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Title: The School System of Norway
Author: Anderson, David Allen
Language: English
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THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY
DAVID ALLEN ANDERSON, Ph.D.
RICHARD G. BADGER
THE GORHAM PRESS
BOSTON
_Copyright, 1913, by Richard G. Badger
All rights reserved_
_The Gorham Press, Boston, U. S. A._
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
This account is a descriptive statement of the organization, management,
operation, and efficiency of the public school system of Norway. The
intent has been to consider only the more vital features, those
essentials which definitely shape the products of educational endeavor.
Many topics of interest have been touched but briefly while others have
been omitted altogether. Some attention has been given to pointing out
good qualities of the Norwegian schools and to indicating wherein we
might improve our own.
The materials entering into the make-up of this dissertation were
gathered during a summer and autumn devoted to travel and study in
Norway. Much time was spent in study at the University Library in
Christiania and still more in the visitation of schools. It was with
pleasure that I availed myself of the opportunity to see the schools in
operation. I observed recitations throughout the entire program of study
in every grade from the kindergarten to the University. I also visited
many special schools and other educational institutions both public and
private. Further than this, I was benefited by frequent conferences with
the leading educators of the country and by almost constant associations
with schoolmen, patrons, and students. These personal investigations
enabled me to become familiar with the spirit and work of the schools,
and they furnish background for a large part of the content of this
treatise. Since no adequate account of the schools of Norway is in
print, the authority for this work has been gained chiefly from school
laws, annual reports from the Department of Ecclesiastical and
Educational Affairs (chiefly statistical), and the individual research
referred to above.
It was my good fortune to be provided with official credentials as
holder of a Traveling Fellowship for study in Norway from the State
University of Iowa; a commission to study the school system of Norway
from His Excellency, B. F. Carroll, the Governor of the State of Iowa;
and a letter of introduction to Norway's educational executives from
Hon. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, at that time Commissioner of Education for
the United States. These credentials had the effect of intensifying the
already superior courtesy and obliging disposition of the Norwegian
officials and schoolmen, who gave me free access to every facility for
the pursuance of my work within the state and voluntarily offered their
cooperation whenever I might desire it. Their gracious exemplification
of the spirit of brotherly kindness made my work among them a constant
delight. I desire to express my gratitude to the Norwegians wherever I
traveled for the rare cordiality characterizing my reception among them
and to acknowledge my obligations to J. K. Qvigstad, _chef for Kirk-og
Undervisningsdepartmentet_; Knut Johannes Hougen, _byraachef for
Undervisningsvaesen_; A. H. Raeder, _Undervisningsraadets_ formand;
Johan Andreas Johnsen, _Skoledirektoren i Kristiania stift_; Otto
Andreas Anderssen, _Bestyrer og forstelaerer i det Paedagogiske Seminar
for Laerere red hoiere Almenskoler_, for valuable suggestions and
careful reading and criticism of the entire work in manuscript; further
to Iowa's Board of Education and the Graduate Faculty of the State
University of Iowa for the appointment which made possible the
investigation; to Professor F. E. Bolton, who first suggested that I
make the study and who has constantly been to me a wise counsellor and a
willing co-operator; and finally to my wife who, through all, has been
both critic and companion.
DAVID ALLEN ANDERSON.
_The State University of Iowa,
Iowa City,
May, 1912._
REVIEWER'S PREFACE
Kristiania den 16 februar 1912.
Jeg har med stor fornoielse gjennemlaest Mr. David A. Andersons
fremstilling av Norges Undervisningsvaesen og fundet den i all
vaesentlige ting korrekt, fuldstaendig og oplysende. Gjennem personlig
iagttagelse, samtale med kompetente maend og studium av den vigtigste
litteratur er det lykkes forfatteren at danne sig en klar og noiagtig
forestilling om de norske skolers ordning og saeregne arbeidsformer i
deres historiske tilblivelse og nuvaerende vilkaar. Hans reflektioner og
domme vedner om paedagogiske indsight og uavhaengig opfatning. Det er
mulig at han nu og da er noget tilboielig til at domme vel gunstig om
vore skoleinstitutioners effektivitet og vort folks interesse og
offervillighed for at gjorc denne saa stor some mulig, men dette for
haenge sammen med at han ser tingene mot en bakgrund av amerikanske
forhold, som han onsker reformeret.
Jeg har ikke havt anledning til at kontrollere i det enkelte de
statistiske opgaver forfatteren meddeler, men da disse er hentet ut fra
officielle kilder tviler jeg ikke paa at de er rigtige.
PROFESSOR DR OTTO ANDERSSEN,
_Principal of the Pedagogical Seminary annexed to the
University of Christiania._
REVIEWER'S PREFACE
(Translation)
Christiania, February 16, 1912.
I have, with great pleasure, read through Mr. David A. Anderson's
presentation of Norway's school system and found it in all essentials
correct, complete and illuminating. Through personal observation,
conversation with competent men and study of the most important
literature, the author has succeeded in getting a clear and exact view
of the Norwegian school methods and characteristic forms of work in
their historical development and present condition. His reflections and
judgments testify to pedagogical insight and independence of views. It
may be that now and then he is somewhat inclined to judge too favorably
as to the efficiency of our institutions and the interest of our people
and their readiness to sacrifice in order to make this efficiency as
high as possible, but this may be due to the fact that he views it
against a background of American conditions, which he desires to
improve.
I have not taken occasion to verify in detail the statistical tables the
author includes, but since they have been gathered from official sources
I do not doubt that they are correct.
PROFESSOR DR. OTTO ANDERSSEN,
_Principal of the Pedagogical Seminary, affiliated with
the University of Christiania._
EDITOR'S PREFACE
The most pressing problems of education at the present time are those of
organization and administration of educational forces. Problems of
method of instruction though important are entirely subsidiary, for if
all the people can be aroused to a desire for education and then be
shown ways and means of attaining it the very desire for education will
be the most important factor in learning.
No means of studying questions of organization and administration are so
valuable as the comparative. Various studies of education in foreign
countries have been made, but there still exists a need for many more
investigations. Norway has furnished a great many illustrious statesmen,
scientists and literary masters, and is also a country abounding in men
of a high type of valor, physical prowess, honesty and industry, and
consequently the educational ideals and practices which prevail there
should be worthy of most careful consideration. Heretofore, only
fragmentary accounts of Norway's educational system have been available
in the English language. At the writer's suggestion, Mr. Anderson made a
trip abroad for the purpose of studying the system at first hand. His
intimate acquaintance with the language was a prime essential in
acquiring an understanding through observation and reading. That he has
made an accurate interpretation is attested by the foreword of one of
Norway's eminent scholars and that he has made an interesting account
will be conceded by all who peruse the pages. It is hoped that many more
studies of a similar nature will follow in the near future.
FREDERICK E. BOLTON,
_State University of Washington,
Seattle, April 8, 1913._
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
_Background and Organization_
I. INTRODUCTION 19
1. History of Norway (brief sketch) 19
2. Geographical features 22
3. National characteristics, aims and ideals 25
II. DIFFERENTIATION OF SCHOOLS 28
1. Primary school--rural and city 28
2. Secondary 30
3. The University and other schools 32
III. DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLS AND PUPILS 34
1. Primary--rural and city 34
2. Secondary--middle school and gymnasium 41
3. Teachers' Seminaries 41
4. The University 41
5. Private schools 43
IV. PUPILS 44
1. Age in primary schools, secondary schools and teachers' seminaries 44
2. Comparisons with America in equipment and time spent in school 50
3. Specialization 51
V. ORGANIZATION--Relation to state, commune and city 51
1. The state department and its divisions 51
2. Units of organization 53
3. The school board and school committees 56
4. City superintendent (_Inspector_) and ward principles
(_Overlaererer_) 60
5. Private citizens a factor 61
6. Financial support of schools 62
VI. BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 64
1. General character of buildings 64
2. Equipment 64
3. Playgrounds 69
4. Homes for principals and teachers 70
VII. GENERAL FEATURES OF INNER ORGANIZATION 71
1. The teaching staff 71
2. Plan of instruction 72
3. Gymnastics 74
4. Lunches 75
5. School discipline 76
6. Attendance 77
7. Health 77
CHAPTER II
TEACHERS
I. QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 79
1. General situation and tendencies 79
2. Special teachers 80
II. TRAINING OF TEACHERS 81
1. Introductory 81
2. Seminaries--establishment and work 83
III. TEACHERS' OFFICIAL TITLES 85
1. In the several schools--significance 85
IV. TEACHERS' TENURE OF OFFICE 86
1. Positions--Permanent and temporary 87
2. Comparisons with conditions in America 89
3. Changes in teaching staff (with tables) 89
V. TEACHERS' SALARIES 91
1. General statement 91
2. Additional benefits 92
3. Schedules (with tables) 94
CHAPTER III
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS
I. INTRODUCTORY--Rise, development, and present form of the curriculum 96
1. Origin and evolution of the course of study 96
a. The early schools; their work, influence, and development
in Norway 97
2. Three sections of schools 99
II. THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 101
1. Rural and city 101
2. Schedules of courses 104
a. Comparisons 106
b. Subjects emphasized 107
3. Outline of subjects of instruction 108
a. Religion 108
b. Norwegian 118
c. Mathematics 125
d. Geography 129
e. History 134
f. Nature study 139
g. Other subjects: writing and drawing, vocal music,
manual training, gymnastics 146
III. THE MIDDLE SCHOOL 149
1. Its standard, aim, and method 149
2. Outline of subjects of instruction 151
IV. THE GYMNASIUM 162
1. Outline of subjects of instruction 162
CHAPTER IV
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS
1. The people and their ideals 181
2. Facilities for education 184
3. Directing authority and management of schools 187
4. Teachers' training 191
5. The teacher's life 195
6. The curriculum 197
a. Religious instruction and education 198
b. The classics 201
c. Physical culture 204
d. Vocal music 206
7. Lines of instruction in the gymnasium 207
8. Co-education 210
9. The school year 214
10. School lunches 215
11. Comparative attainments 217
12. Methods of instruction 220
13. Continuity of effort 222
Bibliography 225
Index 229
THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWA
_Chapter I_
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION
I. INTRODUCTION
The history of mankind in Norway covers a period of at least five
thousand years and includes a great variety of interesting incidents and
conditions. The accounts of the earlier ages may be read only in
archaeological formations, while for more recent times, these silent
records are supplemented and enriched by traditions. All such accounts
are of deep interest and significance but only in a measure reliable. We
have no really authentic information regarding Norway's political
history until the reign of Harald the Fair Haired (860-930). We do know,
however, that, previous to his establishment of the sovereign state of
Norway in 872, the people had known only the rule of numerous petty,
warring earls and kings. Besides this, the entire country had been
subjected to the devastations of the vikings. These sea robbers were the
terror of all the coast countries in western Europe and the British
Isles until about the year 900 when sea robbery at home was abolished,
and the Norsemen became colonizers, migrating to surrounding islands,
the west and south of Europe, and probably America. Now when piracy
began to decline the people rose to a higher plane of living, and the
prosperity attained through peace and industry was found to be the more
desirable. A long succession of kings, some good and some evil, ruled
the land. Paganism was gradually overcome, and about the year 1,000
Christianity was established.
From this time on, for several centuries, the country experienced only
moderate visible progress though large gains were made in potential
powers. In 1381, Norway entered into a union with Denmark and remained
in large measure subject to her power until 1814. This period of more
than four hundred years was a season of little good and of great
hardships to the people. Their development received little attention,
the resources of the country and the cause of education were neglected,
and the masses were not recognized in a way that would tend to their
enlightenment and progress. The entire nation suffered from
international difficulties as well as from oppression at home.
Conditions remained unimproved and the latent powers of the people,
which had been accumulating for generations, found no adequate means for
expression.
When in 1814 the treaty of Kiel, sanctioned by the European powers,
forced Norway into an unwilling union with Sweden, the Norwegians
revolted; and, in their attempt to liberate themselves, adopted a
constitution for their government.[1] Their revolt created ill feelings
on the part of the Swedes while the demands for complete sovereignty by
Sweden were resented by the Norwegians. The adoption of this
constitution by the people of Norway and their standing so tenaciously
for its recognition are manifestations of the spirit which had been
developing among them for centuries. They believed that they were being
imposed upon and stood firm for their rights. They had felt the crushing
hand of foreign rule, they had observed the benefits of independence,
they had developed confidence in their own powers, and now they were
converted to the idea that the time for home rule was upon them. Civil
liberty was their dream. State rights came to be demanded. Their time to
act in a decisive manner had come. The people had grown into a nation
deserving and in need of larger powers, and their best advancement was
in great measure dependent upon the exercise of these powers. Conditions
then justified their demands and Sweden, appreciating the situation,
yielded, acknowledged the independence of Norway, and agreed to govern
in accordance with the newly adopted constitution. On the other hand,
Norway acceded to the demands of Sweden in accepting the King of Sweden
as theirs also.
Now for nearly one hundred years this union was maintained. Comparative
peace and prosperity prevailed and the outlook seemed favorable for both
nations. Sweden profited because of the new relations, and Norway gained
in strength and power through her experience in individual initiative
and governmental duties generally. While the relations between the two
countries were in the main friendly, on various occasions Norway felt
that her rights were not always respected. The people craved larger
privileges, more recognition among the nations of the world, and the
exercise of greater authority. The functioning of capacities that had
long lain dormant revealed to her the powers that were still latent.
Norway became eager for absolute independence and these feelings rose to
larger and larger proportions until desires became demands. All the
people were ready and offered their services, their fortunes (whether
large or scant), and their lives in the cause of freedom. Finally,
formally, and without bloodshed, the bonds uniting the two countries
were severed in 1905 and Norway became an independent nation.
Having briefly sketched the history of the country let us now turn our
attention to its geography. Norway, as we all know, lies in the
northwestern part of Europe, and measures over one thousand one hundred
miles from north to south and from two hundred to nearly five hundred
miles from east to west. Politically it is divided into eighteen
counties (_Amter_) and the cities of Christiania and Bergen. These
counties are subdivided into six hundred sixty-six townships or communes
(_Kommuner_) which are again divided into school districts or circles
(_Kredser_) numbering in all five thousand nine hundred seventy.[2]
The area is approximately one hundred and twenty-five thousand square
miles. Nearly all of it is made up of mountains which have no regularity
in distribution, a large portion of them being merely heaps of barren
rock thrown up in conglomerate masses. The valleys are as numerous and
irregular as the mountains. In them are lakes, rivers, and waterfalls,
their waters pure and clear as crystal. The lakes differ greatly in
outline and size. The rivers in their windings dash furiously through
precipitous, rugged, rocky channels, or glide murmuringly through quiet
valleys until they reach the fjords which appear like huge arms of the
sea, reaching deep into the earth and extending far inland. The
waterfalls vary from mere threads tinkling into tiny pools to great
torrents gushing over dizzy precipices. Viewed in combination these
features present an infinite variety of exquisitely beautiful scenes.
The climate of Norway is greatly diversified owing to the wide range in
latitude and the influence of the Gulf stream. In the northern part and
on the highest mountains there are vast fields of snow during the entire
year, while in some of the sheltered portions along the western coast,
the climate is well adapted to the cultivation of some of the tropical
plants. It is, of course, essential that all plants that are cultivated
be of rapid growth and of quick maturity, since their seasons are quite
short. The atmospheric conditions are excelled nowhere. Few locations on
the earth enjoy such freshness or provide so much mental and physical
invigoration. Just the joy of living is more than recompense for all
one's expense and trouble in going for a season into this summer home or
nature.
Being situated so far to the north the days of summer are very long
while those of winter are extremely short. This is noticeable even in
the southern part of the country, and as one goes farther north it is
more and more striking until upon reaching the arctic circle the summer
traveler has the unique experience of seeing the sun at midnight. It is
visible for weeks or months at a time, according to whether one is near
the circle or farther toward the pole. For corresponding periods during
the winter seasons the sun does not appear at all. It should not be
inferred that these sunless days are intensely dark and gloomy. On the
contrary, they, as well as the midnight sun, have fascinations peculiar
to themselves and are of deep interest, especially to the novice in that
latitude. The glitter of the stars, the glow of the moon, and the
palpitating brilliance of the northern lights, combine with the light
reflected from the vast snow fields and compensate in part for the
absence of the direct rays from the sun.
The industries and occupations of the Norwegians are dependent in large
measure upon environing conditions. Nearly one-fourth of the country is
covered with a heavy growth of timber; hence, lumbering affords a large
part of the most profitable employment. Much of the mountainous land can
be used only for pasturage and, as a result, dairying claims
considerable attention. Only a very small portion of the area (about
four per cent) is suitable for agriculture and owing to this limitation
of opportunity, comparatively few of the people are farmers. Their
numerous fisheries supply cargoes, and train loads of fresh and cured
fish to the markets of the world. Fishing is, in fact, one of the most
important industries, and a large percentage of the wage earners of the
country engage in it. Since the bulk of their travel and transportation
is by water, a great many become sailors. A certain amount of
manufacturing also is done, and this provides another means of earning a
livelihood. The fact that nearly all of the people are gathered into
cities, towns, and settlements along the coast, is explained by a
consideration of the activities and conditions herein set forth.
The people of Norway are large of stature, vigorous, and alert in mind
and body. They have ever been undaunted in their efforts to overcome the
great, natural barriers to progress and to secure what they believed
would be for their well-being. Toiling patiently and persistently,
suffering hardships on land and perils at sea, they have developed the
well-known characteristics of their sturdy race. The long, rigorous
winters taught the people to provide amply for the needs of the future,
and they learned also the economy of making every endeavor count for
permanency. It has been and is still their aim and intent to so direct
their efforts that their citizens may experience and enjoy not only in
the present the best conditions made possible by the world's highest
attainments, but that later generations also may reap valuable benefits
therefrom. They realize that it is easily possible for today's
provisions to supply the best for the present, and at the same time to
bless tomorrow and the next day and all the coming years.
The Norwegians are as democratic in mind and disposition as any people
of the earth. They demand that the masses shall receive whatever benefit
may come from prosperity at home, from their relations with other
nations, or from legislation. They advocate further that right now is
the time to increase opportunities, to multiply privileges, to raise
standards of living, and to insure through conservative action a
substantial basis on which the coming generations may safely build. In
accord with their aims and ideals they study the questions of education,
labor and capital, and many others of vital interest to the people. They
seek out sources, eliminating the undesirable and cultivating those of
favorable growth and fruitage. Recognizing their own resourcefulness and
ability, the Norsemen strive to gain for themselves and for their
descendants material prosperity and true culture. To these ends they
foster educational advantages for all, the development of the arts and
sciences, and the elevation of labor.
Educationally, they have ever been desirous of providing the best
possible advantages. During the latter part of the nineteenth century
and the few years of the present one, they have been in a position to
put into execution a number of advance ideas which they have done
without hesitation. Being observant of what other nations provide they
have been ready to select from various sources whatever good they found,
to eliminate any undesirable features which revealed themselves, and to
strengthen the weaker points. Though they have been forced by conditions
to assume and maintain a conservative attitude toward every new project
or attempt at reform, they have been also too democratic to permit
tradition or precedent to bind them down or to hinder them in making
changes in their school system, which they were convinced by experience
or study would be for their good. In harmony with this they have been
eager to make revisions where necessary; to introduce new features,
which had been tested at home or abroad and found successful; and to
cast aside relics of the past, unnecessary phases of work, and those
things which might be supplanted by materials of superior advantage or
value to the people served. They have become habituated to examining the
new from every conceivable viewpoint, to finding its foundations, to
testing its values, and to weighing its effects. When a thing has been
thoroughly studied it is accepted or rejected according to whether it is
adjudged desirable or undesirable for their use under existing
conditions. In their effort to answer the demands of the people and to
supply their needs, schools have been established according to local
requirements. That is to say, every community enjoys school advantages,
and every child in the entire state is privileged to receive instruction
for a certain number of weeks each year at the expense of the state. All
children are required to attend the schools of the state at least twelve
weeks each year for seven years, or to receive instruction elsewhere
which is equivalent to the amount required. In the more populous places
higher schools also are provided for those who desire to take advantage
of the opportunities afforded in them.
II. DIFFERENTIATION OF SCHOOLS.
It was early recognized by the Norwegians that through the means of
education, better than any other way, they could develop a people
qualified to pursue the arts, to cultivate the sciences, to appreciate
and enjoy the highest culture, and to maintain and develop their noblest
ideals of citizenship and richest conceptions of statehood. Having these
objects in mind they endeavored to establish schools of instruction and
training along every legitimate line. Beginning with the most essential
they worked unceasingly, providing additional worthy kinds of
instruction as rapidly as possible, until their efforts resulted in
their present school system.
Perhaps the most important feature of their work was the establishment
of primary schools, which furnish general education. These schools
provide seven years of elementary instruction for children between the
ages of seven and fourteen years, and are literally the people's schools
(_Folkeskoler_). The law requires that pupils must be regular in
attendance, and that parents, who fail to have their children in school
in harmony with the provisions of the law, be fined according to the
seriousness and extent of the offense. It is further provided that these
schools shall be in operation for at least twelve weeks in the year, and
that this time may be extended according to local demands or needs. As a
matter of fact, nearly all of them in the cities and many of them in the
country operate forty weeks per year. As a consequence of liberal
provisions and enforced regulations, Norway has achieved an eminent
place educationally among the nations of the world.
In the rural sections primary schools are held in comfortable, well
equipped, and conveniently located schoolhouses and are taught by
competent teachers who live near by in homes provided for them. In a few
remote, rugged sections of the country, where children are few and
scattering or where locations accessible to all cannot be found, they
have no fixed schools, but instead what are termed ambulatory schools
(_Omgangskoler_). There are no schoolhouses in these districts but the
officials designate certain houses[3] as the places where children go at
stated times to receive instruction. The teacher meets the children of
the neighborhood in a given home and teaches them for a specified time,
passes to the next designated place, and continues until his rounds are
completed. Formerly, a very large number of these schools existed, but
as roadways were extended or improved and the people became able to
erect and maintain schoolhouses, the demand for ambulatory schools
decreased until now nearly all of them are supplanted by fixed schools.
In 1837, ninety-two per cent of the children attending school in the
country were taught in ambulatory schools, while in 1907 this was the
case with less than one per cent of them.
In all the cities and towns excellent educational advantages are
provided. Usually their school year consists of forty weeks of six days
each. Every provision is made for the welfare of the children; excellent
instructors are secured, and the equipment for teaching purposes is of
the best procurable. Furthermore, no pains are spared in guarding the
children from physical discomfort and immoral conditions or
associations.
Simultaneously with the development of the elementary schools secondary
education moved along advance lines. In 1814, when Norway became an
independent state there were but four of the higher classical (_laerde_)
schools within her borders. These were the historic cathedral schools
(_Kathedralskoler_) which had been established for centuries. As time
passed, other secondary schools were organized. Higher education was
reorganized in 1869 and again in 1896, when by act of the Storthing
secondary education was made to include the middle school and the
gymnasium. The enactment defines these schools and states their aim as
follows: "The middle school is a school for children, which, in union
with the primary school, gives its pupils a complete, thorough, general
education, adapted to the receptivity of childhood. The gymnasium is a
school for young people, which on the foundation of the middle school,
leads on to a complete, higher, general education, which may also serve
as a basis for scientific studies. Both middle school and gymnasium
shall contribute to the religions and moral training of the pupils, and
it should also be their common aim to develop the pupils both mentally
and physically into competent young people."[4] The act requires that
the middle school shall be no longer than four years, and that the
gymnasial courses shall be of three years' duration.
The gymnasia of Norway take up the work where the middle schools leave
off, and provide three years of instruction which concludes with the
_examen artium_. The passing of this examination entitles the individual
to become a student in the university. Previous to the time of entering
the gymnasium the subjects of instruction are uniform for all; here they
branch into two or three lines, any one of which may be selected by the
pupil and followed to its completion. The main divisions of the work are
represented in the names of the courses--the _Real_ and the
Linguistic-Historical. The latter of these is again divided in some
schools, one of its two lines including Latin. The _Real_ course of
instruction is largely scientific while the Linguistic-Historical, true
to its name, embodies a large amount of language and history. In case
the course including Latin is offered, Latin replaces some of the work
in modern languages and history.
The middle school, then, is the second step in the educational ladder
and builds upon the work previously done in the primary school. No
middle school is privileged to include work lower down than the sixth
grade. In other words, the primary schools are the only ones which are
authorized to present the work of the first five grades or years of
school instruction. The courses of study are so arranged that a child
may pass from the primary school after completing the fifth grade and
enter directly upon the studies in the regular four year course of the
middle school. On the other hand a pupil may continue in the primary
school until its completion--seven years--and then enter a middle school
and finish its requirements in three years. While nearly all middle
schools present a four year course there are a few which offer only
three years of instruction. In order to enter these latter schools the
child must have finished the seven years of instruction in the primary
schools. Middle schools are under the inspection of state officials and
a uniform standard of work is required of all of them. The middle school
examination which marks the completion of the middle school course is
exactly the same for all pupils in the state. In any given year all who
take the examinations write on exactly the same questions on a specified
hour of a certain day.
The Royal Frederik University, established by King Frederik in 1811,
furnishes the summit of educational endeavor. Its five faculties--(1)
theology, (2) law, (3) medicine, (4) mathematics and science, and (5)
history and philosophy--represent the best products of the country and
maintain standards of efficiency paralleling the achievements of the
day. Besides the five faculties already mentioned there are (1) The
Practical Theological Seminary for the training of ministers and (2) The
Pedagogical Seminary (affiliated) for special training of teachers.
Through the endeavors of the faculties and seminaries enumerated, the
necessary professions, scientific organizations, and philosophic
societies are supplied with men of eminent qualifications. The state
also is supplied from the same source with individuals capable of
attending to the affairs of state in a dignified and competent manner.
To aid prospective teachers and to maintain high professional standards,
Norway early established a Teachers' Seminary in each of its six
dioceses (_Stifter_). Having made this ample provision for the training
of teachers, they were in a position to require a certain amount of
professional preparation of all candidates for appointment to teaching
positions. Adherence to this laudable principle has saved the state from
an overflow of incompetent instructors. While requirements were very low
for a long time, the increasing supply of qualified candidates for
positions warranted successive shiftings of them to higher and higher
standards. At present, the teachers of Norway, as a body, rank among the
best in educational equipment, professional training, and morality.
Technical, agricultural, military, and naval schools have been
established in order to keep pace with the world's developments along
these lines. The technical school in Trondhjem opened in 1910, sets the
requirements for admission as high as those at the university. Its work
promises to be of unquestioned quality and its prospects are very
bright. The students at this school come chiefly from the scientific
course offered in the gymnasia or from the several preparatory technical
schools of Norway. There are many of these lower technical schools doing
excellent work and some of them are modeled after American schools. The
work of the agricultural college and of the military and naval schools
is more or less technical along their respective lines and meets certain
requirements not elsewhere provided for. When one notes the variety of
schools maintained by the Norwegian state, it is evident that it is the
intent to provide for its citizens a very wide range of educational
advantages, and at the same time to develop the capacities of young
people until they are able to perform the offices of state and nation.
III. DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLS AND PUPILS
The laws of Norway are specific in their requirements regarding
education, and the people are at hand to provide the essential means for
carrying out the demands. It is required that in each city or district
in the entire realm there shall be the necessary number of schools to
provide instruction for all children of school age. This is in answer to
the law which makes a requirement of a certain minimum amount of
education of all such children.
The primary schools are distributed in the cities, villages, and rural
communes to suit the convenience of pupils attending. Other and higher
schools are provided where most needed. As is true everywhere the bulk
of work is done in the primary schools. Rural and city schools have
their own laws and government, and are admirably adapted to the needs of
their respective constituencies. As would be expected, the rural schools
and the pupils attending them far outnumber those in the cities and
towns. There are in the country five thousand, nine hundred and seventy
schools attended by two hundred seventy-five thousand, one hundred and
fifty-five pupils, while there are but sixty-one city school systems
having an enrollment of ninety thousand, one hundred and twenty-nine
pupils.[5] It is seen that there are about three times as many pupils in
the rural primary schools as are found in the city primary schools. The
distribution and care of the city school pupils are, however, much
larger tasks than providing for those in the rural sections. In order to
show conditions in a given city we insert Table I which indicates the
number of classes and pupils in the several grades in the nineteen
primary schools of Christiania, and also gives the totals for the entire
city. Boys and girls attend the same school, but in this particular city
they are generally separated into different rooms where they are taught
by themselves. The schools are co-educational but not generally
coinstructional. As the table will show, some of them are
coinstructional through a part of the course while only one follows this
plan throughout its work.
TABLE I
Pupils in the Primary Schools of Christiania in the month of April, 1908
NUMBER OF CLASSES AND PUPILS IN THEM
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
1st Grade 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Schools Cl. Pu. Cl. Pu. Cl. Pu. Cl. Pu. Cl. Pu. Cl. Pu. Cl. Pu.
A. {Boys 3 112 3 99 3 114 4 136 3 115 3 96 3 95
{Girls 3 107 3 113 3 116 3 105 3 111 3 191 2 83
B. {Boys 5 183 5 194 4 157 4 160 5 199 5 177 4 144
{Girls 5 178 5 184 5 196 4 140 5 188 4 151 4 149
C. {Boys 2 89 2 90 2 100 2 98 2 98 2 79 2 64
{Girls 2+1 99 2+1 96 2+1 101 2+1 95 2+1 97 2+1 89 2 77
D. {Boys 3 139 3 123 4 140 3 127 3 108 3 103 3 93
{Girls 3+1 119 3+1 132 3 117 3+1 139 3 028 3 110 3 101
E. {Boys 3 121 4 149 3 113 2 77 2 74 2 72 2 65
{Girls 3 115 4 152 3 101 3 116 3 115 2 77 2 60
F. {Boys 3 138 2 93 2 83 2 67 3 98 3 107 1 37
{Girls 3+1 122 2+1 102 2+1 104 3 104 2 77 2 79 2 65
G. {Boys 4 151 3 140 2 119 4 138 3 121 3 99 3 105
{Girls 4 147 4+1 157 4+1 148 4 134 3 106 2 80 3 93
H. {Boys 4 142 4 136 3 119 3 115 4 139 3 109 2 66
{Girls 3 131 3 136 4 131 4 142 3 102 2 80 2 69
I. {Boys 3 96 3 96 3 86 2 73 2 77 2 68 3 102
{Girls 2 79 2 68 2 82 2 79 2 68 2 71 3 102
J. {Boys 2 95 2 91 2 90 2 80 2 81 2 70 2 641
{Girls 2+1 87 2+1 109 2+1 98 3 93 2 66 2 68 2 661
K. {Boys 4 153 4 145 4 143 3 118 3 120 3 121 3 84
{Girls 5 170 4+1 153 4 139 4 154 3 123 3 103 3 93
L. {Boys 4 143 4 145 4 134 4 144 4 129 4 132 2 75
{Girls 4 158 4 148 4 141 4 132 4 136 4 157 4 131
M. {Boys 7 133 6 111 5 91 2 99 2 102 2 70 2 74
{Girls 136 108 115 2+2 124 2+2 115 3 97 2 72
N. {Boys 4 151 1 106 1 108 2 113 2 85 2 105 2 72
{Girls 3 109 1+4 125 1+3 127 2+2 108 2+1 100 2+2 106 2 64
O. {Boys 111 98 128 118 102 95 57
{Girls 5 90 5 98 7 126 6 104 5 88 5 98 4 73
P. {Boys 3 126 2 83 3 116 3 103 3 103 2 68 3 96
{Girls 3 113 3 117 3 105 3 113 3 99 2 80 3 100
Q. {Boys 4 155 5 192 5 168 4 158 4 155 4 149 3 116
{Girls 4 154 5+1 189 4 163 5 171 4 144 3 118 2 111
R. {Boys 154 159 131 112 3 107 2 83 3 104
{Girls 186 128 141 115 3 110 3+1 131 2 77
S. {Boys 5 185 4 151 4 139 4 135 3 111 2 75
{Girls 4 159 5 172 4 146 3 108 4 148 2 79
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total (Classes) 134 131 126 122 115 104 91 2
---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- --
(Pupils) 5036 4878 4676 4458 4235 3753 3099 43
Average number
of pupils per
class 37.6 37.3 37.1 36.5 36.8 36.1 34.1
Schools for
Abnormals
{Boys 47 54 57 46 66 65 30 19
4+1 7 5+1 6+1 2
{Girls 18 53 41 37 47 33 18 9
Cl.--Class.
Pu.--Pupils.
1.--Classes made up of children requiring individual attention.
Total Condensed table
Total Classes Pupils of all groups
Schools Boys' Girls' Coeds. Boys Girls Classes Pupils Average
for class.
A. 22 20 767 736 42 1503 35.8
B. 32 32 1214 1195 64 2409 37.6
C. 14 14 6 618 644 34 1262 37.1
D. 22 21 3 833 840 46 1679 36.5
E. 18 20 671 736 38 1407 37
F. 16 16 3 623 653 35 1276 36.5
G. 22 24 2 873 865 48 1738 36.2
H. 23 21 826 781 44 1607 36.5
I. 18 15 598 549 33 1147 34.8
J. 15 16 3 595 606 34 1201 35.3
K. 24 26 884 935 50 1810 36.4
L. 26 28 902 1003 54 1905 35.3
M. 8 9 22 680 767 39 1447 37.1
N. 14 13 13 740 789 40 1479 37
O. 37 709 677 37 1380 37.5
P. 19 20 695 727 39 1422 36.5
Q. 29 28 1093 1050 57 2143 37.6
R. 8 8 31 850 888 47 1738 37
S. 22 22 796 812 44 1608 36.5
Total number --- --- --- ----- ----- --- ----- ----
of Pupils 352 353 120 14967 15209 825 30176 36.6
Schools for
Abnormals 3 39 384 256 42 640 15.6
In addition to the special features in this table, to which we have
already called attention, it may be observed that the total number of
boys', girls', and co-educational classes; the total number of boys and
of girls in attendance at each school; and the average number of pupils
per class in each school are also included.
The law limits the number of pupils in a class to thirty-five, except
temporarily or in case of stringency in financial conditions, and in no
case must there be more than forty.[6] It is seen in the table that the
average is above thirty-five in all but one school, but it has been
exceedingly difficult in the rapidly growing city of Christiania to
avoid congestion in the schools. In only one of the nineteen schools
does the general average come within the rule. If they plead economic
stringency then the averages of all fall within the limits.
Now a large percentage of children continue their education after the
completion of the elementary course. In 1907, there were nine thousand,
eight hundred and ninety-five pupils in the accredited middle
schools,[7] and one thousand, five hundred and ninety-three in the
gymnasia. About eighteen thousand others attended non-accredited
secondary schools and those of still lower standards--evening schools,
continuation schools, and various preparatory schools. Approximately two
thousand were in technical schools and about one thousand in teachers'
seminaries. Nearly every town of any considerable consequence has a
middle school where pupils from the town and surrounding territory may
receive its benefits. The larger cities have, in addition to a liberal
supply of middle schools, one or more gymnasia, according to their size.
The gymnasia draw from a wider territory than do the middle schools
because they are fewer and farther apart.
In addition to the six teachers' seminaries maintained by the state,
there are four private ones--ten in all. Table II indicates the
aggregate attendance at these institutions and the number of those who
passed the advanced examinations during the years designated.
The university, of course, draws its students from all over the State.
It has an attendance of one thousand, three hundred or more, about five
hundred and fifty of whom are annually enrolled direct from the
gymnasia. These students represent the best products of the country and
generally they work with earnestness and zeal.
TABLE II
Table Giving Attendance at Teachers' Seminaries and the Number Passing
Advanced Examinations.
Took Examination.
Year. Attendance. Male. Female. Total.
1901-02 755 204 135 339
1902-03 980 192 129 321
1903-04 953 216 184 400
1904-05 902 174 119 293
1905-06 955 208 147 355
--- --- -----
Totals 994 714 1,708
Annual Average 199 143 342
Private schools have played an important role in Norway. They have had a
long and interesting history. A number of them do part or all of the
work represented by the state primary and secondary schools and
teachers' seminaries. Most of them are located in the larger cities and
receive recognition and patronage from some of the best homes in the
land. Their influence upon education generally has been wholesome. The
valuable and attractive features introduced by them have operated like
spurs on those under state direction. The cooperative activity which has
characterized the relationship between the two kinds of schools has
resulted in the betterment of both and in the rapid advancement of
educational ideals and activities throughout the state.
There are, of course, some fundamental differences existing between
them. The private schools charge a regular tuition in every grade of
primary and secondary work. The state primary schools are free and the
tuition in its secondary schools is less than that charged in the
private schools. It is self-evident that private schools are dependent
upon tuition receipts for both running expenses and profits, while the
state and communal schools are supported largely by public taxation.[8]
Paralleling so nearly the work of the state schools, yet being more
expensive, the private schools have been under the necessity of offering
certain inducements in order to secure pupils. They have been made
attractive in location, in buildings, in equipment, in the personnel of
their faculties, and in other ways, and their efforts have been richly
rewarded as a rule.
All classes of schools are subject to state regulations and inspection.
Certain definite requirements must be met before a private school may
even begin to operate, and still higher standards must be maintained in
order for the work to be accredited by the state. Standards of
excellence are naturally set by state schools and the requirements fixed
by the state inhibit the starting of inferior schools under the pretense
of offering something "just as good." During recent years some of the
private schools--those well-known and respected because of the nature
of work and high standards of excellence maintained--have been given
special recognition by the state, and a few of them receive annuities.
When advancement in nature or improvement in quality of school work is
rewarded by increase in patronage from the state, zest is furnished in
the contest for first recognition.
Though the history of the rise, development and influence of the private
schools of Norway, together with a discussion of their present status
and worth, might furnish an interesting chapter, it becomes necessary to
let this slight mention suffice and to confine this work to a treatise
of the schools instituted and directed by the state. It may be added,
however, that the work of the accredited private schools equals in
quality and receives the same recognition as that done in state schools.
For example, all graduates from the private gymnasia pass the same
examinations for _artium_ as those who complete the work of the state
gymnasia and enter the university on exactly the same footing.
IV. PUPILS
The compulsory school laws which operate in Norway determine the age
(seven years) at which children shall enter school and the regularity of
their attendance. With this in mind, it is readily understood that as a
rule each class marches steadily forward, one grade each year, until the
completion of the school life. As a consequence there is but little
variation in the ages of pupils doing the work of any certain grade, and
the proportion of pupils of normal age in the several grades is very
large. In order to illustrate definitely, a concrete situation is
presented in Table III, which shows the exact conditions existing at a
certain time in one of their representative cities.
TABLE III [Transcriber note: table split to fit]
Table showing the age of pupils on April 30, 1908, in the several
grades, also the number in each Grade and relation to normal age.
Age and year of birth.
Grade No.
of 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17
Classes 1902 1901 1900 1899 1898 1897 1896 1895 1894 1893 1892 Total
1 134 27 3047 1790 164 10 5038
2 130 33 2730 1795 263 18 4839
3 126 22 2564 1730 319 36 5 2 4678
4 122 33 2287 1620 393 77 14 1 4425
5 115 32 2009 1528 511 136 6 4222
6 105 1 39 1856 1342 569 80 3878
7 90 28 1582 1129 231 3 3003
X[2] 2 20 22 1 43
T[1] 824 27 3080 4542 4556 4323 3996 3841 3537 1962 139 3 30186
Per
ct. 1908 0.1 10.2 15.1 15.1 14.3 13.2 12.7 11.7 6.5 1.1 ----
1907 0.1 11.3 15.3 15.0 13.5 13.1 12.6 11.9 6.2 1.0 -- ---
1906 0.1 10.9 15.5 14.6 14.0 13.4 12.5 11.6 6.6 0.8 -- ---
1905 0.1 11.2 15.3 14.7 14.0 13.6 12.7 11.9 6.4 0.1 -- ---
No. of Pupils of Per Cent. of
Normal Age. Normal Age.
Grade Under Norm. Over Under Norm. Over
1 27 4837 174 0.5 96.0 3.5
2 33 4525 281 0.7 93.5 5.8
3 22 4294 362 0.5 91.9 7.6
4 33 3907 485 0.8 88.3 10.9
5 32 3537 653 0.8 83.8 15.4
6 31 3198 649 0.8 82.2 17.0
7 28 2801 234 0.9 91.1 8.0
X[2] 42 1 --- 97.7 2.3
T[1]. 206 27141 2839
Per
ct. 1908 ---- ---- ---- 0.7 89.9 9.4
1907 ---- ---- ---- 0.8 90.9 8.3
1906 ---- ---- ---- 0.9 91.8 7.3
1905 ---- ---- ---- 1.1 91.7 7.2
1. Primary schools of Kristiana exclusive of schools for abnormal children.
2. Classes requiring special individual attention.
This table speaks for itself and needs no explanation. It is worthy of
note, however, that in comparatively few instances do the ages vary more
than two or three years, and that six years is the widest difference in
age to be found among all the pupils of any given grade of work.
Furthermore, we call attention to the fact that those above normal age
in no year aggregated as much as ten per cent of the entire number in
attendance. 10.1 per cent represents the entire number outside the
normal age--those above plus those below--for the year 1908. During the
three former years the percentage was still smaller. The reduction in
numbers of pupils in the sixth and seventh grades is due in large part
to the fact that so many pass from the fifth grade into the middle
school.
The same conditions of uniformity exist in the secondary schools. Having
entered at the age of seven and having spent five or more years in the
primary school, the pupils upon entrance to the middle school are
generally twelve or more years old. In some middle schools the average
age of those entering will at times be less than twelve years. This
latter condition is usually due to some local situation or rule
regarding age at entrance upon school work. In order to follow the age
question to nearer its limits we will present Table IV.
TABLE IV
Table showing the ages of pupils in State and Communal Secondary
Schools.
Middle School Gymnasium
I. II. III. IV. I. II. III. Date
Trondhjem(A) 12-1(C) 13-3 14-2 15-6 16-10 17-18 18-1 9-1-06
Kristiansand(A) 12 13-5 14-2 15-2 16-3 17-7 18-3 10-1-00
Kristiansund(B) 12-7 13-5 14-8 15-5 16-2 16-9 18-4 9-1-09
Fredrikkstad(B) 12-7 13-4 14-2 15-2 15-10 16-10 17-8 7-1-08
Lillihammer(B) 12-2 13-2 14 15-3 16 16-6 18-1 7-1-06
Larvik(B) 12-2 13-3 14-2 15-1 15-10 16-10 18-2 8-1-03
[Note A: State secondary school.]
[Note B: Communal secondary schools.]
[Note C: Age in years and months.]
Attention is called to the step from the last year in the middle school
to the first year in the gymnasium. In several instances there is
considerably less than a year of difference in age. This is but another
illustration of the tendencies of the sifting that goes on in the
natural process of selecting the fittest. Those of keenest intellect are
the ones who reach a specific requirement in least time and then proceed
in the pursuit of advance education. The ones sifted out are more
generally those whose advance has been more difficult, or those who have
lagged behind others of their own age. The absence of these tends to
lower the average age in the succeeding grade. Similar conditions in
emphasized form are in evidence when we study the ages of those who
enter the university from year to year. While the ages of those just
entering the third and final year of the gymnasium are on the average
more than eighteen, the ones who enter the university the following year
in September average nineteen years of age or a little less.
In addition to the tables showing the ages of pupils throughout the
several grades of preparatory and secondary education, the following one
is inserted to show the average age of those in attendance at four of
the teachers' seminaries. The advance in age with advance of grade is
not as regular here as in the other schools.
TABLE V
Table Showing Age of Pupils in the Teachers' Seminaries at the Beginning
of the Year, 1906-7.
Average age[A] in grades.
I. II. III.
Holmestrand 19-7 21-3 22-1
Levanger 20 19-8 21-4
Hamar 19-2 20-2 21-7
Stord 19-6 19-11 21
[Note A: Age in years and months.]
There is not as close correspondence between age or grade and
scholarship in the seminaries as we find in the other schools. The
greater variation is due to several causes, among them are the
following: (1) The law requires that a teacher must be at least twenty
years of age.[9] (2) The previous education of those in attendance
varies greatly. Many are desirous of getting as thorough and complete
preparation as their circumstances admit, while others are seemingly
anxious to enter on the lowest standard admissible. (3) Teachers who are
eager to improve their qualifications frequently return to the seminary
after a few years of teaching experience in order to complete the course
and prepare for the better class of positions.
Comparisons between the educational equipment of the American youth and
that of his Norwegian cousin at any given age are exceedingly difficult
to make. We have not yet established any specific units or norms by
which education may be measured. We can make neither definite nor
satisfactory quantitative or qualitative measurements of accomplishment.
However, a careful analysis of the respective courses of study, the
qualification of teachers, and plans of work, supported by the testimony
of those who have been teachers in both countries, seems to warrant the
statement that the completion of the gymnasial course of study in Norway
is comparable to the completion of the sophomore year of work in our
American colleges and universities. The average age of students is about
the same in both instances.
The American children spend a less portion of the year in school than do
the children in Norway. While in our schools we generally have but
thirty-six weeks of five days each in a year, inclusive of all regular
and special holidays, the schools of Norway are in operation forty weeks
of six days each, exclusive of holidays. Leaving out any consideration
of holidays, the American school year usually amounts to one hundred
eighty days, while in Norway they have two hundred and forty days of
school. In other words, eight years of primary school and four years of
high school in America represent only three-fourths as many days of
instruction and study as are included in five years of primary school,
four years of middle school, and three years of gymnasium in Norway.
That is to say, to provide the same number of days of instruction it
would take sixteen school years in America to equal twelve in Norway.
The specialization which characterizes the work of the students upon
entrance to the Norwegian university brings their study within much
narrower limits than that of our ordinary juniors in college. Their
general cultural education concludes with the taking of _artium_ while
ours usually continues throughout the liberal arts course in college or
until the degree of Bachelor of Arts has been received. A certain amount
of specialization is common among our students during the later years of
their college education, but it covers a wider range than in Norway and
the greater portion of it is reserved for post graduate courses. In
Norway the professional studies are taken up without any preliminaries
immediately upon entrance to the university. In the better professional
schools of America, one, two, or three years of collegiate work is
required as a preparation for entrance.
I. ORGANIZATION--RELATION TO STATE, COMMUNE, AND CITY
The highest educational authority of Norway is vested in the
Department of Ecclesiastical and Educational Affairs (_Kirke-og
Undervisnings-Departmentet_), and the chief functionary in this
department of government is a member of the King's cabinet
(_Statsraad_). The work of the department is separated into two
divisions, one of which supervises the ecclesiastical activities and the
other the educational work of the country. This latter division is again
separated into two bureaus, one having charge of primary education and
the other being in control of secondary educational affairs. These
bureaus perform the functions usually devolving upon such offices, the
work being largely clerical. In addition there are the diocesan
directors (_Stift Direktorer_) bearing the immediate responsibilities
in primary education, and a state educational commission
(_Undervisningsraad_) having large authority in secondary education.
Next to the department itself the school directors have authority over
primary education. In fact the director has all but complete control in
his territory even though the department is recognized as having the
higher authority or powers. The King's cabinet appoints seven directors
for the six dioceses into which the state is divided; two for the most
northern, because of its greater extent, and one for each of the other
five. The directors are paid by the state and are amenable only to the
state, hence they exercise their powers in an endeavor to effect the
best possible results educationally without fear or favor of local
influences. They act independently in their respective territories and
do not constitute a committee in any sense whatever.
The commission having chief oversight of secondary education consists of
seven men appointed by the King's cabinet. They are chosen because of
their efficiency in educational affairs without regard to the part of
the country to which they belong.[10] They work always as a committee,
and as experts serve the state for the general welfare of secondary
education. The many privileges and duties exercised by this commission
may be grouped together under the heads of inspection and supervision of
secondary schools, and arrangements for having examinations. Several of
the men constituting this commission are at the same time rectors of
leading secondary schools in the country. In fact they are chosen
because of their familiarity with and expertness in just such kind of
work. When it becomes necessary to seek advice in hygienic questions a
physician of recognized ability is added to the commission. His judgment
and instruction are respected and adhered to very closely.
The rural communes are divided into school districts or circles
(_Skolekredser_). Each district supports and maintains a primary school
with at least two divisions--an infant school (_Smaaskole_) for children
from seven to ten years of age, and a higher one designed for children
from ten to fourteen years of age. In districts where distances are
great or roadways difficult, two or more infant schools are provided.
Companies operating one or more manufacturing establishments or
industrial concerns, and generally employing thirty or more laborers,
are required to provide a primary school for the children of the men in
their employ. When once started these schools are to be kept up unless
the number of the employed is reduced below twenty. In case there are
other children who desire to attend such school, they shall have the
right to do so providing it does not interfere with the instruction of
those for whom the school was established. In return for this the
school treasury receives from the communal treasury a yearly amount
proportioned to the total cost for all pupils in the school.[11]
While the law requires that instruction shall be provided six days in
the week for at least twelve weeks each year, it also grants to the
communes the privilege of extending the time to fifteen weeks.[B] It
further provides the right to maintain six weeks additional, voluntary
instruction each year.[12] These privileges are generally taken
advantage of by both communes and pupils. The communes desire the
extension of time for school, and the pupils are very glad of the
opportunity to attend the extra time, even though their presence is not
compulsory. In fact the compulsory education law has been so rigidly
enforced for so long a time that regular attendance has become habitual,
and the exact provisions and requirements of the law are rarely thought
of by the pupils. There is, in reality, no law requiring children to
attend the schools provided by the state, but a certain amount of
education is obligatory. It is mandatory that schools be maintained in
all of the districts, but individual children may receive their
instruction in private schools if they choose, so long as educational
requirements are met from year to year. Pupils who belong to the schools
are required to be in attendance regularly, and children who receive
instruction elsewhere than in the state schools must meet the
requirements calculated to bring them to a certain educational standard
by the time they are fifteen years of age. Failure in this subjects
parents, guardians, and those providing schools for children of laborers
in their employ to fine or imprisonment.[13]
The work in the infant school includes or amounts to thirty lessons per
week while in the higher one there are thirty-six lessons. Accordingly,
the pupils in the lower grades receive a minimum of three hundred sixty
lessons a year, and this number may be increased to four hundred fifty
or six hundred thirty. In the higher grades they have at least four
hundred thirty-two lessons a year, and if the time is extended they have
five hundred forty or seven hundred fifty-six lessons a year.
Each rural commune has its own school board (_Skolestyret_) consisting
of a priest; the chairman of the municipal council; one or two
teachers[14] chosen by the body of teachers; as many other members (men
or women) as the communal council deems it advisable to select; and the
rectors of higher schools, if there be any, under the supervision and
inspection of the school board.
In the towns and cities the school board consists of at least one
priest[15]; a member of the city's executive council;[16] as many other
members chosen for three years as the municipal council deems it
advisable to select, at least half of whom must be chosen from among
parents who at the time of election have children in the city primary
schools; one or two teachers;[17] and, wherever the school board
controls higher schools, the rectors of such schools.
The members of the school board select their own chairman and act
together as a committee or board. Among its more important duties are
appointment of teachers and special committees, provision of course of
study with specific instructions regarding its presentation, and the
estimation of sums of money necessary to meet demands in the maintenance
of the schools for the year. This estimate of expenses is sent by the
board each year to the communal council which has charge of the
dispensing of finances for the commune.
The course of study, including the plan of instruction and directions
regarding the supervision of the schools as given by the board, is
minutely detailed and specifically stated. It includes a list of studies
to be pursued, the manner and order of their presentation, and the
number of hours per week to be devoted to each subject; an outline of
arrangements for entrance, promotion, and leaving examinations, with
provisions for exemption therefrom wherever such is deemed advisable;
all necessary arrangements for vacations; and other matters considered
essential in the maintenance and carrying on of a school.
For each primary school, or for the several schools, using the
same building, the board appoints a committee of inspection
(_Tilsynsutvalg_). This committee consists of a member of the school
board (chosen by the board), who is chairman of the committee, and three
other members. These latter members are chosen in the city by the
parents of children attending the school, and in the rural districts by
such parents and other taxpayers. A priest appointed by church authority
is added to committees serving town or city schools.
This committee of inspection exercises constant oversight of the school,
keeping the board informed with reference to all matters requiring
attention by that body. By the consent of the communal council this
committee may have an amount provided from the school funds for its use
in carrying out its work. The inspection is with special reference to
the physical and moral well-being of those connected with the
institution. Among the special objects of its endeavors may be
enumerated the solving of all hygienic questions, regular attendance,
good discipline, and proper moral conduct. The committee must also see
to it that children of school age, not in attendance at the state
primary schools, receive instruction in such quantity and of such
quality as to meet all state requirements. In general it is an
outstretched arm of the school board, feeling after the betterment of
the common schools in every possible direction.
Another committee (called the school committee--_Skoleraad_) is
appointed by the school board for each of the primary schools in the
city. The duties of the two committees are in a way complementary. While
the committee of inspection is occupied in matters external in large
measure, the school committee exercises functions more pedagogical in
nature, though it also has general watch care over the affairs of the
school. If there be a superintendent of schools (_Skoleinspektor_), he
is a member _ex officio_ of the school committee, and its chairman.
Under other conditions the school board designates which of the
appointed members of the committee shall be its chairman. In towns where
the number of teachers exceeds sixty, the school board may direct that
the school committee shall consist of the superintendent and the
principals of the several schools as _ex officio_ members and any
determined number of other teachers selected by the body of teachers.
The elected members are to be male and female in proportion to their
respective numbers on the teaching staff, exclusive of those who are _ex
officio_ members of the committee. The sexes separate into special
meetings for the purpose of election, each choosing its allotted number
of representatives. Election is for two years, one-half retiring each
year, the first time according to lot. Members whose terms expire are
required to serve longer in case of re-election. This school committee
holds regular meetings, according to its own appointment, at which the
members are required to be present. Furthermore, the chairman may call
additional meetings in cases of necessity, and he is required to call
special meetings when requested by the school board to do so. A majority
vote of the members is sufficient for the passage of any proposition.
While the duties of this committee are not specifically outlined, it is
intended that its work shall concern chiefly the internal workings of
the schools. Its functions are mainly pedagogical in character as
already stated and as evidenced in the following provisions in the law.
"The school board shall permit the school committee to voice its
opinions in every affair which concerns: (1) the general supervision of
primary schools, (2) general provisions concerning regulations and
discipline, and (3) text books and outlines of instruction." In addition
the committee is required to express itself regarding any matter
relating to the good of the school when asked by the board for advice.
The school board may also order that there be a teachers' commission
(_Laererraad_) for each school or for the several schools using the same
buildings, consisting of the teachers in the school. The chairman of
this committee is the superintendent of schools, a school principal, or
other member, according to the determination of the board. The duties
devolving upon this commission are in each case outlined by the board.
The superintendent of schools (_Skoleinspektor_) has general direction
of all the primary schools in the city system. His duties are similar to
those of the superintendent in American towns and cities. He takes the
lead in directing the policies of the schools and exercises large powers
in making them efficient. He is provided with well-equipped offices,
generally in one of the school buildings, where he and his clerks,
supplied by the school board, do the greater portion of their work.
A principal or headmaster (_Overlaerer_) is generally placed in charge
of each school. His duties are comparable to those performed by ward
principals in the United States. While the superintendent is the
superior officer and exercises general control and authority, the
principal has immediate charge of the work of the school. He controls
its activities in harmony with and under the direction of the
superintendent, consulting the wishes of the higher official and
respecting his opinions. The superintendent recognizes that for the one
in immediate charge of a school to have his hands tied or his liberties
too circumscribed means the hampering of the work; hence, he gives to
the principals working under him wide latitude in carrying out their
ideas. For example, if the principal is a believer in coeducation or,
on the other hand, a staunch advocate of segregation of the sexes for
instructional purposes, he is usually privileged to carry his policy
into execution in his school, even though the views of the
superintendent are not wholly in accord therewith. Throughout their work
they seek each other's counsel and advice, and cooperate successfully.
The private citizen in Norway plays only an indirect part in school
affairs, yet his interests are conserved in various ways. The local
pastor, who is a member _ex officio_ of the school board, generally
guards the interests of the masses. His influence and vote may be
regarded usually as a reflection of the popular mind. The chairman of
the municipal council, who also is a member of the board by virtue of
his position, is indirectly the choice of the people. The teacher or
teachers chosen to occupy on the school board nearly always work in
harmony with the public will. The committee of inspection has a majority
of its members chosen directly by vote of the people immediately
concerned. The press is free and educational movements are continually
discussed in the leading papers. Further than this, educational affairs
are common topics of conversation, being talked of on all occasions
under various circumstances and conditions. It may be said to their
credit that those discussing these subjects do so intelligently and
critically. The masses are alive to the educational situation, are
intensely interested in their schools, and are acquainted with the
provisions of the law concerning them. The people being so democratic in
tendency and so very frank in the expression of their feelings and
opinions, naturally reflect public sentiment; which because of being
understood has more weight and is correspondingly a greater factor in
legislative activities.
The primary schools receive their financial support from the state,
county, and commune. The state provides for city schools one-third of
straight salaries, which range between twelve hundred and fourteen
hundred crowns for men, and between eight hundred and nine hundred
crowns for women; two-thirds of additional salary paid because of long
service to the limit of eight hundred crowns per year for men and five
hundred crowns per year for women; and one-third of salaries paid for
positions requiring only part time, for teaching by the hour, and for
teaching in continuation schools. In certain cases where the treasuries
are depleted the state treasury furnishes as high as forty-five per cent
of teachers' salaries within the fixed limits mentioned above. In the
rural communes the grant received from the state amounts to forty-five
per cent of the teachers' salaries, and where finances are low this
amount may be increased to sixty per cent. The amount of this state
grant is figured on the basis of salaries that do not exceed twenty-four
crowns per week in the second or higher division, and nineteen crowns in
the first or infant division of the primary school, except in the county
of Finnmarken where the bases may be respectively twenty-eight crowns
and twenty-two crowns per week.
In each county (_Amt_) the county council provides funds for the
following purposes: raising teachers' salaries in case of long service,
erecting school buildings, supplying teachers' homes, paying substitute
teachers, purchasing apparatus, relieving communes and municipalities
where school expenses are disproportionately high, and maintaining
continuation and artisan schools. Whatever is required to defray the
expenses of the primary schools, in addition to state and county grants,
tuition, receipts from school lands or holdings, etc., is furnished by
the commune or municipality through its council.
The secondary schools are either state or communal. The state schools
are provided with grounds, buildings, and equipment by the communes in
which they are located; the remaining expenses are met by state grants,
tuition fees, etc. The expense of maintaining communal schools falls
largely upon the communes. The state furnishes one-third of the salaries
in both classes of schools, and all additional amounts paid to teachers
because of long service. While most of the secondary schools charge
regular tuition fees, all of them have funds which supply free
scholarships to a number of pupils each year. In some communes they have
been able already to provide free middle schools, and it appears at
least possible that all state and communal schools may sometime be free.
The aim in financing the school system is to equalize the burden of
expense as far as possible, and to recognize, at the same time, the
efforts of those directly concerned. In order to obtain the best
results, authority has been strongly centralized; school boards,
communal and county councils, and state officials exercise large
discretionary powers.
VI. BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS
The school buildings of Norway are justly reputed to be the most
magnificent, best located, and finest edifices of the country. They are
built of substantial materials according to attractive architectural
designs, and are provided with liberal equipment. The larger buildings
are usually constructed of stone, brick and stone, or brick and cement;
while the smaller ones are built of lumber and stone. In the erection of
buildings, great care is exercised to make them spacious and permanent.
All materials used are selected because of their durability and
suitability to purpose. In order to guarantee the best hygienic
conditions, the law provides that buildings must meet the approval of
experts in hygiene before they can be used for school purposes. This
means that the services of these experts must be secured in getting out
designs for school buildings, whether in the erection of new or the
remodeling of old ones.
The school buildings are heated by furnaces or stoves. The newer ones
are modern in every respect and, of course, have excellent heating
systems. Those which have done service for several decades are usually
heated by stoves.
The buildings are divided into rooms in such a manner that the daylight
nearly always enters from the left or the rear of the pupils when they
are seated at their desks. This rule is disregarded only in rare cases.
During the short days of winter it is essential to provide artificial
light. In cities and large towns they use electricity for lighting the
school buildings; in the country or in small towns, where the
municipalities do not maintain any central lighting plant, various
devices are installed. Sometimes gasoline is used and again ordinary oil
lamps are common. An abundance of light of the best procurable quality
is generally provided.
Besides admitting light the outside windows are of use in providing
ventilation for the school rooms. They are opened wide during
intermissions between classes, so that when the children come in from
their exercise on the play grounds they enter an atmosphere nearly as
pure and fresh as that out of doors. In addition, many schoolhouses,
especially those built recently, have regular ventilating devices.
The class room furniture in Norway, like that used in many other
European schools, is about as primitive in design and lacking in
attractiveness as anything found in the whole country. Its evolution
surely has been greatly retarded. In each room there is a small platform
high enough to enable the instructor to see all his pupils with ease. On
this platform is a desk and a high chair in which the teacher sits most
of the time while giving instruction.
The pupils' seats and desks are made of heavy lumber and attached to a
common base. This makes them clumsy, and they appear very queer to one
accustomed to the better designs now in use in some countries. Those of
recent make are for but one pupil, though older ones, some of which are
still in use, accommodate three or four. In construction the seat is
generally a solid flat bench with a low back. The desk has a slightly
sloping top, a small inconvenient shelf for books, and a receptacle for
pencils, pens, rulers, and other articles used by school children. The
Norwegians deserve commendation for the care exercised in the
arrangement of seats and desks. The distance and proportion between them
are regulated according to scientific principles looking to the physical
welfare of the occupants. The bodily posture of children in school
determines in large measure what it will be out of school. Far too
little attention has been given the physical side of education, and one
of the important problems in connection therewith is the proper
construction of schoolroom furniture.
In the smaller buildings, classrooms have commodious cupboards for
apparatus (maps, charts, globes, plates, etc.), and various things with
which the children work (sewing materials, exercise books, etc.). While
they have a liberal supply of excellent illustrative material and
teaching apparatus and the best of facilities for storing it, mechanical
appliances for its display and devices for its convenient use are
woefully lacking. Maps and charts are held in the hand or hung on a nail
or other fixture in the room; while globes and the like are placed on
chairs or improvised stands. In general the apparatus is awkward to
manipulate and as a result much of its value is lost.
Blackboards of proper size are very rare in the schools of Norway. As a
rule the board is about three by five feet in size and fastened to a
clumsy easel which elevates it so high that it is out of reach of the
pupils. To enable the children to use such a board a small platform is
provided. The child mounts the platform by means of a few steps and
there stands and does his blackboard work. In only one instance did the
writer during his visits to the schools find what appeared to him to be
an adequate amount of blackboard space. This exceptional condition was
in one of the primary schools where special equipment was installed for
the instruction of children below normal intelligence. The ample
provision of blackboard here is proof of a recognition of its value, and
the situation may also be regarded as an indictment against the
prevalent neglect in this line.
School room decorations are not as prominent as might be expected.
Despite the facts that the whole of Norway is picturesque, that her
artists are quite numerous, and that the masses of her people are more
than ordinarily appreciative of the finer phases of life, very few
paintings or pieces of sculpture adorn her schools. True, exceptions as
to this rule of scant provision of the artistic may be found; but, as in
all countries, they quite generally fail to appreciate the educative
values of art.
While, traditionally at least, the study and recitation rooms have been
considered of prime and greatest importance in school buildings, there
are others, accessory to them, which in their effects are productive of
quite as good results. Among them may be mentioned: offices, teachers'
rooms, libraries, laboratories, and other rooms for special purposes.
Some of these are not provided in all schools, but commonly all of them
are found in the city school buildings.
The offices for rectors, inspectors, head masters, etc., are admirably
arranged and handsomely appointed. They are provided with desks,
cabinets, chairs, settees, tables, and other furnishings which add to
convenience and comfort. The rooms for teachers are equipped and
furnished in a way just as suitable to their purpose. In these they
spend their vacant periods in study, reading, or in leisure, according
to their choice. Here, too, officers and teachers are served with
luncheons in the middle of forenoon and afternoon sessions.
There are libraries in nearly all school buildings. While many of them
are small some are of large consequence. The one in the Christiania
Cathedral School numbers thirty thousand volumes. This is one of the
oldest and perhaps the largest library in any school of the country, and
it is regarded with considerable justifiable pride.
The laboratories are furnished in harmony with their traditional plan of
instruction. Instead of having a supply of apparatus so that most or all
of the pupils may be occupied simultaneously in laboratory
experimentation, they have but one set of instruments. However, they do
furnish liberal quantities of materials for laboratory experimentation.
The teacher is the chief operator, one or two pupils assist in the work,
and the other members of the class are onlookers.
Where domestic arts are taught, rooms are fitted up especially for the
purpose. Stoves, cooking utensils, and many other necessary articles
are at hand ready for use. The efficiency of the work is in no wise
hindered by lack of supplies. In many instances teachers go themselves
to the markets and purchase provisions needed for the day. An earnest
effort is made to combine theory and practice in proportions suitable to
obtaining the best possible results.
Some of the larger buildings have special rooms for the storing of
apparatus and illustrative materials (_Anskuelsesmidler_). Racks,
cupboards, cabinets, drawers, cases, and the like provide convenient
means for preserving these supplies and of rendering them easily
accessible. Gymnastic halls and lunch rooms will be discussed in another
section.
The playgrounds are generally small, but some of the schools have, in
addition to the grounds immediately surrounding the buildings, athletic
parks of considerable proportions. The grounds about the school
buildings are arranged with a view of securing from them maximum
returns. They are enclosed by high board or wire fence, or by stone or
brick and cement walls. A heavy coating of gravel is usually placed on
the ground in order to avoid the growth of vegetation or an accumulation
of dust. "Keep off the grass" signs are not in evidence, for rarely do
they attempt to have grassy lawns.
They recognize the need and value of physical exercise in the open, and
provide means for it in connection with every school. It is specifically
required that all pupils go on to the playgrounds during the
intermissions (_fri Krarterer_) which come between all lessons. While
the children are at play one or more of the teachers are detailed to
supervise the grounds, while others are to patrol the hallways. Large
roofs are put up under which the children play when the weather is not
favorable to being in the open. On rare occasions when the weather is
bitter, pupils may be permitted to remain indoors. Children whose health
is extremely delicate are dealt with in leniency, and some of them are
permitted to remain inside regularly.
Near to the school buildings, generally on a corner of the grounds,
homes are provided for the head master or principal and the janitor
(_Vagtmester_). Sometimes the janitor and his family live in an
apartment in the school building. Generally, however, a double house is
erected, one part for the principal and the other for the janitor. These
homes are furnished rent free to these men.
Teachers in rural districts, as a rule, are supplied with a house and
sufficient ground for garden and the pasturage of two or three cows.
These provisions materially reduce living expenses, and, in a way,
recompense for the low salaries received. In one rural school the writer
found three hundred and fifty pupils taught in two divisions--forenoon
and afternoon sessions--by six teachers. The principal had been in
charge of the school forty-three years. One portion of the school
building provided a residence for him and his family. They had a small
garden; a fruit orchard; a few acres of land for pasturage and hay; and
a barn and sheds for cow, pig, and chickens. There are many similar
situations throughout the country. This particular one lay just outside
a small city, and this fact accounts in part for the large number of
pupils in attendance.
As a rule the homes for rural school teachers compare very favorably
with the better class of homes in the surrounding neighborhood. They
have sufficient room, are comfortable, and generally satisfy the
occupants. The majority of rural teachers have such homes provided,
though only a few city teachers enjoy this favor. In 1905, two thousand,
eight hundred and twenty-six rural teachers had homes furnished them
free of cost.
VII. GENERAL FEATURES OF INNER ORGANIZATION
Most of the teachers in the rural primary schools are men, while the
majority of them in the city are women. During the year 1907 there were
four thousand, one hundred and twenty-three male and one thousand, four
hundred and seven female teachers occupying regular positions in the
rural schools, and in the city their numbers were respectively eight
hundred and twenty-eight and one thousand, six hundred and six. Although
the law makes no requirements as to sex, except that in city schools
there must be at least one master and one governess, there are certain
forces operative which almost equal edicts of law. Traditionally,
teachers in the rural schools are men and, as previously stated, homes
are provided for them and their families. Appointments to teaching
positions are permanent. Teachers remain in their places until death
removes them or until they choose to retire on pension, which is, all
too often, long after they pass the time of their efficiency. It is
difficult to break with the old customs and hence the entrance of women
teachers into the rural school positions has been slow. In the cities
the conditions are different. There only a small percentage of the
teachers have homes furnished them, the number of teaching positions
without supervising responsibility is large, and the salaries paid to
women are lower than those paid to men. As a consequence the female
teachers have found easy entrance into the city schools, and at present
they outnumber the men two to one. Women have been teaching since 1869,
and the people are convinced that their ability as teachers is equal to
that of the sterner sex.
In the secondary schools, also, the majority of the instructors are men.
In the gymnasia practically all of them are men, but in the middle
schools there are many women teachers. Even though the Norwegians
recognize woman's ingenuity and efficiency in teaching small children,
they have not yet become converted to the idea that she is man's equal
in the more advanced educational fields. It seems probable that
tradition is the chief hindrance to the entrance of women into teaching
positions in the gymnasia.
In their plan of instruction there is much to commend and some things to
criticise. The teachers do a large amount of teaching, but they also
provide opportunity for the children to do a great deal on their own
initiative, so that they too may know the joy of discovery and feel the
triumph of mastery. The Norwegian pedagogue uses the recitation period,
nearly always fifty minutes, in an endeavor to impart information, both
directly and indirectly; directly by straightforward giving, and
indirectly through cooperative mental activities. While they feel the
importance of direct instruction, they see, also, the advantage in
shifting a part of the responsibility to the pupils. They recognize the
fact that the child has ability, and that by himself he is capable of
finding and recognizing problems, and of working them out to satisfying
conclusions. They appreciate that even a small child is able to carry
out many educative activities with a minimum of direction from the
teacher, and that the development which comes from this self-direction
and initiative is one of the most valuable ends of education. The intent
is that the class period shall be devoted to exercises which will
furnish information and, at the same time, make the children independent
and able to direct themselves.
Though the ideals and aims are excellent, the means for attaining them
are not the best. There is a certain inherited aloofness on the part of
the instructor which robs both teacher and pupils of some of the values
which come from closer association. During the recitation hour the
teacher nearly always occupies the high chair on the elevated platform,
except while using the blackboard or doing other demonstrational work.
My observations convince me that the teachers, especially the men, do
not get down and work among and with the children as much as seems
essential to the accomplishment of the greatest good.
Now the discipline and character of recitations also deserve attention.
When a pupil is called upon to recite, he is expected to pass to the
aisle and there stand erect until the recitation is completed. Only in
rare cases are children allowed to sit while reciting. I have seen
children only eleven or twelve years of age called to the front of the
room to analyze and develop a problem. The smallest children are
required to give only short answers to questions, but responses rapidly
increase in length, as age advances, until they amount to minute and
extended discussions of topics. Recitations lasting ten to fifteen
minutes are not uncommon, and the children become quite expert in the
relation of facts and in the development of problems presented. This
method of procedure is perhaps all right for a certain class of
children, but timid boys and girls are sometimes embarrassed to the
extent that they are unable to do credit to themselves, their teachers,
or the lessons. On one occasion I saw a boy who was so frightened in an
attempt to stand and recite, being required at the same time to look
into the face of a complaining teacher, that he was unable to say
anything whatever. The teacher, a man of advanced age, finally awoke to
the situation, and placing his hand on the boy's head, talked to him
about the lesson until he calmed the lad's fears and obtained a very
satisfactory response from him.
In addition to classroom activities connected with mental growth,
considerable work is done looking to physical development. Gymnastic
exercise is required of all children in primary and secondary schools,
excepting those in first and second grades and a few who are physically
disqualified for it. To provide for this work, the city schools furnish
large halls with excellent equipment, and special teachers to give
instruction. A Swedish system of gymnastics is in vogue throughout the
country. There seems to be no criticism against the system, and the
benefits testify emphatically to its efficiency. The apparatus is simple
and inexpensive, but the variety of movements and the numberless
combinations of them seem to answer every demand.
Certain conditions and customs prevailing in Norway make it necessary to
serve lunches at the school buildings. The morning sessions are long and
the dinner hour is far later than noon--generally two or three o'clock.
Furthermore, many children of poor parentage come to school underfed.
Opportunity to obtain a light lunch of nourishing food and a warm drink
at about 10:30 or 11 o'clock is an appreciated necessity. Hence most
buildings have lunch rooms arranged and equipped according to local
demands. Here, in the secondary schools, the family of the janitor
furnishes rolls, buns, cakes, cocoa, coffee, milk, etc., at a reasonable
rate. As stated before, the teachers have lunches served in their own
rooms. Some cities provide children in the primary schools with one meal
of wholesome food each day of school during the winter months--generally
from the middle of October until the first of May. This is free to the
needy children, and others obtain it at first cost.
In Christiania they have a central kitchen from which the city primary
schools receive supplies. This kitchen has a capacity for steam
cooking, ten thousand liters at a time. Only the best food is purchased.
This is carefully prepared and delivered every day in tightly sealed
cans to the several schools where it is served hot. The maintenance of
this kitchen is in answer to recommendations made by a committee,
appointed by the school board, after visiting various similar European
institutions and studying carefully into their operations. In equipment,
management, and good results it is not surpassed in any city in Europe
or America. In some of the schools, hundreds of free meals are dispensed
every day throughout the long winter. During the year 1908-1909, from
October 19, 1908, to April 30, 1909, (one hundred and thirty-two days),
the Christiania central kitchen furnished 616,821 free meals and 77,733
meals which were paid for by children in the schools. This work stands
as a testimonial to the beneficence of the people whose circumstances
enable them to maintain it.
The discipline of the school borders on the military order. The pupils
form in line and march in passing to and from classrooms and
playgrounds. While the work of instruction proceeds strict discipline is
maintained. Before entering a classroom where a recitation is in
progress, one invariably knocks at the door, whoever he is and whatever
his errand, and by the time he enters teacher and pupils are on their
feet. Turning to the one entering, they bow and continue to face him
until he is seated, which is a signal to them to sit. Should the visitor
withdraw before the class is dismissed, the pupils again rise to their
feet and bow him out; but, if he remains until they are dismissed, they
bow to him before taking their departure. Every activity indoors and out
of doors is closely supervised, and the control exercised over the
pupils is praiseworthy.
Attendance at school is regular in all grades. When children are absent
for any reason the case is inquired into without delay, and, unless
satisfactory excuse or explanation is forthcoming, the truant officers
are on hand to enforce regulations. Failure to comply with the laws
regarding absence from school, subjects parents or guardians of children
to a fine of from one to twenty-five crowns.[18] Very rarely is an
enforcement of these laws necessary, for the people are generally
law-abiding and peace-loving. Being eager for development, they gladly
comply with educational provisions without any compulsion, and
regularity in attendance is the universal practice. Sickness is perhaps
the most common excuse given for absence and, since excellent health is
characteristic of the people, this is infrequent.
Pupils are nearly always healthy, vigorous, and robust. One of the chief
points calling attention to this is the rarity of cases where glasses
are worn. In visiting schools I noticed that spectacled children were
very few. I was at first inclined to criticise what I interpreted to be
neglect of the eyes, but soon found that eyesight, as well as the
general health of the children, was being carefully guarded. Every
school has its physician whose duty it is to regulate sanitation and to
remedy physical defects of children. I ascertained that in some schools
special examinations had been conducted for the testing of eyesight, and
results showed that very few of the pupils were under the necessity of
wearing glasses. Among the causes contributing to this favorable
situation may be mentioned a healthful climate, regular drill in
gymnastics, proper lighting of school rooms, good ventilation, physical
exercise in the open between successive classes, and, in general, the
maintenance of a high state of physical vigor. The Norse take
justifiable pride in their physical development, and they pay
considerable attention to this phase of education. Consequently the
children are able to attack the strenuous activities of school life with
vim, and mastery of the course of study is not a hardship.
Chapter II
TEACHERS
I. QUALIFICATIONS AND CERTIFICATION
Teaching is a profession in Norway. Those following it have chosen it as
their life work. The people thus engaged deserve and receive the
recognition, confidence, and esteem of the masses, and they maintain the
dignity of their calling. As a class they rank high educationally,
morally, and professionally. With the advance in social ideals it has
been necessary to raise the standards of preparation for teaching, and,
as the years pass, further changes will be required. For a long time,
professional training has been demanded of every appointee to a teaching
position, and indications point to a rapid development of the quality of
this training until every resource is operative.
The law requires that to be eligible for appointment to a regular
teaching position in the secondary schools (middle school and
gymnasium), one must have had a course in the university and special
training provided in the pedagogical seminary. This means that the
candidate has completed: (1) the twelve years of work in the primary and
secondary schools, where a wide range of instruction and general
culture are provided; (2) a course in the university (four to seven
years in length), devoted to exhaustive research in the particular
branches of study which are subsequently to be taught; and (3) the
course of training given in the pedagogical seminary.
It is the aim and function of this seminary to provide for the
university graduates who are to become teachers the most practical and
complete professional training possible within the limits of time (six
months). It is readily evident that excellence in educational equipment
and intelligent insight into the business of teaching are among the
accomplishments of the profession. In fact, mastery of the field to be
taught and professional training in its presentation are requisites.
The certificates or diplomas issued upon completion of the preparatory
work just outlined are the only credentials required of the Norwegian
teachers. Being issued by the state they have a standard of value which
is uniform, recognized, and honored throughout the realm. Without these
papers it would be folly to seek appointment to a fixed (permanent)
post.
Besides the regular corps of instructors occupying on full time in the
general lines of instruction, there are many special teachers devoting
their energies along particular lines of work, such as home economics,
drawing, music, gymnastics, and manual training; and still others who
teach some of the regular branches of study only part time, whose
positions are not permanent. Special preparation is required in order to
obtain positions in these specific lines of work.
II. TRAINING OF TEACHERS
Norway early recognized the value of specific training for the work of
the teacher. The experiences of other nations served as object lessons
illustrating the good coming from the services of properly equipped
teachers and the dangers of proceeding without such. The state was eager
to lay substantial foundations, to conserve and develop every resource,
to build permanently and economically, and to profit by the experiences
of other systems. Consequently, the people moved forward in a
conservative manner and planned for the future as well as for immediate
needs.
Utilizing the strong points of other systems and adapting them to local
conditions, the state established six teachers' seminaries, locating one
in each of the six dioceses into which the country is divided, so that
they would be within easy access of the people attending them. Besides
these state seminaries, four private institutions, having almost
identical functions, have been established and are flourishing. The
private seminaries are located at vantage points not too close to the
State Schools yet where they will be within reach of a large number of
people. The favorable location of these schools makes it possible for a
large number of the attendants to live in their own homes, while the
large majority need be but a short distance from their homes.
The work of the teachers' seminaries is, of course, to provide special
preparation for teaching in the schools throughout the nation. Their
curricula are similar to those used in the secondary schools. The chief
point of difference between them is the attitude taken toward the
subjects of instruction. In the secondary schools the aim is general and
in a large measure cultural, while in the seminaries the attempt is
always to present the lesson or subjects of instruction in such a manner
that the pupils shall get both intellectual development and the correct
method of presentation. It is the intent that this experience shall help
to qualify for the successful teaching of the subjects studied. The work
corresponds closely with that done in the normal schools of America or
similar teachers' schools in other lands.
It is everywhere true that teachers teach as they have been taught. The
principle of imitation is illustrated clearly every day in every school
room. Teachers, like pupils, follow example more closely than precept.
Providing schools designed to fit people for the teaching profession
have ideal teachers, they will be able to turn out from year to year
groups of teachers, who, imitating their masters, both in the
application of scientific principles of method and in the exercise of
individuality, will in turn become ideal teachers. If the curriculum and
teaching of the training college are rich and varied, its products will
be characterized by efficiency and resourcefulness. On the contrary,
should the work of the school be narrow because of a cramped curriculum,
or on account of biased and shrunken ideals of the faculty, the results
will be unsatisfactory. The teachers who go out from such an institution
will be unequal to the tasks awaiting them--they will be unable to meet
the situation in the educational field.
Since it is a chief occupation of the training school to instill methods
of presentation, there is great danger of becoming mechanical,
machine-made, or stilted in one way or another. Quite the opposite must
be the nature and work of the teacher. The teacher should be able to
come down from the high platform and cooperate with the children; to
find the individual child and his interests and, in a genuinely
sympathetic spirit, to direct those interests; to discard set rules,
hard and fast lines, and pet theories; and to open up to each child a
vision of the fields before. In order to do these things the instructor
must be thoroughly familiar with child life: its nature, mental and
physical make-up, processes of development, conditions of growth and
activity, instincts, and hopes. He must also cherish and manifest a
sympathetic attitude towards youthful tendencies and aspirations, and be
able to inspire the pupils to noble purposes.
The seminaries of Norway, like those of other nations, fall short of
some of the conditions of excellence that we yearn for. They do not
include a sufficient amount of professional training nor is that which
is provided always the ideal type. Nevertheless, an earnest effort is
being put forth to approach these higher conditions as rapidly as
possible. The course of three years, besides furnishing a valuable fund
of instruction, provides a large amount of work in observation and
extensive experience in teaching. The training in observation generally
consists of work in connection with the state schools (primary and
secondary) in the immediate vicinity of the seminary. Into these state
schools the seminary pupils are permitted to go and observe the teaching
of the regularly employed instructors as they present the different
subjects in the curriculum. After having observed teaching for some time
and having carefully discussed class room procedure with their own
teachers, they are required to specially prepare and present some
lessons under the close, yet sympathetic scrutiny and supervision of
their masters. As time passes, more and more of this practice teaching
is assigned until proficiency is attained in the presentation of
subjects to be taught in subsequent years. While these schools do not
incorporate into their activities all things that seem important, it
must be said to their credit that they have done a great service in
qualifying teachers for the class of instruction which has already
raised the masses to their present place of literary distinction.
Besides the institutions providing teachers' training above referred to,
there was established in 1907 the Pedagogical seminary. This seminary is
affiliated with the university in Christiania but is not an organic part
of it. It was founded by act of the Stortbing and is supported by the
state. The function of the Pedagogical Seminary is to provide
professional training of an especially practical type for graduates of
the university who intend to make teaching their profession. The length
of the course is six months. Instruction and training provided in this
institution includes: (1) lectures in hygiene, psychology, history of
education, and principles of education; (2) observation of class
instruction by masters, whose teaching is the highest representation of
the art in the city; (3) discussions, formal and informal, general and
analytic, with the headmaster of the seminary concerning methods of
instruction, class conduct, and school management; and (4) practice
teaching under the supervision of masters whose criticisms are given in
such frank and sympathetic manner as to make them invaluable.
As a rule, those trained in the teachers' seminaries are employed in the
primary schools. The students who avail themselves of the advantages of
a university education and follow it by the training provided in the
Pedagogical Seminary generally become teachers in the secondary schools.
The seminary training in general is of such character that it may be put
into use immediately upon entrance into the work of teaching. It also
renders vital and usable for purposes of instruction the information and
intellectual development gained during the long-continued and intensive
schooling preceding such training.
III. TEACHERS' OFFICIAL TITLES
Throughout the school system of Norway teachers are given titles
according to the nature of the positions occupied. In the primary school
the man who does the supervising work (in America known as
superintendent) is called the _Inspektor_; the head teacher or principal
is termed the _Overlaerer_; and the other teachers, male and female, are
spoken of respectively as _Laerer_ and _Laererinde_. In the middle
school and gymnasium the titles are _Rektor_, _Overlaerer_, and
_Adjunkt_. The _Rektor_ has the supervisory work and some teaching to
do; the _Overlaerer_ is one of the principal teachers who has been given
the title and ranking, chiefly because of fitness and long service; and
the _Adjunkt_ is a regular teacher who has served the school for five
years or more and has received permanent appointment.
Titles do not correspond strictly to educational equipment nor do they
depend wholly upon term of service, though both of these may be and
generally are contributory factors. For example: positions in the middle
schools and gymnasia are open only to those who have certain educational
fitness; the teachers with especially strong qualifications and superior
ability are the ones most liable to receive early promotion to the
higher class positions; and, when promotions are made, the persons who
have taught for a long time enjoy some advantage over those with but
slight experience. Titles correspond more definitely to classes of
positions occupied than to any other thing that can be named. When an
individual is appointed to a position carrying a title, that designation
is invariably used in connection with his name. He is no longer John
Johnson or Herr Johnson, but _Rektor_ Johnson, _Overlaerer_ Johnson,
_Inspektor_ Johnson, etc.
IV. TEACHERS' TENURE OF OFFICE
The teacher's tenure of office in Norway is very different from what we
are accustomed to in America. Positions are of two kinds--permanent and
temporary. Nearly all appointments in the past have been to permanent
posts. This means that the individual occupies his place without
molestation or any hint of insecurity until he chooses to resign or
until he reaches the age of retirement.[19] Some appointments now are to
temporary positions though generally they lead to permanent ones.
Rarely, if ever, does a person who makes reasonable success in a
temporary position fail to secure an appointment to a permanent post.
Permanency in position has a number of well-recognized advantages.
Security of situation gives to the teacher a release from the
uncertainty which constantly harasses the minds of so many where
frequent change of position is the rule. A lasting appointment enables
one to get a firm grasp on the local situation, and to utilize without
waste all the momentum accumulated while occupying in a particular
place. Furthermore, the teacher who feels settled in a position is able
to establish a home, and to become identified with the community and its
interest.
Since teachers continue for so long a time in a position, they and their
pupils become as well acquainted with each other as with members of a
common family. It is interesting to note how minutely a teacher knows
the daily life and habits of his pupils. While the relations are not
always the most congenial, they are known to be practically inevitable
and impossible of escape so they each make the best of the situation and
get the most out of it.
Again, when children know that it will be their lot to come under the
tuition of a certain instructor who occupies a permanent post under
state appointment, they work faithfully and usually eliminate any
criticising attitude. In fact, long terms of service tend to inhibit the
criticisms of both children and parents which sometimes attend teachers
who occupy positions but for a short time. The situation conduces to a
condition of harmony and cooperative activity. The children
instinctively feel the authority of the teacher. They know that he has
the support of local and state authorities, and that they will cooperate
with him in carrying forward his projects. The teacher, in turn,
recognizes his responsibilities in the premises and endeavors to occupy
acceptably.
Now it is just as true that there are some disadvantages to permanency
of positions. Teachers are apt to become non-progressive and in some
cases, little more than fixtures. Change of environment stimulates
progress and development. Variety in teaching experience broadens the
capabilities and increases the usefulness of teachers. In addition,
children need the touch and influence of many lives. They receive
greater inspiration because of coming in contact with the personality of
a large number of teachers. However, too frequent change is wasteful. It
dissipates the energy of teachers and breaks the continuity of the work
of the children. Where the permanency of positions is absolutely
uncertain, the teaching profession is transitory and dwindling. Only a
few remain for long time in the work under such conditions. Many
efficient school men leave the profession annually because of this
discouragement.
At present, the feeling appears to be general that permanency in
position should be conditioned upon improvement in efficiency. Evidently
a recognition of this principle is a basic cause underlying the increase
in number of appointments to temporary teaching positions. This
procedure affords an excellent opportunity for weeding out the unfit. At
the same time it acts as a spur inducing growth and development.
Progressive tendencies, along with other qualifications, are regarded
necessary to appointment even to temporary posts, and, as implied
before, success in such positions is a prerequisite to appointment to
permanent ones.
In America, teacher's tenure of office is very short. Each year there
are many changes in the personnel of teachers throughout the country.
Here we have the extreme of uncertainty, while in Norway they go to the
limits of certainty in teaching positions. Both these extremes are
unfortunate. Could a golden mean be reached which would include proper
incentives to and recognition of continuous self-improvement and a
reasonable sense of security in permanent occupation, the profession
would call into its ranks a large and more efficient body of men and
women, and the schools would make greater and more substantial progress.
In order to illustrate the permanency of positions in Norway Table VI
has been arranged.
TABLE VI
Table indicating Retirement from Teaching Staff and Reasons for
Retirement.
Year | 1890 1895 1900 1905
Sex | Male Female| Male Female |Male Female| Male Female
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total number of | | | |
positions | 3941 1187| 4402 2116| 4670 2613| 4865 2885
Total number leaving | 117 17| 88 22| 106 89| 110 90
Vacated after a period | | | |
of service from | | | |
1 to 10 years | 19 11| 21 13| 24 65| 20 53
10 to 20 years | 26 4| 10 7| 10 13| 19 19
20 to 30 years | 38 1| 18 | 16 5| 13 10
Over 30 years | 34 1| 39 2| 56 6| 58 8
Reasons for leaving | | | |
Death | 30 1| 24 2| 30 6| 32 11
Retirement on pension| 39 3| 48 3| 53 21| 59 22
Change in position | 9 | | 3 2| 4 4
Marriage | 9| 11| 47| 48
Various others | 39 4| 16 6| 20 13| 15 5
It is immediately apparent that the changes in the body of teachers are
rare. It is also evident that nearly all who leave the profession do so
on legitimate grounds. A few changes result from transfers in position,
a large per cent of withdrawals are retirements after extended periods
of service, and many vacancies are due to death. Fifty per cent or more
of the women who retire do so on account of marrying, a few die at their
posts, and many retire on pensions. Very few of the women teachers
retire to enter other lines of work. While the table does not indicate
how much longer than thirty years some teachers remain in the service,
it may be added here that examples are not rare where individuals
continue teaching for more than half a century. In most cases teachers
occupy the same position throughout their teaching experience.
V. TEACHERS' SALARIES
The salaries received by teachers do not average high in Norway. Many
provisions are made, however, for the reduction of their living
expenses. All those who serve the school authorities in Norway receive
certain benefits appertaining to the positions they hold. For example:
There is advance in salaries on promotions and after specified periods
of service; teachers are exempt from expense incident to particular
offices; school authorities send all official communications through the
mail free of postage; teachers receive pensions on retirement from
positions; the rural school teachers frequently receive, in addition to
their salary, a house to live in and sufficient land for the pasturage
of two or three cows, and in towns and cities some of the teachers have
homes provided, or are allowed a certain amount per year for living
expenses. These and similar concessions and provisions are extended to
the teachers according to enactments of the state, individual communes,
or municipalities. Generally, a regular schedule is made out by which
salaries are governed. Table VII indicates the salaries for different
positions in eight cities of Norway:
The table is made up from the salary schedules of typical cities of
various sizes. The values are in _kroner_ (one _krone_ is practically
the equivalent of twenty-seven cents in United States money). We note
that salaries are medium in the beginning, and that they increase at
regular intervals until certain limits are reached. When we consider
these limiting salaries, the long service generally rendered at the
highest rate, certainty of position, and the pension to be received upon
retirement, we are prone to admit that the advantages are not altogether
in favor of the higher salaries paid in our American schools. True, the
American teacher generally receives larger returns in dollars and cents,
but the Norwegian pedagogue is less mercenary than his American cousin.
He is satisfied when his wants and those of his family are liberally
provided for. His life is not strenuous. It is happy and filled with the
joys of service and the companionship of youthful souls. Anxieties are
in large measure overcome by the assurance that the state will provide
necessities when the time for retirement comes. Pensions are graduated
according to individual necessity as well as with reference to position,
term of service, and salary at the time of retirement.
TABLE VII
Schedule of Salaries paid to Teachers in the Primary Schools of eight
cities in Norway.[20]
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Salary After (in Kr.)
----------------------------------
Begin'ng 3 5 6 9 10 12 15
City Position Salary yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Christiania Overlaerer 3000 3400 3700 4000
Laerer, h.g. 3000
Laerer, l.g. 1600 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000
Laererinde, h.g. 1700
Laererinde, l.g. 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1700
2. Fredrikshald Laerer, h.g. 2200
Laerer, l.g. 1300 1450 1650 1750 1900 2000
Laererinde, h.g. 1250
Laererinde, l.g. 950 1000 1050 1100 1150
3. Sarpsborg Laerer, h.g. 1800 2000
Laerer, l.g. 1200 1400 1600 1700 1800
Laererinde, h.g. 1150 1250
Laererinde, l.g. 900 975 1050 1150
4. Fredrikstad Laerer, h.g. 2100
Laerer, l.g. 1400 1550 1700 1850 2000 2100
Laererinde, h.g. 1200
Laererinde, l.g. 1000 1100 1200
5. Drammen Overlaerer 2600
Laerer, h.g. 2300 2400
Laerer, lg. 1400 1600 1800 2000 2100 2300
Laererinde, h.g. 1300 1400
Laererinde, l.g. 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
6. Horten Laerer, h.g. 2000 2200
Laerer, l.g. 1300 1500 1700 1850 2000
Laererinde, h.g. 1100 1200
Laererinde, l.g. 900 950 1000 1050 1100
7. Tonsberg Overlaerer 2500 2650 2800
Laerer, h.g. 2400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
Laerer, l.g. 1400
Laererinde, h.g. 1300
Laererinde, l.g. 900 980 1060 1140 1220 1300
8. Kongsberg Laerer, h.g. 1800
Laerer, l.g. 1300 1450 1600 1700 1800
Laererinde, h.g. 1100
Laererinde, l.g. 700 800 900 1000 1100
Chapter III
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS
I. INTRODUCTORY--RISE, DEVELOPMENT, AND PRESENT FORM OF THE CURRICULUM
We come now to a consideration of the course of study in the school
system as it has evolved and is now operative. As was true throughout
other parts of Europe, so in Norway, education during the middle ages
issued almost exclusively from the cloister and cathedral schools
(_Dom-og Kathedral Skoler_), and in them are found the germs of most
modern courses of study. Inasmuch as the successive steps in the
evolution of the recent schools of Europe from the earlier forms vary
but little in the several countries, and since the subject is already
familiar to nearly all students of education, we omit any technical
discussion of that interesting feature of history, and refer the reader
to any of the several works treating it fully. Suffice it to say, the
aim of the church in maintaining these earlier schools centered in the
development of a qualified clergy about whom should be gathered a loyal
following, well-trained in the dogmas, doctrines, and traditions of the
organization.
At this time the monk and a small company of disciples constituted the
school. The little group studied together from day to day in and about
the cloister or cathedral. Among them, very naturally, certain new
thoughts and ideals sprung up. The masters saw the new developments if
they were not themselves parties to them. As the newer thoughts became
fixed in the youthful minds, individual interests pressed harder and
harder still until provision was made for extending the work of
instruction as well as for widening the scope of activities within the
schools. While the aim was at first to give instruction and discipline
in lines necessary to a clerical career, it changed by degrees until it
included branches useful in legitimate occupations other than that of
the clergy. However, the diversifying of school activities and the
enrichment of the program of study did not keep pace with the changes
that were taking place in other phases of the social cosmos. A spirit of
unrest grew to proportions almost ungovernable until the middle age
renaissance in learning removed the fetters and brought relief by
effecting systems of education very fitting to the requirements. Great
credit is due to the leaders in the Reformation for the part they played
in placing means for instruction and education upon a more secure and
permanent basis, and for the service they rendered in giving to the
schools certain vitality that had rarely, if ever, been characteristic
of any similar institution.
The new type of school bore a stamp of general approval which enabled it
to gain a momentum which was not soon to be overcome. In fact, the
schools of all the more civilized countries are still largely dominated
by traditions dating back to the epoch-making works of such men as
Erasmus, Luther, Melanchthon, and Sturm.
Now the ideas of these famous educators were less subjected to change in
Norway than in the centers from whence they came. Until the union
between this country and Denmark came to an end in 1814, very little
thought was given to advancing educational interests in Norway. The work
of her cathedral schools had been little improved during the centuries
that had passed since their establishment. When at last Norway became a
free constitutional state and these Norsemen breathed the air of
freedom, felt the exhilaration of greater personal liberties, realized
that their destiny was to be of their own making, and fully sensed their
important responsibilities in the situation, they all, ecclesiasts and
politicians, capitalists and laborers, combined in developing their
schools in ways calculated to lift the masses to higher intellectual
planes. The changes wrought were in relation to what was to be taught
and to the extension of learning. An opportunity for instruction was
given to every youth in the land.
For a long time the ancient languages formed the bulk of higher
learning, while in the primary schools only the rudiments of a few
subjects were attempted. Social tendencies soon required an increase in
the number of branches to be taught, and also laid added weight upon the
importance of such study as would be of benefit in vocational
activities. Accordingly, mathematics, history, geography, and nature
study became more prominent features in all schools. One of the best
characteristics of the work throughout is that the mother-tongue has
been at all times a dominating factor through every grade of their
schools. Later in the process a demand for the modern foreign languages
was responded to favorably and they took places in the curriculum of the
higher school. These changes bring us down through the last century to
the recent forms in courses of study and we shall introduce the reader
immediately into the present situation.
Besides the institutions for higher learning there are now three
distinct sections in the school system of Norway, viz.: Primary School,
Middle School, and Gymnasium. The primary school is designed to provide
education of an elementary type for every citizen of the country. By
vital cooperation and the exercise of great care in organization,
distribution, supervision, and inspection of these schools, the people
have overcome illiteracy and have reduced truancy to a minimum--almost
to a negligible factor. They are unitedly converted to the belief that
an enlightened populace is a necessity to the continuity of desirable
institutions, to the development of resources, and to the maintenance of
worthy traditions. To secure for all the essentials of good and
intelligent citizenship, an attempt has been made to have the curriculum
for the primary schools include the branches of study which have meaning
in every walk of life, and which enhance the efficiency of each citizen
in his individual activities. In short, it is the intent that all the
people shall have the more abundant life which comes with a thorough,
general, elementary education; and, at the same time, that they shall
be prepared for the higher schools which build on the broad foundation
of the common school.
Following the primary schools are the middle schools which lead still
farther in the pathway of intellectual development those whose situation
in life enables them to proceed with school work. Besides carrying
forward the lines of study begun in the lower school with added vigor
and exactitude, they include a large amount of work in foreign modern
languages. Thus we see that this second section in the great institution
of learning fills in the elementary framework, enriches the fund of
information, adds a considerable amount of culture, and paves the way
for the more liberal training to follow in the next section.
The Gymnasium succeeds and builds directly upon the work of the middle
school. Its function is to provide a liberal culture and education
suited to the needs and desires of those who become in large part the
leaders in all phases of political, professional, or other social
careers.
Thus we note that the succeeding steps taken in the educational ladder
are in harmony with and dependent upon preceding work. While only a
correspondingly small number pass to the summit, all the people enjoy
the advantages of the broad fundamentals and generalizations which lie
at the base of their educational system and equip very well for the
common walks and vocations of life. In our discussion we shall separate
the work of the three sections and consider them one at a time. It seems
advisable to handle them in this way, and we believe that a more
adequate conception of the work as a whole will be obtained by offering
first the part affecting all the people and dealing with the primary
schools.
II. THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS
The primary schools are of two kinds,--those specially designed for the
rural sections of the country and others provided for the towns and
cities, the latter being somewhat richer in curricula, more complete in
organization, and more thorough in operation than the former.
Considering the fact that such uniformity characterizes the courses of
study in the various schools, it will be necessary to present but one
outline for each class of schools. An effort has been made to select
courses that are representative and which clearly set forth typical
conditions. Table VIII gives the program of work offered in one of the
rural communes, and shows the number of hours per week devoted to each
branch of study for the seven years in the course. Just after the
legislative act of 1889, the Department sent out a "normal plan" which
served as a guide in arranging the time-tables for rural municipalities.
As a result great uniformity exists.
TABLE VIII
Table Showing the Number of Hours per Week for Each Branch of
Instruction in the Course of Study in Fredrikvaern Commune.[21]
Year I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Total
Religion 7 7 5 6 6 6 6 43
Norwegian 10 8 8 8 8 6 6 54
Mathematics 6 5 4 6 4 6 6 37
Geography 2 2 3 3 3 13
History 2 2 3 3 3 13
Nature Study 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 14
Writing 5 5 4 4 2 2 2 24
Drawing 1 2 2 2 2 9
Vocal Music 2 1 2 2 2 2 11
Manual Training 2 2 4 6 6 20
Gymnastics 2 2 2 2 8
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- ---
Total 30 30 30 38 38 40 40 246
The program just above is normal and typical in every respect. The
schools are very uniform in their work and, as previously stated, no
further tables are necessary in order to give a concise idea of the work
generally presented in the rural districts of the entire country.
The second program selected is the one used in the primary schools of
Christiania.[22] The schools of this city are among the best and are
taken as models for a number in other cities and towns.
TABLE IX
Course of study showing weekly hours in Christiania Primary Schools.
Division First Second Third
Year I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Total
Sex[A] B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Religion 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 24 22
Norwegian 12 11 10 8 8 7 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 50 44
Mathematics 5 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 26 23
Geography 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 8
History 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 8 8
Nature Study 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 7 7
Writing 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 14
Drawing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 6
Vocal Music 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5
Manual Training 2 4 4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 6 26
Gymnastics 2-2 0 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 9 5
Total 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 168 168
[Note: Year 1910-1911.]
[Note A: _B_ refers to boys, _G_ to girls.]
The comparative table on page 106 clearly evidences the similarities
already referred to and, at the same time, serves to indicate all
variations. However, in the making of comparisons, difference in the
number and distribution of hours is more a matter of method or
correlation between branches than an indication of actual difference in
accomplishment. For example, a large number of hours for writing _may_
mean exclusively work in practice writing, but it is very probable that
it will include a considerable amount of work in the mother-tongue or a
definite correlation with nature study, history, or religion. The
fundamental standard by which work is judged or measured is whether it
prepares the pupil fully for work in the middle school.
TABLE X
Comparative table of Courses of Study in ten cities.
Religion
| Norwegian
| | Mathematics
| | | Geography
| | | | History
| | | | | Nature Study
| | | | | | Writing
| | | | | | | Drawing
| | | | | | | | Vocal Music
| | | | | | | | | Manual Training
| | | | | | | | | | Gymnastics
| | | | | | | | | | | |Total
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
City Sex(A) B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Christiania 24 22 50 44 26 23 9 8 8 8 7 7 16 14 8 6 5 5 6 26 9 5 168 168
Bergen 21 21 55 53 29 28 8 8 9 9 8 7 10 8 9 8 5 5 8 24 10 7 172 178
Trondhjem 23 22 57 51 31 27 12 11 11 11 8 8 18 15 7 4 4 5 8 29 9 7 188 190
Stavanger 22 22 63 57 30 30 8 8 11 11 7 7 12 10 4 4 5 5 10 23 8 5 180 182
Drammen 24 24 52 47 29 25 8 8 8 8 6 5 17 13 5 3 5 5 6 25 8 5 168 168
Kristiansand 22 22 49 49 25 25 10 10 11 11 8 7 13 13 5 5 5 5 6 8 8 6 162 161
Aalesund 27 27 46 44 26 22 6 6 11 11 6 5 16 15 4 3 5 5 6 21 9 5 162 164
Fredrikshald 21 22 52 44 25 23 10 9 9 7 5 6 14 11 5 6 6 6 8 24 7 4 162 162
Skien 21 21 47 44 25 24 10 8 9 8 7 5 16 14 4 4 5 5 10 24 8 5 162 162
Kristiansund 24 24 50 47 27 26 8 8 9 8 8 7 18 15 3 3 5 5 6 20 10 5 168 168
[Note A: _B_ refers to boys, _G_ to girls.]
RELIGION READING RECKONING RITING
The four R's in Norway's educational system form the center of their
educational endeavors. Only a superficial glance at the tables presented
is necessary in order to notice their prominence throughout the course
of study. While the amount of time devoted to them is in itself a
sufficiently strong indication of their predominance, we must also carry
in mind an allowance for closest possible correlation between them as
constant and additional factors along the same line. Bearing these
things in mind we enter at once upon the discussion of the course of
study or school plan. Though the programs presented and digest of plans
following or accompanying are taken from particular schools, the
discussion throughout will be general unless otherwise specified. For
varied reasons, but chiefly because they are typical, specific, and
concrete, the courses of study used in Christiania--primary and
secondary--are chosen as illustrations. The following is not a verbatim
translation of Christiania's plan of instruction but an abbreviated
statement of the work as outlined in their published school plan
(_Skoleplan_). I have endeavored to select the more vital points
throughout and to represent them as exactly as a condensed version
renders possible. Where inaccuracies or omissions occur they are due to
a demand for economy--the things omitted not being regarded as absolute
essentials to a correct representation of the intent and spirit of the
work as carried on.
OUTLINE OF SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION
_Religion_
_Aim._ The aims of instruction in religion are to develop the religious
instincts of the children and to instill in them a recognition of
Christianity, out of which may grow a healthy Christian life and a clear
conception of the church.
To attain these, an effort is made to impart the following fund of
information:
Definite acquaintance with the more important parts of Bible history,
with the chief events in church history, and with the catechism
according to the Evangelical Lutheran creed.
_First Division_
_Class I._ (Six half hour periods weekly.) Instruction during the
beginning weeks consists in simple stories, songs, hymns, prayers, and
conversations designed to impart a knowledge of Christianity, ethics,
and morals; to effect definite connections with previous home training;
and to awaken and develop religious and moral attitudes in the children
preparatory to the more direct instruction to follow.
The real instruction in Christianity or religion begins with Bible
stories selected from the Old and New Testaments and specially adapted
to the understanding of the children and their ability to master the
same. The following stories are among the ones used: The Story of
Joseph, Samuel and Hannah, David and Goliath, The Birth of Jesus, The
Three Wise Men, Jesus in the Temple, Jesus Feeding the Five Thousand,
Jesus Raising the Widow's Son, Jesus Blessing the Children, Jesus
Teaching the Disciples How to Pray. The stories are presented orally and
explained and elucidated in such a way that the children may receive
clear and vivid pictures of the persons and events referred to,
appreciate their connections with the Holy Scriptures, and be able to
rehearse the narratives in an intelligent manner. Whenever possible the
religious or moral content of the conversation should be brought to a
climax in a simple passage of Scripture, a response from the catechism,
or a verse of some hymn, which should be memorized.
_Class II._ (Six half hour periods weekly.) Bible stories from Old and
New Testaments taken mainly from the time of the patriarchs and Moses.
Among them are the following:
_From Old Testament_: The Creation and Eden, The Fall, Cain and Abel,
The Flood, The Call of Abraham, Abraham and Lot, The Birth and Offering
of Isaac, The Marriage of Isaac, Esau and Jacob, Isaac Blessing His
Sons, Jacob's Flight, The Birth and Rearing of Moses, The Call of Moses,
Moses Before Pharaoh, The Exodus from Egypt.
_From New Testament_: The Birth of Jesus, Jesus' Entry into Jerusalem,
Jesus Suffering in the Garden of Gethsemane, Jesus' Death on the Cross,
The Burial of Jesus, The Resurrection of Jesus, The Outpouring of the
Holy Ghost. Instruction is exclusively oral. Historical references are
disregarded. Historical situations are frequently clarified by
references to the history of civilization and geography. New phases of
God's dealings with men and their attitudes toward Him are singled out
and presented for consideration. Passages of Scripture and others from
the catechism or hymns are treated in connection with the Bible stories
as they are told.
_Class III._ (Six half hour periods weekly.) Biblical history up to and
including the time of Solomon, characteristic stories from the prophetic
period, and selections of Scripture from the New Testament designated
officially for study in reference to certain church holidays. Among the
topics included we find: The Tower of Babel, God's Covenant with
Abraham, The Visit of the Three Men, The Lord Visits Sodom and Gomorrah,
Jacob Serving Laban, Jacob's Return, The Travel to Sinai, The Giving of
the Law, The Unfaithfulness of the People, The Travels from Sinai to
Jordan, The Death of Moses, Joshua Leading the People into Canaan,
Gideon, Ruth, Samuel, Saul Becomes King, Saul Rejected, God Chooses
David to be King, David and Jonathan, Saul Pursuing David, The Death of
Saul, David Chosen to be King by the People, The Fall and Restitution of
David, Absalom, The Last Days of David's Life, Solomon, Elias, Jonah,
Daniel. The matter covered in Classes I and II is again taken up, to
which the above is added in historical connection. To this material
Biblical geography and cultural history are added as needed, while
hymns, passages of Scripture, or selections from the catechism are
continually used. Through constant reviews the moral and religious
contents from the various sources are connected into successive groups,
each group centering around the life of some prominent Biblical
character. Instruction is chiefly oral, though some reading from text is
a privilege which may be indulged in as an aid. A certain amount of
catechismal work may be assigned as home lessons.
_Second Division_
_Class IV._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) New Testament
history centering in the stories of Jesus' childhood, His miracles, and
His easier parables. New stories taken up: The Birth of John the Baptist
Foretold, The Birth of Jesus Foretold, The Birth of John the Baptist,
Jesus Presented in the Temple, The Flight into Egypt, Appearance of John
the Baptist, The Baptism of Jesus, Jesus is Tempted, The First Disciples
Come to Jesus, The Marriage in Cana, Jesus Visits Nazareth, Jesus
Choosing the Twelve Apostles, Jesus Heals the Centurion's Servant, The
Death of John the Baptist, Jesus Healing the Palsied, Jesus Raising
Jairus' Daughter, The Woman of Canaan, Parable of the Unmerciful
Servant, The Good Samaritan, Jesus at the House of Martha and Mary,
Parables of the Lost Sheep and the Lost Coin, Parable of the Prodigal
Son, Dives and Lazarus, Healing of the Ten Lepers, Parable of the
Publican and Pharisee, Parable of the Marriage of the King's Son,
Easter, Pentecost. The extent to which details of stories, Biblical
geography, cultural history, and passages of Scripture or catechism are
included is governed by the maturity and education of the children. In
this class considerable attention is given to the reading of hymns and
New Testament Scriptures from the four Gospels (elucidating obscure
passages and difficult sentences), to connections between Bible stories
and history, and to chronological sequence.
_Class V._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) Continued
instruction in New Testament history, especially the parables of Jesus
and the story of his passion and resurrection. To this is added the
account of the founding of the first Christian church and its spread by
the efforts of the chief apostles. The work includes the following new
stories: Jesus and Nichodemus, Jesus and the Samaritan Woman, Jesus
Commences to Speak in Parables, The Transfiguration of Jesus, Peter's
Confession, The Man Born Blind, Jesus the Good Shepherd, The Raising of
Lazarus, Jesus in the House of Zacchaeus, Jesus in Bethany, Parable of
the Labourers in the Vineyard, Parable of the Ten Virgins, Washing of
Feet, The Lord's Supper, Jesus in Gethsemane, Jesus Before the High
Priest and the Sanhedrin, Jesus Before Pilate and Herod, Crucifixion of
Jesus, Christ's Burial, The Resurrection, Jesus Appears to the Two
Disciples on the Way to Emmaus, He Appears to the Disciples in
Jerusalem, He Appears at the Sea of Tiberias, The Great Commission to
the Disciples, His Ascension, The Outpouring of the Holy Ghost on
Pentecost, The First Miracle and First Persecution, Stephen, The
Ethiopian Eunuch, Saul, Cornelius, Paul Preaching the Gospel to the
Gentiles.
Bible reading, the catechism, Bible history, and hymns are studied as in
former classes, but more intensively. Besides the catechism, passages of
Scripture, containing great Christian and moral truths are to be
impressed and memorized verbatim. Continuous reviews through the years
enable the children to connect several stories into groups, and to
acquire complete information regarding the life and work of Christ. A
small instruction book is used. First part and Article I of the second
part are studied.
_Third Division_
_Class VI._ (Four hours weekly.) Bible history and Old Testament taken
up simultaneously--Bible reading and ecclesiastical history alternating.
A deeper knowledge of sacred history is sought. Striking illustrations
of God's plan of salvation operating among the Jews are given, designed
to enable the children to appreciate the redemptive meaning of Old
Testament history. Emphasis is placed on the period just preceding the
time of Christ. New stories introduced: The Division of the Kingdom,
Elisha, The Downfall of the Kingdom of Israel, Isaiah, Jeremiah, The
Fall of the Kingdom of Judah, The Jews under Babylonian Captivity, Their
Return from Captivity, The Last Four Hundred Years.
Familiarity with Old Testament Scriptures and history, Biblical
geography, and cultural history is to be gained. Articles II and III of
the second part, and the third, fourth, and fifth parts of the
instruction book are taken up.
_Class VII._ (Three hours weekly.) One Gospel--Matthew--is read
connectedly and followed by a treatment of selected parts from the Acts
of the Apostles in connection with the work of Biblical history in the
fourth and fifth grades. All materials previously gathered from the
various sources are again taken up, applied, and centered.
Narratives relating to important periods of the church. Among them:--The
Persecutions (under Nero, Polycarpus), The Victory of Christianity
(Constantine), The Christian Ceremonies, Augustine, Hermits and Monks,
The Spread of Christianity, The Popes, The Crusades, The Preparation for
the Reformation, The Lutheran Reformation (Luther, the Jesuits, the
Catholic Mission), The Lutheran Church in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth
Centuries, in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, The Mission,
Bible Societies.
The aim in this division is to give information regarding the
development of the church in general, and of the Lutheran church in
particular. Narratives are grouped around great central
characters--Christian personages. A realization of the lofty aims of
Christianity on the part of the children together with an appreciation
of their duties and responsibilities as members of the Christian church
is the intent. By means of an instruction book the main divisions of
church history, general history, and the history of Norway are
correlated. Information contained in the hymn book acquaints the
children with the ceremonial order of the ecclesiastical year as well as
with the contents and order of the book itself. The study of previously
memorized hymns and verses is emphasized and enlarged upon.
It is to be remembered that in Norway church and state are united.
Religious and scholastic interests are under the direction of the
Department of Ecclesiastical and Educational affairs. The minister of
this department of State is one of the King's cabinet. Here we find one
of the numerous attempts at the solution of the vexing question of moral
instruction, or, to be more exact, religious instruction in the public
schools. While the provisions for this teaching are not faultless, and
though their course of instruction could not be adopted for use in
America with its medley of religious prejudices, yet we must acknowledge
that they are well adapted to the needs and desires of the people
served. The citizenship of the country is homogenous religiously, almost
universally Lutheran, and their traditions militate against any change
in religious creed. The teaching of religion in the schools has been the
practice for generations, the instruction is taken as a matter of
course, and it exerts its beneficient influences upon all.
There are a number of important features of this moral instruction which
press their claims for special mention, but we cannot discuss them all.
A few, however, demand some attention. The statement of the proverb,
that as the twig is bent so will the tree be inclined, has been borne
out in practice times without number. Here, it seems to me, is one more
illustration. Throughout their whole school life--that receptive,
appropriating, formative period--the children have constantly before
them ideals that are elevating, examples that are inspiring, and
admonitions that tend to create and develop within them an ambition to
excel in beauty of character. That the morals of society are not kept
more nearly pure by this procedure seems a psychological impossibility.
Again a rather successful attempt is made to have the home and school
cooperate along the lines of personal purity. In fact the home, the
school, and the church join hands and supplement each other in all
efforts in religious and moral training. True it is that striking
examples of nobility of character, high ideals, and moral worth abound
in profane history as well as in sacred, in secular life as well as in
religious, in living characters as truly as in those of past ages, but
the school system of Norway provides ample opportunity for presenting
all of these things in connection with their regular instruction in the
various subjects taught, and, in addition, furnishes particularized
instruction which makes a specialty of moral and religious development.
It seems imperative that, when these ennobling lessons are thus vividly
presented, the powers of imitation and habit should combine in the
creation of stronger and nobler characters.
Nevertheless, when religious instruction is made a requirement, it too
frequently becomes formal and literal rather than spiritual and
lifegiving. That this great misfortune is the case in some of the
secondary schools of Norway is an indictment which cannot be denied.
However, in the primary schools the instruction is fruitful and
important. As a consequence of these conditions the statement is common
among many that in looking back over the years of religious instruction
they recall numerous happy instances of earnest, heartfelt prayer and
Bible stories accompanied by intense feeling on the part of the teacher.
Other experiences reveal the fact that some of the teaching profession
had not the sincerity and feeling back of their instruction required in
order to give vitality and meaning to the lessons presented.
The entire question of instruction in morals in our public schools is
one of pressing importance. It is being agitated in many lands today and
a solution is sorely needed. Were all classes of society united as to
what should be included in this instruction the matter would adjust
itself very readily. However, social conditions in a single nation are
more or less diverse, and between different nations still greater breaks
are to be found. In fact the ideals and conceptions of society are so
varied that no one present system would suffice for all. Could a code of
ethics be formulated which would meet universal approval then its
adoption and use might be hoped for. Until then each nation must
necessarily follow the plan which seems best adapted to its social
requirements. As already stated, the people of Norway are nearly all
adherents to the Lutheran creed so there are very few dissenters from
the common rule. Provision is made in the law that those who do not
adhere to the state church and object to receiving instruction in this
particular line may, upon request of parent or guardian, be excused from
such instruction.[23]
_Norwegian_
_Aim._ It is the aim of the instruction in Norwegian to further the
mental development of children, especially their linguistic ability. In
this course of activity they should acquire:
(1) Efficiency in apprehending and assimilating what they hear or read,
confident readiness in reading, plain articulation, and correct and
natural accentuation.
(2) Efficiency in expressing themselves orally and in writing without
making any serious errors in the common usage of language or the rules
of composition.
(3) Efficiency in the use of the grammar of the mother-tongue which is
necessary for the above measure of attainments.
_First Division_
_Class I._ (Boys twelve hours, girls eleven hours, weekly.) A suitable
number (twelve or fifteen) of interesting children's stories are told
and utilized for the special purposes of widening the circle of the
children's imagination and developing in them ability in observation,
conception, and expression. An effort is made to render the general
contents of the stories lucid through explanations, while the features
arousing special interest in the minds of the pupils are made the
objects of more detailed conversation. An effort is made to train the
children in correct, free, and easy expression in connected sentences,
and to develop in them the ability to rehearse their stories freely and
connectedly.
_Reading._ The aim is ability to read the primer (_ABC-en_) with
assurance and in a clear tone, properly articulating and accenting each
word and syllable.
_Written exercises._ The object of the written work is to teach the
children to write words and simple sentences which have just been read
orally or have been seen in the primer or on the blackboard.
_Class II._ (Boys ten hours, girls eight hours, weekly.) Twenty or
thirty of the most interesting and valuable selections (prose and
poetry) contained in the reader are made the objects of special and
thorough treatment. Comments, questions, elucidating explanations, and
conversations are means employed in securing a vivid appreciation of the
contents and in developing ability in their easy rehearsal. The other
pieces are treated in a more cursory manner, only the larger views and
the more general understanding of them being attempted.
Special attention is given to having all readings slow with loud, plain,
and correct articulation and proper accentuation. Habitual mistakes are
carefully eliminated. Story telling is also a feature of the year's
work.
_Written exercises_, made up of sentences and short parts of readings,
conversations, or stories are given frequently and for short periods.
Here the names of letters and spelling are attended to with great care.
_Class III._ (Boys eight hours, girls seven hours, weekly.) Twenty or
thirty paragraphs from the reader are given special attention--the
remainder cursory. The plan of work is about the same as for Class II.
Considerable attention is given to the rehearsing of the reading lesson
by the pupils. Some reproductions are to be quite detailed and exact
though they are not to be given in the exact words of the text. Still
other selections receive more general treatment. A few of the most
pleasing poems should be memorized. Greater readiness in slow and even
reading with loud and clear expression and proper natural accentuation
should be sought.
_Written exercises._ Selections from the language work giving special
and rather extended attention to spelling, punctuation, and grammatical
constructions and forms. The teacher sets examples of correct
punctuation, etc.
_Second Division_
_Class IV._ (Five hours weekly.) A select number (20-30) of pieces from
the reader treated as in the former classes, though more exhaustively;
and, in addition, quite a wide range of selections chosen for more
cursory reading. A considerable amount of information regarding the
topics treated and explanations of literary expressions should form
important parts of the instruction in this class. Here, as in both
preceding and succeeding classes, it should be the aim to have the
children make their meanings plain when conversing upon the selections
read, at least to the degree of their ability and development. Parts of
former conversations on various topics should also be recalled and woven
into their discussions.
_Written exercises._ These shall include features previously studied,
and introduce more detailed and finer discriminations in grammatical
usages and forms.
_Class V._ (Boys four hours, girls five hours, weekly.) Exhaustive study
of a few selections and cursory reading in large quantities as before.
Careful and abundant training in oral expression. Specific and detailed
rehearsal of topics discussed in which an increasing amount of knowledge
gained through study, experience, and thought is utilized. Short stories
are read. Poems are memorized. Progress in clear and distinct
articulation and easy and natural emphasis in harmony with refined
speech is continuously a requirement.
_Written exercises._ A continuation of former exercises and a
considerable amount of copying, or the writing of abstracts of lesson
content, especially during the second half year. Orthographic,
grammatical, and rhetorical forms are entered into more exhaustively and
their niceties urged. Through continued practice in preparing and
writing compositions, extra work in copying, and special study of
orthography and punctuation, the children, by the close of this their
fifth year of schooling, should be quite capable in punctuation as well
as spelling, though they should not be expected to spell and punctuate
independently with accuracy.
_Third Division_
_Class VI._ (Boys five hours, girls six hours, weekly.) Reading from a
selected portion of the reader. Conversations, information,
explanations, and linguistic elucidations are to be entered into
according to necessity. Increasing stress is here laid on the work of
drawing out the thoughts, ideas, and knowledge of the pupils, and of
inciting them to more independent, intellectual effort.
_Written exercises._ Continued as previously though introducing larger
amounts of independently selected forms of expression and insisting on
greater accuracy in punctuation. Letter writing is added.
_Class VII._ (Five hours weekly.) Selections from the reader and
supplementary reading from recommended books calculated to awaken,
develop, and educate. Special attention given to the most important
authors.
_Written exercises._ Compositions on topics of interest, letter writing,
business correspondence including applications, invoices,
advertisements, and telegrams.
The methods employed in presenting the mother-tongue are quite plainly
set forth in the foregoing outline. Though the content is not so
specifically defined, the general lines are indicated in such a way as
to give very adequate insight thereinto. Some of the methods of
presentation seem somewhat cumbersome and rather antiquated. This
impression is due chiefly to terminology. The actual work in the
schoolrooms is flexible, free, and, as a rule, attractive. The latitude
granted to the teachers in all their work admits of almost unlimited
individual initiative. Many of their teachers are quite expert in the
most modern methods.
The utilitarian idea which pervades every phase of their school work is
especially noticeable in the teaching of their own language. In harmony
with this idea, let me call attention to the fact that, from the first,
constant use is made of every attainment in both oral and written form.
The oral work embraces the reading of the text, reading from the
blackboard, and conversational exercises on the special topics being
considered. Written work on the same lessons include copying of certain
selections or parts of them and original expressions in regard to the
contents of lessons read. In the advanced grades these written exercises
become more and more extended and complicated until they amount to
complete essays. Special attention is given to correct forms of
expression and to the acquirement of habits of clear and distinct
enunciation. The child, who from his earliest school days becomes
habituated to exact pronunciations, is very liable--almost sure--to
spell correctly; and, when constant use is made of the language in
written exercises, the accepted and approved forms of expression become
the fixed usages.
Now their treatment of the mother-tongue is a combination of our
reading, spelling, language lessons, grammar, rhetoric, and literature,
all taught in their natural order as they arise through actual use.
Incidentally, vast amounts of biography, history, geography, and natural
science as well as writing are included. The richness of content and
thoroughness of treatment deserve careful consideration in the writing
of courses and still more in their application. Specialization in phases
of a single subject in lower schools nearly always means waste of
energy, scattering of forces, and disappointment in the end. On the
contrary, unification and close correlation result in economy of time
and effort, and issue in more worthy attainments. The several fields of
thought are already too much isolated from each other, and unless some
guards are erected the individual fields also will be broken up and
their distinctive phases so divorced from one another that their
cooperative tendencies and values will become void and their
relationships will be lost sight of. Norwegian is easily the
preponderant study in Norway's schools, but, since it is so inclusive,
it probably deserves the large amount of time devoted to it.
The long lists of supplementary readings now provided in our American
schools exert a wholesome influence. Their constant revision and
extension furnish materials which in the hands of skilled teachers,
guarantee to the pupils sure knowledge and ability in the use of the
mother-tongue. The limitless resources in English literature, America's
lavish provision for higher education and professional training, and the
freedom granted to our teaching profession leave the teachers of our
language without excuse. The pupils studying English in America have a
right to expect the best. One condition which frequently militates
against first class work in this line is that school boards all too
frequently fail to realize that being a teacher of English means more
than merely hearing lessons so many times a week. A very large part of
the most important work must be done aside from class exercises. If
there be any teacher justified in asking a reduction in hours of
instruction it is the teacher of the mother-tongue.
_Mathematics_
_Aim._ Readiness in the four mathematical operations in whole numbers,
decimal numbers, and simple fractions, written and oral. Ability to
independently solve various examples in the forms in which they
generally appear in practical life, also examples in proportion and
examples in percentage, together with problems of planes and solids.
Course and mode of its execution as given in a text--Instruction in
Mathematics (_Regneundervisningen_)--followed in all essentials.
_First Division_
_Class I._ (Boys five hours, girls four hours, weekly.) Through constant
use of illustrative material (objects about the room, wooden pins,
cubes, the children's fingers, etc.) the children are taught to
gradually become acquainted with the numbers to ten, twenty, thirty, and
on up to one hundred; and they are afforded continuous practice in
reading, writing, and explaining the numbers, as well as in performing
simple solutions in the four arithmetical operations. At the close of
the year the children should be able to count to one hundred forward and
backward. They must know how to manipulate the numbers from one to ten
in adding to or subtracting from any number less than one hundred, and
be able, by the assistance of the tables, to answer questions in
multiplication (two's to five's). and some questions in division. Chief
importance attaches to the ability of the children to use the numbers
from one to thirty.
_Class II._ (Four hours weekly.) Acquaintance with and ability to read
and write any number up to one million.
_Mental arithmetic._ Continuation of operations begun in Class I. When
proficient in adding and subtracting units to and from one hundred, tens
and units are taken up in the same way. Examples in easy multiplication,
with occasional use of division, carried on throughout the year.
_Tablet work._ Addition and subtraction of numbers up to one million. In
the operations coin, measure, and weight denominations are used, and are
illustrated by coins, measures, and weights.
_Class III._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) Acquaintance
with the numeral system up to and including millions. Continuous
practice in reading, writing, and using numbers.
_Mental operations._ Addition and subtraction of numbers up to one
hundred continued. Thereafter extend the numbers as far as the children
can use them with certainty and rapidity. Multiplication of numbers up
to one hundred by units.
_Tablet work._ More work in addition and subtraction going farther than
to numbers with six ciphers. Multiplication of numbers with many ciphers
by multipliers having one or more ciphers.
_Second Division_
_Class IV._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) Division with
divisors having one or more ciphers. Separation of numbers into their
individual factors. Finding of the least common multiple. After this a
thorough drill in the four arithmetical operations with whole
numbers--old and new exercises.
_Mental and tablet exercises_ in closest relation to each other. In all
mental operations, here or later, rapid and positive use should be made
of the easier examples before the harder ones are fumbled or handled
with uncertainty.
_Class V._ (Two hours weekly.) After the necessary preparation, practice
in the three operations with decimal numbers. In connection with the
consideration of plane surfaces the children should be given practice in
measuring parallelograms, triangles, irregular quadrangles and
many-sided surfaces--triangles should predominate.
_Mental and tablet exercises_ parallel each other and are in intimate
relation.
_Third Division_
_Class VI._ (Three hours weekly.) Preparatory practice in common
fractions together with addition and subtraction of fractions having a
common denominator and others which can easily be reduced to a common
denominator. Multiplication and division using or including fractions.
Further development with mental operations growing out of and in
connection with tablet work.
_Class VII._ (Three hours weekly.) Percentage including interest,
rebate, and discount. The calculating of cubes, prisms, pyramids,
circles, cylinders, cones; also shortened pyramids, cones, and
cylinders.
After this a general review so far as time admits.
Simple arithmetical operations occupy the entire field during the
earlier years. The elementary algebraic forms and methods of solution
are introduced relatively early, and minor geometric relations and
operations are presented during the last (seventh) year of the lower
schools. These latter features are radically different from our general
procedure in the United States. We are in the habit of presenting the
various mathematical subjects one at a time, completing one before
another is considered to any extent whatever. For example, arithmetic is
taken up and gone through, while parts of geometry and algebra which
would be great aids in some of the arithmetical solutions are studiously
avoided or excluded until the formal study of that particular subject is
finally begun. The people of Norway, on the contrary, enter the larger
field of mathematics and, in a more rational manner--a more
psychological way--utilize available processes and forms at every
opportunity. The phases of mathematics are not specialized into
isolation but coordinated into a working unity. Instead of studying one
subject throughout its intricacies and side issues before admitting
consideration of other phases of mathematics, they make it the rule to
utilize the elemental factors of the various mathematical subjects in
every way possible. They give recognition to the simpler and more
fundamental principles and operations regardless of the special phase of
the subject to which they belong, and use the entire product as
groundwork for succeeding steps in the science. In this way parts of
algebra and geometry become valuable contributing preliminaries to
higher arithmetical operations.
The texts used by the pupils are little more than a series of exercises.
All teaching is done by the teacher and the texts are arranged in such a
way that the children may have opportunity to become skilled in the
principles evolved in class through application of them in the long
lists of problems in their texts. Very little blackboard is provided for
the pupils' use, hence but little blackboard work is accomplished. Each
room has a small board on which the teacher of a pupil may go through
solutions. Never have I seen more than one at a time working at the
blackboard. While the limited use of blackboards generally calls for an
increased amount of dependence upon intellectual activity and consequent
increase in mental alertness, the free use of blackboards relieves the
mind of unnecessary burdens which may as well be borne by crayon, and
thus provides for the higher centers a freer activity in pushing on the
quest for the unknown.
_Geography_
_Aim._ To obtain (1) A somewhat complete acquaintance with the
fatherland; its conditions, commerce, manner of life. (2) Acquaintance
with the geography of Europe, especially the countries to the north and
the other longer civilized countries. (3) A view of the different
continents and a closer acquaintance with lands and places which are of
greatest importance to the fatherland. (4) Knowledge of the most
important features of physical and mathematical geography.
_First Division_
_Class II._ (Boys three hours, girls two hours, weekly.) With continuous
reference to local geography and places known to the children, the
pupils are brought to understand geographical forms and relations in
general. Special attention is given to charts and maps. Instruction
begins with drawings (on blackboard and tablets) of the schoolroom; then
extends to schoolgrounds, to the immediate surroundings with streets and
some of the more important buildings; and then to the entire city with
its environs, etc., etc. The children should become acquainted with the
more important features of topography, soil, valleys, plains, ridges,
mountains, seas, fjords, rivers, brooks, seasons, day and night, rising
and setting of planets (sun, moon, and stars), flora and fauna,
altitude, sea level, etc. From familiarity with the city and its
surroundings the work extends to the entire fatherland which is
considered in an elementary fashion. Herein are included elementary
studies of coast line, principal systems of valleys, and location and
size of cities.
Map drawing of small localities.
_Class III._ (Two hours weekly.) The map of Europe. Beginning with the
fatherland, including its location with reference to other lands and
seas as well as its relations thereto, enter into a study of other
European countries in the order in which they would naturally be entered
if touring from the fatherland. Subdivisions of the sea and land, also
cities, railways, canals, rivers, and mountains are to be studied.
Pictures are to be used in illustration. By the use of globes and other
illustrative material, the discussion may be extended to other parts of
the world. Each of the several divisions of the earth is to be treated
in an elementary manner. Everything is to be outlined or indicated on
the maps and charts--first by the teacher and later by the pupils.
_Second Division_
_Class IV._ (One hour weekly.) On the foundation of what was done in
Class III the work shall be extended to the outlying divisions of
Europe--Norway, Sweden, Denmark, The British Isles, France, Spain,
Portugal, Italy, Russia. The study of maps is emphasized both for review
and new work. Every land is considered with reference to the fatherland,
other known lands, the equator, and the poles. Attention confined to
typical aspects: description of a typical city, a manufacturing center,
etc., special variations in climate, flora and fauna, chief natural
scenery, commercial activities, products and conditions of the citizens.
Readings on geographical topics are correlated with picture
illustrations. Details and illustrations utilized as in Class III.
_Class V._ (One hour weekly.) Holland, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland,
Austria, Hungary, and the Balkan peninsula are considered after the
plan used in Class IV. After these European countries, foreign countries
are discussed. Study and instruction in this class is in accord with the
outlines of work in previous classes though more exhaustive and minute.
India, China, the large islands in the Pacific Ocean, North Africa with
its Sahara, Central Africa, The United States of America, Australia,
etc., are also considered.
_Third Division_
_Class VI._ (One hour weekly.) The geography of the fatherland is gone
through thoroughly with the aim of imparting to the children a rather
complete knowledge of their country's nature, commerce, and life in its
various localities. The chief points considered are: coast line,
surface, water channels, climate--east and west--boundaries,
inhabitants, life of the people, political divisions. This is to be
constantly correlated with what has been learned previously of other
European countries. Map drawing in detail. Review of former work.
_Class VII._ (One hour weekly.) The more important features of
mathematical and physical geography are presented, being continuously
illustrated by charts, maps, globes, astronomical plates, etc. The
horizon, earth formations, zones, yearly and daily rotations,
geographical breadth and length; the moon, its phases; the planets,
etc., are important topics for study. Others are positions of continents
and oceans with reference to each other, climate and physical features
of the earth, the air, winds, changes in temperature, movements of the
sea, the more important ocean streams (Gulf and Polar streams), etc.
Throughout the study constant connections should be made between what is
known in geography, natural history, and nature study.
The outline indicates both thoroughness and a close correlation with
related fields of work. Beginning with the well-known in geography they
gradually widen their horizon and establish connections with the more
remote parts of the earth until the children obtain a moderately
accurate appreciation and knowledge of this branch of study and get a
view of its intricate relations with life and human activity. While the
work of the course is generally characterized by thoroughness, their
study of localities outside of Europe is simply a skimming over or a
skipping glance.
To be sure time is insufficient to enable them to exhaust all
opportunities; but, it would seem more consistent with their general
idea of concentrating on matters which directly concern the fatherland
and its subjects, did they bring the young into a more intimate
acquaintance with America and a fuller appreciation of what America
really means to Norway and Norwegians. Very few Norsemen are without
vital interests here. Nearly all, it seems, have immediate relatives or
very dear friends who have migrated from the native land and have
established homes in the United States. It appears that it would be
important for them to follow the path of their migrating brethren and
acquaint themselves more fully with the geography of America. Its life,
topography, commerce, and other distinctive features would add to their
geography a chapter of unsurpassed values.
The work which is done is commendable for many reasons. The many-sided
views obtained by varied methods of attack are rich and meaningful.
Every pupil is ready with a full discussion in response to a question
relating to their own country. Furthermore, they are informed with
reference to the relationships existing between each country studied and
the fatherland. These have been clearly pointed out. The perspective
obtained through the study of physical and mathematical geography
affords richer meaning to every day of life as well as to all the
phenomena of nature.
_History_
_Aim._ The chief aim of instruction in history is to inspire the
children's historic instincts and love for their country and people. In
an effort to obtain this the following information is imparted: (1) A
somewhat connected knowledge of the history of the fatherland together
with the fundamental tendencies of the social order. (2) Acquaintance
with the most significant incidents in general history.
_First Division_
_Class III._ (Two hours weekly.) Selected narratives from the history of
the fatherland. The collection of stories includes the following: Harald
the Fair Haired, Haakon the Good, Haakon Jarl, Olaf Trygveson, Olaf the
Holy, Sverre Sigurdson, Haaken the Aged, Margaret and Albert, Christian
the Second, Christian the Fourth, Tordenskjold, The Years 1807-1814, The
Time of Pirates, Kristian August, Norway in 1814, Kristian Fredrik,
Eidsvold, 17th of May, Norway's decennial celebration.
The stories are presented orally and are so detailed that the children
get clear pictures of persons and incidents. The material of instruction
is centered about particular and important persons and incidents in
order to give them greater fixity. The pupils rehearse the stories they
have been taught. Historic poems and songs of the fatherland which refer
especially to people or incidents are studied in connection with the
history. The material received through instruction in geography during
the former year is utilized as groundwork in building up and enriching
the historical ideas of the fatherland. The more important phases of
social institutions are presented in a way suited to the capacity of the
pupils. As the stories proceed, an attempt is made to awaken a degree of
appreciation of their historical sequence.
_Second Division_
_Class IV._ (Two hours weekly.) Stories and descriptions regarding
general history centering about the following points or topics: Ancient
world kingdoms, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Norse, Papacy, great
discoveries and inventions. Treatment here is similar to that given in
Class III. Stories, anecdotes and pictures add life to regular routine.
Stories of the fatherland are presented in very brief form and are given
in order to effect connection with general events in world history. Here
again geography is made the groundwork of history.
_Class V._ (One hour weekly.) Work carried on as previously. Narratives
of events chiefly during the time from the Reformation to the French
Revolution.
Central features studied: Luther and the time of the Reformation
(Luther's childhood and youth, Karl V., extension of the Reformation,
and the Thirty Years' War), the period of absolute monarchy, the time
preceding the Revolution, science and discovery. Presentation of topics
the same as previously given. Here is included also a considerable
amount of culture history, descriptions from which are given in such a
way that life among the higher classes, as well as among the oppressed,
may be presented and appreciated.
_Third Division_
_Class VI._ (One hour weekly.) Work continued as heretofore. Stories
from the time of the Revolution down to modern times. Among the
materials used are the following topics: time of the Revolution,
1789-1800; Napoleon, 1800-1815; July and February Revolutions, Napoleon
III., Germany's consolidation, discoveries and inventions, delineations
of the history of civilization, and the advance of modern times in
industries and means for communication.
_Class VII._ (Two hours weekly.) The history of the fatherland gone
through in great detail and in a definitely connected manner. All work
based upon what has been learned in former classes. The following are
among the more important points considered: Norway in ancient times,
Norway organized into a Christian kingdom, Norway's time of prosperity,
Norway under internal wars, Norway under later kings of Swedish family
and descent, Norway in union with Sweden and Denmark, Norway united to
Denmark until 1661, time of absolute monarchy (1661-1814), Norway in
1814, Norway since 1814. In addition, the chief features of social
institutions, the condition of the state, rights and obligations of
citizens, state administration, communal affairs, and similar topics are
discussed at some length.
By the assistance of a suitable text the presentation should impart to
the pupils a moderately connected knowledge of the historical
development of the fatherland up to the present time. The children
should obtain clear insight into the inner historic situations; persons,
events, and specific dates standing as contributors in the background.
Historic sagas and related selections are used in connection. While
attention centers in the history of the fatherland, important
contemporary events in general history are kept constantly before the
eyes, frequent reference being made to the studies in Classes IV-VI.
The stated aims, enumerated means, and outlined methods of presentation
afford a fairly good idea of the work done in the study of history
throughout the primary schools. It has been observed, perhaps by many,
that instruction in history has been preceded by one year's study of
geography, that the geography of the several countries precedes the
history of the peoples inhabiting them, and that geographical
appreciation is utilized as a foundation for instruction in history.
The main purposes of instruction in history are: development of
patriotic and loyal citizens, intellectual training, and cultural
information. The prized traits of citizenship are read, sung, and
drilled into the daily life of every child in the entire country, and
these impressions are fixed so definitely that they live through
generations, even when the subjects are transplanted to foreign soils.
Story telling in the beginnings of history instruction affords an
immediate appeal both to the children's interest in personal activities
and to their liking for that form of instruction. The characters whose
biographies are delineated are the men around whom national activities
have centered. The bits of history related are of epoch-making incidents
from the earliest times down to the present. Being presented through
biography they have a personal touch and flavor which secure vital and
immediate responses from the children.
There are still other features worthy of consideration. Incidents of
historic interest are not only pointed out and studied but the scenes of
these are actually visited. Here again we see the definite way in which
history and geography are correlated. Too, since Norway has been
favored by the gift of many literary geniuses, most historic characters
and events have found place in literary classics. All along the way,
songs, poems, and dramas having relation to national history are brought
into the instruction in a living, real way. The children are given
abundant opportunity to attain proficiency in relating historic events
with information gained from the fields of geography, language, and
literature.
_Nature Study_
_Aim._ Instruction in nature study attempts to awaken the children's
interest in and regard for nature in all its expressions, and to
exercise their thought powers and judgment so as to enable them to find
or make connections between cause and effect. In order that their
attention be centered upon the suitability to purpose, conformity to
law, harmony and beauty, the children should have their thought directed
to nature's creation and maintenance. Finally, the children through this
instruction should obtain a conception of how mankind attempts to
control nature and to utilize its strength in the promotion of human
welfare.
_Materials for instruction._ Our bodily structure in the large or whole,
as necessary to an understanding of the general conditions in man's
physical life and as fundamental to instruction in health. The more
important native and foreign animals and plants; their growth and life,
together with their importance in nature's economy. The natural forces
which have greatest significance for organic life and for man's
efficiency.
_Methods of instruction._ Natural objects or representations of them in
model or drawing, and operations of natural forces illustrated by
experiments observed and written up. The accuracy of observations are
tested by the pupil's oral or written accounts of what they see.
Conditions and things familiar to the children in common life are the
ones to be used above all others.
_Class IV._ (One hour weekly.) Short synopsis over our bodily structure
(four hours). Present by oral instruction and through illustrative
materials the skeleton, muscles, digestive organs, skin, circulation,
respiratory organs. The same points may also be studied as they appear
in the lower animals.
_Mammals._ (Twenty hours.) Horse, ass, cow, sheep, goat, reindeer, deer,
elk, camel, cat, wild-cat, lion, tiger, dog, wolf, fox, marten, bear,
swine, elephant, seal, whale, hare, rabbit, squirrel, rat, beaver,
anteater, bat, monkey.
_Fowls._ (Ten hours.) Tame chickens, woodcock, sparrow, yellow hammer,
bullfinch, lark, swallow, starling, dove, cuckoo, parrot, hawk, falcon,
eagle, owl, heron, stork, duck, goose, swan, gull, ostrich, and others.
Instruction begins with typical animal forms which are illustrated by
charts or drawings when the stuffed or mounted specimens are not at
hand. The children are required to depend upon themselves as much as
possible in finding out individual characteristics in the bodily
structures of the chosen forms. Then bodily structure and habits are
related, as are also their homes, food, color, and environment. Finally,
the animal's meaning in the economy of nature and its value to man are
the points studied. Along with the careful study of a typical form,
related animals are examined in a more general and cursory manner. The
children are taught to remember that while they have dominion over the
animals they are at the same time under obligations to them. Disregard
of these duties is looked upon as rudeness. Animal stories form a part
of the instruction. After studying the chosen types a review takes
notice of common characters and separates animals into classes.
Instruction is based on a text.
_Class V._ (Two hours weekly.) _Plants._ (Forty hours.) _Dicotyledonous
plants._ Bluebells, buttercups, strawberry, apple trees, pea, clover,
beans, cherry, plum, dandelion, blueberry, heather, potato, tobacco,
willow, birch, hazel, and others, studied under their regular headings
or in their special families.
_Monocotyledonous plants._ Rye, barley, wheat, oats, timothy, lily of
the valley, pine, fir, juniper, in connection with respective families.
_Flowerless plants._ Ferns, moss, mushrooms.
_Foreign useful plants._ Coffee, tea, cotton, sugar cane, rice, maize,
orange, palms, spices. All plants are studied carefully under their
respective subdivisions. As in the consideration of animals, the growth,
vital organs, habitat, and use of plants are studied, as are also their
grouping, fruit, etc. About fifty plants are studied carefully and
others are related to them. The children are taught not to injure plants
or trees.
_Animals._ (Twenty hours.) Adder, lizard, crocodile, turtle, frog, toad,
mackerel, pike, salmon, trout, herring, haddock, flounder, eel, shark,
cabbage butterfly, silk worm, moth, bee, bumble-bee, wasp, ant, fly,
gnat, grasshopper, spider, lobster, crab, angleworm, leech, trichina,
snail, mussel, star-fish, sea urchin, coral, sponge, etc. Instruction
along same line as in Class IV.
_Physics._ (Sixteen hours.) Based on a text. Instruction to be
accompanied by experiments whenever possible--otherwise illustrated by
drawings and models.
_Solids._ Resistance to change in form: hardness, elasticity. Resistance
to change of extensity: compressibility, porosity, adhesion, cohesion.
_Liquids._ No fixed form, apparent unchangeability of extensity,
adhesion to solids, solution of solids, mixing of liquids, endosmose.
_Gases._ No definite form, attraction, diffusion, absorption.
_Gravitation._ Weight, units of weight, weighing, relation between
weight and size, force of weight as a cause of movement, hindrances to
movement, forces in equilibrium.
_The lever._ Balance, hand presses, on the principle of the lever.
_Class VI._ (Two hours weekly.) _Liquids._ (Eight hours.) Distribution
of pressure, Archimedes' law, specific gravity, communicating shaft.
_Properties of air._ (Eight hours.) Archimedes' law, the atmosphere and
its pressure, barometer, pumps and lifters, Mariotte's law.
_Heat._ (Twelve hours.) Different temperatures, effects of heat,
expansion of bodies, the thermometer, maximum density of water, melting
and freezing, evaporation and condensation, boiling, degree of pressure
at the boiling point.
Transmission of heat by radiation and by conduction, good and poor
conductors, temperature and humidity of the air, downward pressure,
circulation of water, atmospheric currents, sources of heat, heat as
force, steam pressure.
_Sound._ (Eight hours.) Origin of sound, its transmission, rate of
transmission, the ear, tones, reflection of sound.
_Light._ (Ten hours.) Self-illuminating and dark bodies, transparent and
opaque, straight path of light, shade, rate of transmission, reflection,
refraction, diffusion of color, convex and concave lenses, microscope,
telescope, camera, the eye, spectacles.
_Magnetism._ (Five hours.) The magnet and its poles, their reciprocal
relations, magnetizing, difference magnetically in iron and steel,
horseshoe magnet, compass.
_Electricity._ (Fifteen hours.) Electricity of friction, two kinds of
electrical condition, conductors and insulators, communicating and
distributing, electrical machines, lightning and thunder, lightning
rods, electrical current, battery, electric light, electro-magnetism,
telegraph, telephone, electricity which generates power.
_Equilibrium and Motion._ (Ten hours.) Motion with uniform, increasing,
or decreasing rapidity; combination of motion and force (the
parallelogram of power, center of gravity, the three conditions of
balance, the beam, the inclined plane); work and vital force;
experiment with the pendulum.
_Class VII._ (Two hours weekly.) _Physics._ (Sixteen hours.) Machines,
block, tackle, windlass, the curved pivot, various driving forces (water
wheel, steam engines, dynamos), application of machinery in the
industries, railways and steamboats.
_Chemistry._ (Sixteen hours.) Ingredients of water and air, coal,
carbonic acid, burning and oxidation. Fundamental elements as material
in all bodies. Examples of elements: oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon,
chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, aluminum, iron, silver, and gold.
Examples for combinations: water, ammonia, sulphuric acid, rust, soda,
cooking salt, lime, chalk, clay, quartz, ores. Examples of organic
matter: starch, sugar, albumen, alchohol, fats. Instruction in chemistry
consists in illustrations and descriptions of materials and experiments.
_Structure and life of the human body. Study of health._ (Thirty hours.)
Based on text. Study of skeleton, muscles, nervous system, work and
rest, sense organs and their use, digestive organs and processes, use of
teeth, blood and circulation, breathing pure and impure air, kidneys,
meaning of bodily exercise, structure and use of the skin, bathing,
clothing, dwellings, foods and pleasures (under this intoxicating
drinks, tobacco, etc.) Something regarding contagious diseases and help
in times of accidents. Inject instruction on health when convenient in
connection with the study of the organs of the body. Illustrate by
experiment when possible. General review, especially the points
concerning the nourishment and respiration of plants and animals.
The outline in nature study impresses one with the inclusiveness of the
course. The elementary phases of animal life, plant life, physics,
chemistry, and human physiology and health are made the objects of
careful consideration. True this study in some cases is stiff, formal,
meaningless, and without spirit because of not being connected with the
vital interests of the pupils, but on the whole the work is brought very
close home to their daily life. Through it the children are able to see
the contributions to life and human welfare made by the innumerable
things in man's environment.
Throughout the primary grades the work is mostly devoted to descriptive
studies. Considerable attention is given also to the intrinsic value to
man of animals, plants, and natural forces, and the means he has found
for utilizing them in his struggle forward. The nature lessons
throughout the grades are enriched and enlivened by the use of well
selected and carefully prepared appliances and models for demonstration.
Whenever possible the living animals and plants in their natural
habitat, forces as applied in the machinery of neighboring institutions,
and minerals in their successive processes of development and refinement
are studied at first hand. Every school where the financial stringency
is not too keen is provided with a liberal amount of apparatus for
demonstrational purposes (_anskuelsesmidler_). As an instance, every
primary school in the city of Christiania has at least one room of
considerable size devoted exclusively to the storing of this material.
Maps, charts, mounted specimens, plates, preserved articles, and
accessory materials are there in abundance, and provide minute
representations for most any point one might wish to make typical for
illustration or study. The more genuine phases of laboratory work are
not provided, though a considerable amount of crude experimentation is
done in the grades.
The teacher presenting this course must be capable for he is the
authority and guide back of all work done. Text books (good ones though
condensed) play a part, but a much smaller part than would be the case
in our American schools were similar instruction approached in a formal
way. In other words, their teachers furnish the course and _teach_ the
subject, while too many of ours merely present the course provided in
the adopted text book.
Writing, drawing, vocal music, manual training, and gymnastics are also
in the curriculum and each receives careful attention. Perhaps extended
outlining of these courses and long discussions concerning them are
unnecessary. Their importance and value are recognized. Their
presentation in the schools of Norway is commendable, but some things
must be passed without exhaustive treatment. Only general statements
will be given.
The results in some lines--writing and drawing in particular--do not
justify the amount of time devoted to them. The writing is mechanical
throughout, and in the lower grade the requirements are altogether too
exacting. Drawing is required of all alike. Those who have ability in
this line of work perhaps receive too little instruction; others,
without talent or liking for it, regard it as a drudgery and, in the
minds of some of their teachers, hinder the progress of the gifted. The
finer coordinations required in both writing and drawing are frequently
in advance of the development of the pupils and work injury rather than
benefit.
Vocal music is required of all and injures none. Probably each one reaps
considerable benefit from the instruction. The class of music used in
their teaching is very different from what is in vogue in our American
schools. The church has exercised a great deal of influence in this
respect. Since church and state are united the music of the church forms
a predominating portion of the music of the state schools. Psalms,
chants, and songs of stately dignity constitute the bulk of their
selections, while those of lighter strain are interspersed at intervals
not too close together. In America our children's songs are more
attractive from the "jingle" point of view. Our children like them
better and are more anxious to sing them. The little Norwegians, too,
are delighted when permitted to swing into the lighter strains of music.
They love to sing. Their faces fairly glow as their mellow voices swell
out whether they sing in a jingle or in the rich harmonies of their
psalms. Common use of the better quality of music cultivates their
ability to appreciate and to render works of higher order than one
usually finds in the schools of our own country.
Manual and industrial training has had an important place in their
schools for many years. Every hour spent at the bench is a delight to
the boys, while the girls enjoy equally well the privilege of sewing or
cooking. These activities are certainly valuable in the training of the
young, and their influences extend into the homes of all the pupils.
Gymnastics is the regular order for all pupils. A Swedish system of
exercises is used which requires little apparatus but yields large
returns. Abundant well-directed exercises of various kinds are provided
for every pupil at stated periods and are entered into with zest. The
regularity with which the gymnastic exercises are given doubtless has
much to do in preserving the health of the children. As a class they are
not only free from weaknesses but are vigorous and robust. Another part
of their gymnastic work is the outdoor exercise which is required of all
the pupils between the class periods. This doubtless adds much life and
animation to the entire school program.
The course as a whole includes the fundamentals and chief essentials to
educational activity. Those who pass through the primary schools obtain
an intelligent appreciation of life and its meanings. They are able to
meet common needs successfully and to attend to general affairs in an
approved manner. The masses feel the necessity of the fuller life thus
provided and in turn the school is admirably fitted to the task of
developing loyal and capable citizens. Furthermore, those who are so
favorably situated that they may continue in school longer than seven
years and desire fitness for entrance upon the work of higher education
find in the primary schools every opportunity to gratify their desires.
The connection between the lower and higher schools was not at all
satisfactory until 1896, when the Storthing readjusted the system. Since
then pupils may pass regularly from the fifth grade of the primary
school into the four year middle school, or after the completion of the
seven grades of the primary school they may enter either a three or a
four year middle school and finish in three years. Since the number
desiring entrance to the middle school from the fifth grade is larger
than can be accommodated, those of highest ranking educationally are
admitted. While the secondary school men claim perfect right to choose
the fittest for entrance into their schools, the primary school men feel
that their work in the sixth and seventh grades suffers injustice as a
result of this selective process. The connection between the schools is
not yet perfect and some unrest is evidenced in reference to the matter.
The chief need seems to be an increase in the number of middle schools.
III. THE MIDDLE SCHOOL
The Storthing, in 1896, passed a law defining the limits and work of the
middle school. According to the enactment this school builds upon the
foundation laid in the primary school and secures to the pupils a
thorough general education suited to the needs and receptivity of
childhood. The course of study offered may be of varied length, but in
no case shall it exceed four years in duration. The four year course
aims at a very natural connection with the work done during the first
five years in the common school. Where the connection can be made with
the work of later grades in the primary school, the course of the middle
school may be correspondingly shorter. The aim and methods are in
general similar to those in the lower school; though, of course, higher,
more thorough and inclusive, and such as give deeper insight into all
subjects of instruction. It is required that instruction be given in
religion, Norwegian, German, English, history, geography, natural
science, mathematics, writing, drawing, manual training, and vocal
music. Instruction in domestic economy may be provided for the girls.
Formerly all of these schools charged tuition; but, as the conditions in
the commune gradually improved, provisions were made in some of them for
the issuance of a certain number of free scholarships. These were
usually governed in such a way that those most in need were the first to
receive the benefits. From time to time scholarship funds were increased
until now some communes provide free scholarships to all resident
children. The city of Christiania has a three-year middle school
building upon the foundation of seven years of primary work and charging
no tuition whatsoever. This provision together with the building up of
scholarship funds are forerunners of free entrance, probably, to all of
the state's middle schools. As already stated, the work of the middle
school overlaps in part that of the primary school. The course of study
for Classes I and II is in a large measure a duplication of that
provided for Classes VI and VII in the lower school. However, to
present the work of the middle school adequately, it is essential that
the course for the entire four years be here included. The state adopts
a curriculum which is used in all of its secondary schools. Minor
details such as texts vary in the different schools. The following is an
outline of the curriculum used in the Christiania Cathedral School.
_Religion_
_Class I._ (Two hours.) Vogt's Bible History to the fall of the Kingdom
of Judah. J. Sverdrup's Commentary to Article 2. Verses of hymns once
each week.
_Class II._ (Two hours.) Vogt's Bible History from "The Exile" to "The
Story of the Passion." Commentary from Article 2 to "The Sacraments."
Verses from hymns.
_Class III._ (Two hours.) Bible History and Commentary completed and
reviewed. Verses from hymns. Bible reading.
_Class IV._ (One hour.) Y. Brun and Th. Caspari's Church History gone
through and reviewed. Cursory study of the ecclesiastical year and the
order of divine service.
Here we note the beginnings of a more formal consideration of religion.
A large part of the work is historical. Texts and lectures covering
practically identical grounds form the basis of the work in this branch
of study. The change to the more formal study of religion strikes the
writer as a distinctive turn or transfer from moderately successful to
useless endeavor. The personal touch and human flavor attending the
informal telling of Bible stories afford some genuine inspiration. Life
touches life. When character is exemplified in a living person or is
shown through story once to have had expression in a fellow mortal,
interest is awakened and the child instinctively imitates the vision
before him. He transforms it into life. He enters into the spirit of the
theme and the spirit giveth life.
On the other hand, when religion is presented in a formal way, when an
abstract view is taken, when the core of the subject is in the cold
pages of texts,--then the letter killeth. Through force of habit the
children retain some respect for the wishes of the teacher and do go
through the motions of study and recitation, but the life of the subject
is very soon extinguished and even respect for it vanishes in large
measure. However, in rare instances good results are obtained through
the efforts of teachers who are especially well qualified for this work.
_The Mother-Tongue and Old Norse_
_Class I._ (Five hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader II. 2. Some of the
Songs of the Fatherland learned by heart. Oral and written analysis.
Hofgaard's Norwegian School Grammar, Paragraphs 1-31, 34-38, 41, 45,
48-59, 61, 65, 76-79. The more important part of Hougen's Rules for
Correct Writing. Written work (dictation and composition) each week.
_Class II._ (Four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader II. 3. Poems--among
them some of the Songs of the Fatherland learned by heart. Hofgaard's
Grammar continued, also analyses. One written exercise each week
(dictation and easy composition.)
_Class III._ (Alternately three and four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's
Reader III. Poems learned by heart--partly from Lassen's Poems for
Middle Schools, partly from Songs of the Fatherland. Certain parts of
the grammar reviewed. Analyses now and then. About twenty written
exercises, among them some dictations.
_Class IV._ (alternating three and four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's
Reader III. That portion from which the examination is taken, gone
through and partly reviewed. Several poems committed to memory. Fourteen
written exercises. Among the topics used the following are typical: The
summer vacation, the location of our city, Denmark, past and present
lighting systems, animal life in our forests, reminiscences from my
earlier school days, birds and why we protect them, the Norsemen as
seamen, Christiania in winter garb, Europe's natural conditions in
preference to those of other continents.
In harmony with the indications of the plan of instruction, the early
part of the work in the study of the mother-tongue is devoted to reading
from selected texts. Simultaneously, grammar and rhetoric are carried
along and put into use in written compositions which are frequent. Here,
as in the primary schools, exact spelling, correct grammatical and
rhetorical forms, and approved literary style are constant
requirements. The child is expected not only to read intelligently, but
to express himself orally and in writing in a comprehensive manner and
in such form as to appeal to the intelligence of others. Thus both in
oral speech and through written composition the pupil is privileged to
put his attainments into continuous use. They acquire the tools of
thought and skill in handling them.
_German_
_Class I._ (Six hours.) Knudsen and Kristiansen's Reader from the
beginning to the "Subjunctive." Written exercises.
_Class II._ (Five hours.) Knudsen and Kristiansen's Reader from
"Subjunctive" to close of book. Voss' Reader in section A, seventy-six
pages, in section B, fifty pages; one-half of these shall be learned by
heart. Hofgaard's Short German Grammar the most important forms. Written
exercises. Rehearsals. Retroversions.
_Class III._ (Five hours.) Voss' Reader, in section A, seventy-five
pages, in section B, fifty-eight. Hofgaard's Short German Grammar,
inflections. In section B besides the above, paragraphs 140-148, 156,
169, 179-181. In addition section B shall have thirty-six pages of O.
Kristiansen's oral exercises and thirty-two compositions according to O.
Kristiansen's exercises in written work. In section A, written
exercises, partly according to Kristiansen's outlines for written work
and partly reviews of the lessons in the reading book.
_Class IV._ (Five hours.) Voss' Reader in section A, twenty pages, in
section B, seventy-five. Repetition of the portion designated for
minutest study. The grammar reviewed. One or two written exercises each
week according to Kristiansen's outlines.
The instruction in German proceeds in a very natural manner. The earlier
lessons are devoted very largely to oral instruction in which the
teacher takes the lead. Words, phrases, and sentences are given by the
teacher for translation and concert repetition. Repetition and concert
work are prominent in many places in the schools, but nowhere stressed
to the same extent as in their language instruction. Concert work seems
to stimulate to freedom in pronunciation, while repetition affords the
drill which is necessary to the required accuracy. Having had at least
five years of thorough instruction in the mother-tongue the children are
able to appreciate in a measure the meaning and importance of verb forms
and other features of inflection so that they are ready to do consistent
work in this phase of their study. In addition to the translations
referred to, conversational exercises are soon introduced, and at the
end of the second year some facility in easy conversation is evidenced.
Toward the close of the middle school the children are able to read the
language with ease and to converse in it quite fluently.
_English_
_Class II._ (Five hours.) Brekke's Elementary Reader to page
seventy-four, studied and reviewed, besides the grammar in the back of
the book. Conversational exercises and written work on the blackboard.
During the last half year an occasional written exercise in a book.
_Class III._ (Five hours.) Brekke's Reader for the Middle School,
sixty-five pages read and reviewed. Knap's Grammar. One narrative per
week.
_Class IV._ (Five hours.) Brekke's Reader for the Middle School.
Required portion read and reviewed, while the remainder of the book is
gone through and in part read _ex tempore_. One narrative each week.
The study of English proceeds along lines parallel to those followed in
the German. The learning of the language is accomplished chiefly through
its use. Explanations are made by using the more familiar words of the
tongue studied, by circumlocutions, and by other similar practices.
Grammar is resorted to as a means rather than an end. It is used only in
facilitating the acquisition of the language, not as an end in itself.
However, at the close of the course each pupil has become quite
proficient in the grammar as well as in reading the language and in
conversing in it.
_History_
_Class I._ (Three hours.) Nissen's History of the World by Sehjoth, from
the beginning until "Scandinavia in the Middle Ages."
_Class II._ (Two hours.) Text as in Class I. From "Scandinavia in the
Middle Ages" to "Modern Times."
_Class III._ (Three hours.) Same Text. From "Charles V" to "The February
Revolution." Review.
_Class IV._ (Three hours.) Same Text. Reviewed in its entirety.
The course in history is very rich and its study is entered into with
animation. The teacher is usually a master in the subject and he makes
the work of great profit. A considerable amount of the class period is
devoted to a vivid and analytic introduction of the work to be done at
the next meeting of the class, preparation for which shall be made in
the meantime. Problems are presented and purposes are indicated so that
the preparatory study may be done with some definite end in view.
All facts of history are placed in appropriate settings and perspective,
correlated into a unity, and given vital meaning. Maps, charts, and
pictorial illustrations are provided in abundance and used constantly.
Frequently historic scenes near at hand or known to the pupils are
pointed out, minutely described, and visited.
Teachers appeal to the sentiment of pupils with the aim of begetting
loyalty for the fatherland in the hearts and minds of the young. I have
heard instructors grow eloquent as they warmed up on phases of Norway's
history, and have noted the flushed cheeks and snapping eyes of the
children that bespoke the national pride of the young hearts as familiar
words, slogans, and songs of their heroes were quoted.
When given an opportunity--a common occurrence--the pupils enter into
the rehearsal of historic events with enthusiasm. Every mind in the room
is active. They are awake to the situations and are familiar with the
scenes and literature connected with the several stages of development.
Replies given in response to questions from the teacher are nearly
always in the form of narratives, sometimes occupying ten or fifteen
minutes.
General history or history of any foreign country is entered into in a
spirit similar to that characterizing the consideration of their own. On
one occasion I listened to a review on American history. Among the
characters taken up were Grant, Lee, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Lincoln.
The pupils discussed Uncle Tom's Cabin with familiarity, Lee was
considered as "The Napoleon of America," but Lincoln was the one to whom
most of the class period was devoted. At the close of the hour the
teacher announced a lecture on "Abraham Lincoln" for the following
Sunday evening in the Working-Men's College (_Arbeiderakademi_)[24] of
which he was the director. This incident illustrates the way in which
they correlate the work of different educational organizations, and
shows their interest in the important events connected with the history
of other nations.
_Geography_
_Class I._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. Norway and Sweden. Review.
_Class II._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. From "The Central European
Mountains and Rivers" to "Asia." Studied and reviewed.
_Class III._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. The foreign continents.
Studied and reviewed.
_Class IV._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. Repeated or reviewed in its
entirety.
Two books are used in the study of this subject. One is made up entirely
of well designed, carefully drawn, and thoroughly reliable maps, printed
on a good quality of paper. The other is a text giving a good logical
statement of what the course is calculated to include. The teacher must
provide the major portion of the information by his own initiative
and through cooperation of pupils. Illustrative material
(_Anskuelsesmidler_) is provided in great abundance and in diversified
variety.
An effort is made to impart to the pupils a satisfactory appreciation of
the conditions prevailing in the countries considered. Their
colonization, commerce, products, topography, political subdivisions,
cities, population, river and mountain systems, climate, etc., are all
carefully studied. The course begins with the geography of Norway. Next
foreign lands and conditions are taken up and compared to situations at
home. When the various countries on the globe have been kept for a time
before the eyes, a thorough review is given which occupies the greater
portion of the last year in the middle school course.
_Mathematics_
_Class I._ (Five hours.) Numbers resolved into factors. Fractions. Some
Proportion.
_Class II._ (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From
beginning to division. Geometry: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From
beginning to right lines divided into equal parts. Arithmetic:
Proportion and percentage.
_Class III._ (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From
division to equations with two unknowns. Geometry: Bonnevie's text. From
parallelograms to Book IV. Drill in percentage and interest.
_Class IV._ (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From
equations with two unknowns to close of book. Geometry: Bonnevie's text.
From Book IV to close of text. Review of entire text. Drill in computing
solids and other miscellaneous problems. A few hours devoted to
bookkeeping.
One of the most favorable features of their instruction in mathematics
is the intimate connection they make between the several phases of the
subject. Arithmetic, algebra, and geometry are never wholly separated
from each other. They are in reality interwoven and so definitely
correlated that each contributes to the others. By constant use the
several processes become familiar tools in the mental activities of the
pupils. Mastery of the principles of the science and ability in their
use are the ends to be attained. The outline of the course indicates the
extent of the field receiving attention. It is sufficient to say that
the topics are all made to appear plain, definite, and vital; and that
they are assimilated, and do become parts of the growing life.
_Nature Study (Natural Science)_
_Class I._ (Three hours.) Botany: Sorensen's text. Written descriptions
of about twenty-five plant forms. Zoology: Vertebrates according to
Sorensen's text.
_Class II._ (Two hours.) Botany: Sorensen's text. From "The Sunflower
Family" to "Plant Structure." Plant analysis. Zoology: Sorensen's text.
"Invertebrates." Review from treatise on insects to close of book.
_Class III._ (Two hours.) Zoology and botany reviewed. Plant analysis.
Henrichsen's Physics. From beginning to "Properties of Air."
_Class IV._ (Three hours.) Henrichsen's Physics studied through and
reviewed with related laboratory work. Knudsen and Falch's The Human
Body I studied and reviewed.
The plan of work, as noted, includes botany, zoology, physics, and human
physiology. Each subject is taken up and pursued in a consistent manner.
In botany plant analysis and structure form the important part of the
work. A herbarium is made by each pupil. The study is brought very
definitely into the daily lives of the children with the intent of
opening their eyes to the conditions in nature about them and of
developing in them an appreciation of the almost unlimited provision
made for man's welfare. Zoology and physiology are treated in a similar
way. They are calculated to enrich the life of the individual by
bringing him into more sympathetic relations with all living forms. In
physics the child does some experimental work and thereby gets first
hand experience to accompany, clarify, and assist in evaluating the
elaborated instruction of the teacher regarding forces, phenomena, and
laws.
It was interesting to note in a recitation chiefly devoted to
experimental work that the language used in conversation was carefully
scrutinized and that errors were corrected. Throughout the curriculum a
very definite effort is made to utilize every phase of information
possessed by the pupils.
IV. GYMNASIUM
_Religion_
_Class I._ (One hour.) Selected hymns, and chapters from the prophet
Isaiah.
_Class II._ (One hour.) Short survey of church history. Brandrud's text
used by some of the pupils.
_Class III._ (Two hours.) Short presentation of the Christian faith and
ethics, without text. Survey of designated portions of John's Gospel,
the Epistle to the Romans, and Revelations.
The instruction in religion is commonly given by the city pastors. While
all of these men are highly educated, many of them lack the ability to
awaken the minds of the pupils to an active interest in the subject. No
examination in religion is required in the gymnasium. As a result of the
formality in this teaching and the lack of incentives generally, the
members of the classes are listless and inattentive. I insert a note
that I made in reference to one class in which I was a visitor. "Most of
the class was listless all of the time and all of them most of the
time." I have on a few occasions heard short and irrelevant remarks made
by pupils in response to direct questions by the instructor, and among
the pupils it is accounted no reflection whatever if any of their number
states that he knows nothing regarding the situation under discussion.
The work appears altogether void of interest and without profit.
It seems almost pathetic that a subject of such importance should have
its richness of content dissipated and wasted through lack of incentives
or by reason of unsuccessful methods of presentation. My observation of
the work from the beginning of the primary school through all the
classes up to the completion of the gymnasium convinces me that the
personal and concrete presentations in the lower grades are very
successful but that the formal, authoritative work in the secondary
schools is little more than failure.
_Norwegian_
_Class I._ A and B (Four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader IV. 1.
Njael's saga. Holberg's The Busybodies and Peter Paars. Part of
Ohlenschlager's Aladdin. Baggesen's Noureddin to Aladdin. Hertz's Svend
Dyring's House. Also in A, Ibsen's Vikings at Helgeland; in B, Ibsen's
The Feast at Solhaug; Bjornson's Synnove Solbakken.
Landsmaal. Garborg and Mortensen's Reader for Higher Schools. About
forty pages from Aasen, Janson, Sivle, etc.
Fourteen compositions in each class. Assigned exercises: Impressions
from the summer vacations; what do we learn from Njaal's saga regarding
life and customs in Iceland about the year one thousand; a
characteristic of the "Busybodies" by Holberg; Christiania as a city of
manufacture and industry; a comparison between the east and west of
Norway with references to nature and commerce; a painting I like; Norway
as a tourist land; do not put off until tomorrow what you can do today;
why could not the Persians conquer the Greeks; the dark sides of city
life; what circumstances have combined in giving the Norsemen high
ranking as seamen?
_Class II._ R. G. (Five hours.) History of Literature through the
literature of the North, folk songs, a collection of Danish and
Norwegian ballads, selections from Asbjornsen, Moe, and Holberg. Romance
poetry, some read minutely and the rest cursorily. Consideration of
Aasen and the Landsmaal movement. Sixty pages of Garborg and Mortenson's
Landsmaal. About twenty pages of Old Norse from Nygaard's beginner's
book.
Written exercises, frequently on topics of interest. Besides all this
each pupil must give a discussion on a self-selected theme before the
class.
_Class II._ L-H. (Six and five hours.) Holberg's Erasmus Montanus.
Wessel's _Kjaerlighed uden Stromper_ (Love without Stockings.) History
of literature to about one thousand, eight hundred. Shakespeare's Julius
Caesar. In the Landsmaal selections from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader
(excepting folk songs.) Old Norse: Nygaard's beginner's book. Some pages
from Thor to Utgard. Twelve written exercises on important literary,
historical, and industrial subjects.
_Class III._ R. G. (Four hours.) History of literature from Holberg down
to the present. Read scrutinizingly selected writings of Holberg,
Ohlenschlager, Wergeland, Welhaven, Asbjornsen and Ibsen. In the
Landsmaal read from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader and the writings of
Vinje. In the Old Norse read the remainder of Nygaard's beginner's book.
History of language and history of literature. Many written exercises,
largely literary and historical topics.
_Class III._ L-H. (Five and four hours.) Special study of selections
specified as examination material including the writings of Holberg,
Wergeland, and Welhaven. Landsmaal from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader.
History of Literature. History of Language. Twelve written compositions
on important topics.
The work in literature throughout the gymnasium deals with the
masterpieces of the language in an analytic and critical way. The aims
are to familiarize the pupils with the best productions in the language,
to acquaint them with the lives and historical relations of their
authors, and to develop literary appreciation and style. Accordingly
many writers are included, translations of world classics are utilized,
history of literature in its connections with general history receives
attention, and ability in composition is encouraged and required.
Eddas, sagas, and the more important productions from successive periods
are studied in minute detail. The Landsmaal is not neglected. When any
piece of literature is under discussion, related historical events;
references to other literary productions, characters, myths, etc.; the
life of the author; and many other important points are considered
exhaustively. The intricacies of the language are sought out in patience
and made familiar. Every known device for completing the literary
background is utilized. Since the literature of the country is a part of
the life of its citizens, no effort is required to secure intense
interest in the work.
In the linguistic-historical course more time is devoted to this branch
of instruction than is given to it in the _real_ and Latin courses. The
quality or class of work is essentially the same though the quantity is
necessarily less in the two latter courses. A definite effort is made to
place each pupil in possession of the culture represented in the
national literature.
_German_
_Class I._ A and B (Three hours.) Gundersen's German for the Gymnasiums.
A, sixty-seven pages, B, seventy-five pages, consisting of the following
titles: _Die Sanger_, _Die Burgschaft_, _Der Ring des Polykrates_ _Der
Handschuh_, _Die Sonne Bringt es an den Tag_, _Die Goldene Repetieruhr_,
_Wie der Meisenseppe Gestorben ist_, _Umzingelt_, _Der Stumme Ratsherr_,
_Zur Geschichte des 30-jahrigen Krieges_, _Landsknecht and Soldat_. In B
review the more important features of syntax in O. Kristiansen's
Grammatical Exercises.
Once every week a written review of a lesson read.
_Class II._ (Three hours.) Gundersen's German for Gymnasiums, about one
hundred pages. Fifteen written exercises, partly reproductions of new
matter and partly write-ups of what has been studied. In _real_
gymnasium some supplementary assignments in addition (_Das
Schneeschuhlaufen_, _Die Lage Kristianias_, etc.)
_Class III._ (Alternating three and four hours.) Gundersen's German for
Gymnasiums. Reading finished and the greater part of it reviewed. Every
second week a written review covering two consecutive hours.
German is recognized as the language of a great neighbor nation and is
assiduously studied. Much time has been spent in the middle school in
acquiring the language and now three years are used in introducing the
pupils into the thought-life and culture of the nation through the inner
contact of its literature. Some of Germany's more important authors are
studied rather exhaustively. An endeavor is also put forth to become
familiar with the most remarkable events in the history of that Empire.
Through this advanced treatment they perfect their knowledge of the
language as such, and further their ability to converse in the foreign
tongue.
_French_
_Class I._ A (Four hours.) After the more important parts of phonology,
Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader in French for the Gymnasium I. pp.
18-108. The most essential parts of the grammar, together with many
exercises in translation. While reviewing, special emphasis is placed
upon reading exercises.
_Class I._ B (Four hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader I pp. 1-55
read and reviewed, together with the corresponding translations from
Norwegian p. 109 ff. In addition pages 98-108 are read and reviewed and
most of the remaining exercises are gone through cursorily. Wallem's
Vocabulary Part I. 1 and Part V. 6-9 are studied.
_Class II._ R. G. (Two hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader II pp.
1-31 and 104-112. Grammar drill by references to synopses of grammar in
the beginner's book. Wallem's Vocabulary Part I. 1 and V. 6-10 studied
and reviewed.
_Class II._ Lang. (With Latin five hours, without Latin four hours.)
Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader. Division without Latin about eighty
pages, consisting of Part I., the last section and Part II selections
for A, I-VI for B, III, IV, VII, XI. Division with Latin, the same
amount excepting B, VII and XI. Wallem's Vocabulary, review V. 6-9.
_Class III._ R. G. (Two hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader, about
eighty pages.
_Class III._ Lang. (Three hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader I,
the last section and II for A, I-X and for B, I-XIII with the exception
of a few selections such as X in A which is read only cursorily. As
exercise in _ex tempore_ translation use Duruy's History of France.
About the same amount of French is taken in the Latin as in the _real_
course of study though it is carried but for two years in the former and
three in the latter.[25] More time is provided for it in the
linguistic-historical course then in either of the others. Reference to
the table on page 171 will indicate exactly the amount of time used and
its distribution throughout the years.
The French language is not as closely related to the Norwegian as are
the German and English. Greater variations are noted both in
pronunciation and in vocabulary. Almost universally the Norwegians
regard it as the most difficult of the three foreign languages to
acquire.
The study of French is not begun until the pupils enter the gymnasium
when they are fourteen or fifteen years old. English and German are
begun three and four years before French. The teachers believe that a
mistake is made in not beginning the study of French earlier. It is
worthy of note that the Norwegian pedagogues who have tried beginning
instruction in the languages at different times in the school course are
definitely of the opinion that to begin the study of a foreign language
early is a distinct advantage. It seems to the writer that American
schools might profit by this experience and introduce the study of
languages in the lower grades.
TABLE XI
Course of study showing weekly hours in Christiania Cathedral School
(1910-1911).
GYMNASIUM
Courses _Real_ Language-History Latin Middle School
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Classes 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 IV. III. II. I.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Religion 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2
Norwegian 4 5 4 5 6 4 4 5 4 3-1/2 3-1/2 4 5
German 3-1/2 3 3 3-1/2 3 3 3-1/2 3 3 5 5 5 6
French 2 2 4 3 4 4 0 5 4
English 2 2 4 7 7 4 2 2 4 5 5 5
Latin 11 7
History 3 3 3 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3
Geography 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2
Mathematics 6 6 4 2 2 4 2 2 4 5 5 5 5
Natural Science 5 5 4 1 1 4 1 1 4 3 2 2 3
Writing 1/2 1/2 1 2
Drawing 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Vocal Music 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Gymnastics 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3
Manual Training 2 2 2 2
------ -- -- ------ -- -- ------ -- -- -- -- -- --
Total 35-1/2 35 35 35-1/2 35 35 35-1/2 35 35 36 36 36 36
_English_
_Class I._ (Four hours.) Brekke and Western's Selections from English
Authors for the First Gymnasium. The regulation sixty pages (matter from
which examination is taken) is read and reviewed. Forty pages _ex
tempore_. One synopsis or reproduction each second week. Knudsen's
English Prepositions and Synonyms.
_Class II._ R. G. and Latin (Two hours.) Brekke and Western's Selections
for Second and Third Classes in the _Real_ Gymnasium. Sixty-seven pages
read and reviewed in part. _Ex tempore_: Called Back of Conwoy.
_Class II._ L-H. (Seven hours.) Brekke and Western's Selections from
English Authors for Second and Third Linguistic-Historical Classes, one
hundred and sixty pages. Merchant of Venice, Act I. Most of Brigadier
Gerard by Conan Doyle. Western's English Institutions gone through. Otto
Anderssen's History of Literature to "Bacon." Written exercises each
week.
_Class III._ R. G. (Two hours.) Anderssen and Eitrem's Selection of
English Classics, thirty-three pages. The portion from which selections
are taken for the final examination (_Artium Examen_) reviewed in its
entirety. _Ex tempore_: Called Back of Conwoy.
_Class III._ L-H. (Seven hours.) Brekke and Western's Reader.
Obligatory, Selections 3, 4, 16, 17, 11, 19. From Otto Anderssen's
English Literature the required amount: Swift, Byron, Thackeray,
Merchant of Venice. O. Anderssen's History of English Literature.
Western's English Institutions. Written work each week.
_Class III._ Latin (Two hours.) Anderssen and Eitrem's Selection of
English Classics, forty-five pages. Review of selections from which
examinations are taken.
The connections the Norwegians sustain with the English speaking world
are, perhaps, stronger than those binding them to any other people.
Norway has close commercial associations with both England and America,
and rarely does one find a family in Norway without near relatives in
one or both countries. As a consequence, more than usual interest
attaches to the study of English. Strenuous efforts are now being made
to introduce it into the curriculum of the elementary school, and such
change will probably be effected at an early date.
According to the present plan those who graduate from the gymnasium have
studied English six or seven years and have gained a fairly definite
knowledge of it. They are able to read fluently and converse with ease.
They have become familiar also with much of the best English literature,
and through it have been brought into close touch with the life and
culture of the English speaking peoples.
_Latin_
_Class II._ Latin (Seven hours.) Schreiner's Short Grammar. Inflection
and some of the rules of syntax. Ording's elementary book. Ording's
Latin Reading Selections, pp. 1-36. Written exercises each week.
_Class III._ Latin (Eleven hours.) Schreiner's Latin Reading Selections,
pp. 30-67 and 73-88. Livy XXII., chapters 4, 9-15, 16-18, 19-28, 42-55.
Cicero in Verrem IV., sections 1-14, 60-70, 72-81, 105-115. Schreiner's
Short Grammar: Syntax. Forty written translations.
Latin is included in the curricula of only about one-half of the
gymnasia of Norway.[26] It is taught by competent teachers who appeal to
the interests of the pupils through related history and literature, and
through promise of linguistic excellence. The work is gone into
thoroughly, drill is constant, and readiness in response is demanded.
Despite the excellent quality of instruction there is a general feeling
among the Norwegians that the study of Latin does not yield the
immediate and substantial returns coming from other kinds of study.
While they recognize that for advanced work in certain lines Latin is a
prerequisite, they are convinced that, outside of those special lines of
learning, contemporary tongues, history, biology, industrial chemistry,
and other scientific subjects are more beneficial. As a consequence this
branch of study is on the decline.
_History_
_Class I._ (Three hours.) Ancient history as treated in Raeder's text.
History of the middle ages up to the second division from Schjoth and
Lange's General History.
_Class II._ R. G. and Latin (Three hours.) Schjoth and Lange's General
History. History of the Middle Ages and of Modern times until the Vienna
Congress. History of Scandinavia until 1720. Survey of its more
important portions--oral or written.
_Class II._ L-H. (Five hours.) History of the Middle ages down to the
French Revolution from Schjoth and Lange's General History. History of
Scandinavia to 1720. In addition use two hours per week in historical
readings including such topics as the feudal system, medieval poetry,
the university, Venice, craftsmen and merchants in the middle ages,
Fredrik II., Hanseatics and aristocracy in the north, William Pitt.
_Class III._ L-H. (Five hours.) Schjoth and Lange's General History
finished. Scandinavian history in the nineteenth century. Review of all
requirements. Taranger's Social Conditions or Civics. Historical
readings including introduction to the French Revolution, state rights
in Norway, general culture and political development in our time, Norway
in 1814, historical events.
_Class III._ _Real_ and Latin. (Three hours.) History of Norway since
the treaty of Kiel in 1814, and the history of Europe after the Vienna
Congress, using Schjoth and Lange's General History. The more important
features are presented in oral synopses. Besides this Taranger's Civil
Government of Norway.
The study of history in the gymnasium builds very definitely upon the
foundations laid in the primary and middle schools. The supposition is
that the pupils are by this time capable of getting from texts the
information they contain.
The class periods are devoted partially to texts of lesson preparation,
but mostly to free discussion and to presentation of relevant material
by the instructor. Bits of information regarding the private life of
historical characters, minor incidents in their careers, and varied
personal touches given by the teacher infuse spirit and vitality into
the entire course. The lessons are brought directly home to the pupils
and they are able to appreciate the fact that they are inheritors of
past accomplishments and participants in present activities. Some of the
most interesting and enthusiastic recitations I visited were in history.
All through the course in history Norway is given first attention and
consideration. Its history is begun first, all along it is made the
center around which the history of other nations is grouped, and finally
it is given the concentrated, mature, and crowning efforts of those
pursuing the long course of instruction. The closing year is generally
devoted to a study of social and political conditions in the fatherland.
Norway's constitution with its many provisions and administrative
features of government (general and local) is given to the youths in
clear, concrete, and concise presentations. Upon leaving the gymnasium
the young people, therefore, are in a position to appreciate the
meaning, privileges, and responsibilities of citizenship. While they
have their affections centered in their native land, they are able to
comprehend the relative accomplishments, standing, and conditions of
other countries.
_Geography_
_Class I._ (One hour.) Haffner's Physical Geography.
_Class II._ (One hour.) Steen's Mathematical Geography. Completed and
reviewed.
_Class III._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Economic Geography. Review all
requirements.
The gymnasial course in geography includes physical geography,
astronomy, and political geography. It is rich and profitable. Under the
head of physical geography are included such topics as physiography,
petrography, dynamic geology, history of the world's development, the
earth's surface, oceanography, and the atmosphere. While only a general
survey of the respective fields is possible, the pupils obtain a pretty
fair grasp of fundamentals and feel that they have a very good and
adequate idea of what their home--the earth--really is.
The work in astronomy or mathematical geography, as it is frequently
called, is concerned chiefly with the earth's place in the universe, the
Copernican system, Keppler's laws, the moon, the earth (form, size, and
motion), the celestial world in general, the sun's apparent motion, the
sun as a measurer of time, etc., etc.
Political geography provides acquaintance with the earth in special
reference to man's presence and welfare. It treats of his means of
livelihood, ways of communication, and the conditions under which he
colonizes, builds up cities, and develops generally.
_Mathematics_
_Class I._ (Four hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Berg's text. From
beginning to "Series." Geometry: Bonnevie and Sorensen's text. Entire
text covered and reviewed. Examples at home and at school.
_Class II._ _Real_ (Six hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Berg's text. From
"Series" to end of text. Trigonometry: Johannesen's text. Completed and
reviewed. Stereometry: Guldberg's text. Completed and reviewed.
Analytical Geometry: Guldberg's text. From beginning to "The Ellipse."
Problems at home and at school.
_Class II._ Linguistic (Two hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Berg's text.
"Series." Trigonometry: O. Johannesen's text. Solving of problems.
_Class III._ _Real_ (Six hours.) Guldberg's Analytical Geometry. E.
Holst's Higher Arithmetical Series. Review of all requirements in _real_
course. Solution of problems.
_Class III._ Linguistic (Two hours.) Review of the entire requirement.
Examples at home and at school.
In addition to completing the work begun in the middle school in
arithmetic, algebra, and geometry; instruction in the gymnasium includes
trigonometry, stereometry, analytical geometry, and higher arithmetical
series. The methods of instruction are the same as those used in the
middle school though, of course, adapted to the greater maturity and
stronger mentality of the pupils. By the time pupils enter the
gymnasium considerable ability should have been gained in working
independently. Where necessary, the teacher cooperates in solving
problems and makes sure that the principles involved are thoroughly
understood.
Frequently during the recitation period several members of the class are
called to the blackboard, one at a time, to perform operations under
consideration. As the pupil develops the problem he explains every step
taken as he proceeds. The other pupils observe closely, take notes, and
offer suggestions. The instructor carefully supervises every move,
giving explanations when necessary not permitting erasures or leaving
any operation until all in the class understand fully. In this way
hearty cooperation is secured. Every mind is actively engaged and the
excellent results testify of the validity of the method.
Work in analytical geometry and higher arithmetical series is taken only
by those in the _real_ course of instruction.
_Natural History_
_Class I._ (Four hours.) Chemistry: Waage's The Chemistry of Daily Life.
Gone through and reviewed. Physiology: Knudsen and Falch's The Human
Body II. Studied and reviewed.
_Class II._ _Real_ (Five hours.) Isaachsen's Physics. From the beginning
to "Heat." Review after having carefully studied. Exercises at home and
at school. Botany: Th. Resvoll's text. Completed and reviewed.
_Class II._ Linguistic (One hour.) Botany: Resvoll's text. Completed and
reviewed.
_Class III._ _Real_ (Five hours.) Isaachsen's Physics. From "Heat" to
end of text. Entire text reviewed. Zoology: Chr. Bonnevie's text.
Studied and reviewed. Botany: Th. Resvoll's text reviewed.
_Class III._ Linguistic (One hour.) Zoology: Chr. Bonnevie's text.
Studied and reviewed. Botany: Th. Resvoll's text reviewed.
Natural Science or Nature Study in the earlier years of school life is
less differentiated than it becomes in the gymnasium. Here we find the
fields very definitely separated. The more important chemical laws,
animal and vegetable development and growth (botany and zoology), and
the more essential features of human physiology and hygiene form centers
of attention throughout the three years. In the _real_ course physics
also is stressed, though in the other courses of study little time is
provided for it.
Not as much is made of the laboratory method as seems advisable. While
every school has some provision for it they do not go at it in real
earnest. Only one or two at a time can do first hand work. The others
cooperate mentally and get some benefit, but they cannot reap the
greater results which immediate individual experimentation yields.
One day during the progress of a lesson in zoology (where I was a
visitor) a supply of live specimens arrived from the marine biological
station at Drobak, and the remaining portion of the hour was devoted to
investigations at close range. Interest was intense. Pupils dipped in
(literally) and investigated at their own pleasure quite informally. The
material was soon divided up into several receptacles, and around each
of these gathered an eager group in an effort to use, handle, and
examine every specimen. Those who had no interfering appointments for
the succeeding hour accounted it a great favor to be privileged to
continue this study for an extra class period. This is but one
illustration of the interest attending laboratory work where each pupil
may handle and examine for himself--where he may be a doer, an active
participant instead of merely an observer.
Chapter IV
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS
This chapter is for the consideration of some of the more important
phases of the school system presented in greater detail in the foregoing
chapters. The aim is to bring some features of Norway's system under
close inspection, to interpret them in the light of commonly accepted
pedagogical principles, to make comparisons between them and our own,
and to suggest possible improvements where they seem to be needed. It is
clearly evident that school practices admirably adapted to the social
conditions in one country may be far from desirable in another. On the
other hand, it is well-known that some educational means may be equally
suitable in more than one country. Furthermore, certain fundamental
principles are effectual wherever education is attempted. We shall hope
to find some things worthy of being adopted bodily by us and others
capable of transformation into shapes calculated to improve our
educational practices.
THE PEOPLE AND THEIR IDEALS
The Norse are a sturdy race having potentialities capable of great
accomplishment when once aroused and rightly directed. Conditions
prevented these capacities from functioning with freedom until the
middle of the last century when the store of energy which had
accumulated during preceding decades and centuries asserted itself and
effected a rapid rise in the political and intellectual status of the
nation.
It is believed that Norway is now in a period of transition from a
condition of mediocrity to one of eminence among the nations of the
world. Politically, ethically, and educationally she assumes larger
proportions daily.
As individuals the Norwegians are recognized among the leaders in
literature, art, and science, and equal to any as pioneers in the
development of the rich frontiers. As citizens they are enthusiastically
welcomed everywhere. Climatic conditions and habits of life have given
them the sturdiness of physique and vigor of mind which make them
fearless and undaunted in the face of great undertakings and critical
situations. They have become habituated to overcoming all obstacles in
their way, and they naturally concentrate their energies for the
achievement of their desired ends.
It is reasonable to expect similar traits in them as a nation. Their
past actions declare these same tendencies and their present attitudes
confirm the observer in the belief that the history of Norway will
continue the story of regular and ever higher development. Their
strongly democratic individuality seems to have been a factor in
enabling them to realize and recognize their self in a very successful
way. Matters of importance put the entire state into action and it
ploughs through to the bottom of things. While very conservative, the
state will not permit precedent to stand in the way of accepting new
conditions when they are proven superior to the old. After thorough
examination of every detail it passes judgment on the situation and then
stands on that solution. Conservation has been an operating principle
with them all along the line. A step in advance, some worthy
achievement, new or loftier ideals, greater political freedom, and the
like when once gained are always retained.
The union of church and state for example has been to their advantage.
Matters of religion and politics were handled by the same hands and as a
consequence both were strengthened. Each found in the other sources of
inspiration and power. They both recognized education as a necessary
fundamental means for their preservation and advancement. Acting in the
main on the educational ideals of Martin Luther the church accepted the
chief responsibilities in the direction of school activities, while the
state very cheerfully undertook the burden of their support. Through the
processes of growth direct responsibilities have been more and more
shifted to the state, though the church continues to exert very strong
influence and render every possible assistance.
Resulting from this cooperative activity a system of education has
evolved which is effectual in the improvement of the state and in the
maintenance of the noblest ideals of the church. According to its design
this system of schools qualifies all children in the land for
intelligent citizenship, and prepares them severally for the performance
of every function of state, the service of the church, and for the
various arts, professions, and other occupations of life. In other
words, Norway provides for her children educational advantages suitable
to every legitimate requirement or desire. Thus its school system
develops a loyal, well-trained citizenship capable of maintaining its
highest ideals and eager to cooperate in moving the fatherland forward
into greater and nobler achievement.
FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION
To satisfy the varied requirements of the nation along the line of
educational facilities it has been necessary to establish a complex
system of diversified schools. Fundamental in the system are the
_primary schools_ providing the thorough elementary training so
essential and effectual in the qualifying of citizens. Following these
are the _secondary schools_--middle school and gymnasium--which afford
the advantages of higher education along the more liberal lines. Besides
these are the many institutions--public and private--for technical and
professional study. There are general technical schools, schools of
trades and manual arts, agricultural and horticultural institutions,
naval and military academies, schools of art, teachers' colleges, a
technical high school--an engineering college and institute of
technology of high rank--in the city of Trondhjem, and the Royal
Frederik University in Christiania which is devoted to specialized study
and research in science, letters, and learned professions, including
theology, law, medicine, and education. The last is provided for in the
affiliated Pedagogical Seminary recently established.
At this point we may speak a word in commendation of the important part
played by private institutions in Norway. Among them may be enumerated
primary and secondary schools, teachers' seminaries, and technical
institutes. Being of high merit and operating side by side with the
state schools, they have rendered valuable service and exerted a
wholesome influence. The state has recognized their work and expressed
its appreciation of their efforts by giving them standing and by voting
annuities to certain of them.
The uniformly high standard of preparation required for entrance to and
the close correlation between the several special schools make easy the
passage from one to another when it is desired, and give solidarity and
unity wherein cooperation is natural and mutually beneficial.
It should be noted that provision is made for the proper care of the
exceptional child in Norway. This is more particularly true of the
defective. The child who is dull of comprehension along some lines
receives individual assistance from his regular teacher or another who
is employed to do the work. Recognition is given to disparity in
physiological and mental age of children. Those who are definitely
lacking in mentality are segregated into classes in the large schools
and into separate schools in the larger cities, where they are provided
with abundant, well-selected equipment and expert teachers who exert
every effort to improve the conditions and to overcome the handicaps of
the unfortunates. Morally delinquent children are placed in children's
homes--homes for correction--where they are supervised and taught. Each
child is placed under the conditions best suited to his needs--where he
will be most profited. All of this work comes under the authority of the
school officials, and as a result there is close coordination between
the regular and the special schools.
Not only do these officials care for the mentally and morally delinquent
but they are also authorized and required to take children from
environments that are likely to develop evil and lawless traits. Unfit
parents may be deprived of the control and authority over their
offspring who are taken and placed in private homes of moral influence
or in children's homes where they receive proper care and training.
Being vested with such authority the school officials are able to do
much toward the prevention of delinquency as well as to attend
specifically to the individual cases where a lack of moral
responsibility is evidenced.
Here are wholesome lessons for our American schools. Instead of giving
sufficient individual help or providing expert teachers for the less
intelligent, we permit them to become repeaters or to drop out
altogether; in place of taking the child from an evil environment before
he becomes a moral delinquent and placing him under moral surroundings
in some good home, we hesitate to interfere with parental rights--as
though they were greater than social--and permit him to become a
law-breaker; and rather than give to school officials the authority and
necessary equipment to care rightfully for the child who has committed
some error, we place him in the hands of the law and he is probably sent
to a reformatory having neither facility for his proper treatment nor
any connection with the schools whatsoever.
Closer co-ordination of these educational functions and institutions
would prevent much misfortune, cure a vast amount of misery, and
accomplish more efficient results.
DIRECTING AUTHORITY AND MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS
Norway's educational authority is definitely centralized in the person
at the head of the Department of Ecclesiastical and Educational Affairs,
who is a member of the King's cabinet. The several departments, bureaus,
commissions, and boards for control are radiations from this central
focus. Furthermore, their schools are parts and parcels of one very
definite, though somewhat complex, system; each class of schools, in its
respective field, is ordered according to certain specifications; and
all are coordinated so as to result in a unified whole without
overlapping, or exposure of ragged and loose ends.
The controlling features of greater importance such as curriculum,
appointment of teachers, plans of instruction, and the determination of
qualifications for teaching positions are in the hands of the higher
authorities. In effect the state determines the policies, the officers
are expected to respect them, and the patrons exercise but little direct
control. For example, the law provides that completion of certain grades
of school work shall mean practically the same throughout the country,
that the middle school and gymnasium examinations shall be uniform
everywhere in the state, that standards of academic fitness for teaching
positions must be the same, and that teachers' salaries shall not be
below a certain minimum amount. Local opinion never has a thought of
departing from these requirements.
Being vested with considerable authority the school officials are able
not only to make suggestions and recommendations, but also to enforce
all school regulations. This plan is successful in securing the most
efficient service of which the officials are capable. They are expected
to pursue their duties and perform their obligations according to
directions without being too largely influenced by the opinions of
individuals or community sentiment. Local politics plays a very small
part in determining what shall be the educational trend, though the
patrons of the school do enjoy considerable liberty and bear some
responsibilities in arranging minor factors with reference to local
situations.
We Americans might avoid a vast amount of leakage and unnecessary
expenditure by improved organization of our educational institutions. A
unified system of education, manned by competent officials with some
authority, might easily raise the standard of efficiency of our schools
several grades, and at the same time reduce the proportional cost.
President Hall has given optimistic expression along this line. He
writes:--"The time is not far off when we shall coordinate all
educational agencies for all classes of children of school age....
All... institutions for the care and betterment of the bodies, minds or
morals of children should correlate their work so that eventually it may
all become so consolidated that each child can be placed in that
position in the whole great system which will do most and best for it at
each stage and so that changes from one to the other can be made
whenever it becomes for the welfare of the child.... Diversities of
agencies, aims and method should increase; and incorrigibles,
defectives, homeless, neglected, backward children and the rest should
each have special provision; but integration should keep pace with this
differentiation."[27]
Were our public schools, reformatories, schools for defectives, etc.,
etc., all combined into one system they might perform their offices more
effectively than they do now. Instead of permitting each to run along
independent of the rest, they should be made to supplement each other.
Again, it is a matter of common knowledge that in our own country high
school graduation, qualifications for teaching positions in the several
grades of school work, college entrance requirements, college degrees,
etc., are without uniform standardization. At present even a college
degree has meaning only when the work and equipment of the institution
granting it have been carefully estimated; state teachers' certificates
may or may not be valid in other states; and reciprocity among the
states in recognizing certificates is not in operation generally. While
state certificates are not always demanded, some of the states are now
requiring that all teachers in the high schools must be college
graduates. In all too many instances the only effectual prerequisite to
obtaining a position as teacher in the schools--primary or secondary--is
the vote of the school directors. The gradation of educational activity
according to a fixed basis and the raising of standards in academic and
pedagogical preparation and in personal fitness for teaching positions
would make the schools vastly greater factors in the country's progress
and do the nation an inestimable service.
Centralization and uniformity in authority and purpose are distinctly
evident in every school activity in Norway. The authority of the state
is clearly stamped on the work of every official from the directing head
to the last in position. Everyone connected with the system feels the
obligations of the position occupied and, at the same time, recognizes
his own security while keeping within the limits of the law. They all
concentrate their energies in an earnest endeavor to realize the ends
which the educational system is designed to reach. Even individual
subjects of instruction are presented for specific purposes which in
turn contribute to the general end to be reached through the course of
study as a whole. Purposes, aims, and ends are always in the foreground
of attention, and when teacher and pupils cooperate and are actuated by
common ideals, their efforts are sure to be vital and successful.
TEACHERS' TRAINING
Proper pedagogical training is perhaps the most potent factor for good
in educational activity. But few systems, if any, adequately meet the
needs along this line. Some are well supplied with institutions devoted
to the training of teachers so far as their number and distribution are
concerned but they are lacking in quality; others have training schools
very high in quality but they are poorly distributed and insufficient in
number.
The ideals and equipment of these special institutions are factors of
prime importance in determining their real values. These center in the
personnel of the directing and teaching force. Too frequently thorough
scientific preparation for the specific work of supervising and
instructing in teachers' seminaries is wanting. Natural endowment
coupled with long, varied, and successful experience has been regarded
as sufficient qualification. To be sure, native ability is an absolute
essential; experience is of immeasurable value; but intensive scientific
research in the fields of child nature and development, psychology, and
pedagogical principles, together with scientific methods, are equally
indispensable.
Now it is a truism that teachers teach as they have been taught. Hence,
to achieve greatest results, prospective teachers should secure their
education (general and professional) from ideal teachers as far as
possible and obtain experience through practice teaching under the
personal supervision of masters in education. Preparing under such
conditions, their natural capabilities would be brought more nearly to
maximum efficiency and they would become powers for good in the
profession. To have seminaries so distributed and equipped that all
prospective teachers might have the best training within easy access
would be an ideal condition.
Germany affords an unparalleled example in the development of teachers'
seminaries. No other nation ever had a system of training schools as
efficient as the one there provided. Her right to the title of "School
mistress of the world" is in large measure traceable to the excellent
training provided for and required of the teachers in the schools.
Norway early recognized the importance of this phase of school work and
established six teachers' seminaries. Subsequently four private
seminaries have been opened and the state has instituted the Pedagogical
Seminary in affiliation with the university in Christiania. This gives
them a liberal number of training colleges well distributed. While they
are subject to some adverse criticism for failure to keep pace with the
development of their school system as a whole, we must admit that the
excellent results achieved by the schools of Norway are due largely to
the early provision of these seminaries and insistence upon special
training for teaching positions.
It is probable that certain normal schools of the United States deserve
the honors so far as ideals and results are concerned even though we
have accorded first ranking in system to Germany. Our plan, however, is
too individual in nature to accomplish greatest good. We lack a
centralized authority with power to do things. We have practically no
co-ordination between state systems and no uniformity. Even in certain
states the several schools do not cooperate or supplement each other as
they should. The waste occasioned by the looseness of our system is
enormous. Could we unify our resources, systematize our equipment, and
provide efficient direction along cooperative lines of activity, the
American schools would advance by leaps and bounds such as have not been
known up to the present time in any nation.
A word is in place here with reference to the process of obtaining
professional preparation. One of the best things to be gained by special
training is a professional attitude toward the work of teaching. This
cannot be attained by spasmodic effort but must be grown into. It comes
rather as a result of long-continued study and application of principles
than by intensive training for a short while. Direct instruction and
experiment extended over a long period of time affords opportunity for
innumerable associations and interrelations which no "hurry-up" process
can provide. When professional training and study along the general
lines of academic learning parallel each other they become interwoven in
such a way that each contributes to the other, and simultaneously the
proper attitude with respect to educational processes becomes a very
real part of the student's life.
There are a number of important pedagogical principles which should
become ingrained in the life of the individual in order that he make a
success in the teaching profession. It is a generally conceded and
commonly practiced rule in education that to thoroughly master any field
of knowledge and really get into its vital parts it is necessary to keep
the mind acting upon it, at least intermittently, through several years
of time. Principles acted and reacted upon, viewed in this light and
that, examined under a certain condition and then another, and tested in
various ways may result very differently in one's life than when given a
hurried, even though intensive, examination. They are certain in the one
instance to sink deep into the life of the individual while in the other
case they may or may not affect his behavior.
It seems, therefore, that if the excellent features which now
characterize Norway's Pedagogical Seminary might be carried along
through the whole or a large part of the college course, or if the work
of the seminary might be supplemented by studies such as principles of
education, history of education, child study, and psychology, carried
along with the college work the results would be more effectual--the
preparation for teaching more thorough. However, considering the short
time that has elapsed since the founding of this Seminary, its work is
of high order and its ideals are praiseworthy. The expressed intent of
the director is to develop the field as rapidly as possible until it
shall be characterized by the best means of professional training known
to the science.
THE TEACHERS' LIFE
The life of the teacher is one of service, calling for an expenditure of
the self to an extent perhaps greater than any other profession. Among
the Norse, however, it is not as strenuous as that experienced in
American schools. The Norwegian teachers have more time than we for
recreation, self-improvement, or any of the activities opened up by
leisure hours. Life generally is set at a more moderate pace with the
Norsemen than with the rushing Americans, and the schoolmen enjoy the
attendant advantages along with those in other professions or
occupations.
While leisure among certain classes leads to idleness and corruption, it
has quite opposite results among the better class of citizens.
Windelband says that "The cultured man is he who in his leisure does not
become a mere idler." The cultured men of the past have in their leisure
developed science, art, literature, and philosophy. They have had
reserve energy after the performance of their regular labors to use in
fruitful, self-selected activities. There are always innumerable avenues
through any one of which an earnest servant of the state may bring great
gain to its people.
There is no nobler profession than that devoted to the development of
youth; neither is there any occupation which brings more satisfying
recompenses. The child is the most precious asset of the nation and
deserves the maximum service possible for teachers to render. To
perform the most efficient service the teacher should have health,
vigor, and time for recreation in addition to scholastic and
professional qualifications. When school authorities make conditions
conducive to these ends, the results will be of such character that
teachers, pupils, patrons, and community will all obtain greater
profits.
Where school activities are not overtaxing, the teacher has opportunity
to build up his physical being, increase the buoyancy of his spirits so
as to enthuse his pupils to a greater extent, or improve his educational
qualifications. One may concentrate his efforts along some given line of
research and from day to day give the pupils under his tuition the
benefits derived from these specialized efforts. An individual by
persistent study may become the discoverer of new laws or truths which
reach the ends of the earth and profoundly influence human affairs.
Whatever the particular activity, leisure consecrated to the uplift of
mankind is sure to result in great good.
When institutions drive their servants to the limit of their powers they
must inevitably be the losers in the long run. They extinguish the light
of ambition, reduce to machines the individuals who should be
contributors to human progress, and make legion "the man with the hoe."
Such practice in our schools results in waste of energy, depletion of
our teaching force, and irretrievable loss in many ways.
It is my candid opinion that the rapidity of the evolution of the
Norwegian school system, its excellencies, and the highly satisfactory
results coming from it are in large measure due to the fact that it
does not overtax the powers of its teachers and educational leaders, but
on the contrary allows them opportunity for the exercise of initiative
and encourages a professional attitude towards their work.
THE CURRICULUM
The course of instruction in the primary and secondary schools of Norway
is uniform for all pupils except in the second and third years of the
gymnasium where diverse lines of study are offered. The arrangement is
unfortunate in that the individual is sometimes required to pursue
subjects of study for which he has no adaptability and in which he can
develop no interest. Teachers in Norway tell me that this requirement is
a great handicap; retarding the progress of the class, demoralizing the
individual, and increasing the burden of the teacher. More flexibility
in this regard would doubtless be an advantage. The elective system, so
common in our own schools, when rightly supervised preserves sufficient
coherence between the studies taken up and gives opportunity for more
perfect adjustment.
Not only in the course of study but also in organization, plans of
instruction, and equipment, the schools of Norway are too uniform to
result in the freest development of the intellect, the richest growth of
individuality, or the greatest conservation of time, energy, or money.
There are a few variations from their regular routine but these are not
sufficiently numerous.
One favorable innovation is the promotion of teachers along with classes
through a part or all of the primary school. The consensus of opinion
seems to be that better results accrue when a teacher continues with a
class through several years of work. This plan is generally followed
unless the special fitness of a teacher for work within particular
limits renders it highly advisable for assignment to be made to such
place. While special aptness for a particular class of instruction
should be recognized, the promoting of teachers along with classes
generally obviates any tendency to staleness and usually emphasizes
special qualifications.
While it would be interesting to discuss the methods used in presenting
each subject in the curriculum a few must suffice.
_Religious Instruction and Moral Education_
The church was first to establish schools in Norway, putting them into
operation in connection with their cathedrals, probably about the middle
of the twelfth century. The chief aim was to prepare the pupils for a
religious life, either as ministers or as faithful disciples. Having
these as definite ends, the materials for study were selected because of
their fitness to contribute along these lines. Instruction was almost
wholly in religion. Since morality is such a fundamental part of
religion, moral education in large amount was given indirectly. The aim
was religion and the result was both morality and religion. Schools
came to be generally regarded as institutions wherein moral and
religious instruction were the prevailing if not the dominating
features. This phase of work early became traditional and gained such
momentum that it has ever formed a conspicuous part of every grade of
instruction throughout the primary and secondary schools.
During the formative period the instruction in religion maintained a
vitality which was quite in keeping with the demands of the times.
However, as the school system developed, especially during the closing
half of the last century, it became necessary to arrange more definite
plans of instruction in religion as well as in other subjects in the
school curriculum. The adapting of instruction to the various grades of
school work was a difficult task. The adjustment made to needs in the
primary schools seems a very happy one. In this elementary section of
the school system the instruction in religion consists mainly in story
telling. The work is made concrete and personal, and its influence is
most excellent.
Not so fortunate has been the attempt to present the great truths and
ideals of religion in the secondary grades. The human appeal, so
fruitful in the lower classes, does not appear in the higher, at least
to the same degree. Instead the work is formal and prescribed. Interest
dies out and even respect for the work rapidly wanes as the pupil passes
into more advanced grades. I have often thought while observing the
listlessness of the pupils during the period for religious teaching that
the effects upon morals and religion would be better by far without the
instruction as now provided.
To find lodgment in the heart and expression in the experiences of
youth, religious principles must be made to appear practical and vital.
They must be shown to be desirable in themselves and in their ends.
To teach religion successfully one must be a living example of its true
values, an earnest interpreter of its meaning and power, and a
sympathetic friend of the pupils. Besides this he must be a genuine
teacher with a knowledge of youth and ability to help others obtain a
clear conception of the beauty and worth of the nobler life.
Religion and morality are so intimately bound up with life's activities
that it is difficult to consider them in and of themselves. It is quite
impossible to curriculize and present them as subjects for study and
instruction without building up in consciousness the idea that they may
or may not be phases of life. When this is attempted it is liable to
diminish rather than to increase their true meaning.
It is at least possible that the most favorable results come through
specific occasions which arise apart from set requirements. A genuine
experience in real life is the best illustration of what morality and
religion mean, and it furnishes the most secure foundation for
instruction along these lines.
Few lessons and no subjects of instruction can be fully presented
without giving considerable attention to their moral and religious
phases. If a lesson is completely mastered its moral and religious
contributions will have been taken over and appropriated along with any
and all other contents. When the moral and religious values inherent in
school studies receive their proportionate emphasis there will be no
crying need of arranging special courses for their study. The
seriousness of the situation at present lies not in the fact that there
are no special courses of instruction in morality and religion, but
rather in the condition that teachers fail to recognize their
opportunities for giving such instruction. They should impress the
children with the fact that morality and religion are component parts of
life and that they give meaning and reality to every human experience.
While it would be gratifying to see these subjects taught as separate
branches by individuals who could make them profitable, it is much more
imperative that all teachers recognize their own responsibility in this
regard, whatever subjects they have to teach.
_The Classics_
In common with those of many other countries, the school curricula of
Norway have been saturated with the classics. For a long time the
secondary schools were devoted largely to the presentation of the
Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages. About 1850, there arose a demand for
an education which was more utilitarian. Nature study, the sciences,
manual training, modern foreign languages, and home economics pressed
their claims for recognition and the people became convinced of their
values. The masses then began to investigate what right the languages of
the ancients had for occupying so large a proportion of attention in
school work.
Gradually the ancient classics were replaced by more modern educational
materials. Hebrew and Greek were in their turn dropped from the list of
required subjects and the time thus saved was given to work regarded as
more vital and beneficial. In 1896, a very decisive step was taken when
by legislative enactment Latin--the last of the dead languages--was
omitted from the list of subjects required in the school curriculum.
This act of the Storthing has been severely criticised by some. However,
the people whose right and duty it was to decide studied the matter
carefully and thoroughly at home and abroad, and after calm
consideration, acted in harmony with their best judgment, passed the
law, and put in into immediate execution. The momentum of former
practices, the force of tradition, or the example of other nations was
not sufficient to control the Norwegian state in its action. It does not
permit precedent to determine its policies, foreign nations to do its
thinking, nor "well-enough" systems to prevent reform.
When higher ground is seen clearly Norway moves forward with all its
power, determined to occupy and utilize the greater opportunities. Such
was the condition of the state in its consideration of the classics in
their school curriculum. They were willing that those individuals who
might elect to pursue the study of the ancient languages should have the
privilege to do so and they provided for them such opportunity. However,
they were definitely convinced that to require all pupils to study these
subjects in order to complete courses of study or enter the university
was an injustice. To their credit be it said that when they are
convinced that a certain course of procedure is best they have the moral
courage to pursue it. In this particular instance the people were fully
aware of the fact that they were taking a step which was a decided
deviation from the straightforward course pursued for centuries by the
leading national educational systems. Yet they became converted to the
idea that for their own good, under their own conditions, and looking
forward to their future as a state and nation, it would be the wiser
solution to leave the classics behind and devote more time and energy to
studies which they conceived to be more efficacious.
It is interesting to note the recent tendencies in this direction in
other countries. In the United States Latin is becoming less and less a
required subject of instruction in the high schools, and each year
lengthens the list of colleges which do not require it for entrance.
Even conservative and classic-loving Germany has recently opened the
doors of her universities to those who have finished the Real-gymnasia.
Thus they, too, acknowledge that the way of the classics is not the only
road to higher culture and learning.
It has come to be almost universally recognized that the schools exist
for the learner rather than the learner for the schools. To debar an
individual from privileges for which he is prepared simply because he
has not met certain inherited traditional prescriptions is rapidly
becoming unorthodox. Norway seems to have set the pace for other nations
in at least this one respect, and her clearsighted move in displacing
the classics by the introduction of larger amounts of modern foreign
languages and other branches of greatest present utility is being
followed by other nations of sound pedagogical principles.
_Physical Culture_
Few are the instances where the physical development of the children is
so effectually provided for as among the Norwegians. Gymnastics is a
regular feature throughout the entire course of study until the
completion of the gymnasium. In addition to this the universal rule of
requiring the pupils to go into the open air during the intermissions
which follow every class meeting has its good effects. Athletic sports
also have recently become more important features of school life.
Fortunately they have not reached a point of specialization where their
values are open to question.
Buildings and grounds are constructed and laid out with the physical
welfare of children in mind. As a consequence we find gymnastic halls
well equipped and grounds supplied with the advantages most essential
in the accomplishment of the desired end, viz., a strong and vigorous
body in which to develop a sound mind. Their school grounds are small,
making a crowded condition the rule in the larger schools. Strange as it
may seem, the same unfortunate condition prevails almost universally in
our own land where there appears to be little excuse for congestion.
However, the size of the grounds is perhaps a matter of minor
importance, especially when compared to their use. Space and equipment
may be regarded as incidental; use is the all-important part. Our
grounds are not used. We rarely have but one, if any, intermission
except the noon hour, the greater portion of which is occupied in going
for the midday meal. The results of the Norwegians' enforced, frequent,
and regular use of the playgrounds are in evidence on every hand.
Robust, vigorous, buoyant, active, healthy, sound, alert, and the like
adjectives are the appropriate ones to use in speaking of the physiques
of their pupils.
Were the influences of bodily conditions upon mental growth and activity
fully appreciated, the schools would doubtless make a sudden shift
toward providing adequately for physical education. Physical development
has been regarded with considerable favor for some time, but it has
usually been a secondary affair when it should have been introduced as a
vital feature. Educational systems should provide for the training and
development of the physical as well as the mental life. They are
dependent upon each other and are in fact two phases of the same life
It is obviously wasteful to seek to develop the one without regard to
the other, or to attempt the cultivation of one at the expense of the
other.
_Vocal Music_
Music is among the most potent factors in developing national spirit and
loyalty. Plato wrote: "Any musical innovation is full of danger to the
whole state, and ought to be prohibited.... When modes of music change,
the fundamental laws of the state always change with them."[28] Napoleon
stated that if he might write the nation's songs he cared not who might
write its laws. Music in the better forms has moved individuals and
nations to great accomplishments, and its efficacy is generally
recognized. As a means of education, however, it receives far too little
attention.
The quality of music sung in the schools of Norway has some points of
superiority. One feature in making it a powerful contributor in
developing loyal and competent citizens is the use they make of the best
compositions from their own writers. Their poets and musicians have
furnished large amounts of excellent productions. They sing of their
heroes and of their national ideals and achievements. The spirit in
their songs reflects the soul of their fatherland. The influence upon
the lives of the pupils contributes to solidarity of the nation and to
love for its institutions.
Contrast this with the results of the rattle of rag-time and jigs. Too
much of our public school, Sunday school, and church music has been of
this order. Public school music and education along this line are
matters deserving more attention than they receive. Recent introduction
into many schools of victrolas with records of masterpieces produced by
the leading artists of the world point to a recognition of the educative
value of the better quality of selections. To hear the same productions
direct from the soul of the artist would be many times as effectual as
any mechanical reproduction, but this is beyond the reach of the masses.
Present indications give assurance that the near future will see music
more nearly occupying its legitimate place in our educational
provisions.
LINES OF INSTRUCTION IN THE GYMNASIUM
In the second and third years of gymnasial work three courses of study
are open, viz., _Real_, _Language-History_, and _Language-History with
Latin_. Here pupils get their first experience in electing the line of
work wherein their study shall center. This seems a rather fortunate
provision, for by this time likes and dislikes for certain subjects of
study, special aptitudes along specific lines, and choice of life work
are coming into the foreground of consciousness. The pupils' likes and
aptitudes working together influence their decisions concerning life's
activities. Again the disposition and nature of individuals render one
line of study more attractive and beneficial than either of the others.
There are, indeed, many influences at work upon pupils of such age which
make it appear highly advisable to follow some particular line of study.
Whether pupils go into the chosen line of life work directly from the
gymnasium or by way of the university, it is of distinct advantage to
specialize along the line for which they are preparing. Should they
intend to teach, they would doubtless prefer studying most the subjects
to be taught. In these they would have deepest interest, and from their
pursuit they would derive greatest profit. If they determined to study
theology, law, medicine, or some other special phase of learning, they
would make selection of gymnasial course with that object in view.
Whatever the work to follow completion of the gymnasium, the different
courses prepare for the narrower specialization which characterizes
life's activities and all their university study.
The following table presents the exact work represented by the three
courses in form convenient for comparisons.
TABLE XII.
The Three Courses of Study in the Gymnasia of Norway Showing Weekly
Hours Given to Each Subject.[A]
1 2 3
I II III I II III I II III
---------- ----------- -----------
Religion 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Norwegian 5 6 6 5 6 7 5 6 6
German 4 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 3
English 4 2 1 4 7 7 4 2 1
French 4 2 2 4 3 5 4 3 3
Latin 7 11
History 3 3 3 3 5 5 3 3 3
Geography 2 1 2 2
Natural Science 4 5 7 4 2 4 2
Mathematics 5 6 6 5 3 5 3
Drawing 1 1
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
30 31 31 30 30 30 30 30 30
[Note A: 1. Singing and gymnastics--5 or 6 hours per week are omitted
from the table.
2. 1, Real course, 2, Language-History course, 3, Language-History
course with Latin.]
As the table shows, the three courses are identical during the first
year and uniform in religion and German throughout the three years. The
Language-History course lends itself favorably for purposes of
comparison. It stresses the importance of several modern languages and
history, giving to them a preeminence over all other work. The _Real_
course reduces the work in English, French, Norwegian, and History and
increases the amount of science and mathematics. The course including
Latin makes similar reductions but emphasizes Latin instead of the
sciences and mathematics.
The Norwegians believe it better and cheaper to offer the different
courses in the same school than to provide separate schools. This plan
necessitates less duplication and at the same time affords quite as
adequate facilities for whatever specialization the different courses
represent.
CO-EDUCATION
Whether schools should be co-educational has been a live question among
many nations for generations, and considerable time will yet elapse
before unanimity of opinion is reached.
Nearly all the schools of Norway are co-educational. However, in some of
the city systems boys and girls use different playgrounds, and in
certain schools they are segregated also for purposes of instruction.
These matters are governed according to the wishes of the inspector or
the desires of the principals of the different schools. The aim is to
combine the better phases represented in various methods and to adopt
the plan best suited to the local situation, or the one to which the
person in charge is converted and in which he can, because of his
convictions, accomplish best results.
"The separation of the sexes is complete in all the schools of Germany
excepting some of the primary classes. The advisability of this is a
large question, but by no means a settled one.... Germany feels that she
has the proper solution, while in America, with an opposite answer, we
feel for the most part satisfied."[29]
In American public schools co-education is almost universally practiced.
In reference to this matter we give the opinions of some prominent
educators. The lamented Dr. Harris, while engaged in the St. Louis, Mo.,
schools, wrote: "Discipline has improved continually with the adoption
of mixed schools;... the mixing of the male and female departments of a
school has always been followed by improvement in discipline, not merely
on the part of the boys, but on that of the girls as well. The rudeness
and abandon which prevail among boys when separate at once give place to
self-restraint in the presence of girls. The prurient sentimentality
engendered by educating girls apart from boys... disappears almost
entirely in mixed schools."[30] The Honorable John Eaton while
Commissioner of Education of the United States made report concerning
the co-education of the sexes in several hundred large and small cities
in the Union. The tenor of the entire report is well summarized in the
following sentence: "We are created male and female; all the impulses
and activities of nature enforce co-education; if we must live together
we must be educated to that end; to educate separately is an attempt to
change the natural order of human economy."[31]
In our higher institutions of learning the situation is much the same.
The Commissioner of Education, referring to the State University of
Iowa, writes, "The report of the president says that the experience of
the institution has uniformly been favorable to the co-education of the
sexes; that their influence on each other in the acquisition of learning
has been most beneficial as well as conducive to orderly habits. The
presence of both sexes is considered 'an invaluable feature' in
restraining indecorum and an 'inducement to every virtue.'"[32] The
practice has continued with similar results throughout the entire
country.
Instances favorable to co-education might be multiplied. Its adoption
has become a foregone conclusion so far as our general system of
education is concerned. True we do have some colleges and a few
secondary schools devoting themselves exclusively to the education of
one or the other of the sexes. Not many of them are state institutions.
They are usually private schools and they answer a certain demand
whether well founded or not.
There are certain questions in connection with the education of the
sexes which are fundamental and need considerable attention. However, no
attempt can be made here to solve the many important problems suggested.
It is the intent only to emphasize the necessity of being awake to real
conditions and to indicate the fact that herein lies a field for the
educator's most careful consideration.
The questions arise: Are the natural functions of man and woman enough
alike to justify making their education identical, and will the adoption
of such a plan of education result in the advancement or deterioration
of the race? A recent article referring "to the endeavor to use women
industrially, socially, and politically on the same footing as men"
sounds a warning note, crying out against the present tendencies which
are taking from the flower of womankind thousands who are eminently
fitted for motherhood, "woman's essential function on the globe," and
diverting their lives to other and less noble pursuits. "It is therefore
essential to the race," say the authors, "that the ablest, healthiest,
and finest women should be encouraged, tempted, compelled, if necessary,
by circumstances to devote themselves to family life by becoming wives
and mothers, and it is doubtful how far it is expedient to draw them
off, even for a time to other occupations."[33]
While co-education is in agreement with conditions of family life, is
economic, and continues to be entirely practicable, the question still
remains whether there may not be justification in a demand for certain
fundamental differences to be made in adapting educational means and
matter to the two sexes. Co-education, however, may continue without
making the education of the sexes identical. In fact it is very easily
possible to make the education of the sexes fundamentally different even
though both institutions and class activities are co-educational in
practice. A difference in the amount of work in certain groups of
subjects required of men and women, respectively, might furnish a
satisfying solution of this question. And if there are certain branches
of study which should belong exclusively to one or the other of the
sexes, it is a simple matter to separate for such work. On the whole it
seems to the writer highly advisable to educate the sexes together as
far as possible.
THE SCHOOL YEAR
The regular school year in Norway has forty weeks of six days each. The
plan of having school on Saturdays furnishes an additional day of
fruitful, well directed activity to the children, who might otherwise be
permitted to spend the time in idleness or misguided conduct.
In America we have so many vacations and holidays that our schools are
in session only about 75 or 80 per cent of the time utilized in Norway.
We may be justified in having the long summer vacations because of the
inconvenience and depletion of strength occasioned by the heat, but
several of our vacations during the year and the practice of having no
school on Saturdays are inheritances without much justification. School
activities, when rightly conducted, should be invigorating and
exhilarating instead of producing a state of prolonged fatigue requiring
seasons of inactivity or other changes in order to regain lost vitality.
Again, the relaxation occasioned by diversion of thought and change of
activity on Sunday is certainly sufficient to counteract any necessity
of using Saturday for recuperation. It appears evident that we are not
as frugal in this matter as sound judgment demands that we should be.
SCHOOL LUNCHES
It has been found that mental activity is very greatly affected by
conditions of nutrition. The quality, quantity, and preparation of
foods, together with regularity in eating, determine to a considerable
extent what may be the progress of the pupil in his growth, both mental
and physical. The child who is improperly fed or underfed is thereby
handicapped, while the one who receives intelligent care along the same
line is placed at a distinct advantage.
That in all large cities there are hundreds and thousands of underfed
children is a fact of common knowledge. In many cities provisions have
been made for supplying at least one meal per day free of charge to all
needy pupils. Norway has been in the forefront in this paternalistic
movement. Several of her cities have undertaken this noble work and
probably no city in the world can boast of more adequate facilities for
carrying it on than Christiania.
They purchase the best procurable quality of the most nutritious food,
prepare it in a wholesome and palatable manner, and send it out from a
central kitchen to the several primary schools of the city in such
quantities as are needed to liberally supply the demands. The food is
served hot in the regular lunch rooms absolutely free to all children
whose parents ask it and at first cost to others. This work in
Christiania is typical of the provisions made in other cities but the
equipment, and possibly the system of distribution, is superior to that
found elsewhere.
In addition to this, nutritious and easily digested foods and drinks are
provided at other schools and served at a moderate cost in the lunch
rooms at stated hours in the day. This latter provision is generally in
charge of the family of the janitor of the building and is most common
in the private and secondary schools to which the previously mentioned
plan does not extend.
Experiment has demonstrated in our own land that it is entirely
practicable to provide at a minimum cost warm, well-cooked, wholesome
foods to either supplement or replace the cold indigestible lunches so
commonly carried by school children. The cities and towns enjoy few if
any advantages over the rural districts in this regard. The plan is
workable and advisable, and it should be more commonly adopted.
COMPARATIVE ATTAINMENTS
In the study of the school system of Norway it is interesting to compare
the school life and attainments of the pupils with those of American
children. It is true that until we have established norms for measuring
the results of education, we cannot make accurate statements regarding
the relative standing of pupils nor estimate precisely their
accomplishments. However, we are able to single out some features of
importance and compare them in a general way.
It has been noted that the Norwegian pupils begin school at seven years
of age, while the American children commence at five or six. Many
prominent educators believe that our American children start to school
too young. They are of the opinion that their development, physical and
mental, would be better if they did not begin formal school work until
at least seven or eight years of age. The greater physical development
of the Norwegians, due to their later start, gives them a distinct
advantage. Their bodily strength and vigor supplement and aid their
mental growth.
Passing through Norway's successive grades of school to the completion
of the gymnasium requires twelve years. The same length of time is used
in reaching graduation from our American high school. Now it is
generally conceded that a graduate of the gymnasium in Norway is two
years in advance of a graduate of the American high school; or in other
words a student entering the university from Norway's gymnasial course
has an education equivalent to that of an individual entering the junior
year of work in an American college or university. Some would rank the
Norwegian even higher than I have here suggested; however, only a very
general comparison can be made.
In consideration of these conditions the question arises: How shall we
account for the fact that we use two extra years in order to reach
approximately the same standard? It is recalled that the Norwegian
entering school at seven and progressing at the normal rate are ready
for university work at nineteen while the Americans begin two years
earlier in order to reach the same attainments at the same age. If the
Norwegian pupils accomplish as much in twelve years, beginning at seven
years of age, as our American children do in fourteen years, commencing
at five, should we rest satisfied, or should we modify our system so as
to profit by their experience? Why permit traditions or precedent to rob
us of choice benefits within our reach?
Again, the students entering the Norwegian university are older and more
mature both physically and mentally than are ours. Being older, their
habits of life are more definitely formed, and they are better fitted to
undertake the responsibility of self-direction. It has been suggested by
some that we extend the work of the high school in order to keep our
children under parental guidance until they are sufficiently mature to
care for themselves at less hazard.
The course pursued by Norwegian pupils is uniform for all until the last
two years of the secondary school, when certain branches of study may be
chosen for major attention. When students start to the university they
enter immediately upon specialized lines of work and pursue them to
their limits. The American pupils are privileged to elect a considerable
proportion of their secondary school work, yet they do not generally
specialize at all until their junior year in college; frequently they
postpone definite specialization until the beginning of graduate
courses.
Fundamental social characteristics enter into educational ideals, and
each nation, very naturally, develops a system of schools peculiarly
adapted to its needs. There are, of course, general underlying
principles which operate in all educational systems and place them on
similar bases; there are also certain features, essential in the make-up
of the individual systems, which are not common. These peculiar factors
give distinctive character to the various systems and are of telling
effect in determining their excellencies. Whether these special phases
affect the life and accomplishments of the pupils, the nature of their
work, the management of school affairs, or other educational activities;
they render the different systems almost impossible of comparison.
However, they are suggestive, and frequently they may be modified and
used in improving the systems of other countries.
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION
Every successful teacher presents his subject in conformity with some
universal principles of method. While these cannot be mechanically
systematized and used according to unchanging rules, they form a
necessary part of an instructor's equipment. The teacher who knows the
subject and is master of the technique of instruction is sure of
success, while the one without method will fail.
It seems that the pedagogues of Norway have formed a happy combination
of some methods of instruction. They appreciate the value of the class
meeting and with them "teaching goes on chiefly in what we call the
_recitation_. This is the teacher's point of contact with his pupils;
here he meets them face to face and mind to mind; here he succeeds or
fails in his function of teaching."[34]
The excellence of the work of instruction in Germany has long been
recognized. That "the German teacher teaches" is very generally known.
He transcends all texts and is an authority on the subjects he presents.
By pedagogic training he has been exalted to a place of eminence in his
profession. It is possible that they over-emphasize the work of the
instructor and neglect the part that pupils should play.
In America various methods of instruction are in use. One plan is to
regard teacher and pupils as cooperators in activities wherein interests
are common. The teacher, having had experience, exercises control and
serves as chief guide through the most critical places in the way of
progress. So far as possible the pupils are encouraged to exercise
individual initiative and to become independent. They are not to be
merely recipients from the teacher's vast store of knowledge, but with
him they are to become genuine participators in the world's thoughts and
activities.
Another plan in all too common use may be designated as the "text book
method." According to it the major portion of information comes from the
voluminous, logically developed, well-arranged, and somewhat
attractively printed and bound readable text. The function of the
teacher is largely testing knowledge gained from books, assigning
lessons in the text, supplementing the work of the pupils from his own
store or by reference to other works on the subject, and stimulating
them to earnest effort in every possible way.
President Hall would not regard this text book plan of work as very
worthy procedure. He writes that some teachers take time "telling pupils
what to do and testing to see if they have done it. But this is not
teaching; but a device of ignorance, laziness, or physical weakness, or
all combined. The real teacher teaches and reduces recitation to a
minimum. Whoever has visited the best continental schools or studied
comparatively such national educational exhibitions as those of St.
Louis must have been acutely impressed with the fact that we exhibit
what the pupil does, Europe what the teacher does. Here he says, 'Go,
do this, and prove to me that you have done it.' There he says, 'Come,
let us study together; I know and will inform, interest and inspire you
to go on.'"[35]
The instructors in the schools of Norway are true teachers but they do
not rely wholly upon their own activity. The text finds a place not so
large as in American schools but of some consequence. The pupils are
privileged to act on their own initiative to some extent though they are
not granted unlimited freedom. They cooperate with the teachers in many
lines of school work where they find interest and profit. Demonstration
is largely in the hands of the teachers. The testing of lessons studied
is a common exercise with them, and their class hours are given to
intensive activity in which every individual member is expected to be a
participant and contributor. They, like we in America, aim to suit
instruction to pupils of average ability rather than to the brightest as
they do in Germany and France.
CONTINUITY OF EFFORT
By referring to the programs of work arranged for the successive years
in the schools of Norway, one readily sees that there is but little
variation in subjects of study from the first grades of the primary
school to the completion of the gymnasium. The change of greatest
importance is the introduction of foreign languages--German and English
the first and second years in the middle schools and French the first
year in the gymnasium.
When the child enters school he begins subjects of study which represent
the several fields of knowledge. The teaching aims to keep him in touch
with these in ways adapted to his stage of development. As the pupil
grows the scope of each subject enlarges. They advance together. Keeping
the subject definitely in mind for a long time tends to the creation of
permanent interests and at the same time makes possible its assimilation
into the very life of the learner. It becomes vital and usable after
being acted upon in the various stages and conditions of life through
which the child passes. Inter-relations and associations with other
subjects of study and various phases of life are affected, which give to
it distinct values. Too often we find in our own schools that hurried
and intensive study of certain subjects does not create permanent
interests nor prove of real worth.
If natural forces in the child are recognized and utilized they
facilitate the learning process and make school activities profitable
and delightful. It is a well attested fact that at certain periods in
the psychological development of a child mastery of special phases of
learning is easy for him. Courses of study and plans of instruction
should be prepared in such a way that the different phases of work
included may be presented and stressed while the nascent period of
interest is on.
We Americans are given to dividing a subject into its separate phases,
studying them consecutively for short periods of time, and then
forgetting them. The plan is wasteful and unpedagogic. Note the manner
in which we break up the work in mathematics and in the mother tongue.
It is questionable whether there be a single valid argument favoring
such practice.
The Norwegians present mathematics as a single and comprehensive
subject. The same is true in their teaching of the mother tongue. The
plan is advantageous from every view point. It is certainly conducive to
economy of time and efficient results. Instead of breaking up subjects
of instruction and isolating their several phases from each other, we
ought rather to keep them intact and set about coordinating the several
branches of instruction as closely as possible.
Education should seek to associate and interrelate the truths we obtain
and to organize our knowledge into an effectual system. The formation of
a comprehensive curriculum, with arrangements for its presentation in
harmony with sound psychological and pedagogical principles, is a matter
of pressing importance.
While the school systems of the present are evidently superior to what
any past generation has known, yet the investigations of psychologists
and educationists stress the fact that in many ways they are weak and
inefficient. The accumulated experience of the past needs overhauling by
masters with insight and foresight. Educational methods and principles
which have been tested and proven worthy should be put into operation.
Each nation should devise and adopt the most perfect educational system
possible, and this then should be carried into execution by an army of
qualified teachers responsive to the call for truly consecrated service.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Erichsen, A. E., _Bergers Kathedralskoles Historie_.
Hertzberg, N., _Paedagogiskens Historie_.
Holst, Axel, _Skolehygiene_.
Monroe, W. S., In Viking Land. Norway: Its People, Its Fjords and Its
Fjelds.
Paludan, J., _Det Hoiere Skolevaesen i Danmark, Norge og Sverig_.
Salmonsens Store, _Illustrerede Konversationsleksikon_.
Thieste, J. Schaan, _Byskoleloven med Forklarende Anmerkninger_.
Thieste, J. Schaan, _Landskoleloven med Forklarende Anmerkninger_.
PERIODICALS AND REPORTS
Anderssen, Otto, _Fra Norske Skoleforhold i 1908, Vor Ungdom, 1909_.
Anderssen, Otto, _Fra Norske Skoleforhold i 1909, Vor Ungdom, 1910._
Anderssen, Otto, "_Norwegisches Schulwesen," Sonderabdruck aus_ W. Reins
_Encyklopadischem Handbuch der Pädagogik, 2. Auflage_.
Anderssen, Otto, _Skolen for Skolens Opgaver_.
Anderssen, Otto, "The New Laws for the Secondary Schools in Norway,"
Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Gt. Britain, 8: 168.
Heiberg, J. V., "Education in Norway," Norway (Official Publication for
the Paris Exhibition 1900), pp. 266-294.
Nissen, Hartvig, "Public Instruction in Norway," The American Journal of
Education, 8: 295-304.
Norsk Skoletidende, Published since 1869.
Pogue, Belle C., "Education and Schools of Norway," Education, 10:
420-424.
Report of the Commissioner of Education of the United States, 1871,
1873, 1878, 1881, 1882-3, 1885-6, 1888-9, 1889-90, 1891-2, 1894-5,
1896-7, 1897-8, 1902, 1903, 1906, 1910.
Skolebladet, Published since 1898.
Thornton, J. S., "Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe,"
Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Great Britain, 17: 36-65.
Vold, J. Mourly, Report of Royal Commission of Secondary Education,
Great Britain, 5: 640-644.
OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS
Beretning om Skolevaesenets tilstand i Kongeriget Norge. Yearly since
1861.
Forslag til en forandret Ordning af den høiere Almenskole af den ved
kgl. Resolutions af 3 die September 1890 nedsatte Kommission.
Gymnasiet: Lov om høiere Almenskoler; Reglement for de høiere
Almenskoler; Undervisningssplan; Eksamensreglement; 1911.
Lov af 9de June 1903 om forandret Prøver ved Universitetet.
Lov om abnørme Børns Undervisning.
Lov om behandling af forsømte Børn.
Lov om det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet.
Lov om Folkeskolen i Kjøbstaederne.
Lov om Folkeskolen paa Landet.
Lov om høiere Almenskoler.
Lov om Laererskoler og Prøver for Laerere og Laererinder i Folkeskolen.
Middelskolen: Lov om høiere Almenskoler; Reglement for de høiere
Almenskoler; Undervisningsplan; Eksamensreglement. 1911.
Naermere Bestemmelser angaaende de offentlige Laererskoler og
Laererprøver.
Norwege: Lois sur L'Enseignement Public.
Odelsthings Proposition Nr. 36 (1909) om forandringer i Lov om høiere
Almenskoler av 27de Juli 1896.
Odelsthing Proposition Nr. 12 (1910): A. Om forandringer i lov om høiere
Almenskoler av 27de Juli 1896. B. Om forandring i lov om forberedende
prøver ved Universitet av 9de Juni 1903.
Reglement for Aarsprøver, Middelskole-eksamen, og Eksamen Artium.
Reglement for de høiere Almenskoler og Undervisningsplan for
Middelskolen, 1903.
Reglement for den ved Lov af 18 de Januar 1902 anordnede Optagelsesprøve
ved Laererskolerne.
Reglement for det Paedagogiske Seminar og Paedagogisk Eksamen.
Statistisk Aarbok for Kongeriket Norge. Yearly.
Sorthings Proposition Nr. 1, Hovedpost V. (1910) om bevilgning til det
høiere Skolevaesen.
Undervisningsplan for Gymnasiet, 1903.
Universitets-og Skole-Annaler. Yearly.
INDEX
Age of pupils, 44-49;
completing secondary schools, 48;
on entering the university, 48;
in teachers' seminaries, 49.
Age of teachers, 49.
Agriculture, 24.
America of interest to the Norwegians, 173.
Apparatus, 145-146.
Astronomy, 177.
Attendance at school, 54, 77.
Authority, 189.
Certificates, 80.
Centralization of authority, 191.
Christiania's central kitchen, 75, 76.
Christianity established, 20.
Church and state united, 115, 184.
Classes, size of, 40.
Classics, in America, 204;
in Germany, 204;
their decline, 202.
Climate, effects of, 183.
Co-education, 40, 210-214;
in America, 211-213;
in Germany, 211.
Cooking, 148.
Co-ordination, between grades, 149;
between subjects, 162;
of educational agencies, 186.
Correlation, 223;
between schools 189, 190.
Course of study, 57, 96-181, 197-207, 209, 218, 219;
aim of, 148;
changes in, 97;
development of, 97-101, 222, 223;
during middle ages, 96;
linguistic-historical, 31;
Latin, 31;
_real_, 31;
secondary, 171;
suited to people served, 219;
uniformity of, 198.
Defective children, 186.
Department of Ecclesiastical and Educational Affairs, 51.
Delinquents, mental, 187; moral, 187.
Diocesan directors, 52.
Discipline in school, 76, 77.
Distribution of schools, 34, 35.
Drawing, 146, 147.
Educational commission, 52.
Educational attainments, Norway and America compared, 216-219;
time required, 217, 218.
Educational authority, 188.
Educational equipment, Norway and America compared, 49, 50.
Educational requirements, 27, 34;
parents held responsible for, 55.
Educational standards, 54, 55.
Educational system, 184, 188.
Electives, 207, 208.
English, 156, 172, 173;
in elementary schools, 173;
its grammar, 156;
length of course, 173;
methods in, 156.
_Examen artium_, 31.
Examinations, uniformity in, 188.
Exceptional child, 186.
Eyesight, 77, 78.
Fisheries, 24.
French, 168-170;
difficulties in study of, 170;
length of course, 169.
Geography, 129-134, 158, 159, 177;
aim in, 129, 159;
methods of presenting, 130-133;
of America, 133;
texts, 159.
German, 154, 155, 167, 168;
authors studied, 168;
methods in, 155.
Grammar, 153, 154, 156.
Gymnasium, 100, 163-181, 207-210.
Gymnastic halls, 69.
Gymnastics, 69, 70, 74, 75, 148, 204-206;
apparatus, 148;
during intermissions, 69, 70;
Swedish system of, 75.
Hall, G. S., 189, 190.
Harold, the Fair-Haired, 19.
Health of pupils, 77, 78, 148, 205.
History, 19, 134-139, 156-158, 174-177;
aim of, 134, 138;
beginnings in, 134;
methods in, 157, 158, 176;
of Norway, 176;
nature of work in, 157;
related to geography, 135;
stories, 134, 135, 138.
Houses for janitors, 70;
for principals, 70;
for teachers in the rural districts, 70, 71.
Ideals of the people, 182, 183.
Illustrative materials, 66.
Imitation, law of, 82.
Industrial training, 147, 148.
Industries and occupations, 24.
Infant schools, 53.
Intermissions, 69, 70.
Laboratories, 67, 68, 69.
Latin, 173-174, 202;
courses in, 167;
length of course in, 174;
methods in, 174.
Libraries, 67, 68.
Lumbering, 24.
Lunches, 75, 76, 215, 216.
Lunch rooms, 69;
in Christiania, 215, 216.
Luther, influence of, on education, 184.
Lutheran church, 114, 115.
Management of schools, 188-191.
Manual training, 147, 148.
Martin Luther's influence in education, 184.
Mathematics, 125-129, 160, 178, 179, 223;
aim in, 125;
connection between phases of the subject, 160;
co-ordination in, 128;
methods in, 128, 129;
texts in, 129;
thoroughness in, 160;
use of, 128.
Medical inspection, 77, 78.
Mental delinquency, 187.
Methods, 72, 73, 74, 82, 83, 219-222;
in German, 155;
in history, 157, 158, 176;
in mother tongue, 118, 119;
in nature study, 140;
in religion, 163, 164, 200.
Middle school, 31, 32, 100, 149-162;
its aim, 149, 150;
its foundation, 149;
length of course in, 149, 150;
its limits, 149;
work of, 31, 32.
Moral delinquents, prevention and care of, 187.
Mother tongue, 118-124, 152-154, 164-167;
aim on instruction in, 118;
correct use of, 123;
in America, 124;
inclusiveness of work in, 123, 124;
methods in, 118, 119;
nature of work in, 166, 167.
Natural history, 179-181;
laboratory work in, 180, 181.
Nature study, 139-146, 161, 162, 179-181;
aim of, 139;
illustrative material in, 140-146;
character, 161, 162;
laboratory work in, 180, 181;
methods in, 140;
scope of, 139.
Norway, adopts constitution, 20;
area of, 22;
becomes independent, 22;
climate of, 23;
development of, 20, 183;
geography of, 22;
history of, 19;
nights in, 24;
period of transition in, 183;
political divisions of, 22;
revolt of, 20;
its union with Denmark, 20;
its union with Sweden, 20.
Normal schools in the United States, 193, 194.
Norwegians, characteristics of, 25, 26, 27;
as colonizers, 20;
as sailors, 25;
conservative, 184, 185;
democratic, 184, 185.
Observation and practice, 83, 84.
Occupations, 24.
Offices, 67, 68.
Officials, duties of, 188;
efficiency of, 189.
Organization, needed in America, 189.
Paganism overcome, 20.
Pedagogical seminary, 84, 85, 185, 193, 195.
Pensions, 92, 93.
People, ideals of, 182, 183.
Permanency of teaching positions, 87-89;
advantages of, 87;
objections to, 88;
present tendencies with reference to, 89.
Physical culture, 204-207.
Physician, 77, 78.
Physical geography, 177.
Political geography, 177.
Practice teaching, 83, 84.
Private citizens, their part in school affairs, 61, 62.
Primary education, 52.
Private institutions, 81.
Private schools, 42-44, 54, 186;
equipment of, 43;
inspection of, 43;
recognition of, 44;
secondary, 186;
teachers' seminaries, 186;
technical institutes, 186;
tuition in, 43.
Primary schools, 36-39, 185;
attendance in, 36-39;
course of study in, 102, 104, 106;
curriculum in, 99;
rural and city, 101;
their financing, 62.
Professional training, 33, 79-85, 194, 195;
amount of, 194, 195;
attitude toward, 194;
standards of, 33.
Promotion of teachers, 198.
Pupils, in gymnasia, 40;
in lower schools, 40;
in middle schools, 40.
Recitation, method of, 72, 4.
Religion, 108-117.
Religious characters, 114.
Religious education, 115-117, 151, 152, 163, 164, 199-202;
advantages of, 116;
excused from, 117;
loss of interest in, 163, 164;
methods in, 163, 164, 200;
objection to, 116, 117;
required, 116;
results of, 115-117.
Royal Frederic University, 32.
Schools, agricultural, 33;
ambulatory, 29;
cathedral, 30;
communal, 63;
elementary, 20, 30;
gymnasial, 30;
maintained by industrial concerns, 53;
middle, 30;
military, 33;
peoples', 28;
state, 63;
technical, 33;
their distribution, 34, 35.
School boards, committees of, 56;
officers of, 56;
organization of, 55, 56.
School buildings, appointment and equipment of, 64-69;
construction of, 205.
School committees, appointed by board, 56;
duties of, 57, 58, 59.
School curriculum, 197-207.
School discipline, 76, 77.
School districts, 53.
School funds, 62.
School grounds, 205.
School life, in Norway, 217, 218;
in America, 217, 218.
School physician, 77, 78.
School principal, 60;
duties of, 60, 61.
School room decoration, 67.
School system, its development, 197.
School year, 54, 55;
compared with American, 50;
length of, 28;
in America, 214.
Secondary schools, 52, 149, 185;
select strongest pupils, 149.
Sewing, 148.
Special classes for defectives, 186.
Special teachers, 80.
Specialization in university, 51.
Standards of work, 190.
Superintendent, 60, 85;
duties of, 60.
Teachers, attitude toward youth, 83;
certificates, 80;
life of, 195-197;
rooms for, 67, 68;
salaries of, 63, 91-95;
sex of, 71, 72;
special considerations, 91, 92;
their tenure of office, 71, 72.
Teacher's qualifications, 79, 80, 146, 196;
improvement of, 196;
in secondary schools, 79, 80.
Teachers' seminaries, 83, 193;
attendance at, 42;
curricula in, 82;
private, 41;
weaknesses of, 83;
work of, 81.
Teachers' tenure of office, 86-91;
in America, 89.
Teachers' titles, 85-86;
significance of, 86;
use of, 86.
Teachers' training, 81, 83, 84, 85, 191-195;
for secondary schools, 85;
in Germany, 192-193.
Teaching as a profession, in Norway, 79, 80;
its value, 196.
Technical schools, 185.
Vikings, 19.
Vocal music, in America, 207;
its influence, 206;
Napoleon on, 206;
nature of, in Norway, 147.
Writing, 146.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The Constitution (_Grundlov_) adopted at Eidsvold, Norway, May 17,
1814.
[2] Statistics for 1907--the last published.
[3] The law requires the opening of residences having sufficient room
for the accommodation of these groups of pupils for instructional
purposes. Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 41.
[4] Law for Higher State Schools, Sec. 2.
[5] Statistics for 1907.
[6] Law for City Schools, Sec. 5, as amended on August 15, 1908.
[7] Schools undertaking educational work of this character must meet
specified standards in course of study, equipment, teaching staff, etc.,
to have their work accredited by the state.
[8] The only difference between state and communal schools consists in
the fact that in the one case the state and in the other a commune takes
the initial step in the establishment of the school and bears the larger
portion of the burden in its maintenance. The work of the two is uniform
in every particular. They are together referred to as state schools in
contrast to private schools.
[9] Law for City Schools, Sec. 28 as revised in 1908. Law for Rural
Schools, Sec. 26 as revised in 1908.
[10] Some are always appointed from outside the city of Christiania.
[11] Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 42.
[12] Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 5.
[13] Gathered from Law for Rural Schools, Sections 5, 15, 16, 56, 57,
and 59.
[14] In communes where the number of regular teaching positions in the
primary schools is fifteen or over, of which at least five are positions
for females, one male and one female teacher occupying regular posts are
chosen. In communes where the number of positions is under fifteen, one
male or female teacher occupying a regular post is chosen. Where a male
and a female teacher are to be chosen, the elections take place in
separate meetings of the male and the female teachers, each selecting
its representative; in the other communes election takes place in a
common meeting. Election is for two years. The meetings are conducted by
the chairman of the school board. Schools provided and sustained by the
owners of industrial concerns within the communes may each be
represented in the meetings of the school board, by an owner of such
establishment, while matters pertaining to the school in which he is
interested are being considered. Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 47.
[15] The law provides that there shall be on the school board a priest
for each pastorate within the commune, though not to exceed three. In
all cases of necessity the bishop having direction of church affairs in
the locality appoints the ministerial members of the board. Their
appointments are for three years.
[16] The executive board of the communal council each year elects one of
its members to act on the school board for one year.
[17] In cities where the number of regular teaching positions is fifteen
or more there are elected one male and one female teacher; and in cities
where the number of regular teaching positions is less than fifteen, but
at least five, one male or one female teacher. In cases where two
teachers are elected, the sexes separate, each selecting its own
representative; but where only one is elected they all meet together and
choose one of their number. Election is for two years. The meetings are
conducted by the chairman of the school board.
The above notes are from: Law for City Schools, Sec. 40.
[18] Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 15. A crown is equal to about
twenty-seven cents.
[19] Law for Secondary Schools, Sec. 33.
[20] Reported in 1905 as already effective or to become effective
immediately.
[21] Year 1905.
[22] Year 1910-1911.
[23] Law for City Schools, Sec. 4.
[24] An organization providing a series of weekly lectures by men of
prominence from various places, for the populace and especially adapted
to the working classes.
[25] The course with Latin includes 4 hours of French in the first year
and 5 hours in the second; the _real_ course offers it 4 hours in the
first year, and 2 hours in the second and third years.
[26] A school law passed in 1896 omitted Latin from the course of study.
Another act of the same Storthing granted privilege of offering Latin as
an elective in several schools.
[27] Hall, G. Stanley, Educational Problems. Vol. I. p. 294.
[28] Plato, The Republic, p. 424.
[29] Bolton, F. E., The Secondary School System of Germany, 375.
[30] Report of Bureau of Education, 1891-1892, Vol. II. p. 807.
[31] Special Report, No. 2, 1883.
[32] Report of Commissioner of Education, 1878, p. 71.
[33] Whetham, W. C. D. and C. D., Decadence and Civilization, The
Hibbert Journal, Vol. X. No. 1.
[34] Betts, G. H., The Recitation, p. 2.
[35] Hall, G. Stanley, Educational Problems, Vol. II., p. 295.
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