslin, may be dusted on the glass,
which should then be cleaned off with chamois leather. This gives a fine
polish.

2. The vessel to be cleansed, is filled, or, if large, rinsed, with a
moderately dilute solution of permanganate of potash, contact being
prolonged till a film of hydrated manganic oxide has been deposited; the
solution is then poured away, and the glass vessel rinsed with some strong
hydrochloric acid.

CUTTING. Glass may be easily cut with a common well-hardened steel file,
provided it be moistened with oil of turpentine, or plunged under water.
It may be also perforated with a common steel brad-awl in the same way.
GLASS VESSELS, as bottles and tubes, may be readily cut or shortened by
placing a heated iron ring over the spot, or a piece of loose string or
cotton dipped in oil of turpentine and set on fire, and immediately on the
withdrawal of either applying cold water to the part. Glass vessels or
tubes thus treated will generally crack round, and may be readily divided
into two parts. In this manner a common Florence oil-flask may be
converted into an evaporating dish and a funnel. By a little practice a
crack may be led in almost any direction, or a new one made, by the point
of a red-hot poker or a spring coal (an ignited crayon of prepared
charcoal). The parts may then be separated by a little force or a smart
rap, and the divided edges smoothed by the flame of a blowpipe, or by
grinding them with powdered emery and water on a flat stone. In this way
many broken articles in glass may be converted into others scarcely less
useful.

ETCHING ON GLASS has been already noticed under the head of Etching.

GILDING OF GLASS. Gold chloride is dissolved in boiling water; the
solution is filtered, and the filtrate so far diluted, that 200 cubic
centimètres contain 0·0648 gram of the metal, and it is then made alkaline
with soda. The reducing agent is alcohol saturated with marsh gas; this is
diluted with its own volume of water. 25 cubic centimetres of this
solution are mixed with the alkaline gold chloride solution, and this
mixture is poured between the perfectly well-cleaned plate to be gilded,
and another sheet of glass placed at a distance of 3 mm. under the first.
After two to three hours’ rest the gilding is effected. The plate is
removed and washed. (‘Dingler’s Journal.’)

GRINDING. This, on the large scale, like glass-cutting, forms a distinct
occupation. On the small scale, glass may be roughed or ground by friction
with powdered emery and water and a flat rubber of wood; care being taken
that the article, if a plate, is laid on a perfectly flat surface, or, if
hollow, is supported by a core of cement or plaster. The frosted
appearance of ground glass is given to the panes of windows by gently
dabbing the glass over with a piece of glazier’s putty, stuck on the ends
of the fingers. When applied with a light and even touch, the resemblance
is considerable. Another method is to dab the glass over with thin white
paint, or flour paste, by means of a brush, but the effect is much
inferior to the above.

GLASS, PACKING. This subject will be considered under the general head of
PACKING.

WRITING ON GLASS may be performed by a piece of French chalk or crayons
prepared for the purpose; or even with a common pen held nearly
perpendicular. Indian ink, or, when the article will be exposed to damp,
shell-lac ink or varnish, thickened with a little Vermillion, or
lampblack, is best adapted to this purpose. Common ink is not sufficiently
opaque.

GLASS, TO PREVENT THE CRACKING OF, BY BOILING WATER. When new, all glass
and earthenware should be placed in cold water in a saucepan, and after
some hours the saucepan containing the vessel or vessels, should be placed
over the fire, until the water reaches the boiling point.

=Glass.= This term was applied by the older chemists to various substances
to which a vitreous appearance has been given by heat. Thus we have ‘GLASS
OF ANTIMONY,’ ‘GLASS OF BORAX,’ &c. It is now obsolete.

=Glass, Iridescent.= The inventor of the process by which this beautiful
variety of glass is made is M Clémandot.

The ‘Chemical News’ states that the principle observed in its manufacture
consists in submitting the glass articles to the action of dilute
hydrochloric, sulphuric, or other acid, under a pressure of from two to
six atmospheres. M Clémandot claims to be able to imitate the nacreous
films which are seen on ancient glass which has been exposed to combined
atmospheric influences for thousands of years.

=Glass, Pow′dered.= _Syn._ VITRUM PULVERISATUM, L. _Prep._ Heat the glass
red hot, throw it into cold water, dry, and powder it. Used to filter
acids, and glued upon paper as a polishing powder; also to wear down corns
upon the feet, after the feet have been well soaked, and dried.

=Glass, Sol′uble.= _Syn._ WATER GLASS; VITRUM SOLUBILE, L. An impure
alkaline silicate. _Prep._ Silica, 1 part; carbonate of potassium or of
sodium, 2 parts; fused together.

Carbonate of sodium (dry), 54 parts; carbonate of potassium (dry), 70
parts; silica, 192 parts; as last. Soluble in boiling water, yielding a
fine, transparent, semi-elastic varnish.

Carbonate of potassium (dry), 10 parts; powdered quartz (or sand free from
iron and alumina), 15 parts; charcoal 1 part; fused together. Soluble in 5
or 6 times its weight of boiling water; and the filtered solution,
evaporated to dryness, yields a transparent glass, permanent in the air.

M. F. Capitaine, who, acting upon a suggestion made by Liebig, some twenty
years since, has recently taken up the subject of the manufacture of
soluble glass, and silicate of potash, from _farine fossile_ (an
infusorial earth), has published an account of his researches in
‘Dingler’s Polytechnic Journal.’[334]

[Footnote 334: See ‘The Journal of the Society of Arts’ for January 11th,
1878.]

Although M. Capitaine does not think that the farine will be able to
compete in cheapness with flint (where this latter is abundant) for the
preparation of the alkaline silicates, he states that it possesses the
advantage over flint of being much more soluble, and of yielding a far
more neutral glass; added to which the production of the silicate is said
to be effected with much less trouble than when flint is employed. An
important condition is, that the farine must be first well calcined, since
if the least trace of organic matter be left in it, the resulting solution
will have a yellowish or brownish tint, which will make it unsaleable.

“The lyes being prepared partly with caustic soda, and partly with
carbonate of soda, had densities ranging from 1·22 to 1·24 which were
found to be most advantageous. A reservoir furnished with mechanical
agitators, was about two thirds filled with lye, and the necessary
quantity of calcined farine added, the stirring being kept up continually.
The proportion of farine is easily calculated on the datum, that one part
of hydrate of soda dissolves about 2·8 parts of chemically pure farine,
the quality of which varies but little. Lye of the density indicated
produces a rather light solution, which presents little resistance to the
agitators. If steam is afterwards introduced the solution becomes very
rapid, when the pressure reaches about three atmospheres, and at the end
of about three hours the silica is completely dissolved.

“For the preparation of silicate of potash for surgical purposes the
farine fossile is said to be peculiarly adapted. In this case the boiling
must be continued for one or two hours longer than in the case of soluble
glass, with an addition of 10 to 15 per cent. of farine.”

_Uses. &c._ Soluble glass, in solution, has been used to render textile
fabrics less combustible, as a varnish to protect stone, and as a vehicle
in fresco-painting, The soda compound (silicate of sodium) is largely used
as a dung-substitute in calico-printing, and by soap manufacturers in
place of the resinates formerly in use. 10 or 12 tons are produced weekly
in the district of South Lancashire. The potassa compound (silicate of
potassium) has been recommended as a remedy for gouty concretions by Mr
Ure.——_Dose_, 10 to 15 gr., in 6 or 8 fl. oz. of water twice a day. See
DUNGING, VARNISH, &c.

=Glass, Toughened.= _Syn._ VERRE TREMPÉ. M. de la Bastie’s process for
converting ordinary, into toughened, tempered, or hardened glass, may in
general terms be said to consist in heating the glass to a certain
temperature, and then plunging it into an oleaginous bath. For the
process, however, to be successful, the observance of a number of minute
details is essential; if these be neglected failure is certain to ensue.
Thus it is found, that if the glass be insufficiently heated it will, when
immersed in the bath, fail to be affected by it, and will consequently
experience no alteration in properties. Again, if overheated, it will then
get out of shape; or, further it may be heated to the right temperature,
and yet be spoilt as it is being transferred to the bath. Moreover, the
exact composition of the bath itself, and its temperature constitute very
important conditions, the most trifling departure from which may give rise
to unsatisfactory results. All these obstacles appear to have been
overcome by M. de la Bastie, who has designed plant in the shape of
furnaces and baths, by means of which the tempering process can be carried
out, without chance of failure. When the glass is brought to the required
temperature, all that is necessary is that they should be plunged into the
bath, and instantly withdrawn. The cost of the operation is stated to be
very small.

“The process as carried out at New York is thus described:——The glass
after being run from the furnaces and moulded as usual, instead of being
put into annealing pans, is immersed in a hot bath consisting of three
parts of flaxseed oil, and one part of tallow. The bath stands at about
320°; and after remaining in this the ware is removed to a second, and
similar bath, by which it is cooled down to about 200°. Finally the pieces
are immersed in a water bath, and then dipped into a quantity of ordinary
refined burning oil. They are then cleaned, ready for packing, with
plaster of Paris powder. The work is but in its infancy, and but one small
furnace is used in the experiments. Improvements will doubtless be made,
by which the cleaning can be done more rapidly than by the powdered
plaster, probably some chemical being used for the purpose. It is supposed
that the oil works into the pores of the hot glass, and thus toughens it.
Great care has to be exercised in the final cooling by water, as too long
a contact with the air in changing from one bath to another, makes the
ware crack. Articles cooled entirely in oil retain the oil on the surface,
but are thus rendered stronger than otherwise.

This new process is very much employed in the manufacture of lamp
chimneys, though they have the disadvantage of flying into small pieces,
and with violence when they do break, which sometimes does occur.”[335]

[Footnote 335: Supplement to ‘Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, &c.,
1878.]

The results so far obtained when glass is subjected to M. de la Bastie’s
process are variable. In some cases the articles subjected to it possess
great toughness, and the glass bears a blow without experiencing any
fracture. In other instances, however, a slight fall or blow shivers it to
atoms. When the toughened glass under any circumstances breaks, it
possesses a disadvantage over ordinary broken glass, in distributing
itself into a great number of small, sharply angular fragments.

Another process for toughening glass, which has been patented by Herr F.
Siemens, consists in heating, and then pressing, and suddenly cooling the
glass to be hardened; but when the articles are such as are usually
moulded, the hardening and tempering are accomplished at the same time as
the pressing; thus the molten glass is run into suitable moulds, and while
still highly heated, is squeezed, the moulds effecting the necessary
cooling, a proceeding which renders the employment of the oleaginous bath
unnecessary. Mr Bauer’s method for toughening glass consists in heating
ordinary glass plates so strongly that they begin to bend from softening,
and then plunging them into a liquid paraffin bath having a temperature of
200°.

Toughened glass is liable to rupture under circumstances that have not yet
been accounted for.

M. de la Bastie conceives that the fragile nature of glass is due to the
weakness of the cohesion of its particles, and that if this cohesive power
can be increased, the strength of the material will be improved in
proportion. M. de la Bastie first tried to obtain this end by forcibly
compressing the glass while in a plastic or fluid condition, but without
success; and it was only after various experiments that he was enabled to
harden the glass, by dipping it into oil or any other liquid that
permitted of being heated to a temperature considerably above that of
water.

=GLAZE.= _Syn._ GLAZING. Any coating or varnish applied to a surface to
render it smooth and glassy; any factitious, shining exterior. The
following applications of this term are the following:——

=Glaze.= In _cookery_, is commonly understood to be gravy or clarified
soups boiled until it gelatinises on cooling. It is used as a species of
varnish to cover various dishes for the table, and may be spiced and
flavoured according to the fancy of the cook. White of egg is generally
used as a glaze for pastry.

=Glaze.= In the _porcelain_ and _earthenware manufacture_, the vitreous
coating which is so essential to the beauty and utility of potter’s ware.
Glazes are either white or coloured. The former, by the addition of the
colouring ingredients used for enamels, are converted into the latter.

_a._ For EARTHENWARE:——

_Prep._ 1. (With lead.) White lead (pure), 53 parts; quartz or ground
flints, 36 parts; Cornish stone, or felspar, 16 parts; white flint glass,
5 parts; reduce the whole to an impalpable powder. For common earthenware.

2. (Without lead.) Fine washed sand, 10 parts; purified potash, 8 parts;
nitre, 1 part; slaked lime, 2 parts; nitre, 4-3/4%; powder, mix, heat the
mixture in a blacklead crucible in a reverberatory furnace, till the mass
flows into a clear glass; let this cool, then reduce it to fine powder.
For glazing pharmaceutical and chemical vessels.

_b._ For PORCELAIN:——

_Prep._ (Rose.) Felspar, 27 parts; borax, 18 parts; finest siliceous sand,
4 parts; nitre, soda, and purest china clay (Cornish), 3 parts; mix, heat
to a ‘frit,’[336] powder, and add of calcined borax, 3 parts.

[Footnote 336: A technical term for the half-fused mass formed by heating
together the materials of which glass is composed.]

_c._ For STONEWARE:——

1. (Ure.) White felspar, 26 parts; soda, 6 parts; nitre, 2 parts; borax, 1
part; ‘frit’ together as last. Of the product take 13 parts; red lead, 50
parts; white lead, 40 parts; flints, 12 parts; reduce the whole to powder
as before. For painted stoneware.

2. From common salt, which is thrown into the heated furnace containing
the ware. It is volatilised and decomposed by the joint agency of the
silica of the ware and of the vapour of water always present; hydrochloric
acid and soda are produced, the latter forming a silicate, which fuses
over the surface of the ware, and gives a thin but excellent glaze.
‘SALT-GLAZED STONEWARE’ is now generally used for large chemical vessels,
drain-pipes, &c.

_Obs._ Glazes must be reduced to very fine powder. For use, they are
ground with water to a very thin paste or smooth cream, into which the
articles, previously baked to the state called ‘biscuit,’ are then dipped;
they are afterwards exposed to a sufficient heat in the kiln to fuse the
glaze. Another method of applying them is to immerse the biscuit in water
for a minute or so, and then to sprinkle the dry powder over the moistened
surface.

=GLI′ADIN.= _Syn._ GLUTIN, VEGETABLE GELATIN. One of the proximate
principles of wheat gluten, soluble in alcohol.

=GLIADINPFLASTER= (A. L. Klose, Berlin). For rheumatism. A thin paper on
which is spread a solution of gelatin containing spirit and some acrid
substance, such as cantharides or euphorbium.——_Hager._

=GLOB′ULIN.= _Syn._ CRYSTALLIN. An albumenoid body existing in the
crystalline lens of the eye.

=GLOVE POW′DER.= _Prep._ 1. From Castile soap, dried by exposure to a warm
dry atmosphere for a few days, and then reduced to fine powder in a
mortar. Used to clean gloves.

2. Pipe-clay, coloured with yellow ochre, umber, or Irish slate q. s., and
afterwards scented with a little powdered orris root or cloves. Used to
colour gloves made of doe-skin and similar leather.

=GLOVES.= _Syn._ GANTS, Fr. Although gloves constitute a less costly
article of dress at the present day than they did during the Middle Ages,
the following information may nevertheless be sometimes found of value to
their wearers:——

GLOVE CLEANING. 1. (KID GLOVES.)——_a._ Damp them slightly, stretch them
gently over a wooden hand of appropriate size, and clean them with a
sponge dipped in benzol, recently rectified oil of turpentine, or
camphine; as soon as they are dry, withdraw them gently from the
stretcher, and suspend them in a current of air for a few days, or until
they cease to smell of the cleaning liquid used. The smell of benzol
passes off very quickly. Heat must be avoided. The cleaning liquid should
be used liberally, and the first dirty portion should be sponged off with
clean liquid.

_b._ By employing a saponaceous compound. See GANTEINE.

2. (DOE-SKIN and WASH-LEATHER GLOVES.)——_a._ Stretch them on a hand, or
lay them flat on a table, and rub into them a mixture of finely powdered
fuller’s earth and alum; sweep it off with a brush, sprinkle them with a
mixture of dry bran and whiting, and, lastly, dust them well off. This
will not do if they are very dirty.

_b._ Wash them in lukewarm soft water, with a little Castile or curd soap,
ox-gall, or bran tea; then stretch them on wooden hands, or pull them into
shape without wringing them; next rub them with pipe-clay and yellow
ochre, or umber, or a mixture of them in any required shade made into a
paste with ale or beer; let them dry gradually, and, when about half dry,
rub them well, so as to smooth them and put them into shape; when they are
dry, brush out the superfluous colour, cover them with paper, and smooth
them with a warm (not hot) iron.

GLOVE DYEING. LEATHER GLOVES, if not greasy, may be dyed with any of the
ordinary dyes by brushing the latter over the gloves stretched out smooth.
The surface alone should be wetted, and a second or third coat may be
given after the former one has become dry. When the last coat has become
thoroughly dry, the superfluous colour should be well rubbed out, a smooth
surface given them by rubbing them with a polished stick or piece of
ivory, and the whole gone over with a sponge dipped in white of egg.

=Gloves, Cosmetic.= _Syn._ GANTS COSMETIQUES. These are mock kid or
lambskin gloves rubbed over, on the inside, with the following
composition:——Spermaceti cerate, 3 oz.; melt, add of balsam of Peru, 1/2
dr., stir for 5 minutes, and, after a few minutes’ repose, pour off the
clear portion; to this add of oil of nutmeg, 15 drops; oil of cassia and
essence of ambergris, of each 6 drops; and stir until cold. Used by ladies
to soften the hands and to prevent or cure chilblains and chaps. They are
commonly worn all night in bed.

=GLUCI′NUM.= Gl. _Syn._ BERYL′LIUM. The metallic base of glucina. It was
first obtained by Wöhler, in 1828, by a similar process to that adopted
for aluminum, a metal which it greatly resembles. See ALUMINUM.

=Gluci′num, Oxide of.= _Syn._ GLUCINA, BERYLLIA. A pulverent white
substance, found as silicate in the beryl, emerald, &c.

_Prep._ The beryl, in fine powder, 1 part; carbonate of potassium, 3
parts; expose the mixture to a strong red heat for half an hour, dissolve
the calcined mass in hydrochloric acid, and evaporate the solution to
dryness; redissolve the residuum in very dilute hydrochloric acid, and
precipitate with pure ammonia; wash the precipitate well, digest it with a
large quantity of carbonate of ammonium, filter, and boil the solution as
long as carbonate of glucinum subsides. By exposure to a red heat the
carbonic acid may be expelled, and the earth rendered anhydrous.

_Prop., &c._ Glucina closely resembles alumina, from which, however, it is
distinguished by its solubility when freshly precipitated in a cold
solution of carbonate of ammonia, from which it is again thrown by
boiling. Glucina is classed with the earths. The beryl contains 14% of
this substance.

=GLU′COSE.= See SUGAR (Grape).

=GLUE.= _Syn._ GLUTEN, GLUTINUM, L.; COLLE, COLLE FORTE, Fr. Inspissated
animal jelly, or gelatin, used as a cement.

_Prep._ Glue is principally prepared from the parings and waste-pieces of
hides and skins, the refuse of tanneries, and the tendons and other offal
of slaughter-houses. These substances, when intended for the glue-maker,
are steeped for 14 or 15 days in milk of lime, then drained, and dried by
exposure to the air. This constitutes what is termed the ‘cleansing’ or
‘preparation,’ and in this state the ‘glue pieces,’ as they are called,
may be kept for a long time, and transported to any distance without
suffering decomposition. Before conversion into glue, they are usually
again steeped in weak milk of lime, and next well washed and exposed to
the air for 24 to 30 hours. They are then placed in a copper boiler two
thirds filled with water, and furnished with a perforated false bottom, to
prevent them from burning, and as much is piled on as will fill the vessel
and rest on the top of it. Heat is next applied, and the whole gently
boiled or simmered together, until the liquor on cooling forms a firm
gelatinous mass. The clear portion is then run off into another vessel,
and a very small quantity of alum (dissolved) added; here it is kept hot
by a water bath, and allowed to repose for some hours to deposit its
impurities, after which it is run into the ‘congealing boxes,’ and placed
in a cool situation. The next morning the cold gelatinous masses are
turned out upon boards wetted with water, and are cut horizontally into
thin cakes with a stretched piece of brass wire, and then into smaller
cakes with a moistened flat knife. The latter are placed on nettings to
dry. The dry cakes of glue are next dipped one by one into hot water, and
slightly rubbed with a brush wetted with boiling water, to give them a
gloss; they are, lastly, stove-dried for sale. This furnishes the palest
and best glue.

As soon as the liquor of the first boiling has drained off, the
undissolved portion of skins, &c., left in the copper is treated with
fresh water, and the whole operation is repeated again and again, as long
as any gelatinous matter is extracted. In this way a second and other
inferior qualities of glue are obtained. The product from dried
glue-pieces is about 50%.

_Var._ These chiefly depend on the care with which the process is
conducted. HATMAKERS’ GLUE is prepared from the tendons of the legs of
neat cattle and horses. It is brown, opaque, and soft; and grows moist in
damp weather, but it does not render felt brittle like the other
varieties. FISH GLUE is made in like manner from various membranous and
solid parts of fishes. PARCHMENT GLUE is prepared from shreds or shavings
of parchment, vellum, white leather, &c., dissolved by boiling them in
water. It is scentless, and nearly colourless.

_Qual._ The best glue is transparent, nearly colourless, and tasteless,
has very little smell, even when melted, and is extremely adhesive. The
presence of more than a trace of alum is objectionable; an undue quantity
may be easily detected by the usual tests. The strongest glue is that
obtained from skins, more especially from the hides of oxen and cows.
That obtained from the bones, cartilages, and tendons, is weaker.

=Glue, Liq′uid.= _Prep._ (Dumoulins.) Soft water, 1 quart; best pale glue,
2 lbs.; dissolve in a covered vessel by the heat of a water bath, cool,
and add, gradually, of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·335), 7 oz.; when cold put
it into bottles. Very strong, and does not gelatinise. For the ‘LIQUID
GLUE’ sold in the shops, see CHINESE CEMENT.

=Glue, Marine.= _Prep._ 1. India rubber (cut small), 1 part; coal tar or
mineral naphtha, 12 parts; digest in a covered vessel with heat and
agitation, and when the solution is complete, add of powdered shell-lac,
20 parts; continue the heat and stirring until perfect liquefaction has
taken place, and pour the fused mass, whilst still hot, on slabs of
polished metal or stone, so as to form thin sheets. For use, it is heated
to its melting-point (248° to 250° Fahr.) in an iron vessel, and applied
in the liquid state with a brush. Employed in ship-building, &c.

2. Caoutchouc, 15 to 20 gr.; chloroform, 2 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add of
powdered mastic, 1/2 oz. It must be kept well corked and in a cool place,
to prevent loss by evaporation. Used for small, fine work.

=Glue, a New.= Ordinary glue is dissolved in nitric ether, and a little
bit of caoutchouc added. This solution forms a very strong glue, and does
not get thick or pasty. (‘Dengler’s Journal.’)

=Glue, Port′able.= _Syn._ BANK-NOTE GLUE. MOUTH G., INDIAN G.; COLLE À
BOUCHE, Fr. _Prep._ From the best pale glue, 1 lb.; water, q. s.; dissolve
in a double glue-pot or water bath, and of pale-brown sugar, 1/2 lb.,
continue the heat until the mixture is complete, and pour it into moulds;
or pour it on a marble slab, and when cold cut it into small pieces and
dry them in the air. This glue is very useful to draughtsmen, architects,
&c., as it dissolves almost immediately in warm water, fastens paper, &c.,
without the process of damping, and may be softened for many purposes with
the tongue. When great strength not required, 4 oz. more of sugar may be
used.

=GLU′TEN.= _Syn._ GLUTIN. A peculiar substance found in the grain of
wheat. It is composed of true vegetable fibrin and a small quantity of
gliadin. It is prepared by washing paste made of the flour of wheat or rye
in successive waters until all starchy matter is removed. The paste may be
conveniently enclosed in a bag of fine linen during the washing.

_Prop., Uses._ Gluten is believed to be eminently nutritious. It is the
presence of gluten in wheaten flour that imparts to it its viscidity or
tenacity, and confers upon it its peculiar excellence for the manufacture
of MACARONI, VERMICELLI, and similar pastes. The superiority of wheaten
over other bread depends upon the greater tenacity of its dough, which
during the fermentation is puffed up by the evolved carbonic acid, and
retained in its vesicular texture so as to form a light loaf.

Gluten is greyish coloured, and extensible whilst fresh and moist, like
caoutchouc. It turns blue when mixed with guaiacum resin.

=Gluten Bread.= _Prep._ 1. From wheat flour which has been deprived of
about 2-3rds of its starch by washing it with water.

2. From gluten flour. Recommended in diabetes.

=Gluten Choc′olate.= (Gentile’s.) A mixture of cocoa and gluten flour. As
a nutritious and appropriate food in diabetes.

=Gluten Flour.= _Prep._ 1. From the waste gluten of the starch works,
washed, dried, and ground.

2. (Gentile’s.) From the last, mixed with about an equal weight of wheat
flour.

=GLYC′ERIN.= C_{3}H_{3}O_{3}. _Syn._ GLYCERIN, HYDRATED OXIDE OF GLYCERYL;
GLYCERINUM, L. A sweet syrupy liquid formed during the saponification of
oils and fats.

_Prep._ 1. Olive oil (or other suitable oil), protoxide of lead, and water
are heated together until an insoluble soap of lead (lead plaster) is
formed. The glycerin remains in the aqueous liquid. As this crude solution
of glycerin is produced in great quantities in the manufacture of lead
plaster, the operative chemist has only to purify it. This may be done as
follows:——

The water and washings from lead plaster are mixed together, filtered, and
submitted to the action of a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen to throw down
the lead; the supernatant liquor is decanted from the precipitate,
filtered, and evaporated to the consistence of a syrup in a water bath. To
render it quite pure it is diluted with water, decoloured with a little
animal charcoal, filtered, and again evaporated to the consistence of a
thin syrup, after which it is further evaporated in vacuo, or over
sulphuric acid, until it acquires the sp. gr. 1·265.

2. (M. Bruère-Perrin.) From the sweet liquor of the stearine works (a
product of the process of lime-saponification). The quantity of lime
present in the sample is first determined by means of oxalic acid, and the
proportion of sulphuric acid necessary for its saturation at once
calculated and added; the crude liquor is then concentrated in a
tinned-copper vessel, evaporation being promoted by brisk agitation, until
the sp. gr. sinks to 10° Baumé; it is next cooled and filtered, and
accurately neutralised (if it is required) with carbonate of potassa,
after which it is evaporated to the sp. gr. 24° Baumé; on cooling, it
deposits gelatinous sulphate of potassa; the whole is now filtered, the
deposit on the filter washed with a little very weak spirit and water, the
filtrate and washings mixed together and evaporated, as before, with
agitation, until the sp. gr. 28° Baumé, whilst hot (36° cold), is
attained, when the whole is allowed to cool; the clear liquid is, lastly,
decanted and filtered. In this state it has an amber colour, but may be
rendered colourless and odourless by rediluting it with water, treating it
with animal charcoal, filtering, and again evaporating to a proper
consistence.

3. By saponifying olive oil with caustic alkali, decomposing the resulting
soap with dilute sulphuric or tartaric acid, evaporating the aqueous
portion to dryness (nearly), dissolving out the glycerin with cold
rectified spirit, and filtering and evaporating the solution as before.

4. The residuary liquor of a soap manufactory is evaporated, and treated
with alcohol to dissolve out the glycerin. The spirit is then evaporated
off, the glycerin diluted with water, and finally boiled repeatedly with
animal charcoal until all colour and odour are removed.

_Obs._ The products of the above processes are nearly pure, but that of
Price’s patent process, described below, is to be preferred to any of
them.

5. (Commercial.) From sweet stearin-liquor, by precipitating the lime by a
stream of carbonic acid gas, or by a solution of carbonate of soda,
carefully avoiding adding the latter in excess; the liquor is then boiled
a little, filtered, evaporated to a syrupy consistence, and again
filtered. This is the common glycerin of the shops. It may be further
purified as above.

6. (PRICE’S GLYCERIN——Patent dated 1854.) Superheated steam of from 550°
to 600° Fahr.) is introduced into a distillatory apparatus containing palm
oil or other fatty body. The action of the steam effects the decomposition
of the fat, and glycerin and the fatty acids distil over together but no
longer in combination. In the receiver the condensed glycerin, from its
higher specific gravity, sinks below the fatty acids. Sufficient steam
must be supplied, and the temperature nicely regulated. The glycerin is
concentrated by evaporation, and if discoloured, it is redistilled. It is
usually prepared with sp. gr. 1·24, and then contains 94% of anhydrous
glycerin. It can, however, be concentrated to sp. gr. 1·26 when it
contains 98%.

_Prop._ Pure glycerin is a colourless, odourless, uncrystallisable liquid,
sweet to the taste, and of a syrupy consistence; it mixes with water in
all proportions; it is unctuous and emollient, and softens bodies, like
oil, but without greasing them; it does not evaporate or change in the air
at ordinary temperatures, and is not susceptible of rancidity or
spontaneous fermentation; mixed with yeast and kept in a warm place, it is
gradually converted into propionic acid; a strong heat decomposes it, with
the production of acrolein; it is neutral to test-paper, and possesses
neither basic nor acid properties; it is easily charged with the aroma of
the essential oils, and may be combined with soap, and many other
substances, without undergoing change. Sp. gr., 1·27 (see _above_).

MM. Champion and Pellet recommend the following methods for testing the
purity of glycerin, as being convenient in application, and giving
accurate results.

_Qualitative Test._ The glycerin diluted with twice its weight of water is
treated in the cold.

(1.) With tribasic acetate of lead. If an abundant precipitate be formed,
and rapidly deposited, the presence of a proportion of foreign matters may
be assumed which would make it unsuitable for use in various applications,
such as the manufacture of nitro-glycerin, &c. The crude glycerin obtained
in treating fats with sulphuric acid is frequently thus contaminated.
These foreign matters result from the action of sulphuric acid at a high
temperature (about 110° C.) upon the fatty matter itself or on the
impurities it may contain.

(2.) Glycerin obtained by calcareous saponification, also may contain
oleate of lime. This may be detected with oxalate of ammonia, which throws
down the lime as a clearly perceptible precipitate.

The colour of glycerin is in no way an index of the purity of the product.
In all cases it is useful to be assured of the neutrality of the glycerin.

The preceding tests are suited for glycerins more or less impure, but not
adulterated. According to the authors’ experiments the tribasic acetate of
lead separates all the foreign substances due to normal impurity of the
product or alteration in the glycerin during its manufacture. Any addition
of glucose may be detected by Fehlings’ solution.

_Quantitative Test._ This test should comprehend the determination of the
water, the foreign organic matter, the lime, and the glycerin.

In the following table the authors have given the density of various
mixtures of water and glycerin, comparatively with the degrees Baumé, and
also the proportions of water corresponding to the densities. They state,
that these determinations have been verified by means of pure anhydrous
glycerin, prepared by keeping glycerin for several hours at a temperature
of 160° C, and terminating the operation _in vacuô_. The density found was
in accord with that given by Berthelot, namely, 1·264.

_Estimation of Organic Matter._ Fifty grams of glycerin diluted with water
are treated with an excess of tribasic acetate of lead, and the
precipitate collected on two tared filters, and the lead compound weighed.
The whole is then calcined, the residue treated with nitric acid, and then
with sulphuric acid, and from the sulphate of lead is calculated the
quantity of oxide of lead, that was in combination with organic matters,
and consequently the proportion of the latter, which rarely exceeds 1 to
1·5 per cent.

Lime may be estimated in the usual manner by oxalate of ammonia.

  ------------------------------------------------------------------------
   Hydrometer | Areometer | Water,   | Hydrometer | Areometer | Water,
   Weight of  | Degrees,  | per Cent.| Weight of  | Degrees,  | per Cent.
   Litre.     | Baumé.    |          | Litre.     | Baumé.    |
  -----------------------------------|------------------------------------
    1264·0        31·2        0·0    |  1235·0        28·6       11·0
    1262·5        31·0        0·5    |  1233·5        28·4       11·5
    1261·2        30·9        1·0    |  1232·2        28·3       12·0
    1260·0        30·8        1·5    |  1230·7        28·2       12·5
    1258·5        30·7        2·0    |  1229·5        28·0       13·0
    1257·2        30·6        2·5    |  1228·0        27·8       13·5
    1256·0        30·4        3·0    |  1227·0        27·7       14·0
    1254·5        30·3        3·5    |  1225·5        27·6       14·5
    1253·2        30·2        4·0    |  1224·2        27·4       15·0
    1252·0        30·1        4·5    |  1223·0        27·3       15·5
    1250·5        30·0        5·0    |  1221·7        27·2       16·0
    1249·0        29·9        5·5    |  1220·2        27·0       16·5
    1248·0        29·8        6·0    |  1219·0        26·9       17·0
    1246·5        29·7        6·5    |  1217·7        26·8       17·5
    1245·5        29·6        7·0    |  1216·5        26·7       18·0
    1244·0        29·5        7·5    |  1215·0        26·5       18·5
    1242·7        29·3        8·0    |  1213·7        26·4       19·0
    1241·2        29·2        8·5    |  1212·5        26·3       19·5
    1240·0        29·0        9·0    |  1211·2        26·2       20·0
    1239·0        28·9        9·5    |  1210·0        26·0       20·5
    1237·5        28·8       10·0    |  1208·5        25·9       21·9
    1236·2        28·7       10·5    |
  ------------------------------------------------------------------------

The authors consider that industrially the tribasic acetate of lead might
be used for the removal of organic matter from crude glycerin.

After separation of the precipitate, excess of the lead salt could be
removed by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen, and during the
concentration of the glycerin, the acetic acid set free would be
volatilized with injury to the product. The lead salt might be regenerated
by calcination, and again converted into acetate.[337]

[Footnote 337: ‘Moniteur Scientifique,’ Quesneville [3], vol. iii, p.
1033.]

The following quantitative test which it is said will detect upon
concentration of the fluids, one-tenth per cent. of glycerin in beer; one
per cent. in sherry, one per cent. in milk, and five per cent. in treacle,
is based upon a fact observed by Iles, viz. that borax when treated with
glycerin, gives to a Bunsen flame the green colour characteristic of
boracic acid. The method of its application as given by Messrs Senier and
Lowe is as follows:——The suspected solution is rendered alkaline by dilute
soda, and a borax bead placed in it for a short time. The bead is then
held in a Bunsen flame, and if the solution contains one per cent. of
glycerin a distinct reaction is observed. Erythrite and glycol give the
same colour.

If a small quantity of glycerin from which the fatty acids have not been
removed, be poured into the palm, and rubbed between the hands, a peculiar
fetid, mouse-like odour will be perceived.

_Uses, &c._ Glycerin is extensively employed as an excipient for medicines
(see GLYCEROLES), also, either alone, or in lotions, baths, &c., as a
soothing emollient, and is added to poultices and dressings instead of
oil, to prevent their hardening. Diluted with water, it often succeeds in
allaying itching and irritation of the skin when all other means fail. As
a cosmetic, either made into a lotion or added to soap (glycerin soap), or
used in small quantities (along with the water employed in washing), it
imparts a healthy clearness and a sensation of softness and coolness to
the skin, which is very agreeable and refreshing. It is the best remedy
known for chapped nipples, hands, lips, &c.; all of which may be prevented
by its use as an article of the toilet. Glycerin is sometimes used as a
sweetening agent, as a substitute for syrup.

Glycerin is employed for a great variety of purposes other than medicinal;
such, for example, as for:——Keeping clay moist for the modeller, for
preventing mustard from drying up, for keeping snuff damp, for the
preservation of fruit, for sweetening liqueurs, wine, beer, and malt
extracts. It is also used as a lubricant for some kinds of machinery, more
especially for watch and chronometer works, because it is unaffected by
contact with the air, does not thicken at a low temperature, and is
without action on such metals as copper, brass, &c. Glycerin is also an
ingredient in copying inks. It renders printing ink soluble in water;
indeed it is an excellent solvent for many substances, including the
Tar-colours (aniline blue, cyanine, aniline violet, and alizarine), and
arsenious acid. It is also added to the pulp of paper in order to render
it soft and pliable. It is said that leather driving-belts made as they
usually are of weakly tanned leather, when kept in glycerin for
twenty-four hours are not so liable to fray. A solution of glycerin in
water is now largely used instead of water alone for the purpose of
filling gas metres, as such a solution does not freeze in winter nor
evaporate in summer. It has also been used for the compasses on board
screw-steamers, in order to protect the inner compass-box, against the
vibrations caused by the motion of the propeller. It is also employed for
the preservation of anatomical preparations, and for mounting microscopic
specimens; as well as for rendering wooden casks impervious to petroleum
or other oils; as well as for the preparation of artificial oil of
mustard, or sulpho-cyan-allyl, which is made by treating glycerin with
iodide of phosphorus, whereby iodide of allyl is formed, which on being
dissolved in alcohol, and next distilled with sulpho-cyanide of potassium,
yields sulpho-cyan-allyl. When treated with concentrated nitric acid,
glycerin yields nitro-glycerin.[338]

[Footnote 338: Wagner’s ‘Chemical Technology.’]

Even the above long list does not exhaust the many useful purposes to
which glycerin is now applied.

=Glycerin Cream for Chilblains.= Equal parts of glycerin, soft soap, and
cherry-laurel water, mixed together.

=Glycerin Cream with Camphor.= Glycerin, 2 parts; camphor, 1 part;
rectified spirit, 1 part. Mix. For chilblains.

=Glycerin Jelly for Microscopic Mounting.= (‘Ed. Pharm. Journal.’) Soak
any quantity of good clean gelatine in cold water for three or four hours.
Pour off the superfluous water, and melt the gelatine at a gentle heat;
when melted filter through flannel, and to the filtrate add an equal
quantity of Price’s gelatin.

The above forms a good firm jelly, requiring little trouble in securing
the cover.

=Glycerin Ointment.= Glycerin, 8 parts; spermaceti, 4 parts; white wax, 1
part; oil of almonds (fixed), 16 parts. Add the glycerin to the melted
ingredients, and stir briskly till cold. For chaps and excoriations.

=GLYCEROLE.= A pharmaceutical preparation, in which glycerin is employed
as the excipient.

=Glycerole of Belladonna.= _Syn._ GLYCERINUM BELLADONNÆ. _Prep._ (Par.
Codex.) Extract of belladonna, 1 oz., glycerole of starch, 10 oz. (by
weight); rub together until perfectly smooth. Glyceroles of hemlock,
henbane, and opium are ordered by the Paris Codex to be prepared in the
same manner.

=Glycerole of Borax.= (B. P.) _Syn._ GLYCERINUM BORACIS, L. 1 of borax in
4-1/2 of glycerin.

=Glycerole of Carbolic Acid.= (B. P.) _Syn._ GLYCERINUM ACIDI CARBOLICI,
L. 1 of acid in 4-1/2 of glycerin.

=Glycerole of Gallic Acid.= (B. P.) _Syn._ GLYCERINUM ACIDI GALLICI, L. 1
of acid in 4-1/2 of glycerin.

=Glycerole of Iodine.= _Syn._ GLYCERINUM CUM IODINIO. _Prep._ (Par.
Codex.) Dissolve 5 parts of iodide of potassium and 1 part of iodine in
their own weight of water, and add to 40 parts of glycerin (by weight).
Applied in skin diseases.

=Glycerole of Iodide of Potassium.= _Syn._ GLYCERINUM POTASSII IODIDI.
_Prep._ (Par. Codex.) Iodide of potassium, 2 parts, glycerole of starch,
15 parts (by weight); dissolve the iodine in its own weight of water, and
add to this glycerole of starch.

=Glycerole of Starch.= (B. P.) _Syn._ GLYCERINUM AMYLI, L. 1 of starch in
8-1/2 of glycerin.

=Glycerole of Tannic Acid.= (B. P.) _Syn._ GLYCERINUM ACIDI TANNICI, L. 1
of acid in 4-1/2 of glycerin.

=Glycerole of Tar.= _Syn._ GLYCERINUM PICIS LIQUIDÆ. _Prep._ (Par. Codex.)
Purified tar, 1 oz. (by weight), glycerole of starch, 3 oz. (by weight).

=GLYCOARNICIN.= A radical cure for gangrene and tubercle (Zeller). 40
grammes clarified honey, with 35 grammes of a tincture of fresh arnica
herb, made with weak brandy. (Hager.)

=GLYCOBLASTOL= (Professor Kletzinsky, Vienna). An extract of the pericarps
of cayenne pepper, made with glycerine, diluted with a little water, and
perfumed with a trace of pleasant-smelling oil containing a suspicion of
patchouli. (Hager.)

=GLYCOCINE.= _Syn._ GLYCOLL. SUGAR OF GELATIN. (C_{2}H_{5}NO_{2}). This is
one of the products of the decomposition of gelatin when boiled with
dilute sulphuric acid; after the acid is removed by means of barium
carbonate, the glycocine may be procured in crystals by evaporating the
solution.

It may also be obtained by heating gelatin with a solution of potash or of
soda. It is, however, most easily separated in a state of purity by
boiling hippuric acid for half an hour with hydrochloric acid; as the
liquid cools benzoic acid is separated in abundance, and glycocine remains
in combination with hydrochloric acid; on the addition of absolute
alcohol, after the solution has been concentrated by evaporation and
super-saturated with ammonia, pure glycocine is deposited in minute
crystals.

Pure glycocine has a sweet taste, inferior to that of cane sugar. It is
soluble in about 400 parts of cold water, less soluble in rectified
spirit, and insoluble in absolute alcohol and in ether. It is not
susceptible of the alcoholic fermentation.

=GLYCYR′RHIZIN.= _Syn._ LIQUORICE SUGAR. An uncrystallisable variety of
sugar obtained from the root of common liquorice (_Glycyrrhiza glabra_).
It is yellow, transparent, soluble in both water and alcohol, and is not
susceptible of the vinous fermentation.

=GLYSTER.= See Enema.

=GNATS and MOS′QUITOES.= Smoke and strong fumes of any kind will drive
away these insects. If you only burn a piece of brown paper in an enclosed
space where they are, they soon after ‘settle,’ and appear to become so
stupefied as to remain inactive for some time after. In those parts of
the New World where mosquitoes abound, tobacco smoke is commonly had
recourse to in-doors, and large fires made of brush-wood or under-wood
out-of-doors. Old travellers, when compelled to bivouac during the season
in which they are troublesome, are very careful to keep close on the ‘lee’
of these fires.

=GOA POWDER.= See ARAROBA.

=GOITRE.= _Syn._ DERBYSHIRE NECK; BRONCHOCELE, TRACHEOCELE; HERNIA
BRONCHIALIS, L. A tumour on the fore part of the neck. It sometimes occurs
in Derbyshire, and is endemic in the Alps and several other mountainous
districts. Iodine and the iodides appear to be the only substances capable
of curing or even arresting the progress of this disease.

There seems little doubt that goitre arises from drinking water rendered
hard by the presence of magnesian and lime salts.

The disease called cretinism, which is a peculiar form of idiocy, is in
some countries more particularly frequently associated with goitre. Both
these maladies prevail in Wurtemberg, Saxony, Silesia, the Tyrol,
Carynthia, Galicia, Austria, and Switzerland. In England, goitre seems
principally confined to the magnesian limestone district extending from
Nottingham to the Tyne; it also prevails in a smaller degree in
Derbyshire, Norfolk, Cambridge, and Somersetshire, where a few scattered
cases of cretinism are to be met with. Goitre is very much more general
than is usually supposed in France. In Asia, it is to be found amongst the
inhabitants of Chinese Tartary, Thibet, and Ceylon, and in India amongst
the dwellers in the valleys and extensive plains that lie at the foot of
the Himalayan mountains.

The disease is likewise known to exist in many parts of Africa; goitre is
also far from uncommon in certain districts of North America; whilst in
South America it is met with amongst the people inhabiting the plateaus of
New Grenada, which comprise localities differing so greatly in climatic
conditions, as deep and humid valleys, and arid plains almost or entirely
destitute of verdure.

Goitre is a disease that may be very rapidly and readily set up. Bally
says he has known certain waters in Switzerland produce it even in eight
or ten days; and the French medical journals contain many similar
instances of its early development.

=GOLD.= Au. _Syn._ AURUM; OR, Fr.; GOLD, Ger.) Gold is the most valuable
and, probably, the longest known of all the metals. From the remotest
period it has been esteemed for its beauty and permanence, and has been
taken as the standard measure of value amongst all civilised nations. An
account of the uses of gold in the arts, and its influence on society in
all ages, as a symbol of wealth and an article of ornament and utility,
would embrace the whole history of mankind. At the present day it alike
contributes to the conveniences, comforts, and luxuries of life; as often
exciting the baser passions of the human heart as promoting the cause of
benevolence and virtue.

Gold is found almost invariably in the metallic state. It occurs as gold
dust in the sands of various rivers, and in the alluvial soil of
auriferous districts, from both of which it is obtained by the simple
process of washing. Traces of it are constantly found in the iron and
other pyrites of the more ancient rocks. Sometimes it occurs beautifully
crystallised in the cubic form, associated with quartz, oxide of iron, and
other substances, in regular veins. In the gold fields of California and
Australia lumps of nearly pure gold have been discovered in abundance
during the last few years. In the former country a mass of gold weighing
28 pounds was found, whilst in our own colonies one weighing 106 pounds
was dug out of a quartz rock, near Bathurst. The latter contained upwards
of 91% of pure gold, and nearly 8-1/2% of silver; being as pure as the
English sovereign, or, in trade language, ‘22 carats fine.’

_Prep._ This consists merely in the separation of the gold and its
subsequent purification. Formerly, the auriferous sulphides, if very poor,
were first roasted, then fused into ‘mattes’ and again roasted; they were
next melted with lead, and the alloy thus obtained was refined by
cupellation. When the ores were very rich, the preliminary calcination and
fusion were omitted, and the alloy of lead at once formed. This method (by
fusion) does not answer well with auriferous copper pyrites or ores very
poor in gold. At the present time the method of amalgamation is
principally followed. When a ‘vein-stone’ is to be wrought for gold, it is
reduced to powder (on the small scale by hand, on the large scale in
stamping mills), and is shaken in a suitable apparatus with water and
mercury; an amalgam of gold is formed, which is then separated from the
mixture, and its mercury removed by distillation. The gold is next cast
into ‘ingots.’

_Refining._——Gold obtained by the first method usually contains a little
copper and silver, and frequently tin or iron. Tin may be removed by
adding a little corrosive sublimate or nitre to the gold melted in a
crucible. The process by amalgamation commonly leaves no other alloy than
silver. This metal is removed either in the ‘dry way,’ by fusing the gold
with sulphur or sulphide of antimony; or in the ‘wet way,’ by ‘quartation’
and ‘parting.’ At the Royal Mint, “when gold ingots contain a certain
quantity of silver” (say 2% or 3%), “instead of leaving it, as formerly,
to constitute a part of the standard alloy, it pays to extract it, and to
substitute copper in its place. To get the silver out of the said ingots,
they are melted with about 3 parts of silver——the resulting alloy is
granulated and boiled with sulphuric acid——the gold remains untouched, and
all the silver is dissolved and converted into sulphate.... The sulphate
of silver is then decomposed by the immersion of copper plates; the
silver is precipitated in a fine, crystalline powder, washed, pressed into
masses, and melted, and so affords PURE SILVER, which is afterwards made
standard by alloying it with copper, and is used for coinage. The
resulting sulphate of copper (which exists in the solution) is then
crystallised, and sold.” (Brande.) “By first exhausting the gold with
nitric acid, and then boiling it in sulphuric acid, some two or three
thousandth part of silver which escaped the action of the nitric acid is
dissolved out, and perfectly pure gold is obtained.” (Ure.)

By a foreign invention, patented in 1851 by Mr W. E. Newton, the
operations of ‘separations’ and ‘refining’ are conducted by one process.
The argentiferous substance, whether in the state of ore or bullion, is
reduced to a granulated or spongy state, by fusion along with zinc, or
some other metal cheaper than silver, and the zinc is subsequently
removed, by digesting the resulting granulated, laminated, or pulverulent
alloy, in dilute sulphuric acid, or other acid. The zinc, &c., is
recovered by the usual means. This process, carefully conducted, produces
metal of great ductility and purity, containing 99% to 99-1/2% of pure
gold.

Chemically pure gold is obtained by dissolving the metal in
nitro-hydrochloric acid, adding a solution of protosulphate of iron, and
collecting and washing the precipitate. In this state it is a brown
powder, which acquires a metallic lustre by friction or heat.

_Prop._ The most marked properties of gold are its rich yellow colour, its
ductility, malleability, insolubility in all menstrua except ‘aqua regia’
(nitro-hydrochloric acid), aqueous chlorine, and hydrofluoric acid, and
its very slight affinity for oxygen. It melts at a bright red heat (2316°
Fahr.——Daniell), and the fused metal has a brilliant green colour. It
forms compounds with chlorine, iodine, oxygen, sulphur, &c. Sp. gr. of
native gold, 13·3 to 17·7; of pure gold, 19·3 (average); its greatest
density is 19·5.

_Tests._ Metallic gold is characterised by its yellow colour, insolubility
in nitric acid, and its ready solubility in aqua regia, forming a rich
yellow or amber-coloured liquid, which stains the skin purple. Solutions
of gold exhibit the following reactions:——Protosulphate of iron gives a
brown precipitate, which acquires a metallic lustre when
rubbed;——Protochloride of tin (preferably containing a little perchloride)
gives a violet, purple, or blackish precipitate, insoluble in hydrochloric
acid;——Sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrosulphide, of ammonia give a black
precipitate, insoluble in simple acids;——Ammonia gives a reddish-yellow
precipitate (‘fulminating gold’), with tolerably concentrated solutions,
either at once or on boiling the liquid;——Liquor of potassa gives a
reddish-yellow precipitate with neutral solutions of gold, insoluble in
excess.

_Estim._ 1. In the dry way;——

The quantity of gold in an ALLOY is usually estimated by ‘assaying’ the
sample. Before proceeding to the assay, it is necessary to form some
estimate of the quantity of other metals (copper or silver, or both) in
the specimen to be examined, in order to employ the proper proportion of
lead in the ‘cupellation.’ The experienced assayer commonly does this by
the ‘assay of the touch,’ and, in certain cases, by a rough preliminary
assay. The quantity of lead employed may be about 16 times the weight of
the copper present in the sample, and when the alloy contains silver an
additional allowance of lead, equal to 1/10th of its weight, is made on
that account. When no silver is present, or it is not required to be
estimated, a much larger proportion of lead may be employed. The weight
taken for the assay (‘assay pound’) is usually 12 or 6 gr. The alloy and
dose of lead being accurately weighed and separately wrapped in small
pieces of paper, the assay may be at once proceeded with.

α. CUPELLATION. This operation, the most important of the whole, has been
already described. Unlike silver, gold will bear the highest heat of the
furnace without ‘vegetating,’ ‘fuming,’ or being absorbed by the cupel.
The loss of weight gives the amount of copper in the alloy.

β. QUARTATION. The cupelled sample is fused with three times its weight of
pure silver (called the ‘witness’), by which the gold is reduced to one
fourth of the mass, or less, and in this state may be easily removed.

γ. PARTING. The alloy, after quartation, is hammered or rolled out into a
thin strip or leaf, curled into a spiral form, and boiled for a quarter of
an hour, in a small flask, with about 2-1/2 to 3 oz. of nitric acid (sp.
gr. 1·3); and the fluid being poured off, it is again boiled in a similar
manner with 1-1/2 to 2 oz. more of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·2), after which
the gold is carefully collected, washed in pure water, and dried. When the
operation of ‘parting’ is skilfully conducted, and the acid not too
strong, the metal preserves its spiral form; otherwise, it falls into the
state of flakes or powder. The second boiling or digestion is technically
termed the ‘reprise.’ The loss of weight by ‘parting,’ after deducting
that of the ‘witness,’ corresponds to the quantity of silver originally in
the specimen.

δ. ANNEALING. This consists in putting the pure gold obtained by the last
process into a small porous crucible or cupel, and heating it to redness
in the muffle.

ε. WEIGHING. This must be done with the utmost accuracy. The weight, in
grains troy, doubled or quadrupled, as the case may be, gives the number
of carats fine of the alloy examined, without calculation.

According to the ‘OLD FRENCH METHOD’ of assaying gold, the following
quantities are taken:——For the assay pound, 12 gr.; fine silver, 30 gr.;
lead, 108 gr. These having been cupelled together, the (perfect) button
is rolled into a leaf (1-1/2 × 5 inches), twisted on a quill, and
submitted to parting with 2-1/2 oz. and 1-1/2 oz. of nitric acid, sp. gr.
1·16 (20° Baumé). The remainder of the process is similar to that above
described. Two assays are made in the same manner, with a third on pure
gold or gold of a known fineness; and no conclusion is drawn, unless the
assay of the latter comes out accurately, and that of the first two
correspond to each other.

For alloys containing platinum, which usually consist of copper, silver,
platinum, and gold, the method of assaying is as follows:——The alloy is
‘cupelled’ in the usual way, the loss of weight expresses the amount of
copper; and the button, made into a riband and treated with sulphuric
acid, indicates, by the portion dissolved, that also of the silver
present. By submitting the residuum to quartation, the platinum becomes
soluble in nitric acid. The loss after digestion in this menstruum
expresses the weight of that metal, and the weight of the portion now
remaining is that of the pure gold. Gold containing palladium may be
assayed in the same manner.

2. In the wet way:

The richness in gold of any substance, whether liquid or solid, when the
quantity is small (and indeed in all other cases), is most simply and
economically performed by the common method of chemical analysis. The gold
may be thrown down from its solution by adding a solution of protosulphate
of iron; the precipitate, after being washed, dried, and gently heated,
may be weighed as pure gold.

_Pois., &c._ The soluble preparations of gold (chlorides) are violent
poisons. The symptoms resemble those occasioned by corrosive sublimate,
but are somewhat less violent. Metallic gold in a minute state of division
is also capable of producing very unpleasant consequences, and even
endangering life. The antidote is iron filings or a solution of sulphate
of iron, given conjointly with an emetic.

_Uses._ The numerous applications of gold in the arts and the daily
transactions of life need only be alluded to here. In _medicine_, gold has
been given in the form of powder, in scrofula and syphilis, by Chrestein,
Niel, and others, with apparent advantage.——_Dose_, 1/4 gr. to 1 gr., 3 or
4 times a day, in pills, or as a friction on the tongue and gums. An
ointment made of 1 gr. of powdered gold and 30 gr. of lard has been
applied by Niel to the skin deprived of the epidermis (endermically) in
the above diseases.

The more important chemical compounds containing gold, the alloys and
commercial forms of the metal, together with certain factitious substances
popularly called ‘gold’, are noticed in alphabetical order _below_:——

=Gold, Alloys and Preparations of:——=

=Gold, Dutch.= MANNHEIM GOLD, MOSAIC G., OR-MOLU, PINCHBECK, PRINCE’S
METAL, RED BRASS, SIMILOR, TOMBAC. These names are applied to several
varieties of fine gold-coloured brass, differing slightly in tint and in
the proportions of copper and zinc. The terms tombac, prince’s metal,
similor, and Mannheim gold, are used by some authors to designate alloys
consisting of about 85% of copper and 15% of zinc; whereas, according to
other authors, prince’s metal and Mannheim gold are synonymous, and are
composed of 75% copper and 25% zinc; according to another author, similor
consists of about 71-1/2% copper and 28-1/2% zinc, and Mannheim gold of
80% copper and 20% zinc; and, again, according to another author, similor
and Mannheim gold are synonymous, and are applied to alloys of copper
containing from 10 to 12% zinc and from 6 to 8% tin. Seeing that such
inextricable confusion exists in the employment of the terms above
mentioned, it is desirable to discard them altogether. At the celebrated
works of Hegermühl, near Potsdam, the proportions copper, 11 parts, to
zinc, 2 parts, are employed to produce a metal which is afterwards rolled
into sheets for the purpose of making Dutch leaf-gold. This alloy has a
very rich, deep gold colour. Its malleability is so remarkable that it may
be beaten out into leaves not exceeding 1/52900 inch in thickness.

=Gold, Facti′′tious.= _Prep._ From copper, 16 parts; platinum, 7 parts;
zinc, 1 part; fused together. This alloy resembles in colour gold of 16
carats fine, or 2/3, and will resist the action of nitric acid, unless
very concentrated and boiling.

=Gold, Grain.= _Syn._ AURUM GRANULATUM, L. _Prep._ From cupelled gold, 1
part; silver, 3 parts; melted together, and poured in a small stream into
water; the silver being afterwards dissolved out by digestion in boiling
nitric acid, and the grains, after being well washed in water, heated to
redness in a crucible or cupel. Used to make preparations of gold.

=Gold, Jew′eller’s.= This term is applied to alloys of gold used for
trinkets and inferior articles of jewelry, ranging from 3 or 4 carats fine
upwards; or which are too inferior to receive the ‘Hall mark’. The lowest
alloy of this class is formed of copper, 16 parts; silver, 1 to 1-1/2
part; gold, 2 to 3 parts; melted together. This is worth only from 8_s._
6_d._ to 9_s._ 6_d._ the oz.

It has recently been found that gold of the quality of 12 carats, or less,
if alloyed with zinc instead of the proper quantity of silver, presents a
colour very nearly equal to that of a metal at least 2-1/2 to 3 carats
higher, or of 8_s._ or 10_s._ an ounce more value; and the consequence has
been that a large quantity of jewellery has been made of gold alloyed in
this manner; and the same has been purchased by some shopkeepers, very
much to their own loss as well as that of the public; inasmuch as a
galvanic action is produced, after a time, upon gold so alloyed, by means
of which the metal is split into several pieces, and the articles rendered
perfectly useless.

=Gold, Leaf.= _Syn._ GOLD-LEAF. Gold reduced to leaves by hammering it
between thin animal membrane. Its preparation constitutes the trade of the
goldbeater. These leaves are only 1/28200 of an inch in thickness. Gilt
silver is hammered in the same way, but the leaves are thicker. The latter
is called party gold. Both are used by artists and gilders, and by
druggists to gild pills, &c.

=Gold, Powdered.= _Syn._ DIVIDED GOLD, GILDING POWDER, GOLD BRONZE, GOLD
COLOUR; AURI PULVIS. _Prep._ Gold, 1 part; mercury, 7 parts; form an
amalgam, and expose it to heat until all the mercury is volatilised; or
the mercury may be dissolved out with hot nitric acid. In either case the
residuum is to be powdered, washed, and dried. If the quantity operated on
is considerable, the process should be so conducted as to save the
mercury.

From gold leaf and honey ground together, as the last, by means of a stone
and muller. This is the plan commonly adopted in the small way by artists.

From a solution of gold in aqua regia precipitated by protosulphate of
iron, the resulting powder being washed, dried, and gently heated, This
gives pure gold.

_Uses, &c._ Powdered gold is employed in gilding by japanners and by
artists. It is either sold in powder (gold in powder), or made up into
shells (gold in shells). Its use in medicine has been already noticed.

=Gold, Standard.= The standard gold of this country is an alloy of pure
gold, 11 parts, with pure copper, 1 part. Formerly the alloy consisted
partly of silver, as found in some of the older coins now in circulation.
It is often spoken of as 22 carats fine.

=Gold, Chlorides of:=

1. =Monochloride.= AuCl. _Syn._ AUROUS CHLORIDE, PROTOCHLORIDE OF GOLD. A
yellowish-white mass, formed when a solution of trichloride of gold is
evaporated to dryness, and the residuum is exposed to a heat of about 440°
Fahr., until fumes of chlorine cease to be evolved. It is insoluble in
water, which decomposes it, slowly when cold, but rapidly by the aid of
heat, into metallic gold and the trichloride.

2. =Trichloride.= AuCl_{3}. _Syn._ AURIC CHLORIDE, TERCHLORIDE OF GOLD,
TRICHLORIDE OF GOLD, AURI CHLORIDUM. _Prep._ Gold, 1 part, dissolved by
aid of heat in nitro-hydrochloric acid, 8 parts, and evaporated down to
near dryness, and allowed to crystallise.

_Prop._ Orange-red crystalline needles, or ruby-red prismatic crystals;
deliquescent; soluble in water, ether, and alcohol, forming a deep-yellow
solution; at the heat of 500° Fahr. it suffers decomposition, chlorine
being given off and pure gold left behind. It is reduced by ferrous
sulphate, oxalic, sulphurous, formic and phosphorous acids, as well as by
most of the metals, to metallic gold. It combines with several of the
metallic chlorides, forming a series of double salts, which are mostly
yellow when in crystals, and red when deprived of water.

_Uses, &c._ It has been employed by Duportal, Chrestien, Niel, Cullerier,
Legrand, and others, as a substitute for mercury, in scrofula,
bronchocele, chronic skin diseases, &c.; also as a caustic.——_Dose_, 1/20
gr., dissolved in distilled water, or made into a pill with starch; or, in
frictions on the gums, in quantities of 1/16 to 1/10 gr. Its most
important use, however, is as a reagent in photography, large quantities
being manufactured for use as a chief agent in toning photographic prints.

To some extent it is also used for electro-gilding, and mixed with excess
of bicarbonate of potassium, it forms a good yielding solution for small
articles of copper. These are to be first cleaned with dilute nitric acid,
and then boiled for some time in the mixture.

The above is the salt generally referred to under the name of the
‘chloride of gold,’ or in commerce occasionally as the ‘muriate of gold.’

=Gold, Chloride of, and Sodium.= AuCl_{3}. NaCl. 2Aq. _Syn._ AUROCHLORIDE
OF SODIUM; SODII AUROCHLORIDUM. _Prep._ Auric chloride, 85 parts; chloride
of sodium, 16 parts; dissolve in a little distilled water, evaporate until
a pellicle forms, then put it aside to crystallise. It forms beautiful
orange-coloured rhombic prisms.

_Dose, &c._ 1/20 to 1/12 gr., made into a pill with starch or lycopodium,
in the same cases in which the terchloride is ordered. Mixed with 2 or 3
times its weight of orris powder, it has been used in frictions on the
tongue and gums, and an ointment made with 1 gr. of the salt, mixed with
36 gr. of lard, has been applied to the skin deprived of the epidermis by
a blister.

=Gold, Cyanide of.= AuCy_{3}. _Syn._ AURIC CYANIDE. _Prep._ Add a solution
of pure cyanide of potassium to a solution of pure auric chloride as long
as a precipitate forms, carefully avoiding any excess; wash, and dry the
precipitate.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ The salt is a pale-yellow powder, insoluble in water,
but very soluble in a solution of cyanide of potassium, forming the double
cyanide of gold and potassium so largely used in the electrotype process.
Cyanide of gold is employed to a certain extent in medicine.——_Dose_, 1/12
to 1/10 gr., made into a pill, in the usual cases in which gold is
administered. The first formula is essentially similar to that of the
French Codex.

=Gold, Extraction of, by Sodium Amalgam.= (Crookes’ Method, Patented.) In
the extraction of gold by amalgamation serious difficulties are often
occurring through the ‘flouring’ or ‘sickening’ of the mercury employed,
and the prevention of the amalgamation by a coating of tarnish on the
gold. So much is this the case that losses of from 30 to 60 per cent. of
the gold are usually incurred, and, in many cases a still more serious
loss of mercury.

When certain minerals, as tellurium compounds, pyrites, &c., occur in the
gold ore, the mercury is apt, on trituration, to become subdivided into
excessively minute globules, which, owing to their tarnished condition,
refuse to unite, and are consequently washed away, it being almost
impossible to separate them from the heavier portions of the ore. This is
technically called ‘flouring,’ ‘granulating,’ &c. Besides this, certain of
these minerals affect the mercury in another way, that is, by ‘sickening’
it, or causing it to lose its bright surface and fluidity, and prevents
its amalgamating with the gold. Besides the inconvenience and loss thus
caused, a further loss of gold takes place from the inability of the
ordinary mercury to touch or amalgamate tarnished gold, unless it is
ground with it, for a more lengthy period than is found practicable in
most cases.

Mr Crookes, F.R.S., has, by means of the addition of a certain proportion
of sodium, in the form of an amalgam, to the mercury, effectually
prevented this serious loss of gold and mercury. By adding certain
quantities of amalgams B and C, an amount which, differing from each ore,
is ascertained by experiment, the ‘flouring’ and ‘sickening’ of the
mercury is effectually prevented, the mercury remaining throughout in the
best condition. The addition of about one tenth per-centage of amalgam A,
at intervals of some hours, increases most powerfully the affinity of the
mercury for the precious metals, and secures a more thorough amalgamation.

This invention has met with general approval, and experiments conducted at
many mines show its great practical value, giving an increase of from 5 to
30 per cent. in the yield of gold, and, in fact, with many pyrites that
yielded no gold to the ordinary amalgamation process, gave a considerable
yield of gold to the sodium amalgamation process. This has led to its use
in most mines, both silver and gold, in America.

=Gold, Iodide of.= AuL_{3}. _Syn._ AURIC IODIDE, TRI-IODIDE OF GOLD, GOLD
TERIODIDE, AURI IODUM. _Prep._ Add a solution of trichloride of gold to
one of iodide of potassium. The resulting precipitate is at first
redissolved on agitation, a soluble double iodide being formed;
subsequently the iodide of gold is precipitated, leaving the supernatant
liquor free of colour.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ A dark-green powder, easily soluble in hydriodic acid.
It is occasionally employed as a medicine, and, like other preparations of
gold, is of an alterative character.——_Dose._ About 1/16th of a grain.

=Gold, Oxides of=:——

1. =Monoxide.= Au_{2}O. _Syn._ AUROUS OXIDE, PROTOXIDE OF GOLD. _Prep._
Formed by treating the aurous chloride with strong potassium hydrate.
Green powder, somewhat soluble in potassium hydrate solution, and readily
decomposing into metallic gold and auric oxide.

2. =Trioxide.= Au_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ AURIC OXIDE, OXIDE OF GOLD, PEROXIDE OF
GOLD, AURIC ACID, AURI OXIDUM. _Prep._ Magnesic oxide, 4 parts; auric
chloride, 1 part; water, 40 parts; mix, boil, and wash the precipitate
with water, dilute nitric acid, and again with water. It must be dried in
the shade.

Reddish-yellow powder, easily decomposed by heat; readily soluble in
hydrochloric and hydrobromic acids and strong nitric acid, but insoluble
in water and the other acids. Forms unstable salts with the alkalies.

_Uses, &c._ Trioxide of gold has been given in scrofula, &c., in doses of
1/12 to 1/2 gr., or 1 gr., in scrofula, syphilis, &c., made into a pill
with extract of mezereon.

=Gold, Ammoni′uret of*.= _Syn._ AURATE OF AMMONIA, BERTHOLLET’S
FULMINATING GOLD; AURUM AMMONIATUM, AMMONIÆ AURAS, L. _Prep._ By adding
ammonia to a solution of gold in aqua regia (trichloride), as long as a
reddish-yellow precipitate (fulminating gold) forms; the latter must be
collected, washed, and dried with the greatest possible caution.

_Obs._ Ammonia fails to precipitate trioxide of gold from solutions which
are not tolerably concentrated, and in those containing free acid or
ammoniacal salts the precipitate only forms upon boiling the solution.
Before adding the ammonia, it is, therefore, proper to drive off the
excess of acid, if any, by the application of heat. See FULMINATING
COMPOUNDS.

=Gold, Sul′phide of.= Au_{2}S_{3}. _Syn._ SULPHURET OF GOLD, TERSULPHURET
OF G.; AURI SULPHURETUM, L. _Prep._ Transmit a current of sulphuretted
hydrogen gas through a solution of terchloride of gold in water; or add
hydrosulphuret of ammonia to the same solution; collect the precipitate,
wash it with cold distilled water, and dry it in the shade.

=GOLD DETER′GENT.= _Prep._ (Upton.) Take quicklime, 1 oz.; sprinkle it
with a little hot water to slake it, then gradually add boiling water, 1
pint, so as to form a milk. Next dissolve pearlash, 2 oz., in boiling
water, 1-1/2 pint; mix the two solutions, cover up the vessel, agitate
occasionally for an hour, allow it to settle, decant the clear, put it
into flat half-pint bottles, and well cork them down.

_Use._ To clean gilding, &c., either alone or diluted with water. It is
applied with a soft sponge, and then washed off with clean water. It is
essentially a weak solution of potassa, and may be extemporaneously
prepared by diluting solution of potassa (Ph. L.) with about 5 times its
volume.

=GOLD SHELLS.= Gold leaf or powdered gold ground up with gum-water, and
spread upon the insides of shells. Used by artists.

=GOLD SIZE.= _Syn._ GILDING SIZE, GILDER’S S., GOLD COLOUR. _Prep._ 1.
(OIL SIZE.) Drying or boiled oil thickened with yellow ochre or calcined
red ochre, and carefully reduced to the utmost smoothness by grinding. It
is thinned with oil of turpentine. Improves by age. Used for oil gilding.

2. (WATER SIZE.) Parchment or isinglass size, mixed with finely ground
yellow ochre. Used in burnished or distemper gilding.

=GOLD-BEAT′ER’S SKIN= is prepared from the peritoneal membrane of the
cæcum of the ox. It is used to separate the leaves of gold whilst under
the hammer, as a nearly invisible defensive dressing for cuts, as a fabric
for court plaster, &c.

=GOLDEN SEAL.= See HYDRASTIS CANADENSIS.

=GONG METAL.= See BELL METAL.

=GONIOM′ETRY.= The art of measuring the angles of crystals, by means of a
GONIOMETER; a most important matter in _chemistry_ and _mineralogy_. The
only accurate and simple instrument of this kind is the REFLECTING
GONIOMETER invented by Dr Wollaston. Facility in using this instrument is
readily acquired by a few trials.

=GOOSE.= This bird, the _Anser domesticus_, is a favourite article of food
almost everywhere, and may fairly claim a similar position amongst poultry
to that occupied by “good Sir Loin” among joints of meat. The vulgar
inuendos occasionally heard to its prejudice should be directed against
the cook rather than the bird, as it is only when it is unskilfully
dressed and too highly seasoned that it is apt to disagree with that
“irascible member of the interior,” a delicate or overloaded stomach.
Undue susceptibility in that quarter may, however, be generally allayed by
an oblation, in the shape of a little ‘_eau de vie_,’ used as sauce or
gravy. Formerly, almost miraculous virtues were attributed to this bird.
Its flesh was said to promote longevity, to cure hydrophobia, and to be
aphrodisiac. The fat (GOOSE GREASE; ADEPS ANSERIS), mixed with honey, was
supposed to be “good against the bitings of a mad dog.” At the present day
it is occasionally used in clysters, and, when scented, as a pomade to
make the hair grow, for which purpose it is said to be superior to bear’s
grease. In quantity it is an emetic of very easy action. The large
feathers of the wings (quills) are used for writing. The small feathers
form the common stuffing of our beds.

=GOOSE′BERRY.= The fruit or berry of _Ribes grossularis_. Unripe fruit,
cold and acidulous; ripe fruit, wholesome and slightly laxative; but the
seeds and skins should not be eaten, as they are very indigestible; the
juice of the green fruit is made into wine (ENGLISH CHAMPAGNE); the seeds,
washed and roasted, were formerly used as a substitute for coffee
(GOOSEBERRY COFFEE). Gooseberries are preserved by simply bottling them,
and keeping them in a very cold place. See CHEESE, FOOL, FRUIT, &c.

=GOULARD.= _Syn._ GOULARD’S EXTRACT. See SOLUTION OF DIACETATE OF LEAD.

=GOUT.= _Syn._ ARTHRITIS, L. A painful disease that chiefly attacks the
male sex, particularly those of a corpulent habit and robust frame.
Persons who live temperately and take much exercise are seldom troubled
with gout. Indolence, inactivity, luxurious habits of life, and free
living, are the chief exciting causes of this disease; but excessive
study, grief, watchfulness, exposure to cold, and the too free use of
acidulous liquors, also occasionally bring it on. In some persons it is an
hereditary disease.

_Symp._ Gout is generally preceded by unusual chilliness of the feet and
legs, and a numbness or a sensation of prickling along the lower
extremities; the appetite fails, flatulency, indigestion, torpor, and
languor ensue, and extreme lassitude and fatigue follow the least bodily
exercise; the bowels become costive, and the urine pallid. The fits
usually come on in the night; the patient is awakened by the severity of
the pain, generally in the first joint of the great toe, or occasionally
in the heel, whole foot, or calf of the leg. The pain resembles that of a
dislocated joint, accompanied by a sensation resembling the effusion of
cold water; the pain increases, rigors and febrile symptoms ensue,
accompanied with local throbbing and inflammation. Sometimes both feet and
legs are attacked; at others, only one. Towards morning the patient
generally falls asleep, and sinks into a state of copious perspiration,
from which he awakes comparatively recovered. This constitutes what is
called a ‘fit of gout.’ These fits or paroxysms are apt to return at
intervals, commonly every evening, with more or less violence; and when
frequent, the disease usually extends its action, the joints become
affected, and concretions of a chalky nature (chalk stones, gout stones)
are formed upon them, and they become stiff and nearly immovable.

_Treat._ A plain or vegetable diet, moderate exercise, and the use of warm
laxatives, gentle tonics, diaphoretics, and diuretics, are among the best
preventives. The moderate use of alkaline remedies, as potassa and
magnesia, has also been recommended. To relieve the fit of gout, or to
check it at its commencement, the affusion of cold water will be often
found effective. The use of the ‘_eau médicinale_’, or the ‘_vinum
colchici_’ of the Pharmacopœia, may also be had recourse to; a due dose of
which taken at bedtime will frequently carry off the paroxysm, and nearly
always mitigate the symptoms. The effect of the above remedies do not
greatly differ from each other. The action of both medicines is
accompanied with great languor, and a deadly nausea or sickness, which
terminates in vomiting or a discharge from the bowels, or both. These
symptoms have often reached an alarming extent, and in some constitutions
follow even a moderate dose. This method of cure should not, therefore, be
unadvisedly and incautiously adopted.

Another remedy which has been recommended for gout is lemon juice, but
experience has proved that this agent is not to be depended on. The dose
proposed by Dr O. Rees, who originated this treatment, was 2 or 3 fl. oz.,
twice or thrice a day.

To ensure the efficacy of lemon juice, it must be expressed from the
fruit into the glass shortly before being taken. That purchased at the
shops is generally stale and disagreeable, and is often worse than
useless. In some cases it is advisable to take the juice undiluted, but
the more common practice is to mix it with about an equal quantity of
water. See RHEUMATISM, COLCHICUM, DRAUGHT (Anti-arthritic), LEMON JUICE,
VINEGAR OF COLCHICUM, WINE OF COLCHICUM, &c.

=Gout Cor′dial.= _Prep._ Rhubarb, senna, coriander seed, sweet-fennel
seed, and cochineal, of each 2 oz.; liquorice root and saffron, of each 1
oz.; raisins, 2-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit of wine, 2 gals.; digest for 14
days, press, and filter. Used in gout and rheumatism. Aromatic and
slightly laxative.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls.

=Gout Med′icine.= (Duncan’s.) A mixture of wine of colchicum, wine of
opium, and tincture of saffron.

=Gout Rem′edy.= (Alexander’s.) According to Dr Paris, this
contains——aniseed, cumin seed, ginger, hermodactyles, pepper, and
scammony.

=Gout Specific.= (Murray’s.) A mixture of iodide of potassium, sulphate of
magnesia, and wine of colchicum, disguised with an aromatic tincture.

=GOUTTES AMERES.= [Fr.] See DROPS (Bitter).

=GRAD′UATOR.= See VINEGAR.

=GRAFTING COM′POST.= Clay tempered with water, to which a little linseed
oil is sometimes added. Used to cover the joint formed by the scion and
stock in grafting.

=GRAINS OF HEALTH, Dr Franck’s——Gesundheitspillen——Grains de Santé, ou
Grains de Vie=, du Docteur Franck. Silvered pills, containing 1 part
gamboge and 4 parts aloes. (Hager.)

=GRAINS OF PAR′ADISE.= _Syn._ GUINEA GRAINS, MELEGUETTA PEPPER. The seeds
of the _Ammomum meleguetta_. Grains of paradise are hot, acrid, and
aromatic, and in general properties similar to the other peppers. In some
parts of the world they are used as a condiment. They are principally
employed in these countries to impart a false strength to wine, beer,
spirits, and vinegar.

=GRANIL′LA.= A small inferior variety of cochineal (which _see_).

=GRANULA′TION.= The act or process of forming, or breaking into, grains or
small masses.

The granulation of MEDICINES has of late years received considerable
attention from both foreign and British pharmaceutists. In France,
granulated powders (POUDRES GRANULÉES) are coming into general use in
place of impalpable powders, the most unpleasant of all forms of medicine.
The French process consists in enveloping the particles of medicines in
syrup by means of heat and constant stirring. Mr Banner, of Liverpool, has
lately introduced a method of granulating medicines far preferable to that
of the French pharmaceutists. The powder to be granulated is placed in a
mortar, and mucilage of gum acacia is gradually added until a crumbly mass
is made; this is then rubbed through a wire sieve (about 12 meshes to the
inch), and the granules produced are spread out on paper, and left to dry
spontaneously, or they are placed in a copper pan, and kept in constant
motion over a stove until dry; when perfectly dry, they are placed in a
mortar, and sufficient quantity of strong tincture of tolu (3 dr. to 1
oz.) is added to them, until by constant stirring they all appear glossy
and shining; they are then dried again by a gentle heat, being kept in
constant motion. The granules thus formed keep well, are tasteless, and
are much more elegant and agreeable preparations than pills or ordinary
powders. Many saline substances are granulated by the simple process of
dissolving the salt in water, and evaporating to dryness with constant
stirring.

METALS are granulated (reduced to drops, grains, or coarse powder) by
pouring them, in the melted state, into water. In many cases they are
allowed to run through the holes of a species of colander or sieve to
produce minute division; and in order to render the drops spherical, they
are allowed to fall from a sufficient height to permit of their acquiring
the solid state before striking the water. Lead shot is made in this way.
Shot towers are often upwards of 100 feet in height. See COPPER,
GUNPOWDER, POWDER, ZINC, &c.

=GRAPES.= _Syn._ UVÆ, L. The fruit of _Vitis vinifera_, or the common
grape vine. Ripe grapes are cooling and antiseptic, and in large
quantities diuretic and laxative. They are very useful in bilious
affections and dyspepsia, and in all febrile, putrid, and inflammatory
complaints. The skin and seed, which are indigestible, should be rejected.
“Grapes which contain a large quantity of sugar are, if taken without the
husks, the safest and most nutritive of summer fruits.” (Cullen.) “The
subjects of pulmonary affections, who pass the summer in Switzerland, may
try the effects of a course of grapes, ‘_cure de raisins_,’ a remedy held
in high estimation in several parts of the Continent.” (Sir J. Clark.)

Grapes, in bunches are preserved by wrapping them in silver paper, and
packing them in dry bran. Each bunch is suspended by the stem with the
fingers of one hand, whilst the bran is poured round it with the other;
the jar being occasionally gently shaken as the process of packing
proceeds. Some paper is then laid over the top of the jar, the mouth or
cover of which is, lastly, tied firmly over with bladder, to exclude the
air and moisture. See FRUIT, &c.

=GRAPH′ITE.= See PLUMBAGO.

=GRATE.= A frame of iron bars used for burning coal as fuel. In the
construction of a grate it is desirable to make the perpendicular height
of the fuel as great as is consistent with safety. A stratum of burning
coal will radiate considerably more heat into an apartment if placed
vertically than if arranged horizontally; besides which a great saving of
fuel will be effected in proportion to the heat radiated. Hence the faulty
construction of the old-fashioned wide grates. The fuel should also be so
divided in a fireplace as to be easy of ignition, and so placed as to give
free access of air to all its parts, as the smoke is then more likely to
be burnt.

=GRAV′EL.= A collection of small pebbles commonly mixed with sand or clay,
or both. Gravel for garden walks is chosen for its fine colour and binding
properties. The gravel of Kensington and Wimbledon is esteemed the finest
in the world. Gravel walks when once in order, may be rendered nearly
equal to asphalt by pouring over them tar or a mixture of tar and pitch,
absorption being promoted, if required, by the application of a hot iron.

=Gravel.= In _pathology_, a term popularly applied to calculous matter
formed in the kidneys, and passing off in the urine; and sometimes to
distinct calculi or concretions in the bladder itself.

An attack of gravel, as commonly understood, is accompanied by a deposit
of red, gritty, sand-like particles in the urine, which do not dissolve
when the urine is heated. The deposit consists of uric acid. Pains in the
loins are a common accompaniment of gravel, and there is also sometimes
pain in passing water.

_Treat._ Give twenty minims of solution of potash (of the B. P.) three
times a day in barley water; or twenty grains of bicarbonate of soda, also
three times a day. If the attack be attended with much pain a brisk dose
of Gregory’s powder should be additionally taken every morning. Vichy
Water will also be found a useful remedy. See CALCULUS.

=GRAVIM′ETER.= See HYDROMETER.

=GRAV′ITY.= _Syn._ GRAVITATION. The attractive force by which bodies fall
towards the centre of the earth. Weight is the measure of gravity. The
determination of the relative weight of bodies with reference to a given
standard, is explained under SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

=GRA′VY.= The juice or liquid matter that drains from dressed meat after
it is placed on the dish for serving. The common practice among cooks is
to pour a spoonful or two of boiling water or broth over the joint, to
increase the quantity. The natural gravy that oozes from the meat after it
is cut is the richest and most wholesome. Made gravies are prepared by
adding spice and flavouring to the foregoing, or to strong meat soup.

The gravy for roast meat is usually made by sprinkling a little salt on
the joint after it is placed in the dish, and then pouring some boiling
water over it; this washes off some of the brown, and makes a coloured
liquid in the dish.

Another method for making gravy for roast meat is the following:——Take any
bones, scraps of cold meat, or trimmings of the joint, put them in a half
pint of water, with a little salt and half an onion, let them stew all the
time the meat is roasting; colour with a little burnt sugar. When the meat
is done, pour the dripping from it carefully into a basin, leaving the
gravy at the bottom of the tin; strain the gravy you have made into this,
let it boil, and pour round (not over) the meat. If the gravy is liked
thick, put a dessert-spoonful of flour, mixed into a smooth paste, with
two of cold water, into the saucepan five minutes before you strain it.
See SAUCE.

=GRAY.= _Syn._ GREY; GRIS, Fr. A mixture of black and white. Delicate
grays result from mixture of the three elementary colours, red, yellow,
and blue, in which the blue preponderates to a greater or less extent.

=GRAY DYE.= _Syn._ TEINTE GRISE. Gray is dyed with the same materials as
black, but both the bath and mordaunt are used in a more diluted state.
COTTON goods may be worked in sumach and then in copperas; this gives
rather a bluish grey, which may be modified to any particular hue by the
addition of suitable colouring matter. To make it yellowish, a small
amount of fustic and alum are employed; to make it ‘fuller,’ peachwood and
Lima-wood with alum are used. The methods of obtaining grey on SILK and
WOOL are very numerous; they are similar in principle to the above, all
depending on the blending of the three primary colours, or on the
modification of weak blacks. See BLACK DYE.

=GREASE.= A general term applied to soft animal fats; as BEAR’S GREASE,
GOOSE GREASE, &c.

=Grease.= An inflammatory affection of the heels of horses, which produces
dryness, scurfiness and stiffness. The _treatment_ consists of emollient
poultices, accompanied with physic and diuretic balls, to subdue the
inflammation, followed by mild astringent lotions or ointments.

=GREAVES.= _Syn._ GRAVES. The sediment of melted tallow, consisting
chiefly of animal membranes mixed with fat, made up into cakes. Used as a
coarse food for dogs.

=GRE′CIAN WATER.= See HAIR DYES.

=GREEN.= _Syn._ VIRIDIS, L.; VERT, Fr. Of the colour of the leaves of
growing plants; _subst._ a green colour.

=GREEN DYE.= _Syn._ TEINTE VERTE, Fr. All the green dyes in use, with the
practically unimportant exception of Chinese green and oxide of chromium
green, are compounded of blue and yellow. The goods, in practice, are
generally dyed blue first, observing to regulate the shade according to
that of the intended green; they are then dried, rinsed, and passed
through a yellow bath, with the like precautions, until the proper shade
is obtained. See BLUE DYE, YELLOW DYE, &c.

=GREEN PIG′MENTS.= Several of the green pigments of commerce are obtained
from copper. Oxide of chromium furnishes some which are very beautiful.
Many are formed by the mere mechanical admixture of blue and yellow
pigments. The bright blues and yellows, when mixed in this way, produce
the liveliest greens; orange, or red and blue, and the yellowish browns
and blue, the more dingy greens. In this way are produced all the
extemporaneous greens of the artist. Nickel and titanium also furnish
green colours, but these are not in common use. The following list
embraces all the best-known and most useful green pigments:——

=Green Arsen′ical.= Arsenite and aceto-arsenite of copper. See GREEN,
SCHEELE’S and SCHWEINFURT (_below_).

=Green, Barth’s.= From yellow lake, Prussian blue, and clay, ground
together.

=Green, Bice.= Same as mountain green.

=Green, Bremen.= This is properly green verditer, but other preparations
are frequently sold under the name.

=Green, Brighton.= A mixture of impure acetate of copper and chalk,
prepared as follows:——

To sulphate of copper, 7 lbs., add sugar of lead, 3 lbs.; each separately
dissolved in water, 5 pints; mix the solutions, stir in of whiting, 24
lbs., set the resulting paste on chalk stones, and when dry grind it to
powder.

=Green, Brunswick.= This is probably a crude chloride of copper, but a
mixture of carbonate of copper and alumina or chalk is now commonly sold
under the name in the shops.

_Prep._ 1. A saturated solution of sal ammoniac, 3 parts, is poured over
copper filings or shreds, 2 parts, contained in a vessel capable of being
closed up, and the mixture is kept in a warm place for some weeks, when
the newly formed green pigment is separated from the unoxidised copper, by
washing the mixture on a sieve; it is then edulcorated with water, and
slowly dried in the shade. Colour very deep and rich. The lighter shades
are produced by the addition of sulphate of baryta.

2. A solution of crude carbonate of ammonia or bone spirit is added to a
mixed solution of alum and blue vitriol, as long as it affects the liquor;
in a short time the precipitate is collected, washed and dried. The
various shades of green are produced by using different quantities of
alum, which pales and cheapens it.

=Green, Chrome.= The superb green pigment used by enamellers under this
name is the green oxide or sesquioxide of chromium. A hydrated oxide of
chromium forms the emerald green of Pannetier; it is prepared by melting
in a crucible equivalent quantities of anhydrous boracic acid and
bichromate of potassium, and treating the fused mass with water. The
hydrated oxide thus produced is washed and finely triturated.

The chrome green of the oil and colour shops is a mixture of chrome yellow
and Prussian green.

=Green, Cop′per.= Green bice or mountain green, Brunswick green, emerald
green, verditer, and several other well-known pigments, may be thus named.

=Green, Em′erald.= This term is commonly applied to the aceto-arsenite of
copper, as prepared in England. It is the same compound, chemically
speaking, as Schweinfurt green (which _see_).

_Prep._ A pulp is formed with verdigris, 1 part, and boiling water q. s.,
and after being passed through a sieve, to remove lumps, is added
gradually to a boiling solution of arsenious acid, 1 part, in water, 10
parts, the mixture being constantly stirred until the precipitate becomes
a heavy, granular powder, when it is collected on a calico filter, and
dried on chalk stones.

=Green, Frise.= _Syn._ FRIEZLAND GREEN. This resembles Brunswick green.

=Green, Gellart’s.= A mixture of cobalt blue and flowers of zinc with some
yellow pigment.

=Green, Impe′rial.= Schweinfurt green (see _below_).

=Green, Iris.= A pigment prepared by grinding the juice of the petals of
the blue flag with quicklime. It is very fugitive.

=Green Lake.= See LAKE.

=Green, Min′eral.= This is the same as mountain green.

=Green, Mitis.= Another of the many synonyms of Schweinfurt green.

=Green, Mountain.= This pigment is properly the native green carbonate or
bicarbonate of copper (malachite) ground to powder, either with or without
the addition of a little orpiment or chrome yellow. That of the shops is
commonly prepared by adding a solution of carbonate of soda, or of
potassa, to a hot mixed solution of sulphate of copper and alum. Green
verditer is commonly sold for this article. According to Watts, mountain
green is the same as Neuwieder green.

=Green, Neuwieder.= Schweinfurt green mixed with gypsum or sulphate of
baryta.

=Green, Prussian.= The sediment of the process of making Prussian blue
from bullock’s blood or horns, before it has had the hydrochloric acid
added to it. It is also prepared by pouring liquid chloride upon freshly
precipitated Prussian blue. As now sold, this pigment is generally a
mixture of Prussian blue and gamboge.

=Green, Rinman’s.= This resembles that of Gellert.

=Green, Sap.= A very fugitive pigment, prepared from the juice of
buckthorn berries. The berries are allowed to ferment for a week or eight
days in a wooden tub. The juice is then pressed out, strained, a little
alum added, and the whole evaporated to a proper consistence; it is next
run into pigs’ bladders, and hung up in a dry situation to harden. An
inferior article is made from the juice of black alder, and of evergreen
privet. It is a common practice to add 3/4 pint of lime water and 1/2 oz.
of gum Arabic to every pint of either of the above juices.

=Green, Scheele’s.= This is arsenite of copper.

_Prep._ 1. White arsenic (in powder), 1 part; commercial potash, 2 parts;
boiling water, 35 parts; dissolve, filter, and add the solution gradually,
whilst still warm, to a filtered solution of sulphate of copper (cryst.),
2 parts, as long as a precipitate falls; lastly, wash the newly formed
pigment with warm water, and dry it.

2. (Ure.) Powdered arsenious acid, 11 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 1-1/2
lb.; boiling water, 1 gall.; dissolve, filter, and add the solution, as
before, to another solution of crystallised sulphate of copper, 2 lbs., in
water, 3 galls. _Prod._ 1-1/2 lb. A very fine grass-green colour.

=Green, Schweinfurt.= This splendid green pigment is the aceto-arsenite of
copper.

_Prep._ 1. Acetate of copper and arsenious acid, equal parts, are each
dissolved separately in the least possible quantity of boiling water, and
the solutions mixed whilst still as hot as possible; an olive-green
precipitate falls, which, by being boiled in the liquor 5 or 6 minutes,
changes to a dense granular powder of a superb green colour.

2. Instead of boiling the solution containing the precipitate, it is
allowed to cool and stand for several hours, or until the powder assumes a
granular and beautiful tint. Very rich.

3. (Kastner.) Arsenious acid, 8 lbs., is dissolved in water as before, and
added to verdigris, 9 or 10 lbs., diffused through water q. s., at 120°
Fahr., the pap of the other being first passed through a sieve; the mixed
ingredients are then set aside till the mutual reaction produces the
proper shade.

4. (Dr Ure.) Sulphate of copper, 50 lbs., and lime, 10 lbs., are dissolved
in good vinegar, 20 galls., and a boiling hot solution of white arsenic,
50 lbs., is conveyed as quickly as possible into the liquor; the mixture
is stirred several times, and then allowed to subside, after which it is
collected on a filter, dried and powdered. The supernatant liquor is
employed the next time for dissolving the arsenic.

5. See GREEN, EMERALD (_above_).

_Obs._ This is a very fine, permanent green pigment. “A great deal of
needless alarm has been excited about its supposed deleterious effects. It
is extensively employed for staining wall-papers, and persons inhabiting
rooms thus papered are said to have had their health seriously deranged by
the arsenical fumes evolved from it. Now, it is utterly impossible that
arsenic could volatilise from such a compound at ordinary temperatures; it
does not decompose at any temperature below redness.” (Watts.) [It is,
however, probable that the air of such apartments is sometimes charged
with the poisonous pigment through its becoming mechanically detached from
the paper. To breathe an atmosphere so impregnated would be dangerous. The
use of papers coloured with Scheele’s green, especially of the kind called
‘flock,’ should, therefore, be carefully avoided.——ED.]

=Verd′igris.= See COPPER (Acetates) and VERDIGRIS.

=Green, Verd′iter.= This is essentially a mixture of oxide and carbonate
of copper in uncertain proportions, with chalk. Factitious green bice and
mountain green have a like composition. See VERDITER.

=Green, Verona.= The mineral called green earth.

=Green, Vienna.= The same as Schweinfurt green.

=GREEN SICKNESS.= See CHLOROSIS.

=GREEK FIRE.= This compound, so much used in ancient warfare, is believed
to have had naphtha for its chief ingredient. According to some
authorities, it was a mixture of asphalt, nitre, and sulphur.

=GREGORY’S SALT.= The crude hydrochlorate of morphia, prepared by
Gregory’s process. It is a double hydrochlorate of morphia and codeia.

=GRINDELIA ROBUSTA.= A perennial plant belonging to the natural order
_Compositæ_; a native of California, in which state it is largely used
against poisoning by the “poison oak” (the _Rhus toxicodendron_). Of late
years it is said to have been in American medical practice used with
excellent effect in asthma and kindred diseases. Dr Q. C. Smith, writing
to the ‘Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal’ for April, 1875, states one
patient to whom pills made of the solid extract were administered, had
suffered from severe and frequent attacks of asthma since childhood, and
had found no relief from various remedies. Dr Smith gave his patient the
extract of the grindelia in pills of three grains each, one three times a
day for two or three days, then a pill at bedtime only, for eight or ten
days longer. Under this mode of treatment the attacks are said to have
been much less severe, and less frequent; the patient not only gaining in
strength and general health in the meantime, but having experienced an
immunity from attack for four months. The parts of the plant used are the
selected leaves and tops.

=GRIND′ING.= The operation of reducing substances to powder by attrition
or friction. In the laboratory, the term is chiefly applied to powdering
by means of a mill or by mechanical power, in opposition to simple
pounding or trituration in a mortar or with a slab and muller. All the
principal powders, paints, &c., sold by the druggist, drysalter, and
colourman, are reduced in the drug or colour mill. Recently machinery has
even been applied to the common mortar. An ingenious and very useful
contrivance of this kind is the ‘mechanical mortar’ of Mr H. Goodhall, of
Derby.

=GRIND′STONES. (Artificial).= Washed siliceous sand, 3 or 4 parts;
shell-lac, 1 part; melt together, and form the mass into the proper shape
whilst warm, with strong pressure. The fineness of the sand must depend on
the work the stone is intended for. The same composition is formed upon
pieces of wood, as corn rubbers, and for the purpose of sharpening knives,
and cutting stones, shells, &c. See EMERY.

=GROATS.= _Syn._ GRITS; GRUTELLUM, AVENA DECORTICATA, AVENÆ SEMINA, AVENA
(Ph. L.), L. Common oats, deprived of their exterior integuments or husks.
This is generally effected in a mill, which, at the same time, cuts them
into two or three pieces. When crushed flat, they are denominated EMBDEN
GROATS.

=GROUT.= Mortar reduced to a thin paste with water, used to fill up the
joints of masonry and brickwork. A finer kind is used to ‘finish off’ the
best ceilings.

=GRUEL.= _Syn._ OATMEAL GRUEL, WATER G.; DECOCTUM AVENÆ, L. Oatmeal or
groats boiled with water to a proper consistence, and strained. It is
variously flavoured to suit the palate; but the addition of a little white
sugar, and finely powdered Jamaica ginger, with or without a glass of
wine, is the least likely to offend the stomach. Nutmegs, cinnamon, &c.,
frequently disagree with invalids. Sometimes milk or butter is added.
Embden groats require less boiling than the common groats. Of oatmeal, the
Scotch is commonly said to be the best.

The following directions for making gruel from oatmeal are given by Dr A.
T. Thomson: “Oatmeal, 2 oz.; cold water, 1-1/2 pint; rub the meal in a
basin, with the back of a spoon, in some of the water, pouring off the
fluid after the grosser particles have subsided, but whilst the milkiness
remains; repeat this with fresh water, unite the washings, and boil until
a soft, thick mucilage is formed.”

=GUA′IACIN.= _Syn._ GUAIACIC ACID, PURE GUAIACUM RESIN. A substance having
the nature of an acid, discovered by Trommsdorff in the wood and bark of
_Guaiacum officinale_.

_Prep._ The tincture of guaiacum is treated with hydrate of lime, and the
guaiacate of lime thus formed is decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid; it
is purified by dissolving it in alcohol.

_Prop., &c._ Insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol and ether; it unites
with the caustic alkalies, forming alkaline guaiacates (guaiacum soaps);
air and light turn it green; gluten, mucilage of gum Arabic, &c., turn it
blue; nitric acid and chlorine turn it successively green, blue, and
brown; tincture of guaiacin, added to hydrocyanic acid and sulphate of
copper, produces an intense blue colour. (Pagenstecher.) A delicate
photographic paper may be formed by washing unsized paper with an
alcoholic solution of guaiacum resin, and afterwards with one of neutral
acetate of lead. (Johnston.)

=GUA′IACUM.= _Syn._ GUAIAC, GUM GUAIACUM, GUAIACUM RESIN; GUAIACUM (Ph.
L.), (GUAIAC RESIN, GUAIACA RESINA, B. P.). The resin prepared by means of
fire from the wood of _Guaiacum officinale_, by natural exudation, by
incision, or by heat. (B. P.) This substance is often adulterated. When
pure, its “fresh fracture is red, slowly passing to green; the tincture
slowly strikes a lively blue colour on the inner surface of a thin paring
of raw potato.” (B. P.) Adulteration with resin may be generally
discovered by the odour evolved when the guaiacum is heated. An alcoholic
tincture of guaiacum, rendered milky with water, recovers its transparency
on the addition of caustic potassa in excess; but this is not the case
when resin is present.

Guaiacum is stimulant, sudorific, and alterative.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr.,
either in powder or pills; in chronic rheumatism, gout, obstinate chronic
skin disease, scrofula, syphilis, &c. It forms the active ingredient of
the once celebrated ‘CHELSEA PENSIONER,’ and the ‘GOUT SPECIFIC’ of Mr
Emerigon. The latter was made by digesting 2 oz. of guaiacum resin in 48
fl. oz. of rum, for seven or eight days. The dose of this was a
table-spoonful every morning, fasting, for a twelvemonth. Its other
properties are similar to those of GUAIACIN, but are less marked. Sp. gr.
1·20 to 1·22.

=Guaiacum Wood.= _Syn._ LIGNUM VITÆ, GUAIACI LIGNUM (Ph. L.), L. The wood
of _Guaiacum officinale_. This is employed under the form of shavings,
raspings, and sawdust, in decoctions only. See DECOCTION and BALSAM.

=GUA′NO.= _Syn._ HUANHO, Peruv. This substance, now so extensively used in
agriculture, is the partially decomposed excrement of certain aquatic
birds, chiefly the common penguin, which congregate in countless numbers
on the barren and uninhabited islets and rocks on the western coasts of
South America and the coasts of Africa. It abounds in ammonia and the
phosphates, and is undoubtedly the richest natural manure known. Under
judicious application the increase of the crops of grain, turnips,
potatoes, and grass consequent upon its use is said to be about 33%.
“Guano is peculiarly adapted to horticultural and floricultural
improvement, by its relative cleanliness and facility of application.”
(Ure.)

“According to Denham Smith,[339] South American guano, as imported,
presents itself in three distinct states, the three varieties being not
unfrequently mixed together in the same bag; the first variety is damp and
pulverulent; the second exists as large concretions, presenting various
aspects when broken; the third is heavy and crystalline, and is termed
‘stone’ by the labourers. These three varieties differ widely in
composition, as the following comprehensive analysis, by Smith, will
show:——

[Footnote 339: ‘Proceedings of the Chem. Soc.,’ vol. ii.]

  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
  |              _Soluble in Water._                             |
  +-----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+
  |                             |    I.      |   II.   |   III.  |
  |                             |Pulverulent.|Concrete.| Saline. |
  |                             +------------+---------+---------+
  |Water                        |   222·00   |  250·00 |   97·00 |
  |Chloride of ammonium         |    25·50   |    ——   |   30·30 |
  |Sulphate of potash           |    80·00   |    ——   |    ——   |
  |    ”       soda             |   traces   |  258·44 |  191·77 |
  |Oxalate of ammonia           |    74·00   |   93·90 |    ——   |
  |    ”      soda              |     ——     |    ——   |  105·63 |
  |Phosphate of ammonia         |    63·30   |   61·24 |    ——   |
  |    ”        potash          |     ——     |   77·32 |   49·47 |
  |    ”        soda            |     1·20   |    ——   |    3·60 |
  |Chloride of sodium           |     ——     |   29·22 |  286·31 |
  |    ”       potassium        |     ——     |    ——   |   41·63 |
  |Organic matter               |    15·00   |    6·68 |   25·53 |
  |Urate of ammonia             |   154·18   |    ——   |    ——   |
  |Uric acid                    |    25·16   |    ——   |    ——   |
  |Ammonia phosphate of magnesia|     5·64   |    7·84 |    1·33 |
  |Animal matter                |    11·80   |    8·60 |    7·56 |
  |                                                              |
  |              _Insoluble in Water._                           |
  +-----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+
  |                             |    I.      |   II.   |   III.  |
  |                             |Pulverulent.|Concrete.| Saline. |
  |                             +------------+---------+---------+
  |Oxalate of lime              |    25·60   |  109·58 |    ——   |
  |Phosphate of lime            |   199·30   |   62·70 |  132·23 |
  |    ”        magnesia        |    20·30   |    8·74 |   25·80 |
  |Oxide of iron                |     ——     |    ——   |    1·56 |
  |Humus and organic matters    |    60·92   |    8·00 |   18·36 |
  |Sand                         |    15·60   |    7·20 |    4·20 |
  |Loss                         |      ·50   |   10·54 |    7·78 |
  |                             +------------+---------+---------+
  |                             |  1000·00   | 1000·00 | 1000·00 |
  +-----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+

“Several of the South American guano beds are now exhausted, but new
varieties are constantly being introduced; and although the qualities are
continually varying, guanos, on the whole, may be divided into two
classes, the one characterised by the abundance of ammonia, the other by
that of phosphates, the Peruvian and Angamos being characteristic of the
former, and the Saldanha Bay and Bolivian of the latter. In selecting a
guano, the following points (Anderson) ought to be attended to by the
farmer:——

“1st. The guano should be light coloured and dry, colouring very slightly
when squeezed together, and not gritty.

“2nd. It should not have too powerful an ammoniacal smell, and should
contain lumps which, when broken, appear of a paler colour than the
powder.

“3rd. A bushel should not weigh more than from 56 to 60 pounds.

“These characters are, however, imitated with great skill, so that they
cannot be implicitly relied upon, and they are applicable to Peruvian
guano only.”[340]

[Footnote 340: The above particulars are from an elaborate paper by Dr H.
M. Noad, in the ‘Chemist and Druggist,’ vol. ii.]

_Purity, Adulteration._ Guano, owing to its high price, is very commonly
adulterated, or is in an advanced stage of decomposition when sold. Much
of what is vended under the name is altogether a fictitious article. These
artificial mixtures are made to look so like genuine guano, that the mere
practical man, who goes only by their appearance, is very often deceived
by them, and, owing to the failure of his crops in consequence, is led to
distrust the efficacy of guano as a manure. A sample of pretended guano
examined by Johnstone was found to contain, in the state in which it was
sold, more than half its weight of gypsum, the rest being peat or coal
ashes, with a little common salt, crude sulphate of ammonia, and either
dried urine or the refuse of the glue manufactories, to give it a smell.
“I could not satisfy myself that it contained a particle of real
guano.”[341] Vessels which sail hence for the guano stations are now very
commonly ballasted with rough gypsum or plaster of Paris. This substance
is mixed with the guano as it is loaded, and enables the importers to
deliver from the vessel a “nice-looking, light-coloured article.”
Purchasers of guano are very desirous of having it delivered from the
vessel, as they believe they thus obtain it pure. The favourite material
for the adulteration of guano, at the present moment, is a variety of
umber, which is brought from Anglesea in large quantities. The rate of
admixture is said to be about 15 cwt. of umber to about 5 cwt. of Peruvian
guano, from which an excellent-looking article is manufactured, which is
sold under the name of ‘African guano.’

[Footnote 341: ‘Elem. of Agric. Chem.’]

Pure guano has a pale-brown colour, a more or less offensive odour, and
the average sp. gr. of 1·63 to 1·64. If the sp. gr. exceed 1·75, it is
either damaged or adulterated; and if it is less than 1·62, it contains an
undue quantity of moisture. The best is neutral to test-paper, and
sometimes has even an acid reaction; but that of commerce has generally an
alkaline reaction, owing to the presence of free ammonia, and, in
consequence, turns turmeric paper brown, and gives white fumes when a
glass rod dipped in hydrochloric acid is held over it. Triturated with
quicksilver or caustic potassa, good guano evolves a powerful odour of
ammonia; digested in water, fully one half of it is dissolved; dried by
the heat of boiling water, it does not lose more than from 7 to 9% in
weight; and burned upon a red-hot shovel, it leaves a white ash, not a red
or dark-coloured one. (See directions for selecting guano given _above_,
also _below_.)

_Analysis_ or _assay_. The quantitative analysis of guano, so as to
exhibit the names and proportions of all its numerous component
substances, is an extremely tedious and difficult matter in the hands of
persons unaccustomed to chemical manipulations. As, however, its value to
the agriculturist depends chiefly on its richness in ammonia, potassa, and
phosphoric acid, the analysis of guano for practical purposes may be
reduced to an assay for these articles. Indeed, the presence of ammonia
(the most valuable of them), in the proper quantity, may be fairly taken
as evidence of the presence of the rest. The following methods of testing
guano are both simple and accurate, and are so arranged as to permit its
per-centage richness in one or more of its leading constituents to be
determined without much trouble or expense.

1. _a._ 100 gr. of the sample for examination (fairly selected) are
crushed to a powder, and placed on a small, weighed, and perfectly dry
paper filter, and then desiccated, by exposure for 2 or 3 hours to the
heat of boiling water. The loss in weight, taken in grains, after
deducting 9, indicates the quantity per cent. of water or moisture which
the sample contains in excess of that present in good or pure guano.[342]

[Footnote 342: According to Dr Noad, the proportion of water in genuine
guanos ranges from 7 to 20%.]

_b._ The paper filter, with its contents, is next suspended for some time
over concentrated sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) contained in a
wide-mouthed bottle or jar, by means of a thread attached to the cork or
stopper, care being taken to exclude the external air. The exposure in
this way is continued until the guano ceases to diminish in weight, which
is ascertained by weighing it at intervals after the first 3 or 4 hours.
When this point is arrived at, the filter and its contents are very
carefully weighed. The difference between its present weight and its
original weight (before the desiccation in _a_), taken in grains, gives
the gross quantity of water per cent.

_c._ The dried guano from _b_ is next placed in a weighed, smooth crucible
or capsule, and exposed to a low red heat until all the organic matter is
completely destroyed, and the whole is reduced to a white ash, which is
weighed as soon as it has become cold. This weight, in grains, gives the
gross weight per cent. of non-volatile matter (fixed alkaline and earthy
chlorides, phosphates, and sulphates); the total loss of weight by
combustion denotes the gross per-centage of combustible and volatile
matter (urea, uric acid, ammoniacal salts, and organic matter). The latter
should not be less than 55 to 60%.

[Illustration]

2. _a._ A second 100 gr. of the guano, selected as before, is distilled
along with about 75 gr. of fresh-slaked quicklime, and a little water, in
a small matrass connected with a tubular, triple bulb-condenser,
containing cold distilled water, and immersed in a basin of ice-cold
water. (See _engr._) The condenser is charged by plunging one of its
extremities into the water, and sucking at the other, until the liquid
reaches the level indicated in the margin. A very gentle heat only,
cautiously increased, need be employed. After the process is over, the
strength of the solution of ammonia found in the condenser is tested,
either by taking its density in a small specific-gravity bottle, or by
determining its saturating power in the manner described under
ALKALIMETRY. This furnishes the per-centage of ready formed ammonia
sufficiently accurate for all ordinary purposes, provided proper care is
taken.

When extreme accuracy is required, the condenser is charged with a weighed
quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid of a known strength, instead of
water, and after the process is over, this is tested as before. The
quantity of ammoniacal test-liquor (see ALKALIMETRY) now taken to saturate
it, deducted from what it would have taken before the exposure in the
condenser, gives the per-centage sought.

[Illustration]

Another method, giving very accurate results, is to use a rather strong
hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. about 1·13) for the condenser; after the
operation is over, the contents of the latter are poured into a glass or
porcelain capsule, a solution of bichloride of platinum is added, in
excess, and the whole is then gently evaporated to dryness; the residuum
is rubbed to powder, and exhausted with a mixture of two measures of
alcohol and one measure of ether; the undissolved portion is next dried at
a heat not exceeding 212° Fahr., and weighed. The weight, in grains, of
the ammonia chloride of platinum thus obtained, multiplied by ·0763, gives
the per-centage of ready-formed ammonia, as before. When hydrochloric acid
is used for the condenser, a simple U-tube and beaker glass may be
employed, if a bulb-condenser is not at hand. (See _engr._) The advantages
resulting from the use of acid instead of water for the condenser is, that
with the former no ammonia can possibly escape being absorbed, whilst
little care is required to keep the condenser cool.

[Illustration]

_b._ 25 gr. of the guano are next weighed, and after being slightly
moistened with a little dilute hydrochloric acid, are thoroughly dried by
the heat of boiling water; the dried sample is then mixed in a warm
unglazed porcelain mortar with 10 times its weight of a mixture of 2 parts
of quicklime to 1 part of hydrate of soda (both quite dry). This mixture
is introduced into a combustion tube of hard Bohemian glass, about 16 or
18 inches long, and 3/4 of an inch in diameter (see _engr._) The mortar is
rubbed out with a little of the soda-lime mixture, which is also
introduced into the tube with that already put there; a little plug of
ignited asbestos is then loosely placed over the whole, and the tube is
immediately connected with a tubular bulb-condenser, containing moderately
strong hydrochloric acid, great care being taken that the joints are made
air-tight, which may be determined by the operator sucking a few bubbles
out of the apparatus. If, after suction, the liquid remains at a higher
level in the furthest bulb (_b_), it is a sign that the connection is
sound. This being done, heat is applied to the combustion-tube, by means
of spirit-lamps; or, more conveniently, by means of the furnace now
usually employed in organic analysis (see _engr._) The tube is next
gradually surrounded with red-hot charcoal, by shifting by degrees the
screen (_c_), and adding more charcoal, so as to gradually expel the
ammonia. The disengagement of gas should take place uninterruptedly, but
not too rapidly, in order that the acid may not ascend into the
combustion-tube and spoil the experiment. The non-condensable volatile
matters which pass off furnish a key to the progress of the operation. The
heat is at length increased to a full red. When gas ceases to be evolved,
and the mixture in the tube has become quite white, the experiment is at
an end. The point (_a_) of the combustion-tube is broken off, and the
ammonia which remains in the tube is expelled by sucking gently at the
extremity (_b_) of the bulb-condenser. The latter is then disconnected
with the apparatus, and emptied into a glass or porcelain capsule, in
order to be tested, as directed under 2, _a_. The quantity of ammonia, in
grains, thus found, multiplied by 4, gives the WHOLE QUANTITY of AMMONIA
per cent., both actual and potential, producible from the sample of guano
examined.

[Illustration]

_c._ The quantity of ready-formed ammonia (see 2, _a_) deducted from the
quantity last found (see 2, _b_) gives the quantity of LATENT or POTENTIAL
AMMONIA that will be slowly developed by the decomposition of the guano
in the soil, and become available for the food of plants. This is the most
valuable product of this substance as a manure, and can only be obtained
in quantity from well-preserved, dry guano.

3. _a._ A third quantity of 100 gr. of the guano, selected as before, is
triturated and digested for some time with 12 times its weight of hot
distilled water, and the whole being thrown on a filter, the undissolved
portion is washed with a little warm distilled water; the solution and
‘washings’ are then mixed together, and acidulated with nitric acid; a
solution of pernitrate of iron is next added, and afterwards solution of
ammonia, in excess; the liquid is next heated for a short time, and the
bulky reddish-brown precipitate is collected, washed with hot water,
dried, ignited, and weighed. The weight, in grains, less the weight of the
peroxide of iron in the pernitrate consumed, gives the weight of
PHOSPHORIC ACID present in the soluble phosphates contained in the sample.
The pernitrate of iron is made by direct solution in hot strong nitric
acid, of twice as much pure iron wire as there is phosphoric acid
suspected to be present in the liquid. A slight excess will not alter the
result. The number of grains of metallic iron used to form the solution,
multiplied by 1·4286, gives the weight of the peroxide of iron which is to
be deducted from the gross weight of the precipitate.

_b._ The filtrate and ‘washings’ left from 3 _a_ are mixed, and treated
with a little oxalate of ammonia to throw down any lime, and then
carefully evaporated to dryness and ignited; the residuum of the ignition,
when cold, after being carefully weighed, is treated with the smallest
portion of water that will dissolve it; the solution is acidified with
hydrochloric acid, and a solution of bichloride of platinum added, in
excess; some strong alcohol is next poured in, the precipitate carefully
collected on a filter, washed with rectified spirit, dried at 212° Fahr.,
and weighed. The weight, in grains, multiplied by ·1940, gives the
per-centage of POTASSA sought.

_c._ The weight of the potassa multiplied by 1·852, and deducted from the
weight of the ignited residuum in 3 _b_ already found (see _above_), gives
the quantity of CHLORIDE OF SODIUM or COMMON SALT (nearly).

4. _a._ The insoluble residuum from 3 _a_, dried, and ignited, or the ash
from 1 _c_, is digested for 10 or 12 hours in 600 times its weight of
water (to which a little common salt or sal-ammoniac may be added), after
which the whole is thrown upon a filter; a solution of chloride of barium
is then added to the filtrate as long as a precipitate (if any) forms; the
latter is collected, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. The weight, in
grains, multiplied by ·5843, denotes the quantity of GYPSUM or SULPHATE OF
LIME which has been used to adulterate the sample.

_b._ The insoluble residuum last left on the filter is digested for some
time in warm dilute hydrochloric acid; the whole is then thrown upon a
filter, and the undissolved portion (SILICA or SAND, with, perhaps, a
trace of ALUMINA) is washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. It should not
weigh more than 3 to 3-1/2 gr. (3 to 3-1/2%).

_c._ The filtrate and ‘washings’ from _b_ are next mixed together; the
mixed liquid is acidified with dilute sulphuric acid and heated until all
the hydrochloric acid is expelled, and the whole reduced to a soft pasty
mass; rectified spirit is now poured in, and after active stirring for
some time, the mixture is thrown on a filter, and the solid portion washed
with a little more rectified spirit; it is then dried, ignited, and
weighed. The weight, in grains, multiplied by ·7650, gives the quantity of
PHOSPHATE OF LIME per cent. required.

_d._ The filtrate from _c_ is diluted with water, and after being boiled
for a few minutes, ammonia is added in slight excess, followed by a
solution of sulphate of magnesia (previously mixed with as much
sal-ammoniac as will prevent ammonia producing a precipitate in it),
slowly dropped in as long as it disturbs the liquor; the whole is now
allowed to rest for 10 or 12 hours, when the precipitate is collected on a
filter, and washed with water alkalised with ammonia, as long as the
filtering liquid is rendered turbid by chloride of barium; it is next
dried, submitted to intense ignition for some time in a covered platinum
crucible, and, when cold, carefully weighed. The weight, in grains,
multiplied by ·6429, indicates the per-centage of PHOSPHORIC ACID in the
insoluble phosphates (phosphates of lime, magnesia, &c.) in the sample
examined.

5. A fourth 100 gr, of guano is weighed, and exhausted by trituration and
digestion with hot water (see 3 _a_); the solution is evaporated to
dryness by a gentle heat, and the residuum of the evaporation, after being
weighed, is powdered and enclosed in a stout phial with 8 times its volume
of alcohol, sp. gr. ·825 (63 o. p.); the plant is next securely corked and
guarded, and exposed for some time, with agitation, to the heat of 212°
Fahr., the whole is then allowed to cool, the contents of the phial
filtered, the undissolved portion washed with hot alcohol, and both the
filtrate and the ‘washings’ gently evaporated to dryness, and weighed.
This gives the richness of the sample in UREA, one of the most valuable
constituents of the best guano. Its presence is “a certain proof of its
entire soundness.” (Ure.)

6. _a._ Another 100 gr. of the guano is taken, and, after being exhausted
with water, is dried at 212° Fahr., and weighed; it is then digested with
heat in 20 times its weight of borax-water (containing 1% of borax), or in
a solution of caustic potassa, and after a time the whole is thrown on a
weighed filter, washed with a little cold distilled water, dried by a heat
not higher than that of boiling water, and again carefully weighed. The
loss, in grains, indicates the proportion per cent. of URIC ACID.

The accuracy of the result may be verified by adding dilute hydrochloric
acid, in slight excess, to the filtrate, collecting the bulky, crystalline
precipitate of uric acid which forms, washing it carefully with a little
rectified spirit, drying it, and weighing it, as before. This weight,
which in general is a very little under that denoted above, is the more
accurate of the two. The precipitate is shown to be uric acid by its
assuming a rich crimson colour when treated with a little nitric acid,
which turns to a rich purple (_murexide_) when it is moistened with
ammonia water.

_b._ The quantity of uric acid last obtained, multiplied by 1·1012, gives
the per-centage of URATE OF AMMONIA.

_Obs._ Amongst the numerous constituents of guano, none are so valuable in
an agricultural point of view as the three substances referred to in the
last two sections. Indeed, almost all the ammonia furnished by this
substance to the soil, after the latter, manured with it, has been exposed
to the air and rain, is derived from the slow decomposition of urea, or
urate of ammonia. It is these substances from which the store of latent,
or, as Dr Ure terms it, potential ammonia, is derived. The ammonia
existing in the guano under the form of carbonate, or of soluble salts
(ready formed ammonia), is either soon dissipated in air or is washed away
by heavy rains, and, therefore, forms the least valuable and durable
portion of this manure. It may be even added artificially, a matter almost
impossible with the former. An assay, therefore, for the latent ammonia,
or the urea, or the urate of ammonia, any one of them singly, at once
furnishes us, as we have already hinted, with evidence of the quality of
the guano examined, without the expense and trouble of a complete analysis
of this substance. Urea and uric acid are only to be found in the very
best samples of guano, and their presence is a positive proof of entire
soundness and superior quality. The other valuable portions of guano are
potassa and phosphoric acid (phosphate of lime chiefly); the rest are of
little importance. (See 2 _c_, _above_.)

=GUARANA= (Grimault & Co., Paris). 12 migrain powders, each weighing 1·75
grammes, consisting of guarana, but perhaps also containing an admixture
of cocoa seeds, neither prepared nor roasted. (Hager.)

=GUARANA′.= _Syn._ PAULLINIA, BRAZILIAN COCOA. An alimentary and medicinal
substance prepared from the seeds of _Paullinia sorbilis_, a Brazilian
tree. The dried seeds, deprived of their aril, are pounded and kneaded
into a mass, which is afterwards made into oblong or rounded cakes
(GUARANA BREAD). These cakes are used as we use chocolate——mixed with
water and sugar, and drank as a beverage. In Brazil this beverage is
largely consumed, both on account of its nutritive qualities, and for its
stomachic, febrifugal, and aphrodisiac effects. See CHOCOLATE, &c., also
_below_.

=GUARANINE′.= A crystalline substance discovered by M. Martius in guarana.
It appears to be identical with caffeine, the active principle of coffee
and tea.

=GUD′GEON.= The _Cyprinus gobeo_ (Linn.), a small fresh-water fish, common
almost everywhere. The white is considered the best. It was formerly used
in medicine.

=GUM.= _Syn._ GUMMI, L. The general term for an important class of
vegetable products. Gums are more or less soluble in cold water, but
insoluble in alcohol, ether, and oils. They are obtained from certain
plants in amorphous masses; most of them exude spontaneously, or on
puncturing the bark. The most perfect type of this class is the substance
called GUM ARABIC, or GUM ACACIA. The gums are employed as demulcents in
medicines, and are used as cements, and for giving stiffness and gloss to
textile fabrics. Among the vulgar the term is often incorrectly applied to
the resins and gum resins.

=Gum Acacia.= _Syn._ GUM ARABIC; ACACIÆ GUMMI (B. P.); G. ARABICUM, G.
ACACIA, ACACIA (Ph. L.), L. “From various species” (of _Acacia_) “yielding
gum” (Ph. L. & E.), chiefly _Acacia arabica_ and _A. vera_. “Whitish or
yellowish, transparent or cracked on the surface, and opaque; brittle; it
dissolves freely in water.” (Ph. L.) It is scentless, and may be bleached
by exposure to the sun and air, at the temperature of boiling water. Sp.
gr. 1·355. (Ure.) The pure soluble principle of gum Arabic is termed
ARABIN (which _see_). BARBARY or MOROCCO GUM, GUM SENEGAL, and EAST INDIA
GUM, are inferior commercial varieties of the same substance from other
species of _Acacia_ (see _below_).

Powdered gum Arabic (PULVIS ACACIÆ) is frequently adulterated with flour
or farina, or with Senegal or other inferior gums. The first may be
detected by agitating a little of the powder with cold water; the pure gum
dissolves rapidly, whilst the starch or flour falls to the bottom of the
vessel. Or, a little of the powder may be mixed with boiling water, and
when cold, tested with tincture of iodine; if it contains starch or flour,
the paste will assume a blue colour. If it contains cherry-tree gum or
tragacanth, it will be only partly soluble in cold water, and the paste
will be partly coloured, and more or less interspersed with gelatinous
clots.

For the detection of dextrin in gum Arabic Hager finds that when some of
the adulterated article is placed in a glass dish, with vertical sides,
and a solution of ferric chloride, density 1·48, diluted with an equal
volume of water, is poured over it until the grains are just covered, in
the course of a minute or so that particles of gum Arabic will adhere to
the bottom of the vessel, whilst the grains of dextrin do not.

Much of the white gum Arabic of the shops is formed by bleaching gum
Senegal, by what is called ‘Picciotto’s process.’ The gum is dissolved in
water, and sulphurous acid gas passed through the solution. The liquid is
afterwards boiled to expel the sulphurous acid, a little of which,
however, still remains behind. To obtain the gum in a still whiter state,
carbonate of baryta is added, and after agitation the mixture is filtered;
it is afterwards shaken with gelatinous alumina, again filtered, and
evaporated. The product (BLEACHED GUM) is very white, but lacks the
peculiar toughness and adhesiveness of the best gum acacia.

=Gum, Barbary.= _Syn._ MOROCCO GUM. An inferior product, consisting of a
mixture of several Acacia gums. It is exported from Mogador.

=Gum, Bassora.= A solution of yellowish gum brought from the neighbourhood
of Bassora. It differs from most gums in being nearly insoluble in water.
The plant yielding it is believed to be a species of _Mimosa_. It contains
the principle BASSORIN, which also exists in gum tragacanth.

=Gum, Bleached.= See GUM ARABIC (_above_).

=Gum, Brit′ish.= _Syn._ DEXTRIN, STARCH GUM. Starch converted by the
action of acids, diastase, or heat, into a soluble substance resembling
gum.

_Prep._ 1. Malt (crushed small), 1 lb.; warm water, 2 galls.; mix, heat
the whole to 145° Fahr., add of potato starch 5 lbs., raise the heat to
160° or 165° Fahr., and mash for about 25 minutes, or until the liquid
becomes thin and clear; it must then be instantly run off, and raised to
the boiling point to prevent the formation of sugar; after boiling for 3
or 4 minutes the whole must be filtered, and evaporated to dryness by a
steam heat.

2. By exposing dry potato starch, in a stove, to a heat of about 400°
Fahr. Yellow and inferior.

3. (M. Payen.) Dry starch, 1 ton, is moistened uniformly with concentrated
nitric acid, 4-1/2 lbs. (diluted with), water, q. s., and the paste or
dough is made up into small bricks or loaves, and dried in a stove; it is
next reduced to coarse powder, and exposed in a stove-room for some time
to a current of air at 160° to 165° Fahr.; it is next ground, sifted, and
exposed, as before, to a heat of about 228° Fahr.; it is, lastly, ground,
and passed through the ‘bolting machine.’ Very white and superior. This
process has been patented in France by M. Henzé.

4. (Pinel.) Water, 100 galls., nitric acid, 1/2 gall., and hydrochloric
acid, 1/2 pint, are mixed together, and so much potato starch is mixed as
will form a thin paste; in two hours the liquid is drained off, and the
solid matter is made up into lumps, which are dried by a gentle heat in a
stove-room; they are next coarsely pulverised, and the powder is exposed
on three successive days to the respective temperatures of 100°, 150°, and
190° Fahr.; the whole is then sifted, and, lastly, exposed to a heat
ranging from 300° to 350° Fahr. Darker coloured than the last. To give it
the appearance of gum Arabic, it is made into a paste with water
containing 1% of nitric acid, and after being spread on copper plates in
layers 3/4 to 1 inch thick, it is exposed to a stove heat ranging from
240° to 300° Fahr.

_Prop., &c._ White; insipid; transparent; friable; soluble in cold water,
and in dilute spirit; insoluble in alcohol and ether; its solution yields
a precipitate with acetate of lead. Iodine commonly turns commercial
dextrin blue, but does not affect the colour of pure dextrin. It is
distinguished from ordinary gum by its right-handed polarization of light,
and by yielding oxalic but not mucic acid, when treated with nitric acid.

Dextrin is nutritive, emollient, and agglutinant. In France it is largely
employed by the pastry-cooks and confectioners, and in medicine as a
substitute for gum. The French surgeons also commonly employ it as a
‘stiffening’ for the splints used for fractured limbs. In this country it
is chiefly used as a fine dressing for muslins, silk, and other textile
fabrics, and in calico printing. Recently it has been made up into
tear-like masses, and sold for gum Arabic, to which, however, it is vastly
inferior as an agglutinant. See DEXTRIN.

=Gum, Cherry-tree.= _Syn._ FRUIT-TREE GUM, PLUM-TREE G.; GUMMI CERASI, G.
PRUNI, L. An exudation from the stems of cherry, plum, and some other of
the _Rosaceæ_. It is only partly soluble in water. It contains CERASIN
(which _see_).

=Gum, East India.= This product, which consists of inferior kinds of gum
acacia, is chiefly exported from Bombay, having been previously conveyed
there from the coast of Arabia. It varies greatly in quality. Some samples
are quite unfitted for making gum-water.

=Gum, Insoluble.= See BASSORA GUM, CHERRY-TREE GUM, and GUM TRAGACANTH.

=Gum, Seed.= _Syn._ GUMMI SEMINUM, L. A species of soluble gum extracted
from the seed of the flax (linseed), quince, &c.

=Gum, Senegal.= This product, which is largely exported from Portendie,
Sierra Leone, and the French settlements on the Senegal, ranks next in
quality to gum acacia, and for many purposes, as calico-printing for
instance, it answers equally well. The transparent and light-coloured
pieces are frequently picked out and sold as gum Arabic.

=Gum Trag′acanth.= _Syn._ TRAGACANTH, GUM DRAGON; GUMMI TRAGACANTHA, G.
DRACONIS, TRAGACANTHA (Ph. L.), L. The gummy exudation of the _Astragalus
verus_, hardened by the air. When digested in water, it swells
considerably, a portion is dissolved, and the whole combines to form a
thick mucilage. It is totally soluble in boiling water, when some change
is supposed to take place in it; a great portion, however, afterwards
separates. Sp. gr. 1·384. It is chiefly employed in calico-printing, and
by shoemakers and lozenge-makers; by the latter to give toughness to the
saccharine mass.

Powdered tragacanth is often adulterated with flour of starch, and not
unfrequently with the commoner varieties of gum Arabic. According to M.
Planche, a mixture of pulverised tragacanth and gum Arabic forms, with
water, a thinner mucilage than the same quantity of either of these gums
alone. This fraud may be detected as follows:——Make a mucilage of the
suspected gum, and add thereto a few drops (2 or 3 to the dr.) of
alcoholic tincture of guaiacum, taking care to stir it all the while. If
the sample contains any gum Arabic, the mixture, in the course of a few
minutes, assumes a fine blue colour, whilst it does not change colour if
the gum tragacanth is pure, 5% of gum arabic can be thus detected. When
the quantity is very small, one to four hours may elapse before the colour
is developed. Starch and flour are detected in the manner noticed under
GUM ARABIC.

=Gum, Turkey.= Various qualities of gum acacia are sold under this name.

=GUM RES′INS.= _Syn._ GUMMI RESINÆ, L. Vegetable products in which the
properties of gum and resin are combined. They are partly soluble in
water, and partly in alcohol. Many of them form a species of emulsion when
triturated with the former fluid. The principal gum resins are AMMONIACUM,
ASSAFŒTIDA, BDELLIUM, GALBANUM, GAMBOGE, MYRRH, OLIBANUM, OPOPONAX,
SAGAPENUM, and SCAMMONY.

=GUN BAR′RELS.= See BROWNING.

=GUN COT′TON.= See PYROXYLIN.

=GUN MET′AL.= An alloy containing 90·5% of copper and 9·5% of tin, used
for casting pieces of ordnance (erroneously termed ‘brass guns’), also
those parts of machinery which are subjected to considerable friction. See
ALLOYS, BRONZE, STEREO-METAL, &c.

=GUN′POWDER.= This substance is a mechanical mixture of saltpetre,
charcoal, and sulphur. It is seldom prepared on the small scale.

_Prep._ The saltpetre having been trebly refined, by boiling, skimming,
filtering, and crystallising, is melted into cakes, which are then brushed
to remove any adhering grit or dirt, broken into pieces with a mallet,
ground to a fine powder in a mill, and sifted through a fine bolting sieve
of brass wire. The charcoal is that of the alder or willow, and is
carefully burnt, as already described, and is then reduced to powder. The
sulphur is refined by distillation, and ground to the same fineness as the
charcoal and saltpetre. The ingredients are weighed out in the proper
proportions, and mixed together in a machine consisting of a wooden drum,
having a shaft passing through its centre, to which numerous ‘flyers’ in
the shape of knife-blades are attached, the drum and flyers revolving in a
contrary direction. When mixed, the charge is carried to the
‘incorporating mill,’ where it is ground under vertical iron
‘mill-stones,’ with a small quantity of distilled water, until the
ingredients are thoroughly incorporated. The product of this operation is
then pressed into a hard cake, which is next broken into pieces,
granulated by means of sieves, and after being ‘glazed’ by friction, and
the dust separated, is dried, with proper precautions, in a stove heated
to about 130° by steam pipes.

The proportions of saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur, used for different
kinds of powder, differ very slightly. In ‘sporting powders’ the
proportion of saltpetre is generally from 1 to 3% greater than in the
Government powders. In ‘miners’ powders’ it is about 10% less, an excess
of sulphur being used. The following are the proportions adopted by
European powers:

           Saltpetre.    Charcoal.    Sulphur.
  England     75           15          10
  France      75           12·5        12·5
  Austria     75           15          10
  Prussia     75           13·5        11·5
  Russia      73·78        13·59       12·63
  Spain       76·47        10·78       12·75
  Sweden      76           15           9
                (Capt. Jervis-White Jervis.)

_Obs._ The quality of gunpowder is best estimated by actual trial of its
power and cleanliness in use. It should be dry, hard, and free from dust;
the grains should be of a uniform size, and glossy, and the colour a
dark-grey or brownish-grey, not perfectly black. A very little placed on a
piece of paper and fired should instantly explode with a flash, and
neither leave an appreciable residue on the paper nor burn it. Dried by
the heat of boiling water, or in vacuo, it should not lose more than 1/2
to 1% of its weight. Damp powder rapidly ‘fouls’ the gun. Gunpowder,
containing more than 7% of water, does not recover its strength by simply
drying it. The sp. gr. ranges between 1·795 and 1·800.

Karolyi succeeded in analysing the gases of gunpowder which had been fired
in conditions closely resembling those which occur in artillery practice.
For this purpose he enclosed a charge of powder in an iron cylinder of
such strength that it just burst when the powder was fired by means of the
electric spark. This charged cylinder was suspended in a hollow spherical
bomb, from which the air was exhausted before firing.

After the explosion had been produced, the gases and the solid residue of
the powder were submitted to analysis. The results obtained were the
following:[343]

[Footnote 343: ‘Phil. Mag.,’ 1863.]

        1. _Composition of the Powder used._

                       Ordnance Powder.   Small Arms Powder.
             Nitre          73·78            77·15
             Sulphur        12·80             8·63
            {Carbon         10·88            11·78
  Charcoal. {Hydrogen        0·38             0·42
            {Oxygen          1·82             1·79
            {Ash             0·31             0·28
                           ——————           ——————
                            99·97           100·05

        2. _Products of Combustion by Weight._

                                 Ordnance Powder.  Small Arms Powder.
           { Nitrogen                   9·77 }         { 10·06 }
           { Carbonic anhydride        17·39 }         { 21·79 }
  Gaseous. { Carbonic oxide             2·64 }         {  1·47 }
           { Hydrogen                   0·11 }  30·58  {  0·14 } 34·18
           { Sulph. hydrogen            0·27 }         {  0·23 }
           { Marsh gas                  0·40 }         {  0·49 }

           { Ammonic sesquicarbonate   2·68 }         {  2·66 }
           { Potassic sulphate         36·95 }         { 36·17 }
           {  ”       carbonate        19·40 }         { 20·78 }
  Solid.   {  ”       hyposulphite      2·85 }  69·25  {  1·77 } 65·14
           {  ”       sulphide          0·11 }         {  0·00 }
           {Charcoal                    2·57 }         {  2·60 }
           {Sulphur                     4·69 }         {  1·16 }
           Loss.                        0·17              0·68
                                      ——————            ——————
                                      100·00            100·00

        3. _Products of Combustion by Volume in 100 of Gas._

                        Ordnance Powder. Small Arms Powder.
  Nitrogen                    37·58 }       { 35·33 }
  Carbonic anhydride          42·74 }       { 48·90 }
  Carbonic oxide              10·19 }       {  5·18 }
  Hydrogen                     5·93 }  100  {  6·90 } 100
  Sulphuretted hydrogen        0·86 }       {  0·67 }
  Marsh gas                    2·70 }       {  3·02 }

It will be seen from the above figures that in addition to the generation
of a considerable amount of carbonic anhydride (carbonic acid) by the
combustion of gunpowder, there is liberated at the same time a large
quantity of solid matter, in the form of sulphate and carbonate of potash,
sulphide of potassium, sulphur, charcoal, &c. This will explain why the
air of mines is so prejudicial to the health of the miner, particularly
when he is engaged in blasting operations, these being carried on in a
more or less confined space. See AIR, VITIATED.

=Gunpowder, Schultze.= The subjoined account of Schultze gunpowder is a
transcription of a report communicated to the editor of the ‘Field’
newspaper by Mr F. Toms, A.I.C., F.C.S. After referring to a previous
communication on the same subject Mr Toms proceeds as follows:——I have
carried out some further experiments, with the aid (by Dr Frankland’s kind
permission) of apparatus more suited to my requirements than that
previously at my disposal; and I now proceed to lay before you the results
of these experiments, and the conclusions to which they have led me,
respecting the powders formerly received and the new Schultze powder, with
a sample of which you have since favoured me.

The main constituent of the Schultze gunpowder, as you are aware, is wood
fibre, which, having first been purified, is then subjected to the action
of strong nitric acid (intensified by mixture with sulphuric acid), and
thus is converted into a kind of nitro-cellulose or pyroxylin, the
ordinary form of which is gun-cotton. The wood fibre undergoes no change
in appearance by this treatment; but a change takes place in its chemical
composition, which may thus be exemplified:

       CELLULOSE                 NITRO-CELLULOSE
  (unconverted cotton or   (cotton or wood fibre treated
       wood fibre).              with nitric acid).
  Carbon          6 parts               6 parts.
  Oxygen          5  ”                  5  ”
  Hydrogen       10  ”                  7  ”  or more.
  Nitroxyl (NO_{2}) none                3  ”  or less.

It will thus be seen that the sole difference between gun-cotton or
Schultze powder and ordinary cotton or wood fibre is, that some of the
hydrogen is abstracted and has its place supplied by nitroxyl——a substance
contained in nitric acid, and composed of one part of nitrogen united with
two parts of oxygen. Under the most favorable circumstances, it is
possible to replace _three_ of the ten parts of hydrogen by three of the
nitroxyl, when the substance produced is explosive, and is called from
its composition _tri_-nitro-cellulose. This is the purest form of
gun-cotton. If weaker acid is used, less hydrogen is displaced, and the
product is called _di_-nitro-cellulose or _mono_-nitro-cellulose,
according as it contains _two_ or only _one_ part of nitroxyl. These
derivatives are either feebly explosive or not explosive at all. Such are
the compounds known as photographic collodion and soluble gun cotton——the
latter name distinguishing it from pure gun-cotton, which is not soluble
in a mixture of ether and alcohol.

The Schultze powder contains both the explosive and the non-explosive
varieties of nitro-cellulose.

If the wood fibre, after being carefully purified according to the method
described in Schultze’s patent of 1864, were thoroughly desiccated and
allowed to cool out of contact with air, and then dipped in acid of the
strength mentioned in the specification, there seems no theoretical
reason why an explosive powder containing at least 90% of true
tri-nitro-cellulose should not be produced. As, however, I find on
experiment that nothing like that per-centage is arrived at, I can only
conclude that, in order to moderate the violence of the explosion, the
Schultze Company secure the formation of a large per-centage of “soluble”
or less explosive nitro-compounds by merely air-drying their wood.

If this supposition be generally true, it seems probable that the sample
of Schultze powder supplied by Messrs Blissett may owe its extra explosive
force to exceptional care being taken, during the interval between the
drying and the dipping, to prevent the absorption of moisture——with the
addition, perhaps, of an increased length of exposure to the action of the
acid.

That some such variation of the ordinary procedure was carried out seems
evident from the different proportions of soluble and insoluble gun-cotton
in the specimens of Schuitze powder supplied by Messrs Blissett and Messrs
Bland; for it was found that on the washed wood fibre from each being
submitted to the action of a mixture of alcohol and ether, about one half
of the former powder and two thirds of the latter were dissolved out. This
shows that while the “Blissett” specimen contained about one half its
weight of insoluble or explosive nitro-cellulose, the “Bland” contained
only about one third——a difference which confirms the result obtained by
analysis as stated below.

The _soluble_ gun-cotton, ordinarily non-explosive, may, however, be
rendered explosive by saturating it with bodies rich in oxygen, which
promote the decomposition and complete the combustion of the fibre. Nitre
is used for that purpose, because it parts with its oxygen readily; and
nitrate of baryta is also used, because, being more stable than the nitre,
it renders the combustion more gradual than would be the case if nitre
were alone employed. When both are used, the nitre, I should think, would
start, and the nitrate of baryta continue and finish the combustion of the
powder. The amount used is, I suppose, the result of calculation and
experiment; but a powder containing little true tri-nitro-cellulose should
require more of these salts than one containing much tri-nitro-cellulose;
and an excess of the salts would lower the rate of burning of the powder.

I will now give my analysis in full of the three powders, viz.——(1) the
ordinary powder issued last season, being part of a supply obtained from
Messrs Bland, gunmakers, of the Strand; (2) some powder furnished by
Messrs Blissett, of Holborn, and alluded to in their letter in the ‘Field’
of Jan. 19th last, as having damaged a gun made by them; and (3) some of
the new powder of 1878, as used at the ‘Field’ trial of explosives in May
last.

                                           1877                   1878
                                          Bland’s. Blissett’s.  Trial or
                                                                  New.

  Moisture, per cent.                       2·18      2·39        2·97
            {Nitrate of baryta, per cent.  21·50     16·59       22·32
  Extracted {  ”       potash, per cent.   11·46     10·46        6·47
  by water. {Yellow coloured organic
            {substance, trace of chlorides,
            {&c., undetermined

            {The converted wood fibre    }
  Insoluble {  (nitro-cellulose) then    }
  in water. {   remaining contained the  }  5·0       6·0         2·95
            {   following per-centage of }
            {   mineral matter           }

The converted wood fibre (after allowing for extraneous mineral matter)
possessed the following per-centage composition. I place for comparison
Professor Abel’s determination of the composition of tri-nitro-cellulose,
and two of the impurities found along with it, in a parallel column.

          Bland’s.  Blissett’s.  Trial or New.  Tri-nitro-     Impurities.
                                                Cellulose.
  Carbon    28·75     28·07        28·12          24·24       29·20  30·50
  Hydrogen   3·49      3·65         3·54           2·36        ——     2·91
  Nitrogen  10·80     15·60        11·66          14·14       11·85   ——
  Oxygen    56·06     52·68        56·68          59·26        ——     ——

These powders exploded at a temperature of about 190° C. (374° F.), the
different samples varying but slightly. Pure gun-cotton is stated by
Professor Abel to explode at 150° C. (302° F.); and black powders are
said, by different authorities, to explode at various temperatures between
500° and 600° F., according to the variation in their composition and
manufacture.

In addition to the difference in chemical composition of these Schultze
powders, I would point out that there is a difference in density——the
Blissett being heaviest, the Bland next, and the New the lightest of the
three. I think this fact also has some bearing on the violence of the
explosion. In black powders, I believe, a dense powder, speaking
generally, is stronger than a lighter one; and the Schultze patent states
that hard woods make more explosive powders——not, I take it, because the
composition is thereby altered, but because a denser powder is produced.
It would appear to me, from the above analyses, that the new trial powder
should contain rather more explosive force than the Bland variety, though
considerably less than the Blissett. The result may, however, be modified
by the difference in density of the powders; and your practical
experiments will show how far this agrees with the results of the
shooting.

I have hitherto only spoken of the explosive force of the powder; now I
will touch on another point——its tendency to spontaneous decomposition.
Knowing that, in the case of gun-cotton, its stability is injured by a
small proportion of resin and other organic impurities, and by the
presence of free mineral acids. I did not expect to find this powder (made
from a less pure kind of cellulose, from which also it must be somewhat
difficult to wash all traces of acid) equal in stability to gun-cotton;
and on subjecting the three kinds of Schultze powder to the Government
‘heat test’ of 150° F. (with a minimum of 10 minutes’ duration), it was
found that the

  New or Trial (1878) Powder stood the test 12 m.
  ‘Bland’s’ sample            ”              8 ”
  ‘Blissett’s’ sample         ”              7 ”

This shows that the ‘new’ powder is very stable, as it stood the test for
two minutes beyond the Government minimum, while the other two samples
were a good way below it. The officials at Waltham Abbey would accept no
gun-cotton which did not stand the test for ten minutes; and I have seen
the best gun-cotton stand it for fifteen.

Whether the loose granulated condition of the Schultze powder, when
stored, is sufficient to neutralise this inferiority in purity, and render
a sample of Schultze, which only stands the test of seven minutes, as
little liable to spontaneous combustion as gun-cotton which stands the
test for ten minutes, there is at present no evidence to show.

To carry out this ‘heat test’ properly, some practice is required; so, in
order to put the matter beyond doubt, I called in the assistance of my
friend Mr Arthur Linnell, F.C.S., chemist to the Gun-Cotton Company,
Stowmarket, a gentleman who uses the test daily, and who carried out the
above three experiments strictly after the manner adopted by himself and
by the Government officials.

In addition to Mr Linnell’s experiments, I noted that the aqueous extract
of ‘Blissett’ was very faintly acid; that when heated in a chest at 195°
F. moist blue litmus was very quickly reddened.

I think this serious defect (want of stability) is due to want of care in
the washing; and I base this opinion on the following facts:

(1) The ‘Bland’ and ‘Blissett’ samples (the powders of least stability)
are of a deeper tint than the ‘new’ (due to the soluble yellow impurity
before mentioned). By continued washing in warm water they become pale,
like the more carefully prepared new powder, and the yellow substance is
dissolved away. Hence the lighter colour of the ‘new’ (and most stable)
indicates it has less of this organic impurity.

(2) Sulphuric and nitric acids are used in the dipping of the powder, but
should be entirely washed out, as they promote spontaneous decomposition.
If left in, the sulphuric acid will, when the salts are added, decompose
the nitrate of baryta, forming insoluble baric sulphate and free nitric
acid.

On experiment I ascertained that the abnormally large quantity of mineral
matter or ash (5 and 6 per cent.) found in the insoluble part of the
‘Bland’ and ‘Blissett’ powders _is_ due to baric sulphate, and I think the
acidity of the aqueous extract is due to the nitric acid thus set free.

Had this baric sulphate been present in the new powder, I should have
thought it was purposely formed in all to prevent access of moisture; but,
not finding this substance in this carefully prepared sample, I attribute
its presence in the other cases to carelessness on the part of the
workmen.

I should state that all these powders consisted of a granulated and
consolidated pulp. This improvement must, I think, have considerable
advantages over the sawdust form previously adopted by the Schultze
Company in as much as it facilitates a more thorough purification being
carried out, and produces a more homogeneous and equal powder. It is
possible, too, that working with pulp may be of advantage, inasmuch as the
company may now, by varying the pressure in forming the cake, obtain
grains of any required density.

In conclusion, I may say that, in my opinion the most difficult task which
the Schultze Company have had to encounter is that of obtaining
uniformity of strength in their explosive; and the ‘Blisset’ sample of
their powder may he looked upon as an experimental batch in which (by
altering the mode of procedure in some such manner as I have indicated)
they made a powder with a large per-centage of tri-nitro-cellulose, thus
producing a more rapidly burning substance, and consequently a more
violent explosion.

Taking all things into consideration, I think the Schultze Company, in
manufacturing a nitro-explosive which gives the uniformity of shooting
power shown in your recent experiments, have worked out a most troublesome
problem with remarkable success. The difficulty of obtaining such results
is evidenced by the fact that so many inventions of a somewhat similar
character have been abandoned for sporting purposes from a deficiency in
this respect.

But, however difficult it may be to manufacture a powder giving uniform
shooting, it is evidently possible, with suitable care to produce (as the
‘new’ Schultze shows) a wood powder which is perfectly safe and stable, as
far as spontaneous decomposition is concerned. The company, therefore, if
they have not already done so, ought to take means to prevent powder of
the low stability of the ‘Bland’ and ‘Blissett’ samples being again issued
from their works.

P.S.——Since writing the above I have examined cursorily a sample of the
‘Dittmar’ wood powder, an American variety of ‘Schultze,’ used by Captain
Bogardus in some of his recent shooting competitions. The powder is
somewhat darker in tint, and of slightly larger grain, than the Schultze.
In density it is intermediate between ‘Bland’s’ and the ‘new’ powder; and
the charge in a twenty-bore cartridge was forty-two grains. This powder
would seem to be made from solid cubes of wood (not a pulped mass like the
present ‘granulated’ Schultze, or of sawdust splinters like the old
so-called ‘cube’ Schultze). It contains no nitrate of baryta, but has a
small quantity of nitrate of potash and soda. Possessing, as it would
seem, therefore, a much smaller proportion of oxidizing salts than the
English Schultze, it should contain, to make up for this loss of force, a
larger proportion of explosive pyroxylin; but this is a point I have not
experimentally determined. (‘Field,’ August 3rd, 1878, No. 1336, p. 143.)

=Gunpowder, White.= _Syn._ BLASTING POWDER. _Prep._ 1. See BLASTING
POWDER, No. 3.

2. Yellow prussiate of potash and white sugar, of each 1 part; chlorate of
potassa, 2 parts; powder each separately, and mix them well, but
carefully, with a bone or wooden knife. It may be granulated like
gunpowder, by making the powder into a paste with a little water, and
pressing the mass through a parchment sieve.[344]

[Footnote 344: See the precautions noticed under BLASTING POWDER, page
230.]

=GUN′JAH.= See HEMP (Indian).

=GUT.= _Syn._ FISHING GUT, SILKWORM G. This is obtained from the _Bombyx
mori_ (Linn.) or silkworm caterpillar. _Prep._ The silkworms, when just
ready to spin, are steeped in strong vinegar for 12 hours in warm weather,
or 2 or 3 in cold weather, and are then broken in half, and stretched out
as far as possible on a board, furnished with slits or pegs to hold them;
in this state they are allowed to dry in the sun or a warm place.

_Obs._ Used by anglers. The worms may be known to be going to spin by
refusing food, and by having a fine silken thread hanging from the mouth.

=GUT′TA PERCHA.= The concrete juice of the _Isonandro Gutta_, a tree
growing only in the Malayan Archipelago, and of other species of the same
genus. The stem of the gutta-percha tree grows to the diameter of 5 or 6
feet, and on being notched yields a milky juice, which, after exposure to
the air for some time, solidifies, forming the gutta percha of commerce.
It arrives in this country in irregular blocks of some pounds in weight,
usually containing a large portion of impurities in the form of pieces of
wood, stones, and earth. To prepare this crude product for manufacturing
into useful articles, the blocks are first cut into slices, and then torn
into shreds. These are softened by hot water, and kneaded in a
‘masticator,’ the stones, earth, and other impurities, being gradually
washed away by water. After several hours the gutta percha is found to be
kneaded into a perfectly homogeneous mass, which is rolled or drawn into
sheets, bands, or tubes, as required.

_Prop., &c._ Gutta percha is a tough, inelastic substance, becoming soft
and plastic at 212° Fahr., at which temperature two pieces may be firmly
welded together. It is one of the best insulators of electricity, is
impervious to moisture, and resists the action of acids and alkalies to a
great extent. Its best solvents are benzol, chloroform, bisulphuret of
carbon, rectified mineral naphtha, and rectified oil of turpentine. All
these dissolve it readily. According to the analysis of Payen, the
purified gutta percha of commerce consists of 75 to 828 of chemically pure
gutta percha, which is insoluble in ether and alcohol, and a white and a
yellow resin, soluble in boiling alcohol.

_Uses._ These are numerous and varied. No substance, perhaps, with the
exception of caoutchouc, has been ‘tortured’ to so many different
purposes. Its perfect plasticity when warm, and its capability of
receiving the most delicate impressions, render it invaluable in many
cases where india rubber would be useless. Beautiful mouldings, picture
frames, and a number of ornamental articles, are made from it. To the
chemist and photographer it is of great use as a material for making
bottles, carboys, photographic baths, and voltaic battery cells. One of
the most important uses to which it has been applied is for enclosing the
metallic wires used for telegraphic purposes. Its indestructibility by
water, its plasticity, and high insulating power, have rendered it
particularly valuable for this purpose. At the International Exhibition of
1862 the Gutta Percha Company exhibited one mile of covered wire perfectly
insulated, which was hardly thicker than common sewing cotton. Gutta
percha may be rolled into thin transparent sheets, which, being perfectly
impervious to moisture, are well adapted for surgical purposes. Again, a
solution of gutta percha in chloroform forms an excellent dressing for
incised wounds, and a protection for abraded surfaces, burns, &c. It is
used in the same way as collodion.

=Gutta Percha, Purified.= Dr Cattell, of London, has succeeded in
purifying gutta percha so perfectly from all extraneous matter, that it
presents the appearance of ivory. The raw material is dissolved in a
certain solvent, and the solution most carefully filtered until it leaves
on evaporation the gutta percha in a pure milk-white condition.

=GYP′SUM.= This is native sulphate of lime. When baked, to deprive it of
water, and ground, it forms PLASTER OF PARIS. Gypsum is an excellent
manure for certain soils.


=HAARBALSAM, Vegetabilischer——Vegetable Hair Balsam= (Joh. Andr.
Hauschild, Leipsic). A decoction of burdock root, containing a little
spirit and coloured green with indigo. (König.) Hager analysed a turbid
brownish fluid, which deposited a brown precipitate on standing, and when
filtered consisted of a decoction of burdock root with 20 per cent. of
spirit.

=Haarbalsam Mailandischer——Mailand’s Hairbalsam= (Kreller, Nuremberg).
Beef marrow, 40 parts; cinchona extract, 5 parts; balsam of Peru, 1 part;
storax, 1 part; oil of bergamot, 1 part; oil of lemons, 1/2 part. (Hager.)

=Haarbalsam Ostindischer——East Indian Hairbalsam= (Dr Ayer). Contains
sugar of lead, sulphur, glycerin, oil of lavender, and water.

=Haarbalsam= (J. F. Sehwarzlose Söhne, Berlin). A brownish-yellow
spirituous aromatic fluid, having nearly the composition of eau de
Cologne, with liquid storax, carbonate of potash, and a fat——perhaps
derived from cantharides. (Hager.)

=Haarbalsam= (A. Marquart, Leipsic). A mixture of 83 grammes water
perfumed with eau de Cologne, with 12 grammes glycerin, 4·25 grammes milk
of sulphur, and 1·2 gramme lead nitrate.

=HAD′DOCK.= A small sea-fish, allied to the cod, and esteemed an excellent
article of food. It is the _Gadus æglefinus_ of Linnæus. Split, smoked,
and dried, it is common in the smaller shops of London.

=HÆMATEM′ESIS.= In _pathology_, vomiting of blood. See STOMACH AFFECTIONS.

=HÆM′ATITE.= _Syn._ HEMATITE. In _mineralogy_, one of the most important
iron ores. Two kinds are distinguished, the red, which is an anhydrous
peroxide of iron, and the brown, which is the hydrated peroxide.

=HÆMATOCRYS′TALLIN.= A crystalline substance obtained by the action of
oxygen and afterwards carbonic acid on the ‘clot’ of blood.

=HÆMATOS′IN.= _Syn._ HÆMATIN, RED PIGMENT OF BLOOD. The red colouring
principle of the blood. It is not known in a state of purity. It differs
from the other animal principles in containing, as an essential
ingredient, the sesquioxide of iron.

=HÆMATOX′YLIN.= A principle obtained by Chevreul from common logwood
(_Hæmatoxylon campechianum_), and on which its colour appears to depend.

_Prep._ 1. Infuse logwood chips in water, at a temperature of about 130°
Fahr., for 12 hours, filter, and evaporate to dryness in a water bath;
digest the residuum in rectified spirit for 24 hours, again filter and
evaporate; then add a little water; again gently evaporate and set aside
the solution in a cold place that crystals may form; these must be washed
in rectified spirit and dried.

2. Digest powdered hard extract of logwood in rectified spirit, and
proceed as last.

3. Powdered logwood is mixed with sand and digested for several days in
pure ether; the resulting liquid is filtered, evaporated to a syrup, and
set aside to crystallise.

_Prop., &c._ Brilliant reddish-white or straw-yellow crystals, soluble in
boiling water, forming an orange-red solution which turns yellow as it
cools, but resumes its former colour on being heated. Alkalies in excess
change its colour successively into purple, violet, and brown; acids
brighten it; with the metallic oxides it forms compounds having a blue,
purple, or violet colour.

=HÆMOP′TYSIS.= In _pathology_, spitting of blood. It generally arises from
extreme fulness of the blood-vessels of the lungs, or the rupture of
blood-vessels, as a consequence of ulceration; but sometimes it is induced
by excessive exertion or external violence. Depletion, aperients,
acidulous and astringent drinks, and nauseants, are the usual remedies.
Acetate of lead, in small doses, has been recommended for this affection.
When this substance is given, it should be accompanied with a sufficient
quantity of free acetic acid, to prevent its being converted into the
poisonous carbonate of lead in the system.

=HÆM′ORRHAGE.= _Syn._ HEMORRHAGE; HÆMORRHAGIA, L. A bleeding or flow of
blood. Bleeding may be divided into active, passive, and
accidental.——Active hæmorrhage is that arising from a full state of the
vessels, or plethora.——Passive hæmorrhage, from general debility of the
system, and of the blood-vessels in particular.——Accidental hæmorrhage,
from external violence, as blows, wounds, &c. The first generally requires
depletion, and the second the usual treatment to establish the general
health and vigour of the body. The bleeding from wounds, if extensive,
should be arrested by tying the ruptured blood-vessels; or where this
cannot be done, and in less important cases, by the application of
styptics, as creasote, sulphate of iron, infusion of galls, compound
tincture of benzoin, &c.

=HAIR.= _Syn._ CAPILLUS, PILUS, L. The hair of the human head has
continually formed a subject for the chisel of the sculptor, the pencil of
the artist, and the lay of the poet. Nor is this surprising, since all the
features of the face, as well as the head it covers, derive from it
additional finish and unequalled grace. The hair is, indeed, one of the
greatest auxiliaries of personal beauty, and imparts to it some of its
principal charms. All nations, in all ages of the world, have been
unanimous in their admiration of luxuriant and flowing or gracefully
arranged hair.

Of all organic substances, hair is the one least liable to suffer
spontaneous change. It is also less affected by aqueous liquids than most
other substances. Hence its value in various branches of the useful arts.

The preservation of the hair of the head, independently of its connection
with personal beauty, is a matter of the utmost importance in relation to
hygiene. In other parts of this work, we have referred to its management
under various conditions, but a few observations may be added here.

When the hair is in a weakly state, and either falls off or grows feebly,
frequently cutting it will be found of the greatest service. “In the
arrangement of the hairs, on the surface of the body, it might be inferred
that little existed to excite attention; but this is not the fact, if we
are to judge by the careful investigations to which the subject has given
rise. The hair-tubes are not placed perpendicularly, but obliquely, in the
skin; hence the direction of the hairs, after their escape from the tubes,
is in the same sense inclined towards the surface; and the ‘set’ of the
hair, from the root to the point, is governed by a law as precise as that
which regulates any other of the secondary vital functions. Thus, on the
head, the hair radiates from a single point, the crown, to every part of
the circumference, making a gentle sweep, behind towards the left and in
front to the right. The direction of this sweep is naturally indicated on
the heads of children, and is that in which the hair is turned,” (Eras.
Wilson.) The same occurs on the face and other parts of the body. In
making our toilet, this natural arrangement of the hair should be
interfered with as little as possible. Combing it or banding it in an
opposite direction to that which it naturally assumes, is highly
prejudicial to its healthy growth, and if long persevered in, leads to its
premature and rapid decay. The practice now common among ladies, of
throwing the hair from the forehead towards the back of the head, is of
this reprehensible character.

In addition to our remarks elsewhere, we may here observe, that all the
various systems proposed for strengthening or restoring the hair depend
for their efficacy upon simple excitation or stimulation of the skin.
Friction with the hair-brush, and the use of the ordinary hair-oils,
pomades, and washes, are of this kind. The various advertised nostrums for
reproducing or restoring the hair are either stimulants or rubefacients of
more or less activity, or are emollients, which are directed to be applied
by friction, in such a manner as to set up a considerable amount of
irritation. When the affection depends on the languid circulation of blood
in the part, this treatment often succeeds; but when the hair-bulbs are
withered or decayed, or the scalp much attenuated, the restoration of the
hair is an impossibility. See BALDNESS.

=HAIR COSMETICS.= Under this head are included all preparations which are
used for beautifying, preserving, or restoring the hair. These are fully
described in different parts of this work, and we shall here merely name
the principal heads under which they will be found. The hard pomatums used
for keeping the hair, moustache, and whiskers, in form, and sometimes to
colour them at the same time, are noticed under COSMETIQUE; the
mucillaginous preparations for stiffening the hair, under FIXATURE; the
compounds for removing superfluous hairs, under DEPILATORY; the
applications for the cure and prevention of baldness, under POMADES and
WASHES; and those employed to cleanse or beautify the hair under the last
two heads, and under HAIR DYES and OILS.

=HAIR DYES.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CAPPILLORUM, L. The practice of dyeing the
hair is of great antiquity; and though not so common as formerly, it is
still far from infrequent at the present day. The numerous preparations
vended for this purpose have generally a basis of lead or silver. Bismuth,
pyrogallic acid, and certain astringent vegetable juices, are also
occasionally thus employed. The following list embraces all those of any
value:

_Prep._ 1. Litharge, 1 part; fresh-slaked lime and starch, of each 2
parts; all in fine powder, and perfectly dry; mix, and keep the compound
in well-corked bottles. This powder is to be made into a thin paste or
cream with water (for black), or milk (for brown), and applied to the hair
(previously freed from grease with soap and water, and dried), by means
of a sponge or brush, or the fingers; observing to rub it well into the
roots, and to pass a comb for some time through it, to ensure its coming
in contact with every part. The whole must be then covered with a moist
leaf of cotton wadding, or some brown paper several times doubled and well
damped with hot water, and allowed to remain so for 3 or 4 hours, or even
longer; or an oil-silk cap, or a bladder, may be worn, the object being
simply to prevent the evaporation of the moisture. After a sufficient time
has elapsed, the powder may be removed by rubbing it off with the fingers,
and afterwards washing it out with warm soap-and-water. A little pomatum
or hair-oil will restore the usual gloss to the hair. Another method of
operating is to apply the cream or paste as before, and then to keep
rubbing it about the hair with a brush as long as may be required,
occasionally adding a few drops of hot water to preserve the whole moist.
In this way the action of the dye is facilitated, and the process
concluded in a much shorter time.

2. Lime (slaked in the air), 2 parts; carbonate of lead (pure white lead),
1 part; mixed and applied as the last.

3. (AQUA ORIENTALIS.) From grain silver, 2 dr.; steel filings, 4 dr.;
nitric acid, 1 oz.; soft water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; digested together, the
solution being afterwards diluted with water, 3-1/2 fl. oz., and filtered.
Applied by means of a fine-toothed comb, or a half-worn tooth-brush to the
hair, previously well cleaned with soap and water, and dried.

4. (ARGENTAN TINCTURE.) From nitrate of silver, 1 dr.; eau de rose, 1 fl.
oz.; nitrate of copper, 2 gr., or q. s. to impart a slight greenish tint.
Used as the last.

5. (Dr Cattell.) Nitrate of silver, 11 dr.; nitric acid, 1 dr.; distilled
water, 1 pint; sap green, 3 dr.; gum arabic, 1-1/4 dr.; digest together.
Used as No. 3.

6. No. 1 Solution. Gallic acid, 7-1/2 gr.; acetic acid, 20 min.; distilled
water, 1 fl. oz.

No. 2 Solution. Nitrate of silver, in crystals, 30-1/2 gr.; distilled
water, 1 fl. oz.; ammonia sufficient to form the precipitate formed at
first.

7. (CHESTNUT HAIR DYE.) “We have met with the following, but do not
guarantee it:——Permanganate of potash gives the hair a beautiful
chestnut-brown colour, varying according to the strength of the solution
of the salt. A good formula is permanganate of potash, 1 dr.; powdered gum
Arabic, 2 dr.; rose water, 3 oz.; mix. Apply carefully with a tooth brush
so as to avoid staining the skin. (‘Chemist and Druggist.’)

8. (HAIR RESTORER.) This is in reality a dye. Sulphur, 45 gr.; acetate of
lead, 20 gr.; glycerin, 1/2 oz.; water to make up 10 oz.

9. (GOLDEN HAIR DYE, AUREOLINE.) A solution of peroxide of hydrogen in
water; containing from 3 to 6 per cent. of the peroxide.

10. (BROWN HAIR DYE.) Acetate of lead, 2 dr.; hyposulphate of soda, 1 dr.;
rose water, 14 oz.; glycerin, 2 oz. Dissolve the acetate of lead and the
hyposulphite in separate portions of the rose water; filter separately,
mix the solutions, and add the glycerin.

11. (A HARMLESS HAIR DYE. Dr Hager.) Ten parts of subnitrate of bismuth,
and 150 parts of glycerin are mixed in a glass vessel and heated in a
water bath; solution of potash is then added in small portions, and with
continued agitation, until a clear solution has been obtained, to which a
concentrated solution of citric acid is added until merely a slight
alkaline reaction is observed. Enough orange-flower water is added to make
the whole liquid weigh 300 parts; the addition of a small quantity of a
solution of an aniline colour completes the preparation.

12. (Chevallier.) Fresh-slaked lime, 5 dr.; water, 1-1/2 oz.; mix, strain
through gauze, and pour the milk into a four-ounce bottle. Next dissolve
sugar of lead, 5 dr., in water, 3 fl. oz.; add to this solution, dry
slaked lime, 1 dr., stir well together, wash the precipitate with a little
soft water, drain off the water, then add it to the milk of lime in the
bottle, and shake the whole well together, and again before use. Applied
as No. 1; but it acts much more quickly.

13. (Delcroix.) From acetate of lead, 2 oz.; prepared chalk, 3 oz.;
quicklime, 4 oz.; each in an impalpable powder. Used as No. 1.

14. (EAU D’AFRIQUE——Hopekirk.)——_a._ Nitrate of silver (cryst.), 1-1/2
dr.; distilled water, 2 fl. oz.; dissolve, and pour the solution into the
bottles labelled ‘Solution No. 1,’——_b._ Liquor of potassa, 3 dr.;
sulphydrate of ammonium, 7 dr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; mix, and pour the liquid
into the bottles labelled ‘Solution No. 2,’ For use, the hair is moistened
by means of a small-toothed comb or tooth-brush, with the Solution No. 1,
either alone or diluted with a little water; care being taken to avoid
touching the skin, if possible. After the lapse of 8 or 10 minutes the
Solution No. 2, diluted with at least 5 times its measure of water, is
applied in the same manner, and any spots on the skin removed by rubbing
them with the corner of a napkin wetted with the liquid. The skin is then
sponged clean with a little warm water, and wiped dry, and the hair is
arranged with the comb as usual. It is better to avoid rubbing it or
washing it for a few hours. Sometimes the process is reversed, and the
liquid No. 2 applied first. In this way the stains on the skin are more
readily removed, but the dye is less permanent than when the other plan is
adopted.

15. (EAU D’EGYPTE.) Resembles No. 4 (_above_).

16. (ESSENCE OF TYRE.) Resembles the last.

17. (GRECIAN WATER.) Resembles No. 3, or 4.

18. (Dr Hanmann.) Litharge, 275 gr. (say 1 part); quicklime, 1875 gr. (or
6-3/4 parts); hair powder (or starch), 930 gr. (or 3-1/2 parts): all in
fine powder. Used as No. 1.

19. (Hewlet’s.) Resembles Spencer’s (No. 28).

20. (INSTANTANEOUS.) Moisten the hair first with a solution of nitrate of
silver in water (1 to 7 or 8), and then with a weak solution of
sulphydrate of ammonium. The colour of the hair, unaltered by the silver
solution, instantly turns black when moistened with the sulphuret. See EAU
D′AFRIQUE.

21. (La Forest’s.) See WASHES.

22. (Orfila’s.) From litharge, 3 parts; quicklime, 2 parts; starch, 1
part. The original form for this article is as follows:——Sulphate of lead,
4 parts; dry fresh-slaked lime, 5 parts; water, 30 parts; boil 1 hour,
collect the paste on a piece of calico, and apply it in a similar manner
to No. 1.

23. (POMADE DYE.)——_a._ Nitrate of silver, 1 part; nitric acid, 2 parts;
iron filings, 2 parts; mix, and let them stand together for 4 or 5 hours,
then pour them on oatmeal, 2 parts; next add, lard, 3 parts; and mix well
together.

_b._ From nitrate of silver and cream of tartar, of each 1 dr.; liquor of
ammonia, 2 dr.; dissolve, add of lard, 4 dr.; and mix well together.

24. (POUDRE D’ITALIE.) Resembles Orfila’s (No. 22.)

25. (PYROGALLIC STAIN.) A weak solution of crude pyrogallic acid. Another
article sold under this name is prepared by distilling nutgalls (coarsely
powdered) in a retort, dissolving the solid acid which sublimes in a
little hot water, and after mixing this with the acid liquid which also
passes over, adding a little rectified spirit. The floating oil is then
separated and the solution filtered.

26. (Redwood.) Litharge, 2 oz.; slaked lime and powdered starch, of each 1
oz.; liquor of potassa, 2 dr.; water, q. s. to form a thick cream. Used as
No. 1.

27. (Redwood.) Liquor of potassa and distilled water, of each 1 pint; mix,
and pass sulphuretted hydrogen through the liquid until it is saturated.
Of this solution take 20 oz.; liquor of potassa, 4 oz.; mix, and label it
‘Solution No. 1,’ Next dissolve nitrate of silver, 1 dr., in distilled
water, 2 oz.; and label the liquid ‘Solution No. 2,’ Used in the same
manner as No. 8 and 20.

28. (Spencer’s.) From sap green, 1/2 dr.; nitrate of silver, 1 dr.; hot
water, 1 oz. Applied as No. 3.

29. (TINCTURE OF WALNUT.) A strong tincture of the shells of green
walnuts, scented with oil of lavender.

30. (Ure.) Litharge, fresh-slaked lime, and bicarbonate of potassa, mixed
in various proportions, according to the shade of colour desired. Used
like No. 1.

31. (Warren’s.) From litharge, 1 oz.; white lead, 2 oz.; quicklime (in
fine powder), 16 oz.; mix, sift through lawn, and at once bottle the
mixture. Used like No. 1. Mixed with water, it is said to dye the hair
black; with milk, brown.

32. White lead, 1 oz.; fresh slaked lime, 1-1/2 oz.; litharge and oxide of
bismuth, of each 1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint; mix, boil 15 minutes, with
frequent agitation, cool, pour it into a bottle, add of solution of
ammonia, 1/4 fl. oz., shake the whole frequently for some hours and the
next day pour off the liquid portion from the white sediment which forms
the dye. Used like No. 1. It is applied for 8 or 10 minutes for a brown;
30 minutes, or longer, for a black. For the first, it is washed off with
water containing a little common soda.

33. The juice of the bark or shell of green walnuts, applied with a
sponge. (Paulus Ægineta.)

34. A leaden comb used daily is said to darken the hair, but we have known
persons persevere in its use for months without any perceptible change
occurring. Premature baldness is a frequent consequence of its use.

_Obs._ It is right to inform the reader that all those compounds which
contain nitrate of silver stain the skin as well as the hair. These stains
may be removed, when quite recent, by rubbing them with water containing a
little sulphydrate of ammonium (see _above_) or iodide of potassium in
solution; but as this is attended with some trouble and inconvenience, the
best way is to avoid the necessity of doing so. The hair-dressers adopt
the plan of smearing hard pomatum over the skin immediately surrounding
the hair, to protect it from the dye. By very skilful manipulation, and
the observance of due precautions, the hair may be thoroughly moistened
with the above fluids, without touching the adjacent skin, but this can
only be done, in the case of the hair of the head, by a second person.
This has led to a preference being given by many to the compounds
containing lead, as the colouring matter formed in them does not stain the
skin. The hue given by the latter (when pale) is very apt to possess an
unnatural redness, but all the shades of colour given by the preparation
of silver are rich and unexceptionable. Pyrogallic acid, and the juice of
walnuts, also stain the skin, although less intensely and permanently than
nitrate of silver.

The detection of dyed hair is often a matter of importance in medico-legal
research. The presence of silver may be shown by digesting the hair in a
little weak chlorine water or hydrochloric acid, when the resulting
chloride of silver may be dissolved out with liquor of ammonia, and
submitted to the usual tests. Hair containing lead, when digested in
dilute nitric acid, gives a solution of nitrate of lead, in which form it
is readily detected. See LEAD and SILVER.

All the preceding compounds are for dyeing living hair (human);
horse-hair, bristles, &c., and other dead hair, may be readily stained by
steeping them in any of the ordinary liquid dyes, more especially those
employed for wool and silk. See POMADES, WASHES, &c.

=HAIRWASH, Golden, or Auricomus=, is a clear inodorous fluid, which is
said to dye hair blond or yellowish red, and really does so. Sold in
bottles containing 250 grammes. When exposed to the air the fluid
decomposes with time. This hair-dye is an aqueous solution of hydroxyl
contaminated with traces of baryta, and can be prepared as follows:——17
parts crystallised caustic baryta and 3 parts potassium chlorate,
intimately mixed in fine powder, are melted by a gentle heat. The mass
must be washed with cold water to remove the potassium chloride, and the
residue shaken in the cold with a solution of 8 parts glacial phosphoric
acid in 25 parts water, the whole being cooled with ice. When the peroxide
of barium is decomposed, the fluid should be decanted from the
precipitate. (Hager.)

=HALL MARKS.= The ‘Hall Marks’ on articles in gold and silver not only
inform us of their fineness, but furnish us with other important
particulars.

The Hall Mark (proper) denotes the place of manufacture or assay, being an
anchor, for Birmingham; a dagger or 3 wheat sheaves, for Chester;
Hibernia, for Dublin; castle and lion for Edinburgh; castle with 2 wings,
for Exeter; tree and salmon with a ring in its mouth, for Glasgow;
leopard’s head for London; 3 castles, for Newcastle-on-Tyne; a crown, for
Sheffield; and five lions’ heads and a cross, for York.

The Duty Mark is the head of the Sovereign, showing that the duty is paid.

The Date Mark is a letter of the alphabet, which varies every year, and
with the different companies, thus: the Goldsmith’s Company of London have
used from 1716 to 1755, Roman capital letters; from 1756 to 1775, small
Roman letters; from 1766 to 1795 old English letters; from 1796 to 1815,
Roman capital letters, from A to U, omitting J; from 1816 to 1835, small
Roman letters, a to u, omitting j; from 1836, old English letters.

The Standard Mark for gold is, for England, a lion passant; Edinburgh, a
thistle; Glasgow, a lion rampant; Ireland, a harp crowned. For silver, a
figure of Britannia. If under 22 carats, gold has the figures 18.

The Manufacturer’s Mark is the initials of the maker, as S. H., W. T., C.
E., &c.

=HAL′OGENS.= In _chemistry_, a name given by Berzelius to chlorine,
bromine, iodine, and fluorine. These elements unite with metals to form
compounds called ‘haloid salts.’

=HAMBURGH POWDER.= The material known under this name is used to
adulterate chicory. It is composed of roasted and ground peas, coloured
with Venetian red.

=HAMS.= These are usually prepared from the legs of bacon pigs, but those
of the sheep are also sometimes used for the same purpose. SMOKED HAM is
strong eating, and rather fit for a relish than for diet, and should be
particularly avoided by the dyspeptic and by convalescents.

_Choice._ A sharp knife thrust under the bone should have a pleasant smell
when withdrawn. The recently cut fat should be hard and white, the lean
fine-grained, and of a lively red. Those short in the hock are the best.

_Curing._ An ordinary sized ham requires nearly three weeks, if wet
salted, and about a month if dry salted, to cure it perfectly. At the
expiration of this time they are ready for smoking. MUTTON HAMS should not
lie in pickle longer than 12 or 14 days.

_Cooking._ Hams should be put into the water cold, and should be gradually
heated. A ham of 14 lbs. will take about 4 hours, one of 16 lbs. will take
6-1/2 hours, and one of 20 lbs. about 5-1/2 hours, to dress it properly.
“If it is an old ham, it should be soaked for 12 hours previously.”
(Soyer.)

_Pres._ Most grocers and dealers in hams enclose them, after being smoked,
in canvas, for the purpose of defending them from the attacks of the
little insect, the _Dermestes lardarius_, which, by laying its eggs in
them, soon fills them with its larvæ; or maggots. This troublesome and
expensive process may be altogether superseded by the use of pyroligneous
acid, applied by means of a painter’s brush.

=HANDS.= Dirty and coarse hands are no less the marks of slothfulness and
low breeding, than clean and delicate hands are those of cleanliness and
gentility. To promote the softness and whiteness of the skin, mild
emollient soaps, or those abounding in oil, should alone be used, by which
means CHAPS AND CHILBLAINS will generally be avoided. The coarse, strong
kinds of soap, or those abounding in alkali, should for a like reason be
rejected, as they tend to render the skin rough, dry, and brittle. The
immersion of the hands in alkaline lyes, or strongly acidulated water, has
a like effect. When the hands are very dirty, a little good soft soap may
be used with warm water, which will rapidly remove oily and greasy matter.
Fruit and ink stains may be taken out by immersing the hands in water
slightly acidulated with oxalic acid or a few drops of oil of vitriol, or
to which a little pearlash or chloride of lime has been added; observing
afterwards to well rinse them in clean water, and not to touch them with
soap for some hours, as any alkaline matter will bring back the stains,
after their apparent removal by all the above substances, except the last.
The use of a little chloride of lime and warm water, or Gowland’s lotion,
imparts a delicate whiteness to the skin; but the former should be only
occasionally used, and should be well washed off with a little clean water
to remove its odour. Glycerine employed in the same manner renders the
skin soft, white, and supple. The use of a little sand or powdered pumice
stone with the soap will generally remove the roughness of the skin
frequently induced by exposure to cold. The hands may be preserved dry,
for delicate work, by rubbing a little club moss (LYCOPODIUM), in fine
powder, over them. A small quantity of this substance sprinkled over the
surface of a basin of water will permit the hand to be plunged to the
bottom of the basin without its becoming wet.

=HANG′ING.= In cases of suspended animation from hanging, the assistance
must be prompt and energetic. The body on its discovery should be
instantly relieved from the state of suspension and all pressure about the
throat. The remedial treatment chiefly consists, in the severer cases, in
cupping the temples or opening the jugular vein, and so relieving the head
of the blood which is accumulated in its superficial veins in consequence
of strangulation. When the body is cold, friction, and the other means
used for restoring the animal heat in drowned persons, should be resorted
to. See ASPHYXIA and DROWNING.

=HARD′NESS.= Compactness; solidity; the power of resisting abrasion.
Mineral substances are frequently distinguished and identified by their
relative hardness. This is ascertained by their power to scratch or be
scratched by one another. A valuable table on this subject will be found
in the article on GEMS.

=HAR′MALINE.= _Syn._ HARMALINA. An alkaloid, forming yellow-brown
crystals, discovered in the seeds of _Peganum harmala_. It has a bitter
astringent and acrid taste, is soluble in alcohol, and forms yellow,
soluble salts with the acids. It has been proposed as a yellow dye. By
oxidation it yields another compound (harmine), which is a magnificently
red dye-stuff, easily prepared and applied. The seeds are produced
abundantly in Southern Russia.

=HAR′NESS POLISH.= See BLACKING, &c.

=HARTS′HORN.= _Syn._ CORNU CERVI, C. CERVINUM, CORNU (Ph. L.) L. The “horn
of the _Cervus elephas_” (Ph. L.) or stag.

=Hartshorn, Burnt.= _Syn._ CORNU USTUM (Ph. L.), CORNU CERVI USTUM, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. L. 1836.) Burn pieces of harts’ horns until perfectly white,
then grind and prepare them in the same way as directed for prepared
chalk.

_Obs._ Finely powdered bone-ash is usually sold for burnt hartshorn, and
possesses exactly the same properties.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., or more 2 or
3 times a day, in rickets, &c

=Hartshorn Shavings.= _Syn._ HARTSHORN RASPINGS; RARURA CORNU CERVI,
RAMENTA C. C., L. Obtained from the turners. Boiled in water, it yields a
nutritive jelly. Used by straw-plait workers to stiffen bonnets, &c.

=HATCH′ING.= See INCUBATION.

=HATS.= Those should be chosen possessing a short, smooth, fine nap, and a
good black colour; and sufficiently elastic to resist ordinary wear and
tear, without breaking or giving way. The HAT BRUSH for daily use should
be made of soft hairs, but a stiffer one should be employed occasionally,
to lay the nap smooth and close. Grease may be removed by means of porous
brown paper, and pressure with a hot iron.

=HAY-FEVER.= _Syn._ HAY-ASTHMA, CATARRHUS ÆSTIVAS. Dr Aitken defines this
affection as “a variety of asthma or catarrh, occurring generally during
the summer months, especially during the inflorescence of the hay crop, or
during the drying or conversion of the newly-mown grass into hay, in May
and June.” The disease is distinguished by extreme irritation of the eyes,
nose, and the whole of the air-passages, these symptoms giving rise in
succession to troublesome itching of the eyes and nose, frequent paroxysms
of sneezing, with copious discharge from the nostrils, pricking sensation
in the throat, cough, tightness of the chest and difficulty of breathing,
accompanied sometimes with, and sometimes without, great mucous
expectoration. The inhalation of the powder of ipecacuanha sets up similar
symptoms with some persons.

Dr Aitken’s definition of hay-fever seems to point to what is pretty
generally accepted as its cause, viz. the inhalation of minute and
impalpable emanations from certain grasses given off during the period of
their flowering and subsequent conversion into hay. This supposition as to
the origin of this disease derives support from the circumstance, that it
always takes place during the hay season, and at no other; and also that
it may be cured by the avoidance of hay-fields and hay-stacks. “Hence
going to the sea-coast, and especially to those parts of the coast that
are barren of grass, offers a means of protection; and when this cannot be
done, such persons obtain refuge in some measure from the cause of
irritation, by remaining within doors and shutting out as much as possible
the external air during the hay-crop.”[345]

[Footnote 345: Sir Thomas Watson.]

Furthermore, those whom the disease attacks are not particularly subject
to catarrh at other times.

_Treatment._——Numerous remedies have been proposed and employed for
hay-asthma. Dr Elliotson suggests the mild fumigation of the patient’s
apartment by means of the solutions of the chlorides of lime or soda; and
further advised the sufferers using a smelling bottle containing one or
the other of the chlorides. He also employed with success the sulphate of
quinine and iron. Mr Gordon recommends the tincture of _Lobelia inflata_,
with the use of the cold shower-bath. Tincture of nux vomica is also said
to have been used with good results, as also has Fowler’s solution of
arsenic, with very decided advantage, by Dr Mackenzie.

These potent remedies, however, should only be administered under the
supervision of a qualified medical practitioner. An esteemed medical
friend assures us he has employed the new remedy, _Quinetum_ (the alkaloid
of the East India red bark), with the happiest effects. He gives four
grains of the quinetum three times a day. The use of an ori-nasal
respirator of cotton wool has also been suggested. Great relief has, we
know, in a great number of cases, been experienced by snuffing from a
smelling bottle containing the following ingredients:——Pure crystallised
carbolic acid, 1 dr.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1 oz.; wood charcoal, 1
oz.; oil of lavender, 1/2 dr.; compound tincture of benzoin, 1/2 oz.; all
reduced to fine powder, and thoroughly mixed.

=HEAD′ACHE.= _Syn._ CEPHALALGIA, L. In _pathology_, pain in the head. The
symptoms of this very general complaint are too well known to require any
description. According to pathologists, headache arises either from a
sympathy with the stomach and chylopoietic (chyle-forming) viscera, or
from a weakness or exhaustion of the power of the encephalon. The former
may be called SYMPATHETIC HEADACHE, and the latter NERVOUS HEADACHE. When
it attacks only one side of the head it is called HEMICRANIA. The
treatment of the first form should consist in restoring the healthy action
of the stomach, by the administration of aperients, and by the use of
proper food and exercise; or when that viscus is overloaded with
undigested food, by the exhibition of an emetic. For this purpose 1/4 to
1/2 an oz. of ipecacuanha wine may be taken in a cupful of warm water,
which will generally relieve the stomach, especially if its action is
assisted by drinking copiously of warm water. Headache is a common
accompaniment of indigestion and stomach disease, and in general it will
be found that whatever will remove the one will also cure the other.
Nervous headaches are relieved by nervous tonics and stimulants, as bark,
cascarilla, calumba, and gentian, camphor, ammonia, ether, and wine, the
latter in a state of considerable dilution. A cup of strong coffee or
strong green tea often acts like a charm in removing this species of
headache. Small doses of tincture of henbane have also often a like
effect. 20 or 30 drops of laudanum, or, preferably, half that number of
liquor opii sedativus, may be taken with advantage as an anodyne, and to
induce sleep. Amongst popular remedies may be mentioned ‘nasal
stimulants,’ as snuff (cephalic), smelling salts, and aromatic vinegar,
the use of which is familiar to every one; and local applications, as very
cold water, ether, vinegar, strong spirits, Cologne water, &c., all of
which are rubbed over the part of the head affected, with the fingers, or
a linen rag dipped in them is laid thereon instead. Pressure on the head
has also been used with advantage. Silence, darkness, and repose, are
powerful remedies, alike suitable to every variety of headache; and change
of air, scene, and occupation, are especially beneficial to those
resulting from excessive mental anxiety or exertion. Blisters are
extensively applied behind the ears in cases of violent headache.

Headache is often symptomatic of other diseases, especially those of the
inflammatory and nervous kind, rheumatism, &c. In all these the primary
disease should be sought out and attempted to be cured. In many cases
these attacks rapidly yield to a few doses of compound decoction of
sarsaparilla containing a little iodide of potassium. Headache in
pregnancy may generally be removed by proper attention to the bowels;
observing to assist their action, should they require it, by the use of
some mild aperient, as castor oil, lenitive electuary, seidlitz powders,
&c. When the constitution is very robust, blood may be taken. Headache in
bed may frequently be relieved by washing the head with cold water, and
discontinuing the use of a nightcap, at the same time preserving the feet
warm by wearing worsted socks or stockings.

=HEAD′ING.= _Syn._ BEER HEADING, CAULIFLOWER H. _Prep._ 1. Alum and green
copperas, equal parts, in fine powder.

2. Alum, copperas, and common salt, equal parts.

Used by brewers to make their beer keep its head or froth.

=HEALTH.= That state of the living body in which all its functions are
duly performed. See HYGIENE.

=HEALTH, GOOD——Gut-Heil= (Aust). A liquor containing the extractive
matters of calamus root, rhubarb, cinnamon, orange peel, &c., with 35 per
cent. of sugar. (Hager.)

=HEAR′ING.= See DEAFNESS, EAR, &c.

=HEART′BURN.= _Syn._ CARDIALGIA, L. Anxiety and pain about the region of
the stomach, generally attended by a sense of gnawing and heat; hence its
popular name. Faintness, nausea, and eructation of a thin, acidulous,
watery liquid, especially in the morning, are common symptoms of this
complaint. The usual causes of heartburn are excess in eating and
drinking, the use of improper food, and sedentary habits. A good remedy is
a teaspoonful of carbonate of magnesia, or carbonate of soda, in a glass
of peppermint or cinnamon water, to which a little powdered ginger may be
added with advantage. This dose may be taken 2 or 3 times daily until the
disease is removed. Articles of food that easily undergo fermentation
should at the same time be avoided, and a dry diet had recourse to as much
as possible. Soda water, toast-and-water, and weak spirit-and-water, are
the most suitable beverages in this complaint.

=HEAT.= _Syn._ CALORIC; CALORICUM, L. The consideration of this subject
belongs to physics and chemistry. Much useful information, in connection
with it, will, however, be found in this work under the heads EBULLITION,
EVAPORATION, EXPANSION, REFRIGERATION, &c.

=HEAVY SPAR.= Native sulphate of barium. See BARYTA.

=HED′ERIN.= _Syn._ HEDERINA, L. From the decoction of the ground seeds of
ivy (_Hedera helix_), boiled in water, along with a little slaked lime or
magnesia, the precipitate being afterwards digested in rectified spirit,
and the filtered tincture evaporated. Febrifuge and sudorific.

=HEIGHT, Average of Man.= The ‘Boston Journal of Chemistry’ gives the
following particulars of the average height of man:——“The Yankee would
appear to be the tallest of civilised men, if we may trust some statistics
given in foreign journals as the result of the measurement of over half a
million men. The mean height of the American Indian is 67·934 inches; of
the American white man, 67·672; Scotch, 67·066; English, 66·575; Russian,
66·393; French, 66·277; Mexican, 66·110.” If the Yankee carries off the
palm as the tallest of men, he also does so for his tallest tales; but if
weight were introduced into the calculation, we think our Transatlantic
cousins would rank last.

=HEIGHTS.= The following table, calculated by Regnault, gives the
temperature at which water boils at the corresponding heights of the
barometric column. The figures have been confirmed by direct observation.

        _Boiling Points of Water at different Pressures._

  +--------------|-----------|---------------|-----------|---------------|----------+
  |Boiling Point.| Barometer.| Boiling Point.| Barometer.| Boiling Point.|Barometer.|
  | Deg. Fahr.   |  Inches.  |   Deg. Fahr.  |  Inches.  |   Deg. Fahr.  |  Inches. |
  +--------------|-----------|---------------|-----------|---------------|----------+
  |    184       |   16·676  |       195     |   21·124  |      206      |  26·529  |
  |    185       |   17·047  |       196     |   21·576  |      207      |  27·068  |
  |    186       |   17·421  |       197     |   22·030  |      208      |  27·614  |
  |    187       |   17·803  |       198     |   22·498  |      209      |  28·183  |
  |    188       |   18·196  |       199     |   22·965  |      210      |  28·744  |
  |    189       |   18·593  |       200     |   23·454  |      211      |  29·331  |
  |    190       |   19·992  |       201     |   23·937  |      212      |  29·922  |
  |    191       |   19·407  |       202     |   24·441  |      213      |  30·516  |
  |    192       |   19·822  |       203     |   25·014  |      214      |  31·120  |
  |    193       |   20·254  |       204     |   25·468  |      215      |  31·730  |
  |    194       |   20·687  |       205     |   25·992  |      216      |  32·350  |
  +--------------|-----------|---------------|-----------|---------------|----------+

=HEL′ENIN.= See INULIN.

=HELIOG′RAPHY.= See PHOTOGRAPHY.

=HEL′LEBORE.= _Syn._ BLACK HELLEBORE; HELLEBORUS (Ph. L.), L. “The rhizome
and root” of “_Helleborus niger_” (Ph. L.) or black hellebore. It is
alterative and emmenagogue, in small doses (2 to 8 gr.); and a drastic
hydragogue purgative and anthelmintic in larger ones (10 to 20 gr.) See
WHITE HELLEBORE.

=HELLEBOR′IE.= _Syn._ SOFT RESIN OF HELLEBORE. An odourless, acrid
substance, extracted by alcohol from black hellebore, and on which,
according to Vauquelin, the activity of that drug depends.

=HEM′LOCK.= _Syn._ CONII FOLIA (B. P.); CONIUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. In
_pharmacy_, “the fresh and dried leaf of the wild herb _Conium
maculatum_,” or spotted hemlock. The first is used to make the extract;
the last, the tincture and powder.

Hemlock is a powerful narcotic acrid poison, occasioning stupor, delirium,
paralysis, convulsions, coma, and death. In small doses it is anodyne,
alterative, resolvent, antispasmodic, and anaphrodisiac, and has been
exhibited in cancer, dropsy, epilepsy, rheumatism, scrofula, syphilis, and
other diseases.——_Dose_, 3 or 4 gr. of the powder, twice or thrice daily,
until some obvious effect is produced.

Hemlock, whether in leaf (conii folia) or powder (pulvis conii) rapidly
deteriorates by keeping. When good, the powder, triturated with solution
of potassa, exhales a powerful odour of conia.

In cases of poisoning by hemlock, the treatment is similar to that noticed
under ACONITE. See CONIA, EXTRACT, TINCTURE, &c.

=HEMP.= _Syn._ CANNABIS, L. In _botany_ the typical genus of the natural
order _Cannabinaceæ_. The common hemp, from the fibres of which cordage is
made, is the species _Cannabis sativa_. The fruit of this plant (hemp
seed) is demulcent and oleaginous. It is said that the plumage of
bullfinches and goldfinches fed on it for too long a time, or in too large
a quantity, changes from red and yellow to black.[346]

[Footnote 346: Burnett, ‘Outlines of Botany.’]

=Hemp, Indian.= _Syn._ HASHISH, CANNABIS INDICA. This plant, now so
largely used in medicine, is a variety of _Cannabis sativa_, or, perhaps,
the same simply rendered more active by climate. The parts employed in
Asia for the purposes of intoxication, and in Europe as medicine, are the
herb or leaves and the resin. The ‘gunjah’ sold in the bazaars in the East
Indies is the plant, just after flowering, dried, and pressed together.
‘Bang,’ ‘bhang,’ ‘subjee,’ or ‘sidhee,’ consists of the larger leaves and
capsules without the stalk. The concrete resinous exudation from the
leaves, stems, and flowers, is called ‘churrus,’ and in this country
‘resin of Indian hemp.’ ‘Hashish’ seems to be a general term for the
preparation of hemp.

Dr Preobraschensky, has lately subjected hashish to a chemical analysis,
and states that he has found an alkaloidal body, not only in the
commercial substance, but also in the flower-tops of the hemp itself, and
the pure extract prepared from it, which was recognised as _nicotine_.

Indian hemp is anæsthetic, anodyne, exhilarant, antispasmodic, hypnotic,
and narcotic. In the East it is commonly used as an intoxicant, either by
smoking it, like tobacco, or swallowing it. The inebriation produced by it
is of an agreeable or cheerful character exciting the party under its
influence to laugh, dance, sing, and to commit various extravagancies. It
also acts as an aphrodisiac, augments the appetite for food, and, in some
cases, occasions a kind of reverie and catalepsy. In this country its
action is less marked. It has here been chiefly administered under the
form of alcoholic or resinous extract. See EXTRACT OF INDIAN HEMP.

=HEN′BANE.= _Syn._ HYOSCYAMI FOLIA (B. P.); HYOSCYAMUS (Ph. L. E. and D.),
L. In _pharmacy_, “the fresh and dried stalk-leaf of the biennial herb,
_Hyoscyamus niger_” (Ph. L.), or common biennial or black henbane. The
first is used for preparing the extract; the last, for the powder and
tincture.

Henbane is anodyne, hypnotic, antispasmodic, and sedative. It differs from
opium in not being stimulant, and by not confining the bowels; and hence
may be administered in cases in which that drug would be improper. In
large doses it acts as a powerful narcotic poison, producing obscurity of
vision, dilatation of the pupils, delirium, phantasms, coma, &c.——_Dose_,
3 to 10 gr., in powder. It is usually given in the form of extract or
tincture. The antidotes, &c., are the same as those noticed under OPIUM.

=HEN-COOPS, Fumigator for.= Consisted wholly of coal-tar.

=HE′PAR.= _Syn._ LIVER. A name given by the older chemists to various
combinations of sulphur, from their brownish or liver colour; as ‘_hepar
antimonii_,’ ‘_hepar sulphuris_,’ &c. See ANTIMONY (Liver of), POTASSIUM
(Sulphide), &c.

=HERBAR′IUM.= [Eng., L.] _Syn._ HORTUS SICCUS, L. A collection of dried
specimens of plants; hence called HORTUS SICCUS, or dry garden. Plants for
the herbarium should be gathered on a dry day, and carried home in a
tin-box (‘VASCULUM’), or other convenient receptacle which will preserve
them fresh for a time. Those which have collected moisture in their leaves
should be allowed to dry, their stalks being placed in water to keep them
alive. Plants with very thick, succulent leaves or stems must be killed by
immersion in hot water before they can be safely placed in the drying
press. The press consists simply of a few stout boards with a screw——or,
still better, a number of heavy weights, bricks, or stones——for pressing
them together. The specimens of plants, when all superficial moisture has
been removed, are placed between layers of bibulous paper (BOTANICAL
PAPER), care being taken that the parts of each are arranged in a natural
manner. The sheets containing the specimens are then placed between the
boards, and pressure is applied. This must be very gentle at first, and
should be gradually increased as the plants become dry. The paper is
changed every day or every second day, and the damp sheets are dried for
use at a future time. When properly dried, the specimens are placed on
sheets of writing paper, and fixed by a few stitches of thread, a little
gum, or strips of gummed paper. The name of the genus and species, and the
locality where found, &c., are then marked beside each. Camphor or a
little corrosive sublimate may be used to preserve herbaria from the
ravages of insects. The preparation of an herbarium offers an almost
endless source of amusement to the ingenious, whilst the specimens so
collected, if well preserved, are almost as useful to the botanist as the
living plants.

=HERBS.= _Syn._ HERBÆ, L. The collection and drying of herbs for medicinal
purposes and perfumery are noticed under VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES.

Amongst cooks, several aromatic herbs, either fresh or dried, are used for
seasoning. “In many receipts is mentioned a bunch of sweet herbs, which
consists, for some stews and soups, of a small bunch of parsley, two
sprigs of thyme, and one bayleaf; if no parsley, then of four sprigs of
winter savory, six of thyme, and one bayleaf.” (Soyer.)

=HER′NIA.= See RUPTURE.

=HER′RING.= A well-known small sea-fish, belonging to the family of
_Clupeidæ_, a branch of the order _Malacopterygii_. As an article of food,
herrings are of a vast importance to a large proportion of the population
of Europe. When recently caught and dressed by broiling or boiling, they
are wholesome and agreeable; but if fried, or long kept, they become
strong and oily, and are then apt to offend the stomach. The preparation
of salted and dried of smoked herrings (bloaters, red herrings) furnishes
employment for thousands, both in these countries and Holland. Real
Yarmouth bloaters and Dutch herrings are highly esteemed by many as a
relish. Salted herrings are said to be diuretic. The pickle was formerly
used in clysters, dropsies, &c. M. Soyer calls this fish “the poor man’s
friend,” and tells us that, after being “cleaned and scaled, and the head
removed,” it should be “opened in the back, and the gut taken out.” Also
that “the way to ascertain if a herring is too salt is to take the fish in
the left hand, and pull out a few of the fins from the back, and to taste
them. You may thus find out the quality and flavour. This plan is adopted
by the large dealers.”

=HESPER′IDIN.= A peculiar substance obtained from the white portion of the
rind of oranges, lemons, &c. It forms crystalline silky needles, is
odourless, tasteless, fusible, soluble in alcohol and ether, less soluble
in water. Hesperidin is a glucoside.

=HIC′COUGH= (hĭk′-ŭp). _Syn._ HICCUP; SINGULTUS, L. A convulsive motion of
the diaphragm and parts adjacent. The common causes are flatulency,
indigestion, acidity, and worms. It may generally be removed by the
exhibition of warm carminatives, cordials, cold water, weak spirits,
camphor julep, or spirits of sal-volatile. A sudden fright or surprise
will often produce the like effect. An instance is recorded of a delicate
young lady that was troubled with hiccough for some months, and who was
reduced to a state of extreme debility from the loss of sleep occasioned
by it, that was cured by a fright, after medicines and topical
applications had failed. A pinch of snuff, a glass of iced soda water, or
an ice-cream, will also frequently remove this affection.

=HI′ERA-PI′CRA.= See POWDER OF ALOES AND CANELLA.

=HIP′POCRAS.= An aromatic medicated wine, formerly much used in England,
and still employed on the Continent.

_Prep._ Lisbon and Canary wine, of each 12 pints; cinnamon, 2 oz.; white
canella, 1/2 oz.; cloves, mace, nutmeg, ginger, and galangal, or
cardamoms, of each 1 dr.; bruise the spices, and digest them in the wine
for three or four days; strain, and add of lump sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.

=HIPPU′RIC ACID.= HC_{9}H_{8}NO_{3}. _Syn._ ACIDUM HIPPURICUM, L. A
compound discovered by Liebig in the urine of the horse, cow, and other
graminivora, in which it exists as hippurate of potassium or sodium.

_Prep._ Concentrate fresh cow’s urine by a gentle heat to about 1/10th its
bulk, filter from deposit, mix the liquid with excess of hydrochloric
acid, and set it aside to crystallise. It may be decoloured by
redissolving it in boiling water, and treating it with animal charcoal, or
with a little chloride of lime along with some hydrochloric acid, and
re-crystallising it.

_Obs._ Hippuric acid, when pure, forms long, slender, milk-white, square
prisms; it is soluble in 400 parts of cold water; it also dissolves in hot
alcohol. When strongly heated, it yields benzoic acid, benzoate of
ammonia, and benzonitrile, with a coaly residue. The urine of horses or
cows, left to itself for some time, or evaporated at a boiling
temperature, yields not a trace of hippuric acid, but only benzoic acid.
Nitric acid and hot oil of vitriol convert it into benzoic acid. Boiling
hydrochloric acid converts it into benzoic acid and glycocoll. With the
bases it forms salts, which are called hippurates. See BENZOIC ACID.

=HIPS.= _Syn._ HEPS; ROSA CANINA (Ph. L.). The fresh fruit of the dog rose
(_Rosa canina_), or wild briar. Used to make a conserve.

=HOL′LANDS.= _Syn._ GENEVA, SCHIEDAM, HOLLANDS GIN, DUTCH G. _Prep._ 1.
The materials employed in the distilleries of Schiedam, in the preparation
of this excellent spirit, are 2 parts of the best unmalted rye and 1 part
of malted bigg, reduced to the state of coarse meal by grinding. About a
barrel (36 galls.) of water, at a temperature of from 162° to 168° Fahr.,
is put into the mash-tun for every 1-1/2 cwt. of meal, after which the
malt is introduced and stirred, and, lastly, the rye is added. Powerful
agitation is next given to the magma till it becomes quite uniform, when
the mash-tun is covered over with canvas, and left in this state for two
hours. Agitation is then again had recourse to, and the transparent ‘spent
wash’ of a preceding mashing is added, followed by as much cold water as
will reduce the temperature of the whole to about 85° Fahr. The gravity of
the wort at this point varies from 33 to 38 lbs. A quantity of the best
pressed Flanders yeast, equal to 1 lb. for every 100 galls. of the mashed
materials, is next stirred in, and the whole is fermented in the mash-tun
for about 3 days, or until the attenuation is from 7 to 4 lbs. (sp. gr.
1·007 to 1·004). During this time the yeast is occasionally skimmed off
the fermenting wort. The wash, with the grains, is then transferred to the
still, and converted into ‘low wines.’ To every 100 galls. of this liquor,
2 lbs. of juniper berries (3 to 5 years old), and about 1 lb. of salt, are
added, and the whole is put into the low-wine still, and the fine spirit
drawn off by a gentle heat, one receiver only being employed. The product
per quarter varies from 18 to 21 galls. of spirit, 2 to 3 o. p.

2. (BEST HOLLANDS.) Hollands rectified to the strength of 24° Baumé (sp.
gr. ·9125, or about 6 o. p.).

3. (ENGLISH-MADE.)——_a._ From juniper berries (at least a year old, and
crushed in the hands), 3 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 gall. (or proof
spirit, 2-1/2 galls.); digest, with agitation, for a week, and then
express the liquor; after 24 hours’ repose, decant the clear portion, add
it to good corn spirit, at 2 or 3% overproof, 90 or 100 galls., and mix
them well together.

_b._ From juniper berries, 2-1/2 lbs.; sweet fennel seed, 5 oz.; caraway
seed, 3-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 2 galls.; corn spirit, 90 or 100 galls.

_c._ As the last, with the addition of Strasburg turpentine or Canadian
balsam, 1 lb.

_d._ To either of the last two or three add a very small quantity of
ground cardamoms or horse-radish. Some compounders also add 4 or 5 cloves
of garlic, or about 15 gr. of assafœtida, with 1 gr. of ambergris rubbed
to a powder with a little white sand or lump sugar. Good plain gin may be
advantageously employed in lieu of the corn spirit ordered above, when
expense is no object.

_Obs._ The last four forms, which are only given as examples, produce a
very pleasant spirit, if it is kept for some time to ‘mellow.’ Age is one
of the principal causes of the ‘creaminess’ of foreign gin, which usually
lies in bond for some time before being consumed. The product is, however,
much superior if the ingredients are rectified along with 20 galls. of
water, and about 14 lbs. of salt, by a gentle heat.

It will be seen from the above that the superior flavour of Hollands
spirit depends more on the peculiar mode of its manufacture than on the
quantity of juniper berries employed; 2 lbs. of them, when new, being
barely equivalent to 1 oz. of the essential oil; and when old, to less
than 1/2 oz., a quantity wholly insufficient to flavour 100 gallons of
spirit. The Dutch distillers, most noted for this liquor, add a little
pure Strasburg turpentine and a handful or two of hops to the spirit,
along with the juniper berries, before rectification. The former substance
has a pale yellowish-brown colour, and a very fragrant and agreeable
smell, and tends materially to impart that fine aroma for which the best
geneva is distinguished. At Rotterdam sweet fennel seed is commonly added
as a flavouring; and at Weesoppe Strasburg turpentine and fennel seeds, or
the essential oil of fennel, are frequently substituted for a large
portion of the juniper berries.

Schiedam Hollands is considered the best; the next quality is that of
Rotterdam; after these comes that of Weesoppe.

Attempts have been made by Mr Robert Moore, and others to introduce into
general consumption in this country a home-made liquor, resembling and
prepared in the same manner as foreign geneva, “but the palates of our
gin-drinkers were too corrupted to relish so pure a spirit.”

=HOMŒOP′ATHY.= _Syn._ HOMŒOPATHIA, L. A medical hypothesis promulgated at
the commencement of the present century by the late Dr Hahnemann, of
Leipsic, according to which diseases may be cured by the administration of
minute doses of medicines capable of producing in healthy persons
affections similar to those it is intended to remove. The doctrine that
“_similia similibus curantur_” had long previously been practically acted
on, to a limited extent, in certain cases, in legitimate medicine
(allopathy, heteropathy), although not verbally recognised as belonging to
its system. The administration of infinitesimal doses is an absurdity
which homœopathy, however, alone can claim. According to this method, the
millionth of a grain is often an excessive dose; whilst billionths and
decillionths, quantities so small as to be vastly beyond human perception,
form the common doses. This reduces the whole practice of homœopathy to a
system of doing nothing beyond regulating the diet and habits of the
patient. “All judicious practitioners have long been agreed that there are
many cases which are best treated in the manner just mentioned, and in
which physic does more harm than good; in which, in short, a sensible
physician endeavours to amuse the patient, whilst nature cures the
disorder; so that the frequent success of homœopathic treatment may be
explained, without admitting the principle upon which it is presumed to be
founded.” (Brande.)

=HON′EY.= _Syn._ MEL (B. P.), L. The sweet substance elaborated by the
domestic bee from the juices of the nectaries of flowers, and deposited in
the cells of wax forming the honeycomb.

_Var._ Pure honey consists of a syrup of uncrystallisable sugar and
crystalline saccharine grains, resembling grape sugar.——‘Virgin honey’ is
that which flows spontaneously from the comb.——‘Ordinary honey,’ that
obtained by heat and pressure. The former is pale and fragrant; the latter
darker, and possessing a less agreeable taste and smell.——‘English honey’
is chiefly collected from furze and broom flowers, and is more waxy than
that from the South of Europe;——‘Narbonne honey,’ chiefly from rosemary,
and other labiate flowers, very fine;——‘Poisonous honey’ is found near
Trebizond, in Asia, its toxic effects being due to the bees having
collected it from a poisonous plant, the _Azalea pontica_.

_Pur._ Honey is frequently adulterated with treacle, potato-sugar syrup,
potato farina, starch, and wheat flour. The first may be detected by the
colour and odour; the second in the way noticed under SUGAR; and the
others by the honey not forming a nearly clear solution with cold water,
and striking a blue colour with iodine. When it contains wheat flour, and
is heated, it at first liquefies, but on cooling it becomes solid and
tough. The absence of starchy matter or flour is easily proved by the
following test:——Boiled with water for five minutes, and allowed to cool,
it should not become blue with iodine water——indicating absence of flour.

_Uses, &c._ Honey is nutritive and laxative, but rather apt to gripe. It
is employed in the preparation of OXYMELS and GARGLES, and also to cover
the taste of nauseous medicines, which it does better than sugar.
Clarified honey is alone ordered to be used in medicine.

=Honey, Clarified.= _Syn._ REFINED HONEY, STRAINED H.; MEL DEPURATUM (Ph.
D.), MEL PRÆPARATUM, L. The honey is simply melted by the heat of a water
bath, and strained whilst hot through flannel (Ph. D.); or——it is melted
as last, and the scum removed (Ph. U. S.); or——it is melted with 1-3rd its
weight of water, skimmed, strained through flannel, and evaporated until
it reaches the sp. gr. 1·261. (P. Cod.) Honey is not to be employed
without being desquamated. (Ph. L.)

_Obs._ Clarified honey is less agreeable than raw honey, and has lost the
crystalline character of the latter; but it is less liable to ferment and
gripe. The use of copper and iron vessels or implements should be avoided,
as honey acquires a dark colour by contact with them. Berlin-ware,
stone-ware, or well-silvered or tin copper pans, should alone be used. On
the large scale, one or other of the following plans are adopted:——

1. The honey is mixed with an equal weight of water and allowed to boil up
5 or 6 times without skimming; it is then removed from the fire, and after
being cooled, brought on several strong linen strainers, stretched
horizontally, and covered with a layer of clean and well-washed sand, an
inch in depth; the sand is rinsed with a little cold water, and the mixed
liquor is finally evaporated to the thickness of syrup.

2. Dissolve the honey in water, as last, clarify with white of egg, and
evaporate to a proper consistence.

3. Dissolve in water, add 1-1/2 lb. of animal charcoal to every 1/4 cwt.
of honey, gently simmer for 15 minutes, add a little chalk to saturate
excess of acid, if required, strain or clarify, and evaporate.

4. Honey, 1 cwt.; water, 9 galls.; fresh burnt animal charcoal, 7 lbs.;
simmer for 15 minutes, add a little chalk to saturate free acid (if
required), strain or clarify, and evaporate as before.

=HONEYS.= (In _pharmacy_.) _Syn._ MELITA, L. These are minor preparations,
now almost superseded by ‘syrups’ (SYRUPI). The _mellita_ of the Ph. L.,
including two ‘oxymels,’ are only four in number.

=Honey of Bo′′rax.= _Syn._ MEL BORACIS (B. P. Ph., L. E. & D.), L. _Prep._
(B. P.) Finely powdered borax, 1; clarified honey, 7; mix. Astringent,
detersive, and cooling. It is employed in aphthæ of the mouth, excessive
salivation, &c. A great improvement would be to dissolve 1 of borax in 1
of glycerin, and then add 6 of honey.

=Honey of Col′chicum.= _Syn._ MEL COLCHICI, L. _Prep._ (Beasley.) Dried
colchicum 1 part; water (at 140°), 16 parts; infuse for 12 hours, strain,
let it settle, and boil the clear liquor with white honey, 12 parts, to
the consistence of a syrup. See COLCHICUM.

=Honey of Liq′uorice.= _Syn._ MEL GLYCYRRHIZATUM, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Hamb.)
Honey and a strong infusion of liquorice boiled to a proper consistence.
Emollient, pectoral, and laxative.

=Honey of Male Fern.= _Syn._ MEL FILICIS, L. _Prep._ (Dunglison.) Ethereal
extract of male fern, 30 gr.; honey of roses, 4 dr.; mix. In
tapeworm.——_Dose._ One half at bedtime, followed by the remainder in the
morning.

=Honey of Mercury.= _Syn._ MEL HYDRARGYRI, L. _Prep._ (Bell.) Mercury, 1
dr.; honey, 1 oz.; triturate till the globules disappear. Allard adds of
oil of cloves, 1/2 dr. Properties similar to those of mercurial pill. It
is chiefly used as an application to ulcers of the throat.

=Honey of Ro′′ses.= _Syn._ MEL ROSÆ (Ph. L. and E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph.
L.) Dried petals of the red rose (the leaves separated), 4 oz.; boiling
water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 2 hours; lightly press them in the hand,
and strain; then add 8 fl. oz. more of boiling water to the roses,
macerate for a short time, and again gently express the liquor; to this
add the other half; next add to the mixed liquors, honey, 5 lbs.; and
evaporate in a water bath, so that, the infusion which was set aside being
added, it may become of a proper consistence.

2. (Ph. E.) Dried rose petals, 4 oz.; boiling water, 2-1/2 pints; infuse
for 6 hours, and gently squeeze out the liquor; after the impurities have
subsided, decant the clear, add of honey, 5 lbs., and evaporate as before,
to a proper consistence, removing the scum which forms. Used to make
astringent gargles. It must not be boiled in a copper or iron vessel, as
they will spoil the colour. The last form is that commonly adopted in
trade.

=Honey of Squills.= _Syn._ MEL SCILLÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Thick clarified
honey, 3 lbs.; tincture of squills, 2 lbs.; mix.

2. (Soubeiran.) Dried squills, 1 oz.; boiling water, 3/4 pint; infuse 2
hours, strain, add of honey, 12 oz.; and evaporate to a proper
consistence. Resembles OXYMEL OF SQUILLS (nearly).

=Honey of Verdigris.= EGYPTIACUM.

=Honey of Vi′olets.= _Syn._ MEL VIOLÆ; L. _Prep._ From clarified honey, 2
parts; expressed and depurated juice of violets, 1 part. Resembles syrup
of violets.

=HON′EY DEW.= _Syn._ ROS MELLITUS, L. A sweetish matter ejected upon the
leaves of plants by certain aphides.

=HOOP′ING COUGH.= See WHOOPING COUGH.

=HOPS.= _Syn._ LUPULUS (B. P.), L. “The catkins of the female plant of the
_Humulus lupulus_” or common hop. (B. P.) “The dried strobiles.” (Ph. D.)
The hops of commerce are the strobiles or catkins (LUPULI STROBILI, L.
AMENTA) of the hop plant. The yellow powder or small lupulinic grains or
glands (LUPULIN), which are attached to the strobiles, are the portion on
which their characteristic qualities chiefly depend.

The hop is tonic, stomachic, and moderately narcotic. It is used in
diseases of local debility with morbid vigilance and other nervous
derangement, producing sleep where opiates are objectionable. Hops may be
used topically as a fomentation or a poultice, as a resolvent or
discutient in painful swellings and tumours. The golden dust attached to
the scale of the hop is sometimes administered in doses of from 5 to 10
grains. Very freshly dried hops, made into a pillow, procure sleep.

In the choice of hops, care should be taken to select those that have
large cones or strobiles, that are the most powerfully odorous and most
free from leaves, stems, scaly fragments, and sticks, and which, when
rubbed between the hands, impart, in the greatest degree, a yellowish tint
and glutinous feeling to the skin. The tightness with which they are
packed should also be noticed; as, without being very firmly pressed
together, and quite solid they soon spoil by keeping. The finest flavoured
hops are the ‘GOLDINGS,’ grown chiefly in middle and east Kent; the
‘WHITEBINES’ of Farnham and Canterbury; and the WORCESTER HOPS, grown on
the red soils of the vale of the Severn. These are principally employed
for the finer class of ales. Mid Kent and Sussex hops are also used for
ale, but have an inferior colour and flavour. The best hops are packed in
sacks of fine canvas, termed ‘pockets,’ weighing from 1-1/4 cwt. to 1-3/4
cwt. each; and the inferior qualities in coarse ‘bags,’ of about double
the size. The former are mostly purchased by the ale brewers, and the
latter by the porter brewers. When hops are older than of last season’s
growth they are termed ‘yearlings,’——when of the second season’s growth,
‘old,’——and when three years, or older, ‘old olds.’ See BREWING, EXTRACT,
HUMULIN, LUPULIN, TINCTURE, &c.

=HOOSE.= Young cattle, especially calves, as well as sheep and lambs, are
frequently liable to attacks of a species of bronchitis, caused by the
presence in the bronchial tubes of minute worms. They are mostly so
attacked in autumn.

_Treatment._ For a calf of six months old give half an ounce of oil of
turpentine in two ounces of linseed oil, to be repeated once or twice
after an interval of two days. Half this dose may be given to sheep. The
mixture should be administered by the mouth, and _not_ by the nostrils, as
usually recommended. Calves should additionally be comfortably housed at
night, and be fed with a little oil cake and other good food.

=HORE′HOUND.= _Syn._ WHITE HOREHOUND; MARRUBIUM VULGARE (Linn.), L. This
herb has long been a popular remedy in chronic pulmonary complaints,
especially catarrh, and in uterine and liver affections. Horehound tea
(THEA MARUBII, INFUSUM MARUBII) is prepared by infusing 1 oz. of the herb
in boiling water, 1 pint, for an hour;——syrup of horehound (SYRUPUS
MARUBII), by thickening the infusion of tea with sugar;——candied horehound
(MARUBIUM CONDITUM), by mixing 1 pint of horehound juice with 8 or 10 lbs.
of white sugar, boiling the mixture to a candy height, and pouring it,
whilst warm, into moulds, or small paper cases, well dusted with finely
powdered lump-sugar; or by pouring it out on a dusted slab, and cutting it
into squares. See CANDYING.

=HORN.= For the purposes of the turner and comb-maker, horns of the goat
and sheep are preferred on account of their superior whiteness and
transparency. For medical purposes, those of the stag (HARTSHORN) are
ordered to be employed.

Horn is dyed with the same dyes, and in a similar manner to bones and
ivory.

Horn is softened, bent, and moulded, by means of heat and pressure. For
these purposes boiling water and a screw press are commonly employed.

Horn is reduced to plates or sheets by sawing it, and then exposing it to
powerful pressure between hot iron plates; the pith having been previously
removed, and its texture softened by soaking for some days in water, and
subsequent boiling in that liquid.

Surfaces and edges may be united or cemented together by softening the
horn by the heat of boiling water, placing the parts in contact under
strong pressure, and exposing the whole thus arranged to the heat of
boiling water.

Horn is stained or party-coloured to imitate tortoise-shell, by a solution
of terchloride of gold, for the red portion; nitrate of silver, for the
dark brown and black; and nitrate of mercury (hot), or a paste made of red
lead, and potash or quicklime, for the brown. When the last is used the
horn must be heated and exposed to its action for some hours.

=Horn Silver.= (Ag. Cl.) A native chloride of silver, which occurs either
crystallized in cubes, or as a compact semi-transparent mass.

=HORS-D’ŒUVRES.= [Fr.] _Syn._ ASSIETTES, Fr. Small _entrées_, as
‘_aiguillettes_,’ ‘_ragouts_,’ plates of sardines, anchovies, or other
relishes, served at dinner between the leading dishes. ‘_Assiettes
volantes_’ (flying plates) are dishes handed round to the guests, but not
placed on the table.

=HORSE.= _Syn._ EQUUS, L. This most useful quadruped belongs to the family
_Equidæ_, distinguished by a single digit and hoof on each foot. The horse
can scarcely be said to exist at the present day in its natural wild
state, as the so-called ‘wild-horses’ of America and Asia are but the
progeny of horses which have escaped from the haunts of civilisation. Of
all animals the horse is most useful to man. Independently of its value as
a beast of burden and draught, its skin, its hide, intestines, and bones,
furnish us with leather, the thongs of whips, gut, grease, bone-black,
manure, &c. The excrement, fat, and hoof were included in the Materia
Medica of the Ph. L. 1618. The flesh is eaten in some countries, and was
formerly esteemed to possess many virtues.

Injuries of a serious character, and even death, are often occasioned by
horses running away, or becoming unmanageable. Various methods have been
proposed to prevent accidents of this kind, and to place the animal
entirely under the power of its rider or driver. In Russia, around the
horse’s neck, near the neck strap, is placed a cord with a running knot.
To this slip-noose is attached a pair of reins, which always lie thrown
over the dashboards, ready to be seized at once. When the horse starts,
and becomes unruly, the gentleman takes up this cord, and tightens the
horse’s throat, so that he cannot take breath. The most furious horse
stops instantly, and will not fall or kick. See BEDDING, BRAN MASH, BROKEN
KNEES, BROKEN WIND, CLIPPING, CANKER, CATARRH, CHOKING, CHOREA, CHOLIC,
CONSTIPATION, CORNS, CRIB-BITING, CURB.

=HORSE BALLS.= See VETERINARY MEDICINE.

=HORSES, Condition Powder for.= The principal ingredients were: Fenugreek,
liquorice root, resin, brimstone, common salt, nitrate of potash, and a
green powder, probably senna. It contained traces of calcium and magnesium
carbonates; alumina, silica, and iron.

=HORSE POW′ER.= This term was first employed by James Watt to express a
power capable of raising 33,000 lbs. one foot high per minute. The
effective pressure on the surface of the piston was estimated at 7 lbs. to
the square inch, and hence the area of the piston, in square inches,
multiplied by 7, gave the gross effective moving pressure, and the space
passed over by this piston in a minute gave the distance through which the
pressure was exerted, or the weight was raised. From these data the horse
power was easily calculated. In process of time improvements in the
formation of boilers and steam engines increased the effective pressure on
the piston, and, consequently, the power of the engine. In modern engines
the actual power is commonly from 2 to 4 times greater than the nominal
power, which is, however, still retained as the unit of power in
commercial calculations.

=HORSERAD′ISH.= _Syn._ ARMORACIA RADIX. (B. P.). “The fresh root of
_Cochlearia Armoracia_” (B. P.). Horseradish is pungent, acrid, stimulant,
and rubefacient. It is also regarded as diaphoretic, diuretic, and
antiscorbutic. It forms a useful masticatory in hoarseness, sore throat,
and toothache. As a condiment, it provokes the appetite and assists
digestion. Reduced to shreds (scraped horseradish), it forms a common and
excellent accompaniment to roast beef. The root of aconite or wolfsbane,
which somewhat resembles it in appearance, has occasionally been mistaken
for it, with fatal results; the two are, however, readily distinguished
from each other, as the taste of horseradish is warm and pungent,
approaching that of mustard, whilst aconite is bitter, and its odour is
earthy and disagreeable, and after a few minutes’ contact with the lips,
tongue, and fauces, produces a sensation of numbness, and tingling. See
ACONITUM NAPELLUS; under which article will be found engravings of the two
roots. The root may be kept fresh for some time if buried in sand in a
cool place. Horseradish powder is prepared from the roots gathered in
November or December, and dried by a gentle heat or exposure to a current
of dry air. It is used as a condiment.

=HOR′TICULTURE.= _Syn._ GARDENING. The art of cultivating gardens.
According to Loudon, horticulture differs from agriculture, chiefly in the
comparatively limited space over which it extends, and in being conducted
by manual labour; whilst the latter is performed jointly by human and
animal labour, in fields, or on an extensive tract of land called a farm.

=HOR′TUS-SICCUS.= See HERBARIUM.

=HOS′PITAL GAN′GRENE.= _Syn._ PHAGEDÆNA GANGRENOSA. L. A species of
ulcerating mortification, particularly characterised by its infectious
nature, and its tendency to attack wounds and ulcers in crowded hospitals,
so that often the most trifling operation cannot be performed with safety.
Under its influence the parts are rapidly destroyed, not by the formation
of ordinary sloughs, as in common mortification, but by their conversion
into an ash-coloured viscid substance interspersed with bloody specks. The
treatment is similar to that noticed under MORTIFICATION, but here, above
all things, thorough ventilation must be established, and persevered in,
and, when possible, change of situation sought.

=HUILE.= [Fr.] Oil; a term applied to various substances and preparations
on account of their smoothness, consistence, or real or imaginary
emollient or oleaginous nature. See LIQUEUR, OIL, &c.

=Huile Acoustique.= _Prep._ From garlic and bay leaves, of each, 1/2 oz.;
olive oil, 1/2 lb.; boiled together for 15 minutes, and strained. Used in
ear-ache and deafness. A little is dropped on cotton wool and placed in
the ear.

=Huile, Antique.= See OILS (Hair).

=Huile Liqueureuse.= _Prep._ 1. (DE LA ROSE.) From eau de rose, 1 part;
simple syrup, 2 parts; mixed together.

2. (DES FLEURS D’ORANGES.) From orange-flower water and syrup, as No. 1.

3. (DE VANILLE.) From essence of vanilla, 1 dr.; simple syrup, 1 pint.

_Obs._ The above are kept in small decanters, and used to flavour water,
grog, liqueurs, &c., instead of sugar or capillaire; also to perfume the
breath. Other flavoured syrups, for the same purposes, are prepared in a
similar manner.

=HU′MIC ACID.= _Syn._ ULMIC ACID. See HUMUS.

=HUMULIN.= The name given to a beautiful extract or essence of hops, made
as follows:——

A concentrated tincture of hops is prepared by percolation with rectified
spirit; the same hops are then exhausted with water; the spirit is removed
from the tincture by careful distillation, and the upper aqueous portion
is skimmed off, and added to the infusion, which latter is then evaporated
to the consistence of a soft extract; the oleo-resinous residuum of the
tincture is next added, and well mixed in; after which the whole is put
into pots and carefully tied over for sale. The product possesses all the
fragrant, tonic, and bitter qualities of the hop in a highly condensed
form. See HOPS, LUPULIN, &c.

=HU′MUS.= _Syn._ ULMIN. When wood, or woody fibre, is exposed to the joint
action of air and moisture, it suffers eremacausis or decay, and crumbles
down into a dark-brown or black powder commonly called ‘mould,’ and to
which chemists have given the name of ‘humus.’ In this state it exists in
fertile soils, in which it is derived from the decay of plants. A powder
of similar composition is produced by the action of powerful chemical
reagents on sugar, lignin, &c. When acted upon by dilute boiling solution
of caustic potassa, this substance yields a deep-brown solution, from
which acids precipitate a flocculent brown substance generally called
‘ulmic’ or ‘humic acid.’ Both bodies require further investigation, as
they are supposed to vary exceedingly in composition.

=HUNGER.= The peculiar sensation arising from the want of food. When
severe, it increases to actual pain, the coats of the stomach are acted on
by its own juices, the respiration becomes less frequent, the circulation
languid, and there is a general diminution of the heat of the body and of
the secretions. The return of hunger is accelerated by exercise and
labour, and by the exposure of the body to a low temperature. Long fasting
is injurious, more particularly to the young and the debilitated. See
APPETITE, NUTRITION, &c.

=HUS′BANDRY.= The business of the farmer; by some the term is restricted
to the joint operations of farming and gardening on the small scale. It is
also sometimes used synonymously with agriculture.

=HY′ACINTH.= In _botany_, the English name for the genus _Hyacinthus_.
There are numerous varieties of the garden hyacinth, all very beautiful.
The bulbs are largely imported from Holland, and are often grown in water
contained in suitable glass vessels (hyacinth glasses). In _mineralogy_,
the term is applied to crystallised yellow or brown zircon. See GEMS.

=HYDRAC′IDS.= _Syn._ HYDROGEN ACIDS. A name formerly given to those acids
which do not contain oxygen, as hydrochloric, &c. It is still occasionally
employed.

=HY′DRAGOGUES.= _Syn._ HYDRAGOGA, L. Medicines which cause the removal of
water from any of the cavities of the body. Many cathartics, as gamboge,
jalap, &c., are classed under this head.

=HYDRAS′TIN.= The name given to a concentrated remedy much employed by the
medical eclectics of America.

_Prep._ Treat the powdered root of golden-seal (_Hydrastis Canadensis_)
with cold water by percolation; acidulate the infusion with hydrochloric
acid; collect the precipitate on a filter; then dry it, dissolve the dried
mass in alcohol, filter, and set aside to crystallise.

_Prop._ Yellow, acicular crystals, insoluble in cold alcohol, ether, and
water.——_Dose_, 3 to 5 gr., 3 to 6 times a day; as a tonic in dyspepsia,
inflammation of the stomach, &c.——_Obs._ According to the most recent
investigations, hydrastin contains berberine, and another alkaline called
hydrastia or hydrastina.

=HYDRASTIS CANADENSIS.= _Syn._ The GOLDEN SEAL. This is a small herbaceous
perennial North American plant, belonging to the natural order,
_Ranunculaceæ_. The rhizome, which is the officinal part, though yellow in
the recent root, becomes of a dark yellowish-brown by age. It contains
albumen, starch, fatty matter, resin, yellow colouring matter, sugar,
lignin, and various salts; also a peculiar nitrogenous crystallisable
substance, to which Dr Durand, the discoverer, proposed the provisional
name of hydrastin, which substance will be found described below. The root
of the golden-seal, as well as the alkaloids obtainable from it, are
largely used in American medical practice, and are stated to possess
valuable tonic, aperient, diuretic, and deobstruent powers. They have been
employed in dyspepsia, jaundice, and functional disorders of the liver.
They are also regarded as one of the best substitutes for quinine in
intermittents.

Golden seal has been given in the form of infusion, decoction, tincture,
and extract, and the fluid extract is now officinal in the United States’
Pharmacopœia.

=HY′DRATES.= Compounds of hydroxyl (HO) with other bodies, _e.g._
KHO——hydrate of potassium. The term hydrate is also given to chemical
combinations of water (H_{2}O) with other substances, _e.g._
C_{2}HCl_{3}O.H_{2}O——hydrate of chloral.

=HY′DRIDE.= A compound of hydrogen with another radical, _e.g._ hydride of
methyl——CH_{3}H.

=HYDRIO′DATE.= A name formerly given to the salts now termed iodides. See
IODIDES.

=HYDRIO′DIC ACID.= _Syn._ IODHYDRIC ACID; ACIDUM HYDRIODICUM, L. An acid
compound of iodine and hydrogen. See IODINE.

_Prep._ 1. By heating iodine in hydrogen, the volume of the gas becomes
doubled, and a colourless acid gas is produced; it is, however, never
prepared for use by this means. 2. Place 10 parts of potassic iodide in a
small retort with 5 parts of water, and add 20 of iodide; then drop in
cautiously one part of phosphorus, cut into small fragments, and apply a
gentle heat. The gas will be given off abundantly and may be collected, by
displacement, in dry bottles.

A solution of hydriodic acid may be prepared by suspending iodine in
water, and passing a current of sulphuretted hydrogen through the mixture
until the brown colour of the iodine disappears; sulphur is deposited in
abundance, and hydriodic acid formed.

=HYDRO′BENZANIDE.= White crystalline mass, obtained from oil of bitter
almonds by treatment with ammonia.

=HYDROBRO′MIC ACID.= See BROMIDE.

=Hydrobromic Acid.= (HBr.) _Syn._ HYDRIC BROMIDE, HYDROGEN BROMIDE.

_Prep._ This very powerfully acid gaseous body may be prepared as
follows:——1. By decomposing bromide of potassium with a concentrated
solution of phosphoric acid. 2. By decomposing bromide of phosphorus by
means of a small quantity of water.

Hydrobromic acid gas is colourless and non-inflammable; it extinguishes
flame. It is extremely irritating to the lungs when breathed. It is very
soluble in water.

=HYDROBRO′MIDE.= _Syn._ BROMIDE (which _see_).

=HYDROCAR′BON.= A compound of carbon and hydrogen. The hydrocarbons
constitute a most important series of organic compounds.

=HYDROCHLORIC ACID.= (HCl = 36·5.) _Syn._ MURIATIC ACID, HYDRIC CHLORIDE,
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE. This important gaseous compound was discovered by
Priestly in 1772. In nature it is given off with other gases from active
volcanoes, and is occasionally to be met with in the springs and rivers of
volcanic districts. When hydrogen and chlorine are mixed in equal volumes,
they are without action upon each other if kept in the dark, but if
exposed to direct sunlight, chemical combination, accompanied by a loud
explosion, instantly takes place between them, the result of their union
being the colourless gaseous, intensely sour hydrochloric acid. If,
instead of bright sunshine, the mixed gases are exposed to diffused
daylight, chemical union also ensues between them, but the process is then
a slow and gradual one; the passage through them, however, of the electric
spark, or the application of a lighted match or taper instantly causes
their explosion and combination.

One volume of chlorine unites with one volume of hydrogen, forming two
volumes of hydrochloric acid; no condensation occurs in the act of union.

Hydrochloric acid may also be formed by transmitting moist chlorine
through a red-hot porcelain tube; oxygen being at the same time liberated.

_Prep._ Hydrochloric acid, save for the purposes of illustrative
experiment, is never obtained by any of the above processes. An easy mode
of procuring it, when required for laboratory use, is to heat the ordinary
aqueous solution of the acid in a flask, and to collect the gas, which is
given off by displacement. It may also be readily got by introducing
pieces of common salt (which should have been previously fused in a
crucible at a red-heat and allowed to cool) into a glass retort, and
pouring over them about twice their weight of oil of vitriol. The
hydrochloric acid, which escapes very abundantly, must be collected either
by displacement or over mercury.

_Prop._ Hydrochloric acid is a colourless gas, very acid to the taste, and
irritating to the eyes; and induces coughing even if breathed in small
quantities, or when largely diluted. It is very destructive to vegetation,
on which account the soda manufacturer is compelled by law to condense and
thus prevent the escape of its fumes. It has a specific gravity of 1·261.
When subjected to a pressure of 40 atmospheres at 50° F., it becomes a
colourless fluid capable of dissolving bitumen, and having a specific
gravity of 1·27. It has never been frozen. Hydrochloric acid neither
burns, nor supports combustion. The white fumes which it forms when
exposed to the air, are due to its condensing the atmospheric moisture,
and thus giving rise to a body less volatile than water. This gas is
greedily and instantly absorbed by water. A fragment of ice placed in a
jar of the gas absorbs it, and becomes immediately dissolved.

=Hydrochloric Acid, Solution of.= The hydrochloric acid of commerce is a
solution of the above gas in water. When exposed to the air it emits grey
fumes. Water at 40° F. absorbs about 480 times its bulk of hydrochloric
acid, increasing in volume about one third in doing so, acquiring a
density of 1·2109, and then containing nearly forty-three per cent. of the
acid.

_Strength of Solution of Hydrochloric Acid, 77° Fahr._ (E. DAVY.)

  ---------------------------------------------------
              |Hydrochloric|            |Hydrochloric
  Sp. Gravity.|  acid in   |Sp. Gravity.|  acid in
              | 100 parts. |            | 100 parts.
  -------------------------|-------------------------
    1·21      |   42·43    |    1·10    |  20·20
    1·20      |   40·40    |    1·09    |  18·18
    1·19      |   38·38    |    1·08    |  16·16
    1·18      |   36·36    |    1·07    |  14·14
    1·17      |   34·34    |    1·06    |  12·12
    1·16      |   32·32    |    1·05    |  10·10
    1·15      |   30·30    |    1·04    |   8·08
    1·14      |   28·28    |    1·03    |   6·06
    1·13      |   26·26    |    1·02    |   4·04
    1·12      |   24·24    |    1·01    |   2·02
    1·11      |   22·22    |            |
  ---------------------------------------------------

In the laboratory, solution of hydrochloric acid is in constant use. It
may be easily prepared from chloride of sodium and sulphuric acid. The
retort should be connected with a couple of Woulfe’s bottles; into the
first of which a small quantity of water should be poured, to detain any
impurities mechanically carried over with the gas; the second bottle
should contain four parts of water, and should be placed in a vessel of
cold water, as the gas in becoming condensed, disengages a large amount of
heat. The gas comes off and is absorbed readily by the water upon applying
a gentle heat to the retort.

It is by this last method that solution of hydrochloric acid is obtained
in such enormous quantities[347] for the various purposes in which it is
used, in the arts and manufactures.

[Footnote 347: In South Lancashire alone, more than 1000 tons of
hydrochloric acid in solution are made weekly.]

Hydrochloric acid is, in fact, a by-product in the manufacture of
carbonate of soda, and is generated during the first stage of the
operation, known as the salt-cake process, which consists in the
decomposition of salt by sulphuric acid, and is accomplished in a furnace
called the salt-cake furnace.

The hydrochloric acid gas which is given off escapes from the furnace
through a flue with the products of combustion into high brick towers
filled with coke or stones, over which a stream of water trickles down,
the whole of the acid vapours are thus condensed, the smoke passing off by
a chimney connected with the towers. The diluted acid solution thus formed
is concentrated by the aid of the apparatus shown in section in figs. 1,
2, and 3.

This apparatus consists of several cast-iron cylinders, 57 feet long by 27
feet in diameter, closed in the same manner as gas retorts, by lids luted
with clay. One of the lids has an opening _o_, into which is fitted the
stoneware or leaden pipe _a_, conveying the hydrochloric acid to the
condensing apparatus. The other, or posterior lid, is also provided with
an opening _d_, through which is passed the tube of a leaden funnel, so
that after the retort is filled with salt sulphuric acid may be poured in.
The construction of the furnace in which two retorts are usually placed,
permits the flame of the fire at O to play round the cylinders before
reaching the flue leading to the chimney F. B is an arch over the furnace.
The first stage of the operation consists in filling each cylinder with
330 lbs. of salt. The lids or covers are then luted on, and the fire is
kindled. The requisite quantity of strong sulphuric acid is next poured
into the retort, and the funnel having been withdrawn from D, the hole is
covered by a clay plug.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

As soon as the reaction is over, the 396 lbs. of sulphate of soda produced
are removed, and the operation repeated.

The condensation apparatus 1 and 3 is composed of rows of Woulfe’s
bottles, partly filled with water, care being taken to place the first
pairs of these bottles in a tank of cold water.

The condensation of the last portions of hydrochloric acid gas is effected
either by the aid of the coke columns, or in leaden chambers, into which
fine jets of cold water are injected on all sides.

“A saturated solution of hydrochloric acid in water has the specific
gravity of 1·21; and when heated in a retort, loses at first hydrochloric
acid gas, but after a time an aqueous acid distils over, at the ordinary
atmospheric pressure, containing 20·22 per cent. of hydrochloric acid, and
boiling constantly at 110° C. If the distillation be conducted under
diminished pressure, the liquid boils at a lower temperature, and attains
a composition which is different for each boiling point; hence the dilute
acids thus obtained by boiling the solution of hydrochloric acid gas in
water, cannot be considered as definite compounds of hydrochloric acid and
water.”[348]

[Footnote 348: Roscoe and Dittmar.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

Commercial hydrochloric acid is usually of a yellow colour owing to its
being contaminated with iron. It also very frequently contains sodium,
arsenic, sulphuric and sulphurous acids, and free chlorine.

Pure aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid should leave no residue upon
evaporation; it should give no precipitation of ferric oxide when
saturated with ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen should cause no turbidity in
it; if diluted with three or four times its volume of water, and chloride
of barium be added, no white cloud or precipitate should form in the
mixture; nor should the acid, if pure, discolour a fluid made faintly blue
with iodide of starch.

Hydrochloric acid is largely consumed in the manufacture of chlorine, sal
ammoniac, chloride antimony, glue, phosphorus, in the preparation of
carbonic acid for the manufacture of artificial mineral waters, in
beet-root sugar works, hydro-metallurgy, and alone, or mixed with nitric
acid, for dissolving various metals.[349] See ACIDS, EFFECTS OF VEGETATION
ON, CHLORINE.

[Footnote 349: Wagner.]

=HYDROCHLORIC ETHER.= (C_{2}H_{5}Cl.) _Syn._ ETHYL CHLORIDE, CHLORIDE OF
ETHYL. This ether may be obtained either by saturating alcohol with
hydrochloric acid gas, and then distilling at a gentle heat, or by
distilling a mixture of three parts of oil of vitriol, two of alcohol, and
four of fused chloride of sodium; the retort is in either case connected
with a tubulated receiver, surrounded by water at a temperature of about
68° Fahr., in which most of the alcohol and water which pass over during
the operation become condensed, whilst the ether escapes in the form of
vapour through a bent tube, which is inserted into the tubulure of the
receiver, and passes to the bottom of a flask kept cool with ice. The
liquid which is condensed in the flask must be rectified from calcic
chloride.

Hydrochloric ether is a colourless liquid, having a specific gravity at
32° Fahr. of 0·921, and a boiling point of 51·9° Fahr. The specific
gravity of its vapour is 2·219. It has an ethereal, penetrating, somewhat
garlicky odour. It is sparingly soluble in water, but readily so in
alcohol. These solutions fail to give a precipitate with argentic nitrate.

=HYDROCYANIC ACID.= (HCN HCy.) _Syn._ PRUSSIC ACID, HYDRIC CYANIDE,
CYANHYDRIC ACID. Hydrocyanic acid was discovered by Scheele; but its
nature and chemical properties were first investigated by Gay-Lussac.

_Sources._ This acid is found in water distilled from the kernels of the
apricot, the peach, the plum, and cherry, the leaves of the laurel, and
some other shrubs. The kernels of the bitter almond also yield it by
distillation, mixed with an essential oil. The juice of the tapioca plant
(the _Jatropha manihot_) likewise contains it. Many nitrogenous
substances, when submitted to destructive distillation, also evolve
hydrocyanic acid. Crystallised ammonic formiate subjected to heat in a
retort yields a vapour which, passed through a red-hot tube, decomposes
into this acid and water. Another method by which it may be obtained,
consists in sending a current of dry sulphuretted hydrogen gas through a
long tube filled with cyanide of mercury; and very recently it has been
obtained by the direct combination of nitrogen and acetylene gas, by
adding one volume of the former to two of the latter, and passing a series
of electric sparks through the mixture, the gases combining without
condensation. Lastly, it is yielded when a metallic cyanide or
ferrocyanide is decomposed by an acid, this latter being the means by
which it is invariably procured.

1. ANHYDROUS HYDROCYANIC ACID may be prepared by Wöhler’s plan, which is
as follows:——A crude potassium cyanide is prepared by fusing eight parts
of the dried potassium ferrocyanide with three of potassium carbonate and
one of charcoal.

The fused mass is treated with six times its weight of water in a
well-closed vessel; the clear liquid is decanted from the iron, which it
is the object of this operation to separate, and is poured into a retort:
sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal weight of water, is gradually added
in the proportion of one part of oil of vitriol to two parts of the
cyanide. At first the distillation proceeds spontaneously from the heat
developed by the admixture of sulphuric acid with the water. In order to
condense the acid, the products are made to pass through a long U-shaped
tube, immersed in cold water and filled with calcic chloride, with the
exception of the first fourth of the tube, which contains fragments of the
crude potassium cyanide; to the bent tube is attached a second delivery
tube, which passes to the bottom of a bottle cooled with ice and salt. The
calcic chloride in the syphon tube retains the moisture, and the potassic
cyanide any sulphuric acid that might chance to pass over, whilst the
hydrocyanic acid collects in the anhydrous state in the cooled receiver.

Trautwein recommends it to be prepared by the dehydration of the strong
aqueous acid, by means of fused and pulverised chloride of calcium.[350]

[Footnote 350: The details of this process are given in ‘Watt’s Chemical
Dictionary.’]

⁂ The observance of the greatest care and caution are necessary in the
preparation of this most potent poison. The operation is most safely
performed in winter. The apparatus should be so arranged as to allow of
any vapours given off being carried from the operator by a brisk current
of air.

_Prop._ At ordinary temperatures anhydrous hydrocyanic acid is a
colourless liquid, having a specific gravity of 0·7058 at 44·6° Fahr. It
is very inflammable, burning with a violet flame resembling that of
cyanogen, but somewhat whiter in colour. It is soluble in all proportions
in water, the resulting mixture being lighter than that fluid, and
miscible with alcohol. It is very feebly acid; potassic cyanide always
having an alkaline reaction. Red oxide of mercury is readily dissolved by
it, and when added to a solution of argentic nitrate it precipitates white
flocculi of cyanide of silver. Anhydrous hydrocyanic acid is an extremely
volatile liquid; if a drop be let fall on a glass plate, part of it
becomes frozen by the cold produced by its own evaporation.

2. PREPARATION OF AQUEOUS HYDROCYANIC ACID.

_a._ _From hydrated ferrocyanide of potassium._——By heating it in a glass
retort with oil of vitriol and water, Everitt states that the best
proportions are nearly ten parts of the salt to seven of oil of vitriol
(diluted with any convenient amount of water). Adopting these proportions,
422·4 parts of ferrocyanide of potassium yield 81 parts of hydrocyanic
acid. The greater part of the hydrocyanic acid passes over at the
beginning of distillation, at a temperature a little above 212° Fahr.; and
when the residual liquid reaches a higher temperature, the water (which
then contains but little hydrocyanic acid) is then carried over. It is
therefore necessary to employ a good condensing apparatus, or the
hydrocyanic acid which passes over at first will for the most part be
dissipated in vapour mixed with the air of the apparatus. This loss may
also be obviated by placing water in the receiver. The residue need not be
boiled down to dryness; it will be found best to distil off from two
thirds to three fourths of the liquid, according to the amount of water
present.

It is not necessary to dissolve the ferrocyanide in water previous to
adding the sulphuric acid, as it readily dissolves in the water during the
process of distillation.

Three conditions are important to be observed in the arrangements of the
apparatus:——1. The mixture in the retort should not be allowed to spirt
over. 2. It should contain but little air. 3. It should present the
greatest possible amount of surface to be cooled.

If sulphate of potassium and prussian blue are spirted over into the
distillate, this must be carefully rectified over a small quantity of
magnesia, chalk, or carbonate of barium.

_b._ _From cyanide of potassium_ (without distillation).——To a solution of
nine parts of tartaric acid in sixty parts of water, contained in a
well-stoppered bottle nearly filled with it, four parts of pure cyanide of
potassium are added; the vessel is shaken, frequently dipped into cold
water, and then left in the cold for twelve hours; and the aqueous
hydrocyanic acid, which contains but a very small quantity of tartrate of
potassium, is poured off from the crystallised tartrate.[351] This acid
contains 3·6 per cent. of anhydrous hydrocyanic acid.

[Footnote 351: ‘London Med. Surg. Journ.,’ vi, 524.]

_c._ _From cyanide of mercury._——126 (accurately weighed) parts of cyanide
of mercury are agitated with at least 28 parts of iron filings, in a
well-stoppered bottle, containing 49, or rather more, parts of oil of
vitriol, diluted with a considerable quantity of water. The agitation is
continued until a portion of the liquid taken out is not blackened by
sulphuretted hydrogen.

The solution, decanted from the iron and mercury, is then placed in a
retort and distilled; the acid coming over at a gentle heat. Excess of
iron accelerates the decomposition.

_d._ _From cyanide of silver._——Everitt recommends 200 parts of pure
cyanide of silver to be shaken up with 240 parts of hydrochloric acid of
specific gravity of 1·129, and when the decomposition is complete, the
hydrocyanic acid to be separated from the chloride of silver by
decomposition.

This hydrocyanic acid may contain a small quantity of hydrochloric acid, a
not very objectionable admixture, since it retards decomposition. It
possesses the advantage of definite strength.

_Prop._ The aqueous is very similar in properties to the anhydrous acid,
differing in taste, odour, poisonous and combustible properties, according
to its degree of concentration. Like the anhydrous, the aqueous acid
decomposes, but not so readily; when perfectly pure, becoming brown, and
at last black. As before stated, a little free mineral acid assists to
preserve it. It should be always kept in a dark place.

_Detection and estimation of hydrocyanic acid and soluble cyanides._——The
presence of hydrocyanic acid, indicated by the characteristic smell, which
is given off by the contents of the stomach, or of any fluid containing it
(provided this is not disguised by any substance of stronger odour) may be
confirmed by the following tests:

1. To the filtered suspected fluid add a slight excess of caustic potash,
and then a solution containing ferrous and ferric sulphates. If
hydrocyanic acid, or a soluble cyanide be present, upon the addition of an
excess of hydrochloric acid the liquid turns to a blue colour (more or
less intense according to the quantity of acid present), owing to the
formation of Prussian blue.

2. Add the suspected fluid solution of nitrate of silver; if hydrocyanic
acid be present, a white cyanide of silver is formed, which is nearly
insoluble in cold nitric acid, but is soluble in ammonia and cyanide of
potash, and which, when heated to redness, gives off the inflammable
violet-flamed cyanogen.

3. Acidulate a small quantity of the suspected liquid with a few drops of
hydrochloric acid, and place it in a watch-glass; then invert a second
watch-glass, moistened with a drop of solution of ammonic sulphide over
this. After a few minutes remove the upper watch-glass, and evaporate the
liquid to dryness over a water bath; let the dry residue be treated with a
drop of a weak solution of ferric chloride. If hydrocyanic acid be
present, a blood-red colour is produced, owing to the formation of red
ferric hydrocyanide, which may be discharged by chloride of mercury; a
reaction which distinguishes it from a similar colour given by meconic
acid.

Where large quantities of material have to be examined, it is desirable
that the acid should be distilled off by the heat of a water-bath,
acidulating the liquid with tartaric acid if it be alkaline. The
distillate is then to be tested by any of the above methods.

_Antidotes._——Give a scruple of carbonate of potash dissolved in about an
ounce of distilled water, and directly afterwards, ten grains of sulphate
of iron, also dissolved in the same quantity of distilled water, to which
should be added one drachm of tincture of perchloride of iron. Whilst this
is being prepared, and subsequently, apply cold affusion to the head and
neck, artificial respiration, and, if practicable, give strong coffee and
brandy. A more ready remedy is ammonia, given both internally and applied
to the nostrils.

=Hydrocyanic Acid, Diluted.= _Syn._ ACIDUM HYDROCYANICUM DILUTUM. (B. P.)
The ‘British Pharmacopœia’ gives the following simple directions for the
preparation of this acid:——

Dissolve two and a quarter ounces (avoir.) of ferro-cyanide of potassium
in ten fluid ounces of distilled water, then add one fluid ounce of
sulphuric acid, previously diluted with four fluid ounces of distilled
water, and cooled. Put them into a retort and adapt this to a receiver,
containing eight fluid ounces of water, which must be kept carefully cold.
Distil with a gentle heat until the fluid in the receiver measures
seventeen fluid ounces. Add to this three fluid ounces of the water, or as
much as may be sufficient to bring the acid to the required strength of
two per cent. by weight.

_Prop._ Specific gravity, ·997. 100 grains, or 110 minims, precipitated
with a solution of nitrate of silver, give a precipitate of cyanide of
silver, which when dried, weighs 10 grains. 270 grains rendered alkaline
by liquor sodæ, require a 1000 grain measures of volumetric solution of
nitrate of silver, before a permanent precipitate begins to form.

_Antidotes._ See HYDROCYANIC ACID.

=Hydrocyanic Acid, Scheele’s.= _Syn._ ACIDUM HYDROCYANICUM SCHEELII. The
original process of Scheele does not yield an acid of uniform strength,
and is probably never followed. It is therefore impossible to state
precisely what is intended when Scheele’s acid is prescribed, or to
understand why it should be preferred by certain physicians to the British
Pharmacopœia preparation, which is of a known and definite strength. As
prepared by different makers it has been found to contain from three to
five per cent. of anhydrous acid. The following is Scheele’s process:——

Mix two ounces of Prussian blue, with six ounces of red precipitate of
mercury, and add six ounces of water. Boil for some minutes, constantly
agitating; pour the whole on a filter and wash the residuum on the filter
with two ounces of hot water, which is to be added to the filtered liquor.
Add to this an ounce and a half of clean iron filings, and three drachms
of sulphuric acid; shake well and let it settle; then pour the clear
liquor into a retort, and distil a fourth part into a receiver well luted
and kept cold.

=HYDROFLUORIC ACID. (H. F.)= _Syn._ HYDRIC FLUORIDE, HYDROGEN FLUORIDE.
_Prep._ 1. From _fluor-spar_ (free from silica and metallic sulphides) and
oil of vitriol. The fluor-spar being reduced to fine powder and placed in
a leaden retort, is mixed with twice its weight of concentrated oil of
vitriol, and on applying heat, an acid and highly acid vapour distils
over, which condenses to a liquid if passed into a receiver of the same
metal, standing in a freezing mixture at a temperature of 4° Fahr. Louyet
has shown that the liquid acid, obtained as above, is not (as once
believed) anhydrous.

2. From the double fluoride of potassium and hydrogen. Fremy first renders
the salt anhydrous by careful drying; and by the subsequent application of
a strong heat, expels the equivalent of hydrofluoric acid contained in it;
condensing it into a colourless, mobile, very volatile liquid by the
application of a freezing mixture of ice and salt.

3. By decomposing plumbic fluoride by dry hydrogen.

_Prop._ The strong, aqueous, hydrofluoric acid obtained by the action of
oil of vitriol on fluor-spar, is a densely fuming, volatile, colourless
liquid, which boils at 60° F., and remains unfrozen at 4°. It combines
with water so greedily, and evolves so much heat in doing so, as to give
rise to a hissing noise like that produced when a red-hot iron is plunged
into cold water. In a concentrated form it has a specific gravity of
1·060. Brought into contact with animal matter of any kind it instantly
destroys it, the smallest drop on the skin producing a deep and painful
wound; hence the necessity of the greatest care in its preparation. With
the exception of platinum, gold, silver, mercury and lead, hydrofluoric
acid, when diluted, dissolves the metals, the metal when it undergoes
solution, displacing hydrogen. Potassium decomposes the strong acid with
explosion.

In both the gaseous and fluid form hydrofluoric acid is largely consumed
for etching on glass; and this property constitutes one of its most
available and reliable tests. The test may be conveniently applied as
follows:——

Cover a small piece of window glass or a watch glass with a thin layer of
wax, scraping away a very small portion by means of a sharply pointed
instrument, and then expose the glass for a short time to the vapour of
the acid, given off when the materials are heated in a small leaden saucer
or platinum crucible; on removing the wax with a little turpentine, the
marks on the glass caused by the hydrofluoric acid will be distinctly
perceived.

=HYDROFLUOSILIC′IC ACID.= (_{4}HF.SiF_{4}.) FLUORIDE OF SILICON AND
HYDROGEN. _Prep._ From powdered fluor-spar, and siliceous sand or powdered
glass, of each 1 part; concentrated sulphuric acid, 2 parts; mix in a
glass retort, apply a gentle heat, and pass the evolved gas (fluoride of
silicon) into water. Decomposition ensues, silica being deposited in a
gelatinous state, and hydrofluosilicic acid remaining in solution. This
acid liquor, which is a double fluoride of silicon and hydrogen, is used
as a test for barium and potassium, with which it forms nearly insoluble
precipitates.

=HY′DROGEN. (H.)= _Syn._ HYDROGENIUM, L. An elementary body discovered by
Cavendish in 1766. It has been found existing in an uncombined state in
the gases evolved from the solfataras of Iceland. Combined with oxygen, it
constitutes water, and in this form is extensively distributed through
earth, air, and ocean. It is an important constituent of all organised
tissues.

_Prep._ Hydrogen is always obtained for experimental purposes by the
deoxidation of water, by one or other of the following methods:——

1. A tube of iron or porcelain (a gun-barrel, for instance) containing a
quantity of iron turnings or scraps of iron, is fixed across a furnace, so
that its middle portion may be made red-hot; to the one end is attached a
retort or other vessel containing water, and to the other a bent tube
connected with a pneumatic trough or gasometer. The tube being now heated
to redness, and the water in the retort brought into a state of brisk
ebullition, the evolved steam suffers decomposition; the oxygen being
absorbed by the iron, and the hydrogen escaping into the gas receiver.

2. Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), diluted with 6 or 8 times its bulk of
water, is poured on granulated zinc (or scraps of iron) placed in a retort
or gas bottle; hydrogen is evolved and is collected, as before.

_Obs._ This is the most convenient method of preparing hydrogen, and the
one usually adopted in the laboratory. To ensure the gas being quite pure,
distilled zinc is employed, and the gas is passed, first through a
concentrated solution of pure potassa, then through a solution of nitrate
of silver, and, lastly, through strong oil of vitriol, or over fragments
of chloride of calcium. When hydrogen is prepared from crude zinc, it has
a slight smell; and when from iron, its odour is often strong and
disagreeable.

_Prop._ Gaseous; colourless; tasteless; odourless (when pure);
combustible; sp. gr. ·06935, being 16 times lighter than oxygen gas, and
14·4 times lighter than atmospheric air. 100 cubic inches, at 60° Fahr.
and 30 inches of the barometer, weigh 2·1371 (say 2·14) gr.; 1 gr.
occupies 46·6 inches. It is very readily inflamed, even by a red-hot wire.
It burns with a scarcely visible flame. Mixed with atmospheric air or
oxygen, it explodes with extreme violence on the approach of flame, or
sudden compression. One measure of hydrogen and 5 of atmospheric air, and
2 of hydrogen and 1 of oxygen, are the proportions that explode with the
greatest violence. The combination of hydrogen and oxygen, when mixed, is
brought about by the heat of a red-hot solid or a flame, by the electric
spark, and by the presence of spongy platinum, the black powder of
platinum, clean platinum foil, and some other substances. A jet of
hydrogen burnt in oxygen gas, or a jet of these gases (mixed) burnt in the
air, with proper precautions, produces a most intense heat. Water absorbs
about 2% by volume of hydrogen.

Hydrogen has recently been liquefied and even solidified.

_Tests._ It is recognised by——its combustibility;——the pale colour of its
flame;——producing water only when burnt in air or oxygen;——extinguishing
the flame of other bodies; and——exploding when mixed with half its volume
of oxygen, and fired.

_Uses, &c._ Pure and uncombined hydrogen is not employed in the arts.
Inhalations of this gas have, however, been occasionally used in medicine.
Dr Beddoes recommended them in phthisis. In combination, the uses of
hydrogen are almost numberless. Combined with oxygen, it forms water; with
chlorine, hydrochloric acid; with fluorine, hydrofluoric acid; with
cyanogen, hydrocyanic acid; with carbon, innumerable hydrocarbons; with
nitrogen, ammonia; with sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen——in fact, an
enumeration of the valuable compounds which it enters into would occupy
many pages of this work. From its extreme lightness it has been used to
fill balloons, but coal-gas is now commonly employed for this purpose. On
its property of inflaming in contact with spongy platinum is arranged the
popular little instrument for the production of instantaneous light
(DOBEREINER’S LAMP) sold by the philosophical instrument makers. The
chemist avails himself of the great heat developed by its combustion in
oxygen in the formation of the OXYHYDROGEN BLOWPIPE.

Some of the compounds of hydrogen are noticed _below_; the others under
their respective names.

=Hydrogen, Antimo′′niuretted.= (SbH_{3}.) _Syn._ ANTIMONETTED HYDROGEN,
HYDRIDE OF ANTIMONY, STIBAMINE; HYDROGENIUM ANTIMONIATUM, L. A gaseous
compound of antimony and hydrogen, prepared by dissolving an alloy of
antimony with a large excess of zinc in hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric
acid. It has never been obtained pure, a variable proportion of free
hydrogen being always present. It burns with a bluish-white flame, giving
rise to dense fumes of teroxide of antimony, and when conducted through a
red-hot tube, or the flame is thrown on a cold surface, as a porcelain
plate, metallic antimony is deposited. This gas is a deadly poison when
inhaled. See ARSENIOUS ACID.

=Hydrogen, Arsen′′iuretted.= (AsH_{3}.) _Syn._ ARSENETTED HYDROGEN,
HYDRIDE OF ARSENIC, ARSENAMINE; HYDROGENIUM ARSENIURATUM, L. A gaseous
compound of arsenic and hydrogen.

_Prep._ Arsenide of zinc (made by fusing together equal weights of zinc
and arsenic) is acted upon by strong hydrochloric acid or by sulphuric
acid diluted with three parts of water.

_Obs._ This gas is produced whenever arsenious or arsenic acid, or any of
their salts, is in presence of nascent hydrogen. The properties of
arsenetted hydrogen are fully described in the tests for ARSENIOUS ACID.
This gas is a deadly poison when inhaled.

=Hydrogen, Car′buretted.= _Syn._ CARBONETTED HYDROGEN. This term is
specially applied to two of the numerous compounds of carbon and hydrogen
(CARBIDES OF HYDROGEN, HYDROCARBONS):——

1. =Light Carburetted Hydrogen.= (CH_{4}.) _Syn._ MARSH GAS, FIRE-DAMP,
GAS OF THE ACETATES. This is often abundantly disengaged in coal mines,
and its combustion occasions those fearful explosions which are so
destructive to human life. The mud at the bottom of stagnant pools, on
being stirred, suffers bubbles of gas to escape, which, when collected and
examined, are found to be a mixture of light carburetted hydrogen and
carbonic acid. The latter is easily removed by passing the gas through a
solution of caustic potassa or milk of lime.

_Prep._ (Dumas.) A mixture of acetate of soda (cryst.) and hydrate of
potassa (dry), of each 2 parts, and quicklime (in powder), 3 parts, is
strongly heated in a flask or retort. The gas in a state of absolute
purity is disengaged in great abundance, and may be collected over water.

_Prop._ Colourless; neutral; nearly inodorous; burns with a yellow flame,
producing pure water and carbonic acid; explodes when kindled in contact
with air or oxygen.

2. =Heavy Carburetted Hydrogen.= (C_{2}H_{4}.) See OLEFIANT GAS.

_Obs._ COAL GAS, OIL GAS, and RESIN GAS, consist, for the most part, of
mixtures of these two gaseous hydrocarbons in uncertain proportions,
obtained respectively from coal, oil, and resin, by the action of heat,
and used for the purposes of illumination. See GAS.

=Hydrogen, Oxides of.= There are two well-defined compounds of hydrogen
and oxygen:——

1. =Subox′ide of Hydrogen.= (H_{2}O.) Water (which _see_).

2. =Perox′ide of Hydrogen.= (HO.) _Syn._ HYDROXYL, BINOXIDE OF HYDROGEN,
DEUTOXIDE OF H., OXYGENATED WATER; HYDROGENIIBINOXYDUM, L. This singular
fluid was discovered by M. Thénard in 1818.

_Prep._ (Odling.) A known quantity of pure hydrochloric acid, diluted with
8 or 10 times its volume of distilled water, is placed in a glass beaker
surrounded with ice or a freezing mixture. A quantity of binoxide of
barium rather less than sufficient to neutralise the acid is then ground
to a fine paste with distilled water, and added gradually to the acid in
which it should dissolve without effervescence. Diluted sulphuric acid is
next added cautiously, to precipitate the barium, and reproduce
hydrochloric acid to act upon a fresh quantity of peroxide. The liquid
having been filtered from the insoluble sulphate of baryta, a second
proportion of binoxide of barium paste is added gradually, as before. The
treatment with sulphuric acid, filtration and addition of binoxide, is
repeated 6 or 7 times. Sulphate of silver is then very carefully added, so
as exactly to precipitate in the form of chloride of silver the whole of
the chlorine. After filtration, pure baryta, first as a paste and then in
solution, is cautiously added, to precipitate exactly the sulphuric acid
set free from the sulphate of silver. Filtration is again resorted to, and
the clear liquid (aqueous solution of peroxide of hydrogen) is placed in a
dish over oil of vitriol in vacuo, in order that the water mixed with it
may evaporate.

_Prop., &c._ A colourless, transparent, somewhat syrupy liquid, of sp. gr.
1·452. It has a metallic taste, and corrodes the skin. It is easily
resolved into oxygen and water. It mixes freely with water, and becomes
more permanent by the dilution. It bleaches organic substances, and acts
as a powerful oxidating agent. Under certain circumstances, however, it
plays the part of a reducing agent. To the chemist, peroxide of hydrogen
and its analogue, binoxide of barium, have been of great service as
instruments of research. Binoxide of hydrogen has been applied in the arts
to restore the blackened lights of paintings which have become darkened by
sulphuretted hydrogen; it is also sold by hair-dressers for bleaching
human hair.

=Hydrogen, Phosphuret′ted.= See PHOSPHORUS.

=Hydrogen, Sulphides of.= See SULPHUR.

=HYDROMEL.= _Syn._ HYDROMELI, L. An aqueous solution of honey. _Prep._ (P.
Cod.) Honey, 2 oz.; boiling water, 32 oz.; dissolve, and strain. A
refreshing and slightly laxative drink; in fevers, hoarseness, sore
throats, &c.

=HYDROM′ETER.= _Syn._ AREOMETER, GRAVIMETER; HYDROMETRUM, L. An instrument
for ascertaining the specific gravities of liquids, and hence their
strength, the latter being either in inverse or direct proportion to the
former. Hydrometers are of two kinds:——1. Those which are always immersed
to the same depth in distilled water, and the liquid to be tried, small
weights being used for the purpose, as in FAHRENHEIT’S and NICHOLSON’S
hydrometers; and 2nd, those which are suffered to rise or sink freely in
the liquid, until they come to a state of rest, as in SYKE’S, BAUMÉ’S, &c.
In both cases a correction must be made for any variation in temperature.

Of the two kinds, the first give the most accurate results, and have the
great advantage of being applicable to liquids either lighter or heavier
than water, but the second are the readier in practice, requiring less
time and less skill to use them. The following are those best known:——

BAUMÉ’S HYDROMETER or AREOMETER, which is very generally employed on the
Continent, consists of two distinct instruments, the one for liquids
heavier than water, the other for liquids lighter than that fluid. The
first floats at the 0, or ‘zero,’ of the scale, in distilled wafer, at the
temperature of 58° Fahr., and each degree, marked downwards, indicates a
density corresponding to one per cent. of common salt. The hydrometer for
liquids lighter than water is poised so that the 0 of the scale is at the
bottom of the stem, when it is floating in a solution of 1 oz. of common
salt in 9 oz. of water, and the depth to which it sinks in distilled water
shows 10°; the space between these fixed points being equally divided, and
the graduation continued upwards to the top of the scale.

The temperature at which these instruments were originally adjusted by
Baumé was 12·5° Centigrade (54·5° Fahr.). They are now commonly adjusted
in this country at 58° or 60° Fahr. Hence arise the discrepancies
observable in the published tables of the “correspondence between degrees
of Baumé and real specific gravities.”

CARTIER’S HYDROMETER, which is much used in France for light liquids, has
the same point for the zero of its scale as Baumé’s, but its degrees are
rather smaller, 30° Baumé being equal to 32° Cartier.

FAHRENHEIT’S HYDROMETER consists of a hollow ball, with a counterpoise
below, and a very slender stem above, terminating in a small dish. The
middle, or half-length of the stem, is distinguished by a fine line across
it. In this instrument every division of the stem is rejected, and it is
immersed in all experiments to the middle of the stem, by placing proper
weights in the little dish above. Then, as the part immersed is constantly
of the same magnitude, and the whole weight of the hydrometer is known,
this last weight, added to the weights in the dish, will be equal to the
weight of fluid displaced by the instrument, as all writers on
hydrostatics prove. And accordingly, the specific gravities for the common
form of the tables will be had by the proportion——

_As the whole weight of the hydrometer and its load, when adjusted in
distilled water_, is to the _number_ 1000, so is the _whole weight when
adjusted in any other fluid, to the number expressing its specific
gravity._

GAY-LUSSAC’S ALCOHOLOMETER is used to determine the strength of spirituous
liquors. It, at once, indicates on the stem, the per-centage of absolute
alcohol in the liquid examined. The original experiments of Gay-Lussac
having been made on liquids at a temperature of 59° Fahr., all examples
examined by the alcoholometer, must either be brought to that temperature
previous to being tested, or a correction made in the strength found.

NICHOLSON’S HYDROMETER is constructed on the same principle as
Fahrenheit’s. It has in addition to the small dish for weights above, a
little cup attached below, for holding any solid body whose weight in
water is required. It is chiefly intended for taking the sp. gr. of
minerals.

RICHTER’S HYDROMETER resembles, for the most part, Gay-Lussac’s.

SYKE’S HYDROMETER is that adopted by the Revenue authorities in England
for ascertaining the strength of spirits, and has been already fully
noticed.

TRALLES’S HYDROMETER resembles Gay-Lussac’s (nearly).

TWADDELL’S HYDROMETER is much used in the bleaching establishments of
Scotland, and in some part of England. According to this scale, 0 is equal
to 1000 or the sp. gr. of distilled water, and each degree is equal to
·005; so that, by multiplying this number by the number of degrees marked
on the scale, and adding 1·, the real specific gravity is obtained.

_Obs._ Hydrometers, unless manufactured with great care and skill, merely
afford approximate results; but which are nevertheless sufficiently
correct for all ordinary purposes. They also require several ounces of
liquid to float them, and hence cannot be used for very small quantities.
Those of Fahrenheit, Nicholson, and Sykes are the most accurate, both in
principle and application. They are all employed with a tall glass
cylinder termed a sample, test, or hydrometer glass, in the way already
noticed; but the thermometer for ascertaining the temperature must be
covered with a glass case, or arranged with a folding scale to allow of
its immersion in corrosive liquids.

ALCOHOLOMETERS, ELAIOMETERS, SACCHAROMETERS, URINOMETERS, &c., are simply
hydrometers so weighted and graduated as to adapt them for testing
spirits, syrups, urine, &c. See ALCOHOLOMETRY, ALONHOLMETRY, AREOMETER,
SPECIFIC GRAVITY, &c.

=HYDROM′ETRY.= _Syn._ AREOMETRY. The art of determining the specific
gravity of liquids, and hence their strength and commercial value. The
instruments used are noticed above; their action depends upon the fact
that a floating body displaces a bulk, equal to itself in weight, of the
fluid in which it floats, and consequently that a body of a given weight
sinks deeper in a lighter than in a heavier fluid. In hydrometric
determinations the temperature of the samples must be carefully attended
to, for fluids expand as their temperature is increased. The hydrometers
used in England are generally adjusted to the standard temperature of 60°
Fahr., and when ‘Hydrometer Tables,’ giving the corrections for the
variations of the thermometer, are not accessible, the fluids to be
examined should be brought to this standard temperature by applying heat
directly to the vessel, when the temperature is below the standard, or by
surrounding the vessel, with cold water, when it is above the standard.
The principal applications of hydrometry are described in different parts
of this work. See ACETIMETRY, ALCOHOLOMETRY, CHLOROMETRY, SPECIFIC
GRAVITY, &c.

=HYDROP′ATHY.= _Syn._ WATER CURE; HYDROPATHIA, L. A mode of curing
diseases by the copious use of pure cold water, both internally and
externally, together with dry sweating, and the due regulation of diet,
exercise, and clothing. This “treatment of diseases undoubtedly includes
powerful therapeutic agents, which, in the hands of the educated and
honourable practitioner, might be most beneficially resorted to as
remedial agents.” (Pereira.)

=HYDROPHO′BIA.= _Syn._ CANINE MADNESS; RABIES CANINA, L. A disease which
is generally considered as the result of a morbid poison being introduced
into the system by the bite of a rabid animal. A clear case of idiopathic
or spontaneous hydrophobia has never yet been known to occur in the human
subject.

The common symptoms of hydrophobia are great excitability and horror at
the sight of water, or the attempt to drink, fever, vomiting, excessive
thirst, spitting of viscid saliva, difficult respiration, irregular pulse,
convulsions, syncope, delirium, and death.

The whole materia medica has been, unfortunately, unsuccessfully sought
without the discovery of a single remedy for this disease, or even a
palliative of its severer symptoms. See CURARINE.

The treatment of recent bites of venomous animals has been fully
explained, and need not be repeated here. To prevent secondary or
constitutional effects arising, the use of lemon juice, or arsenical
solution, has long been popular. (Graham, and others.) Dr Buchan remarks
that “vinegar is of considerable use, and should be taken freely.”

=HYDROSULPHU′RIC ACID.= See SULPHUR.

=HYGIENE′.= _Syn._ HYGIENE, Fr. Health; its preservation, promotion, and
restoration. That department of medicine and civil government which
relates to health. See AIR, BATH, EXERCISE, FLANNEL, FOOD, NUTRITION,
SLEEP, VENTILATION, &c.

=HYGROMETER.= An instrument for measuring the amount of moisture in the
atmosphere.

Amongst the various contrivances for accomplishing this end are Daniel’s
dew-point hygrometer; and the wet bulb hygrometer.

By the first, the quantity of moisture in the atmosphere, is determined by
noting with a sensitive thermometer, the temperature at which a film of
dew mass, to deposit on one of the bulbs of a species of cryophorus,
disappears; the tension of the aqueous vapour present in the air at that
period, being readily ascertained from tables constructed for the purpose,
the corresponding proportion of moisture can thus be readily ascertained.

The wet bulb hygrometer consists of two small thermometers placed side by
side, the bulb of them being surrounded by cotton films kept constantly
damp by a simple contrivance. According to the rate of evaporation of the
bulb so moistened, with the fall of the thermometer to which the moistened
bulb belongs, the depression, of course, being greater the further the
surrounding atmosphere is from the saturation point, and tables are
furnished for determining the degree of saturation for all differences of
temperature within the ordinary atmospheric range.

=HYOCHO′LIC ACID.= C_{25}H_{40}O_{4}. _Syn._ GLYCOHYOCHOLALIC ACID. A
compound peculiar to the gall of pigs, discovered by Strecker and
Gundelach.

_Prep._ The fresh gall of pigs is mixed with a solution of sulphate of
sodium; the precipitate is dissolved in absolute alcohol, and decolourised
by animal charcoal. From this solution ether throws down hyocholate of
sodium, which, on the addition of sulphuric acid, yields hyocholic acid as
a resinous mass, which is dissolved in alcohol, re-precipitated by water,
and dried. When heated with alkaline solutions, glycocine and a new
crystalline acid (hyocholalic acid) are formed. When boiled with acids, it
yields glycocine and hyodyslysin.

=HYOSCY′AMINE.= _Syn._ HYOSCYAMIA, HYOSCYAMINA, DATURINE, DATURIA. An
alkaloid obtained from common henbane (_Hyoscyamus niger_), and also from
the thorn apple (_Datura stramonium_). See DATURA.

=HYPNOT′ICS.= _Syn._ HYPNOTICA, L. Agents or medicines which induce sleep,
as opium, morphia, henbane, Indian hemp, lactucarium, &c. Agents which
prevent sleep are called agrypnotics (_Agrypnotica_, L.), or anthypnotics
(_Anthypnotica_, L.).

=HYPOCHLO′RIC ACID.= See CHLORINE.

=HYPOCHONDRI′ASIS.= _Syn._ HYPOCHONDRIACISM. The ‘hip’ or ‘hyp,’ the
‘vapours,’ depression of spirits, ‘blue devils.’ This disease chiefly
affects persons of the melancholic temperament, and is commonly induced by
hard study, irregular habits of life, want of proper social intercourse,
living in close apartments, and insufficient out-of-door exercise. The
treatment may, in most cases be similar to that recommended for DYSPEPSIA,
observing, however, that success depends more on amusing and engaging the
mind, and in gradually weaning it from old conceits, than in the mere
administration of medicine. When the patient is tormented with a visionary
or exaggerated sense of pain, or of some concealed disease, or a whimsical
dislike of certain persons, places, or things, or groundless apprehensions
of personal danger or poverty, or the conviction of having experienced
some dreadful accident or misfortune, the better way is to avoid any
direct attempts to alter his opinions, but to endeavour to inspire
confidence in some method of relief. Greding mentions the case of a
medical man who conceived that his stomach was full of frogs, which had
been successively spawning ever since he had bathed, when a boy, in a pool
in which he had perceived some tadpoles; and he had spent his life in
endeavouring to get them removed. One patient, perhaps, fancies himself a
giant; another as heavy as lead; a third a feather, in continual danger of
being blown away by the wind; and a fourth a piece of glass, and is hourly
fearful of being broken. Marcellus Dentatus mentions a baker of Ferrara
who thought himself a lump of butter, and durst not sit in the sun, or
come near the fire, for fear of being melted. The writer of this article
once knew a man who always put on his coat the wrong side in front,
because he conceived his face looked behind him. In such cases it is
useless to argue with the patient, as it only causes irritation, and
increases the malady. The restoration of the bodily health, and a sudden
surprise or change of scene, will often effect a cure.

=HYPONI′TRIC ACID.= See NITROGEN.

=HYPONI′TROUS ACID.= See NITROGEN.

=HYPOPHOS′PHITES.= See PHOSPHORUS.

=HYPOPHOS′PHITE.= A salt of hypophosphorous acid.

=HYPOSUL′PHATE.= _Syn._ DITHIONATE; HYPOSULPHAS, L. A salt of
hyposulphuric acid.

=HYPOSUL′PHITE.= _Syn._ THIOSULPHATE; HYPOSULPHIS, L. A salt of
hyposulphurous acid.

=HYPOSUL′PHUROUS ACID.= See SULPHUROUS ACID.

=HYRA′CEUM.= A substance produced by the Cape badger (_Hyrax Capensis_),
and proposed as a substitute for CASTOREUM. Pereira considered it to be
inert and useless.

=HYSTERICS.= _Syn._ HYSTERIA, PASSIO HYSTERICA, L. In _pathology_, a
nervous affection peculiar to women, attacking in paroxysms or fits,
preceded by dejection; tears, difficult breathing, sickness, and
palpitation of the heart. The treatment of this disease varies with the
causes and the symptoms. Bleeding, cupping, and depletives, are generally
had recourse to in robust and plethoric habits, and stimulants and tonics
in those of a weakly or relaxed constitution. Affusion of cold water and
nasal stimulants will frequently remove the fit in mild cases. Exercise,
proper amusements and regular hours and diet, are the best preventives.
See DRAUGHT (Antihysteric and Hydrocyanic), &c.


=ICE.= _Syn._ GLACIES, L. Water in the solid state. On being cooled, water
gradually contracts until the temperature has fallen to 39·9° Fahr., when
it begins to expand. At the freezing-point, 32° Fahr., under ordinary
conditions, water crystallises or freezes, and in consequence of the
continued expansion, the sp. gr. of ice, as compared with that of water at
39·9°, is as ·94 to 1·00. Ice has the peculiar property of reuniting by
the contact of adjoining surfaces after having been broken into fragments
(REGELATION). Coloured water and salt water, by freezing, produce
colourless and fresh ice; and clean solid ice, when thawed, furnishes
water equal in purity to that which has been distilled.

The use of ice in the preparation of ICE-CREAMS, ICED-LIQUORS, &c., is
noticed elsewhere. The confectioner collects his ice as early as possible
during the winter, and stores it in a well-drained well or excavation,
somewhat of the form of an inverted sugar-loaf, contained in a small shed
or building called an ICE-HOUSE. This building should always be situated
on a dry sandy soil, and, if possible, on an eminence. The door should be
on the north side, and the roof should be conical and thickly thatched
with straw.

In _medicine_, ice is frequently employed externally in inflammation of
the brain, to resolve inflammation, to stop hæmorrhage, to constringe
relaxed parts, and an anodyne, to deaden pain. For these purposes it is
pounded small, in a cloth, and placed in a bladder or bag of gauze
(ICE-CAP, ICE-POULTICE) before applying it. Internally, ice or ice-cold
water has been given with advantage in heartburn, typhus, inflammation and
spasms of the stomach, to check the vomiting in cholera, and to arrest
hæmorrhage, whether bronchial, gastric, nasal, or uterine. Very recently,
ice has been proposed as a remedy in the treatment of diphtheria. Small
lumps of ice, or a small glassful of pounded ice-and-water, will often
temporarily restore the tone of the stomach and nervous system during hot
weather, when all other means fail. Ice-creams, taken in moderation, act
in the same way.

In the warmer climates of Europe an ICE-HOUSE or an ICE-SAFE (a
REFRIGERATOR) is a necessary appendage to every respectable dwelling, not
merely for the purpose of pleasing the palate with iced beverages, but to
enable the residents to preserve their provisions (fish, meat, game, milk,
butter, &c.) in a wholesome state from day to day. In addition to large
cargoes of ice imported yearly from Norway, and principally consumed in
England, Germany and France, ice is now manufactured to no inconsiderable
amount, in these three countries artificially, the principal consumption
of the factitious article being by brewers, who use it for the cooling of
their worts. The artificial manufacture of ice is effected by the means of
the condensation of elastic vapours in machines expressly made for the
purpose. In Siebe’s ice-making machine the vapour of ether is made to
traverse metallic tubes surrounded with a concentrated solution of common
salt, by which it becomes recondensed to the liquid state, to be again
utilised in the production of the vapour; the solution of salt becoming at
the same time so reduced in temperature, as to convert into ice, water,
contained in proper vessels, placed in it. In Carré’s machine the same end
is accomplished by means of ammoniacal gas, a solution of calcic chloride
being used for absorbing the cold instead of common salt. Reece’s is a
modification, (he states an improvement) of Carré’s. Ice machines are also
made, in which ice is produced, by bringing water into contact with air,
which has been greatly reduced in temperature by cooling it when in the
compressed state, and subsequently allowing it to expand. Liquid carbonic
and sulphurous acids have likewise been used in the preparation of
artificial ice, but not when it has been required in any considerable
quantity. See REFRIGERATION.

=Ice, Medicated.= Mr Martin, of Weston-super-Mare, writing to the
‘Lancet,’ says:——“Every practitioner has at times to face the difficulties
of the scarlatinal throat in young children. It may sadly want topical
medication; but how is he to apply it? Young children cannot gargle, and
to attempt the brush or the spray fills them with terror. In many cases
neither sternness nor coaxing avails. Yet these little ones in almost
every case will greedily suck bits of ice. This has long been my chief
resource where I could not persuade the child to submit to the sulphurous
acid spray. Lately, I have been trying an ice formed of the frozen
solution of the acid (or some other antiseptic). Though, of course, not so
tasteless as pure ice, the flavour is so much lessened by the low
temperature, and probably also through the parched tongue, very little
appreciating any flavour, that I find scarcely any complaint on that score
from the little sufferers; they generally take to it very readily. The
process of making it is very simple. A large test-tube immersed in a
mixture of ice and salt is the only apparatus required, and in this the
solution is easily frozen. When quite solid a momentary dip of the tube in
hot water enables one to turn out the cylinder of ice, as the cook turns
out her mould of jelly. I have tried the three following formulæ, all of
which answer, although I think I prefer the first.

“1. Sulphurous acid, 1/2 dr.; water, 7-1/2 dr.; mix and freeze.

“2. Chlorate of potass, 1 scruple; water, 1 oz.; dissolve, and freeze.

“3. Solution of chlorinated soda, 1/2 dr.; water, 1 oz.; mix and freeze.

“However, the form is of secondary importance, as each practitioner can
construct his own. Boracic acid, salicylic acid, or any other harmless
antiseptic with not too much taste, would doubtless be as useful as those
indicated.”

=ICE′LAND MOSS.= _Syn._ CETRARIA (B. P.), LICHEN ISLANDICUS, L. The lichen
termed _Cetraria Islandicus_. It is much employed, both as a nutritious
food and as a mild mucilaginous tonic, in catarrh and consumption. It may
be purified from its bitter principle by a little cold solution of
potassa.

=Iceland Moss, Saccharated.= _Syn._ (P. C.), SACCHARUM LICHENIS. Iceland
moss, 1 lb.; refined sugar 1 lb.; macerate the moss in water to extract
the bitterness, express, boil in water for an hour, strain, let settle,
decant, add the sugar, evaporate to dryness with a gentle heat, constantly
stirring, and finally reduce to powder.

=ICES.= (In _confectionery_.) These are commonly composed of cream or
sweetened water, variously flavoured, and congealed by ice or a freezing
mixture. Sometimes, instead of cream, the materials of a custard are used.
The mixed ingredients are placed in a tin furnished with a handle at top,
called a ‘freezer,’ or ‘freezing-pot,’ which is then plunged into a bucket
containing ice broken small, and mixed with about half its weight of
common salt, and is kept in rapid motion, backwards and forwards, until
its contents are frozen. As the cream congeals and adheres to the sides,
it is broken down with the ice-spoon, so that the whole may be equally
exposed to the cold. As the salt and ice in the tub melt, more is added,
until the process is finished. The ‘ice-pot,’ with the cream in it, is
next placed in a leaden ‘ice-stand,’ is at once surrounded with a mixture
of ice and salt, and closely covered over. In this state it is carried
into the shop. The glasses are filled as required for immediate use, and
should have been previously made as cold as possible.

PLAIN ICE-CREAM, or CREAM FOR ICING, is commonly made by one or other of
the following formulæ:——

1. New milk, 2 pints; yolks of 6 eggs; white sugar, 4 oz.; mix, strain,
heat gently and cool gradually.

2. Cream 1 pint; sugar, 4 oz.; mix as above.

3. Cream and milk, of each 1 pint; white sugar, 1/2 lb.

FLAVOURED ICE-CREAMS are made by mixing cream for icing with half its
weight of mashed or preserved fruit, previously rubbed through a clean
hair sieve; or, when the flavour depends on the juice of fruit or on
essential oil, by adding a sufficient quantity of such substances.
RASPBERRY and STRAWBERRY ICES are made according to the former method;
LEMON, ORANGE, NOYEAU, and ALMOND ICES, by the latter method. In the same
way any other article besides cream may be frozen.

CHOCOLATE FOR ICING is made by rubbing 1 oz. of chocolate to a paste with
a tablespoonful of hot milk, and then adding ‘cream for icing,’ 1 pint.

COFFEE FOR ICING is made of cream for icing, 1 quart, to which a small
teacupful of the strongest possible clarified coffee has been added
together with 2 oz. of sugar and the yolks of 3 or 4 eggs. See ICING
(_below_).

=I′CING.= (For cakes.) _Syn._ SUGAR ICE. The covering of concreted sugar
with which the confectioners adorn their cakes. _Prep._ Beat the white of
eggs to a full froth, with a little rose or orange-flower water; then add
gradually, as much finely powdered sugar as will make it thick enough,
beating it well all the time. For use, dust the cakes over with flour,
then gently rub it off, lay on the icing with a flat knife, stick on the
ornaments while it is wet, and place it in the oven for a few minutes to
harden, but not long enough to discolour it. It may be tinged of various
shades by the addition of the proper ‘stains.’

=ID′RIALIN.= A fusible, inflammable substance, found associated with the
native cinnabar of the mines of Idria, in Carniola. It is extracted from
the ore by means of oil of turpentine. It is only slightly soluble in
alcohol and ether. When pure, it is white and crystalline.

=ID′RYL.= A hydrocarbon generally found associated with idrialin.

=IGASU′RIC ACID.= _Syn._ ACIDUM IGASURICUM, L. An acid associated with
strychnine in the St. Ignatius’ bean and in nux vomica. It may be obtained
by digesting the rasped or ground beans first in ether and then in boiling
alcohol, evaporating the latter decoction to dryness, diffusing the
residuum through water, adding a little carbonate of magnesium, again
boiling for some minutes, filtering, washing the powder with cold water,
and digesting it in alcohol, and filtering. The igasurate of magnesium
thus obtained is dissolved in boiling water, the solution decomposed by
acetate of lead, and the precipitate (igasurate of lead), after being
washed and diffused through distilled water, is decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen. The solution thus obtained yields crystals (igasuric acid) on
being evaporated. It is soluble in both water and alcohol.

=IGNI′′TION.= In the laboratory this term is commonly applied to the act
of heating to redness or luminousness. See CALCINATION.

=ILLICIN.= Boil a clear decoction of holly with animal charcoal; let it
settle, collect the deposited charcoal, wash it with cold water, dry it,
and treat it with boiling alcohol; let the filtered liquid be evaporated
to dryness. Febrifuge.——_Dose_, 6 to 24 gr.

=ILLUMINA′TION.= The act of illuminating or making luminous. For supplying
artificial light to streets and the interiors of houses coal gas and oils
and fats are generally employed. These illuminating agents are compounds
rich in carbon, upon the presence of which the brightness of their flames
depends. Flame is gas or vapour heated to incandescence during the
process of combustion. A flame containing no solid particles emits but a
feeble light, even if its temperature is the highest possible. Pure
hydrogen, for instance, burns with a pale, smokeless flame, though with
the production of considerable heat. On the other hand, wax, paraffin,
coal-gas, &c., while undergoing combustion, give out considerable light,
because their flames contain innumerable solid particles of carbon, which
act as radiant points. To give the greatest degree of luminosity to flame,
the supply of air must be proportioned to the character of the burning
substance, and be insufficient for the instantaneous combustion of the
evolved gases; in which case the hydrogen takes all the oxygen, and the
larger portion of the carbon is precipitated, and burnt in the solid form,
at some little distance within the outer surface of the flame. When the
supply of air is sufficient for the immediate and complete combustion of
the whole of the combustible matter, no such precipitation takes place,
and the flame is neither white nor brilliant. The richest coal-gas, mixed
with sufficient air to convert all its hydrogen and carbon into water and
carbonic acid, explodes with a pale blue flash; yet the same gas, when
consumed in the ordinary way, burns with a rich white flame. Every one
must have noticed the effect of a gust of wind upon the flaring gas-jets
of a butcher’s shop; the plentiful supply of air causes complete
combustion, and so converts the bright white flames into dull blue streaks
of fire. When the supply of air is insufficient to cause the combustion of
the newly formed solid carbon at the instant of its development, and
whilst it is in an incandescent state, the flame becomes red and smoky,
and unburnt sooty particles are thrown off. The same occurs when the
temperature of any portion of the hydrogen is reduced below that intensity
required for the combustion of the newly separated charcoal. Solid bodies,
as tallow, oils, and fats, which burn with flame, are converted into the
state of gas by the heat required to kindle them, and it is this gaseous
matter which suffers combustion, and not the substance which produces it.

The relative value of the ordinary illuminating agents has been accurately
determined by Dr Frankland. According to his experiments, the quantities
of various substances required to give the same amount of light as would
be obtained from 1 gallon of Young’s Paraffin oil are as follows:——

  Young’s Paraffin oil    1·00 gall.
  American rock oil[352]  1·26  ”
  Paraffin candles       18·6  lbs.
  Sperm                  22·9   ”
  Wax                    26·4   ”
  Stearic                27·6   ”
  Composite              29·5   ”
  Tallow                 39·0   ”

[Footnote 352: Acknowledged to be an inferior sample.]

The following table exhibits the comparative cost of the light of 20 sperm
candles, each burning 10 hours at the rate of 120 gr. per hour; also the
amount of carbonic acid produced and heat evolved per hour, in obtaining
this quantity of light:——

                                 Carb. acid    Units of
                     Cost.       per hour in     heat
                  _s._  _d._      cub. feet    per hour.

  Wax              7    2-1/2 }
  Spermaceti       6    8     }      8·3         82
  Paraffin candles 3    10           6·7         66
  Tallow           2    8           10·1        100
  Rock oil         0    7-1/2 }
  Paraffin oil     0    6     }      3·0         29
  Coal gas         0    4-1/2        5·0         47
  Cannel gas       0    3            4·0         32

These figures prove that coal-gas and the mineral oils are the cheapest
and best illuminating agents, producing the largest amount of light with
the least development of heat.

The light emitted by incandescent lime (DRUMMOND LIGHT, HYDRO-OXYGEN
LIGHT, LIME LIGHT, OXYHYDROGEN LIGHT) is intensely brilliant, and is often
made use of to enable workmen to continue operations at night. It is
obtained by directing the flame produced by the combustion of a mixture of
hydrogen (or coal-gas) and oxygen upon a small cylinder of lime. In the
improved form of this light the lime is protected from crumbling by a cage
of platinum wire, and is caused to rotate slowly by means of clockwork, so
as constantly to expose a fresh surface to the flame. When reflected from
a ‘parabolic mirror’ in a pencil of parallel rays, the Drummond light has
been recognised during daylight at a distance of 108 miles. The lime light
produced with coal-gas and oxygen is used for the MAGIC LANTERN and GAS
MICROSCOPE.

The most powerful illuminator is the ELECTRIC LIGHT, which is now being
subjected to trial in many cities for street illuminations, &c., in place
of coal-gas. It is usually produced by the passage of a strong current of
electricity between two pencils of hard carbon. The electric light has
been successfully applied to lighthouse illumination. Hitherto it has been
found too intense and too costly for application to domestic purposes. See
CANDLES, FLAME, GAS, PHOTOMETRY, &c.

=ILLU′TATION.= See BATH (Mud).

=IMAGINA′TION.= The influence of the imagination, both in the production
and cure of disease, has been long admitted by medical practitioners. It
is probably the most powerful therapeutic agent known. “Extraordinary
cures have been ascribed to inert and useless means, when, in fact, they
were referable to the influence of the imagination.” (Dr Pereira.)

=IMPE′RIAL.= _Syn._ POTUS IMPERIALIS, PTISANA I., L. _Prep._ 1. Cream of
tartar, 1/4 oz.; 1 lemon, sliced; lump sugar, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1
quart; infuse, with occasional stirring until cold, then pour off the
clear portion for use.

2. A lemon, sliced; sugar, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint.

3. Yellow rind and juice of lemon; citric acid, 1 dr.; sugar, 2-1/2 oz.;
hot water (which has been boiled), 1 quart; as No. 1. Refrigerant and
slightly diuretic. Used as a common drink in fevers, dropsy, &c., and as a
summer beverage.

=IM′PLEMENTS (Agricultural).= “Almost all the operations of agriculture
may be performed by the plough, the harrow, the scythe, and the flail; and
these are the sole implements in the primitive agriculture of all
countries. With the progress of improvement, many other implements (and
machines) have been introduced, the more remarkable of which are the DRILL
PLOUGH, the HORSE HOE, the WINNOWING MACHINE, the THRESHING MACHINE, the
HAY-MAKING MACHINE, and the REAPING MACHINE. The object of all these
implements and machines is to abridge human labour, and to perform the
different operations to which they are applied with a greater degree of
rapidity, and in a more perfect manner than before.” (Loudon.) On the
perfection of agricultural implements and machines depends much of the
improvement of which this art is susceptible. See AGRICULTURE, &c.

=IMPROV′ING.= The trade name for ‘doctoring,’ ‘adulterating,’ or
‘lowering,’ the quality of any substance, with the view of cheapening it
or increasing its bulk. See WINE, &c.

=IN′CENSE.= _Prep._ 1. Olibanum, 2 or 3 parts; gum benzoin, 1 part.

2. Olibanum, 7 parts; gum benzoin, 2 parts; cascarilla, 1 part. Placed on
a hot plate or burned, it exhales an agreeable perfume. Used in some of
the rituals of the Roman Catholic church.

3. Benzoin and storax, of each 4 oz.; labdanum and myrrh, of each 6 oz.;
cascarilla 3 oz.; oil cinnamon, 8 minims; oils bergamot and lavender, of
each 20 minims; oil cloves, 10 minims; mix, and pass through a coarse
sieve.

=INCINERA′TION.= The reduction of organic substances to ashes by
combustion. See CALCINATION.

=INCOMBUSTIBIL′ITY.= The property of being incapable of being kindled, or
of being consumed by fire. Substances possessing this property are said to
be ‘incombustible’ or ‘fire-proof.’

=INCOMBUST′IBLE FAB′RICS.= _Syn._ NON-INFLAMMABLE FABRICS. The fashion of
wearing light gauzy dresses extended by hoops or crinoline has made death
from fire a common casualty. With a view of diminishing the danger to
which women expose themselves, chemists have lately devoted considerable
attention to the problem of rendering muslin and other light fabrics
non-inflammable. This object may be attained by steeping the fabric in
almost any saline solution. Thus, cotton or linen stuffs prepared with a
solution of borax, phosphate of soda, phosphate of ammonia, alum, or sal
ammoniac, may be placed in contact with ignited bodies without their
suffering active combustion or bursting into flame. The salts act by
forming a crust of incombustible matter on the surface of the fibres. They
do not, however, prevent carbonisation taking place, when the temperature
is sufficiently high. It is by a knowledge of this property of culinary
salt that jugglers are enabled to perform the common trick of burning a
thread of cotton while supporting a ring or a small key, without the
latter falling to the ground. The cotton is reduced to a cinder, but from
the action of the salt its fibres still retain sufficient tenacity to
support a light weight.

The addition of about 1 oz. of alum or sal ammoniac to the last water used
to rinse a lady’s dress, or a set of bed furniture, or a less quantity
added to the starch used to stiffen them, renders them uninflammable, or
at least so little combustible that they will not readily take fire; and
if kindled, are slowly consumed without flame. None of the above-named
salts are adapted for fine soft muslins, which mostly require chemical
treatment, because they injure the texture, rendering the fabric harsh and
destroying all its beauty. The salt which is found to answer most
completely all the required conditions is TUNGSTATE OF SODA. “Muslin
steeped in a solution containing 20% of this salt is perfectly
non-inflammable when dry, and the saline film left on the surface is
smooth and of a fatty appearance like talc, and therefore does not
interfere with the process of ironing, but allows the hot iron to pass
smoothly over the surface. The non-fulfilment of this latter condition
completely prevents the use of many other salts——such as sulphate or
phosphate of ammonia, which are otherwise efficacious in destroying
inflammability——for all fabrics which have to be washed and ironed.”
(Watts.)

The addition of a little phosphoric acid or phosphate of soda to the
tungstate is recommended, for without this addition a portion of the
tungstate is apt to undergo a chemical change and become comparatively
insoluble. Messrs Versmann and Oppenheim, the introducers of tungstate of
soda, give the following formula for a solution of minimum strength:——

Dilute a concentrated solution of neutral tungstate of soda with water to
28° Twaddell (sp. gr. 1·14), and then add 3% of phosphate of soda. This
solution is found to keep and to answer its purpose very well; it is now
constantly used in the Royal Laundry.

PAPER, WOOD, &c., may be also rendered comparatively incombustible by
soaking them in saline solutions. See ASBESTOS, FIRE, &c.

=INCOMPAT′IBLES.= In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, substances which exert a
chemical action on each other, and cannot, therefore, with propriety, be
prescribed together in the same formula or prescription. The principles
on which we should act to avoid prescribing or dispensing incompatibles,
are briefly developed under the heads AFFINITY and DECOMPOSITION. To this
we may add that, if a substance is endowed with well-marked therapeutical
or poisonous properties, independent of those which may exert a chemical
effect upon the tissues, its mode of action will neither be changed nor
destroyed by the combinations which it forms, provided always that the new
compounds are not insoluble in water.

“It is not necessary to give two incompatible medicines at the same time,
in order to produce decomposition; it is sufficient if they are given
within a very short interval of each other. Thus, a sick person, who has
been treated with lead externally, or even internally, will present a
discoloration of the skin, if he takes a sulphur bath four or five days
after the lead treatment has been discontinued. If a person is rubbed with
iodide of potassium shortly after having applied Vigo’s plaster (plaster
of ammoniacum with mercury), or the Neapolitan ointment (mercurial
ointment), iodide of mercury and caustic potash will be formed, which will
cause vesication. So also vomiting occurs if lemonade made with tartaric
acid is taken five or 6 days after the administration of white oxide of
antimony.” (Trousseau and Reveil.)

Lists of incompatibles are published in many pharmaceutical and medical
works, but are, in reality, of little use beyond illustrating rules and
principles which are familiar to every chemist, and which every prescriber
should also be intimately acquainted with.

=INCRUSTATION, Prevention of, in Steam Boilers.= With all qualities of
water commonly used for feeding steam boilers there is a tendency to the
production of hard calcareous deposits or layers of incrustation within
the boilers, due to the separation of lime salts (particularly the
carbonate and sulphate, or mixtures of these with a certain amount of
carbonate of magnesia) as the direct consequence of the accumulation of
these impurities from large quantities of water evaporated. The sparing
solubility of the sulphate of lime (gypsum) in hot water fully accounts
for its deposition in the boiler, and the carbonate of lime (chalk) is
thrown down, not only as the result of direct evaporation, but by the
ebullition expelling free carbonic acid, which holds this body to some
extent in solution. Rain water, which of itself is too pure to give rise
to these incrustations, cannot be used _alone_ for boiler purposes, for it
has been found to exert a highly corrosive action upon the iron plates and
fittings. It can, however, be advantageously employed in conjunction with
‘hard’ spring or river waters, and has the effect of diminishing the
incrustation merely as the result of dilution. The drain pipes leading
from the roof of the factory may be placed in connection with the tank or
well from which the supply of water is drawn for the boilers. It will be
seen hereafter that the self-same remedy is efficient both as a means of
preventing incrustation and obviating corrosion, and that by using one of
the alkaline substances about to be specified this twofold advantage may
be secured. Iron will not rust when immersed in water containing a mere
trace of caustic alkali, and it is a common observation that the iron
vessels used in the preparation of potash and soda remain for any length
of time free from all appearance of rust. This singular property is, no
doubt, susceptible of important applications, amongst them may be
mentioned the better protection of iron ships from the attack of bilge
water, of hydraulic rams, moulding boxes, smith’s tools, and other objects
liable to be placed at times under the influence of water. Some forms of
surface condensers become quickly corroded in consequence of the purity of
the water accumulating in them by the process of distillation, and a small
dose of caustic alkali is then useful as a means of protection; the
engine-cylinders also to some extent are preserved when alkaline
anti-incrustation fluids are introduced into the boilers, for the minute
quantity which is carried forward mechanically in the form of spray mixed
with the steam, suffices to preserve the iron. Whilst a tendency to
‘priming’ undoubtedly results from a too liberal use of soda or other
alkali in the boiler, it will in practice be found easy to adjust the
proportion of this ingredient, so as to secure immunity from corrosion and
incrustation, and at the same time, avoid the tumultuous kind of
ebullition known as ‘priming.’ In all cases it is advisable to carry out a
rigid system of inspection, and it is only in the way of saving fuel and
labour that the application of boiler fluids is to be recommended.

Much benefit has often resulted from a coating of coal-tar or ‘dead oil’
applied to the interior surfaces below the water line, when the boiler is
opened for cleaning and inspection. These will tend very considerably to
lessen the adhesion of calcareous crusts, and are not in any way affected
by the boiler fluids in common use. Soda crystals and caustic soda may be
used with great success in boilers to effect the immediate precipitation
of the lime salts, and they act by throwing down a finely divided form of
carbonate of lime, which in time furnishes nuclei for the deposition of
subsequent accretions both of the carbonate and sulphate, so that they are
prevented from crystallising upon the walls of the boiler. A granular mud
is thus formed, which subsides quickly and may be for the most part got
rid of through the ‘blow-off cock,’ which should be opened for this
purpose two or three times every day, and run out with as little water as
possible.

The use of caustic soda has undergone a thorough trial at the hands of Mr
J. Spiller, F.C.S., in the boilers of the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, and we
are favoured with the following general instructions regarding its use,
which are based upon an experience of upwards of ten years. The caustic
soda should be dissolved in water so as to make a concentrated solution of
specific gravity 1·300. This, being perfectly miscible with water, may be
introduced into the boiler with the feed-water at any time when, from the
pressure of steam, it may not be convenient to pour it through the safety
valve or other openings in the boiler. But when the steam is down there is
no difficulty in introducing the prescribed dose by using a tin funnel
with flattened aperture to pass it through the safety valve; or a tubular
arrangement with double cocks will answer at all times. Half a gallon per
diem is the average quantity found sufficient for a 20-horse stationary
boiler, working with Thames water for ten hours daily. If the water should
happen to be unusually hard a larger dose may be employed, but it would
not be expedient to add in one charge more than the amount required for
the day’s consumption. Locomotive and multitubular boilers have been
worked successfully with caustic soda, and it is here that the importance
of using anti-incrustation fluids makes itself most apparent.

Many other methods have at various times been proposed to prevent the
formation of deposits in steam boilers. Dr Ritterband’s method consists in
simply throwing a little sal ammoniac into the boiler, by which carbonate
of ammonia is formed, which passes off with the steam, and chloride of
calcium, which remains in solution. In Holland this plan has been used
with satisfaction for locomotive boilers. About 2 oz. of the salt may be
placed in the boiler twice a week. The chloride of tin is equal to sal
ammoniac, and is similar in its action. Carbonate of soda has been
recommended by Kuhlmann and Fresenius of Germany, and by Crace Calvert of
England. It is now employed generally in the boilers of engines in
Manchester. The common plan adopted by working engineers to prevent
incrustations from either variety of water is, on each occasion of
cleaning out the boiler, to introduce some substance which, by its
mechanical action, shall prevent the precipitated earthy matter caking
together, or adhering to the boiler plates. Some common tar, bitumen, or
pitch, appears to answer well under most circumstances. Mr Ira Hill
recommends the use of 3 or 4 shovelfuls of course sawdust. He states that,
after adopting the use of this article, he never had any difficulty from
lime, although using water strongly impregnated with it, and has always
found the inside of his boilers as smooth as if just oiled. Mr De Haen
recommends the sulphate and bicarbonate of calcium to be decomposed by
adding barium chloride and milk of lime in the proper proportion; when the
water is at a temperature of 35°-45° C. the whole becomes clear in about
ten minutes, a precipitate consisting of a mixture of barium sulphate and
calcium carbonate deposits; if the water be cold, the greater part
separates in ten minutes, but a little turbidity is noticeable for some
hours due to suspended matter.

Protzen recommends the introduction of a piece of zinc into the boiler,
this determines a galvanic current, which protects the iron against
oxidation and corrosion, and causes the mineral ingredients of the water
to be deposited as a fine loose mud, entirely preventing the formation of
incrustation.

Slippery elm bark, and spent bark from the tan works have also been
suggested. We (A. J. Cooley) have worked a powerful boiler daily for
months without opening the ‘man-hole,’ after throwing a few pounds of
potatoes into it. In all cases, when the earthy matter can be kept in a
state of solution, or precipitated in a pulverulent form, it is easily
removed from the boiler by what engineers term ‘priming,’ which is
allowing the hot water to be blown over with the steam, so that, after a
sufficient time, the whole original contents of the boiler are removed,
and replaced by fresh water. Before doing so, however, it is of
consequence to cut off the communication with the cylinders, and to open
the waste-steam cock. Consult a pamphlet on ‘Boiler Incrustation and
Corrosion’ by F. J. Rowan, published by Spon, London.

=INCUBA′TION (Artificial).= The hatching of eggs by artificial heat. This
has been practised by the Egyptians from a very remote period. M.
Bonnemain has the honour of having introduced this art to Western Europe,
in 1775, and having been the first to pursue it successfully on the
commercial scale. The source of heat employed by him was a circulatory
hot-water apparatus, and the temperature maintained by it 100° Fahr. His
plan was to introduce, daily, 1-20th only of the eggs the apparatus was
capable of receiving, so that on the 21st day the first chickens were
hatched, and a like number every day afterwards as long as the supply of
eggs was kept up. Among the trays containing the eggs he placed saucers of
water, to compensate for the absence of moisture derived in natural
incubation by transpiration from the body of the hen. The chickens, as
soon as hatched, were transferred to a ‘nursery’ or ‘chick-room,’ also
artificially heated, and were fed with crushed millet seed. Several
attempts have been made of late years to introduce artificial incubation
into this country, with variable success.

=IN′CUBUS.= See NIGHTMARE.

=IN′DIA RUB′BER.= See CAOUTCHOUC.

=INDIGES′TION.= See DYSPEPSIA.

=IN′DIGO.= _Syn._ INDICUM, PIGMENTUM INDICUM, L. A blue dyestuff extracted
from several plants growing in India and America, especially from the
leguminous species _Indigofera tinctoria_ and _I. cœrulea_. It exists in
the plant as a colourless juice. The method of manufacture consists in
steeping the plant in water until fermentation sets in; the colouring
matter dissolves in the water, forming a yellow solution, which is drawn
off from the rest of the vegetable matter, and agitated and beaten to
bring it freely into contact with the air for about 2 hours; this
treatment causes the indigo to form and settle down as a blue precipitate;
this is cut, while soft, into cubical cakes, and dried by artificial heat.
To hasten the formation of the indigo, a little lime water is sometimes
added to the yellow solution. The indigo of commerce contains INDIGO-BLUE
or INDIGOTIN, its most important constituent, INDIGO-RED, and many other
substances, some of which must be regarded as accidental impurities or
adulterations.

_Prop._ Tasteless; scentless; of an intense blue colour, passing into
purple; when rubbed with a smooth hard body, it assumes a coppery hue;
insoluble in water, cold alcohol, ether, alkalies, hydrochloric acid,
dilute sulphuric acid, and the cold fixed and volatile oils; slightly
soluble in boiling alcohol and oils; freely soluble in concentrated
sulphuric acid, and, when decoloured or reduced by contact with
deoxidising substances, in alkaline lyes; soluble in creasote; its colour
is destroyed by chromic acid, nitric acid and chlorine; when suddenly
heated, it gives off rich purple fumes, which condense into brilliant
copper-coloured needles.

_Pur._ The best indigo is that which has the deepest purple colour, that
assumes the brightest coppery hue when rubbed with the nail; its fracture
is homogeneous, compact, fine-grained, and coppery; its powder is of an
intensely deep blue tint, and light enough to swim on water; and it leaves
only a fine streak when rubbed upon a piece of white paper. In general,
when indigo is in hard, dry lumps of a dark colour, it is considered of
bad or inferior quality. Indigo, when in hard or brittle lumps, or in dust
or small bits, is often adulterated with sand, pulverised slate, and other
earthy substances.

_Estimation._ Various methods for estimating the value of samples of
indigo have been proposed, but none of them can be depended upon to give
perfectly accurate results. The plan recommended by O′Neill[353] is
perhaps the best; it is performed as follows:——

[Footnote 353: See ‘Dictionary of Calico Printing and Dyeing.’]

Weigh 25 gr. of a fair sample of the indigo finely ground; and to soften
or disintegrate it still further, boil it for a short time with weak
caustic soda, and then, if there be any soft lumps or clots, strain
through calico; mix this with 3 quarts of water in a narrow-necked bottle
which it will nearly fill, and add 400 gr. of quicklime, which has been
slaked as perfectly as possible; shake well up and add a 1000 gr. measure
of solution of green copperas (protosulphate of iron) at 30° Twaddell;
cork the bottle closely, and leave it for three days, frequently shaking
it in the interval. The indigo will be dissolved by this time; 1 quart of
the clear solution is drawn off, shaken up in a bottle to oxidise it,
acidified with acetic acid, and the pure indigo (INDIGOTIN) collected upon
a filter, dried, and weighed. Four times the weight of the pure indigo is
the per-centage of indigo in the sample.

_Uses._ As a dye stuff indigo is of great importance, both from the beauty
and permanence of the colour it yields, and from the ease with which it is
applied to fabrics of all materials. As a medicine it has been employed in
various affections of a spasmodic character, as chorea, convulsions,
epilepsy, hysteria, &c. In large quantities it often induces giddiness,
vomiting, and diarrhœa; and when continued for sometime, muscular
twitchings, resembling those arising from strychnine.——_Dose._ Beginning
at about 15 gr., and gradually increased to 1, 2, or even 3 dr., at which
it should be continued for 3 or 4 months; made into an electuary with
honey or sugar, to which some aromatic may be added. See INDIGO DYE,
INDIGOTIN, &c.

=Indigo, Sul′phate of.= _Syn._ SULPHINDYLIC ACID, SULPHINDIGOTIC A.,
SAXONY BLUE, SOLUBLE INDIGO.

_Prep._ By gradually adding indigo (in fine powder), 1 part, to fuming
sulphuric acid (Nordhausen sulphuric acid), 5 parts, or oil of vitriol, 8
parts contained in a stone-ware vessel placed in a tub of very cold water,
to prevent the mixture heating; the ingredients are stirred together with
a glass rod at short intervals until the solution is complete, after which
the whole is allowed to repose for about 48 hours, by which time it
becomes a homogeneous pasty mass of an intense blue colour, which in a
dull light appears nearly black.

_Obs._ In this state it forms ‘BARTH’S BLUE,’ or the ‘CHEMIC BLUE’ or
‘INDIGO COMPOSITION’ of the dyer. Diluted with about twice its weight of
soft water, it is converted into the ‘SAXONY BLUE’ or ‘LIQUID BLUE’ of the
shops, also used for dyeing. When commercial sulphate of indigo is
diffused through a large quantity of water, nearly boiling, and wool (old
white flannel rags, &c.) is macerated in it for some time, the latter
absorbs the whole of the sulphate and is dyed blue, whilst the liquor
assumes a greenish-blue colour. Wool, so prepared, when well rinsed in
cold water, and boiled for some minutes in a large quantity of that liquid
containing 1% or 2% of carbonate of potassa, or a quantity equal to about
1-3rd that of the indigo originally employed, gives up its blue colour,
and becomes of a dull brown. The liquid is now a rich blue-coloured
solution of sulphindylate of potassa, from which the salt may be obtained
by cautious evaporation. This compound is prepared on the large scale, by
diluting sulphate of indigo with about 12 times its weight of soft water,
and imperfectly saturating the solution with carbonate of potassa; the
sulphindylate falls down as a dark-blue coppery-looking powder, soluble
in 140 parts of cold water and in about 90 parts of boiling water. This
substance is kept both in the moist and dry state, and is known in
commerce under the respective names of ‘DISTILLED INDIGO,’ ‘PRECIPITATED
INDIGO,’ ‘SOLUBLE INDIGO,’ ‘INDIGO PASTE,’ ‘BLUE CARMINE,’ ‘DISTILLED
BLUE,’ ‘SOLUBLE BLUE,’ &c. It is extensively used in dyeing; and when
mixed with starch, whilst in the moist state, and made into cakes or
knobs, it constitutes the finest variety of the ‘BLUE’ used by laundresses
for tinging linen. The ammonia and soda salts may be prepared in the same
way as the potassa salt, by substituting the carbonates of those bases for
carbonate of potassa. The ammonia salt is very soluble.

=INDIGO BLUE.= See INDIGOTIN.

=INDIGO DYE.= There are two methods of preparing solutions of indigo for
dyeing.——1. By deoxidising it, and then dissolving it in alkaline
menstrua.——2. By dissolving it in sulphuric acid. The former method is
used in preparing the ordinary INDIGO VAT of the dyers.

1. _a._ (COLD VAT.) Take of indigo, in fine powder, 1 lb.; green copperas
(clean cryst.), 2-1/2 to 3 lbs.; newly slaked lime, 3-1/2 to 4 lbs.;
triturate the powdered indigo with a little water or an alkaline lye, then
mix it with some hot water, add the lime, and again well mix, after which
stir in the solution of copperas, and agitate the whole thoroughly at
intervals for 24 hours. A little caustic potassa or soda is frequently
added, and a corresponding portion of lime omitted. For use, a portion of
this ‘preparation vat’ is ladled into the ‘dyeing vat,’ as wanted. After
being employed for some time, the vat must be refreshed with a little more
copperas and fresh-slaked lime, when the sediment must be well stirred up,
and the whole thoroughly mixed together. This is the common vat for
cotton.

_b._ (POTASH VAT.) Take indigo, in fine powder, 12 lbs.; madder, 8 lbs.;
bran, 9 lbs.; ‘potash,’ 24 lbs.; water at 125° Fahr., 120 cubic feet; mix
well; at the end of about 36 hours add 14 lbs. more potash, and after 10
or 12 hours longer further add 10 lbs. of potash, and rouse the whole up
well; as soon as the fermentation and reduction of the indigo are well
developed, which generally takes place in about 72 hours, add a little
fresh-slaked lime. This vat dyes very quickly, and the goods lose less of
their colour in alkaline and soapy solutions than when dyed in the common
vat. It is well adapted for woollen goods.

_c._ (WOOD VAT.) As the last, but employing wood instead of madder; the
vat is ‘set’ at 160° Fahr., and kept at that temperature until the
deoxidation and solution of the indigo has commenced. The last two are
also called the ‘warm vat.’

_d._ (PASTEL VAT.) This is ‘set’ with a variety of wood which grows in
France, and which is richer in colouring matter than the plant commonly
known as ‘wood.’

_e._ (SCHÜTZENBERGER and DE LALANDE’S VAT.) It is known that the low stage
of oxidation of sulphur obtained on the reduction of sulphurous acid with
zinc, dissolves indigo. On this reaction the following proceedings for
dyeing and printing with indigo are founded:——To prepare the reducing
liquid, a solution of bisulphite of soda at 35° B. is brought in contact
with sheet zinc in a closed vessel, of which the liquid should occupy only
one fourth. After the lapse of an hour the zinc is precipitated from the
clear liquid by means of milk of lime. It is then diluted or decanted, or
filtered with exclusion of air.

The clear liquid is then poured upon the ground indigo, with the addition
of the needful soda and lime. One kilo of indigo yields in this manner a
very concentrated vat of from 10 to 15 litres. Cotton is dyed cold, and
wool with the aid of heat. A vat is filled with water, and a suitable
quantity of the above indigo mixture introduced, when the dyeing can be
performed at once. The excess of the low sulphur acid dissolves the froth
which appears on the surface. During the process of dyeing, further
quantities of indigo can be added as required. Cotton can be rapidly and
easily dyed in this manner; and in the case of wool, the dyer escapes the
many disadvantages of the hot vat and obtains brighter and clearer shades.
To print a fast blue the alkaline solution of the reduced indigo is
printed on with an excess of the reducing agent, aged for twelve to
twenty-four hours, washed and soaped. In comparison with the old process
there is a saving of indigo to the extent of 50 to 60 per cent.; the
shades are richer and the impressions sharper. The colour requires no
subsequent treatment, and can therefore be printed on simultaneously with
most other colours.

_Obs._ Wool, silk, linen, and cotton, may each be dyed blue in the indigo
vat. The goods, after being passed through a weak alkaline solution, are
subjected to the action of the vat for about fifteen minutes; they are
then freely exposed to the air; the immersion in the vat and the exposure
are repeated until the colour becomes sufficiently deep. Wood and madder
improve the richness of the dye. Other deoxidising substances, besides
those above mentioned, may be used to effect the solution of the indigo;
thus a mixture of caustic soda, grape sugar, indigo, and water, is often
employed on the Continent for this purpose; and orpiment lime, and
pearlash are also occasionally used. When properly prepared, the indigo
vat may be kept in action for several months by the addition of one or
other of its constituents, as required. An excess of either copperas or
lime should be avoided.

2. Solution of sulphate of indigo is added to water, as required, and the
goods, previously boiled with alum, are then immersed in it, and the
boiling and immersion are repeated until the wool becomes sufficiently
dyed.

_Obs._ With this every shade of blue may be dyed, but it is most commonly
employed to give a ground to logwood blues. The colouring matter has
affinity for woollen and silk with or without ‘mordant,’ but none for
cotton. A solution of soluble indigo (sulphindylate of potassa or soda),
in water very slightly acid with sulphuric acid, imparts a very fine blue
to cloth, superior in tint to that given by the simple sulphate. See
DYEING, &c.

=INDIGO PUR′PLE.= _Syn._ PHŒNICINE. The name given by Mr Crum to the
purple precipitate obtained by filtration from a solution of indigo in
fuming sulphuric acid, when largely diluted with water.

=INDIGO RED.= _Syn._ INDIGO RESIN, RED RESIN OF INDIGO. This is prepared
by boiling alcohol (sp. gr. ·830), on powdered indigo previously exhausted
by digestion in dilute acids and in a strong alkaline solution. When
heated, it is converted into a white sublimate (deoxidised indigo red),
but recovers its red colour by the action of nitric acid.

=INDIGO WHITE.= _Syn._ INDIGOGENE, INDICYLE, REDUCED INDIGO, HYDROGENISED
I., HYDRATE OF I. Reduced or deoxidised indigo blue.

_Prep._ The yellow alkaline solution obtained by one or other of the
processes noticed under INDIGOTIN is carefully protected from the air,
both before and after precipitation with hydrochloric acid; and the
precipitate, after being rapidly washed with recently boiled distilled
water, or with very dilute sulphurous acid, is drained on a filter, dried
in vacuo, and then at once transferred to a well-stoppered bottle.

_Prop., &c._ A greyish-white mass of minute crystals, generally light blue
on the surface, and rapidly turning blue on exposure to the air; soluble
in alkalies, alcohol, and ether, to which it imparts a yellow colour.
These solutions deposit indigo blue on exposure to the air. A solution of
this substance constitutes the indigo vat of the dyer (see _above_).

=INDIGO′TIN.= _Syn._ CERULIN, INDIGO BLUE. This is the pure blue principle
of indigo. It appears to be the oxide of the same organic radical of which
indigo white is probably the hydrate.

_Prep._ 1. Indigo (in fine powder) is digested successively in dilute
hydrochloric acid, solution of potassa, and alcohol; the dried residuum is
crude indigotin.

2. Indigo (in fine powder), 1 part; green sulphate of iron, 2 parts;
hydrate of lime, 3 parts; water, 15 parts; mix, agitate occasionally until
the colour is destroyed, then decant the clear portion, precipitate with
dilute hydrochloric acid, and wash the powder first with water, and then
with boiling alcohol, until the latter ceases to acquire a yellow colour.

3. Caustic soda and grape sugar, of each 1 part; water, 20 parts; powdered
indigo, 5 parts; mix, and proceed as last. The above are essentially the
same as the indigo vat, but on the small scale.

4. The process for estimating the value of indigo given under INDIGO is a
good process for obtaining Indigotin.

_Obs._ The product from all the above exceeds 50% of the indigo operated
on.

5. (Taylor.) Powdered indigo, 2 parts; plaster of Paris, 1 part; water, q.
s. to reduce the mixture to a thin paste; spread the mass evenly upon an
oblong iron plate to the depth of about 1/8 inch, and dry it by a gentle
heat. It must then be held over the flame of a spirit lamp, when a
disgusting odour will be evolved, the mass will begin to smoke, and in a
few minutes will be covered with a heavy purple vapour, which will
condense into brilliant flattened prisms or plates of an intense copper
colour, forming a thick velvety coating over the surface immediately
exposed to the heat. Should the mass catch fire, it may be instantly
extinguished by a drop of water let fall upon it. _Prod._ 15 to 18%. See
INDIGO, &c.

=INDIUM.= IN. = 113·4. This very rare metal was discovered by means of the
spectroscope by Messrs Reich and Richter in a specimen of zinc-blende from
Freiberg, in 1863. Since then it has been found in the flue dust of some
zinc furnaces worked in the Hartz mountains, also in a black blende, known
as christophite, occurring in Saxony; in the Wolfranc of Zinnwald,
associated with zinc, as well as in Wolfranc alone; and also in the blende
met within steatite, near Schlaggenwald. In all of these substances the
indium is present in very minute quantity,[354] and is more or less
associated with lead, arsenic, cadmium, iron, and copper; its separation
from which is matter of no inconsiderable labour and difficulty.

[Footnote 354: In the flue dust of the zinc furnaces it is present to the
amount of about 0·1 per cent.; in christophite in the proportion of 0·0062
per cent.]

The following process for the detection of indium in zinc-blende, and its
extraction from the same source, is given by Winkler. Precipitate the
hydrochloric acid solution of the roasted ore with metallic zinc at the
boiling heat; dissolve the precipitate in nitro-hydrochloric acid; remove
the arsenic, cadmium, &c., by sulphuretted hydrogen, and precipitate the
indium as oxide by barium carbonate. Should this precipitate contain any
iron, it must be removed by resolution, heating with sodium sulphate, and
digestion with barium carbonate in a closed vessel. The indium may also be
precipitated from the original solution, either directly by barium
carbonate, or from a solution containing sulphuric acid, by neutralisation
with sodium carbonate, till a precipitate begins to form, and addition of
sodium acetate; it is then precipitated as a basic sulphate containing
zinc.”[355]

[Footnote 355: Various other processes are given in ‘Watts’ Dictionary.’]

Indium may be obtained in the metallic state from the reduction of its
oxide by means of hydrogen; charcoal or carbonaceous fluxes are not good
reducing agents, as their employment necessitates a very high temperature,
and loss from volatilisation occurs. Sodium is found to be the best
reducing agent when large quantities of the metal are required.

Böttger’s method is to precipitate the indium by zinc, to press the spongy
metal so obtained in hot water, then to submit it to pressure in a screw
press between filtering paper, and finally to melt it with cyanide of
potassium.

_Prop._ Indium is a soft, white, durable metal, somewhat resembling
cadmium, wholly destitute of crystalline structure. Its specific gravity,
which is 7·421 at 16·8° C., is not altered by rolling or hammering. When
heated in the air to 176° C., it melts without becoming oxidised; at a
temperature above this, however, it becomes covered with a coating of
suboxide, becoming gradually changed into the yellow sesquioxide. Indium
is less volatile than either cadmium or zinc. It dissolves slowly in
dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, hydrogen being given off. In
strong hydrochloric acid it dissolves rapidly. Nitric acid oxidises it,
evolving at the same time nitric oxide; whilst sulphuric acid converts it
into anhydrous sulphate.

When examined by means of the spectroscope, the flame of indium reveals
two brilliant bands——a violet and a blue one.

Indium is completely precipitated from a solution of its acetate, as well
as from neutral solutions of its salts in general, by sulphuretted
hydrogen. Ammonia, neutral sodium carbonate, and acid sodium carbonate,
throw down white precipitates insoluble in excess of the precipitant;
caustic potash and soda produce a white precipitate of indium hydrate,
soluble in excess. Barium carbonate precipitates it completely. Potassium
ferrocyanide gives a white precipitate.

_Estim._ “The most convenient method of estimating indium is by
precipitating it as hydrate with ammonia, dissolving the washed
precipitate in hot dilute nitric acid, evaporating, igniting, and weighing
the oxide thus obtained. Precipitation with sulphuretted hydrogen does not
give exact results on account of the solubility of the indium
sulphide.”[356]

[Footnote 356: Watts.]

Indium forms compounds with bromine, chlorine, iodine, oxygen, and with
several of the organic and inorganic acids.

=INDURA′TION.= In _pathology_, an increase in the consistence of any
portion of the body, usually resulting from chronic inflammation,
pressure, or friction.

=IN′FANCY.= “The domestic treatment of infants and children is comprised
in the application of the laws of health to the mother as well as to the
child. The position of parent is one of serious responsibility, both
morally and physically, and the edict has gone forth that ‘the sins of the
parent shall be visited on the children.’ If we could ensure good mothers,
we could vastly improve the race of men. The nursing mother of a sick
infant must, by following faithfully the rules of health in respect of the
four great hygienic principles——food, clothing, exercise, and
ablution——give health with her milk to her offspring; she must also pay
close attention to her mind, avoid all sources of irritation and anxiety,
and remember that an angry mother sours her milk, and produces a fractious
and often a diseased infant. I am quite of opinion that if mothers were
sound in constitution, and bestowed the requisite care upon the
maintenance of their health, we should hear little of diseases of
children. In children, as well as in parent, the rules of health must be
carried out,” and their neglect cannot fail to bring with it a heavy
retribution. (Eras. Wilson.) See EXERCISE, NURSING, &c.

=INFANT DEATH-RATE.= In England, according to Dr Farr, out of 1000 infants
born, 149 die annually before reaching their first year; and the same
authority tells us that 311 out of every 1000 die during the first month
in the same period. Amongst illegitimate children, the lives of one half
never exceed the first month.

The above figures represent the yearly average of infantile deaths
throughout the whole of England, when we come to the large cities the
mortality is notably higher. In Liverpool, for instance, out of 1000
children born, 239 died in their first year.

When we examine into the infant mortality prevailing amongst different
classes, we find the proportion existing between the death-rate of the
children of the nobility, and the general death-rate up to one year, to be
as 3 to 8.

In 1874, Mr Charles Ansell, jun., published a work entitled ‘Statistics of
Families of the Upper and Professional Classes,’ in which he showed, from
investigations into the deaths occurring amongst 48,000 children of the
wealthy, professional, and titled classes, that in the first year of life,
about 80 only of such children die out of every 1000. According to Dr
Farr, the northern countries of Europe show a much lower infant death-rate
than the southern ones. Infant mortality is lowest in Norway, and highest
in High Bavaria, where 404 infants per 1000 die in their first year. In
New York, in 1869, the mortality amongst infants under one year old was
27·4 per cent. and in 1873, 31·0 per cent.

Both in France and England the mortality prevailing amongst illegitimate
children up to the age of one year is very large. In 1860, the death-rate
amongst the foundlings of the Loire-Inférieure, was as much as 876 in the
1000, and it averages between 500 and 700 in France. In Wakefield, amongst
the same class of children, it was 26·22 per cent.; in Coventry, 40; in
Padstow, 50; and in Bantry, 80; in manufacturing towns the average is 35
per cent. In London the number of illegitimate children who die annually
under the age of a year is probably about 75 per cent.[357]

[Footnote 357: ‘Proceedings of the Obstetrical Society for 1870.’]

In the Montreal Foundling Asylum, out of 4060 infants, only 7 per cent.
lived one year. In the rural districts of England and also in Bavaria, the
average of deaths at one year is about the same for the illegitimate as
for the legitimate children.

In the ‘Transactions of the Obstetrical Society for 1870’ there is a
valuable and interesting report, throwing much light on the condition and
treatment of the children of the poor in England. The following is the
substance of this report, the information contained in which was collected
by various members of the society:——It was found that amongst the poorer
populations of villages 30 to 90 per cent. are attended by midwives, and
that this custom prevails to an almost equal extent in the large
provincial and manufacturing towns. Thus in Glasgow, 75 per cent., in
Coventry, 90 per cent.; and in Leeds and Sheffield, equally large numbers
of the population employ the services of these women. In Edinburgh the
midwife is rarely called on; neither is she in the West End of London; but
in the East End 30 to 50 per cent. of the accouchements are undertaken by
women.

Except in Glasgow, Sheffield, and London, the women are asserted to be
totally ignorant and incompetent to meet any difficulty that might arise.
In country districts the pernicious custom of giving an aperient to a
newly born babe was very general, but less prevalent in London and the
large towns. Amongst the married poor, suckling was found to be the rule;
and it seemed to be pretty conclusively proved that it is often
unreasonably prolonged for eighteen months or even two years, as a
preventive to renewed pregnancy. It was found, however, that illegitimate
children were rarely suckled, but almost always fed on artificial food.
Amongst the married poor also it appears universal to give the children
artificial food as well as the breast, and this from a very early and
tender age. Further, it was found that the food was generally unsuited to
the child both in quantity and quality. It consisted chiefly of bread
soaked in water and milk, and sweetened, of arrow-root, sago and corn
flour, and such like objectionable substances.

In one case the mother admitted to giving her infant (who was a few months
old only) a diet similar to that she herself partook of, viz.——cheese,
bread, meat, salt fish, heavy pastry, vegetables and beer. Amongst the
upper classes it was ascertained that there is an increasing tendency
amongst mothers to discontinue lactation, and to employ instead the
services of a wet nurse; and where this was not done, it was found that
the food partaken of by the babe was much more judiciously chosen than is
the case amongst the poorer women. Mr Curquiven and others observed that a
large number of women in London do not suckle their offspring, because of
a deficient secretion of milk. It is satisfactory to find that both in the
manufacturing and agricultural districts, the children of the poor are so
constantly in the open air; but equally unsatisfactory to learn that at
night they sleep in ill-ventilated and over crowded dormitories. The
infant is encouraged to sleep to the utmost, and should it fail in
securing renewed slumber (its waking being attributed to a desire for
food), is very often dosed with gin, syrup of poppies, and paregoric.
Another plan adopted for keeping infants quiet, consisted in letting them
remain in the cradles and allowing them to suck the nipple attached to the
empty feeding bottle, long after the food had been consumed; a practice
that gives rise to infantile dyspepsia.

As regards cleanliness, it was learnt that poor people’s children are
tolerably well attended to in this respect, or rather that the baby
generally comes in for a larger share of ablution than the elder ones, who
are sometimes much neglected in the matter of soap and water. The clothing
of the little ones was much too scanty, and this was the case no matter
what the season of the year. A prevalent practice, except in the
agricultural villages, was that of giving the children cordials, spirits,
and medicines.

A still worse custom was found to be the systematic administration of
opiates. At Long Sutton, in Lincolnshire, which has a population of 6000,
one chemist alone sold 25-1/2 gallons yearly of Godfrey’s cordial (a
mixture principally consisting of treacle and opium), whilst 6-1/2 pints
were got rid of weekly by another chemist in the same town. This
administration of anodynes was mostly confined to illegitimate infants,
and factory children placed out to nurse. A habit not unusual was that of
an intentional deferring sending for a doctor when the child was first
seized with illness, medical advice being only sought when in many cases
it could be of no avail. Desertion by fathers and mothers of their
children, especially of illegitimate ones, as well as concealment of birth
and infanticide, were found to be much more general in London and the
larger cities than in the country.

The causes of the high rate of infant mortality prevailing amongst the
poor, seem very clearly indicated in the above abstract. For instance, the
deaths of nearly half the children under one year of age are referable to
diarrhœa, convulsions, atrophy, mesenteric disease, and allied disorders;
all of which maladies are caused by the grossly erroneous and unsuitable
diet upon which the children are fed. In the article “Infants’ Food,” we
have already pointed out that the proper and only safe aliment for an
infant up to the age of eight or nine months is the maternal milk, and
failing this, the pure and unadulterated milk of the cow; and we have
furthermore shown that the admission into the dietary of infants even
above nine months old, of farinaceous foods, should be regulated with
great caution. Yet we learn from the above report, that in the early days
of the infants’ existence, amongst the poor the breast milk is in most
cases supplemented by large quantities of these very farinaceous matters,
which we have shown to be so prejudicial and dangerous. That the deaths
from these causes are clearly preventable, in a large measure, if not
wholly, is proved by the very much less extent in which they occur amongst
the higher classes, who use much greater judgment in the selection of
their children’s food. Another important factor in the high infant
death-rate is the extensive use of narcotics, a practice there is no doubt
which yearly carries off a large number of infants, by poisoning, more or
less prolonged. Inadequate clothing is likewise another source of
mortality amongst the very young, whose tender frames easily succumb to
inclement weather, and the sudden changes of temperature occurring in our
variable climate. Hence we shall have no difficulty in understanding why
pneumonia, bronchitis, &c., should be so prevalent among poor children.
The habits of overcrowding and bad ventilation which prevail amongst the
poor must also be fertile sources of disease amongst their offspring——the
more immediate effect of such violations of sanitary principles resulting
in bronchitis. That the extensive recourse by the poor to uneducated and
unskilful midwives, also adds to infant mortality, seems indisputable.

In the report already alluded to, beyond reference to the fact that
infanticide was rare, we find no mention made as to the number of violent
deaths occurring amongst infants. It appears that about a sixteenth of the
mortality amongst infants under one year old is due to violence, mostly
accidental, the great majority of such deaths being caused by the mother
lying upon and smothering her babe. These misadventures are said to occur
mostly on Saturday nights, and raise the question as to whether a large
proportion of such deaths are not due to the drunkenness of the mothers,
who retire to rest in a state of alcoholic stupor.[358]

[Footnote 358: Blythe.]

The inference, we think, to be drawn from the above statements is, that
the preponderating mortality prevailing amongst the children of the poor
is due to ignorance and poverty, and not to intentional neglect or want of
parental affection. Bearing in mind that poor women much more frequently
suckle their babes than rich ones, it might perhaps be argued that this
was evidence of greater maternal solicitude, and that, therefore, the poor
mother exhibits more natural affection than the lady who consigns her
offspring to the arms of the wet-nurse; but, possibly, were the
circumstances of the two inverted, the lady might be found giving her
infant the breast, whilst the humbler wife might call in the services of
the wet-nurse; neither of them perhaps reflecting that, in choosing the
latter alternative, they were depriving another little human unit of the
maternal sustenance, and exposing it to the dangers of vicarious nurture
and supervision. What these dangers are that beset the children of the
poor when removed from their mother, the revelations of baby-farming and
the appalling statistics of illegitimate infant mortality serve very
forcibly to illustrate. For every 311 legitimate children of all classes
500 illegitimate out of every 1000 die each year under one month old, this
large increase being due to cruel neglect and substitution of bad,
insufficient, and improper food for the maternal milk. That in their own
homes they are exposed to the serious hardships arising from errors in
diet has already been shown, but in their own homes they die at little
more than half this rate; hence the deduction is unavoidable that half of
these poor little waifs perish because they are deprived of the care and
solicitude of the mother.

Writing on this subject M. Hanon says that of 59,927 infants born in
Paris, 20,049 are sent into the country to nurses. Of those children that
remain in Paris, and that are so rarely suckled by their mothers, no less
than 8250 die from 0-1 year, which gives a death-rate of 243 per 1000
births. As to the mortality of the unfortunate infants, 20,049 in number,
sent off to nurse, this amounts to 500 or 700 per 1000 in the first year
of life.

We extract the following from the ‘Echo’ of October 9th, 1878:

        “ALLEGED BABY-FARMING.

“Dr Hardwicke, the coroner for Central Middlesex, held an inquest at the
Islington Coroner’s Court, Holloway Road, this morning, relative to the
death of the female child of Emily Corley, a servant at 49, Gower Street,
Euston Road. Mr Baby, the inspector under the Infants Life Protection Act,
watched the case. The mother of the child had gone to service as a wet
nurse after coming out of the workhouse, leaving it with one Ann Leach,
who said it was a very delicate child. She added that she had for a time
two children under one year of age with her, and had been told that this
was contrary to the Act. The inspector under the Infant Life Protection
Act pointed out that persons having more than one child to nurse under a
year old had to obtain a licence. The coroner characterised the Act
as a mere farce. It left children to take care of themselves after they
were twelve months old——the most critical time of their existence. He also
remarked on how prolific a source of prostitution such cases as the
present were, where mothers had to forsake their own illegitimate
offspring, depriving them of breast milk in order that they might sell it
to the rich. The jury found that the child died from exhaustion following
from diarrhœa, accelerated by want of breast milk.”

=INFANTS, Food for.= For the newly-born and very young of all mammiferous
animals, no food is so expressly and admirably adapted as that drawn from
the mother. In the nourishment of the babe from the maternal breast lies
the soundest condition for its physical well-being and growth, subject to
the qualification that the mother must be in good health, which, of
course, implies that she must be well fed. This latter essential
fulfilled, it is very wonderful to note how nature makes provision for the
proper nourishment of the offspring by converting even a weakly and
frequently ailing mother into a strong one during the period of suckling.

There may be, and doubtless are, many circumstances in which lactation
cannot be practised with safety either to mother or child; but, where such
circumstances do not exist, the practice of seeking the vicarious services
of the wet-nurse, or of having recourse to other than the maternal milk,
for many reasons, calls for remonstrance and reproof.

We may emphasise this by the following quotation from Dr West’s admirable
work, ‘Diseases of Infancy and Childhood.’ He says: “The infant whose
mother refuses to perform towards it a mother’s part, or who by accident,
disease, or death is deprived of the food that nature destined for it, too
often languishes and dies. Such children you may see with no fat to give
plumpness to their limbs——no red particles in their blood to impart a
healthy hue to the skin, their face wearing in infancy the lineaments of
age; the voice a constant wail; their whole aspect an embodiment of woe.
But give to such children the food that nature destined for them, and if
the remedy do not come too late to save them, the mournful cry will cease,
the face will assume a look of content, by degrees the features will
disclose themselves, the limbs will grow round, the skin pure red and
white.”

But although the maternal aliment (or, failing this, that supplied from
the breast of a young and healthy wet-nurse, who has been recently
confined) is undoubtedly the best adapted for infantile nutrition, it
fortunately happens that in circumstances where the infant is unable to be
fed from either of these sources, we have a very valuable substitute in
the milk of the cow, the similarity of which, in composition to woman’s
milk, will be seen at once by studying the following table arranged by Dr
Letheby:

  --------------+---------------------------+--------
                |      Woman’s Milk.        |  Cow’s
                |                           |  Milk.
  --------------+--------+--------+---------+--------
                |   Max. |   Min. | Average.| Average.
  Casein        |   4·36 |   2·97 |  3·52   |   3·64
  Butter        |   5·18 |   4·45 |  4·02   |   3·55
  Sugar of Milk |   4·43 |   3·29 |  4·27   |   4·70
  Various salts |   0·26 |   0·38 |  0·28   |   0·81
                +--------+--------+---------+--------
  Total solids  |  14·20 |  11·09 |  12·09  |  12·70
  Water         |  85·80 |  88·91 |  87·91  |  87·30
                +--------+--------+---------+--------
      Total     | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00  | 100·00
  --------------+--------+--------+---------+--------

The milk of the cow being rather richer in solids than that of woman, it
is considered desirable to somewhat dilute the former when it is used as
food for the infant. Dr Letheby recommends the addition to it of a third
of water, with a little sugar to sweeten it, and to render it more
acceptable to the baby palate. It cannot be too forcibly insisted upon
that immeasurably the best and safest food for an infant, next to human
milk, is the milk of the cow, _and nothing else_, until it reaches the age
of eight or nine months. It is perhaps needless to state that the milk
must be perfectly pure and unadulterated, and that it will fail of being
this if yielded by an unhealthy cow. The animal’s food and habitat also
exercise an important influence on the quality of the milk, that given by
grass-fed cows roaming in open pastures undoubtedly being the best and
richest.

Different cows yield different qualities of milk; hence, when milk from
any particular cow suits an infant, it has been found desirable not to
change it.

The newer and fresher the milk the better is it adapted for the child’s
use; that which has in the least become soured should be especially
rejected.

Sometimes even fresh and good milk is found to disagree with a child. When
this is the case it may be remedied by adding a little lime water to it
previous to its being drunk. If it were practicable, and within the means
of every family to keep their own cow, so that the infant could be fed
with the milk directly it came from the animal, nature’s example in giving
it direct from the mother’s breast might be followed. The writer
remembers, some years ago, the Princess of Wales travelling with her baby
on a voyage to and from Denmark, and being accompanied by her bovine
purveyor in the shape of an Alderney.

In hot weather, more particularly, if milk be kept even for a short time
it is liable to become acid, or “to turn,” as it is called. It is,
therefore, always desirable to keep it in a cool cellar till required for
use, and in very hot weather it should be stood in ice.

The daily allowance of milk for a child during the first month of its life
is two or three pints. M. Guillot says 2-1/2 lbs. avoirdupois is the
least the babe can properly subsist on. He weighed several infants before
and after they had taken the breast, and found that they had gained in
weight, in quantities varying from 2 oz. to 5 oz.

Opinion is divided as to the value of condensed cows’ milk as a food for
infants. Its chief merit seems to be that it affords a substitute for the
natural milk in cases where this latter is not obtainable, or where, in
consequence of disease amongst the cows of a neighbourhood, it cannot with
safety be consumed. Since the maternal fluid, without undergoing
alteration or modification, forms so perfect and model a food for infants,
it does not seem an unreasonable inference that the milk from the cow,
which so nearly approaches it in composition and qualities, should prove
most advantageous when partaken of under similar conditions. It has been
asserted that condensed milk is inferior in strengthening qualities to the
natural cows’ milk. If this be the case it is certainly not due, according
to Mr Wanklyn, to any removal of the constituents of the latter. In his
useful little work on ‘Milk Analysis’ Mr Wanklyn says: “A year ago a
report was spread that these preserved milks were preserved skim-milk, and
not preserved new milk. I have myself examined the principal brands of
preserved and condensed milk, which are in the London market, and find
that the milk which has been condensed, or condensed and preserved, had
been charged with its due proportion of fat.”

The physiological facts that in an early stage of infancy the digestion is
very feeble, and that until an infant has cut its first teeth there is but
little, if any, secretion of saliva, which latter is essential for the
conversion in the system of starch into sugar, point, therefore, to the
imprudence of feeding very young infants upon so-called “infants’ foods,”
where these consist of amylaceous substances. The starch of which these
latter are composed not only fails to become assimilated, and therefore to
produce no nutrient effect, but clogs up the lower parts of the bowels,
and thus gives rise to a train of evils, amongst which may be included
indigestion, diarrhœa, vomiting, and not infrequently convulsions and
death.

The difference in the mortality between infants under one year of age who
annually die of convulsions in England and Scotland is attributed to the
fact that whereas the English mother feeds her offspring on thick
spoon-food, the Scotch woman nourishes hers from the breast. In ‘The
Fourteenth detailed Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Scotland’ it
is stated that “The English practice of stuffing their babes with
spoon-meat occasioned the death by convulsions of 23,198 children under
one year of age during the year 1868, out of 786,858 births; in other
words, caused 1 death from convulsions in every 34 of the children born
during the year in England. In Scotland, during the same year, only 312
infants under one year of age fell victims to convulsions out of 115,514
children born during the year; in other words, 1 death from convulsions in
every 370 born during the year.”

When a child has reached the age of eight or nine months the judicious use
of farinaceous foods is not only unobjectionable but desirable; but even
then it is most important to increase the quantity of the food very
cautiously with the age, as well as to see that it has been well baked and
afterwards boiled before being partaken of. In all cases it should be
mixed with the milk.

When the child has reached the age of twenty months Dr Letheby advises the
quantity of farinaceous food to be still further increased, and with a
little egg given in the form of pudding until it attains its third year.
At this period the child’s diet may also include bread and butter, and at
the end of it well-boiled potato with a little meat gravy.

From the third to the fifth year he prescribes a small quantity of meat,
and at the end of the ninth year the usual food of the family. During all
these periods the use of milk as an important article of the dietary is
enforced.

The following table by the late Dr Edward Smith, exhibiting the
proportions between the daily quantities of carbon and nitrogen required
at different periods of human existence, illustrates the great
preponderance of nitrogen demanded by the infant over those who succeed
him in the scale of age:

                          Carbon.  Nitrogen.
  In infancy               69        6·72
  At ten years of age      48        2·81
  At sixteen years of age  30        2·16
  At adult life            23        1·04
  In middle life           25        1·13

See MILK.

=IN′FANTS′ PRESER′VATIVE.= (Atkinson’s.) Carbonate of magnesia, 6 dr.;
white sugar, 2-1/2 oz.; oil of aniseed, 20 drops; compound spirit of
ammonia and rectified spirit, of each 2-1/2 fl. dr.; laudanum, 1 fl. dr.;
syrup of saffron, 1 oz.; caraway water, q. s. to make the whole measure 1
pint. Antacid, anodyne, and hypnotic.

=INFEC′TION.= _Syn._ CONTAGION. The communication of disease, either by
personal contact with the sick or by means of effluvia arising from their
bodies. Attempts have been made to restrict the term contagion to the
former, and infection to the latter, but this distinction is now discarded
by the majority of writers. The following are the principal diseases which
are commonly regarded as contagious:——Chicken-pox, cholera, cow-pox,
dysentery, erysipelas, glanders, gonorrhœa, hooping-cough, hydrophobia,
itch, measles, mumps, ophthalmia (purulent), plague, scald-head, scarlet
fever, smallpox, syphilis, yaws. See DISINFECTANT, &c.

=INFLAM′MABLE AIR.= See HYDROGEN.

=INFLAMMA′TION.= _Syn._ INFLAMMATIO, L. In _pathology_, a certain state of
disease. The common symptoms of inflammation are pain, swelling, heat, and
redness, attended with fever, and general constitutional derangement when
severe.

The treatment of inflammations, whether trifling; or serious, is
essentially the same in principle, and only differs in degree. This
consists in the adoption of the usual means for lowering the force of the
circulation and the frequency of the pulse; of which leeching, purging, a
low diet, and the use of refrigerant drinks and lotions, form the most
important part. The constitutional derangement or symptomatic inflammatory
fever, and inflammatory condition of the blood always accompany local
inflammation, and progress with its intensity. In inflammations of a more
purely local character, cupping or leeching the part immediately affected,
or the parts adjacent to it, is in general more appropriate and
successful. In these cases the application of refrigerant or sedative
lotions, baths, &c., generally proves of much advantage. In cases in which
there is induration or dryness of the part, the use of warm embrocations
is indicated.

Inflammation often arises from apparently very trifling causes,
particularly in persons of a full or bad habit of body, or who indulge in
the free use of malt liquors. In some persons a very trifling local
injury, as a slight abrasion, cut, prick, or sprain, produces a
considerable amount of tumefaction, attended with severe constitutional
excitement. Punctured wounds, sprains, and dislocations commonly furnish
the most serious cases of inflammation that depend on mere external
injury.[359] See ABSCESS, FEVER, TUMOUR, &c.

[Footnote 359: In all inflammatory cases of a serious nature, the reader
is strongly advised to commit himself to the care of a medical
practitioner.]

=Inflammation of the Bowels.= The common causes are incautious exposure to
cold, the use of improper food, and the presence of acrid substances or
hardened fæces in the bowels. The more constant symptoms are pain over the
abdomen, thirst, heat, and extensive restlessness and anxiety; sickness,
obstinate constipation, and a hard, small, quick pulse. In the later
stages the pain and tenderness of the abdomen, especially around the
navel, become excessive, and there is difficult micturition. In some cases
the pain suddenly ceases, the belly becomes tumid, the pulse scarcely
perceptible, the countenance ghastly, and the patient dies in a few hours.
The treatment consists in blisters, leeches to the abdomen, hot bath and
fomentations, aperient clysters, and mercurial purges; with effervescing
draughts and opium to allay sickness, followed by diaphoretic salines and
gentle aperients. See STOMACH AFFECTIONS, &c.

=INFLAMMATORY FE′VER.= See FEVER and INFLAMMATION.

=INFLUEN′ZA.= See CATARRH.

=INFU′SION.= _Syn._ INFUSUM, INFUSIO, L. A liquid medicine, prepared by
macerating vegetable or animal substances in water, at any temperature
below that of ebullition.

The mode of preparing infusions is, with most substances, precisely
similar to that pursued for making the almost universal beverage——TEA. The
ingredients are commonly placed in a stoneware pot or vessel (an ‘infusion
pot’), previously made hot; boiling water is then poured over them, and
the cover being placed on, the whole is allowed to digest together, at
first, for a short time, in a warm situation, as on the hob or the fender,
and afterwards (the vessel being removed from the heat) until the whole
becomes cold. The liquid is then poured from the ingredients, and the
latter, being slightly pressed, if necessary, the infusion is strained
through a piece of clean linen or a hair sieve for use. During the
digestion the ingredients should be occasionally stirred, an important
matter often neglected, and not even referred to by most pharmaceutical
writers.

The substances employed for making infusions receive the same preliminary
treatment as those intended for making DECOCTIONS. Shavings, leaves, and
flowers require no previous preparation beyond being pulled asunder; but
roots, woods, and other solid substances must be bruised or sliced, if in
the green or recent state, or bruised or coarsely pulverised, if dry, for
the purpose of exposing as large a surface as possible to the action of
the menstruum.

The substances extracted by water from vegetables by infusion are chiefly
gum, mucus extractive, tannin, certain vegetable acids, the bitter and
narcotic principles, gum-resin, essential oil, and alkaloids. Some of
these substances are only sparingly soluble in water at ordinary
temperatures; but more readily so in hot water, and freely soluble in
boiling water. The temperature of the water should be therefore
proportioned to the nature of the vegetable matter operated on. For mere
‘demulcent infusions,’ in which starch and gum are the chief substances
sought to be dissolved out, and when the active principle is scarcely
soluble in water, unless at nearly the boiling temperature, boiling water
alone should be employed; but when the medicinal virtues of vegetables are
soluble in water at lower temperatures, it is better to employ hot water
(165° to 175° Fahr.), and to allow a little longer period for the
digestion. In many cases temperate water (from 60° to 70° Fahr.), or tepid
water (from 80° to 90° Fahr.), may be used with advantage, especially in
the preparation of ‘aromatic bitter infusions,’ and in most cases where it
is wished that the product should contain as little inert matter as
possible; but when water at low temperatures is employed, the period of
the maceration must be proportionately increased. By adopting the method
of maceration in vacuo, or in an atmosphere of carbonic acid, the
menstruum may be allowed to lay in contact with the vegetable matter for
an unlimited period, without decomposition taking place.

Infusions, like decoctions, are liable to undergo spontaneous
decomposition by keeping, especially in warm weather, when a few hours are
often sufficient for their passage into a state of active fermentation;
they should, therefore, when possible, be prepared for use daily, as
beyond twenty-four hours they cannot be depended on. The London College
directs a pint only to be made at a time, thus very properly regarding
them as extemporaneous preparations.

CONCENTRATED INFUSIONS, now so common in the shops, and, unfortunately, so
generally used in dispensing, are either made by taking 8 times the
quantity of the ingredients ordered in the pharmacopœia, and then
proceeding in the usual manner, or by the method of displacement; or, by
carefully and rapidly concentrating the simple infusions, by evaporation
in a steam or salt-water bath, until reduced to about 1-7th of the
original quantity. In either case the liquid is put into a strong bottle,
without being filtered, and 10 to 12% of rectified spirit added to it,
whilst still hot. The cork is then put in and secured down, and the whole
agitated for some minutes, after which it is set aside for a week, when
the clear portion is carefully decanted from the sediment for sale.
Another method, which answers well with the aromatic bitter vegetables, is
to take 8 times the usual quantity of the ingredients, and to exhaust them
with a mixture of rectified spirits, 1 part, and distilled water, 3 parts;
by digestion, or, better still, by percolation. Concentrated infusions
made in this way keep well, and deposit scarcely any sediment. Many houses
that are remarkable for the ‘brilliancy’ and beauty of these preparations,
employ 1/3 spirit of wine and 2/3 water as the menstruum. It may, however,
be taken, as a general rule, that for vegetable substances that abound in
woody fibre, and contain little extractive matter soluble in water (as
quassia, for instance), 1/6 to 1/5 part of spirit is sufficient for their
preservation; whilst for those abounding in mucilage or fecula, or that
readily soften and become pulpy and glutinous in weak spirit (as rhubarb),
1/5 to 1/3 is required.

By adopting the method originally suggested by Mr Alsop, infusions may be
preserved, uninjured, for a year or longer, without the addition of spirit
or any other substance. The only precaution necessary is to keep them in
bottles, perfectly filled and hermetically sealed.[360] Our own plan is to
put a few bruised cloves or seeds of black mustard into the bottles, which
must be only 2-3rds filled, then completely fill them with a condensed
atmosphere of carbonic acid gas; and, lastly, to stopper them and seal
them over, so as to perfectly exclude the air. A pint of decoction of
sarsaparilla and 1/2 pint of infusion of calumba, treated in this way,
kept good for fully 9 years. By simply macerating in the infusion as much
bruised mustard seed as can be added without flavouring the liquor, along
with a little bruised cloves, we find that most vegetable infusions may be
preserved in bottles which are occasionally uncorked, without either
fermenting or becoming mouldy, by the use of very little spirit (1/9 or
1/10).

[Footnote 360: ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ i, 57.]

Before adding the spirit to infusions made with cold water, or with water
which is only tepid, it is advisable to heat the liquid to about 185°
Fahr., in a water bath, and after keeping it at that temperature for a few
minutes, and allowing it again to become cold, to separate it from the
precipitated matter, either by filtration or decantation.

It is often very difficult to render vegetable infusions and decoctions
perfectly transparent, a quality always expected in the concentrated
preparations. Defecation by repose is always better than filtration, owing
to the more or less viscidity of the suspended matter. When this is not
sufficient, they may be clarified with white of egg (2 or 3 to the gall.),
previously beaten up with 5 or 6 fl. oz. of water. Most of the vegetable
infusions and decoctions will readily pass the filter, after a very small
quantity of acetic, nitric, or sulphuric acid has been added to them. The
most obstinate may be rendered ‘brilliant,’ or ‘candle bright,’ as the
‘cellarmen’ call it, by shaking them up, first with about a drachm of
dilute sulphuric acid, and afterwards with the whites of 3 or 4 eggs,
previously mixed with a few ounces of water, for each gallon of the
liquid. This plan is, however, objectionable for many medicinal
preparations.

As many infusions which are occasionally employed in medicine must
necessarily escape being separately noticed in this work, it may be as
well to remark that the infusions of all vegetables that do not exert a
very powerful action on the human frame as ordinary herbs and roots may be
made by pouring 1 pint of boiling water on 1 oz. of the vegetable matter,
and allowing it to macerate for 1/2 an hour to an hour. The decoctions of
the same vegetables may be made by simply boiling the above ingredients,
in the same proportions, for 10 or 15 minutes, instead of operating by
mere infusion. With substances of somewhat greater activity, only half the
above quantity should be taken; whilst, with the narcotic plants and those
possessing great activity, 1 to 2 dr. to water, 1 pint, will be the proper
quantity. The ordinary dose of such infusions and decoctions is 1/2 to 1
wine-glassful (1 to 2 fl. oz.), two, three, or four times a day, as the
case may indicate.

Infusion is preferred for all bodies of a delicate texture, which readily
yield their active principles to water; and especially when these are
either volatile or liable to be injured by the heat of ebullition.

The simple infusions are now less frequently made by the druggist than
formerly. In most cases he merely furnishes the ingredients, and the
infusions are prepared by either the nurse or patient, by whom they are
commonly called ‘TEAS,’

⁂ The following list embraces most of the infusions used in prescribing or
noticed in books. Where the proportions of the ingredients are not given,
1 oz. of the medicinal substance and 1 pint of boiling water are to be
taken, and the dose is that referred to above.

=Infusion of Agrim′ony.= _Syn._ AGRIMONY TEA; INFUSUM AGRIMONII, L. From
the fresh tops before the flowers are formed. Vermifuge.——_Dose._ A
teacupful 3 or 4 times a day; also used as an astringent gargle and
lotion. For internal use, an equal weight of liquorice root (sliced) is
commonly added.

=Infusion of Al′kaline.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ALKALINUM, L. _Prep._ (Beasley.)
Hickory ash, 1 pint; wood soot, 1/4 pint; boiling water, 1 gall.; in 24
hours decant the clear. “A popular remedy in America for dyspepsia with
acidity.”

=Infusion of Alkaline.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ALKALINUM. _Prep._ Hickory ash, 1
lb.; wood soot, 1/4 lb.; boiling water, 1/2 gall. Let them stand 24 hours,
and decant. A wine-glassful three or four times a day. This is simply
another form of the previous preparation.

=Infusion of Al′oes.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ALOËS, D. _Prep._ 1. From hepatic or
Socotrine aloes (in powder), 2 dr.; carbonate of potassa, 1-1/2 dr.;
boiling water, 1 pint.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM ALOËS COMPOSITUM, L.)——_a._ As the COMPOUND
DECOCTION OF A. (Ph. L.), but using only a pint of boiling water.

_b._ (Fothergill.) Calumba and rhubarb, of each, 1 oz.; aloes, 2 dr.; lime
water, 16 fl. oz.; spirit of horseradish, 1 fl. oz.; macerate in the cold
for 12 hours, and strain. The last three, like the decoction, are
aperient, antacid, stomachic, tonic, and emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 1
tablespoonful to a small wine-glassful, in water. The last one is an
admirable medicine in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, and troublesome
constipation.

=Infusion of Amer′ican Calum′ba.= _Syn._ INFUSUM FRASERÆ, L. From the
dried root of American calumba (_Frasera Carolinensis_). A pure, powerful,
and excellent bitter, destitute of aroma, and fully equal to gentian.
(Lindley.)

=Infusion of Amer′ican Cen′taury.= _Syn._ INFUSUM SABATII, L. From the
herb (_Sabbatia angularis_). A pure bitter tonic, without astringency or
aroma.

=Infusion of Amer′ican Sen′na.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CASSIÆ MARYLANDICÆ, L.
_Prep._ (Martin.) Leaves of American or wild senna (_Cassia Marylandica_),
1-1/2 oz.; coriander seed, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint. Purgative.

=Infusion of Angel′ica.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ANGELICÆ, L. From the root of
garden angelica. A warm stomachic and diaphoretic; and, in large doses,
aperient. It is a popular remedy in dyspepsia, flatulent colic, and
heartburn.

=Infusion of Aniseed.= _Syn._ ANISEED TEA; INFUSUM ANISI, L. Carminative;
an excellent adjunct to purgatives, to prevent griping; given to infants
to relieve colic, &c. Dr Prout recommends the use of water at 120° or 125°
Fahr.

=Infusion, Antiscorbu′tic.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ANTISCORBUTICUM, MISTURA
ANTISCORBUTICA, L. _Prep._ Water trefoil (_Menyanthes trifoliata_), 1 oz.;
orange peel, 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 quart; infuse for 8 or 10 hours,
strain, and add of compound spirit of horseradish, 5 fl. oz. In scurvy.

=Infusion of Ar′nica.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ARNICÆ, L. 1. From the flowers of
mountain arnica or German leopard’s bane (_Arnica montana_). Cottereau
orders 1 oz., Dr Pereira 1/2 oz., and Dr A. T. Thomson, 1/4 oz. of the
flowers to the pint. The first is the usual quantity. The dose of the
first is a tablespoonful; of the second, 1/2 to 1 fl. oz.; of third, 1/2
to 1 wine-glassful.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM ARNICÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Ph. Copenh.) Flowers of
arnica, 1 dr.; peppermint, 2 dr.; chamomiles, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1/2
pint.——_Dose_, 1 fl. oz. As the last.

=Infusion of Arnica-root.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ARNICSÆ RADICIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
Castr. Ruth.) Arnica root, 40 gr.; water, 1 lb.——_Dose_, 1 fl. oz. As the
above.

=Infusion, Astrin′gent.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ASTRINGENS, MISTURA A., L. _Prep._
1. From oak-bark.

2. Infusion of cusparia, 17 fl. oz.; tincture of catechu or kino, 1 fl.
oz.; powdered ipecacuanha, 1 dr.; powdered opium, 12 gr.; mix. In
diarrhœa, &c. It must be well shaken before pouring out the dose.

=Infusion of Balm.= _Syn._ INFUSUM MELISSÆ, L. _Prep._ (Plenck.) Fresh
herb, 5 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse for fifteen minutes.

=Infusion of Aya-pana, Compound= (Dr Camera). _Syn._ INFUSUM AYÆ-PANÆ
COMPOSITUM. _Prep._ Leaves of Brazilian aya-pana, 2 dr.; aniseed, 1 dr.;
boiling water, 2 pints.

=Infusion of Bar′berry.= _Syn._ INFUSUM BARBERIS, L. _Prep._ (Dr Copland.)
From the bark of the barberry shrub (_Berberis vulgaris_). In jaundice,
biliary fluxes, and other cases where heat and acrimony prevail; either
alone or combined with a little carbonate of soda or potassa, and tincture
of calumba.

=Infusion of Bark.= See INFUSION OF CINCHONA.

=Infusion of Bay-leaves.= _Syn._ INFUSUM LAURI, I. LAURI NOBILIS, L. From
the leaves or the berries of the sweet bay (_Laurus nobilis_). Aromatic,
stimulant, and emmenagogue; in very large doses, emetic and poisonous. It
is chiefly given in colic, flatulence, paralysis of the extremities, and
obstructed menstruation.

=Infusion of Bearberry= (B. P.) _Syn._ INFUSUM UVÆ URSI. _Prep._ Infuse
bearberry leaves, bruised, 1/2 oz.; in boiling distilled water, 10 oz.; in
a covered vessel for 2 hours, and strain.

=Infusion of Beef.= See ESSENCE, TEA, &c.

=Infusion of Belladon′na.= _Syn._ INFUSUM BELLADONNÆ. L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr
Paris.) Leaves of deadly nightshade (dried), 4 gr.; boiling water, 2 fl.
oz.; for a dose.

2. (Compound;——Dr Saunders.) Leaves (dried), 1/2 dr.; boiling water, 12
fl. oz.; infuse, strain, and to every 7 fl. oz. of the infusion add of
compound tincture of cardamoms, 1 fl. oz.

=Infusion of Bis′tort.= _Syn._ INFUSUM BISTORTÆ, L. _Prep._ (Radius.)
Bistort or snake-weed root (_Poligonum Bistorta_), 1/2 oz.; boiling water,
1 pint; infuse 2 hours, and strain. In passive hæmorrhages.

=Infusion of Black Snake-root.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CIMICIFUGÆ RACEMOSÆ, L. In
dropsy, rheumatism, and chest complaints.

=Infusion of Blessed Thistle.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CARDUI BENEDICTI, L. From
the whole herb. In small doses it is diaphoretic; in larger ones, tonic,
stomachic, and deobstruent; taken warm, it is occasionally given to
promote the action of emetics. The properties of carduus benedictus “are
such as to lead us to the belief that it has been superseded by other not
more efficacious remedies.” (Lindley.)

=Infusion of Blood-root.= _Syn._ INFUSION OF PUCCOON; INFUSUM SANGUINARIÆ,
L. _Prep._ Blood-root (_Sanguinaria Canadensis_), 1/2 oz.; boiling water,
1 pint. Stimulant and emetic.

=Infusion of Blue Flag.= _Syn._ INFUSUM IRIDIS VERSICOLORIS, L. _Prep._ 1.
From the flowers of blue flag (_Iris versicolor_).——2. From the root of
rhizomes. The first is used chiefly for its rich colour, as a test, &c.;
the second is diuretic and cathartic, and apt to produce distressing
nausea and prostration.

=Infusion of Bone′set.= _Syn._ INFUSUM EUPATORII, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. U.
S.) From the dried leaves and flowers of boneset or thorough-wort
(_Eupatorium perfoliatum_). Diaphoretic, nauseant, and emetic when warm;
tonic when cold.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM EUPATORII COMPOSITUM, L.——Ellis.) Boneset and sage,
of each 1/2 oz.; cascarilla, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; infuse
until cold, and strain. In hectic fever. A wine-glassful of either of the
above, given hourly, in these diseases, until perspiration and nausea are
induced, has been highly recommended in influenza.

=Infusion of Braz′il-wood.= _Syn._ INFUSUM LIGNI BRASILINSIS, L. From
ground or rasped Brazil wood. When wanted to keep, rectified spirit, 3 fl.
oz., is added to every pint. Used for colouring, and as a test.

=Infusion of Broom.= _Syn._ INFUSUM SCOPARII, L. See DECOCTION OF BROOM.

=Infusion of Bu′chu.= _Syn._ INFUSUM BUCHU (B. P.), I. BUCKU (Ph. E.), I.
DIOSMÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) From bruised buchu leaves, 1 oz.; boiling
distilled water, 1 pint; infuse for an hour and strain. Diuretic,
sudorific, tonic; in dyspepsia, &c.; but chiefly in chronic affections of
the bladder and urethra attended with copious secretion.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
oz.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM BUCHU COMPOSITUM, I. DIOSMÆ C., L.——(Radius.) Leaves
of buchu and whortleberry, of each 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 8 oz. (say 1/2
pint); digest for half an hour, strain, and add of syrup of senega, 1/2
fl. oz.——_Dose_, 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls every hour; in atony of the
bladder and mucous discharges.

=Infusion of Buck′bean.= _Syn._ INFUSUM MENYANTHIS, L. From the herb or
root of buckbean or marsh trefoil (_Menyanthes trifoliata_). Bitter,
stomachic, tonic, and diuretic; in large doses, purgative, vermifuge, and
emetic. It has been recommended in agues, gout, dropsy, scurvy, worms, &c.
The chief consumption of this plant is by the brewers; “2 oz. being equal
to 1 lb. of hops.” (Gray.)

=Infusion of Bur′dock.= _Syn._ INFUSUM BARDANÆ, L. From the root of common
burdock. Aperient, diuretic, diaphoretic, and tonic; in gout, rheumatism,
skin diseases, &c. See DECOCTION and EXTRACT.

=Infusion of Calum′ba.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CALUMBÆ (B. P.) L. _Prep._ 1. (B.
P.) Calumba, in coarse powder, 1 oz.; cold distilled water, 2 oz.;
macerate one hour, and strain. Infusion of calumba is a good tonic and
stomachic bitter.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. oz.; in dyspepsia, &c., and for
restraining vomiting and diarrhœa during pregnancy or dentition. It is
preferably joined with small doses of the carbonates of soda, potassa,
ammonia, or magnesia, when there is acidity; or with chalybeates, when
there is paleness and a low pulse; with all of which substances it may be
mixed without suffering any sensible alteration.

2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CALUMBÆ CONCENTRATUM, L.)——_a._ Calumba, in
coarse powder, 5-1/2 oz.; cold distilled water, 12 fl. oz.; digest with
frequent agitation, for 3 or 4 hours, then express the liquor, and repeat
the digestion with 5-1/2 fl. oz. more of tepid water; after another hour,
express this portion also, using as much force as possible; next mix the
liquors, heat them quickly to the boiling-point in a shallow vessel, and
pour the infusion, whilst still hot, into a strong bottle, and when it has
cooled a little add of rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz., secure down the
stopper or cork, and agitate well for a few minutes; the bottle must now
be set aside for a week, after which the clear portion is to be decanted
from the dregs. Very superior.

_b._ (Wholesale.) From calumba (reduced to coarse powder), 5-1/4 lbs.;
rectified spirit, 5 pints; (diluted with) water, 12 pints; digest for a
week, or precede by displacement. Should there be any difficulty in
obtaining it free from cloudiness, the whites of 4 or 5 eggs, previously
mixed with about a 1/4 pint of cold water, may be added to the infusion,
which, after being well agitated for about ten minutes, must be allowed to
repose for 7 or 8 days, and then decanted from the dregs. Should it not be
perfectly transparent, it may be filtered through blotting
paper.——_Product_, 20 lbs.

_Obs._ The concentrated infusion produced by the above formulæ is of very
superior quality, and has acquired an extensive sale in the wholesale
trade. 1 part added to 5-1/4 parts of water makes a perfectly transparent
liquid, possessing exactly similar virtues to the INFUSION OF CALUMBA——B.
P.

=Infusion of Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ INFUSION OF SPANISH FLIES; INFUSUM
CANTHARIDIS, I. LYTTÆ, L. _Prep._ (Soubeiran.) Spanish flies (powdered) 20
gr.; boiling water, q. s. (about 3-1/2 fl. oz.) to yield 3 fl. oz., after
expression and filtration.

=Infusion of Cap′sicum.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CAPSICI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Pereira.)
Capsicum (powdered), 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint.——_Dose_, 1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Stephen’s ‘PEPPER MEDICINE’——Pereira.) Red pepper (_Capsicum
fructescens_), 2 table-spoonfuls (or 3 of cayenne pepper); common salt, 2
teaspoonfuls; boiling water, 1/2 pint; to the strained liquor, when cold,
add of very sharp vinegar, 1/2 pint.——_Dose_, 1 table-spoonful, slowly
swallowed, every half hour, in cholera, malignant sore throat, scarlatina,
&c.

=Infusion of Car′away.= _Syn._ CARAWAY TEA; INFUSUM CARUI, L. _Prep._ From
bruised caraway seed, 3 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint. In the flatulent colic
of infants, and as an adjunct to aperient medicine.

=Infusion of Car′rot Seed.= _Syn._ INFUSUM DAUCI, I. CAROTÆ, L. Diuretic;
in dropsy and nephritic complaints; 1/2 to 1 pint being taken daily.

=Infusion of Cascaril′la.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CASCARILLÆ (B. P.), L. _Prep._
1. (B. P.) Cascarilla, in coarse powder, 1 oz.; boiling distilled water,
10 oz.; infuse for one hour in a closed vessel and strain.——_Dose._ 1 to 2
oz., usually combined with carbonate of soda and tincture of cascarilla.
It is an excellent medicine in dyspepsia, debility, diarrhœa, &c.

2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CASCARILLÆ CONCENTRATUM, L.)——_a._ Cascarilla
(good and fragrant, bruised), 6-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit of wine, 3
pints; cold water, 6 pints; macerate in a close vessel for 14 days,
express the liquor, and filter.

_b._ As the last, but proceeding by the process of percolation.

_Obs._ If the preceding processes are well managed, the product is 10
lbs., and resembles brandy in colour and transparency, and is delightfully
fragrant. 1 part of this infusion mixed with 6-1/2 parts of water makes a
preparation exactly resembling the INFUSION OF CALUMBA——B. P.

3. (Alkaline; INFUSUM CASCARILLÆ ALKALISATUM, L.——Ph. Palat.) Cascarilla,
3 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 2 dr.; boiling water, 16 fl. oz. Antacid and
tonic.——_Dose_, l tablespoonful.

=Infusion of Cas′sia.= _Syn._ CASSIA TEA; INFUSUM CASSIA FISTULÆ, L.; EAU
DE CASSE, Fr. _Prep._ (Soubeiran.) Cassia pods (bruised), 4 oz.; boiling
water, 1-1/2 pint. Laxative.

=Infusion of Cate′chu.= _Syn._ COMPOUND INFUSION OF CATECHU; INFUSUM
CATECHU (B. P.), L. _Prep._ (B. P.) Catechu in coarse powder, 160 gr.,
cinnamon, bruised, 40 gr., boiling water, macerate for half an hour in a
covered vessel, and strain. Astringent in diarrhœa.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.
three or four times a day, or after every liquid dejection.

=Infusion of Catmint.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CATARIÆ. _Prep._ Dry catmint, 2 oz.;
boiling water, 1 pint.

=Infusion of Cayenne Pep′per.= See INFUSION OF CAPSICUM.

=Infusion of Cen′taury.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CENTAURI, L. From the flowering
tops of common or lesser centaury (_Erythæa centaurium_). Bitter,
febrifuge, stomachic, and vermifuge. A popular remedy in obstructions,
jaundice, debility, dyspepsia, &c.; and externally, for the itch, and to
destroy pediculi. An infusion is also made of the root, which is about one
half more powerful than the tops. The plant is “a valuable native
medicine; in the places where it grows it is carefully collected for use
in rustic pharmacy.” (Lindley.)

=Infusion, Cephal′ic.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CEPHALICUM, L. _Prep._ (Edin. Hosp.)
Valerian root, 2 oz.; rosemary tops, 4 dr.; boiling water, 1 quart, infuse
12 hours, strain, and add aromatic water, 4 fl. oz. As an antispasmodic,
and in various affections of the head.

=Infusion of Cham′omile.= _Syn._ CHAMOMILE TEA; INFUSUM ANTHEMIDIS (B. P.)
I. CHAMÆMELI, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Chamomile flowers, 1/2 oz.; boiling
water, 10 oz.; infuse for fifteen minutes, and strain.

Tonic, bitter, and stomachic; also emetic. It should be drunk cold, as it
is emetic when warm.——_Dose._ As a stomachic, 1 to 3 oz.; as an emetic, 5
to 10 oz.

2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM ANTHEMIDIS CONCENTRATUM, L. From chamomiles,
5-1/2 oz., water; 1 pint; boil till the mixture weighs exactly 21 oz.,
express the liquor by means of a powerful tincture-press, cool, and add of
essential oil of chamomile, 15 drops, dissolved in rectified spirit, 5 fl.
oz. agitate well, let it repose until the next day, then decant the clear,
and filter. Strongly bitter and odorous, and beautifully transparent.
5-1/2 times as strong as the ordinary INFUSION——B. P.

=Infusion of Chamomile and Orange= (Dr Percival). _Syn._ INFUSUM
ANTHEMIDIS ET AURANTII. _Prep._ Chamomile flowers, 1 oz.; dried orange
peel, 1/2 oz.; cold water, 3 lbs.; macerate for 24 hours.

=Infusion of Cher′ry-laurel.= _Syn._ INFUSUM LAURO-CERASI, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Cheston.) Fresh leaves of the common or cherry-laurel (_Cerasus
Lauro-cerasus_). 2-1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse, strain, and add
of clarified honey, 2-1/2 oz. As a lotion in cancer of the lip, and as a
wash for malignant ulcers.

=Infusion of Chiret′ta.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CHIRATÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.)
Chiretta, cut small, 1 oz.; distilled water, at 120° F., 40 oz.; infuse
half an hour, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

_Obs._ Chiretta is a pure tonic bitter, closely allied to gentian, and has
been long esteemed in the East Indies as a remedy for acidity, flatulence,
and dyspepsia, especially when occurring in gouty or debilitated habits.
It is usually given in combination with carbonate of soda or salts of
iron. The whole of the plant is employed.

2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CHIRETTÆ CONCENTRATUM, L.) From Chiretta, 4 oz.;
for each pint of the product, prepared as either CONC. INFUSION OF CALUMBA
or CASCARILLA. Eight times as strong as the common infusion.

=Infusion of Cincho′na.= _Syn_. INFUSION OF BARK, INFUSUM CINCHONÆ, L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Yellow cinchona (calisaya) bark, in coarse powder, 1
oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; infuse for two hours in a covered
vessel, and strain.

_Obs._ Infusion of bark is tonic and stomachic, and in very large doses
febrifuge. It is an extremely useful medicine in dyspepsia, debility, and
during convalescences, and is often a valuable adjunct to more active
remedies. Like the decoction, it is most energetic when strained whilst
hot. The addition of 1 fl. dr. of diluted sulphuric acid to the water
before pouring it on the bark increases its solvent power, and,
consequently the strength of the infusion.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. oz.

2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM CINCHONÆ CONCENTRATUM, L.)——_a._ Yellow bark
(coarsely powdered), 4 lbs.; boiling water, 8 lbs.; digest for 12 hours,
express the liquid, add rectified spirit, 2 lbs., and after 24 hours’
repose decant the clear portion.

_b._ Yellow bark (in coarse powder), 4 lbs.; cold water, 8 lbs.; rectified
spirit, 2 lbs.; dilute sulphuric acid, 4 fl. oz.; mix the fluids, and
either macerate the bark in them for a week in a closed vessel, or proceed
by the method of displacement. Very superior.

_Obs._ 1 fl. dr. of either of the above, added to 7 fl. dr. of water,
produces an extemporaneous infusion of cinchona resembling that of the
pharmacopœia. The concentrated preparation of the Ph. L. being more than 8
times the usual strength, is placed amongst LIQUORS.

3. From PALE BARK:——_a._ (Ph. L., INFUSION OF PALE CINCHONA; INFUSUM
CINCHONÆ PALLIDÆ——Ph. L.) From pale bark, as INFUSION OF CINCHONA——Ph. L.

_b._ (Ph. D.; INFUSUM CINCHONÆ——Ph. D.) Crown or pale bark, 1 oz.; boiling
water, 1/2 pint; infuse 1 hour in a covered vessel, and strain through
paper.

_Obs._ “This infusion is inferior to the preceding” (from yellow bark) “in
activity, and is a very unnecessary one. It is said to oppress the stomach
less than that of the other cinchona bark; the reason is obvious——it is
weaker.” (Pereira.)

_c._ Concentrated; INFUSUM CINCHONÆ PALLIDÆ CONCENTRATUM, L. As
CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF CINCHONA, but using pale bark. The concentrated
preparation of the Ph. L. will be found under LIQUORS.

=Infusion of Cin′namon.= _Syn._ CINNAMON TEA; INFUSUM CINNAMOMI, L. In
flatulence, dyspepsia, and nervous colics.

=Infusion of Cloves.= _Syn._ CLOVE TEA; INFUSUM CARYOPHYLLORUM, I.
CARIOPHYLLI (B. P.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Cloves (bruised), 1 oz.;
boiling distilled water, 20 oz.; infuse for half an hour, and strain.
Aromatic, stimulant, and stomachic, either alone or in combination; in
colic, dyspepsia, gout, &c.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

2. (Concentrated: INFUSUM CARYOPHYLLI CONCENTRATUM, L.)——_a._ Bruised
cloves, 3 oz.; boiling water, 16 fl. oz.; infuse as above and strain; when
cold, add of rectified spirit 1/4 pint, and filter.

_b._ Bruised cloves, 1-3/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; cold water, 3
quarts; macerate for 7 days, and express the liquid; sprinkle the marc
with water, 12 fl. oz., and after the lapse of an hour again submit it to
the press; lastly filter the mixed liquors. Very fine. The above are about
eight times the strength of the INFUSION OF CLOVES.——Ph. L.

=Infusion of Cof′fee.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CAFFEI, L. _Prep._ (Dr McBride.)
Unroasted coffee berries (bruised), 30 in no.; cold water, 1 quart;
macerate 2 or 3 hours. In calculus, &c.——_Dose_, 1/2 pint every morning.

_Obs._ Sir J. Floyer and Sir J. Pringle cured asthma with a strong
solution of roasted coffee. M. Bouchardat prescribes a strong infusion
made by displacement (percolation), and mixed with a little brandy, in
poisoning by opium and other like narcotics, after the administration of
emetics and ioduretted water. M. Honore also employs very strong-made
coffee in albuminuria. Clausen gives it in gout, and Parker employs it as
a nervous stimulant in lieu of ammonia and wine, for persons of a slightly
sensitive and excitable temperament.

=Infusion of Contrayer′va.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CONTRAYERVÆ, L. _Prep._
(Pereira.) Contrayerva (in powder), 1 oz.; boiling water, 12 fl. oz.
Stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic; in low fevers, &c.

=Infusion of Copal′che Bark.= _Syn._ INFUSUM COPALCHI CORTICIS, L. _Prep._
(Dr Stark.) Bark of copalche bush (_Croton pseudo-China_), 1/2 oz.;
boiling water, 1 pint; digest 2 hours, and strain. A warm bitter and
stomachic.

=Infusion of Cor′sican Moss.= _Syn._ INFUSUM HELMINTHOCORTI, L. _Prep._
(Farr.) Corsican moss, 5 dr., boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 10 or 12
hours, and strain. _Ad libitum_ in cancer. See DECOCTION.

=Infusion of Cotula.= _Syn._ INFUSUM COTULÆ. From dried flowers of
Anthemio cotula, as infusion of chamomiles.

=Infusion of Cuspa′′ria.= _Syn._ INFUSION OF ANGOSTURA BARK; INFUSUM
CUSPARIÆ (B. P.), I. ANGUSTURÆ, L. _Prep._ (B. P.) Cusparia, in coarse
powder, 1 oz.; distilled water, at 120°, 20 oz.; infuse 2 hours, and
strain. Stimulant and tonic; in typhus fever, bilious diarrhœa, dysentery,
&c.

=Infusion of Daf′′fodil.= _Syn._ INFUSUM NARCISSI PSEUDO-NARCISSI, L.
_Prep._ (Dufresnoy.) Flowers of daffodil (_Narcissus pseudo-Narcissus_), 3
to 16 in no.; boiling water, 1 pint. Expectorant, nauseant, and emetic. In
hooping-cough.

=Infusion of Dah′′lia Pe′tals.= From the violet or blue varieties. Used
for its colour and as a test.

=Infusion of Dandeli′on.= _Syn._ INFUSION OF TARAXACUM; INFUSUM TARAXACI,
L. 1. From the sliced root. Stimulant, resolvent, and tonic.

2. (Concentrated; INFUSUM TARAXACI CONCENTRATUM, L.) From the root
(sliced), 1 lb.; exposed to a current of warm dry air until crisp, then
coarsely pulverised, and digested for a week in a mixture of rectified
spirit, 12 fl. oz.; cold water, 1-1/2 pint. 8 times the usual strength.

3. (Compound; INFUSUM TARAXACI COMPOSITUM, L.——Meigs.) Infusion of
dandelion, 4 fl. oz.; extract of do., 2 dr.; sesquicarbonate of soda, 1/2
dr.; tartrate of potassa, 3 dr.; tincture of rhubarb, 3 fl. dr.; tincture
of henbane, 20 drops. In dropsical and visceral affections.——_Dose._ One
third part thrice daily. See DECOCTION, EXTRACT, &c.

=Infusion of Digita′lis.= See INFUSION OF FOXGLOVE.

=Infusion, Diuret′ic.= _Syn._ INFUSUM DIURETICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Broom
tops, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse 1 hour, strain, cool, and add
of sweet spirits of nitre, 3 fl. dr.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful every other
hour.

2. Infusion of foxglove, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of foxglove, 1/2 fl. dr.;
acetate of potassa, 1 dr.; laudanum, 10 drops.——_Dose_, 1 table-spoonful
twice or thrice a day, carefully watching the effects.

3. Juniper berries, 2 oz.; aniseed, 1/4 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse
1 hour; strain, and when cold, add of compound spirit of juniper, 2 fl.
oz.; tincture of squills, 1 fl. dr.; nitre, 1 dr.——_Dose_, 1/2 a teacupful
frequently. All the above are used as diuretics in dropsy. See INFUSIONS
OF BROOM, FOXGLOVE, and JUNIPER.

=Infusion of Dog′wood.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CORNUS FLORIDÆ, L. From the bark of
American dogwood (_Cornus Florida_). See DECOCTION.

=Infusion of Dulcamara= (B. P.). _Syn._ INFUSUM DULCAMARÆ. _Prep._ Infuse
bruised dulcamara, 1 oz.; in 10 fluid ounces of boiling water in a covered
vessel for 1 hour; and strain.——_Dose_, 1 oz. to 2 oz.

=Infusion of El′der Flowers.= _Syn._ ELDER-FLOWER TEA; INFUSUM SAMBUCI
FLORUM, L. From the picked flowers, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint.
Pectoral, expectorant, and diaphoretic, either alone or sweetened with
honey.

=Infusion of Elecampane.= _Syn._ INFUSUM INULÆ. _Prep._ Elecampane root, 5
dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse for two hours, and strain.

=Infusion of Elm-bark.= _Syn._ COMPOUND INULÆ, L. Diaphoretic,
expectorant, and tonic. FUSION OF ELM-BARK; INFUSUM ULMI COMPOSITUM, L.
_Prep._ (Cadet.) Elm-bark, bitter-sweet, burdock, and fumitory, of each 2
dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; digest for 4 hours, strain, and add of syrup
of sarsaparilla, 1 oz. The whole to be taken in 24 hours, in divided doses
in the chronic exanthemata. See DECOCTION.

=Infusion of Er′got of Rye.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ERGOTÆ (B. P.). L. _Prep._ 1.
(B. P.) Ergot, 1, in coarse powder, 1 oz.; boiling distilled water, 40
oz.; infuse 1/2 an hour in a covered vessel, and strain. Should be made
fresh when required.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz. every 1/2 hour or hour, as a
parturient. Also as an injection for gleet.

2. (Concentrated.) See LIQUOR OF ERGOT.

=Infusion of Eucalyptus.= (Griffiths.) _Syn._ INFUSUM EUCALYPTI GLOBULI.
_Prep._ Cut leaves of Eucalyptus globulus, 2 dr.; boiling water, 4 oz.;
infuse and strain. Take morning and evening.

=Infusion of Fen′nel.= _Syn._ FENNEL TEA; INFUSUM FŒNICULI, L. _Prep._
From sweet fennel-seeds, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint. In griping and
windy colic of infants; a few drops to 1/2 a teaspoonful for a dose, or a
little by way of enema.

=Infusion of Flax-seed.= See INFUSION OF LINSEED.

=Infusion of Fleabane.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ERIGEROMIS CANADENSIS. _Prep._
Canadian fleabane, 1 oz.; boiling water, 16 oz. Diuretic and astringent.

=Infusion of Fox′glove.= _Syn._ INFUSUM DIGITALIS (B. P.), L. _Prep._ 1.
(B. P.) Digitalis, dried, 30 gr.; distilled water, 10 oz.; infuse 1 hour,
and strain.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1/2 oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Foxglove (dried), 2 dr.; boiling water, 18 fl. oz.; spirit of
cinnamon, 2 fl. oz.

3. (Ph. D.) Foxglove (dried and reduced to a coarse powder), 1 dr.;
boiling water, 9 fl. oz.; infuse 1 hour. The product should measure about
8 fl. oz. The last two are of double the strength of the infusion Ph. L.,
and the dose must consequently be only 2 to 4 fl. dr. “I believe this,
when properly made, to be the most effectual of the preparations of
foxglove.” (Pereira.) See FOXGLOVE.

=Infusion of Fu′mitory.= _Syn._ INFUSUM FUMARIÆ, L. From the herbaceous
portion of common fumitory (_Fumaria officinalis_). Aperient and
diaphoretic; in obstinate skin diseases and chronic obstructions of the
liver.

=Infusion of Galls.= _Syn._ INFUSUM GALLÆ, L. 1. From Aleppo galls,
coarsely powdered. In diarrhœa, hæmorrhages, &c.; also freely, in cases of
poisoning by the alkaloids; and diluted with 3 or 4 times its volume of
water, for injections, embrocations, gargles, &c.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM GALLÆ COMPOSITUM, MISTURA GALLÆ, L.——Ellis.)
Infusion of galls, 4 fl. oz.; prepared chalk, 1/2 oz.; powdered gum, 1
dr.; tincture of opium, 1/2 fl. dr.——_Dose_, 1 table-spoonful every 2
hours, in diarrhœa, &c.

=Infusion of Gar′lic.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ALLII, L. _Prep._ (White.) Garlic
(recent), 1/2 lb.; water, 4 lbs.; place them in a covered pot, set it in a
very slow oven for 3 or 4 hours, and when cold, express the fluid
portion.——_Dose._ In epilepsy, 2 teaspoonfuls before and after every meal;
in chronic diarrhœa, a teaspoonful after every motion.

=Infusion of Gen′tian.= _Syn._ INFUSUM GENTIANÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Beral.)
Gentian (bruised), 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse 5 or 6 hours, and
strain. Stomachic.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM GENTIANÆ COMPOSITUM——B. P.)

_Prep._ _a._ (B. P.) Gentian, sliced, 1 oz.; orange peel, cut small, 1
oz.; lemon peel (fresh), 2 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; infuse
for an hour in a covered vessel, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

_b._ (Ph. E.) Sliced gentian root, 1/2 oz.; bitter orange peel (dried and
bruised) and coriander seeds, of each 1 dr.; proof spirit, 4 fl. oz.;
digest for 3 hours, then add of cold water, 16 fl. oz., and in 12 hours
more strain.

_c._ (Ph. D.) Gentian and dried orange peel, of each 2 dr.; boiling water,
1/2 pint; macerate 1 hour, and strain.——_Dose_ of the last two, 1/2 to 1
fl. oz.

3. (Concentrated Compound; INFUSUM GENTIANÆ COMP. CONCENTRATUM, L.)——_a._
Gentian root (bruised), 4-1/2 lbs.; boiling water, q. s. to cover it;
infuse with occasional agitation for 2 hours, express the liquor, wash the
marc with a little boiling water, and evaporate to 13 quarts; when cold,
strain through flannel, add of rectified spirit, 1 gall., and pour the
mixed fluids on dried orange peel, 4-1/2 lbs., and fresh lemon peel, 9
lbs.; macerate for 1 week, then express the liquor in a powerful press,
and filter through paper.

_b._ Gentian and dried orange peel, of each 4-1/2 lbs.; fresh lemon peel,
9 lbs.; cold distilled water, 13 quarts; rectified spirit, 1 gall.;
macerate for 14 or 15 days, with frequent agitation, then express the
liquid, add 1 dr. each of the essential oils of lemon and orange, agitate
well, and filter through paper.

_c._ Gentian, 1-1/4 lb.; essence of lemon, 1 dr.; essence of orange, 1/2
dr.; essence of cedrate, 15 drops; rectified spirit, 1 quart; cold water,
3 quarts; digest for 10 days and filter.

4. (With RHUBARB; INFUSUM GENTIANÆ ET RHEI, MISTURA STOMACHICA, L.) From
gentian and rhubarb (bruised), of each 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint;
digest 1 hour, and strain; to the cold infusion add of sesquicarbonate of
ammonia, 1 dr. An admirable medicine in dyspepsia, hysteria, loss of
appetite, constipation, chronic rheumatism, &c.

=Infusion of Gin′ger.= _Syn._ GINGER TEA; INFUSUM ZINGIBERIS, L. From the
best unbleached Jamaica ginger, freshly bruised or grated. In flatulence,
colic, and indigestion.

=Infusion of Gin′seng.= _Syn._ GINSENG TEA; INFUSUM GINSENG, I. RADICIS
G., L. _Prep._ Ginseng (the root of _Panax Schinseng_), 1/2 oz.; ginger
(grated), 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate 1 hour, then add of
cinnamon (bruised), 1/2 dr.; infuse for another hour, and strain. Ginseng
tea, made according to the above formula, has a wonderful reputation in
China, as a stimulant, restorative, and aphrodisiac. In Europe, however,
it is merely regarded as an aromatic demulcent.

_Obs._ American ginseng (the root of _Panax quinquefolium_) may be
substituted for the Asiatic product.

=Infusion of Gold′thread.= _Syn._ INFUSUM COPTIS, L. From the root of
_Coptis trifolia_. Bitter, stomachic; in dyspepsia, and as a mouth-wash in
thrush.

=Infusion of Gua′co.= _Syn._ INFUSUM GUACO, L. From the bruised leaves and
stems of guaco or huaco (_Mikania guaco_). Sudorific and vulnerary;
reputed in South America to be a powerful remedy for the bites of venemous
serpents and for hydrophobia, but the trials in this country do not show
it to be of any value in such cases.

=Infusion of Guaiac′um.= _Syn._ COMPOUND INFUSION OF GUAIACUM, I. OF THE
WOODS; INFUSUM GUAIACI COMPOSITUM, AQUA BENEDICTA COMPOSITA, L. _Prep._
(Ph. D. 1826.) Guaiacum shavings, 6 oz.; bruised liquorice root, 1 oz.;
sassafras bark, 1/2 oz.; coriander seeds, 3 dr.; lime water, 96 fl. oz.
(say 5 pints); infuse for 2 days, and strain. _Dose_, 3 to 4 fl. oz.,
twice or thrice a day, in scrofula, rheumatism, gout, eruptions, &c.

=Infusion of Gum.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ACACIÆ, L. From gum acacia and lump
sugar, of each 2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate until dissolved,
then cool, and add of orange-flower water, 1/2 fl. oz. A pleasant
demulcent in coughs, hoarseness, &c.

=Infusion of Hedge Hys′sop.= _Syn._ INFUSUM GRATIOLÆ, L. _Prep._ (A. T.
Thomson.) Hedge hyssop (_Gratiola officinalis_), dried, 2 dr.; boiling
water, 8 fl. oz. Cathartic, diuretic, emetic, and vermifuge.——_Dose_, 3 to
6 fl. dr.; in dropsies, gout, jaundice, &c. See EXTRACT.

=Infusion of Hem′lock.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CONII, I. CONII MACULATI, L.
_Prep._ (Guy’s Hosp.) Dried leaves of hemlock, and coriander seeds, of
each 2 dr.; boiling water, 8 oz.; infuse for 2 hours. Combined with
acetate of ammonia, tincture of henbane, and syrup of poppies, in
pulmonary complaints, &c.

=Infusion of Henbane.= _Syn._ INFUSUM HYOSCYAMI, L. _Prep._ 1. From fresh
leaves, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint. As a lotion for painful ulcers,
swelled face, &c.

2. (Compound; HENBANE FOMENTATION; INFUSUM HYOSCYAMI COMPOSITUM,
L.——Radius.) Henbane leaves, poppy heads, and mallows, of each 1 oz.;
boiling water, 2 quarts. For painful ulcers, and in facial neuralgia, &c.

=Infusion of Hops.= _Syn._ HOP TEA; INFUSUM HUMULI, I. LUPULI (Ph. L.), L.
_Prep._ (Ph. L.) Hops, 6 dr.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; macerate
for 4 hours in a covered vessel (press), and strain. Tonic and anodyne.
Well-hopped mild ale is a good substitute.

=Infusion of Hore′hound.= _Syn._ HOREHOUND TEA; INFUSUM MARRUBII, L. From
the leaves; demulcent, pectoral; a popular remedy in coughs, colds,
hoarseness, and chest affections generally, taken freely.

=Infusion of Horserad′ish.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ARMORACIÆ, L. 1. From
horseradish alone. Diuretic and stomachic.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM ARMORACIÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Ph. L.) Horseradish
(sliced) and mustard seed (bruised), of each 1 oz.; boiling distilled
water, 1 pint; macerate for 2 hours in a covered vessel, strain, and add
of compound spirit of horseradish, 1 fl. oz. Stimulant, stomachic, and
diuretic; in dropsies, paralysis, scurvy, chronic rheumatism, &c.

=Infusion of Hys′sop.= _Syn._ HYSSOP TEA; INFUSUM HYSSOPI, L. 1. From the
leaves of _Hyssopus officinalis_ (Linn.) Stimulant, stomachic,
emmenagogue, and expectorant; in dyspepsia, flatulency, hysterical
affections, &c.; also used by boxers as a wash for black eyes.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM HYSSOPI COMPOSITUM, L.——Ratier). Hyssop leaves,
2-1/2 dr.; liquorice, 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 quart. As a demulcent drink
in catarrhal affections.

=Infusion of Indian Sarsaparil′la.= _Syn._ INFUSUM HEMIDESMI, L. From
Indian or scented sarsaparilla (_Hemidesmus Indicus_). Dr Ashburner orders
it to be made with lime water (cold); but this plan is seldom
followed.——_Dose_ and _uses_, same as those of infusion of sarsaparilla.

=Infusion of I′ron (Bitter).= _Syn._ INFUSUM FERRI AMARUM, L. _Prep._ (Dr
R. E. Griffith.) Iron filings, 3 oz.; gentian and ginger, of each bruised,
1 oz.; orange peel, 1/2 oz.; strong old cider, 1 pint; infuse for a month,
frequently stirring, and filter.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr., 3 or 4 times
daily, as a chalybeate tonic.

=Infusion of Ju′niper.= _Syn._ INFUSUM JUNIPERI, I. BACCÆ J., L. 1. From
the berries alone. As a stimulant diuretic, in dropsies &c.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM JUNIPERI COMPOSITUM, L.)——_a._ (Guy’s Hosp.) Juniper
berries, 2-1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; to the strained solution, when
cold, add, of compound spirit of juniper, 10 fl. dr.; bitartrate of
potassa, 1 dr.

_b._ (Parrish.) Ginger, juniper berries, and mustard, of each bruised, 1/2
oz.; horseradish and parsley root, of each bruised, 1 oz.; cider, 1 quart;
infuse, and strain with expression. All the above are used in dropsies.

=Infusion of Ki′no.= _Syn._ INFUSUM KINO, L. From kino, 5 dr.; boiling
water, 1 pint. In diarrhœa, and diluted with 4 or 5 times its bulk of
water, as an injection in chronic gonorrhœa.

=Infusion of Justitia.= _Syn._ INFUSUM JUSTICIÆ. _Prep._ Root of painted
justicia, 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse for 1 hour.

=Infusion of Kousso (B. P.)= _Syn._ INFUSUM CUSSO. _Prep._ Infuse kousso
in fine powder, 1/2 oz.; in boiling distilled water, 8 fl. oz., in a
covered vessel for 15 minutes. Must not be strained.

=Infusion of Lime Flowers.= _Syn._ LINDEN-FLOWER TEA; INFUSUM TILLÆ, L. 1.
From the flowers of the lime or linden tree (_Tilia Europæa_).
Antispasmodic, diaphoretic, and cephalic.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM TILLÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Foy.) Chamomiles, linden
flowers, and orange leaves, of each 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 quart; infuse,
strain, and add of syrup, 2 fl. oz. In nervous headaches, &c. The above
are much used on the Continent.

=Infusion of Lin′seed.= _Syn._ LINSEED TEA, FLAXSEED T.; INFUSUM LINI (B.
P.), L. _Prep._ (B. P.) Linseed (bruised). 160 gr.; fresh liquorice root
(sliced), 60 gr.; boiling distilled water, 10 oz.; infuse for 4 hours and
strain. A cheap and useful demulcent in pulmonary and urinary irritation;
especially in catarrhs, gonorrhœa, &c.; _ad libitum_. Dr Pereira
recommends the addition of sliced lemon and sugar-candy, to render it more
palatable. See DECOCTION.

=Infusion of Liq′uorice.= _Syn._ INFUSUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ, L. From the fresh
root, sliced. Demulcent and laxative; taken _ad libitum_.

=Infusion of Lit′mus.= _Syn._ INFUSUM LACMI, L. Used for its colour, and
as a liquid test, and to make test-paper.

=Infusion of Lobelia.= _Syn._ INFUSUM LOBELIÆ, I. L. INFLATÆ. From lobelia
or Indian tobacco. In asthmas chiefly.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls
every half-hour, until it occasions nausea.

=Infusion of Log′wood.= _Syn._ LOGWOOD TEA; INFUSUM HÆMATOXYLI, L. From
logwood chips. One of the best remedies known for simple diarrhœa arising
from weakness; also used as a colour and test. See DECOCTION, EXTRACT, &c.

=Infusion (Maiden-hair).= _Syn._ INFUSUM ADIANTI, L. From either common
maiden-hair (_Adiantum capillus Veneris_), or Canadian maiden-hair
(_Adiantum pedatum_). They are both slightly bitter, aromatic, and
pectoral. The infusion forms an excellent demulcent drink in catarrhs.

=Infusion of Malam′bo Bark.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CORTICIS MALAMBO, L. _Prep._
(Ure.) Bark (from _Croton Malambo_), 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint. An
aromatic tonic and astringent.

=Infusion of Mallow Flowers.= _Syn._ INFUSUM MALVÆ FLORUM, L. Pectoral and
laxative. Chiefly used as a test.

=Infusion of Malt.= _Syn._ MALT TEA, SWEET WORT; INFUSUM BYNES, I. MALTI,
L. Prepared with hot water (165° to 170° Fahr.). Demulcent and laxative. A
useful drink in sore throat, inflammatory fevers, &c. Some persons flavour
it with sliced lemon.

=Infusion of Ma′′rygold.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CALENDULÆ, L. From the flowers of
the common marygold (_Calendula officinalis_). Carminative, diaphoretic,
and emmenagogue. It has been recently recommended in cancerous affections,
both internally and as a lotion. Radius adds syrup of orange peel to
flavour it.

=Infusion of Mat′ico.= _Syn._ INFUSUM MATICONIS, I. MATICÆ, I. MATICO, L.
1. From the leaves of the matico plant (_Artanthe elongata_). Aromatic,
bitter, stimulant, and reputed hæmostatic; in internal hæmorrhages and
mucous discharges. The Indians of South America use it as an aphrodisiac.
(Martius.)

2. Compound; INFUSUM MATICONIS COMPOSITUM, L.——Watmough.) Matico and
senna, of each 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint. In hæmorrhagic and other
discharges, piles, &c.; a wine-glassful repeatedly.

=Infusion of May-weed.= _Syn._ INFUSUM COTULÆ, L. From the dried flowers
of may-weed or stinking chamomile (_Anthemis cotula_). Bitter, stomachic,
and diaphoretic; in large doses, emetic and sudorific; chiefly in
hysterical affections, scrofula, &c.

=Infusion of Mea′dow Rue.= _Syn._ INFUSUM THALICTRI FLAVI, L. From the
herb meadow rue (_Thalictrum flavum_). In hydrophobia, taken plentifully.

=Infusion of Mil′foil.= _Syn._ YARROW TEA; INFUSUM MILLEFOLII, L. In
dropsies, and as a fomentation to bruises. See EXTRACT, &c.

=Infusion of Mint.= _Syn._ MINT TEA. 1. (Ph. D.——INFUSUM MENTHÆ SIMPLEX.)
From the dried leaves of green or spearmint. Carminative and stomachic;
chiefly used as a vehicle for other medicines. A wine-glassful _ad
libitum_.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM MENTHÆ COMPOSITUM.) To mint tea 6 fl. oz., add of
oil of spearmint, 3 drops, previously triturated with lump sugar, 2 dr.,
and dissolved in compound tincture of cardamoms, 1/2 fl. oz. A useful
remedy in colic, flatulence, &c.; as the last.

=Infusion of Mu′dar.= _Syn._ INFUSION OF MUDAR-BARK; INFUSUM CORTICIS
MUDARIS, L. From the root bark of _Calotropis gigantea_. Resembles
infusion of ipecacuanha.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls, as an alterative; a
wine-glassful as an emetic. In the East Indies it is highly esteemed in
epilepsy, hysteria, syphilis, convulsions, and various spasmodic diseases.

=Infusion of Net′tle Seed.= _Syn._ INFUSUM URTICÆ SEMINUM, L. _Prep._
(Garde.) Seed of common nettle (_Urtica dioica_), 2-1/2 dr.; boiling
water, 18 fl. oz.; infuse 3 hours, strain, and add of syrup, 2 fl. oz.
Astringent, diuretic, and pectoral.

=Infusion of Nux Vom′ica.= _Syn._ INFUSUM NUCIS VOMICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Hosp.
F.) Nux vomica (ground or rasped), 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; digest 3
hours, and strain. It must be taken with caution, and the effects watched.
See EXTRACT, NUX VOMICA, and STRYCHNINE.

=Infusion of Or′ange Peel.= _Syn._ INFUSUM AURANTII, B. P. _Prep._ 1.
Dried bitter orange peel, cut small, 1 oz.; boiling water, 20 oz.; infuse
for 15 minutes, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz. Bitter and stomachic.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM AURANTII——Ph. E., I. A. COMPOSITUM——Ph. L. & D.,
L.)——_a._ (Ph. L. & E.) Dried bitter orange peel, 1/2 oz.; fresh lemon
peel, 2 dr.; cloves (bruised), 1 dr.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint;
macerate for 15 minutes in a covered vessel, and strain.

_b._ (Ph. D.) Dried orange peel, 3 dr.; cloves, 1/2 dr.; boiling water,
1/2 pint; macerate half an hour. An agreeable stomachic. It is chiefly
employed as a vehicle for other medicines.

_c._ (B. P.) Dried bitter orange peel, cut small, 1/2 oz.; fresh lemon
peel, 120 gr.; cloves (bruised), 60 gr.; boiling water, 20 oz. Infuse for
15 minutes, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

3. (Concentrated Compound; INFUSUM AURANTII CONCENTRATUM, I. A. COM.
CONC., L.)——_a._ Seville orange peel (dried), 3-1/4 lbs.; fresh lemon
peel, 1-1/2 lb.; bruised cloves, 3/4 lb.; boiling water, 9 pints; infuse
for 20 minutes, press out the liquor, and, when cold, add of rectified
spirit, 1 quart, and filter.

_b._ Dried orange peel, 18 oz.; fresh lemon peel, 1/2 lb.; bruised cloves,
1/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; cold water, 3 pints; macerate for 1
week, press, and filter. Very superior.

_Obs._ 1 fl. dr. of either of the above, added to 7 fl. dr. of water,
makes a similar (preferable) preparation to the COMPOUND INFUSION OF
ORANGE PEEL.——Ph. L.

=Infusion of Parei′ra.= _Syn._ INFUSUM PAREIRÆ (Ph. E. & D.), I. P. BRAVÆ,
L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Velvet leaf or pareira brava root, 6 dr.; boiling
water, 1 pint; macerate for 2 hours in a lightly covered vessel, and
strain.

2. (Ph. D.) Pareira (bruised and torn), 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 9 fl. oz.;
macerate 1 hour, and strain. In irritation and mucous discharges from the
urinary organs. The corresponding preparation of the Ph. L. will be found
among the DECOCTIONS.

=Infusion of Pars′ley Root.= _Syn._ INFUSUM PETROSELINI, L. From the root
of garden parsley. Aromatic, diuretic, and slightly aperient. It has been
highly recommended by Dr Chapman and others in dropsy, in the strangury
arising from blisters, &c.; taken freely, either alone or combined with a
little sweet spirit of nitre.

=Infusion of Peach Leaves.= _Syn._ INFUSUM PERSICÆ, I. P. FOLII, L.
_Prep._ (Pereira.) Peach leaves (dried), 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint;
macerate an hour, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, twice or
thrice a day; to allay irritation of the bladder and urethra, and as a
vermifuge.

=Infusion, Pectoral.= _Syn._ INFUSUM PECTORALE, L. _Prep._ (Hosp. F.)
Linseed (bruised), 3/4 oz.; coltsfoot leaves, 1/2 oz.; liquorice root
(sliced) and poppy-heads, of each 1/4 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; digest
two hours, and strain. In coughs, colds, hoarseness, &c., accompanied with
a dose of aperient medicine. See SPECIES, &c.

=Infusion of Pennyroy′al.= _Syn._ PENNYROYAL TEA; INFUSUM PULEGII, I.
MENTHÆ PULEGII, L. A popular remedy for nausea, flatulence, colds,
hooping-cough, hysterical affections, obstructed menstruation, &c.

=Infusion of Pep′permint.= _Syn._ PEPPERMINT TEA; INFUSUM MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ,
L. In flatulence, colic, griping, &c., and as a vehicle for other
medicines.

=Infusion of Periwin′kle.= _Syn._ INFUSUM VINCÆ MINORIS, L. From the
leaves of lesser periwinkle (_Vinca minor_). Astringent and tonic; in
diarrhœa, dysentery, &c. Mr Weathers employs it in passive hæmorrhages,
and others have recommended it as an external tonic applied to the
perinæum, &c., in piles, relaxation of the genitals, &c.

=Infusion of Persim′mon.= _Syn._ INFUSUM PERSIMMONIS, L. From the bark of
persimmon (_Diospyrus Virginiana_). Astringent; very valuable in diarrhœa,
hæmorrhages, agues, &c.; and as a gargle in ulcerated sore throat.

=Infusion of Peru′vian Bark.= See INFUSION OF BARK.

=Infusion of Pink′root.= _Syn._ PINKROOT TEA, WORM T.; INFUSUM SPIGILIÆ,
L. 1. From Indian pinkroot. Vermifuge; either combined with or followed by
a purge after the third or fourth dose. The dose for a child 3 to 5 years
old is 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM SPIGILIÆ COMPOSITUM, I. S. CUM SENNÂ, L.——Ellis.)
Pinkroot, 1/2 oz., senna, 2 dr.; fennel seed, 3 dr.; manna, 1 oz.; boiling
water, 1 pint.——_Dose_, 1/2 wine-glassful to a child 2 or 3 years old; in
worms. See EXTRACT.

=Infusion of Pleu′risy Root.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ASCLEPIADIS TUBEROSÆ, L. From
the root of butterfly weed or pleurisy root (_Asclepias tuberosa_).
Expectorant and diuretic; in large doses, purgative; in colds, pleurisy,
pneumonia, &c. According to Bigelow, it is a valuable mild tonic and
stimulant.

=Infusion of Pois′on-oak.= _Syn._ INFUSUM RHOIS TOXICODENDRI, L. _Prep._
From the dried leaves of the poison-oak (_Rhus toxicodendron_), 3 dr.;
boiling water, 1 pint. Stimulant and narcotic; chiefly in palsy and mania.

=Infusion of Pop′py-heads.= _Syn._ POPPY TEA; INFUSUM PAPAVERIS, L. From
poppy-heads (capsules of _Papaver somniferum_). Soothing, anodyne.
Sweetened with honey, it is a popular remedy for tickling cough,
restlessness, &c.; also used hot, as an embrocation, in painful tumours,
inflammations, &c. See INFUSION OF RED POPPY.

=Infusion of Pur′ging Flax.= _Syn._ INFUSUM LINI CATHARTICI, L. From the
dried leaves of purging flax (_Linum catharticum_). Cathartic. The dose
should be repeated at intervals of an hour or an hour and a half, until it
operates.

=Infusion of Quas′sia.= _Syn._ QUASSIA TEA; INFUSUM QUASSIÆ (B. P., Ph. L.
E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Quassia, in chips, 60 gr.; cold distilled
water, 10 oz.; infuse for half an hour, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

2. (Ph. L.) Quassia (sliced), 40 gr.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint;
infuse for 2 hours in a covered vessel, and strain.

3. (Ph. E.) Quassia, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint.

4. (Ph. D.) Quassia (rasped), 1 dr.; boiling water, 8-1/2 fl. oz.

5. (Ph. U. S.) Quassia, 2 dr.; cold water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 12
hours, and strain. As a bitter tonic, in loss of appetite, dyspepsia, &c.;
either combined with alkaline carbonates or chalybeates. Sweetened with
moist sugar or honey, it forms a common FLY-WATER or FLY-POISON.

6. (Compound; INFUSUM QUASSIÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Ellis.) Quassia, serpentary,
and dried orange peel, of each 1/4 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint. A stimulant
stomachic.

=Infusion of Red Cab′bage.= _Syn._ INFUSION OF BLUE CABBAGE. Used as a
colour, and to make test-paper. It will not keep without the addition of
about 1-10th of its weight of rectified spirit.

=Infusion of Red Pop′py.= _Syn._ RED-POPPY TEA; INFUSUM RHŒADOS, L. From
the petals of the red or corn poppy. Anodyne and pectoral. Sweetened with
sugar or honey, it is a popular remedy in catarrhal affections: but the
use of this, as well as of INFUSION OF POPPY-HEADS, should be accompanied
by a dose of aperient medicine.

=Infusion of Rhat′any.= _Syn._ INFUSUM KRAMERIÆ (B. P.), INFUSUM RHATANIÆ,
I. KRAMERIÆ (Ph. L. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Rhatany, bruised, 1 oz.;
boiling distilled water, 20 oz.; infuse 1 hour, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to
2 oz.

2. (Ph. L.) Rhatany root, 1 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; macerate
for 4 hours in a covered vessel, and strain.

3. (Ph. D.) Rhatany, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 9 fl. oz.; macerate 1 hour,
and strain. Astringent and tonic; chiefly in chronic diarrhœa.

4. (Concentrated; INFUSUM KRAMERIÆ CONCENTRATUM, L.) From 8 times the
usual quantity of ingredients, as INFUSION OF CASCARILLA.

=Infusion of Rhododen′dron.= _Syn._ INFUSUM RHODODENDRI, L. From the
leaves of yellow rhododendron (_Rhododendron chrysanthum_), 1/2 oz.;
boiling water, 1/2 pint. Highly recommended by Pallas and Koelpin in gout,
chronic rheumatism, and syphilis. It has marked narcotic properties.

=Infusion of Rhubarb=. _Syn._ INFUSUM RHEI (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb (in thin slices), 1 oz.; boiling distilled
water, 40 oz.; infuse for 1 hour, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

2. (Ph. L.) Rhubarb (sliced), 3 dr.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint;
macerate for 2 hours in a covered vessel, and strain.

3. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, 2 dr.; boiling water, 9 fl. oz.; macerate 1 hour.

4. (Ph. E.) Rhubarb (in coarse powder). 1 oz.; boiling water, 18 fl. oz.;
infuse for 12 hours, add of spirit of cinnamon, 2 fl. oz,; and strain
through linen or calico. Stomachic and purgative; along with neutral salts
or aromatics.

_Obs._ The infusion of the Ph. E. being fully double as strong as that of
the Ph. L. & D., must be taken in proportionate doses.

5. (Concentrated; Infusum rhei concentratum, L.)——_a._ Rhubarb (in coarse
powder), 10 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; cold distilled water, 1 quart;
digest 10 days, with frequent agitation, then express the liquor, and
filter it; or proceed by the method of displacement.

_b._ Rhubarb, 3 lbs. 5 oz.; cold distilled water, 11 pints; rectified
spirit, 5-1/2 pints; as the last.

_Obs._ 1 fl. dr. of either of the above, added to 7 fl. dr. of water,
forms 1 fl. oz. of liquid, resembling, and in many points preferable to,
the infusion of the Ph. L. The above is the only way a fine,
rich-coloured, and transparent concentrated preparation can be made, that
will keep well. Should it not prove perfectly limpid, it may be clarified
in the way already mentioned.

6. (Alkaline; INFUSUM RHEI ALKALINUM, I. R. CUM POTASSÂ, L.——Copland.)
Rhubarb, 2 dr.; carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1/2 pint;
macerate for 4 hours, strain, and add of tincture of cinnamon, 1/2 fl. oz.
In dyspepsia, acidity, heartburn, &c.

=Infusion of Ro′ses.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ROSÆ, L., 1. (Simple.) From the
petals of red roses. Used as colouring and for a test; mixed with vinegar
and sweetened with honey, it forms a popular gargle in sore throat.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM ROSÆ——Ph. E. I. ROSÆ COMPOSITUM——Ph. L., I. R.
ACIDUM——B. P., Ph. D.) _Prep._——_a._ Red rose petals (broken up), 1 oz.;
dilute sulphuric acid, 1/2 oz.; boiling distilled water, 40 oz.; infuse
for half an hour with the acid and water, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

_b._ (Ph. L.) Petals of the red or damask rose (dried and pulled asunder),
3 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; mix, and add of dilute sulphuric acid, 1-1/2
fl. dr.; macerate for 2 hours, strain off the liquor, and dissolve in it
white sugar, 6 dr. The Edinburgh form is nearly similar.

_c._ (Ph. D.) Petals, 2 dr.; boiling water, 1/2 pint; infuse 1 hour,
strain, and add of dilute sulphuric acid, 1 fl. dr.

_Obs._ A vessel or glass of stoneware should be used to make the infusion
in, as metallic vessels injure the colour of the liquid, and are also
attacked by the acid. The best plan is to add the dilute sulphuric acid to
the water before pouring it on the leaves. The infusion may be squeezed
out of the leaves with the hands.

The COMPOUND INFUSION OF ROSES is principally used as a vehicle for
sulphate of quinine, saline purgatives, and some other medicines. It is
astringent and refrigerant, and, when diluted with water, forms a pleasant
drink in febrile disorders, phthisical sweats, hæmorrhages, diarrhœa, &c.
It also makes a very useful astringent gargle.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. oz.;
either alone or diluted with water. It is incompatible with the alkalies
and earths, and their carbonates and their bicarbonates.

3. (Concentrated; INFUSUM ROSÆ CONCENTRATUM, L.)——_a._ Rose petals, 10
oz.; boiling distilled water, 3 pints; infuse for 2 hours, with frequent
agitation, express the liquid, strain through a clean hair sieve, and add
of dilute sulphuric acid, 4-1/2 fl. oz.; after agitation for 5 or 6
minutes, and repose for 2 or 3 hours, decant the clear portion, and filter
through paper supported on calico; next, dissolve in the liquid 1-1/4 lb.
of the finest white sugar, broken up into small lumps, but perfectly free
from dust and dirt; lastly, pour the infusion into clean, stoppered,
green-glass bottles, and, as much as possible, keep them from the light,
and in a cool place.

_b._ Rose petals, 3-1/4 lbs.; boiling water, 2 gall.; diluted sulphuric
acid, 24 fl. oz.; finest white sugar, 6-1/2 lbs.; as the last.

_c._ The same quantity of dilute sulphuric acid and cold water, as before;
mix, and infuse the rose leaves in the liquid for 48 hours, then express,
filter, and add the sugar. Product very fine, and keeps well without
becoming gelatinous.

_Obs._ This preparation is 8 times as strong as that of the Ph. L. (2,
_a_). Great care should be taken that the utensils are perfectly clean,
especially the press, if one is employed; and earthenware glazed with lead
should be avoided. The pressing should also be conducted as rapidly as
possible, to avoid the colour being injured by the iron. Clean wrought
iron does not readily injure the colour of infusion of roses before the
addition of the acid. When the last formula is adopted, strong pressure of
the leaves with the hands can alone be safely had recourse to. If the
infusion does not filter quite clear through paper, it should be set aside
for a few days, when, in general, it will be found to filter more readily
and satisfactorily. Should it be wanted for immediate sale, the addition
of the whites of 2 or 3 eggs, diluted with 2 or 3 ounces of water,
followed by violent agitation of the liquid for a few minutes, and repose
for an hour or two, will usually render it ‘fine,’ when it may be either
decanted, or filtered should it require it. It will now pass rapidly
through ordinary filtering paper, and at once run clear.

=Infusion of Rue.= _Syn._ RUE TEA; INFUSUM RUTÆ, L. Carminative,
antispasmodic, emmenagogue, and vermifuge. It is a popular and useful
remedy in flatulent colic, infantile convulsions, epilepsy, hysteria,
suppressed menstruation, &c.

=Infusion of Rupture-wort.= _Syn._ INFUSUM HERNIARIÆ. _Prep._ Rupture
wood, 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint.

=Infusion of Safflower.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CARTHAMI. _Prep._ Safflower, 2
dr.; boiling water, 16 fl. oz.; infuse for an hour.——_Dose._ A
wine-glassful, as a diaphoretic.

=Infusion of Sage.= _Syn._ SAGE TEA; INFUSUM SALVIÆ, L. 1. From the leaves
of common garden sage. Carminative and stomachic. In flatulence and
dyspepsia, and diluted with water as a drink, to lessen the nightsweats in
phthisis and fever, and to stop the secretion of milk after weaning.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM SALVIÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Ellis.) Sage and boneset, of
each 1/2 oz.; cascarilla, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; infuse until
cold. A wine-glassful every 3 or 4 hours in hectic fever.

=Infusion of Sarsaparil′la.= _Syn._ INFUSUM SARZÆ, I. SARSAPARILLÆ (Ph. U.
S.), L. 1. From the bruised root. Dr Hancock adds 1/2 fl. dr. of
hydrochloric acid to each pint of the water employed, as a menstruum, by
which he says the efficacy of the infusion is greatly increased. At St.
George’s Hospital a little liquorice root and solution of potassa is added
for the same purpose.

2. (Compound; INFUSUM SARSAPARILLÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Ph. D. 1826.)
Sarsaparilla root (washed clean with a little cold water, and sliced), 1
oz.; lime water (cold), 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 12 hours, and strain.
Inferior to the simple infusion, since both earths and alkalies lessen the
solvent action of water on sarsaparilla. Use of both the above, similar to
that of the DECOCTION.

=Infusion of Sas′safras.= _Syn._ SASSAFRAS TEA; INFUSUM SASSAFRAS, L. From
sassafras chips. Alterative, stimulant, and sudorific; a popular remedy in
various cutaneous, rheumatic, scrofulous, and syphilitical affections.
Hufeland recommends the addition of a little liquorice root.

=Infusion of Sav′ine.= _Syn._ SAVINE TEA; INFUSUM SABINÆ, L. _Prep._
(Pereira.) Fresh savine leaves or herb, 1 dr.; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.;
infuse in a covered vessel. Stimulant, emmenagogue, and vermifuge; in
chlorosis, and suppressed menstruation depending on a torpid action of the
uterine vessels; in chronic rheumatism, worms, &c.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls, cautiously administered.

=Infusion of Sax′ifrage.= _Syn._ SAXIFRAGE TEA; INFUSUM PIMPINELLÆ, L.
From the root of burnet saxifrage (_Pimpinella Saxifraga_). Astringent; in
diarrhœa, and externally as a wash to remove freckles.

=Infusion of Scutella′′ria.= _Syn._ INFUSUM SCUTELLARIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Spalding.) Dried herb of _Scutellaria lateriflora_, in powder, 1-1/2
teaspoonful; boiling water, 1 pint. By teacupfuls, thrice daily, to
prevent hydrophobia.

=Infusion of Sen′ega.= _Syn._ INFUSION OF RATTLE-SNAKE ROOT, SENEKA TEA;
INFUSUM SENEGÆ (B. P., Ph. E.), I. POLYGALÆ (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B.
P.) Senega, bruised, 1 oz.; boiling distilled water, 20 oz.; infuse 1
hour, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Senega snake-root (bruised), 10 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint;
infuse for 4 hours in a covered vessel, and strain.

3. (Ph. D.) Polygala root, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 9 fl. oz. Stimulant,
expectorant, and diuretic, either alone or combined with ammonia; in
catarrhs, &c. See DECOCTION, EXTRACT, &c.

=Infusion of Sen′na.= _Syn._ SENNA TEA; INFUSUM SENNÆ (B. P., Ph. E.), I.
SENNÆ COMPOSITUM (Ph. L. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Senna, 1 oz.;
ginger, sliced, 30 gr.; boiled distilled water, 10 oz.; infuse 1 hour, and
strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

2. (Ph. L.) Senna, 15 dr.; ginger (bruised), 4 scruples; boiling water, 1
pint; macerate for an hour in a covered vessel, and strain.

3. (Ph. E.) Senna, 1-1/2 oz.; ginger, 4 scrup.; boiling water, 1 pint.
(See No. 9, _below_.)

4. (Ph. D.) Senna, 1/2 oz.; ginger, 1/2 dr.; boiling water, 1/2 pint.
Purgative.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 wine-glassfuls. It is usually given in doses of
1 to 1-1/2 fl. oz., combined with 3 to 6 dr. of Epsom salts, or other
saline purgative, under the name of ‘BLACK DRAUGHT,’

_Obs._ This infusion is very apt to spoil in warm weather, to prevent
which Mr Squire recommends the addition of 1 gr. of nitrate of potassa to
each ounce.

5. (Concentrated; INFUSUM SENNÆ CONCENTRATUM, L.)——_a._ Senna, 2 lbs. 1
oz.; tepid water, 1 quart, macerate for 12 hours, frequently stirring with
a stick, and express the liquor; to the ‘marc,’ add of tepid water 1-1/4
pint, repeat the maceration for 3 hours, and again express the liquor with
powerful pressure; mix the infusions, and after 2 hours’ repose decant the
clear portion, and evaporate it as rapidly as possible, by steam or a
chloride of sodium bath, until it measures 1-1/2 pint; pour this into a
strong bottle, and when nearly cold, add of rectified spirit, 1/2 pint;
bruised ginger, 3-1/2 oz.; macerate a week with frequent agitation, and
after repose for a few days decant the clear portion, and add dilute
spirit (1 to 4), q. s. to make the whole measure exactly a quart.

_b._ Take 8 times the quantity of senna and ginger ordered in the Ph. L.,
put them into a displacement apparatus, either alone or mixed with clean
washed sand, and transmit water, mixed with 1/4th part of rectified
spirit, through the mass, until the proper quantity of infusion is
obtained.

_c._ (Wholesale.) Alexandrian senna (best), 7 lbs.; unbleached Jamaica
ginger (finest, bruised), 3 lbs.; rectified spirit and water, of each 1
gall.; macerate for 14 days, press out the fluid, filter, and set it aside
in a well-corked bottle; then take of good East India senna, 25 lbs.; and
the ‘pressings’ or ‘marc’ from the tincture, and macerate in the least
possible quantity (10 or 12 galls.) of cold distilled water, for 12 or 14
hours, employing frequent agitation with a wooden spatula; next press out
the liquid, and again macerate the ‘marc’ in cold distilled water (5 or 6
galls.) for 2 hours; press, mix the two liquors, strain, heat gradually to
the boiling point, carefully separate the coagulated albumen and
afterwards evaporate as quickly as possible to exactly 9 quarts; put the
liquid at once into a vessel capable of holding 5 gallons, bung close to
exclude the air, and when nearly cold add the ‘tincture’ obtained from the
Alexandrian senna and the ginger; the whole must now be well agitated
together, and allowed to stand for a week, when the clear portion must be
carefully decanted into bottles (Winchester quarts) for sale.

_d._ As the last, but employing hot water, and limiting the period of the
infusions to 2 hours and 1 hour.

_Obs._ The preceding formulæ are at present employed in the wholesale
trade, by nearly all those houses that are most noted for the superior
quality of their ‘CONCENTRATED INFUSIONS,’ The products of the whole are
excellent. That from _c_ is very beautiful, and contains all the valuable
active matter that it is possible to extract from the ingredients, under
the circumstances. It also keeps well. The last one, like all preparations
of senna made with hot water, is apt to drop a large deposit on standing,
from which the last portion of the infusion is obtained with difficulty.
They each furnish a liquid, of which 1 fl. dr. added to 7 fl. dr. of pure
water forms 1 fl. oz. of a preparation precisely similar in medicinal
qualities to the INFUSUM SENNÆ COMP.——Ph. L.

From the extreme bulkiness of senna, it has become a practice with certain
unprincipled druggists to employ only 1/3 or 1/4 of the proper quantity of
that drug, and to add burnt sugar or treacle to bring up the consistence
and colour, and alkaline solution of gamboge to impart the necessary
purgative quality. CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF SENNA, as generally met with,
is nearly worthless. This arises from either the employment of inferior
senna, or the destruction of its active principle, by the lengthened
exposure to heat and atmospheric oxygen during its manufacture.

6. (With COFFEE; INFUSUM SENNÆ CUM CAFFEÂ, L.)——_a._ (Foy.) Senna, 2 dr.;
roasted coffee (ground), 1 dr.; boiling water and hot milk, of each 3 fl.
oz.; infuse for 12 hours (4?), and strain. For an adult; to be taken in
the morning fasting.

_b._ (Guersand and Blake.) Senna, 10 to 30 gr. (according to age); hot
coffee and hot milk at will; infuse, and when cold strain, and sweeten it
with sugar, q. s. As a purge for children.

7. (With LEMON JUICE; INFUSUM SENNÆ) LIMONIATUM, L.) From senna, 1-1/2
oz.; fresh lemon peel, 1 oz.; lemon juice, 1 fl. oz.; boiling water, 16
fl. oz.; infuse.

8. (With RHUBARB; INFUSUM SENNÆ ET RHEI, L.——Ellis.) Senna, 6 dr.; manna,
1 oz.; rhubarb and cardamoms, of each (bruised), 2 dr.; boiling water, 1
pint; infuse 1 hour and strain.

9. (With TAMARINDS; INFUSUM SENNÆ COMPOSITUM——Ph. E., SENNÆ CUM
TAMARINDIS, L.——Ph. E.) Senna, 3 dr.; tamarinds, 1 oz.; coriander seeds, 1
dr.; sugar, 1/2 oz. (if brown, 1 oz.); boiling water, 8 fl. oz.; infuse
for four hours, with agitation, and then strain through calico. Pleasanter
than the ordinary infusion of senna.

10. (With TARTAR; INFUSUM SENNÆ TARTARIZATUM, L.) From senna, 1-1/2 oz.;
coriander seeds, 4 dr.; cream of tartar, 2 dr.; boiling water, 16 fl. oz.

=Infusion of Ser′pentary.= _Syn._ INFUSUM SERPENTARIÆ (B. P., Ph. L. &
E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Serpentary, bruised, 1 oz.; boiling distilled
water, 40 oz.; infuse 2 hours, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

2. (Ph. L.) Serpentary or Virginian snake-root, 1/2 oz.; boiling distilled
water, 1 pint; macerate for 4 hours in a closed vessel, and strain. The
form of the Ph. E. is similar. As a stimulating expectorant and
diaphoretic; in chronic catarrhs, low fevers, agues, &c.

3. (Compound; INFUSUM SERPENTARIÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Guy’s Hosp.) Virginian
snake-root and contrayerva, of each 5 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate
2 hours, strain; and when cold add of tincture of serpentary 2 fl. oz. As
the last.

=Infusion of Simaru′ba.= _Syn._ INFUSUM SIMARUBÆ (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Simaruba, bruised, 3 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse
2 hours, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

2. (Ph. E. & Ph. L., 1836.) Bark of the bitter simaruba or mountain
damson, 3 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate 2 hours, and strain.

3. (Ph. D.) Simaruba bark, 2 dr.; boiling water, 9 fl. oz. Tonic, and, in
large doses, emetic; in chronic diarrhœa and dysentery, either alone or
combined with opium; and in agues, dyspepsia, &c.

4. (Compound; INFUSUM SIMARUBÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Foy.) Simaruba bark and
wormwood, of each 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse for 15 minutes,
strain, and add of syrup of gentian, 1 fl. oz. In agues and dyspepsia.

=Infusion of Slip′pery Elm.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ULMI (Ph. U. S.), I. U. FULVÆ,
L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S.) Inner bark of slippery elm (_Ulmus fulva_), 1 oz.;
boiling water, 16 fl. oz.; infuse for 2 hours, and strain. Demulcent.

=Infusion of Soap-wort.= _Syn._ INFUSUM SAPONARIÆ, L. From soap-wort root
(_Saponaria officinalis_). Aperient and demulcent; also reputed alterative
and antisyphilitic.

=Infusion of South′ernwood.= _Syn._ SOUTHERNWOOD TEA; INFUSUM ABROTANI, L.
From the herb southernwood or old man (_Absinthium Abrotanum_).
Antispasmodic, tonic, and vermifuge; in hysteria, difficult and painful
menstruation, worms, &c.

=Infusion, Stim′ulant.= _Syn._ INFUSUM STIMULANS, L. _Prep._ (Dr Paris.)
Black mustard seed (bruised), and dittander, of each 1/2 oz.; boiling
water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 1 hour, strain, and when cold add of
spirit of sal-volatile, 1 fl. dr.; spirit of pimento, 1/2 fl. oz.——_Dose_,
2 table-spoonfuls 3 times a day; in palsy.

=Infusion of Stink′ing Hel′lebore.= _Syn._ INFUSUM HELLEBORI FŒTIDI, L.
_Prep._ (Woodville.) Dried leaves of setter-wort or _Helleborus fœtidum_,
1/2 dr. (or green herb, 2 dr.); boiling water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate 1
hour, and strain. Aperient and vermifuge; and emetic, in large doses. It
is chiefly used against the large round worms of children and females,
taken fasting.

=Infusion of Suc′cory.= _Syn._ CHICORY TEA; INFUSUM CHICORII, L. From the
dried root. Aperient, deobstruent, and tonic; either alone or sweetened
with honey or sugar.

=Infusion of Sweet Flag.= _Syn_. CALAMUS TEA, SWEET-FLAG T.; INFUSUM
ACORI, I. CALAMI AROMATICI, L. An aromatic stimulant, tonic, and
stomachic. See SWEET FLAG.

=Infusion of Tam′arinds.= _Syn._ INFUSUM TAMARINDI, L. Cooling and
laxative; in sore throat, febrile affections, &c., taken _ad libitum_. See
INFUSION OF SENNA.

=Infusion of Tan′sy.= _Syn._ TANSY TEA; INFUSUM TANACETI, L. From the
dried herb, or the green herb using double the quantity. Aromatic, bitter,
tonic, and vermifuge.

=Infusion of Tar.= _Syn._ TAR WATER, TAR TEA; INFUSUM PICIS LIQUIDÆ, AQUA
P. L. (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Bishop Berkeley.) Wood tar, 1 quart; cold
water, 1 gall.; stir with a stick for 15 minutes, then allow the tar to
subside, strain, and keep it in well-stoppered jars.

2. (Ph. D.) As the last. Taken to the extent of a pint daily in chronic
catarrhal and nephritic affections; also used as a lotion in chronic
cutaneous diseases, especially those of the scalp in children. See
DECOCTION.

=Infusion of Tarax′acum.= See INFUSION OF DANDELION.

=Infusion of Tobac′co.= _Syn._ TOBACCO WATER; INFUSUM TABACI, L. _Prep._
(Ph. D. 1826.) Tobacco leaves, 1 dr.; boiling water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate
for an hour. Used for enemas; in strangulated hernia, obstinate colic,
&c., observing not to administer more than one half at a time; also as a
wash to kill pediculi.

=Infusion, Ton′ic.= See INFUSIONS OF CALUMBA, CASCARILLA, GENTIAN, &c.,
also MIXTURES.

=Infusion of Sessamum.= (Dr Wood.) _Syn._ INFUSUM SESAMI. _Prep._ Two
fresh leaves of sessamum (Venne) infused in 8 oz. of cold water, form a
mucilaginous demulcent drink. Dried leaves require hot water.

=Infusion of Silk-weed.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ASCLEPIADIS. _Prep._ Bark of the
common silk-weed, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint.-_Dose_, 1 oz. to 1-1/2 oz.
In cough and dyspnœa.

=Infusion of Tre′foil.= See INFUSION OF BUCKBEAN.

=Infusion of Tu′lip-tree Bark.= _Syn._ INFUSUM LIRIODENDRI, L. From the
bark of the tulip tree (_Liriodendron tulipifera_). Diaphoretic,
stimulant, stomachic, and tonic; in dyspepsia, fevers, &c.; also used to
flavour liquors.

=Infusion of Tur′meric.= _Syn._ INFUSION CURCUMÆ, L. Used as a test and to
prepare test-paper. When required for keeping, about 1-7th of its volume
of rectified spirit must be added.

=Infusion of Valer′ian.= _Syn._ INFUSUM VALERIANE (B. L., Ph. L. & D.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Valerian, bruised, 120 gr.; boiling distilled water, 10
oz.; infuse 1 hour and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.

2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, 1/2 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 part;
infuse for an hour in a covered vessel, and strain.

3. (Ph. D.) Valerian, 2 dr.; boiling water, 9 fl. oz. Antispasmodic and
nervine; in hysteria, hypochondriasis, epilepsy, and low fevers.

4. (Compound; INFUSUM VALERIANÆ COMPOSITUM, L.) Yellow cinchona bark, 1
oz.; valerian, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; as before. In debilitated
nervous habits.

=Infusion of Vanil′la.= _Syn._ VANILLA TEA; INFUSUM VANILLÆ, L. _Prep._
Vanilla, 1-1/2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint. A stimulant antispasmodic; in
hysteria, rheumatism, anaphrodisia, &c.; but chiefly used as a flavouring
for liqueurs, confectionery, &c.

=Infusion of Vittie Vayr.= _Syn._ VITTIE VAYR TEA; INFUSUM VETIVERIÆ, L.
From the roots of _Andropogon muricatus_ (VETIVER, VITTIE VAYR, or
CUSCUS). Antispasmodic, diaphoretic, and stimulant, and, when warm,
diaphoretic and emmenagogue; in rheumatism gout, slight febrile cases,
&c.; and as a prophylactic of cholera. See ESSENCE.

=Infusion of Wall-pel′litory.= _Syn._ INFUSUM PARIETARIÆ, L. From the
dried herb (_Parietaria officinalis_). Aperient, diuretic, and pectoral;
in asthmas, dropsies, calculous affections, &c.

=Infusion of Wal′nut Leaves.= _Syn._ WALNUT-LEAF TEA; INFUSUM JUGLANDIS,
L. From the fresh leaves of the common walnut (_Juglans regia_); also from
the inner wood-bark, and the green rind of the fruit. See DECOCTION and
EXTRACT.

=Infusion of Water-fen′nel.= _Syn._ INFUSUM PHELLANDRI, L. _Prep._ (Bird.)
Seeds of water-fennel, 5 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint.——_Dose_, 3 to 4 fl.
dr.; to check excessive expectoration.

=Infusion of Whor′tleberry.= _Syn._ INFUSUM UVÆ URSI, L. With alkalies,
henbane, or opium, in diseases of the urinary organs; and with sulphuric
acid and foxglove, in affections of the lungs. See DECOCTION and EXTRACT.

_Note._——Infusum Uvæ Ursi of the Brit. Pharmacopœia.

=Infusion of Wild-cherry Bark.= _Syn._ INFUSUM PRUNI VIRGINIANÆ (Ph. U.
S.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S.) Wild cherry-tree bark (_Prunus Virginiana_ or
_Cerasus Serotina_), 1/2 oz.; cold water, 16 fl. oz.; infuse 24 hours, and
strain. A valuable tonic and febrifuge. Wild-cherry bark also exercises a
sedative action on the circulatory and nervous system, and is much used in
America in a variety of diseases.

=Infusion of Wild Gin′ger.= _Syn._ INFUSUM ASARI CANADENSIS, L. From the
root of wild ginger or Canada snake-root (_Asarum Canadense_). A warm
stimulant diaphoretic, in the same cases as INFUSION OF VIRGINIAN
SNAKE-ROOT.

=Infusion of Wil′low Bark.= _Syn._ INFUSUM SALICIS, L. From the bark of
the white or common willow (_Salix alba_). Astringent, tonic, and
febrifuge; often used instead of INFUSION OF CINCHONA.

=Infusion of Win′ter Green.= _Syn._ INFUSUM PYROLÆ, I. CHIMAPHILÆ, L.
Astringent, tonic, and diuretic; in dropsy, nephritic pains, and chronic
affections of the urinary organs. It blackens the urine, like uva ursi.
See DECOCTION.

=Infusion of Wood Soot.= _Syn._ SOOT TEA; INFUSUM FULIGINIS LIGNI, L.
Antacid and stimulant. A similar preparation is also made from coal-soot,
which is reputed antispasmodic and vermifuge.

=Infusion of Worm′wood.= _Syn._ WORMWOOD TEA, INFUSUM ABSINTHII, L. From
the fresh tops of the plant, or from only half the quantity of the dried
herb. In loss of appetite, dyspepsia, amenorrhœa, leucorrhœa, gout, worms,
&c. See BITTERS.

=INHALA′TION.= _Syn._ Inhalatio, L. In _medicine_, the drawing in or
inspiring of vapour with the breath. Inhalations (INHALATIONES) are
vapours or gases imbibed for the purpose of medicating the mucous membrane
of the air-passages. The substances that are to furnish the vapours or
fumes are put into a vessel called an ‘inhaler’ (see INHALER), which may
be simply a small covered pot or mug of metal or glass, furnished with a
short flexible tube, terminating in a small mouth-piece. In many cases
even this simple apparatus may be dispensed with, and the fumes inhaled by
holding the head over a vessel containing a little of the substance
furnishing them; or, as with chloroform, a little may be dropped on a
handkerchief or napkin, which is then held to the nose.

The following are the principal substances that are employed for
inhalations at the present day:——

1. Carbonic acid gas and nitrous oxide; occasionally used in phthisis, by
means of a bladder and mouth-piece.

2. Chlorine gas; exhibited by adding 5 or 6 drops of aqueous chlorine to
the water (tepid) of the inhaler, which should be, in this case, of glass;
employed in France for phthisis, but seldom used in England.

3. Chloroform; as an anæsthetic.

4. Vapour of iodine, administered in the same way as chlorine;
occasionally used in phthisis.

5. Oxygen and hydrogen gases, either alone or diluted with air; employed
in asthma and phthisis, by means of a bladder and mouth-piece.

6. Tar vapour, obtained by heating tar, mixed with a little carbonate of
potash, over a spirit lamp, occasionally employed in bronchitis, and
recommended by Sir A. Crighton in phthisis, but appears of little value in
the latter.

7. Steam of hot water; in bronchitis, and to allay the cough in phthisis;
small quantities of the seeds of henbane, opium, poppy-heads, &c., are
frequently added to produce an anodyne effect. See CIGARS (in pharmacy),
DISINFECTANTS, FUMIGATION, VAPOURS, &c.

=INJEC′TION.= _Syn._ INJECTIO, L. In _medicine_, any liquid medicine
thrown into a cavity of the body by means of a syringe or an elastic bag.
Those thrown into the rectum are commonly called ‘clysters’ or ‘enemata,’
and are noticed under the head of ENEMA. The following are the principal
injections employed in medical practice at the present day:——

=Injection of Ac′etate of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ INJECTIO AMMONIÆ ACETATIS, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. Chirur.) Solution of acetate of ammonia (Ph. L.), 1 part;
water, 3 parts. Refrigerant.

=Injection of Ac′etate of Cop′per.= _Syn._ INJECTIO CUPRI ACETATIS, L.
_Prep._ From verdigris, 10 gr.; oil of almonds (hot), 4-1/2 oz.; triturate
until dissolved, and strain. Detergent.

=Injection of Ac′etate of Lead.= _Syn._ INJECTIO PLUMBI ACETATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Sugar of lead, 1/2 dr.; distilled water, 1/2 pint.

2. (Dr Collier.) Acetate of lead, 40 gr.; rose water, 8 fl. oz. Astringent
and sedative. See SEDATIVE INJECTION.

=Injection of Ac′etate of Zinc.= _Syn._ INJECTIO ZINCI ACETATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ellis.) Acetate of zinc, 8 gr.; rose water, 4 fl. oz.

2. (Brodie.) Sulphate of zinc, 1 dr.; sugar of lead, 80 gr.; water, 1
pint; dissolve separately, mix, and filter. Astringent.

=Injection, Alkaline.= _Syn._ INJECTIO ALKALINA, I. LITHONTRIPTICA, L.
_Prep._ (Chevallier.) Carbonate of soda, 1 dr.; Castile soap, 2 dr.;
water, 12 fl. oz.; dissolve. In certain forms of calculus.

=Injection of Aloes.= (Bories.) _Syn._ INJECTIO ALOES. _Prep._ Aloes, 10
gr.; muriate of ammonia, 10 gr.; honey of roses, 1 oz.; fennel water, 6
oz.

4. (Dr Reece). Alum, 1 dr.; acetate of lead, 1-1/2 dr.; triturate with 6
oz. of boiling water, and in an hour filter.

=Injection of Al′um.= _Syn._ INJECTIO ALUMINIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr
Collier.) Alum, 18 gr.; rose-water, 6 fl. oz.; dissolve. For the urethra.

2. (Collier.) Alum, 3 dr.; water, 1 quart. For the vagina.

3. (Ph. Ch.) Alum, 4 gr.; rose-water, 4 fl. oz. The above are all
astringent.

=Injection of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ INJECTIO AMMONIÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr
Ashwell.) Liquor of ammonia, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; milk, 1 pint. In obstructed
menstruation.

2. (Lavagna.) Liquor of ammonia, 8 to 20 drops; milk, 2 fl. oz. As the
last, thrice daily, beginning with the least quantity of ammonia.

3. Liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. dr.; mucilage, 1 oz.; water, 9 fl. oz. As the
last.

=Injection of Ammo′′nio-Sulphate of Cop′per.= _Syn._ INJECTIO CUPRI
AMMONIATI, L. _Prep._ (Swediaur.) Ammonio-sulphate of copper, 5 gr.;
rose-water, 8 fl. oz. In chronic gonorrhœa.

=Injection of Bichlo′′ride of Mer′cury.= _Syn._ INJECTIO HYDRARGYRI
BICHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ 1. Corrosive sublimate, 2 gr.; rose water, 5 fl.
oz.; hydrochloric acid, 1 drop.

2. Corrosive sublimate and sal ammoniac, of each 5 to 10 gr.; water, 1
pint.

3. Sublimate, 5 gr.; rose water, 2-1/2 fl. oz. Used to promote healthy
action, and to prevent infection.

=Injection of Cal′omel.= _Syn._ INJECTIO CALOMELANOS, I. HYDRARGYRI,
CHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ (St. B. Hosp.) Calomel, 1 dr.; mucilage, 1 fl. oz.;
water, 1/2 pint. Some persons order ‘quince mucilage.’

=Injection of Carbolic Acid.= (Throat Hosp.) _Syn._ INJECTIO ACIDI
CARBOLICI. _Prep._ Carbolic acid, 5 gr.; water, 1 oz.; mix. Antiseptic.

=Injection of Car′bonate of Lead.= _Syn._ INJECTIO CERUSSÆ, I. PLUMBI
CARBONATIS, L. _Prep._ (Hosp. F.) Carbonate of lead (finely levigated),
1/2 dr.; sulphate of zinc, 8 gr.; mucilage, 1 oz.; rose water, 5 oz.
Cooling and astringent.

=Injection of Chlo′′ride of Lime.= _Syn._ INJECTIO CALCIS HYPOCHLORIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Chloride of lime, 1/2 dr.; water, 1/2 pint; agitate well
together, and filter. To prevent infection.

2. (Detmold.) Chloride of lime, 2 dr.; decoction of rhatany, 13 fl. oz.;
dissolve, and filter. In foul discharges, especially in ozæna, or fœtid
ulceration of the nose.

3. (Rousse.) Chloride of lime, 20 gr.; water, 7 fl. oz.; wine of opium, 1
fl. oz. In foul discharges, and to allay irritation.

=Injection of Chlo′′ride of So′da.= _Syn._ INJECTIO SODÆ HYPOCHLORIS, L.
_Prep._ From solution of chloride of soda, 1 fl. dr.; rose water, 3 fl.
oz. As the last.

=Injection of Chlo′′ride of Zinc.= _Syn._ INJECTIO ZINCI CHLORIDI, L.
_Prep._ From chloride of zinc, 2 gr.; rose water, 3 fl. oz.; hydrochloric
acid, 1 drop. In gonorrhœa.

=Injection of Copai′ba.= _Syn._ INJECTIO COPAIBÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Abernethy.) Copaiba 2 dr.; thick mucilage, 5 dr.; lime water, 6 fl. oz.;
make an emulsion.

2. (Plenck.) Copaiba, 1/2 oz.; yolk of egg, q. s.; lime water, 6 fl. oz.;
honey of roses, 3 oz. As the last.

3. (Ricord.) Copaiba, 6 dr.; yolk of egg, q. s.; decoction of poppies, 3
to 4 fl. oz. In ulcers of the rectum, vagina, and urethra; and in
gonorrhœa.

=Injection of Cre′asote.= _Syn._ INJECTIO CREASOTI, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Allnatt.) Creasote, 20 drops; white sugar, 2 dr.; liquor of potassa, 2 fl.
dr.; triturate, and add of water, 8 fl. oz. In leucorrhœa and piles.

=Injection of Cu′bebs.= _Syn._ INJECTIO CUBEBÆ, L. _Prep._ (Soubeiran.)
Cubebs (in powder), 1 oz.; extract of belladonna, 1 dr.; boiling water, 16
fl. oz.; infuse in a covered vessel, and strain. Stimulant and narcotic.
In gonorrhœa and leucorrhœa.

=Injection for the Ear.= _Syn._ INJECTIO ACOUSTICA, L. _Prep._ 1. Ox-gall,
3 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; mix. In hardened wax, dryness of membranes,
&c.

2. Oil of almonds or cloves, 2 oz.; oil of amber, 20 drops; tincture of
castor, 1 fl. dr.; spirit of camphor, 1/2 dr.; laudanum, 3 drops; mix. In
ear-ache and chronic deafness.

3. (Alibert.) Balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; tincture of musk, 4 or 5 drops; otto
of roses, 1 or 2 drops; decoction of St. John’s wort (warm), 16 fl. oz.;
agitate together, and after repose decant the clear. In discharges from
the ear.

_Obs._ Mr Yearsley states that drops and injections for the ear should be
used with very great caution, and only under proper advice, as they
otherwise often aggravate the ailment, instead of curing it.

=Injection of Er′got.= _Syn._ INJECTIO ERGOTÆ, I. SECALIS CORNUTI, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Boudin.) Ergot, 1 dr.; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.; infuse
until cold. When the urethra is highly sensitive.

2. (Descrolles.) Powdered ergot, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint. Both the
above are used in chronic inflammation of the vagina, and in gonorrhœa.

=Injection of Gal′lic Acid.= _Syn._ INJECTIO ACIDI GALLICI, L. _Prep._
(Dunglison.) Gallic acid, 1/2 dr.; water, 1 pint. In leucorrhœa.

=Injection of Galls.= _Syn._ INJECTIO GALLÆ, L. _Prep._ From galls
(bruised), 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse 1 hour, and strain.
Astringent; in leucorrhœa.

=Injection of Hydrochlo′′ric Acid.= _Syn._ INJECTIO ACIDI HYDROCHLORICI,
L. _Prep._ From hydrochloric acid, 10 drops; soft water, 5 fl. oz. To
prevent and to remove recent infection; also to remove particles of lime
and iron from the eye.

=Injection of Hydrocyan′ic Ac′id.= _Syn._ INJECTIO ACIDI HYDROCYANICI, L.
_Prep._ Medicinal hydrocyanic acid, 1 fl. dr.; soft water or almond
emulsion, 1 pint. Anodyne; to allay excessive irritability, both in
chronic ophthalmia and gonorrhœa, and to relieve chordee; but in all cases
it must be used with caution, and at first largely diluted with water.

=Injections, Hypodermic.= _Syn._ INJECTIONES HYPODERMICÆ, INJECTIONES
SUBCUTANEÆ.

=1. Hypodermic Injection of Ergotine.= (Dr Hildebrandt.) Aqueous extract
of ergotine, 3 parts; distilled water and glycerin, of each 7-1/2 parts;
for uterine fibroid tumours (Dr Drasch), 5 gr. of ergotine in 1 dr. of
glycerin; 1/5th to be injected, according to circumstances, once or twice
a day, in the region of the pectoral muscles; in internal hæmorrhage,
hæmoptysis, and epistaxis.

=2. Hypodermic Injection of Iodic Acid.= Dr Luton uses this in goitre, 1/2
dr. of solution containing 1/5th of acid injected at once into the midst
of the tumour.

=3. Hypodermic Injection of Perchloride of Mercury.= (Dr Staub.)
Perchloride of mercury and chloride of ammonium, of each 20 gr.; chloride
of sodium about 62 gr.; distilled water, 20 gr. After filtration the whole
is mixed with solution of the white of one egg, and 4-1/2 dr. of water.
The solution contains 1/33rd of a gr. of perchloride to every 20 drops.
1/6th of a grain of perchloride to be injected each day.

=4. Hypodermic Injection of Morphia.= (B. P.) Hydrochlorate of morphia 88
gr.; solution of ammonia, acetic acid, distilled water of each, q. s.
Dissolve the hydrochlorate in 2 oz. of distilled water by a gentle heat,
then add the solution of ammonia, so as to precipitate the morphia, and
render the liquid slightly alkaline; allow it to cool; collect the
precipitate on a filter, wash with distilled water, and allow it to drain;
then transfer the morphia to a porcelain dish, and add acetic acid until
the morphia is dissolved, and a very slightly acid solution is formed. Now
add distilled water, q. s. to make the solution measure 2 fl. oz. For
subcutaneous injection, 1 to 6 minims.

5. Sulphate of morphia is a very good soluble salt.

=6. Hypodermic Injection of Quinine.= Three to 6 gr. of _neutral_ sulphate
of quinine placed on a watch glass, previously warmed, without acid; to
this add 12 minims of distilled water, and apply a moderate heat by a
spirit lamp for a second, or two. The syringe should be warmed before
being used.

Dr Rosenthal advocates the use of glycerin as a medium for the solution of
various substances used for subcutaneous injection. The glycerin must be
very pure. By gradual elevation of temperature it can be made to take up a
large number of certain alkaloids and salts, and will retain them
dissolved for a year. 1 fl. dr. will dissolve one scruple of sulphate of
quinine, and 10 gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia. Dr Rosenthal states that
the injection of quinine has been found very useful in intermittents.

=Injection of Io′dide of I′ron.= _Syn._ INJECTIO FERRI IODIDI, L. _Prep._
1. (Ricord.) Iodide of iron, 6 gr.; water, 5 fl. oz. In gonorrhœa,
gradually increasing the quantity of iodide.

2. (Soubeiran.) Iodide of iron, 3 to 4 dr.; water, 1 pint. In suppressed
and painful menstruation, leucorrhœa, &c. Both are astringent and well
adapted to scrofulous patients.

=Injection of I′odide of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ INJECTIO POTASSII IODIDI, L.
_Prep._ (Foy.) Iodide of potassium, 3 gr.; pure water, 1 pint. As a
stimulant to fistulous sinuses and ulcers in persons of scrofulous habits.

=Injection of I′odine.= _Syn._ IODURETTED INJECTION; INJECTIO IODURETA, I.
IODINII, L. _Prep._ 1. (M. Ameuille.) Tincture of iodine, 1 part; water, 5
or 6 parts. In refractory fistulæ.

2. (M. Bonnet.) Iodine, 1 part; iodide of potassium, 2 parts; water, 10
parts. In scrofulous hydrarthrosis, &c.

3. (Bransby Cooper.) Compound tincture of iodine, 2 fl. dr.; water, 6 fl.
dr. In hydrocele.

4. (Guibourt.) Iodine, 4 gr.; iodide of potassium, 8 gr.; water, 1 pint.
To stimulate fistulous sinuses.

5. (Velpeau.) Tincture of iodine, 1 fl. dr.; water, 3 fl. dr. In
hydrocele.

=Injection, Lithontrip′tic.= _Syn._ INJECTIO LITHONTRIPTICA, I. VESICALIS,
L. _Prep._ (Dr Hoskins.) Nitro-saccharate of lead, 1 gr.; saccharic acid,
5 drops; rub together, then add of distilled water, 1 fl. oz. As a solvent
for phosphatic calculi. See INJECTION ALKALINE.

=Injection, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ INJECTIO MERCURIALIS, I. HYDRARGYRI, L.
_Prep._ 1. Quicksilver, 1 dr.; gum mucilage, 1-1/2 oz.; triturate until
the globules disappear, and gradually add of water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Hosp. F.) Quicksilver and balsam of copaiba, of each 4 dr.; yolk of an
egg; rose water, 1/2 pint. An awkward and useless preparation.

=Injection of Mor′phia.= _Syn._ INJECTIO MORPHIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Brera.)
Morphia, 2 gr.; oil of almonds (warm), 1 oz.; triturate together until
united. Anodyne and emollient. To ease the pain in ear-ache, acute
gonorrhœa, piles, &c.

=Injection of Night Shade, Black.= (P. C.) _Syn._ INJECTIO FOLIARUM SOLANI
NIGRUM. _Prep._ Dried leaves of black night shade, 1-3/4 oz.; boiling
water, 36 oz. Infuse 1 hour, and strain.

=Injection of Nitrate of Sil′ver.= _Syn._ INJECTIO ARGENTI NITRATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Acton.) Nitrate of silver, 3 gr.; distilled water, 1/2 pint;
dissolve.

2. (Dr Arnott.) Nitrate, 12 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.

3. (Dr Collier.) Nitrate, 2 gr.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.

4. (Dr Culverwell.) Nitrate, 20 to 30 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.

5. (Dr Jewell.) Nitrate, 12 gr.; water, 6 fl. oz.

6. (Ricord.) Nitrate, 8 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.

7. (West. Hosp.) Nitrate, 1-1/2 gr.; diluted nitric acid, 1-1/4 minim;
distilled water, 1 fl. oz.

_Obs._ The weaker solutions are used in chronic gonorrhœa, gleet, and
leucorrhœa; those of an intermediate strength to prevent an attack of
gonorrhœa following the incipient symptoms of that disease; and the
strongest, chiefly in spermatorrhœa. Their use requires great caution.

=Injection of Oak Bark.= _Syn._ INJECTIO QUERCUS. _Prep._ (Univ. Hosp.)
Alum, 6 gr.; decoction of oak bark, 1 fl. oz. For the vagina. Astringent.

=Injection, Oleaginous.= _Syn._ INJECTIO OLEOSA. _Prep._ Oil of almonds, 4
oz.; liquid subacetate of lead, 8 drops.

=Injection of O′′pium.= _Syn._ INJECTIO OPII, I. OPIATA, L. _Prep._ 1.
Tincture of opium or wine of opium, 1 to 2 fl. dr. (according to
circumstances); water, 5 fl. oz. As an anodyne, in gonorrhœa.

2. (Foy.) Extract of opium, 6 gr.; extract of belladonna, 1-1/2 dr.;
decoction of wild lettuce, 16 fl. oz. In neuralgia and hæmorrhages.

=Injection of Opium with Lead.= (Wendt.) _Syn._ INJECTIO PLUMBI OPIATA.
_Prep._ Extract of opium, 1-1/2 gr.; distilled water, 2 oz.; mucilage, 2
dr.; liquid subacetate of lead, 4 drops.

=Injection of Pancreas.= (Merkel.) _Syn._ INJECTIO PANCREATINI. _Prep._
One bullock’s pancreas; glycerin, 8 oz. Rub the finely minced pancreas
with the glycerin, mix one third of this mixture with from 4 to 5 oz. of
finely minced meat, and inject into the rectum. Said to be easily
digested.

=Injection of Platino-Chloride of Soda.= (Hœffer.) _Syn._ INJECTIO
PLATINO-CHLORIDI SODII. _Prep._ Decoction of poppy, 8 oz.; chloride of
platinum and sodium, 1/2 dr.

=Injection, Sed′ative.= _Syn._ INJECTIO SEDATIVA, L. _Prep._ (Hosp. F.)
Oil of almonds, 1 oz.; solution of diacetate of lead, 20 drops. Cooling,
sedative, and emollient.

2. (Wendt.) Aqueous extract of opium, 1-1/2 gr.; mucilage, 2 dr.; solution
of diacetate of lead, 4 drops; water, 2 fl. oz. Cooling, sedative, and
anodyne.

3. (Gassincourt.) Simple emulsion, 5 fl. oz.; decoction of poppies, 16 fl.
oz.; white of 1 egg; mix. In acute gonorrhœa.

=Injection, Stim′ulating.= _Syn._ INJECTIO STIMULANS, L. _Prep._ (St.
Marie.) Myrrh, 1 oz.; quicklime, 2 oz.; water, 1 quart; digest for 2 or 3
days, and decant the clear portion. In fistulous ulcers.

=Injection of Sul′phate of Cop′per.= _Syn._ INJECTIO CUPRI SULPHATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Sulphate of copper, 5 gr.; rose water, 4 fl. oz. In chronic
gonorrhœa.

2. (Hunter.) Sulphate of copper, 3 gr.; water, 4 fl. oz. As the last.

3. (Swediaur.) Sulphate of copper, 6 gr.; water, 4 fl. oz.; dissolve, and
add solution of diacetate of lead, 20 drops. In phimosis.

=Injection of Sul′phate of Ir′on.= _Syn._ INJECTIO FERRI SULPHATIS, L.
_Prep._ (Berends.) Sulphate of iron and mucilage, of each 1/2 dr.; sage
water, 4 fl. oz.; dissolve. In nasal and uterine hæmorrhages.

=Injection of Sul′phate of Zinc.= _Syn._ INJECTIO ZINCI SULPHATIS. _Prep._
1. (Hosp. F.) Sulphate of zinc, 2 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.

2. (King’s Coll.——INJECTIO COMMUNIS.)——_a._ Sulphate of zinc, 3 gr.;
solution of lead, 20 drops; water, 1 fl. oz. For a man. _b._ Sulphate of
zinc, 10 gr.; alum, 10 gr.; decoction of oak bark, 1 fl. oz. For a woman.

=Injection of Sul′phuret of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ INJECTIO POTASSII
SULPHURETI, L. _Prep._ (Wedekind.) Sulphuret of potassium, 1 dr.; water,
1/2 pint. In gonorrhœa.

=Injection of Tan′nic Acid.= _Syn._ INJECTIO TANNINI, I. ACIDI TANNICI, L.
_Prep._ (Béral.) Tannin, 1/2 dr.; distilled water, 8 fl. oz. (or better,
1/2 pint). In gleet and leucorrhœa.

=Injection of Tea.= _Syn._ INJECTIO THEÆ, L. _Prep._ (Hosp. F.) Green tea
(or rough black tea), 1 dr. (say 2 teaspoonfuls); boiling water, 1/2 pint.
Astringent; in gleet and fluor albus.

=Injection of Turpentine.= (St. Bart.’s Hosp.) _Syn._ INJECTIO
TEREBINTHINÆ. _Prep._ Oil of turpentine, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; olive oil, 12 fl.
oz.

=Injection, Vi′nous.= _Syn._ INJECTIO VINI RUBRI, I. VINOSA, L. _Prep._
(Earle.) Red wine, 1 part; water, 2 or 3 parts. In hydrocele.

=Injection of Wood-soot.= _Syn._ INJECTIO FULIGINIS. (Rognetta). Decoction
of wood-soot, 16 oz.; alum 1/2 oz.; water, 6 oz. In leucorrhœa.

=Ink.= _Syn._ ATRAMENTUM, L. Coloured liquid employed for writing with a
pen. Ink is made of various substances and colours; but at present we
shall confine our attention to the tanno-gallic compounds, to which the
term, when standing alone, is almost exclusively applied.

_Prep._ 1. Aleppo galls (well bruised), 4 oz.; clean soft water, 1 quart;
macerate in a clean corked bottle for 10 days or a fortnight, or even
longer, with frequent agitation, then add of gum Arabic (dissolved in a
wine-glassful of water), 1-1/4 oz.; lump sugar, 1/2 oz.; mix well, and
afterwards further add of sulphate of iron (green copperas, crushed
small), 1-1/2 oz.; agitate occasionally for 2 or 3 days, when the ink may
be decanted for use, but is better if the whole is left to digest together
for 2 or 3 weeks. When time is an object, the whole of the ingredients may
at once be put into a bottle, and the latter agitated daily until the ink
is made; and boiling water instead of cold water may be employed.
_Product._ 1 quart of excellent ink, writing pale at first, but soon
turning intensely black.

2. Aleppo galls (bruised), 12 lbs.; soft water, 6 galls.; boil in a copper
vessel for 1 hour, adding more water to make up for the portion lost by
evaporation; strain, and again boil the galls with water, 4 galls.; for
1/2 an hour; strain off the liquor, and boil a third time with water,
2-1/2 galls., and strain; mix the several liquors, and while still hot,
add of green copperas (coarsely powdered), 4-1/2 lbs.; gum arabic (bruised
small), 4 lbs.; agitate until dissolved, and after defecation strain
through a hair sieve, and keep it in a bunged-up cask for use. _Product._
12 galls.; very fine and durable.

3. Aleppo galls (bruised), 14 lbs.; gum, 5 lbs; put them in a small cask,
and add of boiling soft water, 15 galls.; allow the whole to macerate,
with frequent agitation, for a fortnight, then further add of green
copperas, 5 lbs., (dissolved in) water, 7 pints; again mix well, and
agitate the whole once daily for 2 or 3 weeks. _Prod._ Fully 15 galls.
Resembles No. 1.

4. Galls (bruised), 9 lbs.; logwood chips (best Campeachy), 3 lbs.; boil
as in No. 2; to the strained mixed liquors, add of gum arabic and green
copperas, of each (bruised small), 4 lbs.; simmer or digest until
dissolved, and at once strain through a hair sieve into the store-cask or
jars. _Prod._ 16-1/2 galls. Excellent, but inferior to the preceding.

5. Galls (bruised), 2 lbs.; logwood chips, green copperas, and gum, of
each 1 lb.; water, 7 galls.; boil 2 hours, and strain. _Prod._ 5 galls. A
superior ink for retail.

6. Galls (bruised), 1 lb.; logwood, 2 lbs.; gum (common), 1 lb.; green
copperas, 3/4 lb.; water, 8 galls.; proceed as last. _Prod._ 6 galls.
Common, but fit for all ordinary purposes.

The following formulæ are for some of the advertised inks, or are those
recommended by the authorities whose names are attached to them:——

7. (ANTI-CORROSIVE.) Same as ‘Asiatic ink.’

8. (ASIATIC.) Galls, 4 lbs.; logwood, 2 lbs.; pomegranate peel, 2 lb.;
soft water, 5 galls; boil as in No. 2, then add to the strained and
decanted liquor, when cold, of gum Arabic, 1 lb.; lump sugar or sugar
candy, 1/4 lb.; dissolved in water, 3 pints. _Product._ 4-1/2 galls.
Writes pale, but flows well from the pen, and soon gets black.

9. (Brande.) Galls, 6 oz.; green copperas and gum Arabic, of each 4 oz.;
soft water, 3 quarts; by decoction.

10. (Chaptal.) As No. 4 (nearly), adding sulphate of copper, 1/2 lb. Full
coloured, but less durable and anticorrosive than the preceding.

11. (Desormeaux.) Galls, 1 lb.; logwood chips, 4 oz.; water, 6 quarts;
boil 1 hour, strain 5 quarts, add of sulphate of iron (calcined to
whiteness), 4 oz.; brown sugar, 3 oz.; gum, 6 oz.; acetate of copper, 1/4
oz.; agitate twice a day for a fortnight, then decant the clear, bottle,
cork up for use. Writes a full black, and otherwise resembles No. 10.

12. (Elsner.) Galls (powdered), 42 oz.; gum Senegal (powdered), 15 oz.;
distilled or rain water, 18 quarts; sulphate of iron (free from copper),
18 oz.; liquor of ammonia, 3 dr.; spirit of wine, 24 oz.; mix these
ingredients in an open vessel, stirring frequently until the ink attains
the desired blackness. This formula is said to give a deep black, neutral
ink that does not corrode steel pens.

13. (EXCHEQUER.) Galls (bruised), 40 lbs. (say 4 parts); gum, 10 lbs. (say
one part); green sulphate of iron, 9 lbs. (say one part); soft water, 45
galls., (say 45 parts); macerate for 3 weeks, employing frequent
agitation. “This ink will endure for centuries.”

14. (Guibourt.) Galls (in powder), 50 parts; hot water, 800 parts; digest
24 hours, strain, and add of green sulphate of iron and gum Arabic, of
each 25 parts; when dissolved, add the following solution and mix
well:——Sal ammoniac, 8 parts; gum, 2 parts; oil of lavender, 1 part;
boiling water, 16 parts. Said to be indelible.

15. (JAPAN.) This is a black and glossy kind of ink, which may be prepared
from either of the above receipts by calcining the copperas until white or
yellow, or by sprinkling it (in powder) with a little nitric acid before
adding it to the decoction (preferably the former), by which the ink is
rendered of a full black as soon as made. The glossiness is given by using
more gum. It flows less easily from the pen than other inks, and is less
durable than ink that writes paler and afterwards turns black. It is
unfitted for steel pens.

16. (Lewis.) Bruised galls, 3 lb.; gum and sulphate of iron, of each 1
lb.; vinegar, 1 gall.; water, 9 quarts; macerate with frequent agitation
for 14 days. To produce 3 galls. Fine quality, but apt to act on steel
pens.

17. (PREROGATIVE COURT.) Galls, 1 lb.; gum Arabic, 6 oz.; alum, 2 oz.;
green vitriol, 7 oz.; kino, 3 oz.; logwood raspings, 4 oz.; soft water, 1
gall.; macerate at last. Said to write well on parchment.

18. (Ribaucourt.) Galls, 1 lb.; logwood chips and sulphate of iron, of
each 1/2 lb.; gum 6 oz.; sulphate of copper and sugar candy, of each, 1
oz.; boil the first two in soft water, 2-1/2 galls., to one half, then add
the other ingredients. Full coloured, but somewhat corrosive, as No. 10.

19. (Dr Ure.) Galls, 12 lbs.; green copperas and gum Senegal, of each 5
lbs.; as No. 2 (nearly). To produce 12 galls.

20. (Dr Wollaston.) Galls, 1 oz.; sulphate of iron, 3 dr.; gum, 1/4 oz.;
cold water 1/2 pint; put into a bottle and shaken together every day for a
fortnight or longer. A good durable ink, which will bear diluting.

21. (_Pharmaceutische Zeitung._) By adding ferrocyanide of potassium to
ordinary ink, an indelible writing ink may be obtained. The removal of
such an ink by an acid would result in the production of Prussian blue.

_General Commentary._ According to the most accurate experiments on the
preparation of black ink, it appears that the quantity of sulphate of iron
should not exceed 1/3rd part of that of the galls, by which an excess of
astringent vegetable matter, which is necessary for the durability of the
colour, is preserved in the liquid. Gum, by shielding the writing from the
action of the air, tends to preserve the colour; but if much is employed,
the ink flows languidly from quill pens, and scarcely at all from steel
pens. The latter require a very limpid ink. The addition of sugar
(especially of moist sugar) increases the flowing property of the liquid,
but makes it dry more slowly, and frequently to pass into an acetous
state, in which condition it acts injuriously on the pen. Vinegar, for a
like reason, is not calculated for the menstruum, as it rapidly softens
quill or horn, and corrodes iron and steel.

To ensure the permanency of the colour of the tanno-gallic inks, the best
Aleppo or blue nut-galls must alone be used. No second or inferior quality
should be employed. A contrary practice, often adopted for the sake of
economy, is nearly always followed by unpleasant results and often by
considerable loss.

The only improvement of importance which has been made in the manufacture
of writing ink from the common materials, during the last few years, is
the practice of first roasting the gall-nuts, which is now adopted by a
few of the houses most celebrated for their COPYING INK. In this way a
portion of pyrogallic acid is formed, which is very soluble in water, and
strikes an intense bluish-black colour with the protosulphate or green
sulphate of iron. From galls so treated an ink may be made to write black
at once. Care must, however, be taken to avoid any loss of materials by
volatilisation.

To prevent any tendency to mouldiness in ink, a few bruised cloves, or a
little oil of cloves, or, still better, a few drops of creasote (carbolic
acid) may be added. The last two should be previously dissolved in a small
quantity of strong vinegar, or rectified spirit. With the same intention
some of the large makers allow the ink to become covered with a skin of
‘mould’ in the cask, to render it less liable to undergo the same change
when subsequently bottled. Formerly the practice was to add a little
spirit for the same purpose.

Sumach, logwood, and oak-bark are frequently substituted for galls in the
preparation of common ink. When such is the case, only about 1/6 or 1/7th
of their weight of copperas should be employed. Inks so made possess
little durability.

The very general use of steel pens of late years has caused a
corresponding demand for easy-flowing inks, many of which are now vended
under the titles of WRITING-FLUIDS, STEEL-PEN INK, ANTICORROSIVE INK, &c.
The greater number of these are prepared from galls in the preceding
manner; but a less quantity of gum is employed, and greater attention is
paid than heretofore to avoid every source of ‘greasiness’ among which
smoke and dirty utensils are, perhaps, the principal. The blue ‘writing
fluids,’ which either maintain their colour or turn black by exposure to
the air, are, in general, prepared from ferrocyanide of potassium, or from
indigo, and are fully noticed in another place. COPYING INK, another
variety of ink of recent introduction, is characterised by its
suitableness to metallic pens, and by furnishing a transcript by means of
the ‘copying press’ or ‘copying machine.’ (See _below_.)

The inks prepared by the first four of the above formulæ are very durable
and limpid, and will bear dilution with nearly an equal bulk of water, and
still be superior in quality to the ordinary inks of the shops. See GALLS,
IRON, WRITING FLUID, and _below_.

=Ink, Blue and Blue black.= See WRITING FLUID.

=Ink, Brown.= 1. A strong decoction of catechu; the shade may be varied by
the cautious addition of a little weak solution of bichromate of potash.

2. A strong decoction of logwood, with a very little bichromate of potash.

=Ink, Carbon.= Dissolve real Indian ink in common black ink, or add a
small quantity of lampblack previously heated to redness, and ground
perfectly smooth, with a small portion of the ink.

=Ink, Carmine.= Heat a scruple of carmine with 3 oz. of water of ammonia
for some minutes, a little below boiling, and add 15 to 20 gr. of gum.
(The inkstand must be kept well closed.)

=Ink, Chrome.= See GREEN INK and WRITING FLUID.

=Ink, Coloured.= Inks of various colours may be made from a strong
decoction of the ingredients used in dyeing, mixed with a little alum or
other substance used as a mordant, and gum Arabic. Any of the ordinary
water-colour cakes employed in drawing, diffused through water, may also
be used as coloured ink. See BROWN, GREEN, and RED inks, &c.

INK, COPYING. This is usually prepared by adding a little sugar or other
saccharine matter to ordinary black ink, which for this purpose should be
very rich in colour, and preferably made from galls prepared by heat, as
noticed above. Writing executed with this ink may be copied within the
space of 5 or 6 hours, by passing it through a press (COPYING PRESS) in
contact with thin unsized paper (BANK-POST), slightly damped, enclosed
between two sheets of thick oiled or waxed paper, when a reversed
transcript will be obtained, which will read in proper order when the back
of the copy is turned upwards. In the absence of a press a copy may be
taken, when the ink is good and the writing very recent, by rolling the
sheets, dully arranged on a ruler, over the surface of a flat smooth
table, employing as much force as possible, and avoiding any slipping or
crumbling of the paper. Another method is to pass a warm flat-iron over
the paper laid upon the writing. The following proportions are employed:

1. Sugar candy or lump sugar, 1 oz.; or treacle or moist sugar, 1-1/4 oz.;
rich black ink, 1-1/2 pint; dissolve.

2. Malt wort, 1 pint; evaporate it to the consistence of a syrup, and then
dissolve it in good black ink, 1-1/4 pint.

3. Solazza juice, 2 oz.; mild ale, 1/2 pint; dissolve, strain, and
triturate with lampblack (previously heated to dull redness it a covered
vessel), 1/4 oz.; when the mixture is complete, add of strong black ink,
1-1/2 pint, mix well, and in 2 or 3 hours decant the clear.

_Obs._ After making the above mixtures, they must be tried with a common
steel pen, and if they do not flow freely, some more unprepared ink should
be added until they are found to do so.

=Ink, Gold.= From gold in the state of a impalpable powder, ground up with
a little gum water. The brilliancy of the writing performed with this ink
is considerable, and may be increased by burnishing.

=Ink, Green.= 1. From sap green dissolved in very weak alum water.

2. A strong solution of binacetate of copper in water, or of verdigris in
vinegar.

3. (Klaproth.) Verdigris, 2 oz.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; water, 1/2 pint;
boil to one half, and filter.

4. (Winckley.) Bichromate of potassa, 3 parts; hot water, 8 parts;
dissolve, add of rectified spirits, 4 parts, mix, and further add of
sulphuric acid, q. s. to liberate the chromic acid, avoiding excess; next
evaporate to one half, dilute with water, filter, and add to the filtrate
rectified spirit, 4 parts together with 3 or 4 drops of sulphuric acid (if
required), to precipitate any remaining potash salt; lastly, decant and
preserve the liquid until it assumes a rich green colour.

5. A solution of recently precipitated hydrated oxide of chromium in
liquor of ammonia, diluted with distilled water, q. s. A magnificent
dark-green liquid, perfectly anti-corrosive.

=Ink, Horticultural.= _Prep._ Chloride of platinum, 1/4 oz.; soft water, 1
pint; dissolve, and preserve it in glass. Used with a clean quill to write
on zinc labels. It almost immediately turns black, and cannot be removed
by washing. The addition of gum and lampblack, as recommended in certain
books, is unnecessary, and even prejudicial to the quality of the ink.

2. Verdigris and sal ammoniac, of each 1/2 oz.; levigated lampblack, 1/2
oz.; common vinegar, 1/4 pint; mix thoroughly. Used as the last, for
either zinc, iron, or steel.

3. Blue vitriol, 1 oz.; sal ammoniac, 1/2 oz. (both in powder); vinegar,
1/4 pint; dissolve. A little lampblack, or vermilion, may be added, but it
is not necessary. As No. 1; for iron, tin, or steel plate. Some of the
preparations described below under ‘_Incorrodible ink_’ are also used by
gardeners and nurserymen.

=Ink, Incorro′′dible.= This name has been given to several preparations of
a resinous character, capable of resisting the action of damp and acids.

_Prep._ 1. Boiled linseed oil, ground with lampblack and Prussian blue, of
each q. s. to impart a deep black colour. It may be thinned with oil of
turpentine.

2. Good copal or amber varnish, coloured with either plumbago or
vermilion.

3. Trinidad asphaltum (genuine), 1 part; oil of turpentine, 4 parts;
colour (as last) q. s.

4. (Close.) Cobalt (in powder), 25 gr.; oil of lavender, 200 gr.; dissolve
by a gentle heat, and add of lampblack, 3 gr.; indigo 1 gr. (both in
impalpable powder); or vermilion, q. s.

5. (Hausmann.) As No. 3 (nearly). Resists the action of iodine, chlorine,
alkalies, and acids.

6. (Sheldrake.) Asphaltum dissolved in amber varnish and oil of
turpentine, and coloured with lampblack.

Coarsely powdered anacardium nuts (the fruit of the _Anacardium
orientale_) are macerated in a well-closed bottle with petroleum ether,
for some time. Upon allowing the latter to evaporate spontaneously, a
syrupy residue is left, and this, when applied to linen or cotton cloth,
imparts to them a brownish-yellow colour, which instantly changes to a
deep black on the addition of ammonia or lime water. (Böttger.)

_Obs._ The above are also frequently called ‘indelible’ or ‘indestructible
inks.’ They are employed for writing labels on bottles containing strong
acids and alkaline solutions. The last five are very permanent, and are
capable of resisting the action of iodine, chlorine, alkaline lyes, and
acids, together with all the operations of dyeing and bleaching, and at
once offer a cheap and an excellent material for marking linen, &c., as
they cannot be dissolved off by any menstrua that will not destroy the
fabric. They must be employed with stamps, types, or stencil plates, by
which greater neatness will be secured than can be obtained with either a
brush or pen. See HORTICULTURAL INK, INDELIBLE INK, &c.

=Ink, Indel′ible.= _Syn._ INDESTRUCTIBLE INK. _Prep._ 1. Lampblack
(previously heated to dull redness in a covered vessel), 1/4 oz.;
triturate with good black ink (gradually added), 1 pint. Resists chlorine,
weak acids, and weak alkaline lyes, in the cold.

2. (Bezanger.) Lampblack ground in a lye of caustic soda, combined with a
mixture of gelatin and caustic soda. Said to be indelible, and to resemble
genuine China ink.

3. (Braconnot.) Dantzic potash, 4 parts; tanned leather parings, 2 parts;
sulphur, 1 part; water, 20 parts; boil them in an iron vessel to dryness,
then raise the heat (constantly stirring with an iron rod) until the whole
forms a soft mass, observing that it does not ignite; next dissolve the
mass in water, q. s., and filter the solution through a cloth. Flows
freely from a pen, and resists the action of many chemical substances.

4. (CARBON INK.) Genuine Indian ink, rubbed down with good black ink until
it will flow easily from a pen. Resists chlorine, oxalic acid, and
ablution with a hair pencil or sponge.

5. (Coathupe.) Borax, 1 oz.; shell-lac, 2 oz., water, 18 fl. oz.; boil in
a covered vessel until dissolved, strain, add of thick mucilage, 1 oz.,
and triturate it with levigated indigo and lampblack, of each q. s., to
give a good colour. After 2 hours’ repose, decant it from the dregs, and
bottle for use. Resists moisture, chlorine, and acids.

6. (FRENCH.)——_a._ From Indian ink, diffused through water acidulated with
hydrochloric acid. For quills.——_b._ From Indian ink diffused through
water slightly alkalised with liquor of potassa. For metallic pens.

7. (Herberger.) Wheat gluten (free from starch), q. s., is dissolved in
weak acetic acid of good pure vinegar, 4 fl. oz.; lampblack (best), 10 or
12 gr.; indigo, 2 or 3 gr.; and oil of cloves, 1 or 2 drops, are then
added, and the whole is thoroughly incorporated together. The product is
inexpensive, has a beautiful black colour, and resists the action of
water, chlorine, and weak acids.

_Obs._ The products of the above formulæ, though called ‘indelible ink’
and ‘indestructible ink,’ are in reality only indelible as compared with
common writing ink, as they may all be removed with more or less facility
by chemical reagents, assisted by mechanical means. They are intended
chiefly for paper, pasteboard, and parchment. No 5 is also used for glass
and metal. See MARKING INK.

=Ink, In′dian.= _Syn._ CHINA INK; ATRAMENTUM INDICUM, L. _Prep._ 1.
Lampblack (finest) is ground to a paste with very weak liquor of potassa,
and this paste is then diffused through water slightly alkalised with
potassa, after which it is collected, washed with clean water, and dried;
the dry powder is next levigated to a smooth, stiff paste, with a strong
filtered decoction of carrageen or Irish moss, or of quince seed, a few
drops of essence of musk, and about half as much essence of ambergris
being added, by way of perfume, towards the end of the process; the mass
is, lastly, moulded into cakes, which are ornamented with Chinese
characters and devices, as soon as they are dry and hard.

2. A weak solution of fine gelatin is boiled at a high temperature in a
Papin’s digester for 2 hours, and then in an open vessel for 1 hour more;
the liquid is next filtered and evaporated to a proper consistence, either
in a steam or salt-water bath; it is, lastly, made into a paste, as
before, with pure lampblack which has been previously heated to dull
redness in a well-closed crucible. Neither of the above gelatinise in cold
weather, like the ordinary imitations.

3. (Gray.) Pure lampblack made up with asses′-skin glue, and scented with
musk.

4. (Merimée.) Dissolve superfine glue in water, add a strong solution of
nut-galls, and wash the precipitate in hot water; then dissolve it in a
fresh solution of glue, filter, evaporate to a proper thickness, and form
it into a paste as before, with purified lampblack.

5. (Proust.) As No. 1 (nearly).

6. Seed-lac, 1/2 oz.; borax, 1-1/2 dr.; water, 1/2 pint; boil to 8 oz.,
filter, and make a paste with pure lampblack, as before. When dry, it
resists the action of water.

_Obs._ The Chinese do not use glue in the preparation of their ink, but an
infusion or decoction of certain seeds abounding in a glutinous
transparent mucilage, which at once imparts brilliancy and durability to
the colour. Starch converted into gum by means of sulphuric acid, or
‘British gum,’ has been recommended as a substitute. (M. Merimée.) Indian
ink is chiefly employed by artists, but it has been occasionally given as
a medicine, dissolved in water or wine, in hæmorrhages and stomach
complaints.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

[_For continuation of the article on Inks, see Vol. II._]

                            END OF VOL. I.

       *       *       *       *       *



                       Transcriber’s Amendments


Transcriber’s Note: Blank pages have been deleted. On pages that remain,
some unnecessary page numbers may have been deleted when they fall in the
middle of lists. Some illustrations may have been moved. The publisher’s
inadvertent omissions of important punctuation have been corrected. Some
wide tables have been rearranged or re-formatted to narrower equivalents
with some words replaced with commonly known abbreviations and possibly a
key. Some ditto marks have been replaced with the words represented. The
author often skipped the period in ‘Dr,’, ‘Mr,’, Messrs. and ‘Mrs.’ so all
such instances are formatted here without the period. The author switched
from using ‘B. P.’ to ‘B.P.’ for British Pharmacopœia part of the way
through the text so all such instances have been changed to ‘B.P.’
Duplicative front matter has been removed.

Other changes are listed below. The listed source publication page number
also applies in this reproduction except possibly for footnotes since they
have been moved.

    Page          Change

   ix  which I should display my acquisitions to mankind.[”]
    x  at last to wake a “Cyclopædist[”].
    3  Lon. or Long., Longtitude[Longitude].
    4  (often expressed by the sign o/o{‘o/o’ graphic not replicable})
    5  _Cyath._, _cyathus_, vel[vel deleted]
    8  that has been so indiscrimately[indiscriminately]
    8  the employment of castille[Castile] soap,
   12  {Illustration caption:} [Added: _Meal mite._]
   17  Adopter[Adapter] connecting retort and globes.
   21  earthenware are also frequenly[frequently] employed;
   21  per-oxide[peroxide] of manganese, or red
   29  as well as ‘test-solutions’ containng[containing]
   33  weezers[tweezers]. A long piece of thick
   33  Ger. Monkshood; wolfsban[wolfsbane]. In
   34  Some specimes[specimens] are white and spongy;
   34  A white, colourless, semicrystalline[semi-crystalline] mass
   39  MAGNESIA, MAGNESIA SULPHATE[entry rearranged],
   44  with the result of their adminsistration[administration]
   54  article with a paste of freshly slacked[slaked] lime
   63  1·43%       ”             ”    ·29%[2·9%]
   73  information in connection with _Alcholometry[Alcoholometry]_
   95  of the exaet[exact] temperature at which
   96  into lumps like resin, it is SALICIN[SALICINE];
   98  _other_, _different_, and παφος[παθος]
  109  allum[alum] (dissolved in gum-water),
  119  It has a a[delete] smell resembling
  126  (three-daggers)[⁂] The sp. gr. of any sample of liquid ammonia,
  132  conical mass, whieh[which] is technically called
  132  untll[until] the liquor has remained
  132  as eady[already] mentioned,
  136  in the neighbeurhood[neighbourhood] of London.
  136  made with lemon-juice and drank[drunk] effervescing,
  137  the ctlear[clear] portion of the liquid,
  137  after repose decaned[decanted],
  143  form the body under examination;[1][del]
  147  and litanium[titanium]. Hydrogen also
  154  [he created] a new world for future naturalists
  161  Pottsviile[Pottsville], Sharp Mount 1·412     2382
  165  smelting is the common sulphide kuown[known] as
  170  OXIDUM, L.). _Prpe.[Prep.]_ (B. P.)
  173  ANTISBORBU′TICA[ANTISBORBU′TICA], L.), used in scurvy.
  175  COMPOSIT[COMPOSITÆ]. A plant growing in the North
  175  and the head and leck[neck] laid bare.
  177  APFEL, Ger.; APPLE[APPEL], Dut.;
  178  A. NIVA′LIS or D.[A.] EX NI′VE,
  179  fit for or under tillage or aration[aëration];
  181  it was an ocult[occult] power of nature,
  185  A spirituous liqur[liquor] imported
  188  Trii′odide of.= AsT[I]_{3}.
  198  succession, and pre ise[precise] character
  198  Hydrated sulphide of iron (as 10[the] last).
  201  An[By an] Act of Parliament[1] it is provided
  208  Sesquioixde[Sesquioxide]
  219  [Symbols in table replaced with numeric equivalents.]
  219  In the foregoing table {symbol} represents one volume.[deleted all]
  219  10 _pints_; slacked[slaked] lime, 1 _oz._;
  220  once agitating 6 or 8 vlumes[volumes] of water
  245  and is sufficciently[sufficiently] pure for making
  246  abundantly columnar crsytals[crystals]
  255  melt the materia1[l] in a reverberatery[reverberatory]
  257  vary[very] liable to crack when filled with hot water
  261  L. [1] Green sulphate of iron, 1 to 2
  272  form of mattrass[mattress] than one made of horsehair
  272  the horsehair mattrass[mattress] calls even more imperatively
  272  Both pillows and mattrass[mattress] should be taken to pieces
  273  These are less than those of eather[feather] beds
  281  and Mr Denison[Dennison] differ from him in opinion.
  284  Goood[Good] samples of benzoin yield
  286  and bronchial aflections[affections], when
  288  can only be accounted for by aamples[samples]
  289  the fluid expresssed[expressed] made up to 26
  290  the precipitate thereby produeed[produced].
  300  petroleum may bementioned[be mentioned] as examples.
  300  much of the asphalt and bituminou[bituminous] pavement
  304  1/3rd of this docoction[decoction] is then
  307  through the str ets[streets] of this great metropolis;
  308  (see 1[I], 4, _above_), but dissolving
  308  6. (_Without Vitriol._) As 1[I], 5
  308  The final addition of the 3 _lbs._[footnote given a number]
  310  by which they bcome[become] considerably larger;
  312  About A.D. 60.[Footnote not referenced in text; deleted.]
  312  of Barthollet[Berthollet] on chlorine, in 1784,
  312  {Transcriber’s note: Footnote omitted by publisher.}
  313  1[I]. BLEACHING of =Cotton=:
  313  The pieces are bucked or boiled in mllk[milk] of lime[5]
  319  may be mentioned the folowing[following]:——
  319  n[in] breadth, is observed round the glass,
  319  [i]t is certain that vesication is effected.
  323  and MAGNESIA are indicated, the latter fine[five] when added
  331  staranise[star-anise] oil, 40 drops
  337  ·941 to [·]942 (18 to 20 u. p.). The common
  338  processes detailed under ALCOHOMETRY[ALCOHOLOMETRY].
  338  and examining the later or[for] heavier products.
  346  a wineglassful[wine-glassful] of this solution added
  355  The whole of the water nsed[used]
  356  a littie[little] more ‘lobb’ is generally added,
  360  2. To the last add of sugar or treacle, 1/2 b[lb].
  361  the mixture haying[having] been placed in a retort
  362  These vessels are furrounded[surrounded] with belts of iron
  369  Oil-paintin[g] a wall
  373  nothwithstanding[notwithstanding] the assertions
  377  not exceeding 180[°] Fahr.,
  377  other butter ever possesees[possesses].
  380  =Cadmium, Car′bonate of.= CdCo_{3}[CdCO_{3}].
  384  flour, 1-1/2 lb.; curants[currants], 2 lbs.;
  399  India rubber or cauotchouc[caoutchouc],
  420  When applied let it [be] heated.
  427  CERATE PLASTER (_Emplastru m[Emplastrum] Cerati Saponis_)
  429  let it rest for a night in a closed mattrass[matrass];
  430  =Chalk, Browu[Brown].= A familiar name for umber.
  431  A more economical methed[method]
  456  prepares a standard solution as fellows[follows]:
  457  Langour[Languor], listlessness, fatigue after the least exercise,
  460  a pint of cold water, and drank[drunk] _ad libitum_.
  462  any of the iron preparation[preparations] will
  468  CINCHONA[CINCHONÆ] FLAVÆ CORTEX.
  476  into a very considerable and importa[important]
  477  it gives a head[bead] of a magnificent
  478  between the best and the lowest quantity[quality]
  484  Compound of caffein with potash    35[3·5] to 5·000
  484  treated with a per-salt[persalt] of iron;
  487  to about 1/3rd or 1/4th of it[its] bulk
  487  iu[in] a cool place. This preparation
  487  It differs frem[from] veratria in being soluble
  491  =Iodide and Bromide Solution.= Iodid[Iodide] of cadmium
  496  boil the saffron [and] turmeric in
  499  Dr. Gardner.[Footnote not referenced in text; deleted.]
  501  In the caes[case] of a dangerous attack
  504  Its activity is considerd[considered] equal
  506  thus described in the ‘Encyclopœdia[Encyclopædia] Brittanica.’
  507  Copper has a brilliant yellowish-ed[yellowish-red] colour
  508  the soluble part to spontaneous evaportion[evaporation].
  510  thin film of copper by merely immersing is[it]
  512  corns may be removed by ayplying[applying] ivy leaf,
  518  requires practice as to the heat of ihe[the] water;
  520  at the Hôpital des Enfans[Enfants],
  521  are excedingly[exceedingly] useful for many operations,
  525  (See table at bottom of previous column.)[(See previous table.)]
  531  Davids-Thee, Echter Karolinenthaler——Genuine Karoin’s[Karolin’s]
  534  properly qualified medical practioner[practitioner],
  536  thould [should] be well bruised
  545  sassafras, guaiacmu[guaiacum] turnings,
  547  dysentery, dirrrhœa[diarrhœa], and excoriations
  549  kind than other persous[persons].
  549  in moderarely[moderately] large doses,
  549  Lassaigne and Feneulle ln[in] _Delphinium staphysagria_
  550  after rincing[rinsing] the mouth out with water.
  555  tne[the] only property which the bodies
  560  camphor, fragrant pastiles[pastilles], cascarilla,
  560  until the temperature has fallen [to] 39·9° Fahr.,
  562  FFRRALUM[FERRALUM] is a mixture of ferrous
  563  distinguiished[distinguished] by a mouldy or musty odour
  564  if we desire to makx[make] our sanitary surroundings
  567  Disinfections of the apartments[apartment]
  569  is conected[connected] with the chimney
  569  for the purification of mattrasses[mattresses], linen,
  571  For heating mattrasses[mattresses] another apparatus
  572  surrounding the too[top] of the capital of the still
  573  distiller is allowed to produce worst[worts] from any substance
  574  Dr. Druitt.[footnote renumbered.]
  583  complete disconnection betweeen[between] the pipe
  590  =Rasp′berry.= See DROPS, FRUIT (_aboue[above]._)
  594  or convulsive twitching, a vein may be epened[opened].
  594  use shall be commercialls[commercially] pure
  596  a final wince[rinse] in cow-dung before dyeing is advantageous.
  599  dependent for his purples on orchil or cudbeer[cudbear],
  603  originally a mixture of siver[silver] nitrate,
  605  Liquid sulphurous acid      ×[+] 17·6 ”
  606  by the ravages of the Ecchinococcus[Echinococcus] is the
  607  lines connecting _f_, _g_, _k_, represents[represent]
  607  _Does[Dose]_, 1/2 to 2 gr.
  607  ASCLEPEDIN. From _Asclepiastuberosa[Asclepias tuberosa]_.
  607  Stimulant, astringent, and antispadmodic[antispasmodic].
  609  whilst bad or wortless[worthless] ones will swim
  610  and stirred ne[one] way all the time,
  611  with potasssa[potassa] and solution of silver
  611  dried by exposure to the air and a gentle head[heat]
  612  and distinguised[distinguished] as negative and positive,
  613  instrument is to [be] placed upon the resinous plate
  613  _Syn._ ELECTRO-MET′ALURGY[ELECTRO-MET′ALLURGY],
  616  The double chloride of platinum and potassum[potassium],
  617  =Elecutary[Electuary], Bath.= _Syn._
  618  honey and syrup of wormwo[wormwood],
  618  In intermittents occurring in crofulous[scrofulous] subjects.
  620  A teaspooonful[teaspoonful], as a mild stomachic
  620  _Dose_, 1 to 2 teaspoonsfuls[teaspoonfuls],
  622  2 teaspoonfuls; in an enorrhœa[amenorrhœa], constipation,
  624  bitter almonds (bruised), 8 in on.[no.];
  628  gradually added, the ematine[emetine] is dissolved,
  628  however, that ematine[emetine] is alone
  629  other remedies can be optained[obtained] and applied.
  634  and that to exert a liked[like] absorbent action
  634  coats of the intestines, and to allay irritatation[irritation];
  638  Fluor[Flour, {in table}]
  638  but its energy must be develoyed[developed] in the place
  642  the diptheria[diphtheria] affecting oxen,
  642  tend to sssume[assume] a typhoid form,
  642  parasite that multiply[multiplies] so rapidly as speedly[speedily]
  643  Titanum[Titanium {in table}]
  643  Lanthanium[Lanthanum]
  651  =Essence, Anthysteri′ic[Antihyster′ic].=
  657  From pine-apple oil (buytric[butyric] ether,
  657  rectfied[rectified] spirit, 1/2 pint; digest
  657  the solution is apt to depoit[deposit] part of it
  657  3.[2.] Attar of roses, 1 oz.; rectified spirit,
  654  in the last two formulæ to th[the] preparation of
  658  at 160[°] Fahr. If reduced
  658  and neroli, of each 6 drops; dissoved[dissolved]
  659  or verbenæ[verbena] (_Andropogon citratum_),
  663  a heavy, oily pro-product[product]
  666  Having been found ls[less] efficient than
  667  does not effect[affect] a solution of nitrate
  669  it continues to be absorded[absorbed].
  669  the nitrite of ethel[ethyl] is——in very
  672  _Eugleda[Euglena] viridis_ and the
  672  and the _Eugleda[Euglena] pyrum_.
  673  the fluid matter that forms the menstrnum[menstruum];
  673  To purify liqnids[liquids] by the dissipation of
  673  the vapour is prevented [from] resting upon the
  679  W is the weight of the person, W[W_{l}] the weight carried
  682  SOLIDFIED[SOLIDIFIED] WORTS, made by a licensed brewer,
  682  In _medi cne[medicine]_ and _pharmacy_,
  686  unless when taken in repeated does[doses], long continued.
  687  q. s. to make che[the] whole equal in weight [to] that
  694  to be employed as the mentruum[menstruum],
  699  fluid extract will not [be] required
  698  exclusively appropriated to _Cannabic[Cannabis] sativa_
  700  pill consistence.——_Dose_, 1/2 [to] 1 dr.
  701  by maceration or[for] 24 hours,
  701  (EXTRACTUM LUBULINAE[LUPULINÆ] COCTIONE PARATUM.)
  702  _c._ (Ph. U. S. EXTRACTUM MEZEREIFLUIDUM[MEZEREI FLUIDUM].)
  704   L. _Prep._ [1.] (P. Cod.) From ox-gall,
  708  Guibort[Guibourt].) Senna (in powder), [1] part;
  708  by distillation and vaporation[evaporation].——_Dose_,
  708  In arger[larger] doses it is nauseant and emetic.
  711  flowers with the purest recitfied[rectified] spirit
  712  When a powerfully destructive substence[substance],
  712  etherial[ethereal] oils of lavender,
  712  intermitent[intermittent] form of facial NEURALGIA
  717  simple in construction and easily managable[manageable]; it
  718  instead the mouth of the botttle[bottle] is closed
  722  in the so-called red prusstate[prussiate] of potash
  722  PUTREFACTION, BBEWING[BREWING], &c.
  726  from one vesssel[vessel] to another,
  727  first a stratum of course[coarse] pebbles,
  728  is said to be prepared by heating hœmatite[hæmatite]
  729  washed in hot water.[Footnote tag renumbered.]
  729  Commision[Commission]{in table}
  733  because of of[del 2nd of] their little specific gravity.
  733  of this formulæ[formula] is made to existing
  738  invention, bnt[but] it has not proved
  738  contents of the air-vesel[vessel] until
  741  _Artficial[Artificial] Propagation._
  742  when dressed immediately after being caught, possessess[possesses]
  743  spirit is frequently omitted altogther[altogether].
  746  Microscropic[Microscopic] analysis detects the presence
  746  =FLEIGENPULVER[FLIEGENPULVER]——Fly Powder=
  748  See also BREAD,[No footnote reference in text; added one.]
  749  The best bread contains about 1/4-1/6ths[1/6th] of
  749  than they can dipose[dispose] of whilst ‘new,’
  755  (Eagle marine.) Vedigris[Verdigris] tempered in
  757  from the organic kingdom that our ailments[aliments]
  758  Beef, mutton, veal, lamb, and vension[venison]
  759  is diseased, unound[unsound] or unwholesome,
  761  5[4]. (Kittoe’s.) Sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; spring
  762  stewing or semi frying[semi-frying], highly flavoured
  762  namely, _R. amydalinus[amygdalinus]_.
  764  Brown syrup, 90 grammes; verdegris[verdigris], 6 grammes;
  764  the perils of transit and storeage[storage].
  767  property may be destoyed[destroyed] by boiling it
  770  _Syn._ FUMIGATIO MURCURIALIS[MERCURIALIS], L.
  771  jewellers, analytical chemists, expermentalists[experimentalists],
  774  two or three months the sides of the vesse[vessel]
  777  to his classification, Mendeljeff[Medelejeff] asserted, that
  777  The hypothetical _Eka aluminium_ of Mendeljeff[Mendelejeff]
  776  when with treated[when treated with] sulphuretted hydrogen,
  776  The per-salts[persalts] of iron present are then
  779  for a minute, that that[del 2nd that] they may be skinned
  782  =GAR′NET.= In _mineraloyy[mineralogy]_,
  782  carburetted hydrogen, hyrochloric[hydrochloric] acid,
  786  in a ley[lye] of caustic soda,
  787  GELSEMINUM[GELSEMIUM] NITRIDUM,
  792  {Footnote 332:} See ELECTROTYPS[ELECTROTYPE].]
  794  gross of buttons of the abve[above] size.
  795  DEADING AUQAFORTIS[AQUAFORTIS]. From mercury,
  801  lime, 3·8%; alumina, 2 8%[2·8%]. French mirror-glass.
  814  solutions of gold, insoluble in excesss[excess].
  818  scented, as a pommade[pomade] to make the hair grow,
  819  rectified spirit of wine, 2 galls[gals.];
  819  GUINEA GRAINS, MALAGUETTA[MELEGUETTA] PEPPER.
  819  The seeds of the _Ammomum melaguetta[meleguetta]_.
  826  ammonia chloride o[of] platinum thus obtained,
  826  the per-centage of ready-formed amm onia[ammonia],
  829  _Prop., &c._ White; inspid[insipid]; transparent;
  837  For use, the air[hair] is moistened by means
  839  When the hand[hands] are very dirty,
  846  macerate for 2 2[del 2nd 2] hours;
  846  Dried petals of the the[del 2nd the] red rose
  847  A native chloride or[of] silver,
  851  and the fuunel[funnel] having been withdrawn
  858  =HYGIENE′.= _Syn._ HXGIENE[HYGIENE], Fr.
  859  direct attempts to alter his opinons[opinions],
  859  fancies himsef[himself] a giant;
  860  A fusible, inflammable sub stance[substance],
  864  white ozide[oxide] of antimony.
  864  but by the ebulition[ebullition] expelling free carbonic acid
  865  Several attemps[attempts] have been made of late years
  870  Loire-Inferiéure[Inférieure],
  872  no less than 8250 die from 0·1[0-1] year,
  872  having recourse to other than the maternal mik[milk]
  875  regarding them as extemporaneous preparatious[preparations].
  876  A pure bitter tonic, without a-astringency[astringency]
  879  Concentrated: INFUSUM CARYPHYLLI[CARYOPHYLLI]
  887  active matter that it it[del 2nd it] is possible
  889  Canada snake-root (_Assarum[Asarum] Canadense_)
  890  Carbonate of lead (finely evigated[levigated]),
  894  the add then[then add the] other ingredients.
  895  and preferably made [from] galls prepared by heat,
  895  Used us[as] the last, for either zinc,

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