The Wonder Book of Knowledge - The Marvels of Modern Industry and Invention the Interesting - Stories of Common Things the Mysterious Processes of Nature

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Title: The Wonder Book of Knowledge - The Marvels of Modern Industry and Invention the Interesting - Stories of Common Things the Mysterious Processes of Nature - Simply Explained
Author: Various
Language: English
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| TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES |
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| Transcriptions used: italic and bold texts are transcribed between |
| underscores and equal signs respectively: _text_ and =text=. Texts |
| printed in small capitals are transcribed as ALL CAPITALS. |
| Fractions are represented as, for example, 2-1/3 for two and one- |
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[Illustration: HOW COLOR PRINTING IS DONE

A plate is made for each of the three printing colors, yellow, red
and blue, as explained on page 382. First, yellow is printed, then
red on the yellow, and last, blue on the yellow and red combination.
Combinations of these three colors in various proportions produce all
the other tints which appear in the original subject. Above are shown
the separate plates and also the combined result of all three. Extreme
care is necessary to make all the plates register exactly together.]

THE WONDER BOOK
OF KNOWLEDGE

THE MARVELS OF MODERN INDUSTRY AND INVENTION
THE INTERESTING STORIES OF COMMON THINGS
THE MYSTERIOUS PROCESSES OF NATURE
SIMPLY EXPLAINED

COMPILED AND EDITED
BY
HENRY CHASE HILL
WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF EXPERTS
REPRESENTING EACH INDUSTRY

Illustrated with
780 Photographs and Drawings

PHILADELPHIA
THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY
PUBLISHERS

Preface

This book is presented to those, both young and old, who wish to have a
non-technical account of the history, evolution and production of some
of the every-day wonders of the modern industrial age; coupled with
occasional glimpses of the wonderful object-lessons afforded by nature
in her constructive activities in the animal, vegetable and mineral
kingdoms; and simple, understandable answers to the myriad puzzling
questions arising daily in the minds of those for whom the fascination
of the “Why” and “How” is always engrossing.

Although not intended primarily as a child’s book, the
interest-compelling pictures and clear, illuminating answers to the
constant avalanche of questions suggested by the growing mind, unite in
making far happier children in the home and brighter children at school.
Parents and teachers will also recognize the opportunity to watch for
subjects by which the child’s interest appears to be more than
ordinarily attracted, and, in so doing, will be enabled to guide the
newly-formed tendencies into the proper channels. With the greatest
thinkers of the age advocating vocational training, and leading
educators everywhere pointing out that the foundation of a practical
education for life must be laid in the home, thoughtful parents will not
overlook the fact that a book which both entertains and instructs is of
supreme importance in the equipment of their children.

In the preparation of this book its function has been considered as that
of gathering up some of the multitudinous bits of information of
interest, both to the inquiring child and the older reader, and putting
them in shape to be digested by the ordinary searcher after knowledge.
The book is intended, not for a few technical specialists, but for the
larger number of men, women and children who are not interested in
exhaustive treatises, but who are seeking to gain some fair idea about
the numberless every-day subjects that arise in ordinary conversation,
or that they meet with in reading and about which they desire some
definite and satisfactory information.

Most of us realize that we live in a world of wonders and we recognize
progress in industries with which we come in personal contact, but the
daily routine of our lives is ordinarily so restricted by circumstances
that many of us fail to follow works which do not come within our own
experience or see beyond the horizon of our own specific paths.

The workman who tends the vulcanizer in the rubber factory has come to
take his work as a matter of course; the man who assembles a watch, or a
camera, is not apt to appreciate the fact that there have been marvelous
developments in his line of manufacturing; the operator of a shoe
machine, or of an elevator, does not see anything startling or absorbing
in the work--and so we find it almost throughout the entire list of
industries.

The tendency of the seemingly almost imperceptible movement marking
onward development in the work that is familiar is to dull the mind
toward opportunities for improvement in the accustomed task. With the
exception of the man who is at times impressed with the remarkable
advances made in some strikingly spectacular industry, because such
knowledge comes to him suddenly, the average workman is often too much
inclined to regard himself as a machine, and performs his duties more or
less automatically, without attempting to exercise imagination or those
powers of adaptation upon which all progress has been builded.

A single volume is of necessity too limited a space for anything
approximating a complete record of the vast progress which has been made
in American Industry. Consequently it has only been possible to select
the more characteristic features of the twentieth century and point out
the strides by which some of the prominent industries have advanced to
their present proportions. If the hitherto undisputed maxim that “the
more the individual knows the more he is worth to himself and his
associates” still prevails, the chronicling of the developments in some
fields should stimulate thought and experiment toward the adaptation of
similar methods in others. It is to that end that authorities in each of
the industries presented have co-operated in the compilation of this
interesting and instructive volume.

THE EDITOR.

Table of Contents

PAGE

=THE STORY OF THE SUBMARINE= =9=

Origin of Submarine Navigation, 9. The American Types, 10. Twentieth
Century Submarines, 11. Engine Power, 12. The Periscope, 13. Voyage of
the “Deutschland,” 14. Submarine Dredging, 15.

=THE STORY OF THE PANAMA CANAL= =17=

The United States to the Rescue, 17. The Canal and the Navy, 20. The
Great Canal, 20. The Hydroelectric Station, 20. Gigantic Obstacles,
30. Gatun Dam, 33. Meeting all Emergencies, 33. A Battle Won, 36.

=What is a Geyser? 40. What Kind of Dogs are Prairie-Dogs? 42. What is
Spontaneous Combustion? 42.=

=THE STORY IN THE TALKING MACHINE= =43=

The Early Machines, 43. Invention of the Spring Motor, 47. Change from
Cylinder to Disc, 47. Making the Record, 49.

=What are Petrified Forests? 49. What Animals are the Best Architects?
51.=

=THE STORY OF THE MOTORCYCLE= =52=

Austin’s Steam Velocipede, 52. Motor-paced Racing, 55. First Practical
Machine, 54. Modern Refinements, 57. Side Cars and Commercial Bodies,
58.

=How is the Weather Man Able to Predict Tomorrow’s Weather? 58. How
does a Siren Fog Horn Blow? 60.=

=THE STORY IN A WATCH= =61=

The Standard of Time, 61. Candles as Time-Keepers, 63. Galileo’s
Pendulum, 63. Balance Wheel as a Pendulum, 65. The Time Train, 65. How
a Watch Works, 67. What Causes Variation in Watches, 71.

=How does a Monorail Gyroscope Railway Operate? 72. Why are
Finger-prints used for Identification? 74.=

=THE STORY IN A RIFLE= =75=

The Earliest Hunters, 75. The Use of Slings, 77. A Fortunate Accident;
77. As to Arrows, 81. A Shooting Machine, 81. And Now for Chemistry,
81. Playing with Fire, 83. The Coming of the Matchlock, 83. Caps and
Breech-Loaders, 85. From Henry VIII to Cartridges, 85. The Beginning
of Precision in Mechanics, 87. Making Barrels, 92. Taking off 2/1000
of an Inch, 92. The Making of Ammunition Today, 94. Handling Deadly
Explosives, 96. Extreme Precautions, 96.

=How does an Artesian Well Keep up its Supply of Water? 96. Where do
Dates come from? 97.=

=THE STORY OF RUBBER= =98=

How was Rubber First Used? 98. What is a Rubber Camp Like? 100. How is
Rubber Gathered by the Natives? 103. How is Rubber Smoked? 104. How
was Vulcanizing Discovered? 105. How did Rubber Growing Spread to Other
Places? 108. How is Rubber Cured on Modern Plantations? 110. How is
Crude Rubber Received Here? 112. How is Rubber Prepared for Use? 112.
How are Rubber Shoes Made? 116. How are Automobile Tires Made? 119.

=How did the Expression “Before you can say Jack Robinson” Originate?
119. What is an Aerial Railway Like? 119. Why are they called
Newspapers? 121. How did the Cooking of Food Originate? 121. How Far
away is the Sky-Line? 121.=

=THE STORY OF ROPE= =122=

Civilized Rope Makers, 122. Hand Spinning, 124. Machine-made Ropes,
128. American Hemp, 128. Manila and Sisal Fibers, 130. Wire Ropes,
132. Pine Tar for Ropes, 134. Why does Rope Cling Together? 136. What
is Rope Used for? 136.

=How did the Expression “A-1” Originate? 136. How has Man Helped
Nature give us Apples? 136. What kind of a Crab Climbs Trees? 138. How
are Files Made? 138.=

=THE STORY OF SELF-LOADING PISTOLS= =139=

Colt Pistols, 139. Machine Guns, 145.

=How does the Poisonous Tarantula Live? 146. How do the Indians Live
Now? 146. How does the Beach get its Sand? 149. How did Nodding the
Head Up and Down Come to Mean “Yes”? 149. Why do We Call a Man “a
Benedict” When He Marries? 149.=

=THE STORY IN FIRECRACKERS AND SKY-ROCKETS= =150=

The Need for Noisemakers, 150. Chinese Firecrackers, 150. Popular ever
since the Invention of Gunpowder, 154. Beautiful Displays, 158.

=What makes a Chimney Smoke? 158. What are Dry Docks Like? 161. Why
does a Lightning Bug Light Her Light? 161.=

=THE STORY IN THE MAKING OF A PICTURE= =162=

The Image is Upsidedown, 162. Effect of Light on the Film, 163. Early
Photographic Efforts, 164. Modern Photography, 168.

=How Deep is the Deepest Part of the Ocean? 169. Why do We say “Get
the Sack”? 169. Why do We call them X-Rays? 169. How did the Term
“Yankee” Originate? 171. Why do We say “Kick the Bucket”? 171. When
does a Tortoise move Quickly? 171.=

=THE STORY IN A NEWSPAPER= =172=

Gutenberg’s Press in 1450, 172. Cylinder Presses, 173. Curved Plates,
175. Printing, Folding and Counting 216,000 Papers an Hour, 175. Color
Printing, 180.

=What do We Mean by the “Flying Dutchman”? 180. Why does a Duck’s Back
Shed Water? 180. Why doesn’t the Sky ever Fall Down? 180. How are
Sand-Dunes Formed? 180. What do We Mean by an Eclipse? 181. What are
Dreams? 182. What makes Our Teeth Chatter? 182.=

=THE STORY IN A HONEY COMB= =183=

Sixty Thousand Bees in a Hive, 183. Modern Bee-Keeping, 187.
Profitable Anywhere, 193.

=Where do Figs Come from? 199. What are Fighting Fish? 199. How is the
Exact Color of the Sky Determined? 199. What is a Divining Rod? 199.=

=THE STORY OF ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME= =200=

A Modern Aladdin’s Lamp, 200. Electric Hot Irons the First Appliances,
201. How They are Made, 202. Electric Cooking Appliances, 205.
Electric Toaster, 206. Electric Coffee Percolator, 206. Baking and
Roasting, 210. Vacuum Cleaners, 212.

=Why is there Always a Soft Spot in a Cocoanut Shell? 214. How does a
Gasoline Motor Run an Electric Street Car? 214. How do Carrier Pigeons
Carry Messages? 216. What Family has Over 9,000,000 Members? 216.=

=THE STORY IN THE TELEPHONE= =217=

Invention, 217. Essential Factor in American Life, 218. America Leads
in Telephone Growth, 220. American Telephone Practice Superior, 222.
The First Transcontinental Line, 225. Wireless Speech Transmission,
226. The Mobilization of Communication, 228.

=Why do they Call Them “Fiddler-Crabs”? 229. How Far can a Powerful
Searchlight Send its Rays? 229. What Started the Habit of Touching
Glasses Before Drinking? 231. Why are Windows Broken by Explosions?
231. What does the Expression “Showing the White Feather” come from?
231.=

=THE STORY IN ELEVATORS AND ESCALATORS= =232=

From Novelty to Necessity, 232. The Escalator, 235. The Cleat
Escalator, 239. The Moving Platform, 239.

=What Happens when Animals Hibernate? 241. How do Peanuts get in the
Ground? 241. How did Your State get its Name? 243.=

=THE STORY OF COAL MINING= =244=

The World Depends on Coal, 244. Dangers of Mining, 244. How Coal Grew,
247. The Vast Quantities Produced, 253.

=How can We Hear through the Walls of a Room? 251. What is a Diesel
Engine Like? 252. What does the Sheep-grower get for the Wool in a
Suit of Clothes? 252.=

=THE STORY IN A SILVER TEASPOON= =253=

The Spoon is Older than History, 253. Development of Various Shapes,
254. Plating Re-Discovered, 256. Electro-plating, 257. Stages in
Manufacture, 258. Evolution of a Knife, 259.

=How do Chimes Strike the Hour? 260. How is Electricity Brought into a
House? 262. What was the Origin of Masonic Signs? 262. What is a
Dictograph? 262.=

=STORY OF THE WIRELESS TELEGRAPH= =263=

Stretching a Dog, 263. Marconi’s Method, 263. Tuning the Instruments,
264. Interferences, 265.

=What is Forestry Work? 267. How did the Fashion of Wearing Cravats
Commence? 270. How does the Gas Meter Measure Your Gas? 270. What is a
Game Preserve? 270.=

=THE STORY OF THE BUILDING OF A SILO= =271=

What is a Silo? 271. The First Silo, 271. What is put in a Silo? 271.
Elements of Success or Failure, 271.

=THE STORY OF THE ADVANCE OF ELECTRICITY= =273=

The First Commercial Central Station, 273. Edison and the Electric
Light, 273. Electricity a Living Factor, 279. In the Printing Trade,
279. Construction, 279. Loft Manufacturing, 281. Electric Heating,
281. Electricity and Safety, 281. Electricity in Medicine, 281.
Electric Vehicles, 282. Electricity and the Home, 282. Decreased Cost
of Electricity, 285.

=How is Die-Sinking Done? 285.=

=THE STORY IN THE MAKING OF A MAGAZINE= =286=

Printing in Millions, 286. Color Printing, 289.

=How Did the Ringing of Curfew Originate? 289.=

=THE STORY OF AMERICA’S FIRST HORSELESS CARRIAGE= =290=

The Problems of Weight and Vibration, 290. The First Demonstration,
290.

=THE STORY IN A SAUSAGE= =292=

The First “Roast Pig,” 292. Smoking Ham, 292. Salt Pork, 293. The Era
of Refrigeration, 295. An Up-to-date Packing Plant, 295. Dressing
Meat, 298. By-Products, 298.

=Why do We call them “Dog Days?” 301. How is a Five Dollar Gold Piece
Made? 303. How does a Bird Fly? 303.=

=THE STORY OF THE BIG REDWOOD TREES= =304=

Long Life of the Great Trees, 304. Valuable Qualities of the Redwood,
304. Fire Retardance, 306. Magnificent Tones for Decoration, 306.

=How did the Expression “Forlorn Hope” Originate? 306. Why is “Wall
Street” known Around the World? 308. What makes a Stick Seem To Bend
in Water? 308. What causes a Lump in a Person’s Throat? 308. How are
We Able to Hear through Speaking Tubes? 308. Why do We Always Shake
Hands with our Right Hand? 308.=

=THE STORY IN A BILLIARD TABLE= =309=

An Ancient Game, 309. Modern Manufacture, 311. The Cue is a work of
Art, 314. The Finest Ivory for Balls, 314.

=What is the Hottest Place in the United States? 315. What are White
Blackberries Like? 317. Why do They Have a Dog-Watch on Shipboard?
317. How Much Gold has a 14-Carat Ring? 317. What is an Electro
Magnet? 317.=

=THE STORY IN A PIN= =318=

Once a Luxury of the Wealthy, 318. Formerly made in Parts, 319. Making
25,000,000 Pins a Year, 321.

=How are Glaciers Formed? 324. How Large are Molecules? 324.=

=PICTORIAL STORY OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY= =325=

Episodes in the Game, 325. Modern Fishing Vessels, 326. The Trawl,
327. Drawing the Net, 328. Fish Curing, 329. Preparing for Market,
330.

=THE STORY IN A BOX OF CALIFORNIA ORANGES= =331=

Picked with Gloves, 331. Grading, 331. Shipped in Refrigerators, 333.

=What Kind of Steel Knives do not Stain or Rust? 333. Why is it
Necessary to Keep Quiet when Fishing? 333. First Apartment Houses in
this Country, 336. Why do we Call 32° above Zero Freezing? 336. How is
Fresco Painting Done? 336.=

=THE STORY OF A PIECE OF CHEWING GUM= =337=

Juice of the Chicle Tree, 337. Treatment in the Factory, 342.

=Where did the Ferris Wheel get its Name? 342. What is Done to Keep
Railroad Rails from Breaking? 342. How does a “Master Clock” Control
others by Electricity? 342.=

=THE STORY OF THE CALCULATING MACHINE= =345=

How did Men Learn to Count? 345. The First Adding Machine, 345. The
Slide Rule Principle, 348. The “Difference Engine,” 348. Present-Day
Models, 349. The Largest Adding Machine, 354. How are Adding Machines
Used? 355.

=Where does Ermine Come from? 356. What is the Principle of “Foreign
Exchange?” 356. What do We Mean by “The Old Moon in the New Moon’s
Arms”? 356.=

=THE STORY IN A BOWLING ALLEY= =357=

Bowling Green, New York City, 357. How the Alley is Built, 358.
Composition Balls, 361.

=How are Artificial Precious Stones Made? 361. What is a Mexican
Bull-Fight Like? 363. What is the Difference between “Alternating” and
“Direct” Current? 363. What was the “Court of Love”? 363.=

=THE STORY OF THE ADDRESSOGRAPH= =364=

Birth of Mechanical Addressing, 364. The First Addressograph, 364.
Greater Speed, 366. A Card Index that Addresses Itself, 367.

=What is Dry Farming? 372. What is a Drying Machine Like? 372. How
does the New York Stock Exchange Operate? 374. How did the term
“Cowboys” Originate? 374.=

=THE STORY IN A CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHER= =375=

Smothering Fire with a Gas Blanket, 375. The Soda and Acid
Extinguisher, 376.

=How is Gold Leaf Made? 377. What is the Natural Color of Goldfish?
377. When was “Liquid Fire” first used in Warfare? 377. How did the
Greyhound get his Name? 377. Why is It Called “Battery Park”? 379. How
do we Know that the Earth is Round? 379. What were “Ducking Stools?”
379.=

=THE STORY IN PHOTO-ENGRAVING= =380=

Pictures are the Universal Language, 380. What a Halftone is, 380.
Line Engravings, 381. Color Engraving, 382.

=Where are Milk-Pails Filled from Trees? 383. How did the Wearing of a
Crown Originate? 384. Why do Lobsters change Color? 384. How do Fishes
Swim? 384. Where do Pearls Come from? 385. What is Cork? 385.=

=THE STORY IN A GIANT CANNON= =386=

Origin of the Cannon, 386. Modern Cannon, 392. How Cannon are Now
Made, 393. Built-Up and Wire-Wound Guns, 394. Feats of Modern Guns,
406.

=What is a Deep-Sea Diver’s Dress Like? 411. Why do We Smile when We
are Pleased? 412. Why do Some of Us have Freckles? 412.=

=PICTORIAL STORY OF THE STEEL INDUSTRY= =413=

Mining Ore, 413. Open-Hearth Furnaces, 416. Blast Furnaces, 417. A
15,000 Ton Forge, 418. Oil-Tempering, 420. Bending Armor Plate, 422.
Largest Steel Casting in the World, 424. Casting Steel, 431. Rolling
Rails, 432.

=What do We Mean by “Deviation of the Compass?” 435.=

=THE STORY IN THE MAKING OF A PAIR OF SHOES= =436=

Shoemaking by Machine, 436. Cross-Section of a Shoe, 437. Lasting
Machine, 440. Details of the Process, 442. Evolution of a Shoe, 447.

=What is Standard Gold? 448. What are Cyclones? 450. What Metals can
be Drawn into Wire Best? 450. How are Cocoanuts Used to Help our
Warships? 450. How did the Dollar Sign Originate? 450.=

=PICTORIAL STORY OF FIRE APPARATUS= =451=

Aerial Truck, 451. Motor Fire Engine, 451. Old-time Apparatus, 452.
Chemical Engine, 455.

=STORY OF THE TAKING OF FOOD FROM THE AIR= =458=

Nitrogen and Oxygen in the Air, 458. Fixation of Nitrogen, 459. Liquid
Air, 460. Fertilizer, 461. Ammonia, 466.

=What is a Drawbridge Like Today? 466.=

=THE STORY OF A DEEP-SEA MONSTER= =468=

A Thirty-nine Hour Battle, 468. Five Harpoons and 151 Bullets needed,
468. An Unknown Leviathan, 470.

=What is an Armored Railway Car Like? 470. What is an Electric Eel?
472.=

=THE STORY OF SALT= =473=

Natural Salt, 473. The Polish Mines, 474. Refining, 476.

=Why do We Call it “Denatured Alcohol”? 478. What is the Difference
between a Cruiser and a Battleship? 478.=

=THE STORY OF THE GROWTH OF THE MOTOR TRUCK= =481=

Practically Developed since 1905, 481. Cheaper Transportation, 489.

=What is a Diving Bell? 489. How are Harbors Dredged Out? 491. How is
a Razor Blade Made? 491.=

=THE STORY OF THE TUNNELS UNDER THE HUDSON RIVER= =492=

Bold Engineering, 492. 40,000 Men, 492. How the Tunneling Shield
Works, 494. Air Pressure, 496. Extraordinary Adventures under the
River, 501.

=What Causes Floating Islands? 504.=

=PICTORIAL STORY OF THE AIRSHIP= =505=

Well-known Aviators, 505. Military Monoplane, 506. NC-4, First Plane
to Cross the Atlantic, 507. Vickers-Vimy, First Flier to make
Non-Stop Atlantic Flight, 508. Chart of Transatlantic Fliers, 509. The
Wright Brothers, 510. British Transatlantic Dirigible, R-34, 511.
Examples of Military Uses, 512.

=THE STORY OF AN AUTOMOBILE FACTORY= =518=

A half-million Cars a year, 518. Overhead Cranes Cut Costs, 520.
Safety First, 521. One thing at a Time, 524. Quick Assembling, 526.
The Body Chute, 530. Motion Picture Advertising, 537.

=How do Big Buildings get their Granite? 539.=

=RAILROAD SCENES FROM SHOP AND ROAD= =541=

All Steel Train, 541. Electric Train, 542. Train of 120 Cars, 543. An
Observation Car, 544. Electric Baggage Truck, 545. Terminal Stations,
546. Paint Drying Oven, 547. Locomotive Building, 548. Types of
Locomotives, 550.

=THE STORY OF AN UP-TO-DATE FARM= =556=

Luxuries of Farm Life, 556. Plenty of Food, 557. Reaping Hook, 558.
The Cradle, 559. Early Attempts to Harvest with Machines, 561. The
First Successful Reaper, 563. Development of the Reaper, 564. The
Self-Binder, 568. The Twine Binder, 570. Other Machines Follow, 574.

=What Causes an Echo? 574.=

=THE STORY OF THE MOTION-PICTURE PROJECTING MACHINE= =575=

Spectacular Rise of Motion Pictures, 575. How the Projector Operates,
578. Varied Uses of the Pictures, 579.

=THE STORY OF LEATHER= =580=

Tanning, 580. Oiling, 582. Finishing Coats, 583. Currying, 583.

=What is a “Glass Snake?” 583.=

=THE STORY IN DIAMOND-CUTTING= =584=

Where Diamonds Come from, 584. Famous Diamonds, 585. Methods of
Cutting, 585. Defects in Diamonds, 586. Brilliancy, 587.

=Why do We get Hungry? 588.=

=THE STORY IN THE MODERN LIFTING MAGNET= =589=

What a Magnet is, 589. How an Electric Magnet Works, 590. Will Lift 30
Tons, 592.

=Why is the Thistle the Emblem of Scotland? 593. How are Animals
Identified on Cattle Ranges? 594. How is Glue Made? 594. Why does a
Hot Dish Crack if we put Ice Cream in It? 594.=

=ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF TITLES AND SUBJECTS= =595=

=ACKNOWLEDGMENTS= =607=

The Story of the Submarine[1]

Origin of Submarine Navigation.

The history of invention has no chapter more interesting than that of
sailing under the ocean’s waves. The navigation of the air approaches it
in character, but does not present the vital problems of undersea
travel. Both these new fields of navigation have been notably developed
within recent years, largely as a result of the great European war. It
is the story of sailing in the depths beneath the ocean’s surface with
which we here propose to deal. The problem was settled easily enough for
his purpose by Jules Verne, in his “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the
Sea.” But that was pure fiction without scientific value. It is with
fact, not fiction, that we are here concerned.

[Illustration: A SUBMARINE ABOUT TO SUBMERGE]

The story takes us back three hundred years, to the reign of James I, of
England, when a crude submarine boat was built, to be moved by oars, but
one of no value other than as a curiosity. At a later date a man named
Day built a similar boat, wagering that he would go down one hundred
yards and remain there twenty-four hours. So far as is known, he still
remains there, winning the wager which he has not come up to claim.

Other such boats were constructed at intervals, but the first undersea
boat of any historical importance was the “American Turtle,” built by a
Yankee named David Bushnell during the time that the British held New
York in the Revolutionary War. He sought to blow up the British frigate
“Eagle” with the aid of a torpedo and nearly succeeded in doing so,
seriously scaring the British shippers by the explosion of his torpedo.

The next to become active in this line of discovery was Robert Fulton,
the inventor of the first practical steamboat. He, like Bushnell, was an
American, but his early experiments were in France, where Napoleon
patronized him. With his boat, the “Nautilus,” he made numerous
descents, going down twenty-five feet in the harbor of Brest and
remaining there an hour. He said that he could build a submarine that
could swim under the water and destroy any war vessel afloat. But the
French Admiralty refused to sustain him, one old admiral saying, “Thank
God, France still fights her battles on the surface, not beneath it.”

Fulton finally went to England and there built a boat with which he
attached a torpedo to a condemned brig, set aside for that purpose. The
brig was blown up in the presence of an immense throng, and Fulton
finally sold his invention to the British government for $75,000.
Nothing further came of it.

The submarine next came into practical view during the American Civil
War, when the Confederate government built several such vessels, known
usually as “Davids” from their inventor. Now, for the first time, did
such a craft demonstrate its powers. On the night of February 17, 1864,
one of the “Davids,” the “Hunley,” blew up the steamship “Housatonic” in
Charleston harbor. The wave caused by the explosion swamped the
submarine and it and its crew found a watery grave.

Other submarines were built and experimented with, not only in the
United States but in European countries. One of the later inventors was
an Irish-American named John P. Holland, who, in 1876, built a submarine
called the “Fenian Ram.” The “Ram” collapsed with the collapse of the
Fenian movement. Other boats were built and tried, but the successful
period of the submarine was deferred until after 1893, when the United
States Congress appropriated $200,000 to encourage such an enterprise
and invited inventors to submit designs. This, and a similar movement in
France, formed the first official recognition of the value of vessels of
this class.

The prize offered by Congress brought out three designs, one by Mr.
Holland, the “Ram” inventor, one by George C. Barker, and a third by
Simon Lake. The names of Holland and Lake have since been closely
associated with the history of the submarine. Mr. Holland’s device
secured approval and in 1894 he received a contract to build a submarine
vessel. This, named the “Plunger,” was begun in 1895, but was finally
abandoned and a vessel of different type, the “Holland,” was built in
its place. It was accepted by the government in 1900. A number of others
similar to the “Holland” were subsequently built.

The American Types.

The type of these vessels was what became known as the “diving.” They
were controlled by a rudder placed at the stern of the vessel and acting
in both a horizontal and a vertical direction, the force of the screw
propeller driving the boat forward in the direction desired. In 1904 the
navy of the United States possessed eight Holland boats and there were
also a number of them in the British navy.

Mr. Lake’s design, offered in 1893 but not accepted, had as its novel
feature a plan by which a door could be opened in the bottom of the ship
and the crew leave and enter it in diving suits, the water being kept
out by the force of compressed air. To maintain the vessel on an even
keel he introduced four vanes, called “hydroplanes,” for regulating the
depth of descent. By aid of these and the horizontal rudder it was found
that the vessel would run for hours at a constant depth and on a level
keel. There were other devices for diving or rising to the surface.

In 1901 Mr. Lake built a large vessel of this type which was sold to the
Russian government and was in commission at Vladivostock during the
Russian-Japanese War. He afterwards received orders from this and other
governments for a number of vessels of the even-keel type, and his
principles of control have since been generally adopted as the safest
and most reliable controlling agency for under-water craft.

We have not in the above brief statement described all the efforts to
invent a satisfactory under-water boat. In several of the nations of
Europe experiments, more or less available, had been tried, but the most
practical results were achieved by the American inventors, Bushnell,
Fulton, Davy, Holland and Lake. It will suffice here to say that the
most successful of submarines were those constructed by Holland and
Lake. An important addition was made in 1901 in a French boat, the
“Morse,” built at Cherbourg. The difficulty of navigators telling where
they were when under water, and of changing their course safely without
coming to the surface to reconnoitre, was in a large measure overcome by
the addition of a “periscope.” This, rising above the water, and
provided with reflecting lenses, enabled the steersman to discover the
surface conditions and see any near vessel or other object. The “Morse”
was able to sink in seventy seconds and her crew could remain under
water for sixteen hours without strain.

[Illustration: A MINE-PLANTING SUBMARINE DESIGNED IN BERLIN BY SIMON
LAKE IN 1895 FOR THE RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT]

Twentieth Century Submarines.

We have given an epitome of the development of the submarine vessel up
to the opening of the twentieth century. It had now reached a successful
status of achievement and during the early years of that century was to
display a remarkable progress. Holland and Lake may be looked upon as
the parents of the modern development of the submersible boat, their
designs being at the base of the great European progress.

France took up the work actively, its most successful early vessel being
the “Narval,” built in 1899. This was 118 feet long by 8 feet 3 inches
beam, 106 tons surface and 168 submerged displacement. She was a
double-deck vessel controlled by Lake hydroplanes, and had installed
steam power for surface travel and electric power for undersea work. The
French at this time kept their methods secret, and no useful type had
been developed in England, the result being that a plant was provided
for the building of Holland boats in that country. Germany used the Lake
devices, which had not been patented in that country and were made use
of by the Krupps. Thus it appears that the modern submarines, as now
built and used in the navies of the world, owe their success to
principles of construction and devices for control originated and
developed by American inventors.

Engine Power.

The internal-combustion engine is the heart of the submarine. Steam,
with its heavy engine, has been long set aside, and electricity, derived
from the storage battery, yet awaits sufficient development. Gasoline
succeeded them. The internal-combustion engine became essential from its
light weight and the fact that it could be started and shut down
instantly. This is of prime importance, as permitting quick submergence
or emergence, either to escape from a high-speed destroyer or to capture
a merchantman. It weighs less per horse power, takes up less room and
requires less fuel per hour than any other reliable motor. It was early
used in both the Holland and Lake boats and is still the chief prime
motor.

[Illustration: A PROTECTOR FITTED FOR EXPERIMENTAL WORK UNDER ICE]

The difficulty with the early boats was that they were slow in speed,
making only from eight to nine knots per hour. Increased speed was
demanded by governments and more powerful engines, within a fixed limit
of weight, were demanded. In doing this engines were built of such
flimsy construction that they soon went to pieces. The gasoline used
also gave off a gas of highly explosive character and one very likely to
escape from leaky tanks or joints. Several explosions took place in
consequence, in one of which twenty-three men were killed. As a result
all the nations demanded that a non-explosive fuel should be used, and
builders turned to the Diesel engine as offering a solution to the
difficulty.

This heavy oil engine, weighing about five hundred pounds per
horse-power, was not adapted to the submarine, and efforts have been
made to decrease the weight. These have not as yet had a satisfactory
result and experiments are still going on.

The Periscope.

As the engine is the heart of the submarine, the periscope is its eye.
This is, in its simpler forms, a stiff, detachable tube from fifteen to
twenty feet long and about four inches in diameter. On its top is an
object glass which takes in all objects within its range and transmits
an image of them through a right-angled prism and down the tube. By
means of other lenses and prisms an image of the external object is thus
made visible to those within the submarine. In this process of
transmission there is a certain loss of light, and to allow for that the
image is magnified to about one-quarter above natural size.

[Illustration: A SUBMARINE UNDER ICE]

To obtain in this manner a correct idea of the distance of the object
seen proved difficult, but by continued experiment this difficulty has
been overcome. Mr. Lake developed an instrument suited to this purpose
and one which gave a simultaneous view of the entire horizon. There is
one fault in the periscope not easy to obviate. It is an instrument for
day use only. When dark comes on it becomes useless, and this does away
with the possibility of a successful submarine attack by night.

The periscope is the one part of the submarine scout equipment that is
open to vision from the surface. But while the outlook of the undersea
captain, aided by his telescopic sights, has a radius of several miles,
the periscope tube, of only four or five-inch diameter and painted of a
neutral tint, is not easily seen. If the sea is a little choppy it is
difficult to discover it with the naked eye at about 300 or 400 yards
away, or in a smooth sea at over 500 yards.

The idea that a submarine may be located by an aeroplane is looked upon
by Mr. Lake as a fallacy, except in water of crystal-like clearness,
like that of the Mediterranean or the Caribbean, and periscopes are now
being made to scour the heavens as well as the horizon, so that the
presence of an enemy aeroplane can easily be seen. An attack by an
aeroplane bomb, therefore, can readily be avoided, in view of the
difficulty of hitting such an object from the upper air.

The submarine is the guerrilla of the sea. Its tactics are like those of
the Indian who fights under cover or lies in ambush for his enemy. It is
the weaker party and can hope for success only through strategy. The old
adage that “all is fair in love and war” applies to this new weapon of
destruction as to every warlike instrument. It is its invisibility that
makes the submarine the terror of the seas. This has been well proved
during the European war. The North Sea and the English Channel have been
invaded by German submarines which have made great havoc among merchant
ships. And it is well to draw attention to the fact that submarines are
safe from each other. In no case has a battle taken place between two of
these armed sharks except in the one instance reported of an Austrian
sinking an Italian submarine. But in this case the Italian boat was on
the surface and was at the time practically a surface ship.

During the war the Germans were especially active in the use of the
submarine, and did much in making them an effective terror of the seas.
With no mercantile marine of their own to guard, they had a free field
for attack in the abundant shipping of their foes. The loss of ships was
so numerous and became such a common occurrence that little attention
was finally paid to them except when great loss of life took place, as
in the signal instance of the “Lusitania.”

[Illustration: TYPE OF HIGH SPEED OCEAN-GOING SUBMARINE]

The Voyage of the “Deutschland.”

The great mission of the submarine during the European war was as a
commerce destroyer. Many ships were sunk and many lives, with cargoes of
great value, were lost, and it was not until the summer of 1916 that the
submarine appeared in a new rôle, that of a commerce carrier. On July
9th of that year the people of Baltimore were astounded by the
appearance in their port of a submarine vessel of unusual size and novel
errand. Instead of being a destroyer of merchandise, this new craft was
an unarmed carrier of merchandise. It had crossed the Atlantic on a
voyage of 4,000 miles in extent, laden with dyestuffs to supply the
needs of American weavers.

This new type of vessel, the “Deutschland,” was an undersea craft of 315
feet length and a gross tonnage of 701 tons, its cargo capacity being
more than 1,000 tons. It had crossed the ocean in defiance of the wide
cordon of enemy warships which swarmed over part of its route, and
reached port in safety after a memorable voyage, to the surprise and
interest of the world. Leaving the port of Bremenhaven on June 18th, and
halting at Heligoland for four days to train its crew, it made its way
across the Atlantic in sixteen days. During this voyage it lay for two
hours on the ocean bottom in the English Channel and was submerged in
all not over ninety hours, the remainder of the voyage being made on the
surface.

Its crew, composed of twenty-six men and three officers, found their
novel voyage rather agreeable than otherwise. Supplied with plenty of
good food, a well-selected library, a graphophone with an abundance of
music records, and other means of convenience and enjoyment, their
voyage was more of a holiday then a hardship, and they reached their
transatlantic port none the worse for their hazardous trip. It was not
the longest that had been made. Other submarines had voyaged from German
ports to the eastern limit of the Mediterranean, but it was the most
notable and attracted the widest attention.

[Illustration: THE GERMAN MERCHANT SUBMARINE “DEUTSCHLAND” WHICH CROSSED
THE ATLANTIC IN 1916, AFTER ELUDING THE BRITISH BLOCKADE

_Courtesy of Baltimore American and C. & P. Telephone Co._]

The return voyage promised to be more perilous then the outgoing one. A
fleet of British and French ships gathered around the outlet of
Chesapeake Bay, alert to capture the daring mariners and their ship, if
possible. Ready to leave Baltimore on July 20th, with a return cargo of
gold, nickel and rubber, the captain of the “Deutschland” shrewdly
awaited a favorable opportunity and on August 1st began his voyage,
plunging under sea as he left the American coast-line and easily evading
the line of floating foemen. The return to its home port a success, a
second round-trip voyage was made and completed on December 11th, in the
course of which a convoying tug-boat was rammed and sunk with the loss
of several lives, shortly after leaving New London, Conn. The
“Deutschland” was sent out by private parties, for purely commercial
purposes, not as a military enterprise.

Such is the story of a pioneer enterprise, that of the use of submarine
vessels as commerce carriers. It is one not likely to be supplemented in
times of peace, since surface boats would be cheaper and more available.
But in future wars--if such there are to be--it may point to a future of
advantageous trade.

Submarine Dredging.

Commerce is not the only peaceful mission of the submarine. In 1895 was
organized an association known as the Lake Submarine Company, its
purpose being to use the Lake type of submarine boat for the recovery of
lost treasures from the sea bottom and for other possibilities of
undersea work. This company is still in existence, its various purposes
being to recover sunken ships and their cargoes, to build breakwaters
and other submerged constructions, to aid in submarine tunnel building,
to dredge for gold, to fish for pearls and sponges, and for similar
operations.

The first vessel adapted to these purposes was the “Argonaut,” built by
Simon Lake in 1894. The important feature of this boat was a diver’s
compartment, enabling divers to leave the vessel when submerged, for the
purpose of operating on wrecks or performing other undersea duties. This
vessel and its successors have bottom doors for the use of divers, as
previously stated. They are now used for numerous purposes for which
they are much better adapted then the old system of surface diving, the
sea bottom being under direct observation and within immediate reach.

This sea bottom, in localities near land, is abundantly sown with
wrecks, old and new, and in many cases bearing permanently valuable
cargoes, such as gold and coal. The Lake system greatly simplifies the
work of search for sunken ships, the vessels being able in a few hours’
time to search over regions which would have taken months in the old
method. Many wrecks have been found by these bottom-prowling scouts and
valuable material recovered. Thus vessels laden with coal have been
traced that had been many years under the water and deeply covered with
sand and silt, and their cargoes brought to the surface.

[Illustration: A SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE WRECKING APPARATUS]

The gold-dredging spoken of refers to the working of gold-bearing sands
found at the mouth of certain rivers in Alaska and South America. Places
on the Alaskan coast, laid bare at high tide, are said to have yielded
as much as $12,000 per cubic yard. With the Lake system it is possible
to gather material from such localities to a depth of 150 or more feet,
the material being drawn up by suction pumps into the vessel and its
gold recovered.

Another important application is that of fishing for pearl shells,
sponges and coral. This is blind work when done by divers from the
surface, the returns being largely matters of chance. By aid of
submerged boats, with their powerful electric lights, the work becomes
one of certainty rather than of chance. The recovery of the oyster, clam
and other edible shell-fish is also a feature of the work which the Lake
Company has in view. The present method of dredging is of the “hit or
miss” character, while the submarine method is capable of thorough work.
Vessels have been designed for this purpose with a capacity of gathering
oysters from good ground at the rate of 5,000 bushels per hour. In
regard to submarine engineering, of its many varieties, the Lake system
is likely to be a highly useful aid and assistance.

These particulars are given to show that the submarine vessel is not
wholly an instrument of “frightfulness,” as indicated by its use in war,
but is capable of being made useful for many purposes in peace. Some of
these have here been very briefly stated. With continued practice its
utility will grow, and by its aid the sea bottom up to a certain depth
may become as open to varied operations as is the land surface.

The Story of the Panama Canal

America has captured the forces of Nature, harnessed the floods and made
the desert bloom, builded gigantic bridges and arrogant skyscrapers and
bored roadways through solid rock and beneath water, but the most
spectacular of all spectacular accomplishments is the Panama Canal.

Some four centuries ago, Balboa, the intrepid, the persevering, led his
little band of adventurers across the Isthmus of Darien, as it was then
called, and, leaving their protection, gave rein to his impatience by
going on ahead and climbing alone, slowly and painfully, the continental
divide, from which vantage point he discovered the world’s largest
ocean.

We are told that, later, gathering his followers, he walked out into the
surf and with his sword in his right hand and the banner of Castile in
his left gave the vast expanse of water its present name and claimed all
the land washed by its waves the lawful property of the proud country to
which he owed allegiance.

The narrowness of the Isthmus naturally suggested the cutting of a
waterway through it. It interposed between Atlantic and Pacific a
barrier in places less than fifty miles wide. To sail from Colon to
Panama--forty-five miles as the bird flies--required a voyage around
Cape Horn--some ten thousand miles. Yet it was nearly four centuries
before any actual effort was made to construct such a canal.

In 1876 an organization was perfected in France for making surveys and
collecting data on which to base the construction of a canal across the
Isthmus of Panama, and in 1878, a concession for prosecuting the work
was secured from the Colombian Government. In May, 1879, an
international congress was convened, under the auspices of Ferdinand de
Lesseps, to consider the question of the best location and plan of the
canal.

The Panama Canal Company was organized, with Ferdinand de Lesseps as its
president, and the stock of this company was successfully floated in
December, 1880. The two years following were devoted largely to surveys,
examinations and preliminary work. In 1889 the company went into
bankruptcy and operations were suspended until the new Panama Canal
Company was organized in 1894.

The United States to the Rescue.

The United States, not unmindful of the advantages of an Isthmian Canal,
had from time to time, made surveys of the various routes. With a view
to government ownership and control, Congress directed an investigation,
with the result that the Commission reported, on November 16, 1901, in
favor of Panama and recommended the lock type of canal, appraising the
value of the rights, franchises, concessions, lands, unfinished work,
plans and other property, including the railroad of the new Panama Canal
Company, at $40,000,000. An act of Congress, approved June 28, 1902,
authorized the President of the United States to acquire this property
at this figure, and also to secure from the Republic of Colombia
perpetual control of a strip of land not less than six miles wide across
the Isthmus and the right to excavate, construct and operate and protect
thereon a canal of such depth and capacity as would afford convenient
passage to the largest ships now in use or which might be reasonably
anticipated.

Later on a treaty was made with the Republic of Panama whereby the
United States was granted control of a ten-mile strip constituting the
Canal Zone. This was ratified by the Republic of Panama on December 2,
1903, and by the United States on February 23, 1904. On May 4, 1904,
work was begun under United States control.

[Illustration: UNCLE SAM’S BIG WORK AT PANAMA

A bird’s-eye view of the great canal, showing how the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans are here joined.]

[Illustration: _Courtesy of The Ingersoll Rand Company._

DRILLING ROCK, PANAMA CANAL

These powerful steam drills are capable of sinking holes in the solid
rock at the rate of seven feet per hour.]

The Canal and the Navy.

The opening of the canal has greatly increased the effectiveness of the
Navy of the United States. It has reduced the distance between the
central points of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts from 13,000 to 5,000
miles and greatly reduced the problem of coaling on a cruise from coast
to coast. It has made possible the concentration of a fleet at either
entrance of the canal which, with a cruising speed of fifteen knots,
could reach the center of the Pacific coast in nine days and the center
of the Atlantic coast in five days.

Where, formerly, the fleets stationed opposite the middle of each coast
were, from a cruising point of view, as far apart as opposite sides of
the world, they are now as near as if one were off New York and the
other off Buenos Aires.

With regard to the monetary saving to the United States resulting from
the availability of the canal for naval use, it is apparent that the
distance and time between the coasts have been reduced to less than
two-fifths of the former figures. The cost of coast-to-coast movements
is reduced accordingly, for though vessels of the Navy pay tolls, such
payment is in effect a transfer of money from one branch of the
government to another.

The strategic importance of the canal is inestimable from a monetary
standpoint.

The Great Canal.

The Isthmus of Panama runs east and west and the canal traverses it from
Colon on the north to Panama on the south in a general direction from
northwest to southeast, the Pacific terminus being twenty-two miles east
of the Atlantic entrance. The principal features of the canal are a
sea-level entrance channel from the east through Limon Bay to Gatun,
about seven miles long, five-hundred-foot bottom width and
forty-one-foot depth at mean tide. At Gatun the eighty-five-foot lake
level is obtained by a dam across the valley. The lake is confined on
the Pacific side by a dam between the hills at Pedro Miguel, thirty-two
miles away. The lake thus formed has an area of 164 square miles and a
channel depth of not less than forty-five feet at normal stage.

At Gatun ships pass from the sea to the lake level, and vice versa, by
three locks in flight. On the Pacific side there is one lowering of
thirty feet at Pedro Miguel to a small lake fifty-five feet above sea
level, held by dam at Miraflores, where two lowerings overcome the
difference of level to the sea. The channel between the locks on the
Pacific side is five hundred feet wide at the bottom and forty-five feet
deep, and below the Miraflores locks the sea-level section, about eight
miles in length, is five hundred feet wide at the bottom and forty-five
feet deep at mean tide. Through the lake the bottom widths are not less
than one thousand feet for about sixteen miles, eight hundred feet for
about four miles, five hundred feet for about three miles and through
the continental divide from Bas Obispo to Pedro Miguel, a distance of
about nine miles, the bottom width is three hundred feet. The total
length of the canal from deep water in the Caribbean, forty-one-foot
depth at mean tide to deep water in the Pacific, forty-five-foot depth
at mean tide, is practically fifty miles, fifteen miles of which are at
sea level.

The Hydroelectric Station.

The hydroelectric station uses water from Gatun Lake for driving three
turbo-generators of 2,000-kilowatt capacity each, which supply
electricity for the operation of the lock and spillway machinery, the
terminal shops and adjacent facilities, and for the lighting of the
locks and the canal villages and fortifications. Transmission over the
Zone is effected through four substations and a connecting high voltage
transmission line which follows the main line of the Panama Railroad.

[Illustration: SUBMARINES USED IN DEFENDING THE PANAMA CANAL

The vessels here shown are used in defense of the Pacific side of the
canal. They appear as anchored in the new concrete docks at Colon,
preparatory to their passage through the canal, after having made the
longest sea voyage then on record for submarines.

_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._]

[Illustration: _Copyright by the International News Service._

THROUGH THE PANAMA CANAL

The U. S. battleship “Ohio” in the east chamber of the Pedro Miguel
Locks. On the left is seen the electric locomotive used in drawing
vessels through.]

[Illustration: LADDER DREDGE, PANAMA CANAL]

[Illustration: SUCTION DREDGE, PANAMA CANAL

The upper view shows a ladder dredge, which operates by means of buckets
on a continuous chain, dipping the contents of the buckets into the scow
which lies alongside. The lower view shows a suction dredge, which
operates on soft mud or sands, pumping the discharge through the pipe
seen at the left of the illustration. The pipe may be carried to any
desired point and used for filling.]

[Illustration: _Copyright, C. H. Graves Co._

GATUN LOCKS

A. Sea-level section of canal, seven miles long, from Atlantic Ocean to
Gatun Locks, where by a series of three locks vessels are raised to
Gatun Lake, eighty-five feet above sea level. B. Small area of land
dredged away as soon as Gatun Locks were completed. C. Electric towing
motor, four of which tow each vessel entirely through the locks. They
run on cog rail along the lock walls. D. Lock gate under construction.
E. Floor of first lock from Atlantic side. Note holes in floor for
admitting the water. F. Lock for vessels coming from Pacific side. G.
Base on which concrete posts were erected for electric lights. A row of
lights on all sides of the locks making operation at night as safe as
day. H. Incline from locks of different levels up and down which the
towing motors run on cog rails.]

[Illustration: GAILLARD CUT LOOKING SOUTH FROM BEND IN EAST BANK NEAR
GAMBOA

The train and shovel are standing on the bottom of the cut. The water in
the drainage canal is about ten feet below the bottom of the canal, or
at elevation +30.]

[Illustration: A CYLINDRICAL VALVE MACHINE, MOTOR AND LIMIT SWITCH

This machine is one of many which are used to regulate the flow of water
to the locks. All valves are controlled from a central operating station
on each of the three sets of locks. The limit switch automatically shuts
off the power and stops the motor when the valve is entirely open or
shut.]

[Illustration: CUCARACHA SLIDE ATTACKED BY A FLEET OF DREDGES

This great slide was the source of much trouble to the engineers. At one
time it entirely blocked the canal at the narrow point shown in this
photograph, but the seven dredges of the ladder, suction and dipper
type, made short work of cutting the 150-foot channel shown here, and
then proceeded with the work of entirely clearing the cut. The view
looks north from the slide past Gold and Contractor’s Hills.

_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._]

[Illustration: STEAM SHOVEL BURIED UNDER FALL OF ROCK]

[Illustration: THE GREAT GAILLARD CUT

At this point the canal is cut through what is practically a mountain
range. The material excavated consisted largely of rock and formed one
of the hugest engineering problems in the world’s history. The cut is
nine miles long, 300 feet wide, 272 feet greatest depth and required the
excavation of 100,000,000 cubic yards of material.]

Gatun Lake, impounded by Gatun Dam, has an area of 164 square miles when
its surface is at the normal elevation of eighty-five feet above sea
level, and is the largest artificially-formed lake in the world. The
area of the water-shed tributary to the lake is 1,320 square miles.
During the rainy season, from April to the latter part of December, the
run-off from this basin exceeds considerably the consumption of water,
and the surplus is discharged through the spillway of Gatun Dam. Toward
the end of the rainy season the surface of the lake is raised to about
eighty-seven feet above sea level, in order to afford a surplus or
reserve supply to keep the channel full to operating depth during the
dry season, in part of which the consumption and evaporation are in
excess of the supply. It is calculated that when this level has been
attained at the beginning of the dry season the reserve is sufficient to
assure a surface elevation of at least seventy-nine feet at the end of
the dry season in spite of the consumption at the hydroelectric station,
and allowing forty-one passages of vessels through the locks each day
with the use of the full length of the chambers, or fifty-eight lockages
a day when the shorter sections of the chambers are used and cross
filling is employed, which would usually be the case. This is a greater
number of lockages than can be made in one day.

[Illustration: STEAM SHOVEL LOADING ROCK

These great machines, which are able to dig out and load several tons of
material at each operation, made the rapid progress in digging the canal
possible.]

Gigantic Obstacles.

The greatest difficulty encountered in the excavation of the canal was
due to slides and breaks which caused large masses of material to slide
or move into the excavated area, closing off the drainage, upsetting
steam shovels and tearing up the tracks. The greatest slide was at
Cucaracha, and gave trouble when the French first began cutting in 1884.
Though at first confined to a length of 800 feet, the slide extended to
include the entire basin south of Gold Hill, or a length of about 3,000
feet. Some idea of the magnitude of these slides can be obtained from
the fact that during the fiscal year 1910 of 14,921,750 cubic yards that
were removed, 2,649,000 yards, or eighteen per cent, were from slides or
breaks that had previously existed or that had developed during the
year.

[Illustration: ONE OF THE GUARD GATES, GATUN LOCKS, PANAMA CANAL

Each lock is provided with four gates. This shows the method of
construction, the gate being only partially finished.]

[Illustration: GATUN UPPER LOCKS, EAST CHAMBER

The view is looking north from the forebay showing the upper guard gates
and emergency dam.]

The one greatest undertaking of the whole excavation was the Gaillard
Cut. Work had been in progress on this since 1880, and during the French
control over 20,000,000 cubic yards were removed. On May 4, 1904, when
the United States took charge, it was estimated that there was left to
excavate 150,000,000 cubic yards. Some idea of the size of this big cut
may be formed from the fact that this division has within its
jurisdiction over 200 miles of five-foot-gage track laid, about
fifty-five miles of which is within the side slopes of the Gaillard Cut
alone.

Gatun Dam.

The great dam at Gatun is a veritable hill--7,500 feet over all, 2,100
feet wide at the base, 398 feet through at the water surface, and 100
feet wide at the top, which is 115 feet above sea level. The dimensions
of the dam are such as to assure that ample provision is made against
every force which may affect its safety, and while it is made of dirt, a
thing before unheard of, it is of such vast proportions that it is as
strong and firm as the everlasting hills themselves.

Fluctuations in the lake due to floods are controlled by an immense
spillway dam built of concrete. The front of the dam is the arc of a
circle 740 feet long with fourteen openings which, when the gates are
raised to the full height, permit a discharge of 140,000 cubic feet per
second. The water thus discharged passes through a diversion channel in
the old bed of the Chagres River, generating, by an enormous electric
plant, the power necessary for operating the locks.

The locks of the canal are in pairs, so that if any lock is out of
service navigation will not be interrupted, also, when all the locks are
in use the passage of shipping is expedited by using one set of locks
for the ascent and the other for descent. These locks are 110 feet wide
and have usable lengths of 1,000 feet. The system of filling adopted
consists of a culvert in each side wall feeding laterals from which are
openings upward into the lock chamber. The entire lock can be filled or
emptied in fifteen minutes and forty-two seconds when one culvert is
used and seven minutes and fifty-one seconds, using both culverts. It
requires about ten hours for a large ship to make the entire trip
through the canal.

Meeting all Emergencies.

Many extraordinary feats of engineering were accomplished to overcome
the difficulties presented. Special contrivances, wonderful in their
operation, were invented to meet exigencies and emergencies.

The first and greatest problem attempted by the United States was to
make the Canal Zone healthful. This strip of land from ocean to ocean
abounded in disease-breeding swamps and filthy habitations unfit for
human beings. The death-rate was appalling and the labor conditions
terrible. During the first two and a half years, therefore, all energies
were devoted to ridding the Isthmus of disease by sanitation, to
recruiting and organizing a working force and providing for it suitable
houses, hotels, messes, kitchens and an adequate food supply. This work
included clearing lands, draining and filling pools and swamps for the
extermination of the mosquito, the establishment of hospitals for the
care of the sick and injured and the building of suitable quarantine
quarters. Municipal improvements were undertaken in Panama and Colon and
the various settlements in the Canal Zone, such as the construction of
reservoirs, pavements and a system of modern roads. Over 2,000 buildings
were constructed besides the remodeling of 1,500 buildings turned over
by the French company.

[Illustration: LOCK GATE OPERATING MACHINERY

_Photograph, Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._

The great gear wheel, known as a “bull wheel,” is connected with one
leaf of the gate on the right by means of a strut so that revolving the
bull wheel by means of an electric motor through a train of gears
results in opening or closing the gate.]

[Illustration: PANAMA, PAST AND PRESENT

Scene showing the repaving of one of Panama’s old muddy streets with
vitrified brick. Sewers and water pipes were laid throughout the city,
resulting in a great reduction of disease.]

It was only after all this preliminary sanitation was accomplished that
the real work of digging the canal could go forward with any hope of
success. These hygienic conditions had the result of making the Canal
Zone one of the most healthful spots in the world, and work on the canal
became so popular that it was no longer necessary to enlist recruits
from the West Indies, the good pay, fair treatment and excellent living
conditions bringing thousands of laborers from Spain and Italy. The
greatest number employed at any one time was 45,000, of which 5,000 were
American.

A Battle Won.

The completion of this herculean task marked an epoch in the history of
the world. A gigantic battle against floods and torrents, pestilence and
swamps, tropical rivers, jungles and rock-ribbed mountains had been
fought--and won! Well worthy a place in the halls of immortal fame are
the names of the thousands of sturdy sons who, with ingenuity, pluck and
perseverance never before equaled, succeeded in making a pathway for the
nations of the world from ocean to ocean.

This great and daring undertaking, which had for its object the opening
up of new trade routes and lines of commerce, annihilating distance and
wiping out the width of two continents between New York and Yokohama and
making the Atlantic seaboard and the Pacific coast close neighbors, is
the climax of man’s achievement and the greatest gift to civilization.
It will help in the consummation of man’s loftiest dreams of world
friendship and world peace.[2] So far, in the use of the canal, over
forty per cent of the vessels which have passed through it have been
engaged in the coastwise trade of the United States--each of them saving
about 7,800 miles on each trip. If their average speed be taken at ten
knots, they have averaged a saving of over a month at sea on each voyage
from coast to coast. Where formerly the round trip of a ten-knot vessel
required about fifty-five days’ actual steaming, the time at sea for the
same trip for the same vessel is now reduced to about twenty-two days.

The canal makes San Francisco nearer to Liverpool by 5,666 miles, a
saving of two-fifths of the old journey by Magellan. The distance
between San Francisco and Gibraltar has been reduced from 12,571 miles
to 7,621 miles, a saving of 4,950 miles, or thirty-nine per cent of the
former distance.

From San Francisco to Buenos Aires, via Valparaiso and Magellan, is
approximately 7,610 miles, which is shorter than the route through the
canal, by which the distance is 8,941 miles. To Rio de Janeiro, the
distance via Magellan is 8,609 miles; by the canal 7,885 miles. To
Pernambuco, on the eastern promontory of South America, the distance via
Magellan is 9,748 miles; via the canal 6,746 miles. To Para the
distances via Magellan and via the canal are 10,852 and 5,642 miles,
respectively.

From San Francisco to Freetown, on the west coast of middle Africa, the
distance by the most practicable route, using the Strait of Magellan, is
11,380 miles. Through the canal and by way of the island of Barbados,
the distance is 7,277 miles. The new route is less than two-thirds of
the former.

With reference to the trade between the Atlantic coast of the United
States and the west coast of South America, New York is nearer to
Valparaiso by 3,717 miles by virtue of the canal; to Iquique, one of the
great nitrate ports, by 4,139 miles; and to Guayaquil by 7,405 miles.
From New York to Guayaquil the present distance of 2,765 miles is
approximately twenty-seven per cent of the former distance--10,270
miles.

[Illustration: FORTY TONS OF DYNAMITE DESTROY THE LAST BARRIER BETWEEN
THE OCEANS

The blowing up of Gamboa Dike, the last of the dikes in the Panama
Canal. This dike separated the water in the Gatun locks from Gaillard
Cut. The removal of the dike by a discharge of forty tons of dynamite,
set off by President Wilson, from Washington, was the last stage in the
completion of the great waterway. Dredges were put to work immediately
widening the channel at Cucaracha slide in Gaillard Cut, so that within
a short time the canal was ready for use throughout its entire length.

_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood._]

[Illustration: STEAM SHOVEL AT WORK IN GAILLARD CUT, WITH LARGE ROCK IN
MOUTH OF SHOVEL

The great progress made in digging the Panama Canal was largely due to
the steam shovels.]

As to the Far East, New York is nearer to Yokohama by 3,768 miles than
formerly by way of the Suez Canal, but the latter route is eighteen
miles shorter than the Panama route for vessels plying between New York
and Hongkong. New York is forty-one miles nearer Manila by Panama than
by Suez, and 3,932 miles nearer Sydney by Panama. New York is now, by
virtue of the Panama Canal, nearer than Liverpool to Yokohama by 1,880
miles, and nearer than Liverpool to Sydney by 2,424 miles.

When the ship enters the harbor of either of the terminal ports it is
boarded by officers of the canal who examine its bill of health and
clearance, see that its certificate of canal measurement is properly
made out, and ascertain any of the vessel’s needs in the matters of
fuel, supplies, extra men to handle the lines during the passage of the
locks, etc. These matters are immediately reported to the Captain of the
Port, who gives the necessary orders to insure proper attendance on the
vessel’s needs and directs its start through the canal whenever it is
ready.

In all stages of its transit of the canal the vessel must have on board
a government pilot. There is no charge for pilotage on vessels going
directly through the canal without stopping to discharge cargo or
passengers at the terminal ports. The pilot is on board in an advisory
capacity and is required to confer with the master of the vessel, giving
him the benefit of his knowledge and advice as to the handling of the
vessel in the various reaches, but the master, who is best acquainted
with the peculiarities of his vessel and her ways of answering the helm,
is responsible for the navigation of the vessel, except when she is
passing through the locks.

The handling of a vessel during its transit of the canal is like the
handling of a railway train on its “run.” The course is equipped with
all requisite signals, facilities for mooring, like sidings, and a
system of communication between points along the line, which includes a
special telephone system connecting all the important points of control
in series.

As soon as the vessel starts on its transit of the canal, the Captain of
the Port at the point of entrance telephones its starting to the other
stations along the course. As the vessel arrives and departs from each
of these points, the fact is telephoned along the line, so that there is
exact knowledge at each station all the time of the status of traffic,
and complete co-operation from the several points of control.

The transit of the canal requires about ten hours, of which
approximately three hours are spent in the locks. In the sea-level
channels and Gaillard (formerly “Culebra”) Cut the speed of vessels is
limited to six knots; through Gatun Lake they may make ten, twelve and
fifteen knots, according to the width of the channel. A vessel may clear
from the canal port at which it enters and, after passing through the
last of the locks, put direct to sea without further stop.

The handling of a vessel all through the canal, except in the locks, is
essentially the same as its handling through any charted channel where
observance of signals, ranges and turns is necessary. The canal channel
throughout is very accurately charted, fully equipped with aids to
navigation, and governed by explicit rules with which the pilots, of
course, are thoroughly familiar.

In the locks, the vessel is under the control of the lock-operating
force. As the vessel approaches the locks, the operator in charge at the
control house indicates by an electrically operated signal at the outer
end of the approach wall if the vessel shall enter the locks and, if so,
on which side; or if it shall keep back or moor alongside the approach
wall. If everything is ready for the transit of the locks, the vessel
approaches the center approach wall, which is a pier extending about a
thousand feet from the locks proper, lines are thrown out, and
connections are made with the electric towing locomotives on the
approach wall.

The vessel then moves forward slowly until it is in the entrance
chamber, when lines are thrown out on the other side and connections are
made with towing locomotives on the side wall. Six locomotives are used
for the larger vessels, three on each wall of the lock chamber. Two keep
forward of the vessel, pulling and holding her head to the center of the
chamber; two aft, holding the vessel in check; and two slightly forward
of amidships, which do most of the towing of the vessel through the
chamber. The locomotives are powerful affairs, secured against slipping
by the engagement of cogs with a rack running along the center of the
track, and equipped with a slip drum and towing windlass, which allow
the prompt paying out and taking in of hawser as required. No trouble
has been experienced in maintaining absolute control over the vessels.

The water within the lock chamber proper, beyond the entrance chamber,
is brought to the level of that in the approach, the gates toward the
vessel are opened, the fender chain is lowered, and the locomotives
maneuver the vessel into the chamber and bring it to rest. The gates are
then closed, the water raised or lowered, as the case may be, to the
level of that in the next chamber, the gates at the other end are
opened, and the vessel moved forward. Three such steps are made at
Gatun, two at Miraflores, and one at Pedro Miguel.

When the vessel has passed into the approach chamber at the end of the
locks, the lines from the towing locomotives on the side wall are first
cast off, then those from the locomotives on the approach wall, and the
vessel clears under its own power.

Towing is not ordinarily required in any part of the canal, except in
the locks, for steam or motor vessels. Tug service for sailing ships or
vessels without motive power is at the rate of $15 per hour. If the
channel in the cut has been disturbed by a slide, tugs may be used to
handle vessels past the narrow places, but in such cases there is no
charge for the service to vessels of less than 15,000 gross tonnage.

* * * * *

What is a Geyser?

The famous geyser shown in the illustration is called “Old Faithful”
because of the clock-like regularity of its eruptions. For over twenty
years it has been spouting at average intervals of sixty-five minutes.

Geysers were first observed in Iceland and the name, therefore, comes
from that language, being derived from the word “geysa,” meaning “to
gush” or “rush forth.” That is just what they do.

There are really three different kinds of geysers; one which throws up
hot water, either continually or, like “Old Faithful,” at intervals; one
which simply emits steam and no water and one which is a sort of a
hot-water cistern.

The “Grand Geyser” at Firehole Basin in Yellowstone Park is the most
magnificent natural fountain in the whole world. The “Great Geyser” and
the “New Geyser” are the most remarkable ones in Iceland, where there
are about a hundred altogether. The basin of the former is about seventy
feet in diameter, and at times it throws up a column of hot water to the
height of from eighty to two hundred feet in the air.

The hot-lake district of Auckland, New Zealand, is also famous in
possessing some of the most remarkable geyser scenery in the world. It
was formerly noted for the number of natural terraces containing hot
water pools, and its lakes all filled at intervals by boiling geysers
and hot springs, but the formation of the country was considerably
altered by a disastrous volcanic outbreak in 1886, its beautiful pink
and white terraces being destroyed. It still has, however, a circular
rocky basin, forty feet in diameter, in which a violent geyser is
constantly boiling up to the height of ten to twelve feet, emitting
dense clouds of steam. This is one of the natural wonders of the
southern hemisphere and is much visited by tourists traveling through
New Zealand.

[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._

“OLD FAITHFUL” IN ERUPTION]

What Kind of Dogs are Prairie-Dogs?

Prairie-dogs are not really dogs at all, but a kind of a squirrel called
a marmot. As the visitors to city Zoological Parks already know, these
animals make little mounds of earth, and a great many of these are found
in one locality, which is known as a “dog-town.” It is possible to
travel for days at a time through country which is dotted over with
mounds, every one of which is the home of a pair or more of
prairie-dogs. These mounds are usually about eighteen feet apart, and
consist of about as much earth as would fill a very large wheelbarrow.
This is thrown up by the prairie-dog when he digs out his subterranean
home. His dwelling sometimes has one entrance and sometimes two, and
there are many much-traveled paths between the different hillocks,
showing that they are very neighborly and sociable with one another.

In choosing a town site, they select one which is covered with short,
coarse grass, such as is found especially in fields on high ground and
mountain sides, for it is on this grass and certain roots that the
prairie-dogs feed. On the plains of New Mexico, where for miles you will
not find a drop of water unless you dig down into the earth for a
hundred feet or so, with no rain for several months at a time, there are
many very large “dog-towns,” and it is, therefore, clear that they are
able to live without drinking, obtaining enough moisture for their needs
from a heavy fall of dew.

At about the end of October, when the grass dries up and the ground
becomes frozen hard, so that digging is out of the question, the
prairie-dog creeps into his burrow, blocking up the opening in order to
keep out the cold and make everything snug, and goes to sleep until the
following spring, without having had to lay up a store of food, as some
animals do, to last him through the long, hard winter months. If he
opens up his house again before the end of cold weather, the Indians say
it is a sure sign that warmer days are near at hand.

If one approaches very cautiously so as not to be observed, a large
“dog-town” presents a very curious sight. A happy, animated scene
stretches away as far as the eye can see. Little prairie-dogs are found
everywhere, on the top of their mounds, sitting up like squirrels,
waving their tails from side to side and yelping to each other, until a
most cheerful-sounding concert is produced. If you listen carefully, as
you draw nearer, however, you will notice a different tone in the calls
of the older and more experienced animals, and that is the warning
signal for the whole population to disappear from view into their
burrows. Then, if one hides quietly in the background and waits
patiently for some time, sentinels will mount up to their posts of
observation on top of the mounds and announce that it is safe to come
out of their burrows and play about again, as the danger is past.

What is Spontaneous Combustion?

Spontaneous combustion is the burning of a substance or body by the
internal development of heat without the application of fire.

It not infrequently takes place among heaps of rags, wool and cotton
when sodden with oil; hay and straw when damp or moistened with water;
and coal in the bunkers of vessels.

In the first case, the oil rapidly combines with the oxygen of the air,
this being accompanied by great heat. In the second case, the heat is
produced by a kind of fermentation; and in the third, by the pyrites of
the coal rapidly absorbing and combining with the oxygen of the air.

The term is also applied to the extraordinary phenomenon of the human
body, which has been told of some people, whereby it is reduced to ashes
without the application of fire. It is said to have occurred in the aged
and persons that were fat and hard drinkers, but most chemists reject
the theory and altogether discredit it.

The Story in the Talking Machine[3]

As far back as 1855 inventors were experimenting with talking machines;
but nothing practical was accomplished till 1877, when Thomas A. Edison
constructed a primitive machine capable of recording and reproducing
sounds. In the early Edison phonograph the sound vibrations were
registered on a tinfoil-covered cylinder. Busy with other inventions, he
postponed developing the idea of a talking machine; and meantime other
brains were at work on the problem.

[Illustration: FIRST PRACTICAL TALKING MACHINE]

[Illustration: ONE OF THE EARLIER TYPES OF SPRING MOTOR GRAPHOPHONES]

In 1885 Chichester A. Bell (cousin of Alexander Graham Bell, of
telephone fame) and Charles Sumner Tainter invented the “graphophone.”
This was the first practical and commercially usable talking machine.
The experiments and discoveries resulting in the production of the Bell
and Tainter graphophone were made in the laboratories of Alexander
Graham Bell, near Washington, D. C., and the latter assisted and advised
with the inventors, and on his own behalf conducted experiments which
were productive of highly important results in the art of recording and
reproducing sound.

The Bell and Tainter patent was granted in 1886, and although the
subject of much controversy, it has been repeatedly sustained by the
United States courts, and in one case (87 F. R. 873) Judge Shipman had
to consider all that other inventors had done or attempted to do, and he
there decided that Bell and Tainter were the first to make “an actual
living invention which the public was able to use.”

[Illustration: OSCAR SEAGLE, THE WELL-KNOWN SOLOIST, RECORDING

The artist stands before the horn and his every note is recorded with a
fidelity startling in the extreme.]

This method covered “a method of engraving records of sound, producing
records of sound by engraving in a wax-like material which would permit
of the handling, using and transporting of the record.” Another United
States patent, covering a method of duplicating or copying sound
records, was granted to Charles Sumner Tainter in 1886.

[Illustration: THE MACDONALD GRAPHOPHONE GRAND]

Of course the talking machine of to-day is a long way removed from the
early Edison and the early Bell and Tainter machines, because many
master minds have been working on the problem of developing and maturing
the art of sound recording and reproducing, and in perfecting machines
to be used in reproducing the sound records after they have been made.

Disk records have taken the place of the old-style cylinder records, the
latter being confined for the most part to dictating machines for office
use, as the Dictaphone, which has largely displaced the shorthand writer
in many business houses.

[Illustration: IN BAND AND ORCHESTRA RECORDING EACH INSTRUMENT IS AT A
DIFFERENT ELEVATION]

[Illustration: LEOPOLD GODOWSKY, ONE OF THE WORLD’S GREATEST PIANISTS,
MAKING A RECORD

The bell at the left is rung to advise the artist that the recorder is
ready and the flashing of the light at the right is the signal to begin
playing.]

Since the original Thomas A. Edison patents and the Bell and Tainter
patent there have been many thousands granted, but only a few need be
referred to as constituting the milestones in the evolution and
development of the art and industry.

First in point of time and importance is the Macdonald Spring Motor, the
invention of Thomas Hood Macdonald, a prolific inventor and contributor
of many valuable improvements to the talking machine art and industry.
The Bell and Tainter machine was operated by a storage battery and this
was an inconvenient and expensive form of power. To meet this condition
the Macdonald Spring Motor was invented and from the start proved a
tremendous success. Today most of the clockwork motor talking machines
are built upon the principles disclosed in the Macdonald Spring Motor
patent.

[Illustration: AN UP-TO-DATE TALKING MACHINE MODEL]

The next important step was the discovery by Macdonald that a critical
speed for the surface of the record must be obtained in order to secure
best results, and this wonderful principle in the art of sound recording
was protected by United States patent issued to Macdonald covering what
is known as the Macdonald Graphophone Grand. This discovery and
invention has been largely instrumental in the rapid development of
sound recording.

Although Bell and Tainter disclosed a method of recording sound on a
flat surface, all of the earlier forms of talking-machine records were
what are known as cylindrical, records in a cylindrical form. Later the
disc record came into use and is now the most popular form. Relatively
very few cylinder records are manufactured at the present time. The
process of sound recording, as applied to disc records, is covered by
United States patent to J. W. Jones, and marks a further important stage
in the development of the art and industry.

In present-day sound recording the operation is briefly as follows: A
recording machine is employed on which is mounted a rotating turntable
carrying a wax-like disc blank. Suspended above, but in contact with the
surface of the blank, is a recording needle or stylus, attached to a
diaphragm which, in turn, is connected to an amplifying horn. The horn
extends beyond the machine and the singer, band or orchestra is
stationed in front of the mouth of this horn. As the singer interprets
the song the vibrations set up by the singer’s voice are communicated to
the diaphragm by the passage of the sound through the horn. These
vibrations, striking upon the diaphragm, set in motion the recording
needle or stylus, causing it to move rapidly, and its motion is traced
upon the surface of the rotating disc in a line which is known as the
sound line. Looked at with the naked eye this line has the appearance of
a spiral traced upon the surface of the wax-like blank, but examined
under a magnifying glass it shows myriad little indentations or grooves
in the wall of the sound line. These indentations correspond to the
vibrations imparted to the needle through the diaphragm, and are the
recorded sounds made by the singer or band. When the song or selection
is finished the surface of the wax-like blank has been covered over with
this spiral sound line. The blank has become the “master record,” and
the first stage of producing a talking-machine record has been passed.
The next step is to secure from this master record a metallic
counterpart or shell. This is done by the electro-plating process. When
the shell is secured the next step is to provide a matrix which serves
as a die or stamp from which to press copies or duplicates of the master
record. These copies or duplicates are the talking-machine records which
the public ultimately purchases. The matrix or die is placed in a power
press and the records pressed from the material used in making the sound
records. This material is prepared in a plastic form so that it can be
forced under pressure into every line and indentation on the face of the
matrix.

[Illustration: INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IS RECORDED AS FAITHFULLY AS VOCAL

Barrere, the great flute player and orchestra leader, is shown making a
popular record.]

The discovery of the art of recording and reproducing sound; the
development of that art into a giant industry, and the present-day
universal sovereignty of the talking machine are tributes to American
inventive genius and American industrial enterprise. The contributions
to the art and the improvements in the manufacture of talking machines
and talking-machine records from sources outside of the United States
have been very unimportant. The industry employs many thousands of
people in the manufacture of these instruments and records which afford
entertainment, instruction and amusement to the entire world.

* * * * *

What are Petrified Forests?

In the first place, petrification is the name we give to the animal and
vegetable bodies which have, by slow process, been converted into stone.
We mean very much the same thing when we refer to “Fossil Forests.”

Although in most instances there are comparatively few traces of its
vegetable origin left, coal owes its existence primarily to the vast
masses of vegetable matter deposited through the luxuriant growth of
plants in former epochs of the earth’s history, and since slowly
converted into a petrified state.

Coal fields today present abundant indications of the existence of huge
ancient forests, usually in the form of coal formed from the roots of
the trees. Several such forests have been uncovered, of which one in
Nova Scotia is a good example, remains of trees having been found there,
six to eight feet high, one tree even measuring twenty-five feet in
height and four feet in diameter.

The remains of a fossil forest have been found in an upright position in
France, and in a colliery in England, in a space of about one-quarter of
an acre, there have been found the fossilized stumps of seventy-three
trees, with roots attached, and broken-off trunks lying about, one of
them thirty feet long and all of them turned into coal.

A remarkable group of petrified trees, some of them twelve feet in
diameter, exists in California, and another in Yellowstone Park, in
which the trees are still erect, though converted into stone. An
extraordinary forest of such trees has been found in Arizona, lying over
a wide space of ground, some of them six feet in diameter and perfectly
preserved.

These trees are rather mineralized than fossilized. They are found in
volcanic regions and are supposed to be due to the action of hot water,
which carried off the organic material and deposited dissolved silica in
its place. In some instances the wood has been converted into solid
jasper or has been changed into opal or agate, or filled with chalcedony
or crystallized quartz, with beautifully variegated colors.

[Illustration: TREES THAT HAVE TURNED TO STONE

A scene in one of the Petrified Forests of Arizona. Broken trunks of
trees are lying all about.]

What Animals are the Best Architects?

Animals of a great many different kinds have helped show man the way, in
taking advantage of the opportunities which nature affords him to feed,
clothe and protect himself, but one of the smallest of the animal
kingdom is probably the cleverest of all--the spider. Spiders have many
different kinds of enemies, ranging from man down to the very smallest,
but dangerous, insects, and most of their enemies possess enormous
advantages over them in either strength or agility, or both combined;
enemies with wings, swift in movement and able to retreat where the
spider cannot follow them; enemies clad in an impenetrable coat of
armor, against which the spider’s weapons are powerless, while the
spider’s own body is soft and vulnerable. These handicaps have been met
by the spider with a multitude of clever contrivances, and if invention
and skill are to be regarded as an index to intellectual development, it
should be very significant to realize how far spiders are ahead of our
near relatives, the almost human members of the monkey family.

One of the most interesting of the spider race is the “trap-door” spider
which inhabits warm countries all over the earth. The “trap-door” spider
not only builds a home for herself by digging a deep hole in the ground
and lining it with silk to prevent the sides from falling in, but she
also adds a neat little door to keep out the rain and other troublesome
things. She usually chooses sloping ground for her homestead so that the
door, which she fastens at the edge of its highest point by a strong
silk-elastic hinge, swings shut of its own weight after being opened.
She disguises the entrance to her home in a manner superior to the
famous art of concealment practiced by the Indians, by planting moss on
the outside of the door--living moss taken from the immediate
neighborhood--so that the entrance to her house harmonizes perfectly
with its surroundings, its discovery being made more difficult by the
fact that in her careful selection of a site for her dwelling she also
appears to be influenced by the presence of patches of white lichen
which distract the eye.

The male spider does not seem to take any part in designing,
constructing or decorating the home and does not even share its
occupancy, leaving it to the mother and her family--often forty or more
children at a time--and living a vagrant life, camping out in holes and
ditches when he is not tramping around over the whole countryside. The
mother spider, however, like many other animals, takes excellent charge
of her children, and guards them carefully from all harm. At the first
sign of a commotion going on outside her front door she is known to
invariably assemble her family behind her, out of harm’s way, and then
place her back against the swinging door, holding it shut with some of
her feet and clinging tightly to the inner walls of her home with the
others.

There is one kind of spider which has developed an even more elaborate
style of architecture, digging another room and adding an upper side
gallery to her main residence, and placing a second door at the junction
of the two tunnels. The doors are made to swing back and forth in both
directions, and she constructs a handle on the outer one, by which she
fastens it open with a few threads attached to any convenient grass
stems or little stones, when she expects to come home from a hunting
expedition with her arms full. If a dangerous enemy threatens her home
she usually retreats to the second room, in the hope that he will decide
she is out and depart in search of another victim elsewhere, but if he
discovers her secret, she slams the second swinging door in his face.
Should she be beaten in the pushing match at that point, she slips into
the upper side gallery opening above the door, and her enemy’s presence
within the inner room automatically blocks the entrance to her hiding
place by holding up the swinging door across its only opening.

The Story of the Motorcycle[4]

Interest in the development of mechanically propelled two-wheel vehicles
began soon after the introduction of the bicycle in its first
practicable form. Man’s natural dislike for manual labor quickly found
objection to the physical effort of bicycle travel, and accordingly
sought to devise mechanical means of overcoming it.

[Illustration: COPELAND MODEL, 1884]

The earliest known attempt to construct a two-wheel vehicle which would
proceed under its own power was made by W. W. Austin, of Winthrop,
Mass., in the year 1868. This crude affair consisted of a small
velocipede upon which was mounted a crude coal-burning steam engine. The
piston rods of the engine were connected directly with cranks on the
rear wheel. The boiler was hung between the two wheels and directly back
of the saddle, while the engine cylinders were placed slightly above
horizontal just behind the boiler. Despite the crudity of this outfit,
Austin claimed that he had traveled some 2,200 miles on this, the
“granddaddy” of all motorcycles.

[Illustration: AUSTIN STEAM VELOCIPEDE, 1868]

[Illustration: ROPER’S MACHINE, 1886]

L. D. and W. E. Copeland, two Californian experimenters, are credited
with the next known effort to produce a two-wheeler which would travel
by its own power. Their first model appeared in 1884. The bicycle to
which this miniature steam-power plant of the Copeland brothers’
invention was attached was one of the old high-wheel models with the
small steering wheel forward. The steam engine of this truly ingenious
contrivance, together with the boiler and the driving pulley, weighed
only sixteen ounces. The Copeland model was probably the first
motorcycle to use belt drive. It should be understood that propulsion of
this first Copeland model was not intended to depend solely upon
mechanical power, but to be operated in connection with the foot pedals.

The Copeland brothers are to be credited with the first attempt to
produce the motorcycle upon a commercial basis, but their efforts were
unsuccessful. Their invention seemed to be far ahead of the times, and
their project passed by unappreciated.

In 1886, S. H. Roper, of Roxbury, Mass., appeared with a steam-propelled
bicycle which consisted of a specially designed engine placed in a
bicycle frame of the type with which we are familiar today. This
invention was awkward, and its weight of 150 pounds made it difficult to
handle, but in spite of that its inventor is said to have obtained
considerable use from it.

[Illustration: THE PENNINGTON MOTORCYCLE, 1895]

The year 1895 saw the first public exhibition of mechanically operated
two-wheel vehicles held at Madison Square Garden, New York City. The
sensation of the show was a motorcycle which was presented by E. J.
Pennington of Cleveland. This was the first public appearance of a cycle
propelled by a combustion engine, and in that regard it may be called
the first appearance of the motorcycle in the form that it is known
today. The Pennington machine was the first-known vehicle to attempt the
use of gasoline. History fails to relate a great deal about the
mechanical detail of the Pennington model, but it is said to have made a
very creditable performance in exhibition. It appeared at the Madison
Square Garden in two forms, as a single motorcycle and as a motor
tandem.

[Illustration: HEDSTROM MOTOR TANDEM, 1898]

There was little or no interest in motor vehicles of any description in
that period of the early nineties, consequently the Pennington efforts
were fruitless. Shortly after the public exhibition of his models,
financial difficulties are said to have overtaken Pennington and he is
reported to have departed suddenly for foreign climes, bringing his
experiments to an abrupt end.

[Illustration: A BIG TWIN MODEL]

[Illustration: AN UP-TO-DATE “FEATHERWEIGHT” MODEL]

Along in the late nineties a keen interest in bicycle racing led to the
introduction of what is known as the motor-paced tandem. This consisted
of a regulation tandem bicycle on which was mounted a gasoline motor
geared up to the rear wheel with a chain drive. The tandem rider on the
forward seat did the steering and the foot pedaling, and the rear rider
operated the motor. It is believed that the first of these tandems came
over here from France.

By 1898 the popularity of the motor-paced racing bicycle became so great
that attention was soon directed toward their manufacture. Chief among
the bicycle manufacturers who took up the making of the motor-paced
tandem was Oscar Hedstrom, a racer with many notable victories to his
credit. He believed that he could make a motor tandem which would prove
far superior to any other American machine made, if not better even than
any foreign machine.

[Illustration: CRADLE SPRING FRAME CONSTRUCTION]

The machine which he produced with a motor of his own design was entered
in some big races at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo in 1901
where nearly every record was broken. Mr. Hedstrom’s partner on this
tandem outfit was Henshaw, a bicycle racer of some repute. Following
their début on the motor tandem at Buffalo, this pair proceeded to make
records throughout the country, several of which still stand today.

In 1901 a bicycle manufacturer of Springfield, Mass., foresaw a future
for a motorcycle designed for pleasure purposes instead of exclusively
for racing. Hitherto, all motor-propelled cycles had used the power of
the engine of whatever form it was merely as an aid to locomotion. None
had been successful in producing a machine that could proceed anywhere
solely under its own power. Convinced that such a machine could be
produced, and certain that it would find a ready market, this
manufacturer set about to put his ideas into execution.

[Illustration: FIRST HEDSTROM MOTORCYCLE WITH TRI-CAR, 1902]

He recognized in Oscar Hedstrom, as the leader of the motor tandem
racing field, the man who knew more about combustion engines than any
other man in America, and accordingly enlisted his services. Oscar
Hedstrom retired to a little mechanical laboratory in Middletown, Conn.,
and in a short four months emerged with a completed motorcycle which he
had not only designed himself, but had constructed entirely by his own
labor. Its performance on its first trial trip was absolutely astounding
to every observer. In road tests under every conceivable condition, this
first motorcycle of Oscar Hedstrom’s displayed a perfection of
mechanical operation which had to that time never been approached. It
moved entirely under its own power, could climb hills and could travel
on the level road at speeds which had never before been exhibited by
vehicles of that type.

By reason of the successful performance of his first motorcycle, Oscar
Hedstrom is given the credit, in many quarters, for producing the first
motorcycle of practicable construction. All successful machines of this
type since then are said to have been modeled more or less on the
fundamental principles of that first Hedstrom machine. Part of
Hedstrom’s success was due to his mastery of the important problem of
carburetion, and a carburetor expressly designed for that first machine
constituted a marked step in motorcycle development. The leading
carburetors of today are said to be based upon the principles of the
first Hedstrom carburetor. The date of the appearance of the first
Hedstrom motorcycle was 1901.

Manufacture of the motorcycle upon a commercial scale forthwith
commenced in the bicycle manufactory at Springfield, Mass. Such is said
to have been the humble beginning of the motorcycle.

[Illustration: MODERN “SIDE-CAR” MODEL]

Their first motorcycle was offered to the public in 1902. Its mechanical
detail is worthy of note for the sake of comparison with the models of
the current year. Its motor was the Hedstrom single-cylinder motor of
1-3/4 horse-power; frame, 22 inches; tires, 1-3/4 inches, single tube;
chain drive; weight, 93 pounds. From the year 1902 to 1909, the style of
their motorcycle remained substantially the same in appearance. The
models of that period are referred to as “camel backs” by reason of the
location and shape of the gasoline tank on the rear mud guard. In 1909,
the loop frame was introduced to provide additional strength to the
machine, being required by the increased weight of the motor; 1906 saw
the introduction of twin cylinders for racing models, and the following
year they appeared in the regular models.

Motorcycle design has made wonderful progress. The powerful, easy-riding
machines of today with their many refinements are truly marvelous pieces
of mechanism. Mechanical perfection is as nearly approached as it is
possible for the best brains and the most approved methods of
manufacture to attain. There are numerous modern refinements which have
contributed materially to the present-day popularity of the motorcycle
that are worthy of special note. Chief of these is the kick-starter,
which enables the rider to start the engine of his machine without
mounting it upon a stand or pedaling on the road. Improved clutches,
gear ratios which permit varying speeds, double-braking systems and
electric lights are present-day refinements which add zest to the sport
of motorcycling.

One of the greatest of all motorcycling comfort creations is a device
known as the cradle spring frame which consists of pairs of cushion-leaf
springs of the semi-elliptical type, which are located at the rear of
the frame just beneath the saddle. This affords the maximum of riding
comfort by the elimination of all jar and jolt occasioned by an uneven
roadway.

Magneto ignition first appeared in 1908; previous to that date all
ignition had been dependent upon batteries of the ordinary dry-cell
variety.

The last two years has seen the introduction of what is known as the
light-weight model. This style of motorcycle has a smaller motor, which
is usually of the two-stroke type, single cylinder. The frame is of
lighter construction, the mechanism is simpler, and of course the speed
is reduced. This type of two-wheeler, however, finds favor among those
who like power and speed but in modified form. Lower initial cost and
lower operation expense are factors which especially recommend the
light-weight models.

[Illustration: MODERN DELIVERY VAN FOR GROCERS, DRUGGISTS, ETC.]

There has been considerable difference of opinion as regards the
comparative efficiency of chain drive and belt drive. The consensus of
opinion, however, seems to favor the chain drive, as evidenced by its
use on most of the leading makes of present-day machines. Some of the
light-weight models are using belt drive, but chain drive is generally
conceded to be superior. In the early days of motorcycling, belt drive
was rather generally used, but the heavy duty required soon brought
about the change to present usage.

Motorcycle manufacture is today carried on in some of the largest and
most up-to-date manufactories that can be found in the United States.
The oldest and the largest factory devoted to motorcycle manufacture is
said to be that which has been built up under the direction of the
Springfield manufacturer, the man who first saw the great commercial
possibilities in the development of the motorcycle for pleasure and
business purposes. His company had a capitalization of $12,500,000 in
1916. Some 2,400 skilled workmen were employed in its two big
Springfield plants. Its output, said to be the largest in the industry,
is over 25,000 machines per year. Numerous models meeting varying
requirements are produced.

Soon after the first practicable motorcycle appeared in 1902 there arose
a demand for a contrivance that would accommodate an additional
passenger. Consequently, there was produced an attachment called a
tri-car. This was mounted on two pneumatic-tired wheels which were
fitted to the front fork together with necessary steering devices. Later
it was found that the passenger conveyance could better be carried at
the side mounted upon a springed chassis which was supported by a third
wheel. That form was thereupon generally adopted, and remains today the
general practice in the manufacture of motorcycle side-cars, as they are
called.

Naturally enough, interest in motorcycles was quickly directed toward
their application to commercial uses, and to that end there were
produced numerous styles of side vans and parcel carriers intended for
parcel delivery.

The use of the motorcycle for commercial purposes was for a time
overshadowed by the abnormally rapid development of the automobile, but
the factor of upkeep and operation costs of an automobile is bringing
the motorcycle into prominence now. In this respect the motorcycle is
said to have the advantage overwhelmingly. The tendency, however, among
business houses is to investigate their individual requirements for
delivery service and determine to what purposes either form of motor
vehicle is best adapted. For light parcel system there is said to be no
form of delivery that excels the motorcycle in speed and efficiency and
nothing with operation costs so low. The commercial motorcycle is said
to be gaining widespread favor, and therein lies its greatest future.

Foreign countries have contributed little or nothing to the development
of the motorcycle. To be sure, efforts were made to produce two-wheel
motor vehicles, but little success is recorded. Record of the earliest
known effort was found in an English newspaper of 1876. This report,
however, was very meager and lacking in any profusion of mechanical
detail. Moreover, beyond the newspaper reports there is little
verification that any steps were really taken at that time. The French
contribute the only known features that are credited to foreign
inventors. The DeDion motor was used in some of the racing motor tandems
which appeared in this country in the late nineties. Other French racing
bicycles were no doubt in existence, but there is no history which can
ascribe any truly constructive innovations in motorcycle making to any
foreign country. The motorcycle in its form of today was designed and
built by America.

* * * * *

How is the Weather Man Able to Predict Tomorrow’s Weather?

The Weather Bureau was founded in 1870 by the United States Government,
its purpose being to make daily observations of the state of the weather
in all parts of the country, and to calculate from the results a
forecast for each section of the country, based on the information thus
obtained, these predictions being published so that the people of each
district may know in advance the kind of weather likely to occur.

While these forecasts are of great convenience to practically everyone,
and of importance to the agriculturist, they are frequently of still
more importance to ship masters, storm warnings being given that may
keep them in port when storms are expected and thus save their ships
from the danger of injury or shipwreck. This system has made great
progress since its institution, and reports are now received daily from
more than 3,500 land stations and about fifty foreign stations, while by
means of wireless telegraphy, under normal conditions, some 2,000 ships
send reports of the weather conditions at sea.

[Illustration: WEATHER BUREAU BOX KITE

The Government Weather Bureau uses large box kites carrying recording
barometers, thermometers and other apparatus to ascertain weather
conditions high in the air. This view shows a kite about to be sent up
from an observatory.]

Study of results has led to the belief that more than eighty per cent of
winds and storms follow beaten paths, their movements being governed by
physical conditions, a knowledge of which enables the Weather Bureau
officials to estimate very closely their probable speed and direction
and send warning of their coming in advance. Within two hours after the
regular morning observation at eight o’clock, the forecasts are
telegraphed to more than 2,300 principal distributing points, from which
they are further sent out by mail, telegraph and telephone, being mailed
daily to 135,000 addresses and received by nearly 4,000,000 telephone
subscribers.

One of the most valuable services rendered is that of the warnings of
cyclonic storms for the benefit of marine interests. These are displayed
at nearly three hundred points on the ocean and lake coasts, including
all important ports and harbors, warnings of coming storms being
received from twelve to twenty-four hours in advance. The result has
been the saving of vast amounts of maritime property, estimated at many
millions of dollars yearly.

Agriculturists also derive great advantage from these warnings,
especially those engaged in the production of fruits, vegetables and
other market garden products. Warnings of frosts and of freezing weather
have enabled the growers of such products to protect and save large
quantities of valuable plants. It is said that on a single night in a
small district in Florida, fruits and vegetables were thus saved to the
amount of more than $100,000. In addition, live stock of great value has
been saved by warnings a week in advance of the coming of a flood in the
Mississippi; railroad companies take advantage of the forecast for the
preservation, in their shipping business, of products likely to be
injured by extremes of heat or cold, and in various other ways the
forecasts are of commercial or other value.

One of the chief stations for observations is that at Mount Weather, in
the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia. This is equipped with delicate
instruments in considerable variety for the study of varying conditions
of the upper air. Kites and captive balloons are sent up every favorable
day, ascending to heights of two or three miles, and equipped with
self-registering instruments to record the temperature and other
conditions of the atmosphere. At other times, free balloons are
liberated, carrying sets of automatic registering instruments. Some of
these travel hundreds of miles, but nearly all are eventually found and
returned.

How does a Siren Fog Horn Blow?

There are a great many different kinds of signals for the guidance of
vessels during fogs, when lights or other visible signals cannot be
perceived.

One of the most powerful signals is the siren fog horn, the sound of
which is produced by means of a disk perforated by radial slits made to
rotate in front of a fixed disk exactly similar, a long iron trumpet
forming part of the apparatus. The disks may each contain say twelve
slits, and the moving disk may revolve 2,800 times a minute; in each
revolution there are of course twelve coincidences between the slits in
the two disks; through the openings thus made steam or air at a high
pressure is caused to pass, so that there are actually 33,600 puffs of
steam or compressed air every minute. This causes a sound of very great
power, which the trumpet collects and compresses, and the blast goes out
as a sort of sound beam in the direction required. Under favorable
circumstances this instrument can be heard from twenty to thirty miles
out at sea.

Fog signals are also used on railways during foggy weather; they consist
of cases filled with detonating powder, which are laid on the rails and
exploded by the engine when it runs over them.

The Story in a Watch[5]

Clocks and watches are often called “timekeepers,” but they do not keep
time. Nothing can keep it. It is constantly flying along, and carrying
us with it, and we cannot stop it. What we call “time keepers” are
really time measures, and are made to tell us how rapidly time moves, so
that we may regulate our movements and occupations to conform to its
flight.

Of course, you understand that measurement of anything is the comparing
of it with some established standard. So that if you want to measure the
length of anything you use a rule or a yard stick, or some other scale
which is graduated into fractions of the whole standard measure. Do you
know that the United States government has in a secure, fireproof vault,
in one of the government buildings in Washington, a metal bar which is
the authorized standard “yard” of this nation? It is a very carefully
made copy of the standard yard of Great Britain. I believe that each one
of the United States has also a standard which must agree in length with
the government, or national standard. The same thing is true concerning
standards of capacity, and standards of weight. But no vault can contain
the authorized standard of time. Yet there is such a standard. And it is
as accessible to one country as to another, and it is a standard which
does not change. But, because all other time measures are more or less
imperfect, our government tries to compare its standard clock with the
ultimate standard every day.

The first mention of time which we have is found in the Book of Genesis,
where it is written “and the evening and the morning were the first
day.” That statement gives a “measure” which was sufficient for the
purpose intended, but there is nothing very accurate in it. If it had
said “the darkness and the light” were the first day, it would have been
just as accurate. The people who lived in those far-off days had no
special occasion to know or to care what time it was. We may suppose
that they were hungry when they waked at sunrise, and if they had no
food “left over” from the previous day’s supply they would have to
hustle and find some, and if possible secure a little surplus beyond
that day’s needs, and so they would work, or hunt, until the “evening”
came and the sun disappeared. When a man was tired, and the sun was hot,
he sat down under a tree for shelter and rest. As he sat under the tree
and looked about him he could not fail to notice that upon the ground
was a shadow of the tree under which he sat. And as he was tired and
warm he lay down and fell asleep, and when he woke, he again saw the
shadow, but in another place. He noticed that the same thing occurred
every day. He saw also that in the morning the shadow was stretched out
in one direction, and that in the evening it lay in exactly the opposite
direction, and that every day it moved very nearly the same, so he put a
mark on the ground about where the shadow first appeared, and another
mark at the place where it disappeared. Then one day he stuck his staff
in the ground about half-way between the places of the morning and the
evening shadows, which served as a noon mark. As the staff cast a shadow
as readily as did the tree, the man found that it was really a better
index of time than was the tree shadow, for it was much smaller and more
clearly defined, and so he put up a straight stick in the ground near
the hut in which he lived, and as the ground was level and smooth he
drove a lot of little stakes along the daily path of the shadow, and in
that way divided the day into a number of small parts. That was a crude
“sun dial.” (The Bible tells of the sun dial in the thirty-eighth
chapter of Isaiah.) But there was nothing very accurate in the sun dial.
Several hundred years later the days were divided into sections which
were called “hours,” such as the “sixth hour” (noon), the “ninth hour”
(three o’clock), the “eleventh hour” (five o’clock), etc. There was,
however, nothing very accurate in those expressions, which simply
indicate that there were recognized divisions of time, but with no
suggestions as to the means used to determine their limits or
boundaries. It is recorded of Alfred the Great, who lived in the ninth
century, A. D., that he was very methodical in his employment of time,
and in order to insure a careful attention to his religious duties as
well as his kingly duties, he divided the day into three parts, giving
one part to religious duties, one to the affairs of his kingdom, and the
remainder to bodily rest. To secure an equal division of the day he
procured a definite quantity of wax which he had made into six candles,
of twelve inches in length, and all of uniform weight, for he found that
each inch in length of candle would burn for twenty minutes--one candle
for each four hours. This was an approach toward accuracy and it was
effective for night use as well as for the daytime.

[Illustration: ASSEMBLING DEPARTMENT IN A FAMOUS AMERICAN WATCH
FACTORY]

Perhaps the earliest mechanical time measure was the clepsydra, or water
clock. It is quite probable that, in its earliest form it consisted of a
vessel containing water, which was allowed to escape through a small
orifice. Suitable marks, or graduations, on the sides of the vessel
served to indicate the lapse of time as the water gradually receded.
This device was constructed in a variety of forms, some of which
employed some simple mechanism also; but from their nature they could
not give very accurate indications concerning the passage of time. The
“hour glass” was another form of time indicator, which was capable of
uniform, though extremely limited, action. It is said that its original
use was to limit the length of sermons.

It is interesting to note that discoveries and inventions, which may
seem slight in themselves, sometimes form the basis of, or contribute
to, other important inventions. In the year 1584 a bright young Italian
was sitting in the gallery of the cathedral, in the City of Pisa, and as
the lofty doors of the building opened to admit the incoming worshipers,
a strong draft of air caused the heavy chandelier, which was suspended
from the lofty ceiling, to swing quite a distance from its position of
rest. This unusual movement attracted the attention of the young man,
and as he continued to watch its deliberate movements, he did more than
watch. He thought--for he noticed that the time occupied by the movement
of the chandelier from one extreme position to the opposite point,
seemed to be exactly uniform. He wondered why. It is the careful
observation of things, and the trying to learn why they are as they are,
and why they act as they do, that enables studious people to discover
the laws which govern their actions. This young man, Galileo, was a
thinker, and while some of his conclusions and theories have since been
found erroneous, his thinking has formed the basis of much of the
scientific thought and theory of later years. Galileo’s swinging
chandelier was really a sort of a pendulum, and we have made mention of
it because it has been found that no mechanical means for obtaining and
maintaining a constant and accurate movement will equal the free
movement of a vibrating pendulum. This fact has led to its adoption as a
means of regulating the mechanism of clocks. For, when operated under
the most favorable conditions, such a clock constitutes the most
accurate “time measure” yet made.

[Illustration: VIEW OF ESCAPEMENT MAKING DEPARTMENT]

Watches are made to measure time. If anything is to be measured there
must be some standard with which to compare it, for we have seen that
measuring is a process of comparing a thing with an appropriate or
acknowledged and fixed standard. The only known standard for the
measurement of time is the movement of the earth in relation to the
stars. It has taken thousands of years for mankind to learn what is now
known concerning time. It has also taken hundreds of years to secure the
wonderful accuracy in the measuring of time which has now been attained.
We have said that nothing has been devised which will equal the accuracy
of a “pendulum clock.” A story was told of a professor of a theological
seminary who was one day on his way to a jeweler’s store, carrying in
his arms the family clock, which was in need of repairs. He was accosted
by one of his students with the question, “Look here, Professor, don’t
you think it would be much more convenient to carry a watch?” A pendulum
clock must of necessity be stationary, but it is now needful that people
should be able to have a timepiece whenever and wherever wanted. This
need is supplied by the pocket watch.

[Illustration: TIME TRAIN OF A WATCH]

If Galileo watched the swinging of the big chandelier long enough he
found that the distance through which it swung was gradually
diminishing, till, at last, it ceased to move; what stopped it? It was
one of the great forces of nature, which we call gravitation, and the
force which kept it in motion we call momentum. But gravitation overcame
momentum.

In order to maintain the constant vibration of a pendulum it is needful
to impart to it a slight force, in a manner similar to that given by a
boy who gives another boy a slight “push,” to maintain his movement in a
swing. A suspended pendulum being impossible of application to a pocket
watch, a splendid substitute has been devised--in the form of the
balance wheel of the watch, commonly called the “balance.” The balance
is, in its action and adaption, the equivalent of the vibrating, or
oscillating, pendulum; and the balance spring (commonly called the
hairspring), which accompanies it, is in its action equivalent to the
force of gravity in its effect upon a pendulum. For the tendency and (if
not neutralized by some other force) the effects of the hairspring upon
the watch balance, and of gravitation on the pendulum, are to hold each
at a position of rest, and consequent inaction.

[Illustration]

But we have in a pocket watch a “mainspring” to actuate the train of
gear wheels which by their ultimate action give the delicate “push” to
the balance wheel at distinct intervals, and so keep the balance in
continued motion. In the same manner, the “weight” of a clock, acting
through the force of gravity, carries the various wheels of the clock
train, and gives the slight impulse to the swinging clock pendulum.

Both clocks and watches are “machines” for the measurement of time, and,
therefore, it is absolutely imperative that their action must be
constant, and, if accurate time is to be indicated, the action must be
uniform.

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY, SHOWING TRANSIT
INSTRUMENT. USED TO OBTAIN CORRECT LOCAL TIME, BY OBSERVING THE PASSAGE
OF STARS ACROSS THE MERIDIAN]

[Illustration: BALANCE COCK AND PATENT MICROMETRIC REGULATOR; ALSO
BALANCE WHEEL AND HAIR SPRING, SHOWING PATENT HAIR SPRING STUD]

The illustration shows the “time train” of an ordinary pocket watch. The
various wheels are here shown in a straight line, so that their
successive order may be seen, but for economy and convenience they are
arranged in such way as is most convenient when constructing a pocket
watch. The large wheel at the left is the “main wheel,” called by
watchmakers the “barrel.” In it is coiled the mainspring--a strip of
steel about twenty-three inches long, which is carefully tempered to
insure elasticity and “pull.” The outer end of the mainspring is
attached to the rim of the barrel, and the inner end to the barrel
arbor. Bear in mind the fact that the power which is sufficient to run
the watch for thirty-six hours or more, is not in the watch itself. It
is in yourself, and by the exertion of your thumb and finger, in the act
of winding, you transfer that power to the spring, and thereby store the
power in the barrel, to be given out at the rate which the governing
mechanism of the watch will permit. The group of wheels here shown are
known as the “time train,” and the second wheel is called the “center,”
because that, in ordinarily constructed watches, is located in the
center of the group, and upon its axis are put the “hour hand” and the
“minute hand.” On the circumference of the barrel are gear teeth, and
those teeth engage corresponding teeth on the arbor of the center. These
arbor teeth are in all cases called, not “wheels” but “pinions,” and in
watch trains the wheels always drive the pinions. Next to the center
comes the third pinion and wheel, and then the fourth, which is the last
wheel in the train which has regular gear teeth. Now let us look back a
little and see that the wheel teeth of the barrel drive the center
pinion, and the center wheel drives the third pinion and the third wheel
drives the fourth pinion, etc. The speed of revolution of the successive
wheels increases rapidly. The center wheel must revolve once in each
hour, which is 6-1/2 times faster than the barrel. The third wheel turns
eight times faster than the center, and the fourth wheel turns 7-1/2
times faster than the third, or 60 times faster than the center, so that
the fourth pinion, which carries the “second hand,” will revolve 60
times while the “center,” which carries the minute hand, revolves once.
If we should put all the wheels and pinions in place, and wind up the
main spring, the wheels would begin to turn, each at its relative rate
of speed, and we should find that, instead of running thirty-six hours,
it would have run less than two minutes. What was needed was some device
to serve as an accurate speed governor--and the attainment of this
essential device is the one thing on which accurate time measuring
depends. Without any mention of the various attempts to produce such a
device, let us, as briefly as possible, describe the means used in most
watches of American manufacture. While there are several distinct parts
of this device, each having its individual function, they may be
considered as a whole under the general term of “the escapement.”
Returning now to the fourth pinion, we see that it also carries a wheel,
which engages another little pinion, called the escape pinion. This
escape pinion also carries a wheel, but it is radically different in
appearance, as well as in action, from any of the previously mentioned
wheels. An examination of the “escape wheel” would show that it has a
peculiarly shaped piece, which is called the “pallet,” the extended arm
of which is called the “fork.” The fork encloses a sort of half-round
stud or pin. This stud projects from the fact and near the edge of a
small steel disc. The stud is formed from some hard precious stone and
is called the “jewel pin,” or “roller pin,” and the little steel disc
which carries it is called the “roller.” In the center or axial hole of
the roller fits the “balance staff,” which staff also carries the
“balance wheel,” and the balance spring, commonly called the “hair
spring.” The ends of the balance staff are made very small so as to form
very delicate pivots which turn in jewel bearings. The balance wheel
moves very rapidly, and, therefore, its movement must be as free as
possible from retarding friction, so its bearing pivots are made very
small.

[Illustration: A DEVICE FOR THE GOVERNING OF SPEED IS THE ONE THING ON
WHICH ACCURATE TIME MEASURING DEPENDS]

[Illustration: _WALTHAM TAPER SHOULDER DETACHABLE BALANCE STAFF._]

Now that we have given the names of each of the different parts which
compose the escapement, let us see how they perform their important work
of governing the speed of the little machine for measuring time. In the
escape wheel, the left arm of the pallet rests on the inclined top of
one of the wheel teeth. This is the position of rest. If we wind up the
mainspring of the watch it will immediately cause the main wheel to
turn, and, of course, that will turn the next wheel, and so on to the
escape wheel. When that wheel turns to the right, as it must, it will
force back the arm of the pallet which swings on its arbor. In swinging
out in this way it must also swing in the other pallet arm, and that
movement will bring it directly in front of another wheel tooth, so that
the wheel can turn no further. It is locked and will remain so until
something withdraws it. When the pallet was swung so as to cause this
locking, the fork was also moved, and as it enclosed the roller pin,
that too was moved and carried with it the roller and the balance wheel,
and in so doing it deflected the hair spring from its condition of rest.
And as the spring tried to get back to its place of rest it carried back
the balance also. In going back, the balance acquired a little momentum,
and so could not stop when it reached its former position, but went a
little further, and, of course, the roller and its pin also went along
in company, the pin carrying the fork and the pallet swinging in the
other direction, which unlocked the escape wheel tooth. Its inclined
top gave the pallet a little “push” so that the first pallet was locked,
forcing the fork and roller, and the balance and hair spring, to move in
the opposite direction. And so the alternate actions proceed, and the
balance wheel travels further each time, until it reaches the greatest
amount which the force of the mainspring can give. But before this
extreme is reached, the momentum of the revolving balance carries the
roller pin entirely out of the fork. As the fork is allowed to move only
just far enough to allow the pin to pass out, it simply waits until the
fork returns and enters its place, only to escape again on the other
side. And so the motions continue to the number of 18,000 times per
hour. If that number can be exactly maintained, the watch will measure
time perfectly. But if it should fall short of that exact number only
once each hour, it would result in a loss of 4.8 seconds each day, or
2.4 minutes in one month. A watch as bad as that would not be allowed on
a railroad.

[Illustration: ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS ARE ESSENTIAL TO CORRECT TIME
KEEPING]

Isn’t it wonderful that such a delicate piece of mechanism can be made
to run so accurately? And the wonder is increased by the fact that the
little machine is, to a great extent, continually moved about, and
liable to extreme changes in position and in temperature. Watches of the
highest grades are adjusted to five positions as well as to temperature.
Some are adjusted to temperature and three positions, and still others
to temperature only. The way in which a watch is made to automatically
compensate for temperature changes is interesting. Varying degrees of
heat and cold always affect a watch. It is a law of nature that all
simple metals expand under the influence of heat and therefore contract
when affected by cold. Alloys, or mixtures of different metals, act in a
similar manner, but in varying degrees. Some combinations of metals
possess the quality of relatively great expansibility. Another natural
law is that the force required to move a body depends upon its size and
weight. So it follows that with only a certain amount of available force
a large body cannot be moved as rapidly as a small one. The force of 200
pounds of steam in a locomotive boiler might be sufficient to haul a
train of six cars at a speed of thirty miles per hour, but if more cars
be added it will result in a slower speed. The same principle applies to
a watch as to a railway train. Therefore if the balance wheel becomes
larger as it grows warmer, and the force which turns the wheel is not
changed, the speed of movement must be reduced. One other natural law
which affects the running of watches is this: Variations in temperature
affect the elasticity of metals. Now the balance spring of a watch is
made from steel, and is carefully tempered in order to obtain its
highest elasticity. Increase in temperature therefore introduces three
elements of disturbance, all of which act in the same direction of
reducing the speed. First, it enlarges the balance wheel; second, it
increases the length of the spring; third, it reduces the elasticity of
the spring. To overcome these three disturbing factors a very ingenious
form of balance has been devised.

[Illustration: 170 PARTS COMPOSE A 16 SIZE WATCH MOVEMENT. (A LITTLE
MORE THAN 1/2 ACTUAL SIZE)]

A watch balance is made with a rim of brass encircling and firmly united
to the rim of steel. In order to permit heat to have the desired effect
upon this balance, the rim is completely severed at points near each of
the arms of the wheel. If we apply heat to this balance the greater
expansion of the brass portion of its rim would cause the free ends to
curl inward.

In order to obtain exactly 18,000 vibrations of the balance in an hour,
it will be seen that the weight of the wheel and the strength of the
hair spring must be perfectly adapted each to the other. The shorter the
spring is made the more rigid it becomes, and so the regulator is made a
part of the watch, but its action must be very limited or its effect on
the spring will introduce other serious disturbances. The practical
method of securing the proper and ready adaptation of balances to
springs is to place in the rims of the balance a number of small screws
having relatively heavy heads. Suppose now that we have a balance fitted
with screws of the number and weight to exactly adapt it to a spring, so
that at a normal temperature of, say, 70 degrees, it would vibrate
exactly 18,000 times per hour. When we place the watch in an oven the
heat of which is 95 degrees, we might find that it had lost seven
seconds. That would show that the wheel was too large when at 95
degrees, although just right at 70 degrees. Really, that is a very
serious matter--it would lose at the rate of 2-4/5 minutes in a day. But
after all it need not be so very serious, because if we change the
location of one screw on each half of the balance so as to place it
nearer the free end of the rim when the heat curls the rim inward, it
will carry a larger proportion of the weight than if the screws had not
been moved. It may require repeated trials to determine the required
position of the rim screws, and both skill and good judgment are
essential. It will be readily understood that numerous manipulations of
this kind constitute no small items in the cost of producing high-grade
watches.

Large quantities of the cheaper class of watches are now made by
machinery in the United States, Switzerland, France, Germany and
England. They are generally produced on the interchangeable system, that
is, if any part of a watch has become unfit for service, it can be
cheaply replaced by an exact duplicate, the labor of the watch repairer
thus becoming easy and expeditious.

* * * * *

How does a Monorail Gyroscope Railway Operate?

The last decade has brought a railway with a single line of rails, on
which the car is kept erect by the steadying power of a pair of heavy
gyroscopes, or flywheels, rotating in opposite directions at very high
velocity. There are two recent inventions of this kind, an English and a
German, practically the same in character.

The English, the invention of an Australian named Brennan, had its first
form in a model, a small car on which the gyroscopes rotated at the
enormous speed of seventy-five hundred revolutions per minute. They were
hung in special bearings and rotated in a partial vacuum, the friction
being so slight that the wheels would continue to revolve and give
stability to the car for a considerable time after the power was shut
off. Also, in such a case, supports at the side kept the car from
overturning. This model showed itself capable of traveling at high speed
on a single rail, rounding sharp curves and even traversing with ease a
wire cable hung in the air.

In 1909 a car was tried fourteen feet long and ten feet wide, capable of
carrying forty passengers. The gyroscopes in this, moved by a gasoline
engine, revolved in a vacuum at a speed of three thousand rotations a
minute. They were three and a half feet in diameter and weighed together
one and a half tons. With a full load of passengers, this car sped
easily around a circular rail two hundred and twenty yards long and
proved that it could not be upset, since when all the passengers crowded
to one side the car remained firmly erect, the gyroscopes lifting it on
the weighted sides. It is claimed that in the monorail system so
equipped with the gyroscope, a speed of more than a hundred miles an
hour is possible with perfect safety.

[Illustration: A MONORAIL GYROSCOPE CAR]

The German invention, displayed by Herr Schorl, a capitalist of Berlin,
is in many respects like the English one. The experimental car was
eighteen feet long and four feet wide, the gyroscopic flywheels being
very light, weighing but a hundred and twenty-five pounds each, while
their speed of rotation was eight thousand per minute. The same success
was attained as in the English experiments, and there seems to be a
successful future before this very interesting vehicle of travel. There
is also another type of monorail of overhead construction, the wheels
running on the rail from which the car hangs.

The fundamental principle of the gyroscope lies in the resistance which
a flywheel in rapid motion presents to any change of direction in the
axis of rotation.

The gyroscope has been utilized to give steadiness to vessels in rough
seas, and Sperry has made considerable progress in this country in
applying it to give stability to an aeroplane. One of the most
successful of the recent applications of the gyroscope is in its
connection with the marine compass. All battleships in the United States
Navy are now fitted with the gyroscopic compass. As a gyro compass is
independent of the magnetism of the earth and of the ship, and, when
running properly, always points to the North Pole, its great convenience
in vessels carrying heavy guns and armor, the attraction of which would
materially interfere with the operation of the ordinary type of compass,
is at once apparent. Another important use of the gyroscope is found in
its relation to the vertical and horizontal steering gear of the naval
torpedo, especially the Whitehead pattern. Its first application to this
purpose was made by an officer in the Austrian navy in 1895, and this
device, or an improved modification of it, such as the Angle Gyroscope,
invented by Lieut. W. I. Chambers of the United States Navy, is in use
on all torpedoes.

Why are Finger-prints Used for Identification?

The plan of identifying people by their finger-prints, although at first
used only on criminals, is now put to many other uses. It was introduced
originally in India, where it was of very great assistance to the
British authorities in impressing the natives with the fact that at last
no evasion of positive identification of culprits was possible. It was
later taken up by the Scotland Yard authorities in England, and its use
has since spread to practically every country in the civilized world.

It has been proven, to the entire satisfaction of everyone who has ever
made a careful study of the subject, that every human being has a
marking on his or her fingers which is different from that of any other
person on earth. Not only is it sure that no one else has a thumb or
finger marked like yours, but it has also been established beyond
dispute that every little detail will continue peculiar to your fingers
as long as you have them.

There are many ways in which this knowledge is used to advantage; two
methods now employed are particularly valuable. It is seldom that an
unpremeditated crime is committed without its author leaving
finger-marks on some object which is unconsciously touched, such as
silver plate, cash boxes or safes, glassware or windows, polished
wood-work, etc., and very often the professional criminal also neglects
to take precautions against leaving his signature behind him. It is then
a simple matter for the police to collect such marks for comparison with
the finger-prints of anyone to whom suspicion may be directed.

The plan has also been utilized a great deal in recent years for the
identification of enlisted men in the army and navy. Finger-prints are
made, immediately upon enlistment, of each separate finger and thumb of
both hands. Group impressions are also taken with the four fingers of
each hand pressed down simultaneously. When needed for any particular
purpose, such finger-prints are usually enlarged by means of a special
camera, to five times their natural size.

The Story in a Rifle[6]

How It Began.

A naked savage found himself in the greatest danger. A wild beast,
hungry and fierce, was about to attack him. Escape was impossible.
Retreat was cut off. He must fight for his life--but how?

Should he bite, scratch or kick? Should he strike with his fist? These
were the natural defenses of his body, but what were they against the
teeth, the claws and the tremendous muscles of his enemy? Should he
wrench a dead branch from a tree and use it for a club? That would bring
him within striking distance to be torn to pieces before he could deal a
second blow.

There was but a moment in which to act. Swiftly he seized a jagged
fragment of rock from the ground and hurled it with all his force at the
blazing eyes before him; then another, and another, until the beast,
dazed and bleeding from the unexpected blows, fell back and gave him a
chance to escape. He knew that he had saved his life, but there was
something else which his dull brain failed to realize.

_He had invented arms and ammunition!_

In other words, he had needed to strike a harder blow than the blow of
his fist, at a greater distance than the length of his arm, and his
brain showed him how to do it. After all, what is a modern rifle but a
device which man has made with his brain permitting him to strike an
enormously hard blow at a wonderful distance? Firearms are really but a
more perfect form of stone-throwing, and this early Cave Man took the
first step that has led down the ages to the present-day arms and
ammunition.

This strange story of a development that has been taking place slowly
through thousands and thousands of years, so that today you are able to
take a swift shot at distant game instead of merely throwing stones.

The Earliest Hunters.

The Cave Man and his descendants learned the valuable lesson of
stone-throwing, and it made hunters of them, not big-game hunters--that
was far too risky; but once in a while a lucky throw might bring down a
bird or a rabbit for food. And so it went on for centuries, perhaps.
Early mankind was rather slow of thought.

At last, however, there appeared a great inventor--the Edison of his
day.

He took the second step.

A Nameless Edison.

We do not know his name. Possibly he did not even have a name, but in
some way he hit upon a scheme for throwing stones farther, harder and
straighter than any of his ancestors.

The men and women in the Cave Colony suddenly found that one bright-eyed
young fellow, with a little straighter forehead than the others, was
beating them all at hunting. During weeks he had been going away
mysteriously, for hours each day. Now, whenever he left the camp he was
sure to bring home game, while the other men would straggle back for the
most part empty-handed.

Was it witchcraft? They decided to investigate.

[Illustration: THE FIRST MISSILE

The Cave Man of prehistoric times unconsciously invented arms and
ammunition.]

What They Saw.

Accordingly, one morning several of them followed at a careful distance
as he sought the shore of a stream where water-fowl might be found.
Parting the leaves, they saw him pick up a pebble from the bank and
then, to their surprise, take off his girdle of skin and place the stone
in its center, holding both ends with his right hand.

Stranger still, he whirled the girdle twice around his head, then
released one end so that the leather strip flew out and the stone shot
straight at a bird in the water.

The mystery was solved. They had seen the first slingman in action.

The Use of Slings.

The new plan worked with great success, and a little practice made
expert marksmen. We know that most of the early races used it for
hunting and in war. We find it shown in pictures made many thousands of
years ago in ancient Egypt and Assyria. We find it in the Roman army
where the slingman was called a “funditor.”

We find it in the Bible where it is written of the tribe of Benjamin:
“Among all these people there were seven hundred chosen men left-handed;
_every one could sling a stone at an hair breadth and not miss_.”
Surely, too, you remember the story of David and Goliath when the young
shepherd “prevailed over the Philistine _with a sling and with a
stone_.”

Today shepherds tending their flocks upon these same hills of Syria may
be seen practicing with slings like those of David. Yes, and slings were
used in European armies until nearly a hundred years after America was
discovered.

Something Better.

Yet they had their drawbacks. A stone slung might kill a bird or even a
man, but it was not very effective against big game.

What was wanted was a missile to pierce a thick hide.

Man had begun to make spears for use in a pinch, but would you like to
tackle a husky bear or a well-horned stag with only a spear for a
weapon?

No more did our undressed ancestors. The invention of the greatly
desired arm probably came about in a most curious way.

Long ages ago man had learned to make fire by patiently rubbing two
sticks together, or by twirling a round one between his hands with its
point resting upon a flat piece of wood.

In this way it could be made to smoke, and finally set fire to a tuft of
dried moss, from which he might get a flame for cooking. This was such
hard work that he bethought him to twist a string of sinew about the
upright spindle and cause it to twirl by pulling alternately at the two
string ends, as some savage races still do. From this it was a simple
step to fasten the ends of the two strings to a bent piece of wood,
another great advantage, since now but one hand was needed to twirl the
spindle, and the other could hold it in place. This was the “bow-drill”
which also is used to this day.

A Fortunate Accident.

But bent wood is apt to be springy. Suppose that while one were bearing
on pretty hard with a well-tightened string, in order to bring fire
quickly, the point of the spindle should slip from its block. Naturally,
it would fly away with some force if the position were just right.

This must have happened many times, and each time _but once_ the
fire-maker may have muttered something under his breath, gone after his
spindle, and then settled down stupidly to his work. He had had a golden
chance to make a great discovery, but didn’t realize it.

[Illustration: THE SLING MAN IN ACTION

Practice developed some wonderful marksmen among the users of this
primitive weapon.]

But, so it has been suggested, there was one man who stopped short when
he lost his spindle, for a red-hot idea shot suddenly through his brain.

He forgot all about his fire-blocks while he sat stock still and
thought.

Once or twice he chuckled to himself softly. Thereupon he arose and
began to experiment.

He chose a longer, springier piece of wood, bent it into a bow, and
strung it with a longer thong. He placed the end of a straight stick
against the thong, drew it strongly back and released it.

The shaft whizzed away with force enough to delight him, and, lo, there
was the first bow-and-arrow!

What Came of It.

After that it was merely a matter of improvement. The arrow-end was apt
to slip from the string until some one thought to notch it. Its head
struck with such force that the early hunter decided to give it a sharp
point, shaped from a flake of flint, in order that it might drive deep
into the body of a deer or bear.

[Illustration: FEATHERING THE ARROW]

[Illustration: WINDING THE SHAFT]

But, most of all, it must fly true and straight to its mark. Who of all
these simple people first learned to feather its shaft? Was it some one
who had watched the swift, sure-footed spring of a bushy-tailed squirrel
from branch to branch? Possibly, for the principle is the same. At all
events with its feathers and its piercing point the arrow became the
most deadly of all missiles, and continued to be until long after the
invention of firearms.

A Great Variety.

It is interesting to see how many different forms of bow were used. The
English had a six-foot “long bow” made of yew or ash, in a single
straight piece, that shot arrows the length of a man’s arm. The Indians
had bows only forty inches on the average, since a short bow was easier
to handle in thick forests. They used various kinds of wood, horn or
even bone, such as the ribs of large animals. These they generally
backed with sinew.

Sometimes they cut spiral strips from the curving horns of a mountain
sheep, and steamed them straight. Then they glued these strips together
into a wonderfully tough and springy bow. Once in a while they even took
the whole horns of some young sheep, that had not curved too much, and
used the pair just as they grew. In this case each horn made one-half of
the bow, and the piece of skull between was shaped down into a handle.
This gave the shape of a “Cupid’s Bow,” but it could shoot to kill.

[Illustration: THE “LONG BOW” IN SHERWOOD FOREST

One of Robin Hood’s famous band encounters a savage tusker at close
range.]

As to Arrows.

The arrows were quite as important, and their making became a great
industry with every race. This was because so many must be carried for
each hunt or battle.

Who is not familiar with the chipped flint arrow-heads that the farmer
so often turns up with his plow as a relic of the period when Americans
were red-skinned instead of white? These arrow-heads have generally a
shoulder where the arrow was set into the shaft, there to be bound
tightly with sinew or fiber. Many of them are also barbed to hold the
flesh.

A Shooting Machine.

But the age of machinery was coming on. Once in a while there were
glimpses of more powerful and complicated devices to be seen among these
simple arms.

A new weapon now came about through warfare. Man has been a savage
fighting animal through pretty much all his history, but while he tried
to kill the other fellow, he objected to being killed himself.

Therefore he took to wearing armor. During the Middle Ages he piled on
more and more, until at last one of the knights could hardly walk, and
it took a strong horse to carry him. When such a one fell, he went over
with a crash like a tin-peddler’s wagon, and had to be picked up again
by some of his men. Such armor would turn most of the arrows. Hence
invention got at work again and produced the cross-bow and its bolt. We
have already learned how the tough skin of animals brought about the
bow; now we see that man’s artificial iron skin caused the invention of
the cross-bow.

What It Was.

What was the cross-bow? It was the first real hand-shooting machine. It
was another big step toward the day of the rifle. The idea was simple
enough. Wooden bows had already been made as strong as the strongest man
could pull, and they wished for still stronger ones--steel ones. How
could they pull them? At first they mounted them upon a wooden frame and
rested one end on the shoulder for a brace. Then they took to pressing
the other end against the ground, and using both hands. Next, it was a
bright idea to put a stirrup on this end, in order to hold it with the
foot.

Still they were not satisfied. “Stronger, stronger!” they clamored;
“give us bows which will kill the enemy farther away than he can shoot
at us! If we cannot set such bows with both arms let us try our backs!”
So they fastened “belt-claws” to their stout girdles and tugged the bow
strings into place with their back and leg muscles.

“Stronger, stronger again, for now the enemy has learned to use
belt-claws and he can shoot as far as we. Let us try mechanics!”

So they attached levers, pulleys, ratchets and windlasses, until at last
they reached the size of the great siege cross-bows, weighing eighteen
pounds. These sometimes needed a force of twelve hundred pounds to draw
back the string to its catch, but how they could shoot!

And Now for Chemistry.

Human muscle seemed to have reached its limit, mechanics seemed to have
reached its limit, but still the world clamored, “Stronger, stronger!
How shall we kill our enemy farther away than he can kill us?” For
answer, man unlocked one of the secrets of Nature and took out a
terrible force. It was a force of chemistry.

[Illustration: DEER-STALKING WITH THE CROSS-BOW

This compact arm with its small bolt and great power was popular with
many sportsmen.]

Who first discovered the power of gunpowder? Probably the Chinese,
although all authorities do not agree. Strange, is it not, that a race
still using cross-bows in its army should have known of explosives long
before the Christian Era, and perhaps as far back as the time of Moses?
Here is a passage from their ancient Gentoo Code of Laws: “The
magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful machine, or with
poisoned weapons, or with cannons or guns, or any kind of firearms.” But
China might as well have been Mars before the age of travel. Our
civilization had to work out the problem for itself.

Playing with Fire.

It all began through playing with fire. It was desired to throw fire on
an enemy’s buildings or his ships, and so destroy them. Burning torches
were thrown by machines, made of cords and springs, over a city wall,
and it became a great study to find the best burning compound with which
to cover these torches. One was needed which would blaze with a great
flame and was hard to put out.

Hence the early chemists made all possible mixtures of pitch, resin,
naphtha, sulphur, saltpeter, etc.; “Greek fire” was one of the most
famous.

What Two Monks Discovered.

Many of these were made in the monasteries. The monks were pretty much
the only people in those days with time for study, and two of these
shaven-headed scientists now had a chance to enter history. Roger Bacon
was the first. One night he was working his diabolical mixture in the
stone-walled laboratory, and watched, by the flickering lights, the
progress of a certain interesting combination for which he had used pure
instead of impure saltpeter.

Suddenly there was an explosion, shattering the chemical apparatus and
probably alarming the whole building. “Good gracious!” we can imagine
some of the startled brothers saying, “whatever is he up to now! Does he
want to kill us all?” That explosion proved the new combination was not
fitted for use as a thrown fire; it also showed the existence of
terrible forces far beyond the power of all bow-springs, even those made
of steel.

Roger Bacon thus discovered what was practically gunpowder, as far back
as the thirteenth century, and left writings in which he recorded mixing
11.2 parts of the saltpeter, 29.4 of charcoal, and 29 of sulphur. This
was the formula developed as the result of his investigations.

Berthold Schwartz, a monk of Freiburg, studied Bacon’s works and carried
on dangerous experiments of his own, so that he is ranked with Bacon for
the honor. He was also the first one to rouse the interest of Europe in
the great discovery.

And then began the first crude, clumsy efforts at gunmaking. Firearms
were born.

The Coming of the Matchlock.

Hand bombards and culverins were among the early types. Some of these
were so heavy that a forked support had to be driven into the ground,
and two men were needed, one to hold and aim, the other to prime and
fire. How does that strike you for a duck-shooting proposition? Of
course such a clumsy arrangement could only be used in war.

Improvements kept coming, however. Guns were lightened and bettered in
shape. Somebody thought of putting a flash pan for the powder, by the
side of the touch-hole, and now it was decided to fasten the slow-match,
in a movable cock, upon the barrel and ignite it with a trigger. These
matches were fuses of some slow-burning fiber, like tow, which would
keep a spark for a considerable time. Formerly they had to be carried
separately, but the new arrangement was a great convenience and made the
matchlock. The cock, being curved like a snake, was called the
“serpentine.”

[Illustration: AN UNEXPECTED MEETING

The “Kentucky Rifle” with its flint-lock was accurate, but had to be
muzzle-charged.]

The Gun of Our Ancestors.

Everybody knows what the flint-lock was like. You simply fastened a
flake of flint in the cock and snapped it against a steel plate. This
struck off sparks which fell into the flash-pan and fired the charge.

It was so practical that it became the form of gun for all uses; thus
gunmaking began to be a big industry. Invented early in the seventeenth
century, it was used by the hunters and soldiers of the next two hundred
years. Old people remember when flint-locks were plentiful everywhere.
In fact, they are still being manufactured and are sold in some parts of
Africa and the Orient. One factory in Birmingham, England, is said to
produce about twelve hundred weekly, and Belgium shares in their
manufacture. Some of the Arabs use them to this day in the form of
strange-looking guns with long, slender muzzles and very light, curved
stocks.

Caps and Breech-Loaders.

Primers were tried in different forms called “detonators,” but the
familiar little copper cap was the most popular. No need to describe
them. Millions are still made to be used on old-fashioned nipple guns,
even in this day of fixed ammunition.

[Illustration: THE FIRST REMINGTON RIFLE]

Then came another great development, the breech-loader.

From Henry VIII to Cartridges.

Breech-loaders were hardly new. King Henry VIII of England, he of the
many wives, had a match-lock arquebus of this type dated 1537. Henry IV
of France even invented one for his army, and others worked a little on
the idea from time to time. But it was not until fixed ammunition came
into use that the breech-loader really came to stay--and that was only
the other day. You remember that the Civil War began with muzzle-loaders
and ended with breech-loaders.

Houiller, the French gunsmith, hit on the great idea of the cartridge.
If you were going to use powder, ball and percussion primer, to get your
game, why not put them all into a neat, handy, gas-tight case? Simple
enough, when you come to think of it, like most great ideas. But it
required good brain-stuff to do that thinking.

A Refusal and What Came of It.

Two men, a smith and his son, both named Eliphalet Remington, in 1816,
were working busily one day at their forge in beautiful Ilion Gorge,
when, so tradition says, the son asked his father for money to buy a
rifle, and met with a refusal.

The boy set his wits to work. Looking around the forge, he picked up
enough scrap iron to make a gun barrel, and with this set to work to
make a rifle for himself. At that time gun barrels were made, not by
drilling the bore out of a solid rod of metal, but by shaping a thick,
oblong sheet of metal around a rod the size of the bore, and lapwelding
the edges. When the rod was withdrawn, there was your barrel.

It took him several weeks to work out this job and get it right, but he
succeeded. He had no tools to cut the rifling. There was a gunsmith in
Utica, and he walked there, fifteen miles over the hills, to have his
barrel finished. The gunsmith was so impressed by the boy and his
accomplishment that, after rifling the barrel, he fitted it with a lock.
Then when Remington fitted on a wooden stock his weapon was ready.

This was the first Remington rifle, and it proved a surprisingly good
one.

Neighbors tried it, and wanted guns like it. Remington made them. The
first rifle--or one exactly like the first one, at least--that Remington
made is still in Ilion, the property of Walter Green. Before long the
demand was so brisk that Remington would take as many barrels as he
could carry over to the Utica gunsmith to be rifled, bringing back a
load that had been left there on a previous trip, a journey of thirty
miles on foot.

When a new business grows at that rate, of course, it soon needs power.
So, later, in 1816, the two Remingtons went “up the creek,” building a
shop three miles from home, at Ilion Gulph, which was part of the
father’s farm. That was the actual beginning of the plant and the
industry of which the centennial was celebrated in 1916. During its
early years this shop made anything in its line that could be sold in
the neighborhood--rifles, shotguns, crowbars, pickaxes, farm tools. The
power was taken from a water wheel in Steele’s Creek, and the first
grindstones for smoothing down the welded edges in gun barrels were cut
from a red sandstone ledge up the gorge.

Guns sold better than all other products. Orders came from greater
distances. By and by shipments were made on the new Erie Canal. For a
while, as packages were small, they were taken to the canal bridge, a
board lifted from the floor, and the package dropped onto a boat as it
passed under. There was no bill of lading. Remington took down the name
of the boat and notified his customer by mail, so the latter would know
which craft was bringing his guns.

[Illustration: YOUNG REMINGTON AT WORK ON RIFLE]

When the trade had extended into all the surrounding counties,
however, the new business needed another prime essential of
industry--transportation facilities. Shipments were growing larger, and
materials like grindstones, bought outside, had to be brought from the
canal to Ilion Gulph. In 1828, therefore, the elder Remington bought a
large farm in Ilion proper, and there, on the canal, the present plant
was started. This was also the beginning of Ilion, for at that period
the place was nothing more than a country corner. In 1828 the elder
Remington met his death through accident and the business was carried on
by his son, who brought water for several power wheels from Steele’s
Creek, built a house to live in, and installed in his wooden shop quite
a collection of machinery for gunmaking--the list names a big tilt
hammer, several trip hammers, boring and rifling machines, grindstones,
and so on.

The Beginning of Precision in Mechanics.

Not so many years before that, in England, James Watt was complaining
about the difficulty of boring a six-inch cylinder for his steam engine
with sufficient accuracy to make it a commercial success. No matter how
he packed the piston with cork, oiled rags and old hats, the
irregularities in the cylinder let the steam escape, and it was believed
that neither the tools nor the workmen existed for making a steam engine
with sufficient precision. When a young manufacturer named Wilkinson
invented a guide for the boring tool, and machined cylinders of fifty
inches diameter so accurately that, as Watt testified, they did not err
the thickness of an old shilling in any part, it seemed as though the
last refinement in machinery had been achieved. That was not very
accurate by present-day standards of the thousandth part of an inch, for
a shilling is about one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness.

[Illustration: OLD BORING TOOL]

Remington was right in the thick of development with a gunmaking plant,
of course, for as his business grew he had to invent and adapt machines
to increase output. The lap-welded barrel was standard until 1850, and
he got together a battery of trip hammers for forging and welding his
barrels. Finer dimensions became a factor in his business when the
output grew large enough to warrant carrying a stock of spare parts for
his customers, and so he improved those parts in ways that gave at least
the beginnings of interchangeability.

Materials were very crude. There was no buying of foundry iron by
analysis, no high carbon steels, no fancy tool steels--nor any
“efficiency experts” with their stop watches and scientific
speed-and-feed tables. Iron was secured by sending teams around the
neighborhood to pick up scrap, and when the scrap iron was all cleaned
up, fresh metal was brought from ore beds in Oneida County. Coal was
scarce, and charcoal made the chief fuel, burnt in the hills round about
Ilion.

And the world was fairly swarming with inventors!

That was long before invention became a research department full of
engineers. The individual inventor, with a queer-shaped factory process,
carried on by a head and a rough model in his carpet-bag, had a chance
to influence industry. Few of the useful contrivances had been invented
yet, and almost any one of these chaps might be a genius. So, from the
very first, Remington was interested in inventors. He was an inventor
himself! His pioneer spirit was so strong that Ilion became a place of
pilgrimage for men with ideas. Inventors came from everywhere, and
Remington listened to them all. Some brought models, others drawings,
still others a bare idea, and a few, of course, had just a plain “bug.”

[Illustration: POLE LATHE OF 1800]

The First Government Contract.

The first government contract came in 1845. War with Mexico loomed up on
the horizon. William Jencks had invented a carbine, and Uncle Sam wanted
several thousand guns made in a hurry under the patent. A contract had
been let to Ames & Co., of Springfield, Mass., and they had made special
machinery for the job. Remington took over the contract and the
machinery, added to his power, secured by putting in another water race,
erected the building now known as the “Old Armory,” and made the
carbines.

In 1850 the art of gunmaking began to improve radically. The old
lap-welded barrel gave way to the barrel drilled from solid steel. This
was accomplished for the first time in America at the Remington plant,
in making Harper’s Ferry muskets. Then followed the drilling of
small-bore barrels from solid steel, the drilling of doubled-barrel
shotguns from one piece of steel, the drilling of fluid steel and nickel
steel barrels, all done for the first time in this country at the Ilion
shops. Three-barrel guns were also made from one piece of steel, two
bores for shot and the third rifled for a bullet. A customer wanted some
special barrels with nine bores in a single piece of steel. These were
made at Ilion, and the Remington plant soon became noted for its ability
to bore almost anything in the shape of a gun, from the tiniest squirrel
calibers up to boat guns weighing sixty pounds or more, which were
really small caliber cannon.

[Illustration: SHIPPING REMINGTONS IN THE EARLY DAYS]

Between the time when Remington made his first rifle at Ilion Gulph and
the outbreak of the Civil War, most of the basic things in machine tools
had been adapted to general production--the slide-rest lathe, planer,
shaper, drill press, steam hammer, taps and dies, the vernier caliper
that enabled a mechanic at the bench to measure to one-thousandth of an
inch, and so on.

When Fort Sumter was fired upon, Uncle Sam turned to the Remington
plant, among others, for help out of his dilemma of “unpreparedness.”
The first contract was given for 5,000 Harper’s Ferry rifles, and it
took two years to complete it. Five thousand Harper’s Ferry muskets came
in to be changed so that bayonet or sabre could be attached, and this
particular job was finished in two weeks, every man and boy in Ilion
working at it. There was a big contract for army revolvers, and that had
to be taken care of by starting a separate plant in Utica, which ran
until the end of the war, when its machinery and tools were moved to
Ilion. Steam power was now installed, and the plant, increased by new
buildings and machinery, ran day and night.

[Illustration: MASTER OF THE SITUATION

The modern sportsman with his automatic rifle is prepared for all
emergencies.]

In 1863, the Remington breech-loading rifle was perfected, and proved to
be so great an improvement over previous inventions in military arms
that an order for 10,000 of them was obtained from our government. The
Ilion plant being taxed to its utmost capacity, the contract was
transferred to the Savage Arms Company, of Middletown, Conn., which
completed the job in 1864.

[Illustration: _Illustrations by courtesy of the Winchester Repeating
Arms Co._

TURNING GUN STOCKS

40 YARD RANGE]

The tools and fixtures used in making Remington breech-loading rifles
for the United States were brought back from Connecticut in 1866, and an
inventive genius named John Rider was set to work, with a staff of the
best mechanics obtainable, to develop this gun still further. He devised
the famous system of a dropping breech block, backed up by the hammer.

Uncle Sam had a great number of muzzle-loading Springfield rifles left
from the Civil War. By the Berdan system, these were turned into
breech-loaders at the Ilion plant, the breech being cut out of the
barrel and a breech-block inserted, swinging upward and forward. Spain
had 10,000 muskets to modernize by the same system, and the breech-block
attachments were made at Ilion.

The Berdan system, with a slight alteration, was the foundation of the
Allen gun, made by the United States government for the army until
superseded by the Krag-Jorgensen.

The repeating rifle now seemed an interesting possibility and large sums
were spent in developing a weapon of this type. It did not prove to have
merit, however.

Then James P. Lee designed the first military rifle with the bolt type
of cartridge chamber, the parent of the military rifle of today. The
model was made at Ilion, but another type of bolt gun, the Keene, seemed
to offer still greater possibilities at the moment, and the plant was
being prepared to manufacture this. The Lee gun was taken up at
Bridgeport, but not made successfully, and finally, as the Keene gun had
not met expectations, falling short of government tests, the Lee type
was brought back to Ilion, tools worked out and manufacture undertaken
in quantities. It afterwards became the basis for the famous British
army rifle, the Lee-Metford.

[Illustration: ACTION TESTING

EXTREME CARE IN TESTING IS NECESSARY TO ACCURACY OF AIM
IN THE FINISHED PRODUCT

_Illustrations by courtesy of the Winchester Repeating Arms Co._]

At this period the plant made many other interesting guns. The Whitmore
double-barrel breech-loading shotgun was designed, and later developed
into the Remington breech-loading shotgun. Eliott hammerless
breech-loading pistols with one, two, four and five barrels, discharged
by a revolving firing pin, were made in large quantities, as well as a
single-barrel Eliott magazine pistol. The Eliott magazine pump rifle was
perfected in Ilion, but afterwards made in New England. Vernier and wind
gauge sights, attachable to any rifle, were made, and novelties like the
“gun cane,” which had the appearance of a walking-stick, but was a
perfect firearm, carried as a protection against robbery.

[Illustration: ASSEMBLING REPEATING SHOTGUNS AND RIFLES]

Making Barrels.

One of the most important features is, of course, the making of barrels.
The machines for drilling and boring are the best that money can buy,
and the operatives the most skilful to be found anywhere. Care at this
stage reduces the necessity for straightening later. Every point is
given the minutest attention. In drilling 22-calibers, for example, the
length of the hole must be from 100 to 125 times the diameter of the
drill.

Improvements have made it possible to drill harder steel than formerly.
This reduces the weight of the gun, and is important to the man who
carries it.

Taking off 2/1000 of an Inch.

The boring is an especially delicate task. In choke-boring your shotgun,
for example, the final reamer took off only 2/1000 of an inch. Think of
such a gossamer thread of metal! But it insures accuracy. No pains can
be too great for that.

This exquisite painstaking will be seen still more in the
barrel-inspection department, to which we will go now. In passing, we
must not forget the grinding shop, where is, perhaps, the finest battery
of grinding machines in the United States; or the polishers running at
the dizzy speed of 1,500 to 1,700 revolutions per minute and making the
inside of the barrel shine like glass. This high polish is important,
for it resists rust and prevents leading.

[Illustration: SHOOTING ROOM OF BALLISTIC DEPARTMENT*

* The bullet breaks a metal tape at the moment of leaving
the muzzle. This time and the time of striking target are electrically
recorded on the Chronograph.]

[Illustration: SOME OF THE SHOOTING TESTS]

[Illustration: CHRONOGRAPH FOR MEASURING VELOCITIES]

[Illustration: WEIGHING BULLETS]

That is the atmosphere of the whole place. Every action has its reason.
There is not an unnecessary motion made by any one, and there is not one
necessary thing omitted, whatever the cost or trouble.

[Illustration: BORING GUN BARRELS

_Courtesy of the Winchester Repeating Arms Co._]

The Making of Ammunition Today.

It is no easy matter to secure a pass to the Bridgeport plant. Its great
advantage over other concerns lies, to a large degree, in the exclusive
machinery that has been developed at so much pains and expense and the
secrets of which are so carefully guarded. In our case, however, there
will be nothing to hinder us from getting a few general impressions,
provided we do not go into mechanical details too closely.

The very size of the great manufactory is impressive--sixteen acres of
floor space, crowded with machinery and resounding with activity. In
building after building, floor above floor, the sight is similar: the
long rows of busy machines, the whirling network of shafts and belts
above, the intent operatives, and the steady clicking of innumerable
parts blended into a softened widespread sound. It seems absolutely
endless; it is a matter of hours to go through the plant. Stop at one of
the machines and see the speed and accuracy with which it turns out its
product; then calculate the entire number of machines and you will begin
to gain a little idea as to what the total output of this vast
institution must be.

[Illustration: PUTTING METAL HEADS ON PAPER SHOT SHELLS]

More than once you will find yourself wondering whether there can be
guns enough in the world, or fingers enough to press their triggers, to
use such a tremendous production of ammunition. But there are, and the
demand is steadily increasing. This old world is a pretty big place
after all.

[Illustration: ASSEMBLING AUTO SHOTGUNS]

[Illustration: EXAMINING PAPER SHELLS]

[Illustration: REPEATING SHOTGUN MACHINING DEPARTMENT]

[Illustration: INSPECTING METALLIC SHELLS]

Handling Deadly Explosives.

Operatives, girls in many cases, handle the most terrible compounds. We
stop, for example, where they are making primers to go in the head of
your loaded shell, in order that it may not miss fire when the bunch of
quail whirrs suddenly into the air from the sheltering grasses. That
grayish, pasty mass is wet fulminate of mercury. Suppose it should dry a
trifle too rapidly. It would be the last thing you ever did suppose, for
there is force enough in that double handful to blow its surroundings
into fragments. You edge away a little, and no wonder, but the girl who
handles it shows no fear as she deftly but carefully presses it into
molds which separate it into the proper sizes for primers. She knows
that in its present moist condition it cannot explode.

Extreme Precautions.

Or, perhaps, we may be watching one of the many loading machines. There
is a certain suggestiveness in the way the machines are separated by
partitions. The man in charge takes a small carrier of powder from a
case in the outside wall and shuts the door, then carefully empties it
into the reservoir of his machine, and watches alertly while it packs
the proper portions into the waiting shells. He looks like a careful
man, and needs to be. You do not stand too close.

The empty carrier then passes through a little door at the side of the
building, and drops into the yawning mouth of an automatic tube. In the
twinkling of an eye it appears in front of the operator in one of the
distributing stations, where it is refilled and returned to its proper
loading machine, in order to keep the machine going at a perfectly
uniform rate; while at the same time it allows but a minimum amount of
powder to remain in the building at any moment. Each machine has but
just sufficient powder in its hopper to run until a new supply can reach
it. Greater precaution than this cannot be imagined, illustrating as it
does, that no effort has been spared to protect the lives of the
operators.

* * * * *

How does an Artesian Well Keep Up Its Supply of Water?

Artesian wells are named after the French Province of Artais, where they
appear to have been first used on an extensive scale.

[Illustration: ARTESIAN WELL (_D_) IN THE LONDON BASIN]

They are perpendicular borings into the ground through which water rises
to the surface of the soil, producing a constant flow or stream. As a
location is chosen where the source of supply is higher than the mouth
of the boring, the water rises to the opening at the top. They are
generally sunk in valley plains and districts where the formation of the
ground is such that that below the surface is bent into basin-shaped
curves. The rain falling on the outcrops of these saturates the whole
porous bed, so that when the bore reaches it the water by hydraulic
pressure rushes up towards the level of the highest portion of the
strata.

The supply is sometimes so abundant as to be used extensively as a
moving power, and in arid regions for fertilizing the ground, to which
purpose artesian springs have been applied from a very remote period.
Thus many artesian wells have been sunk in the Algerian Sahara which
have proved an immense boon to the district. The same has been done in
the arid region of the United States. The water of most of these is
potable, but a few are a little saline, though not to such an extent as
to influence vegetation.

The hollows in which London and Paris lie are both perforated in many
places by borings of this nature. At London they were first sunk only to
the sand, but more recently into the chalk. One of the most celebrated
artesian wells is that of Grenelle near Paris, 1,798 feet deep,
completed in 1841, after eight years’ work. One at Rochefort, France, is
2,765 feet deep; at Columbus, Ohio, 2,775; at Pesth, Hungary, 3,182, and
at St. Louis, Mo., 3,843-1/2. Artesian borings have been made in West
Queensland 4,000 feet deep. At Schladebach, in Prussia, there is one
nearly a mile deep.

As the temperature of water from great depths is invariably higher than
that at the surface, artesian wells have been made to supply warm water
for heating manufactories, greenhouses, hospitals, fishponds, etc. The
petroleum wells of America are of the same technical description. These
wells are now made with larger diameters than formerly, and altogether
their construction has been rendered much more easy in modern times.

Boring in the earth or rock for mining, geologic or engineering purposes
is effected by means of augers, drills or jumpers, sometimes wrought by
hand, but now usually by machinery, driven by steam or frequently by
compressed air.

In ordinary mining practice a bore-hole is usually commenced by digging
a small pit about six feet deep, over which is set up a shear-legs with
pulley, etc. The boring rods are from ten to twenty feet in length,
capable of being jointed together by box and screw, and having a chisel
inserted at the lower end. A lever is employed to raise the bore-rods,
to which a slight twisting motion is given at each stroke, when the rock
at the bottom of the hole is broken by the repeated percussion of the
cutting tool. Various methods are employed to clear out the triturated
rock.

The work is much quickened by the substitution of steam power, water
power, or even horse power for manual labor. Of the many forms of boring
machines now in use may be mentioned the diamond boring machine,
invented by Leschot, a Swiss engineer. In this the cutting tool is of a
tubular form, and receives a uniform rotatory motion, the result being
the production of a cylindrical core from the rock of the same size as
the bore or caliber of the tube. The boring bit is a steel thimble about
four inches in length, having two rows of Brazilian black diamonds
firmly embedded therein, the edges projecting slightly. The diamond
teeth are the only parts which come in contact with the rock, and their
hardness is such that an enormous length can be bored with but little
appreciable wear.

Where do Dates Come From?

Besides the dried dates which we are accustomed to seeing in this
country, they are used extensively by the natives of Northern Africa and
of some countries of Asia.

It consists of an external pericarp, separable into three portions, and
covering a seed which is hard and horny in consequence of the nature of
the albumen in which the embryo plant is buried.

Next to the cocoanut tree, the date is unquestionably the most
interesting and useful of the palm tribe. Its stem shoots up to the
height of fifty or sixty feet without branch or division, and of nearly
the same thickness throughout its length. From the summit it throws out
a magnificent crown of large feather-shaped leaves and a number of
spadices, each of which in the female plant bears a bunch of from 180 to
200 dates, each bunch weighing from twenty to twenty-five pounds.

The fruit is eaten fresh or dried. Cakes of dates pounded and kneaded
together are the food of the Arabs who traverse the deserts. A liquor
resembling wine is made from dates by fermentation.

Persia, Palestine, Arabia and the north of Africa are best adapted for
the culture of the date-tree, and its fruit is in these countries an
important article of food. It is now being introduced into California.

The Story of Rubber

Rubber is the coagulated sap of more than 300 varieties of tropical
trees and vines--the Landolphia of Africa, the Ficus of the Malay
Peninsula, the Guayule shrub of Mexico and the Castilloa of South
America, Central America and Southern Mexico are all important rubber
producers, but far more important than all of the others together is the
Hevea, a native of Brazil.

Hevea trees are scattered through the dense forests of practically every
part of the Amazon Basin, a territory more than two-thirds as large as
the United States.

How was Rubber First Used?

Down in Brazil, several hundred miles up the Amazon River, there stood a
great forest of trees and in this forest--the same as in forests of
today--were birds and animals and bugs and beetles, etc. All trees are
protected by nature; some are protected from bugs eating their leaves,
by other bugs eating up these bugs; other trees are protected by having
a thorny or bristly bark.

[Illustration: INDIANS PLAYING WITH A RUBBER BALL WHEN COLUMBUS CAME IN
SIGHT

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

In these forests in which the rubber tree grows there was a wood-boring
beetle, and this beetle would attack these rubber trees, boring into
them; but the tree, in order to protect itself, had a poisonous juice,
and as soon as the beetle bored into the tree, this juice killed him.
Then the juice would fill up the hole the beetle had made, and the tree
would go on growing as before.

In those days the natives around these forests (who were half Indian and
half Negro) happened to find some of this juice sticking on the tree.
They cut it off, rolled it together and made a ball, with which they
would play games. The first mention of it was made by Herrera in his
account of the second voyage of Columbus, wherein he speaks of a ball
used by Indians, made from the gum of a tree which was lighter and
bounced better than the far-famed balls of Castile.

[Illustration: IN THE JUNGLE

LLAMA, DOMESTIC ANIMAL OF THE ANDES, USED TO CARRY RUBBER OVER MOUNTAINS

RAILROAD AROUND THE RAPIDS OF THE MADEIRA TERMINAL

CRUDE RUBBER “BISCUITS” ON THE BANKS OF THE AMAZON

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

The way they gather this rubber is very interesting. When it comes from
the tree it is nothing but a milky juice. The natives of South America
soon discovered that the white man was willing to pay them beads and
other trinkets for chunks of this rubber, so they became active in
gathering it.

[Illustration: ON THE BANKS OF THE RIO GUAPORE--BRAZIL

_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._]

What is a Rubber Camp Like?

In this locality the rubber harvest commences as soon as the Amazon
falls which is usually about the first of August. When this date
approaches bands of natives set out from their primitive homes and go,
in many instances, hundreds of miles into the forest lowlands. There,
within easy reach of the rubber trees, they set up their camp and the
actual work of harvesting the rubber crop begins. It usually covers a
period of about six months, extending from August to January or
February.

The camps are usually great distances from the nearest town and
procuring supplies is not only difficult but very expensive as well. The
natives build their huts out of small poles covered with palm thatch and
live in little colonies while the rubber harvest is going on. The
Brazilian name for a rubber gatherer is “seringuero.”

[Illustration: RUBBER GATHERER’S HUT NEAR THE AMAZON

_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._]

A roof and floor with the flimsiest of walls, set up on piling for
coolness, defense against animals and insects, and to keep the building
dry during flood season, forms the home of the rubber gatherer. The more
pretentious and better furnished home of the superintendent of the
“estate,” together with the storehouses, etc., are called the
“seringal.”

The buildings are usually grouped together at a favorable spot on the
banks of the Amazon or one of its tributaries.

Furniture is of the most primitive type. The laborers and their families
sleep in hammocks or on matting on the floor. Food is largely made up of
canned goods and the ever-present farina, a sort of tapioca flour.

The climate of the South American rubber country is usually fatal to
white men, and even among the Indians the fevers, the poisonous insects
and reptiles, and the other perils of a tropical forest cause a high
death rate. The production of South American rubber is limited by a
shortage of men rather than a shortage of trees.

In December the rainy season begins. The waters of the Amazon begin to
rise and the work ceases. The superintendent and many of the workers go
down the river to Para and Manaos or to villages on higher ground.
However, a number of the laborers usually remain in the huts, loafing
and fighting the animals and insects that seek refuge from the rising
waters. They have but little to eat, and during the entire season
practically no communication with the outside world.

[Illustration: A HOME OF THE RUBBER GATHERERS

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

At the end of the rainy season, early in May, the laborers return to
their task. The quick-growing vegetation has filled the estradas and
this must be cleared away and perhaps new estradas opened. An estrada is
simply a path leading from one Hevea tree to another and circling back
to camp. Each estrada includes about one hundred of the scattered
Heveas.

After having established themselves in camp the natives take up their
monotonous round, which is followed day after day as long as the rubber
trees continue to yield their valuable sap. When the seringuero starts
out he equips himself with a tomahawk-like axe having a handle about
thirty inches long. This is called a “macheadino.”

[Illustration: TAPPING HEVEA RUBBER TREE--BRAZIL

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

How is Rubber Gathered by the Natives?

The trees are tapped very much like maple syrup trees. Only the juice is
found between the outer bark and the wood. So these men make a cut in
the tree through the bark, almost to the wood. A little cup is then
fastened to the tree with a piece of soft clay to press the cup against
it, and the juice runs into this cup. Sometimes they have from ten to
thirty cups on one tree and the average yield of a tree is ten pounds of
rubber a year.

Some two hours after the tapping is done the flow entirely ceases and
the tree must be tapped anew to secure a fresh flow.

The film of rubber that forms on the inside of the cup and the bits of
rubber remaining on the tree are collected and sold as coarse Para.

[Illustration: ON THE BANKS OF THE AMAZON

_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._]

[Illustration: GATHERING THE RUBBER MILK--BRAZIL

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

[Illustration: HOW THE RUBBER MILK DRIPS FROM THE GASH IN THE
TREE--BRAZIL]

The rubber gatherer carries in addition to a macheadino and many small
tin cups, a larger vessel for gathering the liquid and carrying it to
camp. One man will tap as many as 100 trees in a single morning and then
cover the same ground again in the afternoon or on the following
morning, gathering the sap that drips slowly from the cuts made in the
trees. On these journeys the harvester frequently travels long distances
over paths so buried by the undergrowth of the jungle that they are
almost invisible to the untrained eye. On such expeditions rubber
gatherers usually go armed with rifles to protect themselves against
wild animals, reptiles and savage Indians.

[Illustration: A PLANTATION IN BORNEO

_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._]

How is Rubber Smoked?

After the juice has been gathered in this way, the native builds a fire;
over it he places a cover shaped like a large bottle with the bottom
knocked out of it. This fire is built of oily nuts found in the forest,
and the thick smoke arises through what would be the neck of the bottle.

[Illustration: SMOKING RUBBER ON THE LOWER AMAZON

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

With a stick shaped something like the wooden shovels used at the
seashore, he dipped into the milky juice in the bowl, then turned this
stick or paddle around very rapidly in the smoke until the juice baked
on the paddle. He then added more juice and went through the same
operation again and again until there were between five and six pounds
of rubber baked on this paddle. He then cuts this off with a wet knife
which made it cut more rapidly. That formed what is called a rubber
“biscuit,” and he then started over again for his next five or six
pounds. Later, as the demand for these “biscuits” increased, instead of
the native using the paddle, he erected two short fence-like affairs
about six feet apart, but parallel with each other, and in between was
the smoky fire. Then he obtained a long pole, stretched it across these
two rails and poured a small quantity of this juice on this pole, over
where the smoke came in contact with it, and rolled the pole around
until this juice was baked, adding more, until, instead of a small five-
or six-pound “biscuit,” he would get an immense ball. In order to get
this off his pole, he would jog one end of the pole on the ground until
the “biscuit” would slide off. This is the way crude rubber first came
into our market and the way it comes today.

[Illustration: SMOKING RUBBER--UPPER AMAZON

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

How was Vulcanizing Discovered?

Up to this time, these “biscuits,” when exposed to heat, would become
very soft and sticky, and when exposed to the cold, would become hard
like a stone.

[Illustration: REMOVING BISCUIT FROM POLE AFTER SMOKING

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

There was an American by the name of Charles Goodyear who had heard how
the natives of the rubber-growing countries used this milky juice in
many ways for their own benefit. One use they put it to was the
waterproofing of their cloaks. How could this be done so that our
clothing would be made water-tight and yet not be sticky in summer or
stiff in winter? Goodyear devoted a great deal of his time to solving
this problem, and, like many other great inventors, he passed through
many trials. His many failures caused his friends to forsake him and he
was put in prison for not paying his debts. He persisted in his quest,
however, and it was accident at last that opened the way to discovery of
the processes of vulcanization for which Goodyear was seeking.

[Illustration: INDIAN WATERPROOFING CLOTH BY “PAINTING” IT WITH RUBBER
“MILK”--BRAZIL

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

At Woburn, Mass., one day, in the spring of 1839, he was standing with
his brother and several other persons near a very hot stove. He held in
his hand a mass of his compound of sulphur and gum, upon which he was
expatiating in his usual vehement manner, the company exhibiting the
indifference to which he was accustomed. In the crisis of his argument
he made a violent gesture, bringing the mass in contact with the stove,
which was hot enough to melt India-rubber instantly; upon looking at it
a moment afterwards, he perceived that his compound had not melted in
the least degree! It had charred as leather chars, but no part of the
surface had dissolved. There was not a sticky place upon it. To say that
he was astonished at this would but faintly express his ecstasy of
amazement. The result was absolutely new to all experience--India-rubber
not melting in contact with red-hot iron! He felt as Columbus felt when
he saw the land bird alighting upon his ship and the driftwood floating
by. In a few years more his labors were crowned with success.

This great invention made it possible for us to have rubber boots and
rubber shoes and many other things made of rubber.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

Up to this time, all the rubber was called Para rubber, named from the
town of Para in Brazil, from which all rubber was shipped. The
full-grown tree is quite large, ranging sixty feet and over in height
and about eight feet around the trunk. It has a flower of pale green
color and its fruit is a capsule containing three small brown seeds,
with patches of black. These seeds lose their life very quickly, so a
great deal of care is necessary to pack them if they are wanted to plant
in another place. The safest way is to lay them loosely in a box of dry
soil or charcoal.

[Illustration: RUBBER TWIGS

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

The rubber tree grows best in rich, damp soil and in countries where the
temperature is eighty-nine to ninety-four degrees at noon-time and not
less than seventy-four degrees at night, and where there is a rainy
season for about six months in the year, and the soil and atmosphere is
damp the year round.

The name of this species of tree is Hevea, but many years ago it was
called Siphonia on account of the Omaqua Indians using squirts made of a
piece of pipe stuck into a hollow ball of rubber.

How did Rubber Growing Spread to Other Places?

Back in the seventies an English botanist, Wickham by name, smuggled
many Hevea seeds out of Brazil. The tree was found to grow well in the
Eastern tropics and today the rubber plantations of Ceylon, Borneo, the
Malay Peninsula and neighboring regions are producing more than half of
the world’s supply of crude rubber. Here the natives work under pleasant
climatic conditions and the trees under cultivation grow better and
yield better than in the forest.

On these plantations, rubber trees are cultivated just the same as other
crops. All weeds are removed and great care is used with the young
trees. Low-growing plants which absorb nitrogen from the air which
enriches the soil, such as the passion flower and other sensitive
plants, were planted around these small rubber trees, for it was found
that when the weeds were removed to give the trees a chance to grow, the
ground became hard and dry.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

The method of tapping is different, too. Instead of ten to thirty taps,
a series of cuts the shape of a V is made on four sides of the tree,
from the bottom up to as high as a man can reach, and a cup placed at
the point of the V. Another way is to make one long cut down the tree
and then cut out slanting channels about one foot apart into this, and
put a cup at the bottom of the long cut; another is making a spiral
around the tree with the cup at the bottom.

How is Rubber Cured on Modern Plantations?

With these big plantations some other way to cure the rubber had to be
devised from the smoking process used in curing the native rubber which
comes from South America. The milky juice is emptied from the cups into
a tank and lime juice is added and it is then allowed to stand. The
juice, as it comes from the tree, contains considerable water: the lime
juice is added to separate the rubber from the water.

[Illustration: A YOUNG RUBBER PLANTATION

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

Sometimes separators are used much like our cream separators; in fact,
the whole process and the appearance of the interior of these rubber
“dairies” very much resembles our own dairies where real milk is made
into butter, curds or cheese.

Para, at the mouth of the Amazon, and Manaos, a thousand miles up, are
both modern cities of more than one hundred thousand population. They
have schools, churches, parks, gardens and museums, and, except for the
Indians, certain peculiarities in architecture and the ever-present odor
of rubber, they differ but little from our northern cities of equal
size. Here the rubber markets are located and here the rubber is
carefully examined, graded, boxed and shipped to New York or Liverpool.

Plantation rubber usually comes in the form of sheets of various shapes
and sizes. The rubber shown here is in oblong sheets. Sometimes it is in
the form of “pancakes” or in “blocks.” Often, after being coagulated, it
is smoked, and “smoked plantation sheet” is, next to Para, the best
rubber obtainable.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

How is Crude Rubber Received Here?

Crude rubber is received in many forms under various names. There are
more than three hundred standard kinds, depending on source and method
of handling; _e. g._, “Sernamby” is simply bundles of Para tree scrap
and scrap from the cups where milk has cured in the open air. “Guayule”
is a resinous rubber secured from a two-foot shrub that grows on the
arid plains of Texas and Northern Mexico.

Our picture shows a bin of crude up-river Para the finest rubber known.
Every “biscuit” or “ham” has been cut in two to find out whether the
native has loaded it in any way.

[Illustration: ANOTHER CEYLON TAPPING METHOD--THE HERRINGBONE

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

How is Rubber Prepared for Use?

Now that we have rubber so that it can be used, we find there are a
great many operations necessary between gathering the crude rubber and
finally the finished rubber coat or shoe. These various operations are
called washing, drying, compounding, calendering, cutting, making,
varnishing, vulcanizing and packing and each one of these main
operations requires several smaller operations.

The grinding and calendering department is the one in which the crude
rubber is washed, dried, compounded and run into sheets ready to be cut
into the various pieces which constitute a boot or shoe.

[Illustration: RUBBER MARKET IN MANAOS

_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._]

The cultivated rubber comes practically clean, but the crude rubber
“biscuits” contain more or less dirt and foreign vegetable matter which
have to be removed. The rubber is softened in hot water for a number of
hours and then passed through the corrugated rolls of a wash mill in
which a stream of water plays on the rubber as it is thoroughly
masticated and formed into thin sheets. These sheets are taken to the
drying loft. Here they are hung up so that the warm air can readily
circulate through them and are allowed to remain from six to eight
weeks, until every trace of moisture has been removed. The vacuum dryer
is used where rubber is wanted dry in a short space of time. This is a
large oven containing shelves. The wet sheets of rubber are cut in
square pieces, placed on perforated tin pans and loaded into the dryer,
which will hold about eight hundred pounds of rubber. The doors are
closed, fastened, and by the vacuum process the water is extracted,
leaving the rubber perfectly dry in about three hours’ time.

[Illustration: SPECIAL DESIGNED MACHINE FOR CUTTING RUBBER

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

[Illustration: TAPPING HEVEA RUBBER TREE ON CEYLON PLANTATION

_Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

[Illustration: SOFTENING VATS

_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._]

After the rubber is dry, and has been tested by the chemist, it goes to
the grinding mills where it is refined on warm rolls and made ready for
the compounding or mixing. It is impossible to make out of rubber alone,
shoes or other products that will withstand extreme changes in
temperature; certain amounts of sulphur, litharge and other ingredients
are necessary in combination with the pure rubber to give a satisfactory
material. The gum from the grinding mills is taken to the mixing mills,
where, between the large rolls, the various materials are compounded
into a homogeneous mass. The compounded rubber goes from the mixing
mills to refining mills, to be prepared for the calenders.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of the United States Rubber Co._]

Automobile, motorcycle and bicycle tires, belting, footwear and many
other rubber articles must have a base or backbone of cotton fabric, and
in order that the fabric may unite firmly with the rubber it must be
“frictioned” or forced full of rubber. This is done by drawing it
between enormous iron rollers, rubber being applied on its surface as it
passes through. The pressure is so great that every opening between the
fibers of cotton, every space between threads is forced full of rubber.

[Illustration: THE MILL ROOM

_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._]

The fabric is then ready to go with the milled rubber to the various
departments of the factory to be incorporated into rubber goods. The
calender is also used to press rubber into sheets of uniform thickness.

How are Rubber Shoes Made?

In making footwear, the linings and such parts as can be piled up layer
on layer are cut by dies, usually on the large beam-cutting machines,
commonly seen in leather shoe factories. The uppers are cut by hand from
the engraved sheets, while metal patterns are used on the plain stock.
The soles are cut by specially designed machines. The sheets of rubber
from which the uppers and soles are cut are at this stage of the work
plastic and very sticky. It is necessary on this account to cut the
various pieces one by one and keep them separate, by placing them
between the leaves of a large cloth book. In an ordinary rubber shoe
there are from twelve to fifteen pieces, while in a common boot there
are over twenty-five pieces.

[Illustration: MAKING RUBBER BULBS

_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._]

The various pieces are next delivered to the making department, where
they are fitted together on the “lasts” or “trees” in such a way that
all the joints and seams are covered and the lines of the shoe kept
exactly. Considerable skill is required to do this, as all the joints
and seams must be rolled down smooth and firm to ensure a solid boot or
shoe. The goods are all inspected before they are loaded on the iron
cars to go to the varnishing department, where they receive the gloss
which makes them look like patent leather.

[Illustration: MAKING STRAIGHTLINE RUBBERS]

[Illustration: IN THE TRUCK TIRE STOCK ROOM]

[Illustration: MAKING GARDEN HOSE (WRAPPED CONSTRUCTION)]

[Illustration: INSPECTING AUTOMOBILE INNER TUBES

_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._]

[Illustration: BELT PRESS AND ROLL OF CONVEYOR BELT]

[Illustration: “BUILDING” WATER BOTTLES]

[Illustration: VULCANIZING TRUCK TIRES]

[Illustration: INSULATED WIRE READY FOR SHIPMENT

_Courtesy of the B. F. Goodrich Co._]

From the varnishing department the shoes are taken to the vulcanizers,
which are large ovens heated by innumerable steam pipes. The shoes
remain in these vulcanizers from six to seven hours, subjected to
extreme heat. This heating or vulcanizing process fixes the elasticity
of the rubber, increases its strength enormously and unites the parts in
such a way as to make the shoe practically one piece.

The shoes next go to the packing department, where they are taken off
the “lasts,” inspected, marked, tied together in pairs, sorted and
packed. They are then sent to the shipping department to be shipped
immediately or stored in one of the spacious storehouses.

How are Automobile Tires Made?

In making tires, the strips of fabric are built together about a steel
core to form the body or carcass of the tire. The beads are also added.
The side strips, the breaker strip and finally the tread are applied.
All of these pieces are sticky, and as they are laid together and rolled
down by small hand rollers they adhere to each other, and when the tire
is completed it looks very much like the tires you see on automobiles,
but it is not yet vulcanized. The rubber is much like tough, heavy
dough--there is not much stretch to it and in a cold place it would
become hard and brittle.

The tire on its steel core is taken to the mold room and placed in a
steel box or mold, shaped to exactly enclose it. It is then placed with
many others on a steel frame and lowered into a sort of a well or oven,
where it remains for a time under pressure in the heat of live steam,
after which it is removed, a finished tire.

Vulcanization is simply the heating of the rubber mixed with
sulphur--this causes a chemical change in the substance; it becomes
tougher, more elastic and less affected by heat and cold.

This process, discovered in 1839, made rubber the useful substance it is
today. The discoverer, Charles Goodyear, to whom we referred before, was
never connected in any way except by name with any of the manufacturers
of the present day, but his discovery was the real beginning of a great
industry.

* * * * *

How did the Expression “Before you can say Jack Robinson” Originate?

Jack Robinson was a man in olden days who became well known because of
the shortness of his visits when he came to call on his friends,
according to Grose, who has looked up the subject very carefully. When
the servants at a home where Jack Robinson called went to announce his
coming to the host and his assembled guests, it was said that they
hardly had time to repeat his name out loud before he would take his
departure again. Another man, Halliwell, who has also investigated the
development of the expression, thinks that it was derived from the
description of a character in an old play, “Jack, Robes on.”

It is also interesting to learn that the sandwiches which we all enjoy
so much at picnics are so called because of the fact that an English
nobleman, the Earl of Sandwich, always used to eat his meat between two
pieces of bread.

What is an Aerial Railway Like?

Wonderful ingenuity has been shown in contriving a means to enable
people to ascend the Wetterhorn Mountain in Switzerland. The sides of
the mountain are so irregular and rough in their formation that it was
found impossible to build even the incline type of railway, such as is
usually resorted to where the ascent to a mountain is particularly
steep. So the engineers who studied the problem finally contrived two
huge sets of cables, securely fastened at the top, and fixed to a
landing place a short distance from the base of the mountain. Cars,
holding twenty passengers each, are carried up and down these cables,
one car balancing the other, by means of a cable attached to each, which
passes around a drum at the top.

[Illustration: THE WETTERHORN AERIAL RAILWAY

_Reproduced by permission of The Philadelphia Museums._]

There is probably no railway in all Europe upon which travel affords
more wonderful scenery than this trip, suspended in the air, up the side
of the Wetterhorn Mountain, the three peaks of which are all
considerably more than two and a quarter miles high.

Why are They Called “Newspapers”?

Although something like an official newspaper or government gazette
existed in ancient Rome, and Venice in the middle of the sixteenth
century also had official news sheets, the first regular newspaper was
published at Frankfort in 1615. Seven years later the first regular
newspaper appeared in England.

It was customary to print the points of the compass at the top of the
early single-sheet papers, to indicate that occurrences from all four
parts of the world were recorded. Before very long, the publisher of one
of the most progressive papers rearranged the letters symbolic of the
points of the compass, into a straight line, and printed the word NEWS,
and in a very short time practically every newspaper publisher decided
to adopt the idea.

It is interesting to find that American colonies were not far behind
England in establishing newspapers, and equally interesting to know that
the most remarkable development of the newspaper has been in the United
States, where, in proportion to population, its growth and circulation
has been much greater than in any other country. Practically a half of
all the newspapers published in the world are published in the United
States and Canada.

Every trade, organization, profession and science now has its
representative journal or journals, besides the actual newspapers and
magazines of literary character, and Solomon’s remark might be
paraphrased to read: “To the making of newspapers there is no end.”

The great and rapid presses of recent years, the methods of mechanical
typesetting and the cheapness and excellence of photographic
illustrations, have all been necessary elements of the great sheets and
enormous circulations of the present day, and the twentieth century
newspaper is one of the greatest achievements in the whole field of
human enterprise.

How Did the Cooking of Food Originate?

As soon as man found that he could produce fire by friction, as the
result of rapidly rubbing two sticks together, he began to have
accidents with his fires, just as we do today. And it was probably
because of one of these accidents, in which some food was cooked quite
unintentionally, that primitive man made the great discovery that most
of the meats and fruits and roots that he had been accustomed to eating
raw, were far better if they were put in or near the fire for a while
first.

How Far Away is the Sky-Line?

Unless you happen to be of the same height as the person standing next
to you, the sky-line is a different distance away from each of you, for
it is really just a question of the distance the eye can see from
different heights above the sea-level. A person five feet tall, standing
on the beach at the seaside, is able to see about two and three-quarter
miles away, while one a foot taller can see about a quarter of a mile
further.

A person on the roof of a house a hundred feet high is able to see more
than thirteen miles away, on a clear day, and a forty-two mile view may
be enjoyed from the top of a mountain a thousand feet high. The aviator
who goes up to a level a mile above the sea is able to see everything
within a radius of ninety-six miles and the further up he goes the
larger the earth’s circle becomes to him.

The Story of Rope[7]

Everybody knows what rope is, but everybody does not know how rope is
made or of what kinds of fiber it is manufactured. And very few probably
know the history of rope making, or how it developed from the simple
thread to the great cable which now holds giant vessels to their wharves
or aids to anchor them in ocean storms.

Let us go back and try to trace the history of the rope. It is a long
one, going out of sight in the far past. In very early times men must
have used some kinds of cords or lines for fishing, for tying animals,
at times for tying men. These may have been strips of hide, lengths of
tough, flexible wood, fibrous roots, and such gifts of nature, and in
time all these were twisted together to make a longer and stronger cord
or rope.

[Illustration: SCENE IN EGYPTIAN KITCHEN, SHOWING USE OF A LARGE ROPE TO
SUPPORT A SORT OF HANGING SHELF]

We have evidence of this. Tribes of savages still have in use cords made
of various materials and some of them very well made. These have been in
use among them for long centuries. Take the case of our own Indian
tribes. They long made use of cordage twisted from cotton and other
fibers, or formed from the inner bark of various trees and the roots of
others, and from the hairs, skins and sinews of animals.

[Illustration: REPRODUCTION OF SCULPTURE FROM A TOMB IN THEBES, SHOWING
PREPARATION OF LEATHER CORDS BY PROCESS SIMILAR TO ROPE MAKING]

Good rope was made also by the old Peruvians, by the South Sea
Islanders, and by the natives of many other regions. Those on the
seashore made fishing lines and well-formed nets, and certain tribes,
among them the Nootka Indians, harpooned the whale, using cords made
from the sinews of that animal, these being very strong and highly
pliable. The larger ropes used by them, two inches in diameter, were
made from the fibrous roots of the spruce.

Civilized Rope Makers.

All the ancient civilized peoples used ropes and cordage, made from such
flexible materials as their countries afforded. We have pictures of this
from ancient Egypt, in which the process of twisting strips of leather
into rope is shown on the walls of their tombs. One workman is seen
cutting a long strand from a hide which he turns round as he cuts, while
another man walks backward with this, twisting it as he goes. The
Egyptians also made ropes from papyrus and palm fibers, of which
specimens still exist. Only by the use of large and strong ropes could
they have moved the massive stones seen in their pyramids and temples.

[Illustration: CORDAGE MANUFACTURE BY THE ROPE WALK METHOD

Yarns passing from bobbins through perforated plates in forming of
strands.

Top truck used in laying of rope.

Forming machine making strands.

Closing tarred Russian hemp cable, 15-3/4 inch circumference, for
Argentine Battleship “Rivadavia.”]

When men began to move boats by sails, ropes of some kind must have been
needed, and the early ships no doubt demanded long and strong cordage.
We have pictures of these from several centuries before the Christian
era, and we are told by Herodotus that Xerxes, when he built his famous
bridge of boats across the Hellespont, 480 B. C., fastened them together
by enormous cables which stretched from shore to shore, a distance of
nearly a mile. Twelve of these ropes were used, about nine inches thick,
some of them being made of flax and others of papyrus.

[Illustration: EARLY TYPE OF MACHINE FOR SPINNING ROPE YARN]

During the medieval and later centuries rope making was an active
industry and America was not long settled before the rope maker became
active. John Harrison, an English expert in this line, set up a ropewalk
in Boston in 1641 or 1642, and for many years had a monopoly of the
trade. But after his death the art became common and in 1794 there were
fourteen large ropewalks in that city. In 1810 there were 173 of these
industries in the United States, and from that time on the business has
grown and prospered.

Hand Spinning.

In the period referred to all the work was done by hand, machine
spinning being of later date. American hemp was used, this softer fiber
being spun by hand long after Manila hemp was spun by machines. The
hand-making process, long used, is an interesting one. The first step
was to “hackle” the hemp. The hackle was a board with long, sharp steel
teeth set in it. This combed out the matted tow of the hemp into clean,
straight fiber. The instrument used in spinning was a large wheel,
turned by hand, and setting in motion a set of “whirls” or revolving
spindles, which twisted the hemp by their motion. The spinner wrapped a
quantity of the hackled hemp around his waist and attached some of the
fibers to the whirls, which twisted the hemp as he walked backward down
the ropewalk, pulling out new fiber from his waist by one hand and
pressing it into form and size with the fingers of the other.

[Illustration: FOUR-STRAND COMPOUND LAYING MACHINE MAKING STRANDS AND
LAYING ROPE IN A SINGLE, CONTINUOUS OPERATION]

[Illustration: SIXTEEN-INCH TOWLINE WITH EYE SPLICE]

In forming a small rope, two of the yarns thus formed were twisted
together in a direction opposite to that of the first twist. Then a
second twisting followed, the direction being again reversed. Thus rope
making may be seen to consist in a series of twisting processes, each
twist opposite to the former, the rope growing in size and strength at
each operation. Horse power or water power was used when the ropes
became too large to be made by hand.

[Illustration: FORMATION OF SLIVER (FOR SPINNING) ON FIRST BREAKER]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF PRESENT-DAY ROPEWALK]

Machine-made Ropes.

The old ropewalk is today largely obsolete, the rope-making machine
taking the place of the hand-making process, which was not adapted to
produce the large cables which in time were called for. Steam-driven
machines were first introduced about 1838. These are now used alike in
making fine threads and yarns and in large ropes.

There are two methods in the modern system of rope making. In one the
strands are formed on one type of machine and twisted into a rope on
another. In the second method both operations are performed on a single
machine. The latter saves space, but is not so well fitted for large
ropes as the former. A plant for the two-part method comprises two or
more horizontal strand-forming machines, several bobbin frames, and a
vertical laying-machine. The former twists several strands into a rope,
the latter several ropes into a cable.

The yarns, which are wound around bobbins, are drawn from them through
perforated plates, these so placed that the yarns converge together and
pass into a tube. In this they are compressed and at the same time
twisted by the revolution of a long carriage or flyer, which can be made
to vary in speed and direction. After being twisted the strands are
wound around reels in readiness for the second, or laying process.

In this the full reels are lifted by overhead chains and are placed in
the vertical flyers of the laying-machine. Here again the strands are
made to pass through openings and converge into a central tube, through
which they pass to the revolving flyers, which perform the final duty of
twisting them into rope. The finished product is delivered to a
belt-driven coiling reel on which it is wound.

[Illustration: REMOVING REEL WITH COMPLETED STRAND FROM FORMING MACHINE]

The most complete rope-making machine yet reached is that in which these
two machines are combined into one. It economizes space, machinery and
workmen, and also is more rapid in reaching the final result. But there
are disadvantages which render it unfit for the larger sizes of rope,
and it is therefore used only on a limited range of sizes.

American Hemp.

Among the fibers employed in rope making that of the hemp plant long
held the supremacy, though in recent years it has been largely
supplemented by other and stronger fibers. This plant is a native of
Asia, but is now grown largely in other continents, taking its name from
the country in which it is raised, as Russian hemp, Italian hemp, and
American, or Kentucky, hemp, it having long found a home in the soil of
Kentucky. It differs from the Manila fiber, which has now very largely
supplanted it, by being much softer, though of less strength. In the old
days of the sailing vessel hempen rope was largely used for the rigging
of merchant and war ships, but the use of other fibers and of wire for
rigging has greatly reduced the market for Kentucky hemp. There are
various other fibers known under the name of hemp, the New Zealand,
African, Java, etc., but the Manila and Sisal fibers, since the middle
of the last century, have largely taken their place.

[Illustration: HOW PINE TAR IS MADE IN THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES

1. Building the kiln.
2. Starting fire.
3. Racking back coals.
4. Tar coming from kiln.
5. Dipping and barreling.
6. Working around kiln.
7. After hard day and night.
8. Tar makers at home.
9. Burning completed.]

Manila and Sisal Fibers.

Manila hemp, as it is called, is a product of our Philippine dependency,
being obtained from a species of the banana plant which grows abundantly
in those islands. Its fiber is very long, ranging from six to ten feet,
and is noted for its smoothness and pliability, a feature which makes it
ideal for rope making. Gloss and brilliancy are also characteristics of
good quality Manila.

[Illustration: AMERICAN HEMP STACKED IN FIELDS]

Manila hemp is obtained from the leaf stalks of the Philippine plant
known as the Abacá, the leaf stems of which are compressed together, and
constitute the trunk of the plant. It is obtained by scraping the pulp
from the long fibers, drying these when thoroughly cleaned, and baling
them for market.

The high price of the Manila product, however, has brought a cheaper
fiber, of American growth, into the market; this being that known as
Sisal, extracted from henequen, a cactus-like plant of Yucatan. As a
substitute for or rival of Manila hemp it has come into common use. Its
cheapness recommends it despite the fact that it is not of equal
strength, and also that its fibers are shorter, being from two to four
feet in length. Sisal also lacks the flexibility of Manila, being much
more stiff and harsh. The development of the self-binding reaper on our
western grain-fields has opened a gold mine for Sisal cordage. Of the
annual import of this fiber to the United States, 300,000,000 pounds in
quantity, a large proportion finds its way to the wheat fields of the
West. It is also used in all other wheat-yielding countries.

[Illustration: PHILIPPINE HEMP CART]

[Illustration: LOADING FIBER FROM SISAL FIBER PLANT ONTO PLANTATION
CAR]

Henequen is now grown on large plantations, the plant being about five
years old before the long, sword-like leaves are ready to cut. It
continues to yield a supply for ten or twenty years, this lasting until
the flower stalk, or “pole,” appears, after which the plant soon dies.
As Manila fiber is at times adulterated with Sisal, so has the latter
its adulterant in a plant called Istle, which grows in Mexico and has
hitherto been chiefly used in brush making.

[Illustration: NEW ZEALAND HEMP OR FLAX]

[Illustration: CRUDE HAND METHOD OF CLEANING MANILA FIBER ON PLANTATION]

These are the chief plants used in rope making. To them we may add coir,
obtained from the brush of the cocoanut, which has been long used in
India, and has come into use in Europe in recent years. It is fairly
strong and has the advantage of being considerably lighter than hemp or
Manila. And, unlike these, it does not need to be tarred for
preservation, as it is not injured by the salt water. Two other
rope-making fibers of importance are the Sunn hemp of India and cotton,
ropes of the latter being largely used for certain purposes, such as
driving parts of textile machinery.

Wire Ropes.

We have not completed the story of rope making. There is the wire rope
to consider, a kind of cordage now largely used in many industries, in
which it has superseded hemp ropes and chains. These seem to have
originated in Germany about 1821. In the bridge at Geneva, built in
1822, ropes of untwisted wire, bound together, were used, and some
fifteen years later “stranded” wire ropes were employed in the Harz
mines. These at first were made of high-class wire, but only steel is
now used in their manufacture. A strand of wire rope generally consists
of from six to nine wires and sometimes as many as eighteen, but much
larger ropes are made by twisting these strands together. They are
generally galvanized to prevent them from rusting.

[Illustration: STACKING BALES OF MANILA FIBER WITH PORTABLE COMPRESSED
AIR ENGINE]

[Illustration: HANK OF MANILA FIBER TWELVE FEET LONG]

The applications of wire ropes are very numerous, an important one being
for winding and hauling purposes in mines. For aerial ropeways they are
extensively employed, and are of high value in bridge building, the
suspension bridge being sustained by them. The strength of the steel
wire used for ropes varies from seventy to over one hundred tons per
square inch of sectional area, the weight of a hemp rope being about
three times that of a wire rope of equal strength.

Pine Tar for Ropes.

Who does not know of the tarred rigging that once meant so much to the
rope maker? Its very odor seems to cling to the pages of seafaring
books. When steam power took the place of wind power in ships the use of
tarred rigging naturally declined, yet tarred goods still form an
important branch of the rope business. Pine tar is the kind best suited
for cordage, the yellow, longleaf, or Georgia pine holding the first
rank in the United States for tar making. This tree is found along the
coast region from North Carolina to Texas.

In tar-kiln burning only dead wood is used, the green tree yielding less
tar and of lower quality. It is a slow process, as a brisk fire would
consume the wood without yielding tar. As the tar comes from the kiln it
is caught in a hole dug before the outlet and is dipped up and poured
into barrels, the average yield being one barrel of tar to the cord of
wood. As above said, it is indispensable to protect cordage exposed to
the effects of moisture, except in the case of coir ropes. Oiling is
also an important process in the manufacture of ropes from hard fibers,
as Manila, Sisal and New Zealand. This softens them and makes them more
workable, and it also acts as a preservative.

[Illustration: INSPECTING MANILA FIBER AT DOCK]

[Illustration: SHIPPING PLATFORM OF A LARGE FACTORY]

Why does Rope Cling Together?

This is probably due to a degree of roughness in the surface of fibers,
often imperceptible to the eye, yet preventing them when in close
contact from slipping easily upon each other. This is greatly increased
by twisting the fibers together, and is added to by the toughness of the
fibers themselves, the whole giving to rope a great resisting power. In
the case of wire rope it is the firmness with which the metal holds
together that gives it its great resisting strength. It is also not
unlikely that the pressure of gravitation takes part in rope making, by
holding the fibers in close contact, even if we do not know how this
force operates.

What is Rope Used for?

This is a question that has already been answered in great part. Its
uses, in fact, are innumerable. It serves to hold things together, and
also to hold them apart; to lift things into the air and to hold them
down to the ground; to pull things forward and pull things back--but not
to push things forward. For the latter something less flexible than rope
is needed. Animals are tied or tethered by it and led by it, and man,
himself, is one of its victims. This is especially the case in the
dismal way in which man’s career upon earth has so often been ended by
lifting him from the ground by the aid of a rope loop around his neck.
It is of some comfort to know that this brutal use of the rope is being
replaced by more humane methods of ending the lives of condemned
criminals.

* * * * *

How did the Expression “A-1” Originate?

We have all become so accustomed to hearing the term “A-1” used to
designate a thing as perfect that it does not occur to many of us to
wonder how it originally came to be used in that connection. Its first
use was as a symbol in the code by which vessels were graded in the
register of shipping kept by Lloyd’s, the originators of marine
insurance. “A-1” was the best rating given to the highest class vessels,
“A” standing for perfect condition of the hull of the ship and “1”
meaning that the rigging and whole equipment was complete and in good
order.

How has Man Helped Nature Give Us Apples?

The original of all the varieties of the cultivated apple is the wild
crab, which is a small and extremely sour fruit, and is native of most
of the countries of Europe. We use the crab-apple for preserving even
now, although man’s ingenuity has succeeded in inducing nature to give
us many better tasting kinds.

The amazingly large number of different varieties which we have today
have all been brought into existence through the discovery of the
process of “grafting.” There are a half a dozen or more different
methods of grafting. The method most commonly practiced in working with
apple trees is called “bud-grafting,” and consists of transferring a
plate of bark, with one or more buds attached, from one tree to another.

The wood of apple trees is hard, close-grained and often richly colored,
and is suitable for turning or cabinet work. Apple-growers classify
apples into three different kinds, each consisting of a great many
separate varieties. The three general divisions are--table apples, which
are characterized by a firm, juicy pulp, a sweetish acid flavor, regular
form and beautiful coloring; cooking apples, which possess the quality
of forming by the aid of heat into a pulpy mass of equal consistency,
and also by their large size and keeping properties; and cider apples,
which have a considerable astringency and a richness of juice.

[Illustration: IN THE LAND OF THE APPLE

The Rogue River Valley, Oregon, in one section of which this photograph
was taken, is known all over America for its wonderful apples. One
apple-raiser in this district gathered two hundred bushels of apples per
acre from his six-year-old trees.]

What Kind of a Crab Climbs Trees?

Besides the water-crabs that we are most of us used to seeing and
eating, there are several different kinds of land-crabs. Probably the
most interesting of them all is the great Robber-crab, which is found on
certain islands of the Pacific. He is a creature of immense strength and
climbs palm trees in order to pick, and break open, the cocoanuts. He
lives in a den which he digs for himself in the ground.

Darwin gives an interesting description of these extraordinary animals:
“I have before alluded to a crab which lives on cocoanuts; it is very
common on all parts of the dry land, and grows to a monstrous size. The
front pair of legs terminate in very strong and heavy pincers, and the
last pair are fitted with others weaker and much narrower. It would at
first be thought quite impossible for a crab to open a strong cocoanut
covered with husk, but Mr. Liesk assures me that he has repeatedly seen
this effected. The crab begins by tearing the husk, fiber by fiber, and
always from that end under which the three eye-holes are situated. When
this is completed, the crab commences hammering with its heavy claws on
one of the eye-holes till an opening is made. Then turning round its
body, it extracts the white albuminous substance with its posterior and
narrow pair of pincers.

“Every night it is said to pay a visit to the sea, no doubt for the
purpose of moistening its gills. The young are likewise hatched, and
live for some time, on the coast. These crabs inhabit deep burrows,
which they hollow out beneath the roots of trees, and there they
accumulate surprising quantities of the picked fibers of the cocoanut
husk, on which they rest as a bed. To show the wonderful strength of the
front pair of pincers, I may mention that Captain Moresby confined one
in a strong tin box, the lid being secured with wire; but the crab
turned down the edges and escaped. In turning down the edges, it
actually punched many small holes through the tin!”

How are Files Made?

A good tool-kit holds a number of files of various shapes. Some are
flat, others half-round, three-sided, square and round. They are
generally thickest in the middle, while their teeth are of various
degrees of fineness and of different forms.

A file whose teeth are in parallel ridges only is called single-cut or
float-cut. Such are mostly used for brass and copper. When there are two
series of ridges crossing each other the file is double-cut, which is
the file best suited for iron and steel.

Rasps are files which have isolated sharp teeth separated by
comparatively wide spaces, and are chiefly used for soft materials such
as wood and horn.

Each of these three classes of files is made in six different degrees of
fineness, the coarsest being called rough, the next middle, followed by
bastard, second-cut, smooth and superfine or dead-smooth, each a degree
finer than that which precedes it.

Files are usually made with the hand, file-cutting machines not having
been as yet perfectly successful on account of the delicacy of touch
required in the work.

The blanks, as the steel before it has teeth is called, are laid on the
anvil and struck with the chisel, which rests obliquely on the blank,
each blow raising a ridge or tooth. The strength of the blow depends on
the hardness of the metal, and when one part is harder than another the
workman alters his blows accordingly. When one side is covered with
single cuts if the file is to be double cut he adds in the same manner a
second series, crossing the others at a certain angle.

In making fine files a good file-cutter will cut upwards of two hundred
teeth within the space of an inch. The files, except those that are used
for soft substances, are hardened by heating them to a cherry-red color
and then dipping them in water. They are then finished by scouring and
rubbing over with olive oil and turpentine.

The Story of Self-Loading Pistols[8]

Colt Pistols.

The machine gun of the present day, the murderous weapon which has
numbered its victims by the hundreds of thousands during the European
war, had its origin in the mind of a man whose birth dates back to
almost exactly one hundred years before this war began, that of Samuel
Colt, born at Hartford, Conn., on July 19, 1814.

[Illustration: CUSTER’S LAST STAND

The revolver played a large part in Indian warfare.]

The small arm of the previous period, the old “Brown Bess,” used in the
British army for 150 years, was a muzzle-loading, flint-lock musket of
the crudest make. The only important improvement made in it during that
long term of service was the substitution of the percussion cap for the
flint lock. This took place in the last period of its use. A
breech-loading rifle was also invented about this time. This was the
“Needle Gun,” of which 60,000 were issued to the Prussian army in 1841,
and which was first used in 1848, in the German war with Denmark.

The Colt pistol had appeared before this date. The idea of it grew in
the mind of young Colt when he left his father’s silk mill and shipped
as a boy sailor in the ship “Carlo,” bound from Boston to Calcutta.
While on this voyage the conception of a revolving pistol came to him,
and he whittled out a rude model of one with a penknife from a piece of
wood.

[Illustration: SINGLE ACTION ARMY AND FRONTIER REVOLVER--THE “COWBOY’S
FRIEND”]

[Illustration: THE ORIGINAL PATTERSON MODEL, 1836]

[Illustration: OLD MODEL “POWDER AND BALL” REVOLVER USED IN MEXICAN AND
CIVIL WARS]

[Illustration: GUN MOUNTED ON LANDING CARRIAGE WITH SHAFT ATTACHMENT]

When he returned he sought in vain to interest his father and others in
his idea of a pistol with a revolving cylinder containing six chambers
to be discharged through a single barrel. This boyish notion won no
converts, and at the age of eighteen he went on a lecture tour on
chemistry, under the dignified title of Dr. Coult. These lectures met
with success, and he used the money made by them in developing his
pistol, which was in a shape to patent by 1835. Patents were taken out
by him in this and the following year in the United States, Britain and
France, and in 1836 he established the “Patent Arms Company” at
Paterson, N. J., with a paid-in capital stock of about $150,000. This
was a bold move by the young inventor, then just escaped from boyhood.

[Illustration: PACK SADDLE FOR CARRYING AUTOMATIC MACHINE GUN AND
COMPLETE EQUIPMENT]

[Illustration: AUTOMATIC MACHINE GUN MOUNTED ON LIGHT LANDING CARRIAGE,
AMMUNITION CHESTS OPEN, SHOWING HOW FEED BOXES, ETC., ARE CARRIED]

Young Colt tried in vain to interest government officials in his new
weapon, their principal objection being that he used in it the new
percussion caps instead of the time-honored flint-lock. But success came
during the Seminole War of 1837, when some of the officers, who had seen
the new revolving pistol, decided to give it a trial and sent to the
factory for a supply.

Its value was soon proved. The Indians looked on this weapon that could
be fired six times after one loading, as something magical. It was too
much for their philosophy and the war soon came to an end. At a later
date it was used by the Texans in their war against Mexico, and from
that time on every Texas ranger wanted a revolver. It has ever since
been the favorite weapon of the cowboy and frontiersman.

[Illustration: AUTOMATIC PISTOL--GOVERNMENT MODEL, CALIBER .45

In this model the slide remains open after firing the last cartridge.
When reloading the arm in this position, insert the magazine, then press
downward the slide stop (to the rear of the trigger as illustrated). The
slide goes forward, inserting a cartridge without any movement of the
slide by hand. The slide stop is operated by the thumb of the hand
holding the pistol.]

[Illustration: POLICE-POSITIVE REVOLVER

Adopted by the Police Departments of the principal cities of the United
States and Canada.]

[Illustration: AUTOMATIC PISTOL--POCKET MODEL, HAMMERLESS

The action of this pistol is automatic except that the trigger must be
pulled to fire each shot; continued discharge will not result from one
pull of the trigger.]

But wars ran out, the market closed, and the “Patent Arms Company”
failed. What put Colt on his feet again was the Mexican war a few years
later. General Taylor offered Colt a contract for one thousand revolvers
at $24 each, and though the young inventor was looked upon as a ruined
man he took the contract, got together the necessary capital, and built
a factory on the Connecticut at Hartford. From that time on there was no
want of a market. The “Forty-Niners” took revolvers to California,
foreign governments sent orders for them, and armories were built in
England and in Russia for their manufacture. Colt died in 1862, but the
Civil War had previously opened a great market for his pistols, and
before the conflict ended the Colt factory at Hartford was in a highly
flourishing state. In the following years the revolver became a prime
necessity in dealing with the Indians of the West, and a school-book
statement of that date was to the effect that: “The greatest civilizer
of modern times is the Colt revolver.” Another writer, speaking of the
“Peacemaker,” an effective weapon produced after 1870, said: “It has the
simplicity, durability, and beauty of a monkey-wrench.”

[Illustration: AUTOMATIC MACHINE GUN MOUNTED ON TRIPOD, SHOWING BELT
PASSING OUT (RIGHT SIDE)]

Machine Guns.

The revolving idea was applied to guns about 1861 by Richard J. Gatling,
the first Gatling guns fitted for use with metalling ammunition being
produced by the Colt Company in 1870. These guns had ten barrels
revolving around a central shaft and in their developed form were
capable of being fired at the rate of one thousand shots a minute. The
first of these to be used prominently in warfare was the French
mitrailleuse, used by France in the war of 1870-71. The Gatling soon
made its way widely, and its rapidity of fire became a proverb. If
anything moved quickly it was said to “go like a Gatling” or “sound like
a Gatling.”

[Illustration: AUTOMATIC GUN MOUNTED ON AUTOMOBILE]

Other guns of this type are the Hotchkiss, the Nordenfeldt and the
Gardner, and a more recent one is the Maxim, which, after the first shot
is fired by hand power, continues to fire shot after shot by means of
the power derived from the explosion of each successive cartridge. In
the early form of the revolver the empty cartridge cases had to be
ejected from the cylinder singly by an ejector rod or handy nail. In
1898 a new type was introduced with a lateral swinging cylinder which
permitted the simultaneous ejection of all the empty shells.

Near the time of the Spanish-American War appeared what is known as the
Colt automatic gun, operated by the action of the powder gases on a
piston and lever near the muzzle of the barrel. This could be fired at
the rate of 400 to 500 shots a minute, and by reason of its light weight
could be very easily carried. The British used it effectively in the
Boer War.

Today the Colt Company manufacture revolvers in which the simultaneous
ejection of the cartridge-cases and recharging of the chambers is
combined with a strong, jointless frame; automatic magazine pistols in
which the pressure of the powder gases, as above said, is utilized after
giving the proper velocity to the projectile, it requiring only a
slight continued pressure on the trigger for each shot; automatic
machine guns firing at will single shots or volleys while requiring only
a slight pull upon the trigger; and the improved manually-operated
Gatling gun firing the improved modern ammunition. The cartridges are
carried on a tape which feeds them with the necessary rapidity into the
barrel.

What would be the history of the European War without the machine gun is
not easy to state, but as a highly efficient weapon of war its quality
has been abundantly proved.

* * * * *

How does the Poisonous Tarantula Live?

When the National Guardsmen from all over the Union were concentrated
along the Mexican border, many reports were sent home of thrilling
experiences with tarantulas, to whose bite the natives of Mexico, Italy
and many other warmer countries have ascribed a disease called
“tarantism.” The Italian peasants believe that this disease can only be
cured by a certain kind of music.

The tarantula, like many other members of the spider family, is an
expert in the making of burrows. Its burrows are artfully planned. At
first there is a sheer descent four or five inches in depth, but at that
distance below the surface the tunnel turns aside before dipping
straight down again to its termination. It is at the angle or elbow of
the tunnel that the tarantula watches for the approach of enemies or
prey, like a vigilant sentinel, never for a moment off its guard, lying
hidden during the day, if nothing disturbs it, and coming out at
nightfall to seek its prey.

Unlike most other spiders, it hunts its game without the aid of webs or
snares. It does, however, possess the ability to spin the silk which we
have all seen other spiders make, for, in digging its hole, it makes
neat little packages of the dirt it has scraped up, bound together with
silk and slime from its mouth, and flips them to one side out of the
way. When it comes to hunting, it makes sure that it can pounce on its
prey, by building the entrance of its hole about two inches in diameter
and up from the surface an inch or so, so that it can spread its legs
for the leap.

How do the Indians Live Now?

The Indians of the United States are now largely gathered into
reservations and their former dress, arms and habits are being gradually
changed for those of the whites. Civilization is invading their homes
and driving out their older characteristics. This is especially the case
with the large numbers now dwelling in the former Indian Territory, now
Oklahoma, although those confined in the reservations of Arizona, New
Mexico and Montana are clinging more to their old modes, as is shown in
the accompanying illustrations.

In ancient times the body was covered with furs and skins according to
the seasons, but now the white man’s clothes and blanket have generally
superseded the native dress; though the moccasin of deer or moose hide,
and, in the wilder tribes, the ornamental leggings and head-dresses are
still retained. Their dwellings are made of bark, skins and mattings of
their own making, stretched on poles fixed in the ground. The arms of
the wilder tribes consist of the bow and arrow, the spear, tomahawk and
club, to which have been added the gun and knife of the whites. Canoes
are made of logs hollowed out, or of birch bark stretched over a light
frame, skilfully fastened with deers’ sinews and rendered water-tight by
pitch.

[Illustration: MORE PICTURESQUE THAN BEAUTIFUL

The Apaches, formerly one of the most powerful and warlike of the Indian
tribes, are now confined to reservations in Arizona and New Mexico.]

[Illustration: A PICTURESQUE CAMP

Blackfeet Indians in camp on St. Mary Lake.]

The American Indian is described as of haughty demeanor, taciturn and
stoical; cunning, brave and often ferocious in war; his temperament
poetic and imaginative, and his simple eloquence of great dignity and
beauty. They have a general belief in Manitous, or spiritual beings, one
of them being spoken of as the Great Spirit. They believe in the
transmigration of the soul into other men and into animals, and in
demons, witchcraft and magic. They believe in life after death, where
the spirit is surrounded with the pleasures of the “happy hunting
grounds.” They adopt a “totem” or symbol of the family and this is
generally some animal, the turtle, bear and wolf being favorites.

The number of Indians in the United States at the taking of the Federal
Census in 1910, was 265,683; and there are about 130,000 in the British
possessions, 1,500,000 in Central America and 4,000,000 in Mexico. In
all North America there are somewhere about 6,000,000 and there are
probably 10,000,000 more in South America, many of them being more or
less civilized.

How does the Beach Get Its Sand?

Most of the sands which we find on the beaches and in other places are
the ruins of rocks which have come apart, usually as the result of the
action of water. A large part of the ocean bottom is made up of
“sandstone” and the continual washing of the water over this causes
particles to break away and float off, whereupon they are swept up upon
the beaches by the waves.

Sands differ in color according to the rocks from which they are
derived. In addition to the sands on the beaches, they occur very
abundantly in many inland locations, which were formerly sea bottoms,
and very extensively in the great deserts of the world.

Valuable metallic ores, such as those of gold, platinum, tin, copper and
iron, often occur in the form of sand or mixed with that substance. Pure
siliceous sands are very valuable for the manufacture of glass, for
making mortar, filters, ameliorating dense clay soils, for making molds
in founding and for many other purposes.

The silica, which is the principal ingredient of sand, as well as of
nearly all the earthy minerals, is known as “rock crystal” in its
naturally crystallized form. Colored of a delicate purple, these
crystals are what we call “amethysts.” Silica is also met with in the
“carnelian” and we find it constituting jasper, agate, cat’s-eye, onyx
and opals. In the latter it is combined with water. Many natural waters
present us with silica in a dissolved state, although it is not soluble
in pure water. The resistance offered by silica to all impressions is
exemplified in the case of “flint” which consists essentially of silica
colored with some impurity.

How did Nodding the Head Up and Down Come to Mean “Yes”?

Like a multitude of other things, the signs which we give by the
movements of our heads to indicate “yes” and “no” were copied from
animal life.

When the mother animal brought her young a choice morsel of food she
would hold it up temptingly before its mouth and the quick forward
movement of the head, with mouth open, showed the young animal’s desire
and acceptance of the offer. Even today when we make a forward movement
of our heads to indicate “yes” it is observed that the lips are usually
quite unconsciously opened a little.

In much the same manner, when the young had been well fed and were no
longer hungry, a tightly closed mouth and a shaking of the head from
side to side were resorted to, to keep the mother from putting the food
into their mouths. Our natural impulse now is to slightly clinch our
teeth when we shake our heads to mean “no.”

Why do We Call a Man “a Benedict” When He Marries?

We call men “benedicts” when they become married because that was the
name of a humorous gentleman in Shakespeare’s play, “Love’s Labor Lost,”
who was finally married to a character named “Beatrice.”

The Story in Firecrackers and Sky-Rockets[9]

The blaze and noise, indispensable to patriotic celebrations among all
peoples, was produced a century ago in America by simple agencies.
Washington’s Birthday was ushered in by cannon salutes in every
garrisoned place in the United States, and boys the country over built
bonfires as they still do in old New England towns to celebrate the day.
But the Fourth of July was the great hurrah time of the year, when every
youth who owned a gun or could borrow one, brought it into use as a
contribution to the general noise. He might lack shoes and be short of
shot and bullets for hunting, but for this occasion no young man was so
poor as to have failed to lay in a hornful of powder, and at the stroke
of twelve midnight, which began the day, he and his companions blazed
away with guns loaded to the danger point, and kept up their fusillade
as long as ammunition lasted. For demonstrations on a larger scale, a
small cannon was secured if possible, but lacking this, two blacksmith’s
anvils were made to do the same service, the hole in the top of one
being filled with powder, a fuse laid into it and the second anvil
placed as a stopper upon the first before the charge was exploded.

A favorite firearm for celebration purposes was one of the old “Queens
Arm” muskets which were common in country communities, being trophies
captured from the British during the Revolutionary War. One of these
cumbersome flint-lock pieces might be loaded halfway to the muzzle and
fired without bursting, and would roar in the discharge in a way highly
pleasing to patriotic ears.

It was near the close of the eighteenth century that Chinese
firecrackers first came into use in celebrating the American
Independence Day. For many years they were used sparingly and only in
large cities. They had been known in the New England coast cities ever
since the year 1787, when Elias Haskett Derby’s ship of Salem, the first
American vessel to engage in deep-water commerce, returned from her
voyage to Calcutta, China and Isle of France. Among the things she
brought back--more as a curiosity than as an article of cargo--was a
consignment of Chinese firecrackers. Their capabilities in aiding the
uproar on the Fourth of July were quickly recognized, and thereafter
every ship that made the voyage from Massachusetts Bay to India or China
brought back firecrackers with the tea, silks and rice. In time,
rockets, squibs and torpedoes were included in the consignment, but it
was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that their use became
general in America.

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ROCKET FINISHING SHOP]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF SHELL FINISHING SHOP]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF TORPEDO SHOP]

The time when the more complicated fireworks, which we owe both to
Europe and the Orient, came into vogue in this country, no one perhaps
could now definitely tell. Their use was known to our seafaring men in
the “forties,” for it was in that decade that Capt. Decimus Forthridge,
of the American brig “Independence,” showed his Yankee pluck and
resource in defeating an attack of Malay pirates with no other armament
than fancy fireworks. During his voyage in the East Indies he had laid
in a supply of fireworks with which to celebrate the Fourth of July in a
manner worthy an American captain. For some reason no ammunition was
available for swivels or muskets, when, in the mid-watch of the night,
two war proas, deeply laden with armed Malays, were seen coming quickly
up on the vessel’s quarter as she lay becalmed off Firabader Point in
the Island of Sumatra. The cry of “All hands on deck to repel pirates”
brought the crew on deck in haste, but without ammunition the chance
that they would beat the enemy off was a long shot compared with the
probability that the throat of every man on board would be cut as a
preliminary to plundering and scuttling the vessel. Even in their
extremity the crew laughed and jeered when the captain ranged them along
the quarter rail with boarding pikes and empty muskets in hand to give
the enemy the idea that they were ready for business, and then, opening
the box of fireworks, he began to shoot rockets and roman candles at the
pirates. If the crew laughed, the Malays did not, and when the captain
of one of the proas was struck by a rocket, both crafts rested oars and
came no nearer. But while Captain Forthridge was attending to these, a
third proa came up unobserved under the port quarter, and the first that
was known of its presence was the attempt of its occupants to board the
vessel by the chains. To make matters worse it was discovered that the
paper wrappings of the fireworks in the box were on fire. While the crew
with clubbed muskets and boarding pikes kept the Malays outside the
rails, Captain Forthridge picked up the blazing box, carried it to the
chains, and while the mate and sailors warded the spears and krises from
him, dropped it into the proa. The box was blown to pieces the minute it
struck, scattering the fireworks through the proa, and with firecrackers
snapping and jumping and fiery serpents running round among their bare
legs, the Malays chose to take their chances with the sharks, and all
hands went overboard into the water at double-quick. A little breeze
came up and the brig drew away from the pirates, leaving the two proas
to pick up those Malays from the water that the sharks had missed.

In the days of the China clippers, those famous ships sailed many a race
from Hong Kong and Canton, with New York as the goal, to get there with
“first tea” and to forestall the Fourth of July market with a cargo of
firecrackers.

In China and the East Indies, fireworks, like “the fume of the incense,
the clash of the cymbal, the clang and the blaze of the gong,” are a
part of the worship of the gods, as well as a feature of coronations and
weddings. China is the birthplace of fireworks. From China the knowledge
of them spread to India, and in both these lands rockets were used as
missiles of war as early as the ninth century. The Chinese war rocket
was a long, heavy affair, fitted at the end with a barb-like arrow, and
to a foe unacquainted with firearms, it must have seemed a formidable
missile. After gunpowder was introduced in Europe, fireworks came into
use on the continent, and the use of both explosives undoubtedly was
learned from the Chinese.

Fireworks were manufactured in Italy as early as 1540, and in France we
have accounts of their employment in great celebrations between the
years 1606 and 1739. Long before this time, some form of rocket, now
unknown, that would burn in water, constituted the famous Greek fire
which struck terror to the hearts of invaders from Northern Europe in
medieval times when the Saracens launched it against their ships. Early
in the present century during the Napoleonic Wars, the rocket perfected
by Sir William Congreve was used in the siege of Boulogne and in the
battle of Leipsic. The conditions of modern warfare have so changed that
the rocket is no longer of practical use in fighting except as a signal.
In case of shipwreck it is often employed to carry a line from the shore
to a stranded vessel. It is noteworthy that while almost every kind of
fireworks is manufactured in Europe and the United States, the small
firecrackers are still imported from China. But larger quantities are
now manufactured in the United States, and it is only a matter of time
when the “Young American” salute will take the place of the Chinese
firecrackers.

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ROLLING SHOP]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ROMAN CANDLE SHOP]

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF BALLOON SHOP]

It was about ten years before the Civil War that “set pieces” began to
form a part of fireworks celebrations. In those days the most famous
pyrotechnic display in the whole country was given on Boston Common on
the Fourth of July, and the country boy who was so lucky as to see that
display, with the miracle of George Washington’s benign face illuminated
amid spouting flames and a shower of fireballs and rockets, had
something to talk about for the rest of the year.

The American Civil War which did so much toward the modern development
of firearms and munitions of war, brought also a great advance in
pyrotechny, and soon after the close of the struggle, extensive
manufacture of fireworks began in this country, with New York as the
headquarters of the principal firms engaged in the business.

In 1865 the first displays of fireworks in the United States,
illustrating historical events, were made by a company in New York City.
They were the pioneers in this line of displays. Their success was
immediate, and from these displays has grown the successes of today in
pyrotechnics.

Fireworks now enter into the celebration of every important event in our
national, political and business life. The celebrations at Washington,
D. C., at the inaugurations of our Presidents, the coronations of
emperors and kings in lands beyond our borders, are all brought to a
close by brilliant displays of fireworks.

The writer, in visiting the plant of a large fireworks manufacturer,
found that they were turning out large quantities of time fuses and
primers for shrapnel shells for the foreign powers, and are working
night and day on orders for the United States government on aeroplane
bombs and signals. They have also worked out a searchlight projectile
which is arranged to burst in the air, throwing out a number of luminous
bodies that light up the surrounding country and reveal the movements of
the enemy.

All large displays of fireworks are now fired by electricity and every
known color and effect is produced by the pyrotechnist of the present
day.

The water displays are scarcely less varied, consisting of flying fish,
diving devils, prismatic fountains, floating batteries, fiery geysers
and submarine torpedoes, all of which, being ignited and thrown into the
water, go through their stunts as readily as other kinds do on land and
in the air.

From every part of the civilized world, from Mexico, Central and South
America and Europe, orders for fireworks come in increasing numbers to
American firms, who now lead the world in this art. The Philippines will
soon be a customer for them, and with the general opening up of China to
modern civilization, from causes now in operation, it will not be
strange if some day we should supply fireworks to the land of their
origin.

* * * * *

What Makes a Chimney Smoke?

Smoky chimneys are usually caused either by the presence of other
buildings obstructing the wind and giving rise to irregular currents of
air, or by improper construction of the fireplace and adjacent parts of
the chimney.

The first may generally be cured by fixing a chimney-pot of a particular
construction, or a revolving cowl, on the chimney top, in order to
prevent the wind blowing down; in the second case the narrowing of the
chimney throat will generally create a better draft.

The longer a chimney is, the more perfect is its draft, provided the
fire is great enough to heat the column of air in it, because the
tendency of the smoke to draw upwards is in proportion to the difference
of weight between the heated air in a chimney and an equal column of
external air.

The first we hear of chimneys, for the escape of the smoke from a fire
or furnace, is in the middle ages.

[Illustration: FLOATING DRY DOCK “DEWEY”

This dry dock, which is capable of floating the largest battleship, was
towed from Sparrow’s Point, Maryland, to Olangapo, Philippine Islands, a
voyage of 13,000 miles. In operation, the dock is sunk by admitting
water into its tanks until the ship can be floated in. The water is then
pumped out and the dock with the ship inside rises to the proper level
as shown.]

[Illustration: U. S. BATTLESHIP “MISSISSIPPI” IN DRY DOCK AT LEAGUE
ISLAND]

What are Dry Docks Like?

Although divers are able to go down under the water to examine the
bottom of a ship while it is afloat, it is usually necessary to have it
up on dry land when thorough inspections or repairs have to be made. So
a berth something like a huge box stall in a stable is built, with the
part where a horse would stand in the stall full of water, and a door,
either made like swinging gates opening in the middle, or a caisson
which is operated up and down like a window, at the end. The ship is
floated into the dock and then after the door is shut to prevent any
more coming in, all of the water is pumped out until the vessel rests on
a lot of great big wooden blocks and supporting props with which the
bottom and sides of the dock are lined. Supports are also placed between
the vessel and each side of the dock. Then, when the work has been
finished, and the ship is ready to go to sea, water is let back either
by pumping it in or else by gradually opening the door at the end, and
the vessel is able to float out into the river or harbor again.

Although all of the navy yards and some private corporations in this
country have docks of this kind, they are not of as much importance here
as in England, where they are used, without pumping out the water, for
the loading and unloading of vessels, because of the very great rise and
fall of the tides there straining and otherwise damaging ships tied up
to ordinary docks.

There are nine important navy yards in the United States, located at
Brooklyn, N. Y.; Boston, Mass.; Portsmouth, N. H.; Philadelphia, Pa.;
Portsmouth, Va.; Mare Island, Cal.; New London, Conn.; Pensacola, Fla.;
Washington, D. C., and Port Orchard, Wash.

There is another kind of dry dock, called “floating docks,” which float
on the surface of the water and may be sunk sufficiently to allow of a
vessel being floated into them, and then raised again by pumping the
water out of the tanks around the sides. They are usually built of iron,
with water-tight compartments, and not closed in at either end. They are
sunk to the required depth by the admission of water into so many of the
compartments, till the vessel to be docked can float easily above the
bottom of the dock, and then they are raised by pumping out the water
until the ship can be propped up as in the land dry dock.

Why does a Lightning Bug Light Her Light?

The lightning bugs or fireflies which are seen so often on summer
evenings in the country and among the trees in the parks of the city,
are similar to the species of beetle called the glowworm in Great
Britain, although the glowworm there does not give as much light as the
firefly in America.

In reality it is only the female which is the lightning bug, for the
male is not equipped with any lighting power. He has the bad habit of
going out nights, and so the female has had to make use of her ability
to make part of her body shine with a sort of a phosphorus green light
in order to show him the way home, very much as a dweller in a
poorly-lighted street keeps a light in the window or on the porch to
guide visitors or the late home-comer to the proper house. She seems to
possess the power of moderating or increasing the light at will.

The most brilliant fireflies are found only in the warmer regions of the
world. The ordinary firefly to which we are accustomed gives off a very
much brighter light if placed in warm water. Fine print may be read by
the light of one kind which is found in the West Indies; in Cuba the
ladies have a fashion of imprisoning them in bits of netting or lace of
a fine texture and wearing them as dress ornaments, and in Hayti they
are used to give light for domestic purposes, eight or ten confined in a
vial emitting sufficient light to enable a person to write.

The Story in the Making of a Picture[10]

Let us suppose, for the purposes of explanation, that as far as _seeing_
goes, any object is made up of countless infinitesimal points of light,
and that the business of the eye is to gather them in and spread them
out at the back of the eye in exactly the same relation they bore to
each other on the object. The points of light, so duplicated, would thus
form the image of the object.

The camera works very much the same way. The lens at the front of the
camera is the eye, and the plate or film at the back of the camera
corresponds to the back of the eye. The lens collects all the points of
light of the object we wish to photograph, and directs them to the plate
or film in such fashion that they occupy exactly the same relative
position that they did before. An image of the object is formed.

Now if we could look inside the camera and the image were visible, we
would see that it was upside down. The reason for this is very simple,
as the accompanying diagram shows. The ray of light from “A” at the
bottom of the object passes through the lens at an angle, and continues
in a straight line until interrupted by the film or plate. It started at
the bottom of the object and ended at the top of the image. The position
of all the points of light is just reversed, although their relative
position remains the same.

[Illustration: SHOWING INVERSION OF THE IMAGE]

“Then here,” you say, “is where your analogy between the camera and the
eye falls down.”

Not at all. It is true that we do not see things upside down, but this
is because of mental readjustment during the passage of the impressions
from the eye to the brain.

Now let us suppose that we have our camera loaded with film, and that
mother has succeeded in keeping the baby quiet long enough for us to
uncover the lens for an instant and let the points of light through to
the film. The next question is, how are we going to make the resulting
image permanent. We know that it is there, but in its present state it
is not going to do us a great deal of good. In fact, if we should peek
in the back of the camera, and to do so would ruin the exposure, we
could not even see it.

But let us go back a bit. We ought to know a little something about the
composition of this film on which the image has been projected.

In brief, film is a cellulose base coated with silver bromide and
gelatine. If we were using a plate the only difference would be that
instead of cellulose as a base we would have a sheet of glass. The
gelatine is there to afford lodgment to this sensitized silver. The
silver, being sensitive to the action of light, is there to record the
image. As soon as one of these silver particles has been touched by
light, it becomes imbued with the power of holding whatever the lens has
transmitted to it. The image was formed, we remember, by points of light
grouped in the same relative positions as the points of light of the
object we were photographing. Consequently it is only those silver
particles within the image-forming area that are affected, because that
is where the light struck.

The lens, then, gathered in the points of light and dispersed them on
the film so as to form an image. The silver particles held this image,
but not visibly--it is a latent image, and it is the purpose of
development to bring it out.

It is the particular business of a chemical called “pyro” to release
this latent image. When attacked by pyro, those silver bromide particles
which have been affected by light--and only those--change to black
metallic silver. After all the silver bromide particles, the ones that
held the image, have been transformed into metallic silver, another
chemical called “hypo” effectively disposes of all the silver bromide
that was not affected by light. Now only the image-forming silver
bromide particles remain, and these have been transformed to metallic
silver. The result is a permanent image--a negative.

But it _is_ a negative, so called because everything in it is
reversed--not only from left to right, but in the details of the image.
Mother’s dark blue gown looks light, for example, and baby’s white
dress, dark.

To get our picture as it should be, we must place the negative in
contact with a sheet of paper coated with a gelatine containing silver.
This emulsion, as the coating is called, is, as we might readily infer
from the presence of the silver, sensitive to the action of light in
much the same manner as was the original film. We place the negative and
paper in contact, then, in what is called a printing frame, so that
light may shine through the negative and impress the image on the
sensitive paper. It is obvious that the light parts of the negative will
let through the most light, and that consequently the silver emulsion on
the paper underneath will be most blackened, while the dark parts will
hold back the light and the emulsion on the paper underneath will be
less affected. In other words, the very faults that we noted in the
negative, from a picture point of view, automatically right themselves.
Mother’s dress looks dark and baby’s dress white--just as the lens saw
it.

We then have the picture in its finished form.

The story of the making of the camera is as interesting as that of the
making of the pictures by the camera.

Back in 1732, J. H. Schulze discovered that chloride of silver was
darkened by light and all unwittingly became the father of photography.
In 1737, Hellot, of Paris, stumbled on the fact that characters written
with a pen dipped in a solution of silver nitrate would be invisible,
until exposure to light, when they would blacken and become perfectly
legible. However, it was not until early in the nineteenth century that
these two discoveries were put to any practical use, as far as
photography was concerned.

People of an artistic turn of mind had been in the habit of making what
were called “silhouettes.” The sitter was so posed that the light from a
lamp threw the profile of his face in sharp shadow against a white
screen. It was then easy enough to obtain a fairly accurate silhouette,
by either outlining the profile or cutting it out from the screen.

It occurred to a man by the name of Wedgwood that this profile might be
printed on the screen by using paper treated with silver nitrate, and he
not only succeeded in accomplishing this, but also in perfecting what
was then called the “camera obscura,” the forerunner of the kodak of
today. The camera obscura consisted of a box with a lens at one end and
a ground glass at the other, just like a modern camera. It was used by
artists who found that by observing the picture on the ground glass they
could draw it more easily. Wedgwood tried to make pictures by
substituting his prepared paper for the ground glass, but the paper was
too insensitive to obtain any result. Sir Humphrey Davy, continuing
Wedgwood’s experiments, and using chloride of silver instead of nitrate,
succeeded in making photographs through a microscope, by using
sunlight. These were the first pictures made by means of a lens on a
photographic material. But none of these pictures were permanent, and it
was not until 1839 that Sir John Herschel found that “hypo,” which he
had himself discovered in 1819, would enable him to “fix” the picture
and make it permanent.

At about this time, Daguerre announced discoveries that gave photography
at least a momentary impetus, but the Daguerre process did not long
survive, as it was slow, costly and troublesome. The daguerreotype was
made on a thin sheet of copper, silver plated on one side, polished to a
high degree of brilliancy, and made sensitive by exposing it to the
fumes of iodine. The first daguerreotype made in America, that of Miss
Catherine Draper, was exposed for six minutes in strong sunlight, and
the face of the sitter thickly powdered, to facilitate the exposure. An
exposure today with a modern camera, under similar conditions, could be
made in 1/1000 of a second.

[Illustration: ARTOTYPE COPY OF THE EARLIEST SUNLIGHT PICTURE OF A HUMAN
FACE

Miss Dorothy Catherine Draper, taken by her brother, Prof. John W.
Draper, M.D., LL.D., in 1840.]

It was impossible, of course, to find many sitters as patient as Miss
Draper--try keeping perfectly quiet for even a minute if you would know
why Miss Draper should be ranked as a photographic martyr--and many
experiments were made in an attempt to materially shorten the time of
exposure. The only real solution, of course, was to find some method
where the light had to do only a little of the work, leaving the
production of the image itself to chemical action.

[Illustration: OLD-FASHIONED PHOTOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT]

The first great step in this direction was taken by Fox Talbot in 1841.
He found, that if he prepared a sheet of paper with silver iodide and
exposed it in the camera, he got only a very faint image, but if, after
exposure, he washed over the paper with a solution of silver nitrate and
gallic acid, the faint image was built up into a strong picture. And not
only was Fox Talbot the first to develop a faint or invisible image; he
was also the first to make a negative and use it for printing.

[Illustration: THE FIRST KODAK (1888), SHOWING ROLL HOLDER AND ROLL FILM
FOR 100 EXPOSURES]

[Illustration: THE FIRST DAYLIGHT LOADING METHOD]

[Illustration: THE FIRST “FOLDING KODAK” FITTED FOR PLATES OR ROLL FILM]

[Illustration: “DOPE” BARREL]

In spite of all these advances, photography was almost exclusively a
studio proposition, when, in 1880, experiments were begun which were to
result in photography that could be universally enjoyed--photography as
we know it today. Of course there were amateurs even in those early
photographic days, but they were few and far between. There was
something about the bulk and weight of the old-time photographic outfit
that failed to beget general enthusiasm.

[Illustration: RAW STOCK ROLLS, KODAK PARK]

[Illustration: ASSEMBLING ROOM, CAMERA WORKS]

To lighten the camera burden, and to simplify the various photographic
processes, were the problems that confronted the American inventor. The
first step toward film photography--and it was film photography that
relegated camera bulk to the scrap heap--was a roll film made of coated
paper to which a sensitive emulsion was applied, but the real goal was
reached when cellulose was substituted as a film base. This made
practicable the present flexible, transparent film with its attendant
convenience and dependability.

The kodak was the natural outcome of the roll film system. The first one
appeared in 1888, and its development, which proceeded simultaneously
with the film discoveries, soon reached the point where the loading and
unloading could be done in daylight. Daylight developing soon followed,
and the dark room, as far as the kodaker was concerned, took its proper
place as a relic of the dark ages.

With 1914 came autographic photography, so that now with a kodak in one
pocket and a handful of film in the other, the amateur is equipped for a
picture-making tour of the world--not simply a pictorial record, but a
written record as well, for autographic photography permits the dating
and titling of each negative directly after exposure.

Photography, not so many years ago an exclusive pleasure for the few, is
now easy fun for millions.

[Illustration: FILTER ROOM, KODAK PARK

Cellulose Acetate Manufacturing]

* * * * *

How Deep is the Deepest Part of the Ocean?

Man has not been able to tell definitely just what the greatest depth of
the ocean is, because it would be a practically unending task to go over
every bit of it to take measurements. A great many exploring expeditions
have been sent out to determine that interesting information so far as
possible, however, and one of these, the Murray-Challenger expedition,
has reported that the greatest depth that could be found in the Atlantic
Ocean is 27,366 feet, in the Pacific Ocean 30,000 feet, in the Indian
Ocean 18,582 feet, in the Southern Ocean 25,200 feet and in the Arctic
Ocean 9,000 feet. They also stated that the Atlantic Ocean has an area
in square miles, of 24,536,000; the Pacific Ocean, 50,309,000; the
Indian Ocean, 17,084,000; the Southern Ocean, 30,592,000 and the Arctic
Ocean, 4,781,000.

Why do We Say “Get the Sack”?

The use of the expression “get the sack,” when we mean “to be
discharged,” originated through the impression made upon people in this
country when stories were brought to them of the way the Sultan of
Turkey disposed of members of his harem of whom he had tired. When he
wanted to get rid of one of his harem he was said to have had her put
into a sack and thrown into the Bosporus. People who heard of this
report repeated it to others and they became so used to telling the tale
that they slipped quite naturally into the habit of saying “to get the
sack” when they meant that they expected to be put out of a position
suddenly.

In very much the same way the phrase “Hobson’s choice” is supposed to
have resulted from the story told here of a livery-stable keeper at
Cambridge, England, called Hobson, who obliged each customer to take the
horse nearest the stable door, when a wish to hire one was expressed,
even though he might permit customers to make the rounds of all the
stalls, examining and perhaps selecting other horses. Since the interest
inspired by that report, “Hobson’s choice” has come to mean a choice
without any alternative, or the chance to take the thing which is
offered or nothing.

Why do We Call Them X-Rays?

At the time the discovery of X-rays was announced by Prof. Wilhelm
Conrad Röntgen of the University of Würzburg, Germany, he was not sure
of their exact nature, and so he named them “X-Rays,” because “X” has
always been understood to be the symbol for an “unknown quantity.”

They are invisible rays transmitted through the air in a manner similar
to light. They are produced by passing unidirectional electric current
of from twenty to one hundred thousand volts pressure through a
specially constructed high vacuum tube, within which rays radiating from
the surface of a concave cathode (the negative electrode of a galvanic
battery), are focused upon and bombard a target of refractory material
such as tungsten, iridium, platinum, from which focus spot the X-rays
radiate in all directions.

They are used in medicine and surgery, to photograph the skeleton and
all the internal organs of the human body, as an aid in diagnosis; also
to destroy diseased tissue without the aid of surgery. Cancers and
tumors of certain kinds and a number of skin diseases are said to be
made to disappear by their use. When the apparatus is used, the subject
is placed on a long table and the X-ray tube, in its lead glass shield
container, is brought over the part of the body to which the rays are to
be applied.

The most up-to-date apparatus consists of a high-tension transformer and
rectifier, driven by a rotary converter, which derives power from
direct-current electric service and delivers alternating current to the
high-tension transformer.

[Illustration: MODERN X-RAY APPARATUS]

How did the Term “Yankee” Originate?

Although some people maintain that the word “Yankee” originated with the
way white men interpreted the Indians’ name for the early settlers, most
of those who have wondered about it have decided that it came to be used
as a nickname for persons born in the United States, because of a
farmer, named Jonathan Hastings and living in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
in the eighteenth century, using it to describe some good, home-made
cider of his making, as “Yankee cider.” The word was taken up by the
students of Harvard University, and gradually spread throughout the
whole country.

Why do We Say “Kick the Bucket”?

A great many years ago a man called Bolsover became crazed by some
unhappy experiences and decided to kill himself by fastening a rope
around his neck and hanging from a cross-beam overhead. In selecting a
place to tie the rope high enough to accomplish his purpose he found
that he would have to stand on something in order to reach it, and so he
reached for the nearest thing, which happened to be a bucket; after the
rope was firmly adjusted he kicked the bucket out from under his feet
and his full weight hung suspended from the rope about his neck. The
publicity given his act resulted in the adoption of the phrase “to kick
the bucket” as meaning “to die,” and that is the explanation which most
people who have tried to look up the origination of the term give as its
first use.

When does a Tortoise Move Quickly?

Tortoises lay their eggs in underground nests, where they remain for
almost a year, and, strange to say, they have a very curious way of
drilling holes for these nests with their tails. A tortoise picks a spot
where the earth is bare, and then stiffens its tail by contracting the
muscles strongly, placing the tip firmly against the ground and boring a
hole by moving it round and round in a circle, until a cone-shaped
cavity is produced, wide at the top but tapering to a point below. When
this operation is completed, it immediately sets to work to enlarge the
hole with the help of its hind legs. It does this by scooping out
“shovelfuls” of dirt, first with one of its hind feet and then with the
other, and heaping it up like the wall of a fortress around the pit.
Tortoises use their feet like hands when they do this, very carefully
placing the dirt in a circle at some little distance from the edge of
the cavity, and the work is continued until the hole is dug down as deep
as the hind legs will reach. When it finds that no more soil can be
removed, that is, at the end of an hour or more of steady digging, the
tortoise accepts the job as completed and proceeds to deposit its eggs
inside very carefully, just as you would put hen’s eggs into a basket.
While all this is going on the body is scarcely moved and the head is
kept inside the shell.

There are usually nine eggs and they just about fill the bottom of the
nest, which measures approximately five inches across and is itself
shaped more or less like an egg, being wider inside than at the top.
After about half an hour’s rest, the hardest part of the work is
begun--that of filling up the hole and leveling the ground. The dirt is
placed carefully over the eggs, a “handful” at a time, the hind legs
being used alternately again for that purpose. As the cavity is
gradually filled up the tortoise presses the earth down with the outer
edge of its foot. It takes another half hour’s rest after all the dirt
has been carried back again, and then commences the part of the
operation where the tortoise moves quickly enough to merit another
racing title. It beats down the dirt-mound and stamps it firm and flat
with the under side of its hard shell, raising the hind end of its body
and then hurriedly letting it drop to the ground again, turning round
and round in a circle very briskly in the meantime, at the same time
doing all it can to remove any traces which might lead to the discovery
of its nest.

The Story in a Newspaper[11]

Among the marvels of machinery of the present day there are none more
complicated and bewildering in appearance than that by which the news of
the world is sent adrift within the daily newspaper and none more
marvelously effective in its operation. If we go back to the days when
the seeds of the modern press were planted, we find them in the
hand-printing done by the Chinese with their engraved blocks, and with
the simple press used by Gutenberg about 1450, when he printed the first
book from movable types.

His press consisted of two upright timbers held together by cross pieces
at top and bottom. The flat bed on which the types rested was held up by
other cross timbers, while through another passed a wooden screw, by the
aid of which the wooden “platen” was forced down upon the types. The
“form” of type was inked by a ball of leather stuffed with wool, the
printer then spread the paper over it, laying a piece of blanket upon
the paper to soften the impression, after which the screw forced the
platen down on the paper and this on the type. This press was not
original, since similar cheese and linen presses were then in use.

[Illustration: THE BLAEW PRESS, 1620]

For 150 years this crude method of printing continued in operation, the
first known improvement being made by an Amsterdam printer about 1620,
he adding a few parts to render the work more effective. Such was the
simple press still employed when Benjamin Franklin began his work as a
printer a century later. In 1798 the Earl of Stanhope had a cast-iron
frame made to replace the wooden one and added levers to give more power
to the pressman. Woodcuts were then being printed and needed a stronger
press.

We must go on with the old Gutenberg method and its tardy improvements,
for another century, or until about 1816, when George Clymer, a printer
of Philadelphia, did away with the screw and employed a long and heavy
cast-iron lever, by the aid of which the platen was forced down upon the
type, the operation being assisted by accompanying devices.

As will be seen, the growth of improvements had until then been very
slow. From this time forward it became far more rapid, some useful
addition to the press being made at frequent intervals. The “Washington”
press, used at this time by R. H. Hoe & Co., of New York, embodied these
improvements, and became one of the best hand-printing presses so far
made. The first steam-power press was introduced by Daniel Treadwell, of
Boston, in 1822, the bed and platen, or its successor, the cylinder,
being used in these and in the improved forms that followed until after
the middle of the century.

[Illustration: STANHOPE PRESS, 1798]

The idea of replacing the platen by a cylinder was not a new one. It was
employed in printing copper-plate engravings in the fifteenth century, a
stationary wooden roller being employed, beneath which the bed, with its
form and paper, was moved backward and forward, a sheet being printed at
each movement. With this idea began a new era in the evolution of the
printing press. A vast number of patents have since been issued for
printing machines in which the cylinder is connected with the bed and
later for the operation of two cylinders together, one holding the form
of type and the other making the impression. But all these were for
improvements, the underlying principle remaining the same. The
conception of a press of this character in which the paper was to be fed
into the press in an endless roll or “web” goes back to the beginning of
the nineteenth century, though it was not made available until a later
date.

[Illustration: CLYMER’S COLUMBIAN PRESS, 1816]

Meanwhile, however, patent after patent for the improvement of the
cylinder press were taken out and the art of printing improved rapidly,
the firm of Hoe & Co. being one of the most active engaged in this
business, the United States continuing in advance of Europe in the
development of the art. The single small cylinder and double small
cylinder introduced by this firm proved highly efficient, the output of
the former reaching 2,000 impressions per hour, while the double type,
used where more rapid work was needed, yielded 4,000 per hour.

[Illustration: PETER SMITH HAND PRESS, 1822]

But the demands of the newspaper world steadily grew and in 1846 a press
known as the Hoe Type Revolving Machine was completed and placed in the
office of the _Public Ledger_, of Philadelphia. By increasing the number
of cylinders the product was rapidly added to, each cylinder printing on
one side 2,000 sheets per hour.

In 1835 Sir Rowland Hill suggested that a machine might be made that
would print both sides of the sheet from a roll of paper in one
operation. A similar double process had been performed for many years in
the printing of cotton cloth. This remained, however, a mere suggestion
until many years later, and the one-side printing continued. But, by
adding to the number of cylinders, a speed of 20,000 papers thus printed
was in time reached.

[Illustration: TREADWELL’S WOODEN-FRAME BED AND PLATEN POWER PRESS,
1822]

To prevent the possible fall of types from a horizontal cylinder, the
vertical cylinder was introduced by the London _Times_, but this danger
was overcome in the Hoe presses, and by the subsequent invention of
casting stereotype plates in a curve the final stage of perfection in
design was reached. In 1865 William Bullock, of Philadelphia,
constructed the first printing press capable of printing from a web or
continuous roll of paper, knives being added to cut the sheets, which
were then carried through the press by tapes or fingers and delivered by
the aid of metal nippers. There were difficulties in this series of
operations, but these were overcome in the later Hoe press, in which the
sheets were merely perforated by the cutter, and were afterward fully
separated by the pull of accelerating tapes.

The old-time rag-paper had disappeared for newspaper work, being
superseded by wood-pulp paper, the cheapness of which added to the
desire to produce presses of greater speed and efficiency. It was also
desirable that papers should be delivered folded for the carrier, and
this led to the invention of folding machines, one of the earliest of
which, produced in 1875, folded 15,000 per hour.

We have in the foregoing pages told the main story of the evolution of
the printing press from the crude machine used by Gutenberg in 1450 to
the rapid cylinder press of four centuries later. There is little more
to be said. Later changes were largely in the matter of increase of
activity, by duplication and superduplication of presses until sextuple
and octuple presses were produced, and by adding to the rapidity and
perfection of their operation, and the extraordinary ingenuity and
quickness with which the printed sheets were folded and made ready for
the convenience of the reader. Sir Rowland Hill’s dream of a press which
would print both sides of the paper at one operation in due time became
a realized fact, while vast improvements in the matter of inking the
forms, and even the addition of colored ink by which printing in color
could be done, were among the new devices.

[Illustration: WASHINGTON HAND PRESS, 1827]

What we have further to say is a question of progress in rapidity of
action rather than of invention. The 20,000 papers printed per hour,
above stated, has since been seen passed to a degree that seems fairly
miraculous. The quadruple press of 1887 turned out eight-page papers at
a running speed of 18,000 per hour, these being cut, pasted and folded
ready for the carrier or the mails. Four years later came the sextuple
press (the single press six times duplicated) with an output of 72,000
eight-page papers per hour, and in a few years more the octuple press,
its output 96,000 eight-page papers per hour. Larger papers were of
course smaller, but its capacity for a twenty-page paper was 24,000 per
hour.

[Illustration: ISAAC ADAMS’ BED AND PLATEN PRESS, 1830]

[Illustration: SINGLE LARGE CYLINDER PRESS, 1832-1900]

[Illustration: SINGLE SMALL CYLINDER PRESS, 1835-1900]

[Illustration: DOUBLE CYLINDER PRESS, 1835-1900

These presses were built up to 1900 and this picture shows the latest
design brought out about 1882.]

[Illustration: DOUBLE OCTUPLE NEWSPAPER WEB PERFECTING PRESS, 1903]

[Illustration: ELECTRIC-HEATED PNEUMATIC MATRIX-DRYING MACHINE, 1911]

As may well be conjectured, the twentieth century has had its share in
this career of progress, the perfected press of 1916 being credited with
the astounding output of 216,000 eight-page papers in an hour, all
folded, cut and counted in lots. Where part of the pages are printed in
three colors this press has still a running speed of 72,000 per hour.
This machine is composed of 27,100 separate pieces, it being 47 feet
long, 8 feet wide and 13 feet high, while such a mighty complication of
whirling wheels and oscillating parts nowhere else exists.

A word more and we are done. To feed such giant presses the old hand
method of setting and distributing type has grown much too slow. The
linotype machine has added greatly to the rapidity of this centuries-old
process. To this has been added the later monotype, of similar rapidity,
while type distributing has become in large measure obsolete, the types,
once used, going to the melting pot instead of to the fingers of the
distributors.

* * * * *

What do We Mean by the “Flying Dutchman”?

The Flying Dutchman is a phantom ship said to be seen in stormy weather
off the Cape of Good Hope, and thought to forbode ill luck. One form of
the legend has it that the ship is doomed never to enter a port on
account of a horrible murder committed on board; another, that the
captain, a Dutchman, swore a profane oath that he would weather the Cape
though he should beat there till the last day. He was taken at his word,
and there he still beats, but never succeeds in rounding the point. He
sometimes hails vessels and requests them to take letters home from him.
The legend is supposed to have originated in the sight of some ship
reflected from the clouds. It has been made the ground-work of one or
two novels and an opera by Wagner.

Why does a Duck’s Back Shed Water?

Nature has provided the duck with a protection against water just as she
has so wisely protected all animals against such elements as they have
to live in.

The feathers on a duck are very heavy and close together, and at the
bottom of each feather is a little oil gland that supplies a certain
amount of oil to each feather. This oil sheds the water from the back of
a duck as soon as it strikes the feathers.

Canvasback ducks are considered the finest of the water-fowls for the
table. The canvasback duck is so called from the appearance of the
feathers on the back. They arrive in the United States from the north
about the middle of October, sometimes assembling in immense numbers.
The waters of Chesapeake Bay are a favorite locality for them. Here the
wild celery, their favorite food, is abundant, and they escape the
unpleasant fishy flavor of the fish-eating ducks.

Why doesn’t the Sky ever Fall Down?

The sky never falls down because there is nothing to fall. What we see
and call the sky is the reflection of the sun’s rays on the belt of air
that surrounds the earth. That beautiful blue dome that we sometimes
hear spoken of as the roof of the earth is just the reflected light of
the sun on the air.

The atmosphere of the earth consists of a mass of gas extending to a
height which has been variously estimated at from forty-five to several
hundred miles, possibly five hundred, and bearing on every part of the
earth’s surface with a pressure of about fifteen pounds per square inch.

How are Sand-Dunes Formed?

Sand-dunes are composed of drift sand thrown up by the waves of the sea,
and blown, when dry, to some distance inland, until it is stopped by
large stones, tree roots or other obstacles. It gradually accumulates
around these, until the heaps become very large, often forming dunes or
sand-hills.

What do We Mean by an “Eclipse”?

Any good dictionary will tell us that an eclipse is an interception or
obscuration of the light of the sun, moon or other heavenly body by the
intervention of another and non-luminous heavenly body. Stars and
planets may suffer eclipse, but the principal eclipses are those of the
sun and the moon.

An eclipse of the moon is an obscuration of the light of the moon
occasioned by the interposition of the earth between the sun and the
moon; consequently all eclipses of the moon happen at full moon; for it
is only when the moon is on that side of the earth which is turned away
from the sun, and directly opposite, that it can come within the earth’s
shadow. Further, the moon must at that time be in the same plane as the
earth’s shadow; that is, the plane of the ecliptic in which the latter
always moves. But as the moon’s orbit makes an angle of more than five
degrees with the plane of the ecliptic, it frequently happens that
though the moon is in opposition it does not come within the shadow of
the earth.

[Illustration: DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE THEORY OF ECLIPSES.]

The theory of lunar eclipses will be understood from Fig. 1, where _S_
represents the sun, _E_ the earth, and _M_ the moon. If the sun were a
point of light there would be a sharply outlined shadow or umbra only,
but since the luminous surface is so large, there is always a region in
which the light of the sun is only partially cut off by the earth, which
region is known as the penumbra (_P P_). Hence during a lunar eclipse
the moon first enters the penumbra, then is totally eclipsed by the
umbra, then emerges through the penumbra again.

An eclipse of the sun is an occultation of the whole or part of the face
of the sun occasioned by an interposition of the moon between the earth
and the sun; thus all eclipses of the sun happen at the time of new
moon.

Fig. 2 is a diagram showing the principle of a solar eclipse. The dark
or central part of the moon’s shadow, where the sun’s rays are wholly
intercepted, is here the umbra, and the light part, where only a part of
them are intercepted, is the penumbra; and it is evident that if a
spectator be situated on that part of the earth where the umbra falls
there will be a total eclipse of the sun at that place; in the penumbra
there will be a partial eclipse, and beyond the penumbra there will be
no eclipse.

As the earth is not always at the same distance from the moon, and as
the moon is a comparatively small body, if an eclipse should happen
when the earth is so far from the moon that the moon’s shadow falls
short of the earth, a spectator situated on the earth in a direct line
between the centers of the sun and moon would see a ring of light around
the dark body of the moon; such an eclipse is called annular, as shown
in Fig. 3; when this happens there can be no total eclipse anywhere,
because the moon’s umbra does not reach the earth.

An eclipse can never be annular longer than twelve minutes twenty-four
seconds, nor total longer than seven minutes fifty-eight seconds; nor
can the entire duration of an eclipse of the sun ever exceed two hours.

An eclipse of the sun begins on the western side of his disc and ends on
the eastern; and an eclipse of the moon begins on the eastern side of
her disc and ends on the western.

The average number of eclipses in a year is four, two of the sun and two
of the moon; and as the sun and moon are as long below the horizon of
any particular place as they are above it, the average number of visible
eclipses in a year is two, one of the sun and one of the moon.

What are Dreams?

The dictionary tells us that a dream is a train of vagrant ideas which
present themselves to the mind while we are asleep.

We know that the principal feature, when we are dreaming, is the absence
of our control over the current of thought, so that the principal of
suggestion has an unlimited sway. There is usually a complete want of
coherency in the images that appear in dreams, but when we are dreaming
this does not seem to cause any surprise.

Occasionally, however, intellectual efforts are made during sleep which
would be difficult to surpass when awake.

It is said that Condillac often brought to a conclusion in his dreams,
reasonings on which he had been employed during the day; and that
Franklin believed that he had been often instructed in his dreams
concerning the issue of events which at that time occupied his mind.
Coleridge composed from two to three hundred lines during a dream; the
beautiful fragment of “Kubla Khan,” which was all he had committed to
paper when he awoke, remaining as a specimen of that dream poem.

The best thought points to the fact that dreams depend on natural
causes. They generally take their rise and character from internal
bodily impressions or from something in the preceding state of body or
mind. They are, therefore, retrospective and resultant, instead of being
prospective or prophetic. The latter opinion has, however, prevailed in
all ages and among all nations, and hence the common practice of
divination or prophesying by dreams, that is, interpreting them as
indications of coming events.

What Makes Our Teeth Chatter?

When one is cold there is apt to be a spasm of shivering over which the
brain does not seem to have any control. The spasm causes the muscles of
the jaw to contract very quickly and as soon as they are contracted,
they let the jaw fall again of its own weight. This occurring many times
in rapid succession is what causes the teeth to chatter.

There are two kinds of spasms, “clonic” and “tonic.” In the former, the
muscles contract and relax alternately in very quick succession,
producing an appearance of agitation. In the latter, the muscles
contract in a steady and uniform manner, and remain contracted for a
comparatively long time.

The Story in a Honey-Comb[12]

When one thinks of honey one instinctively closes the eyes and a mental
picture of fruit trees laden with snowy bloom, of beautiful clover
fields, of green forests in a setting quiet and peaceful, comes before
the mind so realistic that the delicate perfume of the fragrant blossoms
is almost perceptible and the memory of the musical hum of the little
honeybee as she industriously flits from blossom to blossom, or wings
her homeward way heavily laden with the delicious nectar, rests one’s
jaded nerves. Into this picture fits closely the old bee master among
his old-fashioned skeps, with the atmosphere of mystery that has so long
been associated with the master and his bees that one is almost
reluctant to think of the production of honey as a great commercial
industry, employing great factories in the manufacture of beehives and
other equipment necessary for the modern beekeeper that he may take full
advantage of the wonderful and almost inconceivable industry of the
honeybee in storing the golden nectar of the blossoms.

The development of the industry has been very slow; only during the past
fifty years has real progress been made, although honey formed one of
the principal foods of the ancients, which was secured by robbing the
wild bees. During the early history of the United States, beekeeping was
engaged in only as a farmer’s side line, a few bees being kept in any
kind of a box sitting out in the backyard, boarding themselves and
working for nothing. Even under such conditions amazing results were
often obtained. Lovers of nature and the out-of-doors were attracted by
the study of bee life, and early beekeepers were invariably bee lovers.
The mysteries of the hive as revealed in the story of the family life of
the bee--typical in many ways of our modern city life--is as fascinating
as a fairy tale.

[Illustration: FERTILIZING A PUMPKIN FLOWER]

The average population of the modern beehive varies from forty to sixty
thousand, with a well organized system of government. Intense loyalty to
the queen mother is apparent in all their activities and arrangements.
The close observer will discover a well-defined division of labor,
different groups of bees performing certain operations. The housekeeping
operations seem to be delegated to the young bees under sixteen days
old, while the policemen are the older ones whose dispositions are not
so mild and who would be more likely to detect a stealthy robber. It was
this intensely interesting side of bee life that attracted the attention
of a clergyman in failing health, forced to seek out-of-door occupation,
in the early forties. He began to investigate bee life from a commercial
standpoint, and about 1852 devised the movable hanging frame, which
entirely revolutionized the bee business, making modern commercial
beekeeping possible. Up to this time the box hive and straw skep were
the only ones known, the combs being fastened to sticks, or the roof of
the box, making it impossible to have any control over the activities of
the hive. The new device or frame to which the bees fastened their combs
in which brood was reared could be removed, one or all, at any time
desired. This opened up undreamed-of possibilities in the bee business,
which up to this time could hardly be called an industry.

[Illustration: AN ITALIAN ARMY OF BEES]

[Illustration: ITALIAN DRONE]

[Illustration: ITALIAN QUEEN]

[Illustration: ITALIAN WORKER

(All are enlarged to about three times their size.)]

[Illustration: A STRANGE HOME--BUT THE BEES ARE MAKING HONEY]

The man who has been most active in developing practical bee culture and
who has contributed more to the growth of the industry in the United
States than any other person, lives in Medina, Ohio. In 1865 this man
was a successful manufacturer of jewelry in the village of Medina. One
day his attention was attracted to a swarm of bees flying over. One of
his clerks noticing his interest asked what he would give for the bees.
He replied that he would give a dollar, not expecting that by any means
the bees could be brought down. Shortly after, he was much astonished to
have the workman bring the bees safely stored inside a box and demand
his dollar, which he promptly received, while his employer had the bees
and soon developed a lot of bee enthusiasm. The returns from that swarm
of bees convinced him that there were possibilities in the bee business,
and very soon he gave up the jewelry business to engage in the bee
business and manufacture of beehives. In this new move he encountered
the opposition of his family and friends, for the general impression was
that any man who would spend money or time on bees was either lazy or a
fool. Knowing that this particular man wasn’t lazy he was called a fool
to risk so much on an uncertain enterprise. In his defense he remarked
that he expected to live to see the time when honey would be sold in
every corner grocery; but we doubt if he expected to see his prophecy
fulfilled to the extent it has been, for not only is honey sold over
every grocer’s counter, his own private brand is sold in all the
principal markets of the United States.

[Illustration: A HAPPY HOME OF THE HONEY BEES]

[Illustration: “ALL HAIL, THE QUEEN”]

Shortly after securing his first swarm of bees he commenced the
manufacture of beehives in the same room where he had his jewelry
business, using a large windmill for power. Soon the business outgrew
the small quarters and was moved to the present location of the plant.
Hardly a year has passed that additions or new buildings have not been
added, and the mammoth plant as it stands today covers sixteen acres of
floor space, giving steady employment to several hundred people, and for
many years modern agricultural appliances have gone from this factory to
all parts of the world.

The old method of straining honey has long since been replaced by the
centrifugal honey extractor, which simply empties the cells of honey,
not injuring the combs. The combs are then replaced in the hive to be
refilled by the bees, thus saving them the labor of rebuilding the
costly structure, increasing the quantity of extracted honey which a
single colony can produce, while comb honey is produced so perfect in
appearance as to cause some to believe it to be manufactured by
machinery; but comb honey, nature’s most exquisite product, comes in its
dewy freshness untouched by the hand of man, from the beehive to the
table, a food prepared in nature’s laboratory fit for the Gods.

As beekeeping developed as an industry, the close relationship to fruit
growing and horticulture became apparent, as bees were discovered to be
the greatest pollen carrying agents known. The government then began to
spend more money on the development of the various branches of
agriculture; a Department of Apiculture was established and through the
work of this department beekeeping is recognized as one of the most
profitable branches of agriculture.

[Illustration: THE RESULT OF A BEE’S STING]

The intense enthusiasm of this pioneer beekeeper was contagious and
resulted in many taking up beekeeping. As no attention had been given to
developing a market for honey and production increased, older beekeepers
became alarmed and raised the cry that he was making too many
beekeepers. Seeing the need for some means of increasing the demand for
honey, a small honey business was started to dispose of the product of
customers who had no market. Soon a definite educational campaign on the
value of honey as a food was started, enlisting the co-operation of
beekeepers wherever possible. Immediately the necessity for more care in
selecting and marketing honey was apparent.

[Illustration: A LARGE SWARM OF ITALIANS ON A YOUNG LOCUST TREE]

[Illustration: ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS IN COMB]

[Illustration: HIGHLY MAGNIFIED EGG]

[Illustration: AN OLD-STYLE HIVE--What is inside?]

The introduction of Italian bees into the United States in the early
sixties marked an epoch in beekeeping, as they soon demonstrated their
superiority as honey gatherers, their gentleness and other traits
proving them more adaptable to domestication and to modern methods of
beekeeping. The marked superiority of some colonies over others
attracted the attention of beekeepers to the possibility of race
improvement by careful breeding, which gradually developed a new branch
of beekeeping aside from honey production--that of queen rearing--as it
was discovered that improvement of stock must come through the queen
mother. The average production of honey per colony has been materially
increased, due not alone to improved methods, but to improvement in
stock by careful breeders; and there are many beekeepers engaged
exclusively in this branch of the industry who enjoy international
reputation as breeders of superior strains of queens, and many thousands
are annually sent through the mails to all parts of the world. Live bees
are shipped by express as easily as poultry or other live stock.

[Illustration: LOADING AN UP-TO-DATE CENTRIFUGAL EXTRACTOR]

[Illustration: IN ACTION--FOR A FEW MINUTES ONLY]

[Illustration: A MAN-SIZE HIVE OF ITALIAN BEES]

[Illustration: WE MUST BRUSH THE BEES OFF SO THAT WE CAN SEE THE COMB]

[Illustration: AFTER CELL CAPPINGS ARE CUT OFF--READY TO EXTRACT]

The honey industry is unique in this respect, that there is hardly a
part of the United States where one cannot engage in it with profit.
Locality has much to do with the flavor and quality of honey, owing to
the different sources from which it is produced. Honey is simply blossom
nectar gathered by the bees, distilled or evaporated in the beehive with
the same distinctive flavor as the perfume of the blossoms from which it
was gathered; consequently we have as many different flavors of honey as
plants that bloom in sufficient profusion to produce honey. For this
reason it is easy to recognize the distinct flavors of honey produced in
different localities. In California orange honey we get the delicate
aroma of the orange blossoms, and the water-white honey from the
mountain sage has its characteristic flavor. Throughout the states east
of the mountains and west of the Mississippi, are produced the
well-known varieties of honey--alfalfa, sweet clover and other honeys
from fall flowers. From the Middle West and Eastern states comes the
matchless white clover honey, basswood and the dark aromatic buckwheat.
The Southern states produce a multitude of different honeys, the sweet
clover, tupelo, and the palmetto being the most common. The total annual
production of honey in the United States as given by the best
authorities is approximately 55,000,000 pounds. This, compared with
other crop reports, may appear very small, but when considered from the
standpoint of the enormous amount of bee labor represented, it is
stupendous. Undoubtedly present reports will greatly exceed those given.

[Illustration: “FRESH AIR BEES”--No hive needed.]

[Illustration: QUEEN CELLS--Note size compared with worker cells.]

[Illustration: MAGNIFIED VIEW OF SECTION OF HONEYCOMB]

[Illustration: SOME OF THE BEST HONEY COMES FROM SUCH LOCALITIES]

[Illustration: A NICE, EVEN FRAME OF BEES]

[Illustration: A MODEL ARRANGEMENT FOR KEEPING BEES FOR PLEASURE]

[Illustration: REMOVING BEES FROM COMB]

[Illustration: SECTIONS OF HONEY AS TAKEN FROM THE SUPERS]

[Illustration: STAGES OF WORK IN BUILDING A SECTION OF HONEY]

* * * * *

Where do Figs Come From?

[Illustration: URUK GIRLS SPREADING FIGS]

[Illustration: TYPICAL SMYRNA FIG ORCHARD]

The fig tree, which is of the mulberry family, belonged originally in
Asia Minor, but it has been naturalized in all the countries around the
Mediterranean. It grows from fifteen to twenty, or even thirty, feet
high.

In good climates it bears two crops in a season; one in the early
summer, from the buds of the last year; the other, which is the chief
harvest, in the autumn, from those on the spring growth.

Figs, particularly dried figs, form an important article of food in the
countries of the Levant, and are exported in large quantities to America
and Europe. The best come from Turkey.

What are “Fighting Fish”?

Fighting fish are a small fish and belong to the climbing perch family.
They are natives of the southeast of Asia and are remarkable for their
pugnacious propensities.

In Siam these fish are kept in glass globes, as we keep goldfish, for
the purpose of fighting, and an extravagant amount of gambling takes
place about the result of the fights.

When the fish is quiet its colors are dull, but when it is irritated it
glows with metallic splendor.

How is the Exact Color of the Sky Determined?

An instrument called a “cyanometer,” meaning “measurer of blue,” is used
for ascertaining the intensity of color in the sky.

It consists of a circular piece of metal or pasteboard, with a band
divided by radii into fifty-one portions, each of which is painted with
a shade of blue, beginning with the deepest, not distinguishable from
black, and decreasing gradually to the lightest, not distinguishable
from white. The observer holds this up between himself and the sky,
turning it gradually round till he finds the tint of the instrument
exactly corresponding to the tint of the sky.

What is a “Divining Rod”?

A divining rod is a wand or twig of hazel or willow used especially for
discovering metallic deposits or water beneath the earth’s surface.

It is described in a book written in 1546 and it has also a modern
interest, which is set forth by Prof. W. F. Barrett, F.R.S., the chief
modern investigator. The use of the divining rod at the present day is
almost wholly confined to water finding, and in the hands of certain
persons it undoubtedly has produced results along this line that are
remarkable, to say the least. The professional water-finder provides
himself with a forked twig, of hazel, for instance, which twig, held in
balanced equilibrium in his hands, moves with a sudden and often violent
motion, giving to the onlooker the impression of life within the twig
itself. This apparent vitality of the twig is the means whereby the
water-finder is led to the place where he claims underground water to
exist, though its presence at that particular spot was hitherto wholly
unsuspected. While failure is sometimes the outcome of the
water-finder’s attempts, success as often and, indeed, according to the
testimony of Professor Barrett, more often crowns his efforts. Various
explanations, scientific and other, of the phenomenon have been
advanced. Professor Barrett ascribes it to “motor-automatism” on the
part of the manipulator of the divining rod, that is, a reflex action
excited by some stimulus upon his mind, which may be either a
sub-conscious suggestion or an actual impression. He asserts that the
function of the forked twig in the hands of the water-finder may be to
act as an indicator of some material or other mental disturbance within
him. While a hazel or willow twig seems to be preferred by the
professional water-finders, twigs from the beech, holly or any other
tree are employed; sometimes even a piece of wire or watch spring is
used, with apparently as good results.

The Story of Electricity in the Home[13]

How wonderful to youth always has been the magical story of Aladdin and
the wonderful lamp which, through its supernatural powers, he could
gently stroke and thereby make genii of the unknown world his slaves.

In the rush of modern affairs there is that which is even more
fascinating, even more wonderful, than the story of Aladdin and the
magical power exerted through his lamp, but which is given but a passing
thought because of the rapid changes through which we are passing.

Mythical as it may sound, yet nevertheless it is true, that man has
harnessed for his use every snowflake that falls in the mountain tops
and settles itself in the banks of perpetual ice and snow. How man has
tapped the mountain fastnesses and converted the melting snows into a
servant more powerful, more magical, more easily controlled, than
Aladdin’s genii, should be known to everyone. This servant is
electricity.

This silent, invisible servant is ever present, always ready at the
touch of a button or the snap of a switch, without hesitation, without
grumbling, to do silently, swiftly, without dirt, without discomfort,
without asking for a day off or for higher wages, the work which is laid
out for it.

The use of electricity is so common today that the average person does
not stop to think of it as a magical power wielding a tremendous
influence for betterment in every-day affairs.

Electricity has rapidly found its way into the home for domestic
purposes, eliminating at its entrance a host of cares of the household.

So recently, as to seem almost yesterday, the genius of man’s brain
coupled electricity with mechanical devices for the comfort and
efficiency of the home.

Although a number of attempts have been made to build appliances for use
in the home that would utilize electricity, the real beginning of the
present almost universal use of electrical appliances seems to have been
in the manufacture of the electric iron. One instance, at least, coupled
with the manufacture of this household necessity, offers something of
romanticism.

To a certain western state, a young electrical engineer betook himself,
obtaining a position as superintendent of an electric power company and
establishing his abode in a tent far up a canyon, more for the benefit
of his wife’s health than for the thought of being near the power plant
and his work. The melting snow which gathered in little rivulets made a
roaring mountain stream which generated such an excess of power for the
company, that the young electrical engineer began looking about for
other means of utilizing it than for lighting the homes of the villages
below the mouth of the canyon. He designed a crude electric iron, placed
a number of them in use, and found they gave fairly good service and at
the same time enabled the power company to sell additional current.
Development of the device was rapid, so rapid, in fact, that the young
engineer’s time was soon taken up with it and he resigned from his
position with the power company to organize a small concern for the
purpose of manufacturing electric irons which at first were sold to the
consumers of the power company and later to a large nearby city.

These irons met with such a ready reception and were so popular with
housewives because of the time saving and the convenience, that
attention was next turned to other appliances which could be used in the
home and which would assist the power company in the sale of current.
About one hundred electric cooking sets were manufactured, consisting of
ovens and crude round stoves. These were distributed among the customers
of the power company and thenceforth their operation was carefully
watched and improvements made from time to time, using always the
suggestions offered by the housewives to make an appliance that would
meet the needs of the home.

This particular company, which was started but little more than ten
years ago in a small room of a store building in a small town of
Southern California, has grown rapidly from that time when its complete
office and factory force consisted of a man and two boys. It now places
in homes well toward a million appliances each year.

Since the home can now be operated almost exclusively with electrical
appliances, including everything from the electric iron to the modern
labor-saving electric range, it is well to note briefly some of the many
reasons for the success of electrically-heated appliances.

Perhaps most noticeable is cleanliness and the absolute absence of dirt
and grime in using pure electric heat. There is no soot, no smoke nor
discoloration. There are none of the bad effects so often caused by the
air becoming vitiated, due to the burning up of oxygen in the air by gas
and other fuels. There is no corrosion, oxidization or other form of
deterioration.

Perfect and absolute control of heat seems to be secured. The easy snap
of the controlling switch on the electric burner gives a certain
intensity of heat which remains at that temperature so long as the
switch remains in that position. Thus, with modern appliances, the
housewife operates them at high, medium or low to suit her desires.

[Illustration: ORIGINAL ELECTRIC IRON]

Fire risk is reduced to a minimum, because there are no matches, no
kindlings, no kerosene cans, no oil barrels and nothing of the sort to
endanger life and property.

The efficiency obtained through the operation of electrical appliances
soon becomes evident to the user. The heat generated for ironing, for
instance, is all utilized. This is true as well with heating or cooking
appliances, and this utilization of practically all of the heat units
naturally results in economy in operation in communities where the
lighting or power company has made a favorable rate.

Because the electric iron seems to have been the forerunner of
electrical appliances for the home, it is well first to describe briefly
the processes of manufacture necessary before the iron can be placed in
the home and take its position as one of the modern labor-saving
devices.

One of the first irons to be manufactured, an illustration of which is
shown herewith, did not offer the pleasing appearance nor give the
service of its youngest sister, the illustration of which is also shown.
One of the first problems was to control the heat at the iron, and to do
this a separable switch plug was developed, enabling the operator to
connect or disconnect the current supply at the iron.

The real problem, the one of most vital importance from the point of
efficiency, was that of the heating element that would do more than heat
the center of the sole plate. One of the pioneer manufacturers, after
numerous experiments, concluded that, since the point or nose of an iron
comes first in contact with the damp goods, naturally it should have
first and most heat applied to it. The result was a double heating
element in the form of a V, the resistance wire used being symmetrically
wound on a flat, thin mica core. This V-shaped element, the point of the
V coming up into the nose of the iron, insured a hot point, as well as
hot sides, center, back and heel, where the terminals were connected
with the switch plug receptacle. Another development which followed was
that of an attached stand, eliminating the necessity of lifting the iron
on and off a stand many times during the ironing. At first the iron was
heavy and clumsy, being built of cast iron, but modern manufacture has
made it possible to build the sole plate of cast iron and the top of
pressed steel.

[Illustration: ELECTRIC IRONS, 1916]

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--POURING MOLTEN METAL INTO MOLDS FOR CASTING IRON
SOLE PLATES]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--WORKMAN POLISHING SOLE PLATES]

The illustrations show some of the steps necessary before the iron
reaches the shipping room. Fig. 1 shows the workman pouring an earthen
ladle of molten metal into the molds in which the sole plates are cast.
Fig. 2 shows the sole plate in the hands of the workman, held against a
rapidly revolving polishing wheel, after it has been run through a
milling machine and ground to a perfect size. Fig. 3 shows a huge punch
press which cuts the blank of steel that is afterwards drawn to the
shape of the iron top. The workman is seen holding in his hand the blank
cut from a sheet of steel (Fig. 4). The blanks of flat steel of such
irregular shape are next passed to a mammoth draw press which draws
blanks into the perfect shape to be fitted over the top of the pressure
plate which holds the heating element firmly against the sole plate. At
the operator’s left hand is a stack of blanks and in his left hand he
holds one ready to be placed in the draw press. In his right hand is a
top just pulled from the press, and at the extreme right a large truck
full of finished tops ready for the polishing wheels.

Mica, which so many people know as isinglass, is one of the most
important materials in the manufacture of the standard electric iron.
The highest grade mica comes from India and the open box in the picture
shows thin, transparent pieces just tumbled out (Fig. 5). At the edge of
the table is a stack of mica strips known as cores. Hanging over the top
of the board are several cores on which the resistance wire has been
wound, showing the V-shaped heating element.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--BLANKING THE STEEL TOPS]

One of the most important and yet seemingly simple parts of an electric
iron is the switch plug which connects the electric light socket with
the iron. The operator in Fig. 6 is shown assembling switch plugs and is
in the act of driving home a screw which holds in place the fiber bar
over which the cord bends.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--DRAWING THE BLANKS INTO THE PERFECTLY SHAPED
TOPS]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--SHOWING A BOX OF IMPORTED MICA

Above on the table, a stack of “cores” and several elements ready for
insertion in the iron. Notice the V shape.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--OPERATOR ASSEMBLING SWITCH PLUGS]

[Illustration: OPERATOR HOLDING ELEMENT BEFORE STRONG LIGHT TO DETECT
DEFECTS IN THE MICA]

[Illustration: INSPECTOR WITH CAREFULLY TRAINED, SENSITIVE FINGERS
INSPECTING FINISHED IRONS BEFORE THEY ARE ENCASED IN THE CARTON]

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--ELECTRIC BOUDOIR SET THREE-POUND IRON

Stand for converting the iron into small stove, curling tongs heater,
felt bag.]

A standard six-pound iron consists of seventy-nine parts and represents
two hundred and ten distinct factory operations. Every part is carefully
inspected before being routed to the assembling department, and after
being fully assembled the irons are placed on a traveling table where
each is examined in its turn by an inspector with carefully trained
fingers, sensitive as those of a miller who tells the quality of flour
by pinching it between his thumb and forefinger. This inspector can
quickly detect in the handsome finish a defect that is unnoticeable to
the average person.

The Traveler’s Iron.

Electric current is so nearly universally obtainable that milady who
travels much has come to carry in her grip or suitcase a light-weight
iron, usually of about three pounds, and to aid to further convenience,
the manufacturer has supplied with this iron, curling tongs, curling
tongs heater and an attached stand so that the iron can be inverted and
its sole plate used as a small disc stove. The entire outfit is placed
in a neat felt bag as shown by Fig. 7.

[Illustration: ELECTRIC TOASTER STOVE]

Electric Cooking Appliances.

It is stated that not until the reign of Queen Elizabeth did women begin
to take over generally the handling of the kitchen work. Their absence
from this important part of the household is not so much to be wondered
at when we consider the size of the joints served prior to the time of
that well-known queen and the crude methods of preparing the meal. On
the other hand, it may have been due to the fact that the Armada called
for men, and the women had to go into the kitchen irrespective of
conditions. Be that as it may, we naturally conclude that the evolution
of the kitchen and kitchen work began at about that time, for very
shortly after the open fire gave way to some of the more crude methods
of contained fire pots.

It was many years after Good Queen Bess’ reign that electricity was
introduced in England for cooking purposes; in fact, not until as late
as 1891, when H. J. Dowsing, one of the pioneers of electric cooking,
exhibited electric cookers and heaters at the Crystal Palace Electrical
Exposition in London, was much interest manifested.

Divided into Three Classes.

Electric cooking appliances can very conveniently be divided into three
classes: table appliances, and the light and heavy duty kitchen
appliances; the latter being those requiring special wiring. Among table
appliances are toasters, coffee percolators, electric teapots, chafing
dishes and numerous other articles that add to the convenience of
preparing food. These are termed light-duty appliances, as they operate
from the light socket.

It might be well to explain that the lamp-socket appliances are those
operating from the light socket and are built to carry not over 660
watts of current. Should you attach an appliance of heavier wattage to a
light socket you will doubtless “blow” a fuse.

Electric Toaster.

In the rush and hurry of modern life, we are inclined to go back to the
days of barbarism, when real home life was unknown. Instead of all
members of the family gathering about the breakfast table when the meal
is ready, they come straggling in one by one. This made it very
difficult for the housewife to serve the breakfast hot, and particularly
the toast, which is a favorite dish of our breakfast table. The
necessary steps back and forth from the breakfast room to the kitchen to
prepare hot, crunchy toast made this portion of breakfast-getting a not
agreeable feature. The thought, taken up by electrical engineers,
brought out an electric toaster, rectangular in shape, with handsome
frame, nickel supports and wire heating element. This was indeed very
efficient and could be used also as a small stove. This type of toaster
was followed a little later by an upright toaster (Fig. 8). The heating
element is of the radiant type, made of flat resistance wire wound on
mica and placed in a vertical position between the two bread racks. When
the current is switched on, the heating element becomes red and the
bread is inserted under the gravity-operated bread clamps on each side.
The bread clamp is simply raised at the edge of the slice of bread, and
holds the bread firmly in place. This appliance toasts bread evenly,
rapidly, and costs very little to operate. The flat top can be used for
keeping a plate warm for the toast.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--ELECTRIC UPRIGHT TOASTER]

Electric Coffee Percolator.

Lovers of good coffee want it served hot, but boiling spoils coffee. The
modern electric percolator, which can be operated on the dining table,
has solved coffee-making problems. The particular style of percolator
shown in Fig. 9 has no valves or floats or traps that continually get
out of order and that make the cleaning of a percolator so disagreeable.
This valveless percolator is very easily cleaned and requires no brush.
The heating element of this type percolator is in the bottom of the pot
in the center of the water space, and is of the immersion type,
protruding up from the center of the bottom of the pot. The heating
element is made of flat ribbon resistance wire wound on mica, then bent
into the form of a cylinder to fit into the German silver shell. A
screw-operated spreader in the center presses the heating element
tightly against the entire surface of the shell and insures rapid
conduction of the heat from the element to the water. A study of the
illustration showing the inside of the percolator (Fig. 10) will make
clear to you the method of operation. With this style of electric
percolator, percolation begins within thirty seconds after the water has
been placed in the pot and the current turned on, and delicious coffee,
clear as amber, is ready to pour in ten minutes.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--ELECTRIC NICKEL VALVELESS PERCOLATOR]

Percolators of this type are made by the manufacturer from sheet copper
spun in perfect shape, and also aluminum spun. The latter makes an
especially desirable percolator.

[Illustration: FIG 10.--X-RAY SHOWING THE VALVELESS MECHANISM, ELECTRIC
PERCOLATOR

The above gives a comprehensive insight into the general
construction, equipment and operation of valveless Percolators.
1--Glass globe. 2--Aluminum coffee basket. 3--Element, with
German-silvershell--completely surrounded by water. (Highly efficient.)
4--Interchangeable switch-plug. 5--Ebonized wood--always-cool handle.
6--Copper body--nickeled and highly polished. 7--White metal spout.
8--Lid--securely fastened hinge.]

[Illustration: FIG. 11.--ELECTRIC MACHINE TYPE VALVELESS PERCOLATOR]

Machine Type Percolator.

Because some prefer to draw coffee from a faucet rather than pour it
from a spout, manufacturers have made a percolator of this type called
the machine style. These are sold in various patterns from the Colonial
design, like the illustration shown (Fig. 11), to those patterned after
the Grecian urn.

We have already mentioned how an electrical engineer, shortly after
placing irons in the homes of his customers, followed them with a number
of small stoves and ovens. These required special wiring, as the wattage
was too heavy to allow of their operation from the light socket.
Principally, they were used in the kitchen on one end of the table or on
a small shelf. This method necessitated carrying considerable food to
the dining room after it was cooked, and brought out the thought of a
means of preparing breakfast or a luncheon at the dining table. For this
purpose a small stove seemed desirable, and the result was a small disc
stove made of cast iron, highly nickel plated and polished.

On this little stove, herewith illustrated (Fig. 12), minor cooking
operations can be performed, such as frying, boiling, etc., and it is
used by many for toasting bread by placing a piece of metal screen on
top. It is also very serviceable for frying hot cakes. The heating
element is of the same construction as that in the iron; the mica is
clapped tightly against the metal top and below this is a plate of
asbestos which prevents the downward radiation of the heat.

[Illustration: FIG. 12--ELECTRIC DISC STOVE]

This disc stove was first made in single heat, but the later improved
stoves of this same type are made in three-heat style.

Many improvements have been made on the disc stoves and they are sold
not only as single, but as double or twin, and triple discs.

One often finds it inconvenient, when traveling, to obtain hot water
whenever needed. The light four-inch disc stove has proved to be a very
desirable possession in cases of this kind. Its size makes it very
convenient to pack in trunk or grip, and since it operates from any
light socket, it is very handy, not only for the traveler and in the
kitchen, but is a boon to many a bachelor man or maid.

Perhaps, before going further, it is well to explain the meaning of
single and three-heat. Let us suppose that you are operating one of the
small disc stoves and that the stove will carry 600 watts of current. If
that stove is equipped with a single heat, you will be using the full
600 watts whenever the switch is on. If it is equipped with a three-heat
switch, it can be adjusted to 600 watts at full, 300 at medium and 150
at low, which means a great saving in current for most small cooking
operations.

Two Distinct Types of Heating Elements.

There are two very distinct types of electric heating elements or
burners, the disc or closed type, and the open-coil type. These two
types operate on entirely different principles. The disc stove conveys
the heat to the food by the principle of conduction, _i. e._, the heated
metal top of the stove in turn conducts the heat to the metal of the
dish and thereby heats the food within the dish.

The open-coil type of element operates on the principle of radiant heat.
The heat rays from the element are focused on the dish in which the food
is being prepared. In the former style burner, sufficient time is
required to heat the metal top of the stove before the heat can be
utilized, while in the latter, the heat is almost instantaneously
effective. Below the coils of the radiant type of grills and heaters
shown in this section is placed a highly polished, nickeled disc which
serves to reflect all the heat units that are directed downward, back to
the dish in which the food is being prepared, thereby utilizing a
maximum of the heat units produced.

One very distinct advantage in the open-coil over the disc type is that
in the former practically all the utensils found in the average home can
be satisfactorily used, granite and enamel-ware being especially
desirable, while in the disc-type stoves, it is necessary to have dishes
with smooth, clean bottoms and that they fit very closely in order to
make metallic contact over the entire surface.

The lightness, convenience, and general utility of the small open-coil
stove has been responsible for a number of designs being manufactured
and sold in enormous quantities, these being made up not only as
stoves, but as grills. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 13) is of a
rectangular grill, made of pressed steel and highly polished, designed
to operate from any electric light socket. The heating element is of the
open-coil reflector type and is so placed in the frame that cooking can
be done both above and below the glowing coils at the same time. This is
a convenience and economy, as one is able to cook two dishes of food at
the cost of one. This particular grill is furnished with three dishes,
any one of which can be used either above or below the coils. When
cooking above the coils only is desired, the small flat pan is placed in
a groove below the coils to reflect to the cooking operation any heat
that would be thrown downward from the heating element. The shallow pan
also serves as a cover for either of the deeper dishes or for a hot-cake
griddle.

This radiant grill is light in weight, occupies a small space and is a
most desirable appliance in the home, to be used in either the living
room or dining room for the preparation of a light luncheon or afternoon
tea service.

[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ELECTRIC RECTANGULAR GRILL]

[Illustration: FIG. 14.--ELECTRIC THREE-HEAT GRILL]

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--ELECTRIC RADIANT STOVE]

Of the same manufacture is the radiant grill shown in Fig. 14. This
grill, you will note, is round, which particularly adapts it to the use
of utensils ordinarily found in the kitchen of the average home. You
will note that there are two dishes to this grill, a top dish with a
broiling grid, to be used underneath the coils for broiling chops, and a
shallower dish to be used above the coils for frying operations. There
is furnished also a reflector which is so designed that it serves
equally well as a cover for either dish and makes a very choice griddle
for baking hot cakes.

While this particular grill is furnished with a wattage providing for
operation from a lamp-socket, it is of the three-heat style already
spoken of as so desirable in appliances of this character. A companion
grill to this is of the same design, excepting that it is furnished in
single heat only and lists at a somewhat lower price.

You will remember that in explaining the many advantages of the
open-coil type of burner, it was stated as one of these that the
housewife could use cooking utensils ordinarily found in the home, and
because of this peculiar adaptability the round grills here spoken of
and illustrated are having an exceedingly large sale. These open-coil
grills are also very efficient as toasters, the bread being placed on
top of the grating, which protects the coils from injury. Where only
chops, toast, and coffee are to be had for breakfast, chops can be
prepared below the coils, the toast above, while the coffee
gurgle-gurgles in the percolator.

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--ELECTRIC CHAFING DISHES]

Some people who have not felt any need of a grill have desired an
open-coil stove, and of this same general type of manufacture there is
the open-coil radiant stove herewith illustrated (Fig. 15). It is
equipped with the same kind of a burner or element with a reflector
underneath, and can be used very efficiently with ordinary cooking
utensils and is also very serviceable as a toaster. Using this stove in
combination with the ovenette, which will be illustrated further on, the
owner is provided with a table range which meets most of the
requirements in a small family.

A line of cooking utensils would not be complete without suitable
designs of chafing dishes, and these are made in several styles, both
with and without heating elements, the latter being used on the disc and
open-coil stoves already illustrated, while the former contains a
heating element very much along the lines of the percolator. These are
furnished, as you will note from the illustration (Fig. 16), with
suitable cooking pans for the preparation of chafing-dish dainties.

Baking and Roasting.

It is only natural to suppose that manufacturers of electric stoves of
both light and heavy duty should next turn their attention to ovens,
since oven cooking is even primary to cooking that is done on open
burners and is now coming to be even of more importance. The first oven
herewith shown (Fig. 17) is of the lamp-socket type, equipped with three
heats, providing a very efficient oven for small operations. The second
one illustrated (Fig. 18) is of standard size and accommodates a
quantity of food equal to that of any large range oven. It is provided
with a heavy wattage and therefore requires special wiring.

To meet the requirements of the many families in which such a small
amount of baking is done, and to cater particularly to apartment-house
dwellers, the manufacturers of the line of radiant stoves described and
illustrated have brought forth a small cylindrical oven called the
ovenette. This little oven fits either the radiant stove or the round
radiant grill. It is made of pressed steel and finished in highly
polished nickel. This ovenette, in combination with either the radiant
stove or the round radiant grill, provides complete cooking equipment
upon which an entire meal can be prepared, whether it be heating rolls
and preparing crisp bacon or chops for breakfast, or baking a roast, a
loaf cake or even bread for the dinner. It will bake pies, cake,
biscuit, potatoes, roast meats, etc., up to its capacity, at a less
current cost than is possible with the larger oven and in less time.
This ovenette has what is called a middle ring, which makes it
adjustable to two sizes when large or small quantities of food are to be
prepared.

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--ELECTRIC LAMP-SOCKET OVEN]

[Illustration: FIG. 18.--ELECTRIC STANDARD OVEN]

So you see, the woman of today who utilizes current furnished through
the light socket, can bring to her command genii as wonderful as those
at the command of Aladdin when he stroked the wonderful lamp. Her
household duties are made easier. There is far less preparatory work and
she is able to place her home on a much more efficient basis than with
ordinary methods.

The home electrical is not complete without containing at least some of
the electrical appliances which have been designed for the purpose of
alleviating pain. One of these is an electric heating pad made of steel
units, so hinged as to make the appliance sufficiently flexible to be
wrapped around an arm or limb and to conform to the curves of the body.
The other is a pad made of aluminum which is concave on one side and
convex on the other and may be used in a wet pack. Each of these heating
pads is covered with a high-grade cover of eiderdown which provides a
soft contact for the skin.

Perhaps next in importance along this line of electrical appliances is
the small immersion heater shown in Fig. 19, and which requires so
little space that it can be easily carried even in a woman’s handbag.
This style of heater will quickly heat a glass of water by simply
immersing the heater in the water. This device is very extensively used
by mothers in heating milk for the baby, by men in heating water for
shaving, and by doctors and dentists who require small quantities of hot
water for sterilizing and other uses.

One thing most desirable in connection with practically all of the
lamp-socket appliances described and illustrated in this section is the
very small cost of operation. Lighting companies have so reduced the
cost of current within the last two or three years that a breakfast may
now be prepared electrically for not more than a couple of cents, while
one of the pads may be used an entire night at a cost of less than one
cent in soothing rheumatic pains or in driving away the chill for
outdoor sleepers.

[Illustration: ELECTRIC ALUMINUM COMFO]

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--ELECTRIC IMMERSION HEATER]

[Illustration: ELECTRIC FLEXIBLE COMFO (Metal)]

[Illustration: FIG. 20.--ELECTRIC VACUUM CLEANER]

But one of the hardest domestic tasks is that of keeping the house
clean. To obviate the difficulties encountered in this connection and to
make the home sanitary, electric vacuum cleaners are provided by several
manufacturers, a very recent acceptable type being illustrated in Fig.
20. This type of vacuum cleaner, which is reasonable in price, is made
of steel and finished in very highly polished nickel. It operates from
any light socket and consumes but a very small amount of current, much
less than is consumed by a toaster. It can also be purchased with
different attachments with which curtains, radiators, clothes and walls
may be cleaned. The possession in the home of one of these vacuum
cleaners makes it unnecessary to take up rugs, carpets, tear down
curtains and go through the semi-annual worry, wear and tear of house
cleaning. The vacuum cleaner will do it better and many times quicker
without removing a single article of furniture or disturbing a rug or
curtain; and instead of scattering the dust-laden germs in the air, to
be drawn into the nostrils and lungs of the family, the cleaner sucks
them up into a dust-tight bag from which they can be deposited on a
paper and burned.

The evolution in cooking and heating appliances for the home in the last
ten years has indeed been rapid, but it is very recently indeed that the
housewife has been able to satisfy the longing and the desire that has
kept getting stronger from day to day, since first she began to use
electric cooking appliances. She has been dreaming of that which would
make her kitchen a domestic-science laboratory, and her dream can come
true because now she can purchase an electric range patterned in general
style after the more acceptable gas or other fuel ranges, but infinitely
more efficient.

[Illustration: FIG. 21.--ELECTRIC RANGE]

The particular type of range herewith illustrated (Fig. 21) uses a
burner of the open-coil type, both for the surface burners and for the
oven. The ovens are highly insulated with a thick packing of best grade
mineral wool, which reduces air leakage to a minimum and retains the
heat generated for a long period. Many cooking operations which are
performed in ordinary ovens with the burners on, can be prepared in this
particular style of oven by using stored heat for the last half of the
operation. The range is simplicity itself in operation. Each burner is
operated by an indicating snap switch which has three separate heats,
full, medium and low; medium being one-half of full and low one-half of
medium. There are no matches; there is no danger from fire. There is no
vitiated, foul air because of noxious gases from ordinary cooking
stoves. There is no soot or grime, no ashes, no wood or coal to carry;
there are fewer steps; there is less watching of the range; practically
none at all, because when a burner is turned to medium, for instance,
you know that you have a certain degree of heat for just as long as the
switch is in that position. Results are eminently satisfactory and there
is a sufficient saving in the weights and the nutritive value of foods
cooked, especially in the oven, to make the electric range indeed a most
desirable and economical addition to any home.

Today, the housewife, whether the provider of the home be a laborer or a
merchant prince, can, with a simple touch of the button or a snap of the
switch, bring to her immediate command, and subservient to her wishes,
that subtle something which came in the snowflake, and which, while
invisible, yet provides the greatest boon to mankind--electricity.

* * * * *

Why is there Always a Soft Spot in a Cocoanut Shell?

A cocoanut shell always has a soft spot at one end because this is the
provision nature has made to allow the embryo of the future tree to push
its way out of the hard shell.

Cocoanuts, as most of us know, have a thick, hard shell, with three
black scars at one end. The soft scar may easily be pierced with a pin;
the others are as hard as the rest of the shell. Outside of this hard
shell we are accustomed to seeing another covering of considerable
thickness, of an extremely fibrous substance. When cocoanuts are picked,
however, they have still another covering-an outer rind which has a
smooth surface.

The tree which produces the cocoanut is a palm, from sixty to a hundred
feet high. The trunk is straight and naked, and surmounted by a crown of
feather-like leaves. The nuts hang from the summit of the tree in
clusters of a dozen or more together.

Food, clothing and the means of shelter and protection are all afforded
by the cocoanut tree. The kernels are used as food in a number of
different forms, and when pressed, they yield an oil which is largely
used in candle making and in the manufacture of soaps. When they are
dried before the oil is pressed out they are known as “copra.”

We have given the name “milk” to the sweet and watery liquid, of a
whitish color, which is inclosed in considerable quantity in the kernel.

By boring the tree itself, a white, sweetish liquid called “toddy”
exudes from the wound. This yields one of the varieties of the spirit
called “arack” when distilled. A kind of a sugar called “jaggery” is
also obtained from the cocoanut juice.

The fibrous coat of the nut is made into a preparation called
“cellulose,” which is described in another story in this book, and also
into the well-known cocoanut matting. The coarse yarn obtained from it
is called “coir,” and it is also used for cordage. The hard shell of the
nut is polished and made into cups and other domestic utensils. The
fronds are wrought into baskets, brooms, mats, sacks and many other
useful articles; and the trunks are made into boats, and furnish timber
for the construction of houses. Altogether the cocoanut palm will be
seen to be a very useful member of the plant kingdom.

How does a Gasoline Motor Run an Electric Street Car?

A gasoline-electric railroad train was introduced in Germany in 1913. It
comprises a power car and ten other cars, each of a five-ton capacity,
which trail along behind. The power car carries two gasoline engines of
a hundred and twenty-five horse-power each which drive a dynamo
installed in the center. The current is transmitted to the electric
motors, actuating each of the wheels of the power car and the trailers.
The General Electric Company has perfected a similar car for use on the
suburban branches of street railroads in this country. Most of them are
equipped with a two hundred horse-power gasoline engine directly
connected to a dynamo from which power is generated and transmitted to
the motors, which are located on the car axles. Cars of this type can be
made of a larger seating capacity than is customary and can easily
attain a speed of a mile a minute.

Gasoline engines offer great advantages over steam because of the
absence of boilers, coal and ashes, and a much higher efficiency is
obtainable, a consumption of one pint of gasoline per horse-power hour
being good practice for well-designed motor engines and a total
efficiency of from ten to thirty-five per cent of the energy in the fuel
being available, as against one to twenty per cent for steam averages.
The utilization of the gasoline engine to generate electric power for
surface cars, in instances where it is not practical to transmit energy
from power stations, presents wonderful possibilities.

[Illustration: A SUBURBAN RAILWAY CAR OF THE GASOLINE-ELECTRIC TYPE]

How do “Carrier Pigeons” Carry Messages?

The real carrier pigeon is a large bird with long wings, a large
tuberculated mass of naked skin at the base of the beak, and a circle of
naked skin round the eyes, but the variety generally employed to carry
messages more resembles an ordinary pigeon.

The practice of sending letters by pigeons belongs originally to Eastern
countries, though in other countries it has often been adopted, more
especially before the invention of the electric telegraph. An actual
post-system in which pigeons were the messengers was established at
Bagdad by the Sultan Nureddin Mahmud, who died in 1174, and lasted till
1258, when Bagdad fell into the hands of the Mongols and was destroyed
by them.

These birds can be utilized in this way only in virtue of what is called
their “homing” faculty or instinct, which enables them to find their way
back home from surprising distances. But if they are taken to the place
from which the message is to be sent and kept there too long, say over a
fortnight, they will forget their home and not return to it. They are
tried first with short distances, which are then gradually increased.
The missive may be fastened to the wing or the tail, and must be quite
small and attached so as not to interfere with the bird’s flight.

By the use of microphotography a long message may be conveyed in this
way, and such were received by the besieged residents in Paris during
the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 the birds being conveyed out of the
city in balloons.

Seventy-two miles in two and one-half hours, a hundred and eighty in
four and one-half, have been accomplished by carrier pigeons. Large
numbers of these birds are now kept in England, Belgium, France, etc.,
there being numerous pigeon clubs which hold pigeon races to test the
speed of the birds. These pigeons are also kept in several European
countries for military purposes.

What Family has Over 9,000,000 Members?

Each female cod has more than 9,000,000 eggs, but the numbers are kept
down by a host of enemies.

The most interesting species is the “Common” or “Bank Cod.” Though they
are found plentifully on the coasts of other northern regions, such as
Britain, Scandinavia and Iceland, a stretch of sea near the coast of
Newfoundland is the favorite annual resort of countless multitudes of
cod, which visit the “Grand Banks” to feed upon the molluscous animals
abundant there, and thus attract fleets of fishermen.

The spawning season on the banks of Newfoundland begins about the month
of March and terminates in June; but the regular period of fishing does
not commence before April, on account of the storms, ice and fogs. The
season lasts till the end of June, when the cod commence their
migrations.

The average length of the common cod is about two and one-half or three
feet, and the weight between thirty and fifty pounds, though sometimes
cod are caught weighing three times as much. The color is a yellowish
gray on the back, spotted with yellow and brown; the belly white or red,
with golden spots in young specimens.

Few members of the animal creation are more universally serviceable to
man than the codfish. Both in its fresh state and when salted and dried,
it is a substantial and wholesome article of food. The tongue is
considered a delicacy. The swimming-bladders or “sounds,” besides being
highly nutritious, supply, if rightly prepared, isinglass equal to the
best of that which is brought from Russia. The oil, which is extracted
from the liver, is of great medicinal value, and contributes
considerably to the high economic value of the cod.

The finest and palest oil is made from fresh and carefully cleaned
liver, the oil being extracted either in the cold or by a gentle heat.
Only the pale oils are used in medicine; the dark oils are too rank and
acrid, and they are only used in dressing leather.

The Story in the Telephone[14]

On March 10, 1876, Alexander Graham Bell, standing in a little attic at
No. 5 Exeter Place, Boston, sent through his crude telephone the first
spoken words ever carried over a wire, and the words were heard and
understood by his associate, Thomas A. Watson, who was at the receiver
in an adjacent room. On that day the telephone was born, and the first
message went over the only telephone line in the world--a line less than
a hundred feet long. On January 25, 1915, less than forty years later,
this same Alexander Graham Bell, in New York, talked to this same Thomas
A. Watson, in San Francisco, over a wire stretching 3,400 miles across
the continent.

[Illustration: DR. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL AT THE OPENING OF THE
TRANSCONTINENTAL LINE

In front of Dr. Bell is the replica of his original telephone, and to
his left is the glass case containing a piece of the wire over which Dr.
Bell and Mr. Watson carried on the first telephone conversation in the
world.]

In that memorable year of 1876, Dom Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, while
visiting the Philadelphia Centennial, was attracted to Bell’s modest
telephone exhibit, picked up the receiver, listened as Professor Bell
talked at the other end of the room, and, amazed at the wonder of the
thing, cried out, “My God--it speaks!” From that time, the first
telephone exhibit became the center of attraction at the exposition. Had
Dom Pedro lived to see the Panama-Pacific Exposition he might have
listened to Professor Bell talking not merely from the other end of a
room, but from the other side of a continent.

Some idea of the rapid growth of the telephone business in the United
States may be gathered from the statistician’s figures, which show that
in 1880 there were less than 100,000 telephones in use in this country,
and in 1915 there were more than 9,000,000 telephones in the Bell System
alone. Of the 14,000,000 telephones in the world, 10,000,000 are in this
country. Sixty-five per cent of all the telephones in the world are in
this country, although it has only five and five-tenths per cent of the
world’s population. The Bell System alone reaches 70,000 places, 5,000
more than the number of post-offices and 10,000 more than the number of
railroad stations.

[Illustration: CENTRAL TELEPHONE EXCHANGE, NEW YORK CITY, 1880]

The telephone wire mileage in the United States is over 22,000,000
miles. In the Bell System there are over 18,000,000 miles of wire which
carry over 26,000,000 telephone talks daily--or nearly 9,000,000,000 per
year.

Essential Factor in American Life.

Such broad use is made of the telephone service of America that the
progress in telephony is an essential factor in all American progress.

A visiting Englishman envying the light, airy accommodations in the tall
office buildings in American cities, has sagely said that the skyscraper
would be impossible without the adequate telephone service which is here
provided.

In the housing of the people the telephone is a pioneering agent for
better conditions. In the cities telephone service is indispensable in
apartment houses and hotels which raise people above the noise and dust
of the street. In the suburbs the telephone and the trolley make the
waste places desirable homes, and although a man may walk some distance
to reach some transportation line, the telephone must enter his own
dwelling place before he is content to live there.

[Illustration: A TYPICAL OPERATING ROOM IN AN AMERICAN CITY, WITH THE
MOST MODERN BELL SWITCHBOARD]

This desirable decentralization of the population in which the telephone
has been so important a factor extends beyond the suburbs to the rural
districts, and the American farmer with his wife and family is blessed
by facilities for communication unknown in any other part of the world.
The fact that the farms and ranches in this country, and especially in
the west, have been of comparatively large area, has had a tendency to
make American farm life particularly lonely. It is safe to say that
nothing has done more to relieve this loneliness and prevent the drift
from the farms to the cities, than the widespread establishment of rural
telephone service.

The telephone development of the United States is not confined to the
large centers of population, but is well distributed, the large number
of farm telephones in this country being in strong contrast to the small
number of farm telephones in European countries.

It is obvious that the ordinary methods of commerce and manufacture
would have to be radically made over if the telephone service should
lose any of its present efficiency or if it should fail to advance so as
to meet the constantly increasing demands made upon it. With the first
day of telephone congestion ordinary business would come to a
standstill, and when an adjustment was made, everybody would find
himself slowed down, doing less work in longer hours and at greater
expense, and being unable to take advantage of opportunities for
advancement which he had come to consider an inalienable right.

Not only would methods be changed, but the physical structure of
business, especially in cities, would be completely metamorphosed. The
top floors of office buildings and hotels would be immediately less
desirable. In tall buildings the multitude of messengers and the
frequent passing in and out would demand the increase in elevator
facilities and even the enlargement of halls and doorways. Many of the
narrower streets would be impassable. Factories and warehouses now
located in the open country where land is cheap and the natural
conditions of working and living are most favorable, would be relocated
in cities as close as possible to their administrative and merchandising
headquarters.

It would be hard to find a line of business where progress would not be
seriously retarded by an impairment of the present telephone efficiency.

America Leads in Telephone Growth.

It is a far cry from Bell’s first telephone to Universal Service.

Bell’s invention had demonstrated the practicability of speech
transmission, but there were many obstacles to overcome and many
problems to be solved before the telephone could be of commercial value
and take its place among the great public utilities.

Professor Bell had demonstrated that two people could talk to each other
from connected telephones for a considerable distance. In order to be of
commercial value, it was necessary to establish an intercommunicating
system in which each telephone could be connected with every other
telephone in the system. This has been accomplished through the
invention of the multiple switchboard and a great number of inventions
and improvements in all the apparatus used in the transmission of
speech.

But it was an unexplored field into which the telephone pioneers so
courageously plunged. There were no beaten paths, and the way was beset
with unknown perils; there was no experience to guide. A vast amount of
educational work had to be done before a skeptical public would accept
the telephone at its true value, yet courage and persistency triumphed.
Discoveries and inventions followed scarcely less important than
Professor Bell’s original discovery.

[Illustration: A TYPICAL AMERICAN CENTRAL OFFICE BUILDING, SHOWING THE
EFFICIENT ARRANGEMENT OF THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS]

That the United States has from the beginning far outstripped the rest
of the civilized world in the growth of the telephone is shown by
comparison.

In all Great Britain there are but 700,000 telephones as against
10,000,000 in the United States. France has slightly more than half as
many as Greater New York. In Germany the telephone development is only
one-fifth of that of the United States. Italy has not as many telephones
as San Francisco, and all Russia, fewer than Chicago. Sweden, Norway and
Denmark show a higher telephone development than the other European
countries, but even in Denmark, where the telephone development is
highest, we find but 3.9 telephones per hundred population--less than
half the development in the United States.

The total number of telephones in all other European countries is
considerably less than may be found in two American cities, Chicago and
Philadelphia; all of South America has less than Boston, and the
remainder of the world, including Asia, Africa and Oceanica, has less
than the City of New York.

[Illustration: POLE LINE RUNNING THROUGH PRINCIPAL STREET IN AN ITALIAN
TOWN]

[Illustration: A TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF AMERICAN POLE LINE CONSTRUCTION]

American Telephone Practice Superior.

The superior telephone development in America is largely due to the
efficiency of American telephone equipment and practice. The mechanical
development has not only kept pace with public needs, but has
anticipated them.

It is the practice of the Bell System, for example, to make what are
called “fundamental development plans,” in which a forecast is made of
the telephone requirements of each American city twenty years ahead. The
construction in each city is begun with these ultimate requirements in
view. Underground conduits are built, central offices located and cables
provided with an eye to the future, and if these plans are carried out
important economies are obtained. If the plans are abandoned, the loss
may be very great. Furthermore, there are sure to be times when the
service will be interrupted and seriously impaired if such plans for the
future are not made and consistently carried out.

[Illustration: AMERICAN METHOD OF RAISING POLES BY DERRICK WITH POWER
FURNISHED BY MOTOR-TRUCK.]

[Illustration: ONE OF THE VARIED TYPES OF DESK TELEPHONES USED IN
FRANCE]

[Illustration: THE STANDARD AMERICAN DESK TELEPHONE]

[Illustration: TILE CONDUITS USED IN AMERICAN UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION]

It is characteristic of the best telephone management that while it
cannot always perfectly forecast the direction of immediate growth, it
should be built far enough ahead of present requirements to have a pair
of wires ready for each new customer. The fact that New York and other
large American cities have a considerable investment in telephone plant
constructed to meet a prospective demand, is the price which must be
paid by any telephone management which really supplies the wants of the
American people. Every additional subscriber that is connected with the
system, requires sooner or later an outlay of new capital for his
proportionate share of the whole plant, including equipment, wires,
poles, cables, switchboards and real estate. In America the new
subscriber finds his need anticipated and the facilities provided.

[Illustration: THIS PRIVATE SWITCHBOARD, IN ONE AMERICAN HOTEL, IS
LARGER THAN MANY A SWITCHBOARD ABROAD, WHICH SERVES A WHOLE CITY]

It is characteristic of private management that plans can be made for
the future with reasonable assurance that the necessary funds will not
be arbitrarily withheld, or that the work of the past will not be
ruthlessly cast aside.

Another factor of telephone service in America is promptness. Local
connections are made in a few seconds. In the case of interurban and
long-distance calls, to prevent the long waiting for a turn, which
abroad sometimes is a matter of hours, the American engineer provides
enough long-distance trunks, so that, except in cases of accident,
customers at the busiest times of the day are connected with distant
points without delay.

The First Transcontinental Line.

The opening of the first transcontinental line between New York and San
Francisco on January 25, 1915, was an epoch-making event in telephone
history. The line is 3,400 miles long. It crosses thirteen states; it is
carried on 130,000 poles. Four hard-drawn copper wires, .165 of an inch
in diameter, run side by side over the entire distance, establishing two
physical and one phantom circuit. The ordinary telephone connection
consists of two wires technically called a telephone circuit, each wire
constituting one “side” of the circuit. A phantom circuit is a circuit
superimposed on two ordinary circuits by so connecting the two wires or
“sides” of each ordinary circuit that they can be used as one side of
the phantom circuit. In this way three practical talking circuits can be
obtained from four wires. One mile of single wire used in the
transcontinental line weighs 435 pounds, the weight of the wires in the
entire line being 5,920,000 pounds, or 2,960 tons.

[Illustration: THIS PICTURE SHOWS THE DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN
HAULING POLES IN A MOUNTAINOUS SECTION ALONG THE TRANSCONTINENTAL LINE
OF THE BELL SYSTEM]

In addition to the transmission wires, each circuit uses some 13,600
miles of fine hair-like insulated wire .004 of an inch in diameter in
its loading coils.

It was, perhaps, little more difficult to string wires from Denver to
San Francisco than from New York to Denver, but the actual construction
of the line was the least of the telephone engineer’s troubles. His real
problem was to make the line “talk,” to send something 3,000 miles with
a breath as the motive power. In effect, the voyage of the voice across
the continent is instantaneous; if its speed should be accurately
measured, a fifteenth of a second would probably be nearly exact. In
other words, a message flying across the continent on the new
transcontinental line, travels, not at the rate of 1,160 feet per
second, which is the old stagecoach speed of sound, but at 56,000 miles
per second. If it were possible for sound to carry that far, a “Hello”
uttered in New York and traveling through the air without the aid of
wires and electricity would not reach San Francisco until four hours
later. The telephone not only transmits speech, but transmits it
thousands of times faster than its own natural speed.

But while the telephone is breaking speech records, it must also
guarantee safe delivery of these millions of little passengers it
carries every few minutes in the way of sound waves created at the rate
of 2,100 a second. There must be no jostling or crowding. These tiny
waves, thousands and thousands of varying shapes, which are made by the
human voice, and each as irregular and as different from the other as
the waves of the sea, must not tumble over each other or get into each
other’s way, but must break upon the Pacific coast as they started at
the Atlantic, or all the line fails and the millions of dollars spent
upon it have been thrown away. And in all this line, if just one
pin-point of construction is not as it should be, if there is one iota
of imperfection, the miles of line are useless and the currents and
waves and sounds and words do not reach the end as they should. It is
such tremendous trifles, not the climbing of mountains and the bridging
of chasms, that make the transcontinental line one of the wonders of the
ages.

The engineer in telephony cannot increase his motive power. A breath
against a metal disk changes air waves into electrical currents, and
these electrical currents, millions of which are required for a single
conversation, must be carried across the continent and produce the same
sound waves in San Francisco as were made in New York. Here is a task so
fine as to be gigantic. It was to nurse and coax this baby current of
electricity 3,000 miles across the continent, under rivers and over
mountains, through the blistering heat of the alkali plains and the cold
of snow-capped peaks, that has taken the time and thought and labor of
the brightest minds of the scientific world.

This great problem in transmission was due to the cumulative effect of
improvements, great and small, in telephone, transmitter, line, cable,
switchboard and every other piece of apparatus and plant required for
the transmission of speech.

The opening of the transcontinental telephone line has been followed by
the extension of “extreme distance” transmission into all the states of
the Union, by applying these new improvements to the plant of the Bell
System. It is now possible to talk from points in any one state to some
points in every other state of the Union, while over a very large part
of the territory covered by the Bell System, it is possible for any
subscriber to talk to any other subscriber, regardless of distance.

Wireless Speech Transmission.

During the year 1915 very notable development in radio-telephony, the
transmission of speech without wires, was made.

On April 4th the Bell telephone engineers were successful in
transmitting speech from a radio station at Montauk Point, on Long
Island, to Wilmington, Del.

On the 27th of August, with the Bell apparatus, installed by permission
of the Navy Department at the Arlington, Va., radio station, speech was
successfully transmitted from Arlington, Va., to the Navy wireless
station equipped with Bell apparatus at the Isthmus of Panama.

On September 29th speech was successfully transmitted by wire from the
headquarters of the company at 15 Dey Street, New York, to the radio
station at Arlington, Va., and thence by radio or wireless telephony
across the continent to the radio station at Mare Island Navy Yard,
Cal.

[Illustration: SETTING POLES ACROSS A SHALLOW LAKE IN NEVADA DURING THE
CONSTRUCTION OF THE TRANSCONTINENTAL LINE OF THE BELL SYSTEM]

On the next morning, at about one o’clock, Washington time, wireless
telephone communication was established between Arlington, Va., and
Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Islands, where the Bell engineer, together
with United States naval officers, distinctly heard words spoken into
the apparatus at Arlington.

On October 22d, from the Arlington tower in Virginia, speech was
transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean to the Eiffel Tower at Paris,
where the Bell engineers, in company with French military officers,
heard the words spoken at Arlington.

On the same day, when speech was being transmitted by the Bell apparatus
at Arlington to the engineers and the French military officers at the
Eiffel Tower in Paris, the telephone company’s representative at Pearl
Harbor, Hawaii, together with an officer of the United States Navy,
heard the words spoken from Arlington to Paris.

[Illustration: BY MEANS OF THE UNIVERSAL BELL SYSTEM THE NATION MAY BE
PROMPTLY ORGANIZED FOR UNITED ACTION IN ANY GREAT NATIONAL MOVEMENT]

It is believed that wireless telephony will form a most important
adjunct and extension to the existing schemes of communication. By its
means communication can be established between points where it is
impracticable to extend wires. For many reasons wireless telephony can
never take the place of wire systems, but it may be expected to
supplement them in a useful manner. Wireless telephone systems are
subject to serious interference from numerous conditions, atmospheric
and others. For many uses the fact that anyone suitably equipped can
listen in on a wireless telephone talk would be a serious limitation to
its use.

The Mobilization of Communication.

Besides these radio experiments, a demonstration has been given of the
availability of the Bell System and its wonderful potentiality in case
of an emergency which would require quick and satisfactory
intercommunication between the different departments of the government
and its scattered stations and officers throughout the whole country.

From 4 P. M., May 6, to 8 A. M., May 8, 1916, the United States Navy
Department and the American Telephone and Telegraph Company co-operated
in a general mobilization of the forces of communication. It was a test
of what could be done in a sudden military emergency, and was
gratuitously undertaken by the company at the request of the Secretary
of the Navy.

It was a sort of war game that brought into play the latest scientific
developments of telephone and telegraph communication, by wire and by
wireless, and demonstrated an efficiency that has not been attained in
any other country.

For some time the officers of the United States Navy had been working
together with the engineers of the Bell System in the study of wire and
wireless communications, and the Navy Department had permitted the
telephone engineers to use its towers for long-distance wireless
telephone experiments.

So, in the latest demonstration, the land towers of the navy were
utilized in connection with a wireless telephone installation on the
U. S. S. “New Hampshire,” and Captain Chandler, cruising off shore,
talked directly with the Secretary’s office in Washington.

For the time being the operating forces of the telephone company all
over the country were placed at the disposal of Captain W. H. G.
Bullard, Chief of the Bureau of Communications, and General
Superintendent of Plant F. A. Stevenson, of the American Telephone and
Telegraph Company, was assigned as his aide. While all the facilities of
the Bell System were available, only about 53,000 miles of wire were
necessary to connect all the navy yards and stations for telephonic and
telegraphic communication.

The successful demonstration showed that in case of any trouble
requiring any such service, because of the central control of the Bell
System, the government could have ready-made at its immediate disposal a
plant, equipment and operating staff which, for completeness and
efficiency, would not be possible in any other way.

* * * * *

Why do They Call Them “Fiddler-Crabs”?

There is one member of the crab family for which the Latin name is
_Gelasimus_, which means “laughable.” He certainly is appropriately
named, for he is a very queer little fellow. The male has one claw of
immense size, the other being quite small. The big claw is brightly
colored, and when he runs he waves it about as if he were energetically
beckoning, or playing some very stirring tune on a violin; hence he is
often known as a “Calling-crab” or a “Fiddler-crab.”

Fiddler-crabs inhabit various parts of the world, and are usually found
in large numbers on muddy or sandy flats left dry by the tide, where
they may be seen hurrying over the sand or peering out of their holes,
into which they immediately vanish when alarmed. The holes, which
usually are about a foot deep, are made by the crab persistently digging
up and carrying away little masses of mud or sand. When he is doing this
the crab presents a very funny appearance. Scraping up a quantity of
sand into a little heap, he grasps it with three of the legs on one side
and hurries away with it to some little distance. Having deposited his
load, he raises his eyes, which he can do quite effectively, as they are
situated at the end of very long, slender stalks, peers curiously
around, and scuttles back to the hole for another load of sand.

How Far can a Powerful Searchlight Send Its Rays?

Searchlights have recently been made capable of being seen nearly a
hundred miles away. Such lights are very valuable for signaling purposes
in time of war, and they are also much used on warships, enabling the
officers to detect the approach of an enemy in the dark and to guard
against torpedo boats.

[Illustration: LONG RIBBONS OF LIGHT

_Photo by Brown Bros._

The giant scintillator erected on the shore of the bay was not the least
wonderful of all the wonderful sights of the Panama-Pacific Exposition
at San Francisco.]

We are all familiar with the less powerful ones which are universally
used on automobiles for night driving and in a multitude of other
every-day practices. The illustration shows a battery of powerful
searchlights, the use of which furnished some very effective displays
during the Panama-Pacific Exposition at San Francisco in 1915.

Searchlights are ordinarily electric arc lights of great candle-power,
arranged with a parabolic reflector so that the rays are sent almost
wholly in one direct line, forming a path of light which may be
projected for miles.

What Started the Habit of Touching Glasses Before Drinking?

Just as athletes shake hands before the beginning of a contest today,
the people who fought duels in the olden days used to pause before their
fighting long enough to each drink a glass of wine furnished by their
friends. In order to make sure that no attempt was made to forestall the
results of the duel by poisoning the wine in either cup, they developed
the habit of pouring part of the contents of each glass into the other,
so that if either contestant was poisoned the other would be too.

This habit has continued up to the present time, although there is no
thought given now to the danger of poison, and in the present day the
ceremony of actually pouring the drink from one glass to another has
been omitted, merely the motion, as if to touch the glasses, sufficing
as an expression of friendliness and good will.

Touching glasses together in drinking, preparatory to a confidential
talk, has come to be nicknamed “hob-nobbing” because of the equipment
incidental to that action years ago. A “hob” was the flat part of the
open hearth where water and spirits were warmed; and the small table, at
which people sat when so engaged, was called a “nob.”

Why are Windows Broken by Explosions?

When the large cannons in the forts on our coast are discharged during
target practice, there are usually a lot of windows broken in the nearby
houses. In Jersey City, N. J., several freight cars and boats loaded
with dynamite and ammunition full of high explosives furnished the power
for an explosion which, in July, 1916, broke considerably over a hundred
thousand dollars worth of windows in the lower part of New York City.

The force of an explosion, whatever its source, throws back the air in
huge waves, very much like the waves of the ocean, and whatever they
come in contact with must have a sort of a tug-of-war with them, the
weaker side being crumpled up and pushed back by the other. Broad
expanses of glass, unprotected and without any support, except at the
extreme edges, present an easy mark for air waves, therefore, and the
amount of damage done to windows by explosions is usually only limited
by the power of the explosives which produce the force of air waves.

The earth beneath, and the roof and walls of a building above, all
receive the effects of these air waves in exactly the same way as do
windows, and the resulting disaster is in direct proportion to their
resisting capacity as against the pressure caused by the explosion. Many
striking examples of the power of explosives have been accidentally
furnished of late, in the course of making munitions for the European
war.

What does the Expression “Showing the White Feather” Come From?

We say people “show the white feather” when they display cowardice,
because a white feather in a bird marks a cross breed, and it is not
found on a fighting game-cock.

The Story in Elevators and Escalators[15]

Going up and down stairs is a duty every man, woman and child finds it
necessary to perform daily and in many cases hourly, and some means for
doing this is necessary in every modern household. Even in the old-time
one-story house, steps from the outside to the inside were usually
necessary, and when the two or more storied houses came into use the
stairway became an indispensable feature. In modern times the art of
building has had such an upward trend that edifices looming far into the
air, hotels, stores, apartment houses, office buildings, etc., have come
into use, one notable specimen, the Woolworth building in New York,
towering upwards to fifty-four stories in height. This upward tendency
has rendered the elevator, or lifting apparatus, an indispensable
necessity, alike for passengers and freight, and it has been installed
abundantly in all our large cities.

[Illustration: IN ORDER TO ASCEND MORE EASILY, MAN DEVISED THE STAIRWAY,
FROM WHICH, IN TURN, WAS DEVELOPED THE ESCALATOR, IN ORDER TO FURTHER
ELIMINATE PHYSICAL EFFORT]

[Illustration: PRIMITIVE MAN PULLED HIMSELF UP A LADDER WHEN HE WANTED
TO GO FROM ONE LEVEL TO ANOTHER]

The elevator is not exactly a new idea. Its pioneer form may be traced
back to the Middle Ages, when heavy weights were lifted by aid of an
apparatus worked by hand power. But it was not until well on into the
nineteenth century that the steam-power elevator came into service. The
first example is said to have been produced by Elisha Graves Otis, who
applied steam power to an elevating machine in a little shop at Yonkers,
on the banks of the Hudson, New York. A few years later, at the
International Exhibition of 1853 in New York, he displayed the first
elevator with a safety device to prevent the car from falling in case of
a broken cable.

The elevator was then a novelty. It has long since grown into a
necessity. It is to be seen in all hotels and high buildings, and the
art of getting up stairs has in very many cases changed into that of
being lifted up by a moving car in an enclosed shaft or cage. The steam
elevator, at first used, has now in great measure been replaced by the
electric elevator, the first moved by an electric motor being the Otis
elevator installed in the Demarest Building, New York, in 1889. This is
still in active use.

The first electric elevators were confined to the drum type of machine,
these having a grooved drum around which the hoisting cables were wound,
the drum being revolved through worm gearing by an electric motor. But
the erection of buildings, ranging from 200 to 700 feet in height has
put this type of traction out of business on account of the great size
of drums required and the necessary slowness of motion. It has been
replaced by the electric traction elevator. In this the hoisting cables
from which the car is suspended have at the other end a counterweight
and pass around driving sheaves in place of a drum. This, in its latest
form known as the gearless traction elevator, does away with all
intricate machinery, and yields a machine moving with equal speed
whatever the height.

[Illustration: AN ELEVATOR OF THE MIDDLE AGES

History tells us this form of elevator was used in monasteries for
hoisting passengers and supplies.]

[Illustration: ELEVATOR INSTALLATION IN THE WOOLWORTH BUILDING, NEW
YORK]

To obviate danger from accidents, safety devices are installed for
gripping the rails in case of the car attaining excessive speed. Another
feature of security is the oil cushion buffer. One of these is placed in
the hoistway under the car and one under the counterweight, they being
capable of bringing a car to rest from full speed without discomfort to
those in the car. The oil in the buffer is driven by the impact of the
car from one chamber of the buffer to another, but this is made to take
place at a fixed rate of retardation, the oil acting as a liquid cushion
which stops the car gradually and without shock.

To do business in the modern lofty building without the aid of elevators
(or lifts, as they are called in England) is today out of the question,
while the great grain-transporting edifices in cities in which our
annual crops are lifted and lowered, are known by the specific name of
elevators. There is, however, another means of getting up and down
stairs which is coming somewhat rapidly into use and in which the old
stairway is restored. It is one in which the stair itself does the
moving instead of the passengers upon it. This new and interesting
device is known as an escalator.

[Illustration: A STEAM-DRIVEN ELEVATOR OF EARLY DATE]

The Escalator.

The earliest way to get upward from the ground was that adopted by
climbing animals in clambering up tree trunks, and by man himself in
“shinning” up trees by aid of his arms and legs. This was followed by
the plank leading from a lower to a higher level, by the ladder, and
finally by the stairway. In our days the stairway has been put on a set
of revolving wheels and moves upward itself, carrying its passengers
with no need on their part to use their feet. This simple but effective
device is known as the escalator.

It is a very useful contrivance for tired shoppers needing to make their
way from floor to floor in the great department stores, for travelers on
subway or elevated railways, for large mills, theaters, or other places
where easy getting up and down stairs is necessary. The escalator is a
simple device. No intricate machinery is needed. It is so arranged as to
be always going, traveling upwards or downwards, and returning out of
sight below. It has been called “an elevator with the doors always
open.” It is capable of carrying all the passengers who can crowd upon
it, stepping on or off at the bottom or top, it being estimated that
more than 10,000 people an hour can be thus moved.

[Illustration: BATTERY OF ELEVATORS IN A DEPARTMENT STORE]

[Illustration: ELECTRIC DUMBWAITER INSTALLATION WITH MACHINE IN BASEMENT
SHOWING CALL BUTTONS]

[Illustration: A COMPLETE INSTALLATION OF A 2 : 1 ELECTRIC TRACTION
PASSENGER ELEVATOR, SHOWING MACHINE AND CONTROLLER AT TOP OF HATCHWAY

This elevator is used where the slower speeds are required as in
department stores.]

[Illustration: ESCALATOR OR MOVING STAIRWAY AT SIXTH AVENUE AND
THIRTY-THIRD STREET STATION OF ELEVATED RAILWAY, NEW YORK CITY]

[Illustration: A DUPLEX ESCALATOR OF THE CLEAT TYPE IN A DEPARTMENT
STORE

This type of escalator makes use of hard wood cleats in place of
steps.]

[Illustration: AN ESCALATOR OR MOVING STAIRWAY FOR THE USE OF EMPLOYEES
IN A LARGE WORSTED MILL]

The Cleat Escalator.

In the original type of escalator the steps flatten out into a level
platform at top and bottom, easy to step on and off, and divide into
regular steps as they climb upward, passengers in a hurry being able to
hasten their speed by walking at the same time that they are carried.
Another type is that known as the cleat escalator. In this there are no
steps, it being composed of hardwood cleats moving in longitudinal
ridges and grooves, there being a handrail on either side moving at the
same speed. The platform glides through the prongs of a comb at the
lower level and journeys upward at a moderate speed. At the upper level
it disappears through a similar comb and returns out of sight. The
passengers slide off upon the prongs of the comb at the top and land
without jar or shock. Both these types of escalators can be made to move
up or down by aid of a swinging switch, or two of them can be placed
side by side, one moving upward and the other downward.

[Illustration: A CLEAT TYPE ESCALATOR, SHOWING THE HARDWOOD CLEATS USED
IN PLACE OF STEPS]

The Moving Platform.

A device acting on the same principle is the moving platform, with the
difference that this may be of indefinite length and act as a sort of
railway for carrying passengers from place to place. The passenger steps
from a sideway at rest to one in moderate motion, and from this to a
second one moving more rapidly, and in this way can be carried
horizontally at a fair rate of speed. On reaching his station he has but
to step back on the slower platform and from this to the moveless
sideway. The pioneer example of this contrivance was installed on a long
pier leading into Lake Michigan at the Chicago Exposition of 1893, and
plans for putting it into practical use in various cities have been
entertained. None of these, however, have yet been put into effect.
Certain drawbacks, possibly that of cost of installation and operation,
has served as a hindrance.

[Illustration: A GRAVITY CONVEYOR OF THE SINGLE SPIRAL OPEN TYPE

For the quick and safe conveyance of heavy goods from upper to lower
levels.]

* * * * *

What Happens when Animals Hibernate?

We have all heard of certain animals sleeping through the long winter
months and most of us have probably wondered what happens to them when
they do this.

This hiding away for a long sleep, or hibernation, as it is called,
commences when the food of the animal begins to get scarce, and the
length and depth of the sleep depends on the habit and constitution of
the animal.

Bats, bears, some animals of the rodent order, such as the porcupine,
the dormouse, some squirrels, etc., all the animals belonging to the
classes of _Amphibia_ and _Reptilia_, such as tortoises, lizards,
snakes, frogs, etc., and many species of mollusks and insects, hibernate
more or less completely, retiring to suitable places of concealment--the
bat to dark caves, the hedgehog to fern-brakes, snakes to holes in
trees, etc.

During hibernation there is a great decrease of heat in the bodies of
the animals, the temperature sometimes sinking to 40° or even 20° F., or
in general to a point a little above that of the surrounding atmosphere.
The respiration as well as the pulsation of the heart is exceedingly
slow, and the irritability of the animal often so low that in some cases
it can be awakened only by strong electric shocks.

With frogs and amphibious reptiles the dormant state is very common, and
if the temperature is kept low by artificial means they may remain
dormant for years.

The term “æstivation” has been used to describe a similar condition into
which certain animals, such as serpents and crocodiles, in tropical
countries pass during the hottest months of the year.

How do Peanuts Get in the Ground?

Peanuts are really the seeds or pods of a plant belonging to the family
called the earthnut in Great Britain, the nuts there being used chiefly
to fatten swine. The peanut-stand so commonly seen on street corners
here is kept well supplied by the extensive cultivation of peanuts in
the United States, mainly in the South, and in several tropical
countries.

As most people have discovered, the nuts have a much more agreeable
taste after being roasted. They also yield an oil which is often used
for olive oil, and very good “peanut butter” is now made by grinding
them up and mixing them with oil.

The peanut plant, or groundnut as it is also called, has a hairy stem
and the leaves usually grow in sets of two pairs each, on the extreme
end of each little branch-stem. The pod or nut is situated at the end of
a separate stalk, which is longer than the leaf-stems, this stalk having
the peculiarity, after flowering, of bending down and pushing the fruit
into the earth. After the peanuts have reached their full growth, they
are dug up very much in the same way as potatoes, a machine potato
digger now being extensively used for this purpose.

[Illustration: MACHINE POTATO DIGGER DIGGING PEANUTS]

[Illustration: PICKING PEANUTS BY HAND]

How did Your State Get Its Name?

Alabama is named after the Indian word which means “Here we rest;”
Alaska comes from the Eskimo word “Alakshak” or “Alayeska” and means
“The main land;” Arizona is the result of the Indian word “Arizonac,”
meaning “small springs” or “few springs;” and Arkansas is sort of a
mixture of the Indian “Kansas,” which means “smoky water,” and the
French prefix “arc,” meaning “bow” or “bend.”

California comes from the Spanish words “Caliente Fornalla,” or “hot
furnace;” Colorado, also from the Spanish “colored,” from the red color
of the Colorado River; and Connecticut, in Indian, means “long river.”

Delaware was named after Lord De la Warr; Florida originated from the
Spanish “Pascua de Flores,” which means “Feast of Flowers,” because it
was discovered on Easter Day; Georgia was called after King George II of
England; and Hawaii is a native name peculiar to the natives there,
although Captain Cook called it part of the “Sandwich Islands” after
Lord Sandwich.

Idaho is Indian, meaning “Gem of the Mountains;” Illinois is another
mixture of Indian and French, the Indian word “illini” and the French
suffix “ois” meaning “tribe of men;” and Indiana and Iowa are both plain
Indian, the former standing for “Indians’ land,” and the latter,
“beautiful land.”

Kansas and Kentucky are Indian, too, Kansas meaning “smoky water” and
Kentucky “at the head of the river,” or “the dark and bloody ground;”
and Louisiana is named after Louis XIV of France.

Maine and Maryland each come from abroad, Maine being called after the
Province of the same name in France, and Maryland after Queen Henrietta
Maria of England, consort of Charles I; while Massachusetts, Michigan,
Minnesota, Mississippi and Missouri are all from the native Indian
language, meaning, in the order in which they are given, “place of great
hills,” “fish weir,” “sky-tinted water,” “great father of waters” and
“muddy;” and Montana traces back to the Latin word “montanus,” meaning
“mountainous.”

Nebraska is another Indian name, and means “water valley;” while Nevada
is Spanish, meaning “snow covered;” New Hampshire and New Jersey are
both from across the water, the former after Hampshire County in
England, and New Jersey after the Island of Jersey at the time when Sir
George Carteret was its Governor; New York and both North and South
Carolina were also named after monarchs abroad, New York after the Duke
of York in England, and the Carolinas after Charles IX of France; while
North and South Dakota bring us back to the Indian language again,
meaning “allies.”

Ohio and Oklahoma are both Indian, too, Ohio meaning “beautiful river,”
and the latter, “Home of the red men;” while Oregon is from the Spanish
word “oregano,” which stands for the wild marjoram, a plant abundant on
the coast; Pennsylvania traces back to the Latin, meaning “Penn’s woody
land;” the Philippine Islands come from the Spanish words “Islas
Filipinas,” after King Philip; and Porto Rico is also Spanish, from
“Puerto Rico,” meaning “rich port.”

Rhode Island is called after the Island of Rhodes; Tennessee, Texas and
Utah are all Indian, Tennessee meaning “river with the great bend,”
Texas coming from several different forms of very old Indian language,
meaning “friends,” and Utah after the tribe by that name, also called
the “Utes;” Vermont is from the French, meaning “green mountains,” and
Virginia is called after Elizabeth, the “Virgin Queen” of England.

Washington gets its name from a good, straight American source--George
Washington; West Virginia is so called because it was formerly the
western part of Virginia; and Wisconsin and Wyoming are both Indian, the
former meaning “gathering of the waters,” and the latter, “great
plains.”

The Story of Coal Mining

An interesting story is told in an English book by Edward Cressy, of the
great coal strike in 1912. Many factories and workshops had to close for
want of fuel. A workman from one of these, on reaching home, purchased a
sack of coal and set it up against the back door. Then he sat in the
kitchen, in which there was no fire. From time to time, when he felt
chilly he got up, flung the sack of coal across his shoulders and ran
around the yard until he became warm. That was his way of saving fuel.
He was only doing in his own fashion what all engineers and
manufacturers are trying to do in other ways all the year round.

The extent to which all manufacture and transport, all industry there,
was paralyzed during the strike, shows the complete dependence of modern
life upon fuel. In spite of the fact that in Great Britain nearly
240,000,000 tons of coal are raised annually, a temporary stoppage of
supply threw all the ordinary machinery of existence out of action and
revealed the magnitude of the debt that the world owes to those who win
precious stores of fuel from the depths of the earth.

Probably no industrial operation excites more widespread interest, when
accorded publicity, than the mining of coal, and that because of the
dangers which attend it. The annual list of victims buried beneath a
falling roof, or mangled by runaway cars, causes little comment, but
every now and then the world is startled by an appalling catastrophe in
which hundreds of men lose their lives. From the early days when growing
industry demanded more coal, inventors have been busy devising all sorts
of safety appliances for the miner.

The original safety-lamp, with which practically everyone is familiar,
is the parent of scores of others, each claiming to offer some special
advantage. All sorts of mechanical devices to prevent overwinding--an
accident which would fling the cage with its coal or human freight out
of the pit mouth--have been invented, and every section of the work has
been made as safe as human ingenuity and human skill have been able to
make it. But the number of disastrous explosions has not been materially
reduced.

Many varieties of coal give off a gas known as marsh-gas or fire-damp.
This is inflammable and, when mixed with air, violently explosive. It is
the presence of this gas that necessitates the safety-lamp. There are a
few kinds of mines which evolve no gas, and in these naked lights are
used. But all mines must be ventilated by forcing air through them with
a fan, and this air must be in sufficient quantity to keep the
percentage of gas below a dangerous standard. Most mines are examined at
regular intervals by a “fireman” who can estimate approximately the
percentage of gas present by the size of the faintly luminous “cap”
which hovers above the flame of his lamp.

Explosions have occurred, however, in cases where it is extremely
doubtful whether gas has been present in dangerous quantity, and
attention has been drawn to the possible causes. Many varieties of coal
produce a quantity of fine dust which settles in the roadways, on roof,
and sides, and floor. For many years there has been a controversy as to
the relative importance of gas and dust in producing explosions, and the
question is still one which gives rise to a lively difference of
opinion. But there is no doubt that a mixture of coal-dust and air is
explosive, and that even if an explosion is started by gas the
disturbance creates clouds of dust which gives rise to secondary
explosions and spread the disaster over a wider field than was
originally affected.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Link-Belt Co., Chicago._

HANDLING COAL

Four-ton grab buckets operating on the four bridge-tramways pick up the
coal from the hold of lake steamers and deposit it either on the dock or
in cars. The four machines can be moved to any part of the dock to which
steamers are moored and four ships can be unloaded rapidly at one time.
The motive power is electricity.]

[Illustration: _Courtesy of the J. M. Dodge Co._

STORING COAL

A 480,000-ton anthracite coal storage plant. Coal cars are dumped into
hoppers under the tracks and the coal carried to the top of the piles by
conveyors. It is reloaded into cars by other conveyors operating at the
base of each pile. This system has been of great value in preventing a
shortage of coal during strikes.]

Consequently a plan has been evolved for the ventilating current to be
reversed periodically, in order to remove dust which has settled on the
side of timbering and crevices, and the roadways to be watered in order
to allay the dust. A plan has also been tried of spreading fine
stone-dust in the roadways. This mixes with the coal-dust and renders it
less inflammable.

Unfortunately the disastrous effects of an explosion do not end with the
explosion itself. The main products of combustion, whether of fire-damp
or coal-dust, are carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. The latter causes
suffocation and the former is a dangerous poison. It is the dreaded
“after-damp” of the miner. Those who survive an explosion are therefore
in danger of suffocation or poisoning, and it becomes imperative to
restore the circulation of the air with the least possible delay. For
even if the fan has escaped injury, fallen portions of the roof may have
choked up some of the roadways, or the explosion may have torn down
doorways and provided a short cut for the air. But if the atmosphere is
dangerous for men in the pit at the time, it is equally dangerous for
others to go down and effect repairs or render first aid.

The work of the rescue party is therefore a labor of desperate heroism
and often attended by additional loss of life. It has recently been
found possible to reduce the dangers of after-damp by providing rescue
parties with respirators fitting over the mouth and nose, and supplied
with oxygen from two steel bottles of the compressed gas strapped across
the back. An effective apparatus of this kind, such as has been adopted
by the United States Government for the use of the Bureau of Mines
Rescue Crew, is shown in the accompanying illustration. The bag in front
is known as a “breathing bag” and has separate compartments for the
inhaling and exhaling, the tube at the right leading to the former and
that at the left to the exhaling compartment, which usually contains
sticks of caustic soda to absorb the carbon dioxide exhaled by the
wearer.

Coal is largely formed from vast masses of vegetable matter deposited
through the luxuriant growth of plants in former epochs of the earth’s
history. In the varieties of coal in common use the combined effects of
pressure, heat and chemical action upon the substance have left few
traces of its vegetable origin; but in the sandstones, clays and shales
accompanying the coal the plants to which it principally owes its origin
are presented in a fossil state in great profusion and frequently with
their structure so distinctly retained, although replaced by mineral
substances, as to enable the microscopist to determine their botanical
affinities with existing species. Trees of considerable magnitude have
also been brought to light.

[Illustration: SECTION OF PART OF A COAL-FIELD, SHOWING A SUCCESSION OF
BURIED TREES AND LAND SURFACE

_a_, sandstones.
_b_, shales.
_c_, coal-seams.
_d_, under-clays or soils.]

The animal remains found in the coal-measures indicate that some of the
rocks have been deposited in fresh water, probably in lakes, while
others are obviously of estuarine origin, or have been deposited at the
mouths of rivers alternately occupied by fresh and salt water. The great
system of strata in which coal is chiefly found is known as the
carboniferous.

[Illustration: MINE SAFETY CREW]

[Illustration: MINE RESCUE WORK

Upper view, Bureau of Mines Rescue Crew in safety helmets, ready to
enter a gas-filled mine. Lower view, resuscitating a victim overcome by
gas by means of the oxygen reviving apparatus.]

[Illustration: BRIQUETTING MACHINE

Enormous quantities of coal are lost at the mines in coal dust. By
adding a binding material, such as pitch, and pressing the mixture into
briquettes or small bricks, an excellent fuel is made.]

[Illustration: MINE RESCUE WORK

The mine rescue crew is using the canary-bird test for poisonous gas.
The bird succumbs to gas earlier than a man and thus indicates a
dangerous condition of the atmosphere. The canary is revived by oxygen
and the crew puts on safety helmets before proceeding.]

There are many varieties of coal, varying considerably in their
composition, as anthracite, nearly pure carbon, and burning with little
flame, much used for furnaces and malt kilns; bituminous, a softer and
more free-burning variety; and cannel or “gas-coal,” which burns readily
like a candle, and is much used in gasmaking. The terms semi-anthracite,
semi-bituminous, coking coal, splint coal, etc., are also applied
according to peculiarities.

All varieties agree in containing from 60 to over 90 per cent of carbon,
the other elements being chiefly oxygen and hydrogen, and frequently a
small portion of nitrogen. Lignite or brown coal may contain only 50 per
cent of carbon. For manufacturing purposes coals are generally
considered to consist of two parts, the volatile or bituminous portion,
which yields the gas used for lighting, and the substance, comparatively
fixed, usually known as coke, which is obtained by heating the coals in
ovens or other close arrangements.

About 260,000,000 tons of coal are annually mined in Britain, the value
being over $300,000,000. Large quantities are exported. The British
coal-fields, though comparatively extensive (covering about 9,000 square
miles), are far surpassed by those of several other countries, as the
United States and China, the former having coal-fields estimated to
cover about 451,000 square miles; the latter over 200,000 square miles.
Britain no longer mines the largest quantity, having been far surpassed
by the United States. Other countries in which coal is worked are
Belgium, France, Germany, Russia, India, New South Wales and Canada.
China has hitherto mined only on a small scale.

The annual production of anthracite coal in Pennsylvania is more than
86,000,000 tons of 2,240 pounds, valued at the mines at $198,000,000. In
1910 there were produced of bituminous coal 388,222,868 tons, valued at
$463,654,776; amount of coke manufactured, 37,000,000 tons. This was
distributed widely over the country, the greatest producers, after
Pennsylvania, being Illinois, West Virginia, Ohio, Alabama and Colorado.

Recently a very large output of coal has been discovered in Alaska, the
value of which is as yet undetermined, though it is believed to hold a
vast quantity of coal. The value of the western coal-fields also is far
from known, and since 1906 very extensive tracts of coal-bearing lands
have been withdrawn from settlement, principally in Wyoming, Montana,
Colorado, Utah and New Mexico, their beds being largely of lignite.
These cover about 50,000,000 acres, and, with those of Alaska, are held
by the government as national assets. The mines of Alaska are claimed to
be exceedingly rich, both in bituminous and anthracite coal, the beds
examined being estimated to contain 15,000,000,000 tons, while there are
large districts unexamined. They have not yet been worked, the
government keeping them back for public ownership.

* * * * *

How can We Hear through the Walls of a Room?

We are able to hear easily through the walls of many rooms because the
material used in those walls are good conductors of sound. We know that
some things are better conductors of heat than others, and just in that
same way, some things conduct sound better than others. Wood has been
shown to be an even better conductor of sound than air. Most of us have
stood at the foot of an overhead trolley pole to see if we could hear a
car coming, and we know that the reason we did this was because we could
hear the wire humming, when we put our ears against the pole, even
though we could not hear any sound in the air.

When we are in a room that has wooden walls we can hear sounds in the
next room very plainly, not because the wall is thin, but because the
wood in the wall is a good conductor of sound. Other walls made of
different kinds of material, are not as good conductors of sound. While
you may hear through them, you cannot hear as plainly as you can through
a wooden wall.

What is a Diesel Engine Like?

The Diesel engine has caused a great deal of comment of late years
because of the spectacular uses to which it has been successfully
applied. A specially constructed Diesel engine was probably the chief
aid in the accomplishment of the first submarine trans-Atlantic voyage
by the German submarine “Deutschland.”

It is an oil engine which was invented by Rudolph Diesel in 1893.

The engine operates at compression pressures very much higher than those
used in any other internal combustion engines, and it dispenses with the
usual igniting devices by rendering the air charge incandescent by
compression.

[Illustration: THE DIESEL ENGINE]

The efficiency of the Diesel engine is high, and it can use low grades
of fuel, but it has the disadvantage of greater weight per horse-power
than other engines.

It has found increasing favor for use in marine propulsion, and in 1913
was adapted to high-speed railway service, and put into use in Germany.

What does the Sheep-Grower Get for the Wool in a Suit of Clothes?

A man’s ordinary three-piece fall suit has about nine pounds of wool in
it. Such a suit might cost somewhere between twenty and forty dollars,
depending on whether it was bought ready made or whether it was made to
order. If the price was questioned, the retailer would probably explain
that it was all wool and that the wool cost was the reason it was
expensive, and still the sheep-man who raised the wool only received an
average of about eighteen cents a pound, or $1.62, for all the wool used
on the suit.

Of course, the largest part of the cost of a suit of clothes is really
accounted for by the cost of transportation, weaving, tailoring and
selling, but we must all agree that the sheep-man who tends the flock
all winter and cuts the wool in the spring is not to blame for high
prices.

The Story in a Silver Teaspoon[16]

The spoon is older than history. There is, perhaps, no article or
utensil of common use today that can trace an earlier origin. The
evolution and development of the spoon into the graceful and beautiful
forms in use on our tables is fascinating and instructive.

Primitive men of the Stone Age used an implement that might by courtesy
be called a spoon. From then on down through the Egyptian, Greek and
Roman civilizations it can be clearly traced in varying forms and
substances--wood, shell, flint, bone, ivory, bronze and the precious
metals, gold and silver.

A witty Frenchman has said that spoons, if not as old as the world, are
certainly as old as soup.

In the Bible is the first recorded mention of the use of spoons made of
precious metal. This reference is the twenty-fifth chapter of the Book
of Exodus, wherein the Lord commanded Moses to make golden spoons for
the Tabernacle.

Excavations in Egypt have brought to light early examples of spoons of
various materials, and it is certain that the early Greeks and Romans
used gold and silver spoons, both at the table and in the Temple. Early
specimens of spoons made of wood, ivory, bronze, silver and gold are
preserved in the museums of Europe and Egypt.

During the early Christian and medieval eras spoons were in common use.
Saxon and Early English examples are to be seen in the English museums
today.

The medieval spoon was of silver, horn or wood, etc. On the Continent,
silver spoons were made much earlier than in England. In Italy they were
in use probably long before 1000 A. D.

During the Tudor and Stuart reigns a fashionable gift at christenings
was the apostle, so called because at the end of the handle was the
figure of an apostle. Sometimes a thirteenth spoon was added, called the
“Master” spoon, because it bore the figure of Christ. A complete set was
a very valuable gift, and could only be afforded by the rich.

Folks of limited means used copper, pewter, latten or alchemy spoons;
the latter two materials being somewhat like brass, examples of which
are sometimes found in this country in the graves of Indians of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, showing their intercourse with
early English traders.

At this period the stems were hexagonal, ending in an acorn, a bird or a
ball, while the bowls were fig shape. Later the stems were baluster
shape with a seal top, and at the time of the Commonwealth the stem
became flat and perfectly plain. These latter are called “Puritan”
spoons.

Naturally, the early New England colonists brought with them the spoons
they had used at home, and the early Colonial silversmiths followed
closely the designs which they found at hand or which were later
imported from England. In fact, within a few years after a certain type
had become popular in the mother country, it was adopted in this country
as the fashionable style. It is, therefore, easy to date, approximately,
an American-made spoon, because it follows so closely in style the dated
or hall-marked English spoon.

During the last quarter of the seventeenth century, both in England and
America, spoons were generally of a style now known as rat-tail. From
the end of the handle, down the back of the bowl to about the middle,
ran a ridge shaped like a rat-tail. This is sometimes thought to have
been an attempt to strengthen the spoon, but its use must have been
purely ornamental, for it adds little strength to these strongly made
spoons. Sometimes the rat-tail was shaped like a long V and grooved,
while on each side were elaborate scrolls. The bowl was perfectly oval
in shape, while the end of the handle was notched or trifid.

This style of spoon was continued, with modifications, through the first
third of the eighteenth century. Then the bowl became ovoid, or
egg-shaped, and the end of the handle was rounded, without the notch.

The rat-tail was gradually replaced by what is known as the drop, or
double drop, frequently terminating in a conventionalized flower or
shell, or anthemion, while down the front of the handle ran a rib.

Later, the bowl became more pointed, the drop was replaced by a tongue,
and the handle, after 1760, instead of slightly curving to the front at
the end, reversed the position. Somewhat later, the handle became
pointed, and was engraved with bright, cut ornaments and a cartouch at
the end in which were engraved the initials of the owner.

During the first ten years of the nineteenth century a popular style was
the so-called coffin-shaped handle, succeeded, probably about 1810, by a
handle with a shoulder just above the junction with the bowl, while the
end became fiddle-shaped or of a style now known as tipped, shapes
produced to this day.

Until about 1770, spoons were of three sizes: the teaspoon, as small as
an after-dinner coffee spoon; the porringer spoon, a little smaller than
our present dessert size; and the tablespoon, with a handle somewhat
shorter than that of today.

[Illustration: LATTEN SPOONS

One found in an Indian grave at Deerfield, Mass., and the other in an
Indian grave at Hadley, Mass. Period of about 1660. Actual size, 6
inches and 6-1/4 inches.]

So few silver forks have been found in collections of old silver that it
forces the belief that they were generally made of steel, with bone
handles. There seems no reason why, if in general use, silver forks
should not now be as common as spoons.

In the great silver exhibition recently held in the Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston, of more than one thousand pieces, there were only two forks to
be found.

Great skill was developed by the early silversmiths of England and
America. The purity and gracefulness of design in many cases remain as
standards for our best craftsmen today. It is, however, erroneous to
suppose that all of the ornamentation was done by hand.

Ornaments on the back of spoon bowls and handles were impressed by dies
forced together by drop presses or under screw pressure. This is
absolutely proven by the exact duplication of the pattern on sets of
spoons. Accurate measurements show that these ornaments were not
handwork, for there is not the slightest deviation in dimensions.

But, however beautiful the silver of our forbears and however valuable
now, from a historic standpoint, there are few of us who, if given the
choice, would not decide in favor of the product of the twentieth
century silversmith, who brings to his creations all of the good of the
old masters, and who has the facilities for turning out work more
perfect in line and detail and uniformity than was ever dreamed of by
the silver worker of old.

[Illustration: FRONTS AND BACKS OF TWO EARLY AMERICAN SPOONS OF THE
RAT-TAIL TYPE

The spoon in the center is the earliest of that type, made about 1690.
The other dates about 1695.]

We admire the beautiful silverware that we see in the shop windows, we
derive satisfaction and pleasure from the daily use of silver on our
tables, but few people have any understanding how silver plate is made;
and there is, perhaps, still less knowledge of its interesting history.

The combining of two separate metals--that is, the plating of a base
metal with a finer one--was, until the eighteenth century, a lost art of
the ancients.

The application of one metal upon another was practiced by the
Assyrians, who overlapped iron with bronze; copper implements and
ornaments coated with silver have been found at Herculaneum, while many
ancient Roman specimens of harness and armor are found to be ornamented
with silver on copper. The Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru used
the process of fixing two metals together by the action of heat, before
making up. The method was also known to the old Celts, as shown by
specimens found in Iceland. It seems, however, to have been a lost art
in Europe, probably because up to the thirteenth century the Church had
control of the arts and crafts in England, and the finer metal work was
used only for church vessels, the household implements being very simple
and mostly of wood and cheap metal.

Horace Walpole, writing in 1760, states: “I passed through Sheffield, a
business town in a charming situation, with 22,000 inhabitants, and they
remit £11,000 a week to London. One man there has discovered the art of
plating copper with silver.”

The inventor to whom the quotation refers was Thomas Bolsover, a skilled
silversmith, who, in the year 1742, it is traditionally reported, while
repairing a thin layer of silver on the copper handle of a knife,
evolved the idea of combining copper with silver in layers ready for
manufacture into any desired form.

[Illustration: TABLE AND TEASPOON WITH THE SO-CALLED COFFIN-SHAPED
HANDLE

A shape peculiar to America. This type common from 1800 to 1815.
Reductions about one-half.]

Bolsover himself apparently did not appreciate the importance of this
invention, and it remained for Joseph Hancock, one of his apprentices,
to develop the idea to a commercial success. He vigorously encouraged
the trade in Sheffield, Birmingham and other manufacturing centers, and
finally constructed a rolling-mill and made his fortune by supplying the
plate to the silversmiths.

The earlier specimens of this Sheffield plate, as it came to be known,
had the silver on one side of the copper only, but later attempts were
made to improve the appearance of finer pieces by covering the underside
of the copper with tin.

Crude as this idea and the old methods of manufacture may seem, compared
with modern processes, this old plate found a ready sale. It replaced in
many households pewter ware which, until the introduction of Sheffield
plate, was the best substitute for sterling silver. It became
fashionable for everyday use by the nobility and wealthier families, who
put aside their solid silverware to be used on state occasions only. The
name “plate,” which is from the Spanish word _platte_, came to be used
generally to designate the imitation of solid silver.

This plate, being such a close imitation of solid silver, was not
permitted by the laws of England to bear any stamp whatever prior to
1773, when the town of Sheffield was specially privileged to put upon
its product the marks of the makers. These marks, however, were not to
bear any resemblance of the lion or leopard’s head, these being the
hall-marks of England.

It was not until 1785 that this privilege was extended to the town of
Birmingham and other manufacturing centers.

It is curious to note that this law against the imitation of silver,
which really dated from the fifteenth century, made a special exception
to articles made for the Church.

Sometimes this old Sheffield plate, in addition to bearing the maker’s
name, bore the name of the lord or earl for whom it was made, and today
these old pieces are more highly valued by their owners than silver
which is intrinsically more valuable.

Much of the charm of old plate was in its beauty of form and design, for
the work attracted the best of English artisans. It would appear, too,
that they were fairly well paid for their labor, as Pepys, in his
“Diary,” refers to a present made him of a pair of flagons which cost
£100. “They are said to be worth five shillings, some say ten shillings,
an ounce for the fashion.”

[Illustration: MODERN DESIGNS]

The first notable improvement over the Sheffield work came toward the
middle of the nineteenth century, when electro-silver plating was first
practiced and, in 1847, commercially perfected, by Rogers Brothers of
Hartford, Conn.

The marvelous force of electricity was brought to bear on the making of
silver-plated knives, forks, spoons, etc., as well as hollow-ware
articles, such as coffee and tea pots, water pitchers, sugar bowls and
platters. Instead of these articles being made of sheets of rolled
copper and silver, a silver plate of any desired thickness is applied to
the base metal by electricity.

This quick and less expensive method of manufacture rendered silver
plate available to all classes, and the Sheffield plate was quickly
superseded, the old method of manufacture becoming obsolete.

While the process of manufacture was cheapened, the newer craftsmen
wisely held to the art standards of the old masters. With the new
process came the perfection of modern construction, and the cost is so
much less than in the old days that a perfect table service of authentic
design, of quality beyond question and guaranteed in every respect, is
within the reach of any well-to-do family. Many of the old family pieces
of Sheffield have found their way into the melting pot in exchange for
the modern electro-plated silverware.

The making of silver-plated flatware is an interesting process and one
that requires a great amount of skill and care. The finished teaspoon,
as it lies in the show-case or chest, is the result of over thirty
distinct operations, while a plain silver-plated steel knife has passed
through thirty-six stages in its evolution from the bit of steel rod, in
which shape it begins its journey. Some of the more important steps in
the making of a spoon are briefly described below:

The Blank.

The metal underlying the silver plate of the best plated teaspoons is of
nickel silver, a trade name for a metal composed of nickel, copper and
zinc. This metal is procured in sheet form of varying lengths. From this
sheet is cut a blank, which bears little resemblance to a spoon, being
about half the length of the finished article and very much wider.

Squeezed.

The blank is then “squeezed,” which gives to the part that is to become
the handle a little more of the appearance that it will have later.

Rolling.

This “squeezed” blank is then passed through a series of steel rolls,
giving length to the handle and width to the bowl, and distributing the
metal according to the correct thickness--that is, the bowl will be thin
and the shank thick.

Clipping.

The next process is termed “clipping,” the spoon being cut out from the
blank in the correct outline of the pattern.

Annealing.

The process of rolling the metal has so compressed the latter that it
cannot be readily worked. It is necessary, therefore, that the spoon be
annealed--that is, the shaped blanks are placed in an oven and brought
to a red heat, which renders them malleable.

The Evolution of a Spoon.

From the crude blank of nickel silver to the finished spoon, there are
over thirty distinct operations necessary, a few of the more important
stages being illustrated. When the spoon emerges from the plating
solution (see No. 8), it is perfectly white and looks as if it had been
treated with a heavy coat of enamel. It is then scratch-brushed,
burnished and, in some patterns, the handle is greyed. After this, the
spoon is buffed and finished.

Every operation is performed with the utmost care, and not until the
piece is actually finished can this vigilance be relaxed, as it is the
final processes that make the plating of pure silver an actual part of
the spoon and insure its wearing qualities.

_Striking and Bowling._--The pattern is then stamped on the handle and
the bowl is shaped.

_Trimming, etc._--After the pattern and the bowl have been struck, there
is usually a small burr left where the metal has oozed out between the
dies. This is removed by trimming. The trademark is then stamped on the
back of the handle.

_Polishing._--The goods are put through various operations of polishing
until they are brought to a high finish.

_Plating._--The articles to be plated are suspended in a frame in the
silver solution. This frame is connected with the negative pole of a
magneto-electro machine, while the silver is suspended in the solution
from bars and connected with the positive or opposite pole of the
machine, thereby forming a circuit for the electricity through the
solution.

[Illustration: 1. The blank. 2. Squeezed. 3. Blank rolled. 4. Spoon cut
from blank. 5. Design struck. 6. Bowl raised. 7. Trade-mark stamped. 8.
After plating. 9. The finished spoon.]

A patent automatic scale, designed to weigh the silver while depositing,
is balanced to the exact weight of silver to be deposited on the
article. The circuit is completed by turning a switch and the plating
begins.

As soon as the articles receive the proper weight of silver, the scale
beam rises, thus making a separate connection with the electro-magnet,
which springs the switch, breaking the electric current and stopping the
plating at the same instant, also ringing an alarm bell to notify the
workman that the articles have received the proper weight of silver.

_Quality._--Standard silver-plated spoons are made in two grades of
plate--triple and quintuple. The former, however, is the one generally
used and answers all ordinary requirements. The quintuple grade is
designed more particularly for hotels, restaurants, clubs and other
institutions where the wear is especially severe.

The Evolution of a Knife.

There are thirty-six stages in the evolution of a plain steel knife. At
one end of the journey we see the cylindrical bar of steel, black and
unlovely; at the other, the silver-plated knife, light, well-balanced
and heavily plated with pure silver. In the case of other than plain
knives, the work involves also the stamping of the pattern.

_Double Burnishing._--The thickness of the silver deposited, however, is
not the only requisite to insure quality. The plating must be hard as
well as thick. This is accomplished by means of a double-burnishing
process after the article is plated and before it receives its final
buffed finish.

The first burnishing is on machines and this is followed by hand
burnishing. This process produces a hard plate.

[Illustration: 1. Steel cut to length. 2. Handle formed by 1,000-pound
blow. 3. Handle margin, or flash, removed. 4. Blade drawn out through a
pair of rolls. 5. Blade cut out to shape. 6. Knife roughed with coarse
emery. 7. Trade-mark etched. 8. After plating. 9. The finished knife.]

No matter how heavy the plate, if it is not properly burnished or
hardened after plating, the article will not give satisfaction in long
wear. When manufacturers treat their wares to as little burnishing as
possible, practically relying upon the buff alone for their finish after
plating, the result is most unsatisfactory. The buff finish looks all
right, but it does not harden the silver sufficiently and in consequence
the latter does not wear well. When the article comes out of the plating
bath the silver deposited is in a comparatively porous and “fluffy”
state. The buffing will hit the high spots but the proper process turns
the minute edges, closes the pores and makes the silver hard and
compact, vastly increasing the wearing quality.

The silver thus deposited, is absolutely pure--finer, in fact, than any
articles of sterling silver. Sterling is but .925 fine, requiring an
alloy to stiffen it, whereas silver for plating can be used .999 fine.

* * * * *

How do Chimes Strike the Hour?

Chimes are ordinarily produced mechanically by the strokes of hammers
against a series of bells, tuned agreeably to a given musical scale.

The hammers are lifted by levers acted upon by metallic pins or wooden
pegs stuck in a large barrel, which is made to revolve by clockwork, and
is so connected with the striking part of the clock mechanism that it is
set in motion by it at certain intervals of time, usually every hour or
every quarter of an hour.

The chime mechanism is sometimes so constructed that it may be played
like a piano, but with the fist instead of the fingers.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Niagara Falls Power Co._

NIAGARA ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION LINE

Tower supporting high tension transmission cables of long span crossing
of Niagara River between Buffalo and Fort Erie, Canada.]

How is Electricity Brought into a House?

The electric transmission of power is effected by employing the source
of power to drive a machine called a dynamo, which generates an electric
current.

This current is conveyed by a copper conductor, insulated from the
earth, to the distant station, where it passes through a machine called
an “electromotor,” one part of which is thereby made to revolve, and
imparts its motion to the machinery which is to be driven.

This is the simplest arrangement, and is that which is commonly employed
when the original currents are not of such high tension as to be
dangerous to life in the case of accidental shocks. There is, however, a
great waste of power in employing low-tension currents when the distance
is great; hence it is becoming a common practice to employ high-tension
currents for transmission through the long conductor which connects the
two stations, and to convert these into low-tension currents before they
reach the houses or workshops where they are to be used. This is done
sometimes by employing the high-tension currents to drive a local dynamo
which generates low-tension currents.

The discovery that a Gramme machine is reversible--that is to say, when
two Gramme machines are coupled together and one is operated as a
generator, the other will act as a motor--was an important step taken in
the transmission of power. Numerous efforts, since then, have been made
to utilize electricity for the transmission of power over a long range.
For this purpose the alternating current seems eminently adapted, as
transformers only are needed to raise the line to high transmission
voltage and to lower it again for use.

The possibilities offered by electrical transmission of water power for
sections of country favored with waterfalls are numerous and have been
extensively developed, which should result in making them great
industrial centers. In this direction much has been done in utilizing
the immense power of the Niagara Falls by electrical transmission, works
having been built for this purpose both in New York and Canada, and
several hundred thousand horse-power developed. The application of the
power of waterfalls to the generation of electricity is rapidly
extending, and promises to become a great source of mechanical power in
the future.

What was the Origin of Masonic Signs?

Fable and imagination have traced back the origin of freemasonry to the
Roman Empire, to the Pharaohs, the Temple of Solomon, the Tower of
Babel, and even to the building of Noah’s ark. In reality, it took its
rise in the middle ages along with other incorporated crafts.

Skilled masons moved from place to place to assist in building the
magnificent sacred structures--cathedrals, abbeys, etc.--which had their
origin in these times, and it was essential for them to have some signs
by which, on coming to a strange place, they could be recognized as real
craftsmen and not impostors.

What is a Dictograph?

The dictograph, to which much publicity is now given, by reason of its
use in detective work, is an instrument for magnifying sound. It was
invented by K. M. Turner of New York, in 1907.

It consists of a master station in the form of a box less than a foot
long and six inches deep, and any number of sub-stations that may be
required. Any voice within fifteen feet is taken by the receiving
instrument and carried over the wires to any distance within about a
thousand miles.

It has now been adopted by a great many business organizations as a
convenient means of inter-communication.

The Story of the Wireless Telegraph

Though one or more means of transmitting messages by electricity have
been known now for a great many years, the mechanisms by which they are
accomplished are understood only by those who take a general interest in
physical science, and the few to whom electrical communication is a
profession. So far as theory and details of working are concerned, there
are a good many people still in the same shadowy frame of mind as the
old Aberdeen postmaster, of whom the story is told. When asked to
explain the working of a telegraph instrument he said, “Look at that
sheep-dog. Suppose we hold his hind-quarters here and stretch him out
until his head reaches Glasgow. Then if we tread on his tail here he
will bark in Glasgow. As it is not convenient to stretch a dog, we
stretch a wire, and that serves the purpose.”

As the name implies, “stretching a wire” is unnecessary in wireless
telegraphy, though in order to understand the finer points of theory one
needs to stretch the imagination a little. That, however, is not so
much, because there is any inherent obscurity or difficulty in the
underlying principles, as because the mechanism of all electrical
effects is more or less intangible. Electricity and magnetism operate
across apparently empty space, and the links which connect cause and
effect have to be guessed at.

Three different methods have been made use of in wireless telegraphy,
which may be classed as conduction, induction and wave methods. In the
first method currents are sent through the earth from an electrode to
another at the sending station. In induction, use is made of the
property which alternating currents possess of exciting similar currents
in neighboring conductors, the aim being to get as intense a current as
possible in the secondary circuit. Mr. W. H. Preece, of England, by
combining the two, signaled in this way as far as forty miles. The third
and the only method which has proved practically available is by the use
of electro-magnetic waves.

Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian, after long experiment, patented in 1897 a
method entirely independent of wires, the electric waves being sent,
presumably, through the ether, by the aid of a transmitting apparatus,
and being detected by a coherer, a glass tube filled with metallic
filings, into the end of which the terminals of a relay circuit enter.
The wave falls on conducting material and, the spark gap being replaced
by a coherer, the metallic filings magnetically cling together, closing
the relay circuit, so that a signal is made. On breaking the current, a
slight tap on the coherer or other means breaks the cohesion of the
filings and the relay circuit is broken. In this way a rapid succession
of signals can be sent.

In 1899 Marconi conducted in England an exhaustive series of successful
experiments, sending messages across the English Channel from the South
Foreland to the French coast near Boulogne, and extending his results
until much longer distances were covered. The process of development was
continued until, to the world’s astonishment, signals were sent across
the Atlantic and, finally, commercial messages were transmitted over
this distance.

Marconi’s system is based on the property supposed to be exerted by the
vibrations or waves of electric currents passing through a wire of
setting up similar vibrations in the ether of space. These waves extend
in every direction from the point of departure, and by ingenious and
very delicate receiving instruments their presence in space is indicated
and they are taken up in sufficient strength to repeat their pulsations
and in this way reproduce the signals sent from the transmitter. One
difficulty hitherto has been that a message may be received by hundreds
of receiving instruments in all directions, thus preventing secrecy.
Many efforts have been made to overcome this defect, but as yet with
only partial success.

The distance to which messages can be sent has so far depended largely
on the height to which the wires extend above the earth’s surface, lofty
poles being erected at the stations. The height of these has been
gradually increased until the Eiffel Tower at Paris has been utilized as
a sending station. The strength of the electric waves has been similarly
increased to add to their space-penetrating capacity. The record of
wireless telegraphy has been in this way improved until now it has come
into daily competition with other means of news sending. Methods of
tuning the instruments have been adopted which limit the influence of
the currents to properly tuned receivers and in this way some degree of
secrecy is attained.

[Illustration: MARCONI WIRELESS STATION]

Though the honor of inventing the art of wireless telegraphy is
generally ascribed to Marconi, this is to give him more credit than he
deserves. The principles involved were discovered by others and the
utmost done by him was to invent a practical method of applying them.
There are other systems of wireless telegraphy of later invention than
that of Marconi, through a different application of the same principles.

Messages have been sent to enormous distances, far surpassing the width
of the Atlantic, as from Nova Scotia and Ireland to Argentina, a
distance of 5,600 miles. Under exceptional conditions a distance of
6,500 miles has been attained, but the daily effective range of the best
equipped stations is little over 3,000 miles. For overland messages the
limit of distance is about 1,000 miles.

There are a number of kinds of interference which arise from electrical
disturbances in the earth’s atmosphere. A flash of lightning is liable
to give rise to a wave of enormous power which will set half the aerials
on the earth vibrating in spite of the differences of pitch to which
they are tuned. Thunderstorms are at their worst in the summer in
temperate latitudes, but they occur to some extent all the year round,
and those in the tropics are of extreme violence. As a consequence it is
frequently almost impossible to decipher earthly messages owing to the
imperious signals from the clouds. Of the various methods adopted for
choking off the “atmospherics,” as the disturbances are called, one is
to use receiving circuits which respond only to a narrow range of
oscillations very different from those produced by a lightning flash.
The employment of a high-pitched musical note in the telephone is also
an advantage because its extreme regularity distinguishes it from the
marked irregularity of the stray waves.

[Illustration: WIRELESS STATION ON A STEAMSHIP]

On the palatial passenger steamers that plow the Atlantic the Marconi
apparatus enables the travelers to keep in touch with their friends, to
transact important business on either side of the water, and to secure a
continuity of life which was formerly divided by a sea voyage. All the
larger vessels now publish a daily paper on board, the news in which has
been supplied by the same agencies who feed the newspaper on land.
Information is flashed to meet or overtake the vessel and caught up by
her aerial, as she pursues her way at twenty-five or thirty miles an
hour.

In the case of cargo vessels, the owners are able to get into touch with
them at any point of their voyage. They can advise the captain where to
call for coal or cargo, while he on his part can get into communication
with the authorities or his firm’s agents at the port of call, and have
every necessary or desirable preparation made for his arrival. Should an
accident happen, he can call assistance, inform the owners or relieve
anxiety and suspense. At no time is he isolated from the world. The
fortitude, courage and daring of those “who go down to the sea in ships”
has never been called into question, but it has if anything been
emphasized by the receipt of messages from an operator at his post, to
whom the bonds of duty were as bonds of steel, and who calmly operated
the key until the waves entered his cabin and brought him honorable
release.

[Illustration: U. S. BATTLESHIPS “NEVADA,” “OKLAHOMA” AND “ARIZONA”

The latest type of super-dreadnaught for the United States Navy, with a
displacement of 27,500 tons and engines of 28,000 horse-power.

NOTE THE WIRELESS EQUIPMENT AT THE TOP]

Relief has been brought in this way to vessels in distress and many
lives saved. An important example is that of the sinking of the Titanic
in 1912. By means of wireless messages from ship to ship the width of
the Pacific has been practically covered, as ships en route from America
to Australia or Asia can be kept in touch with Honolulu through almost
the entire journey. A law in the United States now requires that all
ocean passage-steamers carrying fifty or more passengers on routes of
200 miles or over must be equipped with efficient wireless apparatus and
operators. The distance reached must be at least 100 miles. The Canadian
law provides that every sea-going and coasting passenger ship of over
400 tons gross, registered in Canada, and every sea-going and coasting
freight ship of over 1,200 tons gross, shall be equipped with a wireless
apparatus. Wireless messages have been successfully sent from
aeroplanes, balloons and submarine vessels, and the naval vessels of all
nations are kept in easy communication by this method. Wireless press
messages between America and Europe are also matters of daily
performances.

* * * * *

What is Forestry Work?

A Division of Forestry was organized in the Department of Agriculture,
some years ago, and the most earnest efforts are being made to prevent
any needless waste of our timber lands.

The usefulness of forests to man lies: (1) In furnishing him with timber
for building, manufacturing, fuel, etc., and with various other useful
products of trees. (2) In their influence on climate. (3) In their
influence on water-flow, by keeping the ground more moist, making the
outflow more regular, checking the rapid melting of snow, and keeping
the hillsides from being denuded of their soil, thus setting up streams
and covering cultivated valley lands. The necessity of a proper
preservation of the forests seems highly evident, but the nations have
been slow in waking up to this fact. Several of the countries of Europe
have been largely stripped of their woodlands by indiscreet cutting in
the poorest countries, and only recently have the nations been roused to
the necessity of their conservation. This is now being carefully
attended to in several countries, especially Germany. In China broad
mountain regions have been stripped of their trees, with the result that
this soil has been swept away by the rains, leaving the rocks bare,
while broad reaches of formerly fertile lowlands have been made sterile
by the material spread over them by the rains that swept the mountain
slopes.

In the United States the broad original forests have been very largely
cut away, and those remaining have of late years been so largely reduced
by indiscriminate cutting and the ravages of carelessly kindled fires
that great alarm is felt as to the future of the lumber supply. Within
recent years vigorous efforts have been made to overcome this growing
evil. The American Forestry Association, founded in 1882, its purpose
being the conservative use of our forest resources, has now over 5,000
members, residents of every state, and of Canada and foreign countries.
The first State Forest Commission was organized by New York in 1885 and
has now a very large forest reserve set aside in the Adirondacks.
Pennsylvania has also large forest reserves in its mountain districts,
and many other states have taken similar action. The art of forestry is
also being taught in the schools, and a large body of skilled foresters
are now in the service of the states and the general government. In the
new and active movement for the conservation of national resources the
preservation of the public forests ranks high, and to aid in this
purpose the government has withdrawn as national forest areas a vast
amount of the public lands, amounting at the present time to 192,931,197
acres, an area about equal to that of Texas and Ohio combined. These
woodlands are under the charge of the National Forest Service and cared
for by about 3,000 men, of whom 250 are professional foresters. The
trees in these forests are cut with careful discrimination, and new
trees are planted to take their place, there being forest nurseries
containing about 20,000,000 plants and capable of supplying 18,000,000 a
year. New York has 1,600,000 acres in its forest reserve, Pennsylvania
over 920,000, and the reserves of the other states amount to a very
considerable area.

[Illustration: FOREST SERVICE--A LOOKOUT STATION]

[Illustration]

How did the Fashion of Wearing Cravats Commence?

Cravats get their name from the French “cravate,” meaning a croat,
because this piece of dress was adopted in the eleventh century from the
Croats who entered the French service. Towards the end of the eighteenth
and the beginning of the nineteenth century the cravat attained an
incredible degree of extravagance, but common sense at last brought in
the simpler style of neckties that has since prevailed.

How does the Gas Meter Measure Your Gas?

The quantity of gas used by each consumer is measured by an instrument
called a meter, of which there are two classes--the wet and the dry.

The wet meter is composed of an outer box about three-fifths filled with
water. Within this is a revolving four-chambered drum, each chamber
being capable of containing a definite quantity of gas, which is
admitted through a pipe in the center of the meter, and, owing to the
arrangement of the partitions of the chambers, causes the drum to
maintain a constant revolution. This sets in motion a train of wheels
carrying the hands over the dials which mark the quantity of gas
consumed.

The dry meter consists of two or three chambers, each divided by a
flexible partition or diaphragm, by the motion of which the capacity on
one side is diminished while that on the other is increased. By means of
slide valves, like those of a steam engine, worked by the movement of
the diaphragms, the gas to be measured passes alternately in and out of
each space. The contractions and expansions set in motion the clockwork
which marks the rate of consumption. The diaphragms in all the chambers
are so connected that they move in concert.

What is a Game Preserve?

Game preserves have only been introduced comparatively recently in the
United States, for the hunting grounds have been freely open to the
hunter, but they have been common in Britain and other countries of
Europe for centuries.

Their purpose here is the preservation and increase of wild animals
instead of their destruction.

Deer parks have long been kept in this country, but the first systematic
attempt to foster wild game was made about 1860 by Judge J. D. Caton in
a park of Ottawa, Ill.

Chief among those that followed on a large scale is the great game park
of Austin Corbin, near Newport, N. H., an enclosure of 36,000 acres, in
which a wire fence eight feet high encloses an oblong tract twelve by
five miles, through which passes a mountain range 3,000 feet high.
American game of all kinds are kept here, from buffalo, elk, and moose
to the smaller and more timid varieties, and there has been a rapid
increase.

Dr. J. Seward Webb has a 9,000-acre preserve in the Adirondacks, and
various other large parks have been established elsewhere, in which our
fast-disappearing game animals are augmenting in numbers and game birds
of foreign origin have been introduced.

The Story of the Building of a Silo[17]

What is a Silo?

A silo is a place or receptacle for storing green feed to preserve it
for future feeding on the farm. In this way green fodder, such as corn
and similar crops, are preserved in a green state to be fed in the
winter or next summer during an extremely dry season. The silo has the
same relation to cattle feed as the glass fruit jar that mother uses has
to the food she preserves in it.

The First Silo.

Silos have been used since very early times in one form or the other,
and probably the first we have ever heard of are traceable back in
ancient history to the Syrians, who had pits in the ground for the
storage of animal feed. These pits have been used in various parts of
the Old World ever since and have also been used in the United States.
The pit does not give the best results.

In order to overcome these defects we soon began to see silos erected
above ground. Cement, brick, tile and wood were used as building
material, with various results. The industry developed rapidly and soon
demonstrated what was necessary to keep the silage pure, sweet, clean
and succulent. Science and research have helped, until now we can
produce silos that will keep this green fodder in a sweet and succulent
state until the owner is ready to use it.

What is Put in the Silo?

The principal silage crop is corn, but in different parts of the country
there are other crops which can be used to great advantage as
substitutes for corn. Among these are kaffir corn, sorghum, alfalfa,
clover, millet, cowpeas, soy-beans, sugar beets, oats and even weeds and
thistles. All of these make good silage when properly harvested and
stored. Any green fodder can be mixed with the above to make quantity
and secure good results. The main point to be remembered is that the
crops to be put away in the silo must contain a certain percentage of
sugar and starch in every combination.

Elements of Success or Failure.

There are several things to be remembered by farmers when putting fodder
into the silo, if they want to have perfect silage to take out. One of
the main things is to see that the silage is cut to proper lengths,
which would be about half-inch or one-inch pieces. It should also be
well packed, especially next to the wall of the silo. It should have a
certain amount of moisture, which it naturally would have if put in at
maturity. Good silage is a result of proper cutting, proper packing and
a correct amount of moisture, because when the silage is stored it
begins to ferment. Heat is generated in the process of fermentation. If
the heat is lost through the silo wall, the fermentation is not correct.
If the silage is not packed properly and tightly, especially next to the
wall, it does not settle in a compact mass and air is admitted that
spoils the silage; or if the silo wall is porous this is apt to occur.
All these things must be guarded against or a great loss to the owner is
probable.

[Illustration: A MODERN REDWOOD SILO WITH STEEL DOME ROOF]

The Story of the Advance of Electricity[18]

It is often remarked that the history of electrical development is the
history of modern industrial development. This is true, except that the
terms should be reversed. Electric lighting was not invented to equip
skyscrapers and the huge apartment buildings of today. In point of fact,
the invention of these structures was possible only because electric
light already existed. Electric motive power was not devised to supply
the great manufacturing establishments of the present. On the contrary,
such institutions were erected precisely because such a thing as the
electric motor was available. The history of modern industry is thus
seen emphatically to be the history of electricity.

The First Commercial Central Station.

The first central station for the commercial distribution of electricity
was set going on the 4th of September, 1882, by Thomas Edison himself,
at 257 Pearl Street, New York City. Newspapers of the following day had
much to say. Wonder was expressed over the “blazing horseshoe that
glowed within a pear-shaped globe.” Another told of “the dim flicker of
gas supplanted by a steady glare, bright and mellow.” A third observed,
“As soon as it is dark enough to need artificial light, you turn the
thumb-screw and the light is there; no nauseous smell, no flicker, no
glare.”

Among the five or six buildings supplied with the new lighting were the
_Herald_ offices and the Drexel Building, at the time one of New York
City’s show places. The illumination of the latter was held to be a
truly momentous achievement owing to its great size. The equipment, in
other words, reached the grand total of 106 lamps. In comparison, it is
interesting to mention the lighting equipment of the new Municipal
Building, in New York City, numbering something over 15,000 lamps.

The Old Pearl Street Plant.

This primitive central station in Pearl Street was a converted warehouse
of brick construction, four stories high, and it was separated in two
parts by a fire wall. One of these parts was used for the storing of
underground supplies, while the other was occupied by the generating
machinery, for the support of which a special foundation of steel and
concrete was provided. The necessary steam boilers were accommodated in
the basement, while the second floor was occupied by six generators of
125 horse-power each, nicknamed “Jumbos.”

Simple as sounds this original Edison equipment, it nevertheless
represented years of research and experimenting on the part of Edison
and those associated with him.

Edison and the Electric Light.

In 1878 Thomas A. Edison, at his experimental laboratory at Menlo Park,
New Jersey, where he had already invented the carbon telephone
transmitter and many other things, undertook the task of devising a
general system for the generation, distribution and utilization of
electricity for lighting and power purposes.

The first marked accomplishment in operative detail was a lamp with a
platinum wire burner of high resistance, protected by a high vacuum in
an all-glass globe, and with the leading-in wires sealed into the glass
by fusion. Such a lamp necessarily had a small illuminating power
compared with that of the arc light, which was the only electric light
then in commercial use.

[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._

“THE GREAT WHITE WAY”

Times Square, New York, at night, with Broadway on the left, a curving
ribbon of white light. Here every night in winter thousands upon
thousands of people throng to theaters and cafés.]

The next step in the development of Mr. Edison’s electric-lighting
system was taken on October 21, 1879, when he discovered that if a
carbonized cotton thread were substituted as a burner for the platinum
wire of his earlier lamp, the slender and apparently frail carbon was
mechanically strong, and also durable under the action of the electric
current. The announcement of the invention of the carbon filament lamp
was first made to the public in December, 1879.

[Illustration: STEAM DYNAMO IN EDISON’S OLD STATION]

With the experience gained by an experimental system at Menlo Park, Mr.
Edison began, in the spring of 1881, at the Edison Machine Works, Goerck
Street, New York City, the construction of the first successful
direct-connected steam dynamo. The development of an adequate
underground conduit proved also most serious. The district selected for
lighting was the area--nearly a square mile in extent--included between
Wall, Nassau, Spruce, and Ferry Streets, Peck Slip and the East River in
New York City. In those days such electrical transmission as
existed--this of course related largely to telegraphy--was accomplished
by means of a veritable forest of poles and wires augmented by the
distribution equipments of fire alarm, telephone, burglar alarm and
stock ticker companies. So used had people become to this sort of thing
that even the most competent electrical authorities of the time doubted
extremely whether Edison’s scheme of an underground system could be made
either a scientific or a commercial success, owing to the danger of
great loss through leakage. However, the Edison conduits once in use,
both the public and even the telephone, telegraph and ticker companies
acknowledged their feasibility. Such, in fact, was the success of the
new method that the city compelled at length the removal of all
telegraph poles.

In the Trenches.

The systematic laying out of street mains in the first company district
was begun in the summer of 1881. It must not be thought, of course, that
these old-time conduits resembled strikingly those of the present day.
The method then used was to dig a trench in which were laid the pipes
measuring twenty feet in length. Through these the conductors were
drawn, two half-round copper wires kept in place first by heavy
cardboard and afterward by rope. The conductors having been drawn in, a
preparation of asphaltum and linseed oil was forced into the piping to
serve as insulation. The spending of three and four arduous nights a
week in these trenches by Mr. Edison and his associates suggests the
rigor of the later European warfare. This work, together with that
incident to the operation of the new station, often proved too much even
for Edison’s phenomenal endurance. At such times he slept on a cot close
beside the running engines, while the rest of the crew crawled in on the
lower row of field-magnet coils of the dynamos, a place warm enough,
though a trifle bumpy. One of the inventor’s early assistants tells of
going to sleep standing up, leaning against a door frame--this, after
forty-eight hours of uninterrupted work.

[Illustration: THE DYNAMO ROOM OF THE FIRST EDISON ELECTRIC LIGHTING
STATION IN NEW YORK]

September 4th saw a full 400 lamps turned on from the Pearl Street
station. From that day on the station supplied current continuously
until 1895, with but two brief interruptions. One of these happened in
1883 and lasted three hours. The other resulted from the serious fire of
January 2, 1890, and lasted less than half a day. The record in the
second case would appear astounding, as no less a handicap occurred than
the burning down of the station itself. The situation was saved,
however, by the presence of an auxiliary plant that had already been
opened on Liberty Street.

Edison as a Central Station Pioneer.

The layman, while appreciating the tremendous advance in generating
machinery since the early eighties, is surprised to learn that the great
Edison system of today is conducted upon principles that Edison
developed and put into practice at that time. Edison’s, in truth, was
the master mind, the forming spirit of all the advances made in the
seventies and eighties. Exceedingly much, on the other hand, is due the
energy of his fellow workers, many of whom figure conspicuously in the
country’s electrical affairs at present.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of Indiana Steel Co._

ELECTRIC POWER STATION

The seventeen great gas engines are operated by gas from the blast
furnaces which was formerly allowed to escape. Each engine drives a
2,500-kilowatt dynamo.]

In this manner Edison and his assistants became established in New York
City. Current at first was supplied free to customers for approximately
five months, which speaks quite as much for Edison’s Scotch “canniness”
as for his inventive genius. Well before the period was over the new
illuminant had justified itself, until today it shows itself an element
indispensable in every phase of the country’s activity.

[Illustration: ELECTRIC DELIVERY WAGONS LOADING EDISON LAMPS]

Early Growth.

Within two years from the opening of the station the demand for service
had so increased that over one hundred applications were filed in excess
of what could be accepted, because the plant was taxed already to its
utmost capacity. Allusion has already been made to the auxiliary plant
at Liberty Street, a station of 2,000 lights’ capacity which was
instituted in 1886. By 1887, not only a second but a third district had
been mapped out, the whole extending from Eighteenth to Forty-fifth
Street. All the underground system in the two new districts was laid
according to Edison’s new three-wire patent; and it was presently
announced that customers would be supplied with power as well as with
light.

Six months after the disastrous fire of 1890, in which the Pearl Street
station was burned, the site was chosen for the Edison Duane Street
building on which operations were so hastened that machines were
installed and current turned on the first of May the following year.

The Waterside Stations.

For some time the need of a central generating plant had been apparent
to all familiar with the company’s facilities and prospects. Already
during the summer of 1898 an engineering commission had visited all the
chief electrical stations of Europe and consulted the best-known experts
of the industry, and in 1902 the first waterside station in New York was
opened upon a site bordering the East River between Thirty-eighth and
Thirty-ninth Streets. The new operating room contained sixteen vertical
engines with a capacity each of over 5,000 horse-power. From these
current was generated by 3,500 kilowatt generators and sent out to the
various distributing centers.

As a very natural consequence of such development, the company by 1902
had 420 miles of underground system supplying installation amounting to
1,928,090 fifty-watt equivalents.

Electricity a Living Factor.

To talk about electrical development in terms of power consumed tells
but one side of the story. More impressive even than figures are the
immense number of uses to which electricity is put. Electric lighting,
introduced in 1882, has become practically the standard for
illumination, not only here, but for the entire civilized world.

[Illustration: ELECTRIC SEWING MACHINES IN THE MANHATTAN TRADE SCHOOL]

In the Printing Trade.

Electric power was introduced, timidly, by way of a few fans in 1884 and
following this, in 1888, motor drive for printing presses was
undertaken. At the present moment in New York City there is hardly a
printing establishment worthy the name that is not electrically operated
throughout. Among the largest customers of the central station in New
York City are the great daily newspapers, among them the _Times_, the
_World_, the _Sun_, the _Evening Post_, and the _American_.

Construction.

Not only are passengers conveyed up and down by electric elevators in
skyscrapers, but the buildings themselves are erected by means of
electricity. Recent examples of such construction are the Woolworth and
Equitable buildings in New York City; in this last instance a thousand
horse-power was used in digging the foundations alone.

[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._

A FAIRYLAND OF LIGHT

The canyon of lower Broadway, south from the Woolworth Building--a
glorious miracle of light.]

Not only are New York City’s subways operated by electricity; they were
also built by electricity, a statement which applies to the new subways
as well as the parts of the first system. In digging for the new
Broadway subway, an electric company supplied 25,000 horse-power. The
mammoth new aqueduct system by which water is carried from the Catskills
to the Battery is another example of electricity as a source of power
for large construction work. Still more picturesque is the use of
electricity in building the under-river tubes. Indeed, it is doubtful
whether this particular form of operation could have been carried on
without the aid of electricity.

Loft Manufacturing.

Aside from these special instances of electricity in construction, one
must think of electricity as responsible for nearly all the
manufacturing, large and small, that goes on in the ever-increasing
number of loft-buildings throughout all large cities. For example, New
York City serves as the center of the garment-making industry for the
entire country, there being fully a quarter of a million garment-trade
workers in the Greater City. Along Fifth and Fourth Avenues are found
the large establishments, electrically equipped throughout for cutting,
stitching and pressing, while even in the smallest shops on the East
Side foot-power machines have become almost a thing of the past.

Electric Heating.

The commercial use of electric heating is one of the more recent
electrical developments. For the most part, this also applies to the
garment trade and its closely allied clothing industries. In the
modernly equipped factories one finds electric flat irons, velvet
steamers and coffee urns. In the printing trade, electrically heated
linotype melting pots are being introduced successfully, while glue-pots
and sealing-wax melters can be seen in binderies and banking
institutions. Absence of fire risk accounts for the introduction of
electric heating units of different kinds into the motion-picture film
manufacturing industry, a rapidly growing province. The same element of
safety where inflammable substances are employed has produced the
electric japan oven and similar apparatus.

Electricity and Safety.

The importance of electricity in factory work cannot be over-estimated.
A shop fully equipped with electric machinery is the best possible kind
of shop for employee as well as for the owner. Motor-driven machines are
the safest possible kind, while absence of overhead shafting and
dangerous belts mean health as well as security. In the electric shop,
motor-driven blowers carry fumes and dust away from the worker and bring
fresh air in. Electrically driven machinery is now regarded as the
standard machinery. In the various vocational schools in New York City
at present both boys and girls are taught to operate electrically driven
machines, it being assumed that those will be what the pupils will be
called upon to operate when they leave the school for the shop.

Electricity in Medicine.

Another domain of electric enterprise of the greatest value for the
country at large is the increasing use of electricity in medicine. The
most conspicuous element in this is the wide-spread acceptance of the
X-ray as a necessary tool of the medical profession. Newspapers and
magazines were full of the remarkable X-ray achievements of surgeons in
charge of the various European war hospitals. Those, of course, were
spectacular instances, but it should not be forgotten that every day, in
our great hospitals, the X-ray is proving itself almost indispensable in
the examination of the sick and injured. Besides utilizing X-ray in the
diagnosis of disease, the rays themselves are employed in treatment of
cancer and skin diseases. The oculist, the dentist, indeed medical
specialists of all kinds, are coming to recognize the immense aid that
electricity can give in its various forms and applications.

[Illustration: THE GREAT PRESS ROOM OF “THE NEW YORK TIMES” IS ALL
ELECTRICALLY OPERATED]

Electric Vehicles.

The electric truck has already demonstrated itself as a safer and less
expensive rival of the gasoline delivery truck in many kinds of service.
In the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx alone, in New York City,
there were more than 2,000 such trucks in operation in 1916. Counting
both pleasure and business vehicles, the borough of Manhattan boasted
about 2,500 storage-battery driven wagons in active use. It is rather
interesting to note that Chicago operates many more electric pleasure
cars than New York, while New York does far more of its business by
means of the electric vehicle. Recently, there was established in New
York an electric co-operative garage, the joint enterprise of the
electric passenger car manufacturers and an electric company. It was
believed that by providing proper and adequate facilities for garaging
electric pleasure vehicles the use of passenger-electrics in New York
City would be greatly increased.

Electricity and the Home.

In emphasizing the important part which electricity plays in the
business of a great metropolis, the home should not be forgotten. It is
now possible, by means of electric appliances, practically to eliminate
all drudgery from housework. The use of many of these domestic machines
is familiar to all: vacuum cleaners, washing machines, fans, and the
more usual electric cooking devices. Within the next decade, one looks
to see a remarkable advance in this direction. One anticipates the more
extensive use of electric refrigeration and other electric labor-saving
devices, to the great improvement of city homes, making them pleasanter
and more healthy as toilsome operations are done away with. And it must
not be forgotten that the city home, like the country home, is the
backbone of the well-being of the community. Electricity can have no
greater mission than improving, strengthening and upbuilding good
homes.

[Illustration: ELECTRIC TRAIN CHART AND SWITCH CONTROL]

[Illustration: SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION

In the upper view the electric chart on the wall facing the switch
operator indicates the location of every train in the New York subway
system at all times. The lower view shows typical subway construction
for third rail train and surface cars. The material used is reinforced
concrete.]

[Illustration: ONE TYPE OF ELECTRIC CONSTRUCTION ON RAILROADS

The system shown here is used upon the New York, New Haven and Hartford
Railroad. It consists of pairs of wire cables supported by bridges
placed about 300 feet apart. Rigid triangles of iron pipe are secured to
these cables and the trolley wire attached to the triangles. The trolley
wire is kept rigid and free from slack in this manner.]

Decreased Cost of Electricity.

Closely akin to this is another electrical development most pleasing to
consider. Years ago, electricity was considered the luxury of the rich.
Now electric light is coming to be shed on rich and poor alike. Little
by little the shops, factories and dwellings of more humble inhabitants
are provided with electricity, so that cleanliness, safety and comfort
are by no means confined even to the well-to-do or the more comfortable
homes.

One great factor in this change has been the decreasing cost of
electricity. Within the last decade, the cost of almost all necessities
of life has ascended with leaps and bounds, so that a dollar now,
expended in ordinary household goods, will purchase hardly more than
what thirty cents would in 1890. But all this while, the cost of
electricity has steadily decreased. With centralized generating plants,
improved machinery and better lamps, one dollar today will buy eighteen
times as much electric light as it would in 1884. With such facts before
us, it is fairly easy to predict the still further electrical
development of all important centers. There will be more and better
light in homes; there will be more and better light in offices and
factories, thus greatly lessening the chances for injury or eye-strain.
In all industry, great and small, laborious hand processes will be
replaced by safely operated electric machinery, while wider use of
electric labor-saving appliances will extend into the home.

Hospitals, by aid of electricity, will be able to increase still more
their splendid work for the relief of suffering, while cleaner and safer
ways of living will serve as a preventive of disease. One can easily say
that with increasing electrical development the country will come to be
still greater, a country where electricity shall provide for the safety
and well-being of all its people.

* * * * *

How is Die-Sinking Done?

Die-sinking is the art of preparing dies for stamping coins, buttons,
medallions, jewelry, fittings, etc. The steel for the manufacture of
dies is carefully selected, forged at a high heat into the rough die,
softened by careful annealing, and then handed over to the engraver.
After the engraver has worked out the design in intaglio the die is put
through the operation of hardening, after which, being cleaned and
polished, it is called a “matrix.” This is not, however, generally
employed in multiplying impressions, but is used for making a “punch” or
steel impression for relief. For this purpose another block of steel of
the same quality is selected, and, being carefully annealed or softened,
is compressed by proper machinery upon the matrix until it receives the
impression. When this process is complete the impression is retouched by
the engraver, and hardened and collared like the matrix. Any number of
dies may now be made from this punch by impressing upon it plugs of soft
steel.

The Story in the Making of a Magazine[19]

The printing of a few thousand copies of one of the great American
magazines would not be a difficult feat for any large first-class
printing plant. The putting of the pages into type and running them
through the modern job presses could easily be accomplished. But when,
instead of a few thousand copies, millions of copies of the magazine are
printed, and these millions are produced unfailingly, week after week,
month after month, in a quality of printing rivaling the production of
but a few thousand copies, then, indeed, is it marvelous how results are
attained.

[Illustration: ONE OF THE SCORES OF PRESSES ON WHICH THE INSIDE PAGES OF
“THE SATURDAY EVENING POST” ARE PRINTED]

Obviously, one of the first necessities towards such quantity production
is extra speed. This is secured to a certain degree by feeding the paper
into the presses from rolls instead of sheet by sheet. But as the
quality of the print must be retained, there is a limit in this speeding
beyond which it is not safe to go. Some other method of increasing the
production without lowering the quality of the printed sheet must be
resorted to--and this is duplication. By the process of electrotyping,
plates of metal duplicating exactly the printing surface of the type and
engravings in the original page, can be made. By providing as many
presses as may be needed, and by supplying each press with duplicates,
or electrotype plates as they are called, the problem of vast quantity
requirements has been solved, so far as the actual printing is
concerned.

But there are other factors to be considered. For example, the printed
sheets, as they come from the press, must be folded to the size of the
magazine. This is done in two ways. Machines which take the sheets, one
by one, from the completed pile, and fold them to the required size, are
used on some publications, while on others a folding machine and a
binding attachment are included as integral parts of the press itself.
The paper, as it comes from the printing section of the press, is
mechanically folded, cut apart, the previously-printed cover sheet
wrapped around it, and the whole stapled together with wire stitches.
Thus the white paper, which enters the press from the roll in one long
ribbon, is delivered at the other end of the press printed, folded and
bound up into complete magazines at the rate of sixty each minute.
Issues of a magazine of thirty-two, forty-eight, or even more pages, are
produced in this manner.

[Illustration: ONE OF THE SEVERAL BATTERIES OF PRESSES NECESSARY TO
PRINT “THE LADIES’ HOME JOURNAL”]

Many magazines, however, have more pages than this. Then it is necessary
to print on separate presses the various sections, or signatures as they
are called, which, when combined, will make up a complete magazine. If
only a few thousand were printed, these signatures could be collected
together by hand, and then fed into the wire-stitching machine, also by
hand. This method of collecting the sections and binding them together
was the one used until editions became so large that mechanical methods
became necessary.

Now, however, the various sections which go to make up the magazine are
piled in certain troughs of a binding machine, which, with seeming human
intelligence, clasps one copy of each section in turn, and combining
them with a copy of the cover sheet, conducts them all, properly
collated, into the wire-stitching device, from which they are ejected
into orderly piles. Some magazines are bound together in a different
manner, however, and are not stitched with wire, but have the inside
pages and the cover glued together, and an ingenious binding machine has
been perfected which does this automatically.

[Illustration: A GROUP OF FOLDING MACHINES WHICH AUTOMATICALLY GRASP THE
FLAT SHEET AND FOLD IT UP TO THE SIZE OF THE MAGAZINE]

Another marvel of the periodical of our day is the printing of some of
the pages in the full colors of the original paintings. To get this
result, it is necessary to print the sheet in four colors and to have
each printing in exactly the correct spot on the sheet (a variation of
only a hundredth of an inch being detrimental). The process would
normally be quite slow--too slow, in fact, for the tremendous quantities
necessary for the large editions of the modern magazine. Both of these
objections have been overcome, however, by arranging four small
cylinders, each printing its designated color--yellow, red, blue or
black--so that as the sheet of paper travels around a larger cylinder it
is brought into contact with the four printing cylinders in rapid
succession.

Many magazines print two colors for covers and inside pages, instead of
full four-color printings. Presses of a nature somewhat similar to those
explained above are used.

So much for the principal mechanical problems and their solutions, in
producing millions of magazines of a high quality each week. But there
must be some force that keeps this maze of machinery constantly at work,
so that all the parts properly co-ordinate. A slip-up at one spot might
cause such a delay as would result if, for instance, hundreds of
thousands of the inside pages were printed and ready for binding, but
lacked the printed covers. To prevent any such calamity in the work
rooms, there is usually prepared a daily schedule which plots out what
operation, on each issue of the magazine, is to be completed that day;
and if by chance any operation is not up to the schedule, immediate
steps are taken to speed up the work until the production has been
brought back to where it should be.

And this schedule reaches out into the shipping and mailing departments,
so arranging it that the first copies off the press are speeded to the
far sections of the country. In this way all the copies as they come
from the presses are dispatched, so that the man in San Francisco and
the man in Philadelphia find the magazine on the news-stand on the same
day.

* * * * *

How did the Ringing of the Curfew Originate?

The word “curfew” is derived from the French “couvre-feu,” meaning
“cover fire.”

The ringing of the curfew originated in England by William the
Conqueror, who directed that at the ringing of the bell at eight o’clock
all fires and lights should be extinguished. The law was repealed by
Henry I in 1100, but the bell continued to be rung in many districts to
modern times and probably may still be heard.

The name was also given formerly to a domestic utensil for covering up a
fire.

In the United States an ordinance establishing a curfew, with the
purpose of keeping young people off the streets, has existed in Salem,
Mass., since Puritan days.

Similar ordinances have of late been adopted in other cities, in general
providing that children under fifteen shall not frequent the streets
after nine o’clock in summer and eight in winter.

The Story of America’s First Horseless Carriage

Mr. Elwood Haynes tells an interesting story of his first “horseless
carriage:”

In 1890 I became interested in the natural gas field at Greentown, Ind.
My work took me through the country a great deal, and I drove a horse,
of course. The great trouble with the horse was his lack of endurance,
and this became more apparent day after day.

One afternoon, or night, rather, while driving home after a hard day’s
work, I thought to myself that it would be a fine thing if I didn’t have
to depend on the horse for locomotion. From then on my mind dwelt a
great deal upon the subject of a self-propelled vehicle that could be
used on any country road or city street.

I planned to use the gasoline engine. Even the lightest engines made at
that time were very heavy per unit of power, and rather crude in
construction.

My work was confined to Greentown, Ind., in 1890 and 1891. In the fall
of 1892 I moved to Kokomo, and the following summer I had my plans
sufficiently matured to begin the actual construction of a machine. I
ordered a one-horse-power marine upright, two-cycle gasoline engine from
the Sintz Gas Engine Company of Grand Rapids, Mich.

This motor barely gave one brake horse-power and weighed 180 pounds. (It
is interesting to note in this connection, that an aeroplane motor of
the same weight readily gives forty horse-power.) Upon its arrival from
Grand Rapids, in the fall of 1893, lacking a more suitable place, the
motor was brought direct to my home and set up in the kitchen.

When the gasoline and battery connection were installed, the motor,
after considerable cranking, was started and ran with such speed and
vibration that it pulled itself from its attachments to the floor.
Luckily, however, one of the battery wires was wound about the motor
shaft and thus disconnected the current. In order to provide against
vibration I was obliged to make the frame of the machine much heavier
than I first intended.

The machine was built up in the form of a small truck. The framework in
which the motor was placed consisted of a double “hollow square” of
steel tubing, joined at the rear corners by steel castings and by
malleable castings in front. The hind axle constituted the rear member
of the frame and the front axle was swiveled at its center to the front
end of the “hollow square,” in which the motor and countershaft were
placed.

The total weight of the machine when completed was about 820 pounds.
July 4, 1894, when ready for test, it was hauled into the country about
three miles, behind a horse carriage, and started on a nearly level
turnpike.

It moved off at once at a speed of about seven miles per hour, and was
driven about one and one-half miles farther into the country. It was
then turned about, and ran all the way into the city without making a
single stop.

I was convinced upon this return trip that there was a future for the
“horseless carriage,” although I did not at that time expect it to be so
brilliant and imposing.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of Haynes Auto Co._

AMERICA’S FIRST CAR, BUILT BY ELWOOD HAYNES]

The Story in a Sausage[20]

Away back in the dark ages, even before the Christian era, a Chinese
husbandman, so we are told, made a wonderful discovery--that pork was
good to eat. No one had ever considered the possibility of eating pork,
for in those days pigs were pets, and just as every family today has its
dog “Rover,” so then, every family had its pig “Scraps.”

One day the house of Char-Lee was burned to the ground. The cause of the
fire is unknown. Char-Lee was filled with remorse and, as he walked
about among the ruins of his home, he felt that the gods of Good Luck
had indeed turned their backs on him. As he was thus bewailing his
misfortunes, he stumbled over a charred timber and fell flat on the
ground. In lifting himself to his feet, he burned the fingers of his
right hand, and, as does a child, he immediately proceeded to suck those
fingers.

Imagine his amazement to find clinging to his fingers a substance most
luscious to the taste, and most gratifying to the palate! He looked to
see what it could be, and--behold, he saw that it was the remains of
“Scraps,” who had been lost in the burning house and roasted as perhaps
never has a pig been roasted since.

Eager to further enjoy this new delicacy, Char-Lee proceeded to feast
himself, and it was then he found that pork not only pleases and
gratifies--but satisfies. Desiring to share his new delights with his
friends and neighbors, he called them together and they had a wonderful
feast. From that day to this we have eaten roasted pork.

It was many, many years later that a Roman farmer, living on a beautiful
little farm at the mouth of the Tiber, formed the habit of putting fresh
pork in a covered pan and burying the whole deep in the cool sands by
the water’s edge. But one day he put the pan too near the edge and at
high tide the salt water from the ocean came up, filled the pan, and so
smoothed the surface of the sands that he was unable to find the place
where he had buried the container.

After several fortnights he accidentally found his meat again. He
examined it carefully and was surprised to find that it had seemingly
kept in perfect condition, the only trouble being that the water had
gotten into his pan and his meat was all wet. So he carried it to his
house, and, putting a long skewer through the piece, he hung it high
above the fire in his open hearth, to dry it off before he should wish
to roast it.

Later in the day he set out with two companions for a two-days’ hunting
expedition in the woods. As the party returned, laden with the spoils of
the hunt, his cook was preparing a meal for them. As he walked into the
house, he thought of his piece of pork. You can readily imagine his
astonishment when he found that the smoke from the smouldering embers,
while he was away, had turned the meat a deep cherry hue, and that the
fire, built up to prepare the home-coming feast, had broiled the piece
to a nicety. It savored of an aroma so rare that it was given preference
over even the choice pheasants which had been prepared.

This was the first time a cured and smoked piece of pork had ever been
eaten, but could you have seen how delighted these men were with the
result of this accidental preparation, you would have known from their
enthusiasm that cured, smoked pork would one day have a very great
popularity.

Later, a farmer and his family decided that they would like to eat meat
even during the summer months when the activity of haying season made it
impossible to prepare it in the usual way, and so, in March, or during
some other convenient cool period, he would kill the pig which had been
fattening all winter, and dissect the carcass into hams, shoulders,
bacon sides and mess pork.

These parts were cured by different methods; one very popular way was to
put the hams and shoulders on about an inch of salt in the bottom of a
barrel, keeping these parts around the edge so as to leave room for the
mess pork and bacon sides in the center. Each part would be carefully
rubbed with salt before it was packed away, and slits were cut from the
surface of the hams to the bone, so that one might force salt in them,
thus keeping the meat from turning sour. The top of the meat was
sprinkled with sugar and saltpetre. A small barrel head was laid on the
top of the meat and a heavy stone placed on the head so as to hold the
meat firmly in place. At the end of a week just enough water was added
to cover the barrel head.

[Illustration: CHESTER WHITE SOWS[21]

Lard Type Hogs]

Another way was to make a very strong salt brine. To this brine would be
added a little sugar and saltpetre, and, after packing the meat the same
as in the other case, enough of this brine would be added to entirely
cover the meat. By not letting the brine get old, or by keeping plenty
of salt on it, the meat could be kept in this way for several months,
but would be available for use at any time.

Hams and shoulders were always smoked at the end of about two months.
When getting ready to smoke some pieces, the farmer would first soak
them twenty-four hours in clear, cold water. By tying a string through
the shank of a ham and running this string up through a hole in the
bottom of an inverted barrel, he could secure it by tying to a small
stick on the outside of the hole. Under the barrel he would build a
small fire, sometimes of corncobs, sometimes of hardwood and sawdust. It
was the task of the small boy of the family to start this fire in the
morning and maintain it all day, the idea being to keep a fire which was
not too hot but which would give off plenty of smoke.

[Illustration: TAMWORTH BOAR.[22] Bacon Type Hog.]

[Illustration: TAMWORTH SOW.[22] Bacon Type Hog.]

[Illustration: BERKSHIRE BOAR.[22]]

[Illustration: BERKSHIRE SOW.[22] Dual Purpose Hog.]

At the end of three days the meat was considered thoroughly smoked,
although some men liked it smoked much longer. After it had cooled off
from the smoking it was hung in a cool, dry place or packed in a barrel
of oats, so as to keep it from getting a damp mold and spoiling.

When a farmer had killed a hog, he would render out certain of the fats
in an iron caldron. He would take certain parts of the meat and make his
home-made sausages, but further than that, by-products were practically
unknown.

The foregoing might be considered a short synopsis of the pork-packing
industry up to the point which we will call the Modern Era.

This period had a small start back in the early days when a small dealer
would kill a few hogs, sell the sausage and lard and cure and smoke the
parts, carrying them as far into the summer months as he could, selling
them out to his trade. Various methods were resorted to in order to keep
mold and insects from spoiling the product. Perhaps the most generally
used of these methods was to sew the piece of meat in a canvas sack and
paint it with barytes. This gave them an airtight container for the meat
and enabled them to keep smoked meats all during the summer months.

The advent of refrigeration, however, really marked the beginning of the
modern packing era. When men learned the control of temperature it
became possible for slaughter houses to assume such proportions as to
warrant scientific research for the best possible methods of carrying on
the business.

The story of the development of these methods would be almost endless,
but a trip through an up-to-date packing plant of the present day will
show what time has brought about.

As the hogs come in from the farmers and shippers they are received by
the live stock department, where they are carefully sorted and graded,
and then run into holding pens, to carry over until they shall be driven
to slaughter. These pens must hold thousands of hogs, for although the
stock is held two or three days at the most before it is slaughtered, we
must remember that the more important of the packing houses kill
thousands of hogs each day, so these pens must be more or less gigantic
affairs. The more modern of them are constructed of concrete and brick,
and are a picture of cleanliness and sanitation. They are well protected
by substantially built roofs and side walls so that the animals are not
exposed to the weather at any time of the year.

Veterinarians in the employ of the government examine all the hogs that
come into these pens, and any that seem to be at all sickly, or for any
reason unfit for food, are held out.

On the killing floor a small army of men is engaged in the business of
cleaning and dressing the carcass of the hog. Each man has his
particular part of the work to do, and to this end the hogs are conveyed
around the room past the various workmen by means of an endless chain
and trolley, so that each butcher’s work is put right before him and he
does not have to make any unnecessary moves. The whole department works
like one vast machine, and each man is a very definite and necessary cog
in the whole scheme of procedure.

Perhaps the most wonderful thing about this department is the perfection
that they are able to reach in cleaning the carcasses. The hogs are
first run through a great machine which takes all but a few stray hairs
from them. This machine contains a number of rotating beaters and
high-pressure streams of water.

As soon as they come out of the machine, the men on the rail finish the
job of cleaning the carcass and each animal is then run through a
high-pressure washing machine so that it is absolutely clean before a
single incision is made in it.

[Illustration: REFRIGERATING MACHINERY

These great pumps are used for circulating the brine through the cooling
system of one of the great packing houses in Buenos Ayres, Argentine

_Reproduced by permission of The Philadelphia Museums._]

[Illustration: THE HALF-WAY HOUSE

Cattle from the Western plains gathered in the Union Stockyards awaiting
slaughter and subsequent shipment. The great Union Stockyards in Chicago
are the largest live-stock market in the world. Beef is slaughtered and
cleansed very much in the same manner as the pork described in “The
Story in a Sausage.”

_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._]

The workmen all stand on high benches, up from the floor, and under the
hogs we find troughs to keep any scraps from getting under the workmen’s
feet. The floors at all times are kept as clean as can be, and the meat
is taken away quickly so that there is no chance of contamination of the
finished product with the hogs which are just coming from the slaughter
house.

Trained men, some of them veterinarians, in the employ of the
government, make a thorough inspection of the glands and other organs of
the hog. They are so particular that even bruises must be trimmed out
before the animals are allowed to pass and go on with the bulk which are
fit for food. It is surprising to learn how many carcasses, or parts,
are condemned because of one thing or another, for the least sign of
sickness or unfitness of any kind calls forth a government “Condemned
Tag” and holds the animal out to one side to be used for fertilizer or
some other inedible purpose.

Passing through the hog chill rooms, on the way from the killing floor,
one is impressed with the great number of hogs hanging there in a
temperature near the freezing point. This temperature is maintained both
winter and summer, so that the hogs may be thoroughly chilled and the
animal heat entirely eliminated as quickly as possible after the
killing, so that there will be no chance of the meat souring or any
unwholesome condition arising.

After about forty-eight hours in these chill rooms, the hogs are run
onto the cutting floor, where they are made into the various commercial
cuts which are seen in the meat markets at home. They start out with the
whole side of a hog and work it through, until they have what the
packers call the “Commercial Cuts”--that is to say, the hams, loins,
spare ribs, the bacon sides, and so on.

The cutting room is a light, airy room with a high ceiling, and
everything in it seems a perfect example of cleanliness, and men all
work with white aprons, jackets and caps.

The next stop is in the by-products building. As the writer entered, his
guide told him the old bromide about “everything about a packing house
being saved except the squeal, and even that having been known to appear
on a phonographic record.” He thought to have some fun by asking the
guide about the smell, but the laugh was on him, for the guide showed
him how the air containing any odor was simply run through a condenser
into a great volume of water, which absorbed it. The gases which had
made the odor in the first place were then taken out in the form of
solids, simply by evaporating the water away. The big evaporators which
take care of this work are extremely interesting pieces of machinery to
see.

There is a surprisingly large amount of expensive machinery in the hair
plant. Hog hair would probably not appeal to the average person as being
a thing of particular value, but it is processed so as to make the
finished product worth as much as the meat itself.

Certain parts of the hog carcasses which would not be palatable enough
to go into human consumption are made up into stock foods. These are
sold under a guaranteed analysis. Highly-paid chemists are busy all the
time checking up the analysis of these foods, for they must contain
certain amounts of protein and crude fiber, which is said to be very
beneficial to stock in general.

Another department manufactures what is called a balanced ration,
consisting of a certain amount of grain and a certain amount of this
stock food, or “digester tankage,” as it is called. This balanced ration
is said to be the most nutritious food and the quickest fattener which
can be given to animals. It is made up as a result of protracted
experiments and much scientific research, both by state institutions and
by private individuals.

There is always a certain amount of grease which is not edible, but
which is suitable for soap stocks, and the tank products which are not
fit for food are made into commercial fertilizers, which are gotten up
under chemical formulas, and are made up particularly for different
kinds of grains, grasses, flowers and the like.

[Illustration: COLD STORAGE OF MEAT, BUENOS AYRES, ARGENTINE

Interior of one of the great South American cold storage plants. Much of
the meat consumed in Europe is shipped from this point.

_Reproduced by permission of The Philadelphia Museums._]

[Illustration: _Courtesy of Armour & Co._

PACKING BACON

The girls are packing sliced bacon into glass jars, taking the slices
from a moving belt which passes in front of them. The rooms are light,
thoroughly ventilated, and cleaned at the end of each day. The girls’
hands are manicured at frequent intervals by manicurists employed by the
company.]

The next place is the lard department. Here great closed tanks cook the
fats, under high steam pressure, and make them into snow-white lard.
There are great open caldrons, steam jacketed, where an even and uniform
temperature is maintained. Only the pure leaf lard, which is supposed to
be the choicest fat of the hog, is cooked in these kettles. In the lard
packing room there is much automatic machinery, with which the various
sized packages of lard are weighed out. Machines hermetically seal the
tins, and men pack them in crates and carefully weigh them over two
scales.

The average person does not have even an idea of what the modern curing
cellar is like. The brines and curing mixtures are prepared by trained
men who do no other work but this. Everything goes exactly according to
formula, and the different ingredients are weighed out to the ounce. The
guide insisted that a bare ten per cent of all the hams or bacon sides
produced in the plant are finally allowed to bear the company’s
trade-mark. The men who finally select these goods are the oldest and
most trusted employees of the firm. They weigh out a certain amount of
this meat for each tierce, or vat, to be packed, and then an exact
number of gallons of pickle is put in with the meat so that each pound
of meat will have just a certain amount of pickle to cure it. This is
said to insure a uniform product so that one trade-marked ham is exactly
like another.

Even the length of time which these are left in cure must not vary a
day. In the great curing room thousands of vats and tierces are piled,
and the usual tierces hold about three hundred pounds of meat, while the
vats hold nearly fifteen hundred pounds.

In the dry-salt curing cellars are kept enormous stocks of the cheaper
kinds of meat. These, instead of being cured in brine, are rubbed in
salt and piled away. These piles are perhaps three or four feet high,
and are so neat and true that they appear to have been the work of a
master mason. A single one of these dry-salt curing rooms holds over
three million pounds.

Sliced bacon, fancy sausage and other specialties are usually packed in
a separate room, into attractive cartons for the retail trade.

The standard of cleanliness in the sausage kitchen has to be unusually
high. Wherever white tile is not possible, white paint is used in
profusion. The shining metal tables and trucks, on which the product is
handled, give a new confidence in sausage. The girls and men employed
all wear clean white aprons, jackets and caps, and no effort is spared
in keeping everything and everybody in the place in an ideal condition.

The meat is run through enormous automatic grinders and choppers, and
through mixers that approach a dairy churn in size. After it has been
properly mixed and thoroughly taken care of, it is put into automatic
machinery, run by air pressure, which stuffs it into the ham sacks and
casings, in which we see the sausage in the markets. The cooking is done
in great vats and in enormous electric ovens.

When we stop to think of the proportion of our food which is a
packing-house product, we can be glad indeed that conditions such as
those described above are becoming available more and more every day.

* * * * *

Why do We Call them “Dog-Days”?

When we talk about “dog-days” now, we mean the period of the year
between July 3d and August 11th, twenty days before and after the rising
of the “dog-star.”

The name was applied by the ancients to a period of about forty days,
the hottest season of the year, at the time of the rising of Sirius, the
dog-star.

The time of the rising is now, owing to the precession of the equinoxes,
different from what it was then (July 1st). It is now about July 23d.

[Illustration: ELECTRIC COINING PRESS, U. S. MINT, PHILADELPHIA

Woman feeding planchets to brass tubes, from the bottom of which they
are carried to the steel dies which form the coins.]

How is a Five Dollar Gold Piece Made?

The process of converting the precious metals into coins is an
interesting one.

The rolling machines through which the ingots are passed are adjustable,
the space between the rollers being governed by the operator. About two
hundred ingots are run through per hour on each pair of rollers.

When the rolling is completed the strip of metal is about six feet long.
As it is impossible to roll perfectly true, it is necessary to “draw”
these strips, after being softened by annealing. The drawing benches
resemble long tables, with a bench on either side, at one end of which
is an iron box secured to the table. In this are fastened two
perpendicular steel cylinders. These are at the same distance apart that
the thickness of the strip is required to be. It is drawn between the
cylinders, which reduces the whole to an equal thickness.

These strips are now taken to the cutting machines, each of which will
cut 225 planchets per minute. The press used consists of a vertical
steel punch. From a strip worth $1,100 about $800 of planchets will be
cut. These are then removed to the adjusting room, where they are
adjusted. After inspection they are weighed on very accurate scales. If
a planchet is too heavy, but near the weight, it is filed off at the
edges; if too heavy for filing, it is thrown aside with the light ones
to be remelted.

The planchets, after being adjusted, are taken to the coining and
milling rooms, and are passed through the milling machine. They are fed
to this machine through an upright tube, and as they descend are caught
upon the edge of a revolving wheel and carried about a quarter of a
revolution, during which the edge is compressed and forced up. By this
apparatus 560 nickels can be milled in a minute; for large pieces the
average is 120.

The massive but delicate coining presses coin from 80 to 100 pieces a
minute. These presses do their work in a perfect manner. After being
stamped the coins are taken to the coiner’s room. The light and heavy
coins are kept separate in coining, and when delivered to the treasurer
they are mixed in such proportions as to give him full weight in every
delivery. By law, the deviation from the standard weight, in delivering
to him, must not exceed three pennyweights in one thousand double
eagles.

The coinage of the United States mints since the organization of the
government has amounted to nearly 6,000,000,000 pieces, valued at over
$4,000,000,000.

How does a Bird Fly?

The wing of a bird is an elastic, flexible organ, with a thick anterior
and a thin posterior margin; hence the wing does not act like a solid
board, but is thrown into a succession of curves. When a bird rises from
the ground it leaps up with head stuck out and expanded tail, so that
the body is in the position of a boy’s kite when thrown up. The wings
are strongly flapped, striking forward and downward, and the bird
quickly ascends. It has been shown that the wing describes a figure 8 in
its action, the margin being brought down so that the tip of the wing
gives the last blow after the part next the trunk has ceased to strike;
hence, standing in front of a bird, the wing would be divided into two,
the upper surface of one-half and the lower surface of the other being
visible at the same time. These portions are reversed when the wing is
drawn back and towards the body, before beginning another stroke; but it
will be observed that during retraction the wing is still sloped, so
that the resemblance to a kite is maintained. There are many varieties
of flight among birds; of these the most remarkable is the sailing
motion, in which the wings are but slightly moved. Probably the original
impetus is maintained by the kite-like slope of the wing, and advantage
may be taken of currents by a rotation of the wing at the shoulder, a
movement invisible at any distance.

The Story of the Big Redwood Trees[23]

The “Big Trees” of California are the most magnificent specimens of tree
growth that have ever been found. In addition, they are the oldest known
living things; they connect the present with the past in a chain of
living rings in the tree that betray their great age to the modern
scientist. Estimates of the age of the “Big Trees” vary from the
Christian Era through a period dating back beyond the coming of the
Christian Saviour about 4,000 years.

The “Big Trees” of California are known as the “Sequoias,” and they are
divided into two different although closely related species. The few
enormous trees of great age which are now preserved in groves are known
as the _Sequoia Gigantia_. These big trees grow at an altitude between
4,000 and 7,000 feet, and, whether individual or in groves, they are
found in protected valleys, canyons, etc.

What is known as the Redwoods, or scientifically listed as _Sequoia
Sempervirens_, grow in heavy stands and really are a younger growth of
the “Big Trees.” The redwoods grow in the fog belt in the counties
bordering the coast from Monterey Bay north to the Oregon line. These
trees range in age from 500 to 2,000 years, and are generally supposed
by the scientists to be a reproduction growth that began their earthly
existence shortly after the glacial period. The _Sequoia Gigantia_
reproduce from cones, while the redwoods reproduce from suckers that
grow from the stump. The redwoods bear non-fertile cones. Both species
of the sequoias are evergreen.

These trees, including both species, range in height from 100 to 400
feet and in circumference from 15 to 90 feet. When full grown the “Big
Trees” are proportionate and symmetrical in girth and height and the
beauty of the tree is enhanced by flutings that traverse the bark from
the base to the apex. The root system is a remarkable feature of the
“Big Trees,” for they have a very poor footing for trees of their great
size and weight. The roots radiate a short distance below the surface of
the ground and there is no stabilizer in the shape of a tap root such as
in other woods. The bark ranges in thickness from four to thirty inches,
although in rare instances it has been found fifty inches thick. The
bark is light, soft and of a bright cinnamon color. The lumber from the
redwood tree is light, and ranges in color from medium to light cherry,
while the lumber from the “Big Trees,” or _Sequoia Gigantia_, has a
decided pink cast.

John Muir, the eminent California naturalist, evolved the theory from
the topographical position of the enormously big trees, which grow only
in the vicinity of Yosemite Park, that they escaped the glacial action
because they were located in protected places in the mountains.

Commercial redwood--and there are twenty-one mills cutting redwood--is
one of the most valuable woods on the Pacific coast. It carries with it
into lumber two traits of the tree itself--fire retardance and rot
resistance. These two qualities are the real secrets of the “Big Trees.”
There is no fungus growth on the redwoods neither are the redwoods
attacked by boring worms or other insects so common to other species of
wood.

Some of the giant redwood logs must be split in the woods with powder
before they can be handled on the saw carriage, and the average yield
per acre is in the neighborhood of 150,000 feet. At the present rate of
cutting, about 400,000,000 feet a year, there is more than one hundred
years’ supply of redwood still standing.

The redwoods thrive in moisture--it is taken into the roots, the foliage
and the bark. This accounts for the remarkable rot-resisting quality.
The railroads prefer redwood for ties because of its resistance to decay
in contact with moist soil. The Southern Pacific Company today has in
service in some of its sidings redwood ties that were put down under its
rails fifty-five years ago.

[Illustration: A LORDLY PILLAR IN ONE OF “GOD’S FIRST TEMPLES”

“Grizzly Giant,” a redwood in Mariposa Grove, California, one of the
most wonderful of all wonderful sights in the West

_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._]

Fire retardance is a remarkable feature of redwood. In the early days of
logging, when modern machinery was not available, the woodsmen were
confronted with the problem of moving tremendously heavy trees. About
sixty per cent of redwood is moisture, and what is known as the “butt
cut” logs--the first cut above the ground, which is usually sixteen feet
in length, will weigh from thirty to fifty tons. In order to move these
heavy logs, therefore, it was necessary for the woodsmen to get rid of
the bark, the undergrowth and the branches, which, in logging parlance,
is known as “slash.” He soon learned that redwood so strongly resists
fire that it was entirely safe to set fire to the logged-over field,
burning out this slash without any damage whatever to the logs, although
they were exposed to a fierce fire for a period of eight to twelve
hours. Redwood does burn, but very slowly, and those who are familiar
with California redwood know that it is the despair of the camper to
endeavor to build a fire with it. Redwood does not contain pitch, the
inflammable element in wood, and, in addition, it is extremely porous,
quickly absorbing water. These two traits, in addition to the chemical
composition of the wood itself, give it the fire retardance quality.

Redwood lumber, being light in weight and singularly free from many of
the defects so prevalent in other wood, is extremely easy to work. When
properly dried it does not shrink, warp or swell. It is capable of
producing magnificent tones for interior finish, and some of the most
charming homes on the Pacific coast have been made so by reason of the
wonderful possibilities of redwood in this respect. Remarkable
color-tone finishes are done by acid stains. Redwood is also a specialty
wood. It has been used for years by the organ manufacturers in the West
for organ pipes, giving eminent satisfaction. For incubators it is
particularly desirable, while for concrete form lumber, and particularly
in hot sections where the fierce heat of the sun is liable to warp other
woods, it gives wonderful service by “staying put.” Redwood is one of
the few woods that can be used over again for concrete work. For siding,
sheathing, sub-flooring, shingles, window casings and frames, redwood is
much used, because of its resistance to decay, both from contact with
moisture or dry rot.

Redwood’s hardihood, due to the natural acids in the wood, make it so
weather-resisting that it will last just as long unpainted as it does
painted. However, there is no wood that takes and holds paint better.
This is due to the absence of pitch and the porosity of the wood. It
also possesses a remarkable resistance to corrosive acids and for this
reason is the preferred material for tanks and vats in wineries,
breweries, chemical works, mines, tanneries, etc.

The great bulk of redwood lumber has for years been consumed in the
State of California, with about 50,000,000 feet annually going to
Australia and the Orient and about 50,000,000 feet shipped by rail to
the Middle West and East, the eastern shipments consisting practically
of house materials and finishing stock.

* * * * *

How did the Expression “Forlorn Hope” Originate?

In the expression “forlorn hope” we have made the Dutch word “hoop”
meaning a “company” into hope.

The “forlorn hoop” was a body of men, usually volunteers, selected from
different regiments, to lead an assault, enter a breach or perform some
other service attended with uncommon peril.

[Illustration: WALL STREET, KNOWN AROUND THE WORLD

_Photo by Brown Bros._]

Why is “Wall Street” Known Around the World?

This narrow canyon street in the lower part of the Borough of Manhattan
is the financial center of New York City. The various exchanges and the
largest banking institutions are situated here, and stocks and bonds are
dealt in to a vast extent. Its control over finance has spread until now
it affects the whole country and is a rival of the great financial
centers of Europe.

In the picture, Trinity Church is shown, lying at the head of Wall
Street, on Broadway, with its quaint old churchyard and its spire
insignificant amid the giant skyscrapers that surround it. Trinity
Church was founded in 1696 and rebuilt in 1839. It is probably the
wealthiest and most influential of the churches in the United States,
controlling many valuable real estate properties in New York City, and
having some of the richest and most prominent people in the country
among its members.

Starting approximately a quarter of a mile south of Wall Street,
Broadway, New York City’s main business thoroughfare, extends for
fifteen miles to the northern end of Manhattan Island. The activity and
variety of its traffic, the elegance of its shops, and the massiveness
and grandeur of many of its public and private buildings, makes it one
of the most interesting streets in the world.

What Makes a Stick Seem to Bend in Water?

When we hold a stick partly in the water, it looks as though the stick
bends just where it enters the water. That is due to the change of the
direction of the light after it enters the water. This change in the
direction of the light rays is called refraction. Glass, water and other
solids and fluids each have different powers of refraction.

The law of refraction comes into operation when a ray of light passes
through a smooth surface bounding two media not homogeneous, such as air
and water, or when rays traverse a medium the density of which is not
uniform, such as the atmosphere.

What Causes a Lump in a Person’s Throat?

When we eat anything, it passes into the throat after we have chewed it,
and instead of just dropping down into our stomachs, there is a nine or
ten inch series of rings in our throats, that takes the food, passing or
squeezing it from one set of muscle rings to the other. These muscle
rings are capable of working both up and down. If something is eaten
which causes vomiting, the muscles work the other way and force the
matter from the stomach.

When one is frightened a sort of a hollow feeling comes into the stomach
and the muscles of the throat work upward, pressing against the windpipe
and causing one to feel as if there was a lump there.

How are We Able to Hear Through Speaking-Tubes?

We know that when we speak, the sound waves that we set in motion are
carried in every direction. Now when we speak into a tube, the sound
waves cannot travel in all directions, but must follow the tube, and so
we can hear through a tube at a greater distance than we can when
speaking in the usual way.

The use of a megaphone or speaking trumpet for conveying the sound of
the voice to a distance is based on the same principle.

Why do We Always Shake Hands with Our Right Hand?

The custom of shaking hands with the right hand has come down to us from
the time when everyone carried a sword or knife. In those days when one
met a stranger it was customary, as an indication of friendly intention,
to hold out the right hand to show that it did not hold a sword or knife
ready for attack.

The Story in a Billiard Table[24]

The origin of billiards is lost in antiquity. Who invented the game and
the early processes of its evolution remain mysteries.

The first known reference to the game with any traditional or historical
accuracy occurs in Abbe McGeoghegan’s “History of Ireland.” Cathire
More, a sub-king who ruled over Leinster, died A. D. 148. The Abbe,
quoting from King Cathire’s will, says, “To Drimoth I bequeath fifty
billiard balls of brass with the cues of the same material.”

As early as the fifteenth century we have much evidence of the
universality of the game all over southern Europe. It was certainly
known in France in the time of Louis IX, who died nine years before
Columbus discovered America.

Shakespeare, in Anthony and Cleopatra (Act II, Scene 5), makes the
latter say, “Let us to billiards.”

Cotton’s “Compleat Gamster” published in 1674, refers to billiards as
“This most gentle, cleanly and ingenious game.” He states that it was
first played in France, but later gives Spain as its birthplace.

That the game was well known in England, and in fact in all Europe, is
revealed when Cotton says, “For the excellency of the recreation, it is
much approved of and played by most nations of Europe, especially
England, there being few towns of note therein which hath not a public
billiard table; neither are they wanting in many noble and private
families in the country.”

Billiards was brought to America by the Spaniards who settled St.
Augustine, Florida, in 1565. While we have no direct evidence, it is
very safe to assume that the English gentlemen, so familiar with the
game in the home land, who colonized Virginia in 1609, were not long in
introducing it in Jamestown.

There is also every reason to believe that the French colonists in
Maryland and Canada let no great time elapse before importing tables and
equipment into those colonies.

In the days of Cromwell, billiards had been tabooed by the Puritan, not
on moral grounds, but rather political. Billiards was the game of the
aristocracy and the Puritan hated not only the aristocrat, but the style
and color of his clothes, the cut of his hair, as well as the games he
played.

Doubtless this attitude was carried to America by the New England
colonists, and only when those colonies had been diluted by the
injection of other social groups did Puritan prejudice die and billiards
enter into their recreational life.

However, there is no doubt that by the latter part of the seventeenth
century the game was universally played in the United States.

From that time to the present the tide of popularity for billiards as
the premier indoor game has been steadily rising.

Unlike most things in the affairs of men, billiards has not developed at
either end of society, thus working toward the opposite extreme; but it
began at both ends and worked towards the middle.

In the early days we witness the strange spectacle of the game being
indulged in by the wealthy and leisurely class on the one hand, and the
idle and vicious on the other. It is easy to understand why. The first
group was the logical extension of the old-world aristocracy. The second
group lived in an age when the great middle class was struggling for a
foothold in a new country. Men had very little time and disposition for
play, and this, coupled with the remnants of Puritanic influence, left
the game in the hands of those who lived by their wits rather than work.

From these two extremes, therefore, the game began to work toward the
great middle classes. In process of time recreation became a necessity,
until today it is considered a duty. Men learned to play and, casting
about for a game worthy of them, naturally laid hold of billiards.

Toward this desired result the Y. M. C. A. and church clubs have
contributed greatly. They have broken down much of the illogical
prejudice against the games, and have shown the public-room keepers that
billiards can flourish under good and healthful conditions.

As the game became more universally played, a better class of
billiard-room keepers entered the commercial field, thus helping to
eliminate the incompetent and vicious.

Today the game has practically thrown off the last vestige of disrepute.
In those sporadic instances where such is not the case, it is due to two
causes. First, the majority of people in the community have low ideals.
Second, excessive license taxes forces certain room keepers to resort to
disreputable means for keeping alive their business.

Nevertheless, billiards today throughout the land is ranked among the
highest and cleanest forms of recreation. The exceptions mentioned prove
the rule.

Through a long, hard, vigorous opposition the virtues of billiards have
asserted themselves. Today the game stands vindicated and triumphant. It
is entering thousands of homes, church clubs, industrial welfare,
charitable, educational and all other institutions. There are more
billiard players in the United States than there are baseball players;
not mere spectators, but actual players.

One large company alone manufactures 500,000 cues every year, and we
must remember that a billiard cue, unlike a baseball bat, can be
repaired and lasts for many years. This fact is sufficient to convey an
idea of the vast extent to which the game is played.

In the early part of the nineteenth century there were no manufacturers
of billiard equipment in the United States.

In 1840 J. M. Brunswick, who operated a small furniture repair shop in
Cincinnati, Ohio, conceived the idea of making a pigeonhole table.
Success in this line led him to experiment in the manufacture of
billiard tables, practically all of which were then imported. The
business flourished. At first only the 6 x 12 English pocket tables were
made--later the small French carom tables were built.

The two main objects of billiard construction are to create an accurate
medium for play and then to keep the table permanently accurate by
making it impervious to atmospheric or climatic conditions.

To accomplish this with wood has taken years of experience and
experimentation.

Accuracy is obtained by the employment of specially-trained and
long-experienced workmen. One large company now has hundreds of men who
have been in its employ for twenty years and many who have served from
twenty-five to forty years. These men know their business.

Permanent accuracy is obtained by close adherence to two principles.
First, to give weight to the table. One model, 5 x 10 feet in size,
weighs 2,000 pounds. Second, all wood parts are built up with veneer
layers; never are they constructed of solid blocks of wood. A billiard
table is the last word in the art of cabinet-making.

There are six principal parts to all tables.

_The Legs._--Massive as these are, they are built up, not turned from
solid blocks. In all legs there are at least three veneers, two on the
outside and one on the inside. On the highest-grade tables five veneers
are used. Six legs are placed on the best and larger tables and four on
the smaller.

_The Frame._--Like the legs, the four parts of the frame, which in every
case is a perfect parallelogram, are built up and veneered on both
sides. When the frame has been bolted to the legs, stretchers or braces
are placed within. Two to four, depending on the size of the table, run
lengthwise through the center, and two or three running equidistant,
crosswise. The top of the stretcher is flush with the top of the frame,
making a perfect level upon which the slate bed is to rest.

_The Slate Bed._--Only the highest-grade Vermont slate is used, and on
the best tables of standard size, 4 x 8 feet, 4-1/2 x 9 feet, and 5 x 10
feet, the slabs, of which there are three, are 1-1/2 inches thick. At
the factory the slate is cut to size and smoothed top and bottom. The
pocket holes are next sawed out. On the center slab two are cut, one in
the exact middle of either end. On the two end slabs they are cut on the
two outside corners.

The slabs, where they join, are then bored along the edges and brass
dowels are inserted which engage sockets set in the opposite slab. This
keeps all slabs level with each other. All around the outside edge they
are bored for the insertion of the bolts to fasten the cushion rails to
the slate. Screw holes, countersunk, are bored from the top down through
the slabs, around the outer edges, through which the slate is screwed to
the frame.

[Illustration: SUPPLY ROOM AT MUSKEGON

The many triangles will convey an idea of the vastness of the billiard
industry.]

When the slate bed is laid, the slabs, doweled as the leaves of an
extension dining table, are fitted together and screwed to the frame.
The table is then pushed under a huge grinding machine and the slate
surface is made plane, as nearly perfect as human ingenuity can make it.

_The Bed Cloth._--Only the finest grade of imported Belgium broadcloth
is used on the best tables. It is colored green, which is restful for
the eyes.

The bed cloth is first tacked to the frame beneath the slate at one
corner. It is then stretched to its utmost to the opposite diagonal
corner. When this is fastened the cloth is tacked around the remainder
of the bed; being stretched as tightly as possible in every direction.

The table is now ready for the rails and cushions. Like all other wood
parts, the rails are built up and veneered, rather than made of a
single block of wood. When the rail has been formed, the ivory
diamond-shaped squares and name plate are countersunk into the top. The
squares are to enable the player to properly judge the angles of play.

The cushions are fastened to the inside of the rail by means of a
specially prepared glue.

Only the best grade of rubber is used for good cushions. The rubber is
molded in long strips in some form of isosceles triangle, depending on
the style of the game to be played. A highly resilient structure is
given the cushion for the pocket table, and one less so for the carom.
The latter is preferred for more accurate angle play, position and
nursing. Nursing, means to keep the three balls as close to one another
as possible.

The base of the triangle is grooved for the twofold purpose of making
the rubber adhere better to the rail, and to increase resiliency. In
fastening the rubber, utmost care must be exercised to have it attached
to the rail, so that when the latter is fastened to the bed there shall
be uniform height all around the table; otherwise the ball when it
strikes the cushion will be deflected from the true course or rebound.

On top of the rail next to the cushion edge a narrow ∟ is cut the entire
length. The cushion forms the other side, making a square groove, thus
⊔.

The cushion is now ready to be covered with the cloth.

The latter, made of the same material as the bed cloth, is cut to fit.
One edge is tucked into the groove just described, with the outside, or
face, downward. A tight-fitting ferule is then forced into the groove,
thus holding the cloth firmly between the cushion and the rail. The
cloth is then drawn over the top of the ferule, hiding the latter from
sight, and is drawn down over the rubber and fastened on the under side
of the rail with steel tacks. Great care and much experience is
necessary to successfully conduct this apparently simple operation; for
it is quite easy to pull the cloth so tightly at different points as to
bend out of shape the apex to the rubber triangle. On the other hand,
not to pull it tight enough will leave the cloth loose, which is not
only unsightly, but will impair the rubber and destroy the accuracy of
the balls rebounding from it.

The completed rail is then covered with a finishing strip, known as the
blind rail, which covers the unsightly bolt heads and adds to the
artistic effect of the table. On the cheap grades there are no blind
rails, the bolts being decorated with brass caps.

The final operation is the construction of pockets.

The pocket irons are semi-circular pieces of metal with flat flanges
extending at right angles at both ends of the arc. Stout black leather
is stitched around the round part of the iron, thus hiding the latter,
and affording a good hold to which the leather, or worsted knitted,
baskets are attached, and protection for billiard balls when striking.

The flanges are sunk flush into the top of the rail; thus the pocket
iron spans the interstices between the rails. The half of the pocket net
not attached to the irons is tacked to the edge of the frame, underneath
the bed, and covered with red leather, to withstand wear and for
decorative effect.

Four hooks are then fastened to the frame, underneath the table, near
the corner legs. These are termed bridge hooks and are for the purpose
of having the cue-bridge ready of access for the players when necessary.

The table is thus completed for playing use. There are ingenious
devices, termed the “return gutters” and convertible rails, which are
worthy of description.

In tables thus equipped, the base of the pocket is opened--a stiff
leather, funnel-shaped contrivance being substituted for the woolen or
open leather pocket. This funnel opening leads into a wooden canal or
gutter, the main stem of which runs on an incline the length of the
table underneath. From this center gutter debouches branch to each of
the pockets. The gutters are lined with rubber, to render noiseless the
balls as they roll from the pocket openings into and along the gutters,
at the lowest point of which--the head of the table--they fall into the
“receiver.” The latter is a specially designed box, felt lined, with
sufficient capacity to contain the fifteen balls used in the pocket
game.

The gutter return is a great convenience in collecting the balls to rack
them for a new game.

Carom tables have no pockets.

Carom and pocket billiards are so different that either they must be
played on separate tables, or else the rails are so constructed as to be
interchangeable. The billiard expert is not satisfied unless the whole
rail is changed. This is done by building the table without the regular
rails, and by having a separate set of rails for each game, which are
held in position by clamps and quickly interchanged. They conform to the
general design and decoration of the table.

Another method is merely to change the cushions. The back of the rubber
is reinforced by a wood strip, into which are placed metal sockets.
Bolts or ratchets are inserted through the rail, and clamp the cushion
to the wall of the rail. The convertible rails, however, because of
their rigidity, are more desirable than the convertible cushions.

The cheapest and most unsatisfactory device is known as pocket plugs. On
a permanently constructed pocket table, right-angled plugs of the rubber
cushion are screwed to the corner pocket irons and straight sections are
screwed to the side pocket irons. These, however, never perfectly fit at
the cushion joints, consequently carom play at those points is out of
the question.

[Illustration: A MODERN HIGH-CLASS POCKET BILLIARD TABLE]

Cheap cues are made in one continuous piece; or a special piece for the
“butt” and one for the shaft of the cue. The “butt” and body are
dovetailed together.

In making a high-grade cue, a choice piece of imported wood, such as
ebony, mahogany, or rosewood, is cut into blocks about three inches
square and twenty inches long. One of these is then roughly turned down
on a lathe until it is round and slightly tapers all the way from one
end to the other. At the narrow end it is then sawed four ways toward
the thicker end, a distance of seven inches. This is the “butt.” The
next section of either domestic or imported hard wood is forty-four
inches long. This, too, receives a rough rotundity and tapering on a
lathe. At the thicker end, a sawing-out process creates an opening, so
that the “butt” and shaft can dovetail to a depth of seven inches.

The cue is then sawed across into halves. On the base of the upper half
a hard wood screw is inserted and at the top of the butt a threaded hole
is bored. To strengthen the joint, the hollow screw-hole end is capped
with an ivory ferule sunk flush with the surface. This is the jointed
cue--a great convenience to the player who travels or carries his cue
home when he plays at the club or public academy.

At the narrow end of the cue, the tapering ceases about three-quarters
of an inch from the end and flanges out according to the kind of “tip”
the player prefers. This end is capped with an ivory ferule and upon the
top of the latter, the leather tip is glued.

Before this latter operation, the finished tapering, smoothing,
varnishing and polishing is done by hand.

Sometimes a flat surface a few inches long is planed on the
circumference of the cue, extending up from the butt end and a
mother-of-pearl name plate is sunk into the handle.

Cues run in weight from fifteen to twenty-two ounces. This means the
manufacture of cues according to weight, as well as taper, material,
finish and quality of the tip. Each of these embrace a mass of detail
too voluminous for recital here.

_The Balls._--In the past, as far as we can historically trace, billiard
balls were made of ivory. Until recently no superior substitute had been
invented, but it is the consensus of opinion among expert billiardists
that the newly manufactured synthetic ivory ball is equal, if not
superior, in action and wearing quality, to real ivory.

[Illustration: MAKING CUES]

Elephant-tusk ivory, the only kind used in billiard ball manufacturing,
is growing scarcer every year, with a consequent increase in price.

In the ivory storage vaults of one large company, there is held from
$150,000 to $300,000 worth of ivory, ranging from the tusk up to the
finished product.

Ivory is of cellular, not fibrous, construction. Through the center of
the tusk runs the great nerve of the tooth. The structural cells build
up around the nerve. Surrounding the nerve, the cells are small and more
compact. As the tusk grows in length on the living elephant it also
expands; but the cells grow larger and less compact as the tusk expands
in circumference. It is quite apparent, therefore, that the weight
centers around the nerve. To have a perfectly balanced ball, one that
will roll true in every direction, the ball must be so turned out of the
tusk that the nerve center runs exactly through the middle of the ball.

The process is as follows: The tusk is sawed into blocks about 2-3/4
inches in size. These are of irregular cylindrical form, depending on
the form of the tusk’s circumference. Only that portion of the tusk can
be used, the diameter of which is greater than the intended diameter of
the ball. The rest of the tusk is used for ornaments, piano keys, etc.
At least six inches from the point of the tusk must be discarded because
the circumference is too small. The hollow part at the base of the tusk
must also be discarded. There are defects discovered only when the ball
is being turned or the segments cut. For all of the discarded portions
and the fragments and shavings from the segments when the ball is
turned, the manufacturer receives less than one-fourth of the price per
pound which he paid for the whole tusk.

A segment is placed in a lathe--with the nerve center resting on the
lathe point. The ball is then either turned down from the outside or cut
out with an ingeniously constructed curved cutter from the inside of the
segment. In the latter operation the ball lies loose in the center of
the segment, which must be sawed in half to release it. Ivory seasons
only to a slight depth. The thin seasoning on the surface seems to act
as a shell which keeps raw the substance underneath. For this reason,
when a ball is turned out of the tusk and the raw ivory thus exposed,
the ball is stored away in a room of even temperature for about a year,
that it may properly season before being finished. The red ball is dyed
after seasoning, and at the time of final turning called finishing.

Another peculiarity about ivory is the fact that, owing to the cellular
construction, in seasoning the ball never contracts at the nerve ends,
but always around the other circumference, termed the “belly.”
Therefore, when the balls are turned, the circumference around the
“belly” is made greater than around the nerve ends, to allow for the
shrinkage in the former. Each manufacturer carefully guards the secret
of his allowance, which is made according to his experience and
knowledge of ivory seasoning variations.

After seasoning, the balls are smoothed with shagreen and polished.

Except for the cue ball, no ivory balls are used today on the pocket
table. As a substitute, a great variety of composition balls are used.
The composition is another trade secret. Having been carefully weighed
in a perfectly dry state, the necessary amount of composition is placed
in a telescoping steel cylinder, the two ends of which are perfect
hemispheres and the diameter of which on the inside is the exact
diameter of the proposed ball. The cylinder is then placed in a
hydraulic press and under a pressure of 30,000 pounds to the square
inch, the cylinder and its contents are telescoped until the mass inside
is perfectly round.

The molded ball is then taken from the press and smoothed. The holes for
the number tablets are bored and the tablets forced into position. The
tablets are made to conform to the rotundity of the ball and set flush
with the surface. The ball is then smoothed and polished.

The cue bridge handle is made in a manner similar to the cue, except
that it is not jointed and the span is substituted for the tip. The span
has four slots along the top, which maintains a contour to assist the
player in striking the ball on either side, or top or bottom of the
center facing the player, when the cue ball is too far away to make the
bridge with his hand and fingers. The span is made of either hard wood
or ivory.

The temperate and torrid zones of the world are ransacked in order to
secure the wood, the minerals and the animal substances, all of which
are necessary to provide the means of play. Those of us who play the
game (none of us, not even Willis Hoppe, know all its possibilities) may
well paraphrase Thomas Carlyle’s reference to books and say, “Blessings
on Herodotus, or whoever it was who invented billiards.”

* * * * *

What is the Hottest Place in the United States?

A narrow valley in California, called “Death Valley,” between the
Panamint and Funeral Mountains, is considered the dryest and hottest
place in the United States.

Its central part is three or four hundred feet below sea level and is
covered with salt. Its temperature has reached the extreme of 122° F.

It is called “Death Valley” because a party of emigrants perished there
in 1849.

[Illustration: WHITE BLACKBERRY]

[Illustration: THE SPINELESS CACTUS IN FRUIT]

What are White Blackberries Like?

The accompanying illustrations show some remarkable white blackberries
which have been developed by the great horticulturist, Luther Burbank of
California. They grow thickly, are large in size and the taste is
similar to that of the ordinary variety. Some spineless cactus in fruit
are also shown. They make an excellent cattle food.

He has also originated a new fruit, the plumcot, by combining the plum
and the apricot; developed very excellent varieties of potatoes and
cherries; and produced various new apples and stoneless prunes as well
as new peaches, nuts, roses, callas, violet-odored lilies and many other
new varieties.

The son of a Massachusetts farmer, he became deeply interested in plant
life and engaged in experiments on hybridization of plants. Removing to
California, he established the Burbank Exposition Farms at Santa Rosa,
where he undertook the work of cross-breeding on an extended scale. In
1905 the Carnegie Institute granted him $10,000 yearly for ten years to
continue his work. He has very many extensive experiments under way and
has nearly 3,000 distinct botanical specimens in his plantation.

Why do They Have a Dog-Watch on Shipboard?

The “dog-watch” is a nautical term distinguishing two watches of two
hours each, from 4 to 6 P. M. and 6 to 8 P. M.

All the other watches count four hours each, and without the
introduction of the dog-watches, the same hours would always fall to be
kept as watch by the same portion of the crew.

How Much Gold has a 14-Carat Ring?

One often speaks of a ring as being 14-carat gold, or of 22- or 18-carat
watch cases or jewelry, but do all of us know just what we mean by 14,
18 or 22 carat?

Gold is divided into twenty-four parts--that is, pure gold is said to
contain twenty-four carats--the carat being just a measurement term. A
ring or watch case marked 14K or 18K means that fourteen or eighteen
parts of it are pure gold, the balance of the twenty-four carats being
some sort of alloy, copper being generally used. If articles of jewelry
were made of pure gold they would not wear well, as gold is a very soft
metal, and it is, therefore, necessary to mix the gold with some harder
substance.

What is an Electro-Magnet?

An electro-magnet is a piece of iron temporarily converted into a magnet
by means of a current of electricity sent through a wire which is coiled
around it. The wire is usually covered with silk, cotton, gutta percha
or some other insulator, to prevent the current from leaping across, and
compel it to travel through the whole length of the wire.

The more pure and soft the iron is, the stronger will its magnetism be
while it lasts, and the more completely will it disappear when the
current stops. Steel is less affected than soft iron for the time, but
remains permanently magnetized after the current ceases. Electro-magnets
are usually much more powerful than other magnets of the same size.

The iron which is magnetized by the current passing around it is called
the core. It is frequently straight, the wire being wound upon it like
thread upon a reel; but very frequently it has the shape of a U or
horseshoe, the wire being coiled round the two ends and the bend of the
U left uncovered.

The Story in a Pin[25]

A pin, so common and so cheap today, was once so expensive that only the
wealthy could afford even a few. The term pin-money dates from that time
and originally came from the allowance a husband gave his wife to
purchase pins.

From an historical point of view, it appears that the need of something
with which to fasten together pieces of cloth and like material has been
met from ancient times by various devices. Among the remains of the
bronze age are found pins and brooches of bronze. In Egyptian tombs have
been found elaborate and costly pins, which range in sizes from two
inches to seven or eight inches long, and have large gold heads or bands
of gold around the upper end. Designs were often worked on these heads
and bands. The largest of these pins were probably used for fastening
the hair. Till the middle of the sixteenth century the poorer class in
England used rude skewers of wood, while the more fortunate had pins
made of gold, silver and brass. The Indians, in the ancient cities of
Mexico, satisfied their need for pins by using the thorn of the agave.

As early as 1483, pins were important enough in England to warrant the
passing of a law by Parliament prohibiting their importation. By 1540,
however, they were being imported in large quantities from France.
Parliament again passed a law regarding pins in 1543. This act provided
that “no person shall put to sale any pins, but only such as shall be
double-headed, and have the heads soldered fast to the shank of the pin,
well smoothed, and shanks well shapen, the points well round filed,
canted, and sharpened.” Some pins of good quality were made at this
time, but a large portion of those against which the legislative
enactment was directed were made of iron wire, blanched and passed for
brass pins. Only three years after this prohibitory law was passed it
became obsolete because of the improvements which had been made in the
production of these articles. England continued to receive its
supply from France until John Tilsby began their manufacture in
Gloucestershire. His business increased to such an extent that in a few
years he had 1,500 people in his employ. In 1636 the pinmakers of London
formed a corporation and established the industry of Bristol and
Birmingham. This latter city is still the center of the industry in
England.

[Illustration: THE FIRST PIN IS A FLAT-HEADED COPPER PIN PROBABLY USED
FOR FASTENING HAIR. THE SECOND IS A STAR-HEADED BRONZE PIN. BOTH ARE OF
THE TYPES WHICH HAVE BEEN FOUND AMONG THE REMAINS OF THE BRONZE AGE. THE
THIRD PIN IS A HANDMADE PIN OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY]

During this period the pins were made with two coils of wire fastened at
one end of a length of wire, the other end of which was sharpened. First
a wire, somewhat finer than that which was to be used for the pin, was
coiled around a spit on a lathe. This was cut up into sections, each
consisting of two turns. These coils were then annealed or softened and
placed in a heap. Boys stuck the ends of the pins, which had been cut to
the proper length, into this pile until a coil stuck. A workman pressed
this coil in a die to make it hold to the pin. The head was then
soldered and the other end of the pin filed and sharpened. Finally the
pin was straightened and blanched or whitened.

In the United States the colonists early felt the need of local
production. The colonial legislature of Carolina offered prizes in 1775
for the first native-made pins and needles. The first American pins were
made in Rhode Island, during the Revolution, by Jeremiah Wilkinson.
About the same time, Samuel Slocum made pins in Providence. These were
handmade with twisted wire heads.

[Illustration: A VIEW OF THE PIN MACHINE ROOM IN A MODERN PINMAKING
PLANT

There are many types of pin machines which make anywhere from ninety to
three hundred pins a minute, depending on the quality of the pin made.]

Pinmaking machines were first invented in the United States. During the
War of 1812, the industry was started because of the difficulty of
getting pins from England, where most of them were made. The industry
was not successful, however, till 1836, when the Howe Manufacturing
Company was formed at Birmingham, Conn. It is a curious coincident that
the first successful American pin manufacturing company, making the new
machine-made pins, should be established in the Connecticut town of the
same name as the English city which had been the center of pinmaking for
nearly two hundred years.

In 1817 a paper was filed at the patent office by Seth Hunt, describing
a machine for making pins with “head, shaft, and point in one entire
piece.” This machine, however, did not come into use. Lemuel W. Wright,
of New Hampshire, secured, in 1824, an English patent for a machine for
making solid-headed pins. This was the beginning of the present
industry. A factory equipped with Wright’s machines was established in
London, but was not successful. Daniel Foot-Taylen, of Birmingham,
purchased this equipment and secured an extension of Wright’s patents
for five years from 1838. He carried the production of machine-made pins
to a commercial basis. Wright’s machines, however, did not complete all
operations. Dr. John Neland Howe, a physician of Bellevue Hospital, New
York City, formed a company in 1832 for the manufacture of pins. This
concern was not successful, but in 1835 a second company was formed by
Dr. Howe, who had great faith in the future of the industry. Nine years
later, Samuel Slocum, of Connecticut, invented a new machine for
sticking the pins on papers.

[Illustration: THE WHITENING ROOM, WHERE THE PINS ARE CLEANED AND PLATED

In the tumbling barrels the pins are cleaned and dried by tumbling in
sawdust which has been heated in the ovens in the center background.]

Since that time there have been many pin machines developed, each
accomplishing the same result in slightly different ways. In each case a
special stiff pin wire is drawn into the machine from a large hank,
which is placed on a drum on the machine. The wire is first passed
through a series of rapidly revolving, straightening rolls which take
out all twists and kinks. The proper length of wire is fed into the
machine automatically, and the end is gripped by a set of jaws. A small
part of the end of the wire extends beyond the jaws. This is struck
several rapid blows by a die called the header. After the head is thus
formed, the wire is cut off to the proper length and is then ready to be
pointed. It is now carried along by a shaft having a screw thread, and
is made to revolve rapidly by a belt which passes over it. The end to be
pointed passes over a series of coarse, medium and fine revolving files
or cutters. The pin now drops into a pan, ready to be finished after
being inspected.

In the finishing room, the pins are put into a revolving or tumbling
barrel and are rolled in sawdust, which absorbs all the oil, leaving
them clean and bright. They are now dropped through a blower, where the
sawdust is separated from the pins. The whitening is done by boiling the
pins in a large copper kettle, which also contains layers of grained tin
and a solution of argol or bitartrate of potash. After boiling for five
or six hours, they have a thin coating of tin, which gives them their
silvery appearance. Again they are cleaned, this time being washed in
clean water, then tumbled in strong soap water, and finally tumbled in
hot sawdust to dry them. The pins are separated from the sawdust as
before. From there the pins go to the sticking department, where they
are stuck on papers as you buy them. The sticking machine is of a simple
construction, but is wonderful in operation, and requires no attention
by the operator, except to keep it supplied with pins and papers.

[Illustration: SIZES]

The pins are put into a vibrating hopper, which slopes slightly towards
the sticking machine. The conductor from the hopper to the machine is
made of two strips of steel, down which the pins, held by their heads,
slide. They are taken from the conductor by a screw thread and fed to
the carrier, which takes thirty pins at a time and places them in front
of a set of thirty punches. They are then forced along thirty grooves in
the steel clamps, which crimp the paper, and on through the crimp. Thus
a whole row of pins is stuck at once. The paper is now advanced the
proper distance, and another row is stuck. When the center of the paper
is reached, after six rows have been stuck, the machine automatically
spaces the paper so as to skip the space used for the brand name. Then
six more rows are stuck, and the operator removes the completed paper
and inserts another without stopping the machine. These papers are
inspected to make certain that no poorly made pins have gotten by the
former inspection, are rolled and packed, usually in boxes of twelve
papers each.

Pins today are made in many sizes from the 3-1/2-inch stout blanket pins
down to the fine, slender, bronze pins used by entomologists, 4,500 of
which pins make an ounce. Toilet pins are usually made in six sizes as
shown in the illustrations. Besides the common or toilet pins, there are
today numerous special bank and desk pins which are made to meet special
requirements.

Pin production in the United States has reached a high stage of
development. The number of pins made in 1914 reached the tremendous
total of 25,000,000,000. These figures are almost too great for
comprehension. If all the pin wire used for these 25,000,000,000 pins
were in one piece it would go around the earth fifteen times. Safety
pins, hooks and eyes, and hairpins, are generally made by pin concerns.
Each of these different articles require very ingenious machines. Many
of them are almost human in their operation.

* * * * *

The popular name of the prominence seen in the front of the throat in a
man is called the “Adam’s apple” because of the story in the Old
Testament, telling of the eating of the forbidden fruit of the tree of
knowledge by Adam, a piece being supposed to have lodged in his throat
where the bulge appears.

[Illustration: AN ALPINE GLACIER]

[Illustration: THE MER DE GLACE

The upper view shows the method of crossing a glacier. Each of the
climbers is carrying an alpenstock, or staff with ice ax at one end and
spike at the other. The lower view is the famous sea of ice in
Switzerland.]

[Illustration: MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON

One of the largest glacial systems in the world radiating from a single
peak is situated on this mountain in western Washington.]

How are Glaciers Formed?

Away up in the high valleys formed among the peaks of the tallest
mountain ranges of both the Rocky Mountains and the mountains of Alaska,
as well as those in Switzerland and European countries, the snow freezes
into great solid masses because of the intense cold, and is forced by
its own pressure into vast fields and mountains of ice. This ice is not
like that produced by the freezing of water, but resembles more a very
hard, solid form of snow, being composed of thin layers filled with air
bubbles and more brittle and less transparent than the ice we are
accustomed to see. Glaciers exist in all zones in which mountains rise
above the snow-line, that is, the height where it is so cold that there
is always snow.

We all know that if we press two pieces of ordinary ice together each
piece will melt at the place where it touches the other and just in that
same way the pressure of the ice above them causes glaciers to be
continually moving downward, frequently reaching the borders of
cultivation even. As they descend they also experience a gradual
diminution from the action of the sun and rain, and from the heat of the
earth. Investigation has shown that they move very much like a river,
the middle and upper parts faster than the sides and bottom, similar to
the way in which a mass of thick mortar or a quantity of pitch flows
down an inclined trough. The rate at which a glacier moves generally
varies from eighteen to twenty-four inches in a day.

The Glacier National Park is the latest addition to the series of great
natural attractions which the United States Government has been
acquiring for years. It lies in Northern Montana, between the Canadian
border and the line of the Great Northern Railroad, and contains about a
million acres of natural wonders, ranging from verdant valleys and
wooded heights to glacial peaks. There are numerous glaciers and
mountain lakes and the locality presents many examples of sublime
scenery. The City of Tacoma, Washington, is situated in the valley below
Mt. Rainier and commands a wonderful view of that mountain, on which
there is situated one of the largest glacial systems in the world
radiating from any single peak.

One of the most famous glaciers of the Alps is the Mer de Glace,
belonging to Mont Blanc, in the valley of Chamouni, about fifty-seven
hundred feet above the level of the sea. Those of the Andes and the
Southern Alps of New Zealand are conspicuous, and they abound in Norway,
Iceland and Spitzbergen, but it is more especially in the chain of Monte
Rosa that the phenomena of glaciers are exhibited in their greatest
wonder, as also in their most interesting phases from a scientific point
of view.

How Large are Molecules?

When a great scientist named Sir William Thomson was asked about the
size of a molecule, he replied: “If a drop of water were magnified to
the size of the earth, the molecules would each occupy spaces greater
than those filled by small shot and smaller than those occupied by
cricket balls.” That gives us about as clear an idea as it is possible
to get of the size of molecules. And yet molecules are made up of even
smaller particles, called atoms. An atom is the smallest division of
anything that we know about now.

A molecule of water is made up of three atoms. Evaporation of water
consists of the movement of these atoms in such a way as to make the
liquid water change into a gas. Freezing water into ice is caused by
making the molecules, and, in turn, the atoms, stick to each other. It
takes a great deal of power to separate the molecules in water, and for
this reason water was long regarded as something which could not be
divided up, or, in other words, a basic element, such as the oxygen in
the air.

Pictorial Story Of The Fishing Industry

[Illustration: FISHING

COMING ABOARD

HALIBUT FISHING

ICED UP

BAITING UP

Six pictures by courtesy of Gloucester (Mass.) Board of Trade.]

[Illustration: MODERN FISHING VESSELS

NIAGARA

ARTHUR JAMES

TARTAR

MARY DE COSTE

ALICE]

[Illustration: SETTING THE TRAWL

HAULING THE TRAWL]

[Illustration: DRAWING THE NET]

[Illustration: FISH CURING

PITCHING OUT

FLAKE YARD

FISH WHARF]

[Illustration: PREPARING Salt Fish FOR MARKET

PACKING

SKINNING

BONE PULLING

DRY FISH SHED]

The Story in a Box of California Oranges

For several hundred years oranges have grown in this country. For about
the last forty years men have made a business of growing them.

Oranges and lemons are called citrus fruits on account of their content
of citric acid.

The two predominating varieties in California are the Washington Navel
and the Valencia orange.

The California Navel orange is in the markets of the country from
December 1st until about June 1st, when the California Valencia type
takes its place and remains until the latter part of November.

It is a fact, therefore, that oranges are now picked fresh every day the
year round in this country, and that the California oranges you buy in
the summer are not fruit that has been held in storage, but are as fresh
as any fresh fruit that the retailers offer.

Most California oranges and lemons are picked from the trees by gloved
hands, so that the finger nails of the pickers will not injure the skin,
for even a tiny scratch on the skin of an orange or lemon is sufficient
to open the way for germs of decay.

Mr. G. Harold Powell, formerly connected with the United States
government, was the discoverer of this source of great loss to the
citrus industry. The use of gloves in the picking is thought to save the
growers approximately $1,000,000 yearly.

When the oranges have been picked they are sent in boxes to a packing
house where they are put through an automatic washing machine which
thoroughly scrubs all dust and dirt from the skin; they then pass
through a dryer and thence along a belt to men and women who roll the
oranges over for examination and distribute them to other belts
according to their color and the condition of the skin with regard to
blemishes of all kinds. The oranges then pass over automatic
sizers--that is, V-shaped rollers revolving horizontally. The oranges
continue along these rollers until the space between the rollers has
widened to the point where each particular size drops into a labeled
bin. The sizes are designated by numbers, such as 150, 176, 250, etc.,
these figures signifying the number of oranges that may be packed in a
regulation size box in which the jobbers and retailers buy the fruit. In
other words, size 150 is a larger orange than 250.

The quality of an orange is judged in the packing house merely by the
color and the condition of the skin. Size has something to do with it,
but this is only one consideration. Many of the smaller oranges are just
as good to eat and sometimes very much better than the larger sizes, and
the condition of the skin, unless it happens to be broken in any way so
that germs of decay can enter, ordinarily has no depreciable effect upon
the flavor. The public, of course, finally judges an orange by its
sweetness and tenderness, and a large, well-colored, smooth fruit is
likely to reach the market in better condition than the rougher fruit
which has a marred skin.

Oranges are usually divided in grades into four classes called, in the
order of their quality, Extra Choice, Choice, Standards and Culls.

Lemons are handled throughout the processes in practically the same
manner as oranges.

[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._

WHERE THE GOLDEN ORANGE GROWS.

The far-reaching orange groves surrounding Riverside are one of the most
beautiful of all beautiful sights in Southern California, and the
fragrance of the blossoms is subtlest witchery.]

After the fruit has passed the graders and the several sizes are
separated, it goes to the packers, who pick up each orange or lemon and
place a tissue wrapper around it, and press it firmly into the shipping
box until the fruit “stands up high” above the top of the box. The cover
is then nailed on and the box is placed in the freight car which is
waiting at a convenient door. The average car carries 400 boxes of
oranges or lemons.

The fruit is shipped in refrigerator cars, and is usually about eight
days in making the trip from Southern California to the Eastern markets.

The California Fruit Growers’ Exchange ships on an average of sixty-five
per cent of the California production of citrus fruits. This is a
strictly non-profit, co-operative organization of 8,000 growers, the
largest body of agriculturists operating on the non-profit co-operative
plan in the world, and probably the most successful. At least, the cost
to market the citrus crop under this system is lower than the marketing
cost of any other agricultural crop in the world, which accounts in part
for the fact that oranges and lemons are sold throughout the United
States at retail prices which place this fruit within the reach of all.

* * * * *

What Kind of Steel Knives do not Stain nor Rust?

Shortly after the first of the year, in 1916, the U. S. Consul at
Sheffield, England, reported that a new steel had been introduced there
for use in making table cutlery. It was said to be untarnishable and
unstainable even when used with the strongest acid foods, as well as
non-rusting. The new product, which is called “Tirth’s Stainless” steel,
can be thoroughly cleansed by ordinary washing with soap and water, and
cutlery made from it will retain its original polish after use. The
properties claimed for it are of the steel itself and not the result of
any treatment; consequently knives made from the new product can easily
be sharpened in the regular way without fear of resulting damage.

While the initial cost of cutlery made from “Tirth’s Steel” will
probably be about double the usual cost, for not only is the price of
the steel considerably more than that of other steels used for the same
purpose, but it also costs more to work up, it is nevertheless expected
to prove a welcome discovery to restaurant and hotel keepers as well as
other large users of table cutlery because of the immense saving in
labor occasioned by its use.

Why is it Necessary to Keep Unusually Quiet when Fishing?

The experienced fisherman who smiles at the amateur’s restless fidgeting
and complaining has discovered by careful observation that the fish who
swims around in such an exasperating manner just a foot or so away from
the temptingly baited hook has had an advance tip that something out of
the ordinary is going on up above him. For sound, whether it be the
noise of an oarlock or a companion’s casual remark, can be heard more
than four times as easily by the fish in the water beneath than it can
up above in the air. Sound travels very quickly through the air,
traversing ten hundred and ninety feet in a second, but it reaches
forty-seven hundred feet away under water in the same time.

When the crowd on the other side of the baseball grounds yells across
the field it seems as though we have heard their cheers as soon as they
have been given, and so we have for all practical purposes, although in
reality half a second has elapsed while the sound has been coming across
the field. The time taken by sound in traveling is more apparent when
the volume is sufficient to carry it a long distance. The sound of an
explosion of a large quantity of dynamite and ammunition in Jersey City
was not heard in Philadelphia, ninety miles away, for over seven minutes
after it occurred.

[Illustration: CLIFF DWELLINGS, WALPI, ARIZONA]

[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._

HOMES OF THE LONG-AGO

Famous reproduction of the Cliff-dwellers’ Ruins, near Colorado Springs,
Col. The cliff-dwellers of early America built their habitations in the
canyons of the Colorado and Rio Grande, where the action of the elements
had worn away a layer of soft rock, leaving layers of hard rock above
and below as roof and floor for the dwelling.]

What were the First Apartment Houses in this Country?

A great many years ago, long before the white men came to America, there
was a race of Indians called “cliff-dwellers,” because they built their
dwelling places far up on the sides of steep cliffs. They probably made
their homes so hard to reach in order that they might be safe from
visits of their enemies. While many of their homes were small
single-family houses, there were also a number of large two and
three-story dwellings with many rooms in which different families lived.

Some of these cliff dwellings may still be seen in the valleys of the
Rio Grande and the Rio Colorado and its tributaries. Close examination
shows that many of them were very skilfully built, every advantage being
taken of the natural rock formations, and the stones being dressed and
laid in clay mortar, very much as the bricklayer does his work on an
up-to-date apartment house today. The outsides of the buildings somewhat
resembled the cement houses which have been put up in later days, a coat
of clay being spread on the outside walls and carefully smoothed off.
Oftentimes the inner walls were plastered too.

Many relics of the inhabitants have been found in these cliff dwellings,
although we cannot tell how they lived, for the region is now rainless
and therefore destitute of food plants. Conditions must have been
different then and the ground less barren.

Why do We Call 32° Above Zero “Freezing”?

We know that freezing is the transformation of a liquid into solid under
the influence of cold. Each liquid always solidifies at some fixed
temperature, which is called its freezing point, and the solid melts
again at the same temperature. Thus the freezing point and the melting
point, or point of fusion, are the same, and the point is always the
same for the same substance.

Consequently the freezing point of water, or the melting point of ice
(32° F.), is taken for one of the fixed points in thermometry. The
freezing point of mercury is 39° below zero, of sulphuric ether 46°
below zero, of alcohol 203° below zero F.

How is Fresco Painting Done?

In producing fresco paintings, a finished drawing on paper, called a
cartoon, exactly the size of the intended picture, is first made, to
serve as a model.

The artist then has a limited portion of the wall covered over with a
fine sort of plaster, and upon this he traces from his cartoon the part
of the design suited for the space. As it is necessary to the success
and permanency of his work that the colors should be applied while the
plaster is yet damp, no more of the surface is plastered at one time
than what the artist can finish in one day. A portion of the picture
once commenced, needs to be completely finished before leaving it, as
fresco does not admit of retouching after the plaster has become dry. On
completing a day’s work, any unpainted part of the plaster is removed,
cutting it neatly along the outline of a figure or other definite form,
so that the joining of the plaster for the next day’s work may be
concealed.

The art is very ancient, remains of it being found in India, Egypt,
Mexico, etc. Examples of Roman frescoes are found in Pompeii and other
places. After the beginning of the fifteenth century fresco painting
became the favorite process of the greatest Italian masters, and many of
their noblest pictorial efforts are frescoes on the walls of palaces and
churches.

Some ancient wall paintings are executed in what is called “Fresco
Secco,” which is distinguished from true fresco by being executed on dry
plaster, which is moistened with lime water before the colors are
applied.

Fresco painting has in recent years again been revived, and works of
this kind have been executed in the British Houses of Parliament and
other public and private buildings, more especially in Germany.

The Story of a Piece of Chewing Gum[26]

The original “chewing gum” was spruce gum, the exudation of the cut
branches of the spruce or fir tree. Later, pure white paraffin wax,
variously flavored, took its place, but only in its turn to give way to
the “chicle” now almost exclusively employed.

Though its employment in the manufacture of chewing gum is of
comparatively recent date, chicle was used by the Indians prior to the
days of Columbus as a means of quenching their thirst. It was first
commercially imported as a substitute for rubber, but its peculiar
suitability for chewing gum has resulted in the entire product being
consumed by that industry. In 1885 the United States imported 929,959
pounds of chicle. The growth of the chewing gum industry is shown by the
importation of nearly 5,500,000 pounds for the year ending with June 30,
1910.

The trees are “tapped” during the rainy season. The sap, or juice, as it
exudes has the appearance of milk, but gradually changes to a yellow
color and is about the thickness of treacle. The tree drains rapidly,
the full supply of “milk” being generally obtained within a few hours,
but an interval of several years usually elapses before it will yield a
fresh supply. The milk differs from the juice obtained from the sugar
maple, for example, in that it is not the life sap of the tree, and the
flow varies greatly, some trees which show full life yielding much less
than apparently poorer specimens. “Crude chicle” is obtained by simple
boiling and evaporation of the milk, accompanied by frequent kneading.
The product, as pressed in rough molds, is of a light gray color.

The bulk of the crude chicle manufactured is shipped in blocks to
Canada, where it is further evaporated and carefully refined prior to
importation into the United States. When the chicle arrives at one of
the chewing-gum factories it is immediately turned over to the grinding
department. It comes from Mexico in cakes, varying in size from
twelve- to eighteen-inch cubes; these are a putty color, but in
composition chicle is porous and brittle, particularly after it is
thoroughly dried. In the cubical form it is said to contain from
twenty-five to thirty per cent moisture. After it is ground and dried it
is practically free of moisture, but one of the most difficult problems
which the manufacturer faces is to thoroughly dry chicle before he
proceeds to treat it for its introduction as the base of chewing gum.

The cubes are broken by a large steam hammer into irregular-shaped
pieces weighing from a few ounces to a pound. These chunks are then run
through grinding machines, which reduce the chicle to a coarse meal.
Sometimes this breaking and grinding is done in Mexico, but the duty on
ground dried chicle is five cents per pound more than upon cube chicle.

Chicle meal is dried upon frames in a special drying room, which is kept
at a temperature of 80° F. An electric blower exhausts all of the
moisture from the air. The pure meal is then transformed into a thick
syrup under intense heat and passed through a filtering machine, one of
the latest and most expensive pieces of machinery employed in the entire
manufacture of chewing gum. This machine has practically solved the
perplexing problem of separating impurities and foreign substances from
chicle. Before the filterer was invented it was almost impossible for
the manufacturer of chewing gum to produce gum entirely free from
particles of grit.

During the process of filtration the chicle is also sterilized, and
comes from the machine as pure as distilled water.

[Illustration: A BATTERY OF SUGAR-COATING MACHINES]

[Illustration: A CORNER OF THE SCORING ROOM]

[Illustration: THE LABORATORY]

[Illustration: WRAPPING AND PACKING DEPARTMENT]

It is next passed to the cooking department and placed in huge
steam-jacketed kettles, which revolve continually and thus keep the
chicle from scorching. While it is being cooked in these large kettles
sugar is added, and as soon as the gum is done it is placed in a
kneading machine. It is now about the consistency of bread or cake
dough, and after being kneaded and cooled, flavor is added.

Peppermint, spearmint and other oils used are triply distilled and
absolutely free of all impurities. The orange oil comes from Messina and
is always the product of the very latest orange crop.

From the kneading machine it reaches a sizing table, to which are
attached heavy rollers for reducing the mass of gum to a strip about a
quarter of an inch in thickness and twelve inches wide.

At this stage it will be seen the gum begins to take on a ribbon shape.
As it comes from the first series of rollers, it is cut into short
lengths sprinkled with powdered sugar, and these short lengths are
passed in sticks about two feet high on to a second series of rollers.
Under the second rollers each short length of gum is once more reduced
in thickness and extended in length.

The surfaces of the second rollers contain knives running lengthwise and
around. These knives partially cut the gum to its final size. The thin
sheets are then sent to another drying room. They remain in this room
from twelve to forty-eight hours, according to the season of the year,
and are then ready for the wrapping machines.

Machines have also been invented which stamp out little nuggets of gum.
To be finished these pieces are sent to a long room containing a line of
twelve large white kettles, each on a separate base. It is these
machines which coat the nuggets with snowy sugar. The kettles revolve
until a sufficient coating of the liquid sugar has adhered.

The chewing gum wrapping machine is considered by machinery builders to
be one of the most ingenious automatic manufacturing machines in use. It
is about the size of an ordinary typewriter desk and is operated by one
girl. She receives the thin sheet of partially cut gum from the last
drying room. The machine operator drops the slabs of gum into a feeding
chute. Each slab is here automatically wrapped in wax and silver-foil
papers. These papers are fed from rolls, as printing paper is fed to a
newspaper press.

As the slabs are wrapped they slide into a pocket. When five of them are
finished, two steel fingers remove them and put on the final outside
wrapper. The complete, wrapped packages of five slabs slide along a
little runway into boxes.

The same girl who feeds the gum into the wrapping machine closes the
lids of the boxes and places them on a packing table by her side. When
the packing table is filled with boxes a boy removes it to the shipping
room, where it is crated and forwarded to the wholesale dealers.

* * * * *

Where did the Ferris Wheel get Its Name?

The Ferris wheel was named after its builder, George W. Ferris, an able
engineer, now dead.

The original Ferris wheel was exhibited at the Chicago World’s Fair. It
was a remarkable engineering feature.

Its diameter was 270 feet and its circumference 825 feet. Its highest
point was 280 feet. The axle was a steel bar, 45 feet long and 32 inches
thick. Fastened to each of the twin wheels was a steel hub 16 feet in
diameter. The two towers at the axis supporting the wheel were 140 feet
high, and the motive power was secured from a 1,000 horse-power steam
engine under the wheel.

The thirty-six cars on the wheel each comfortably seated forty persons.
The wheel and passengers weighed 12,000 tons.

By the Ferris wheel the almost indefinite application of the tension
spoke to wheels of large dimensions has been vindicated, the expense
being far smaller than that of the stiff spoke.

[Illustration: STEEL RAIL MILL

Interior view of the Bethlehem Steel Company’s rail mill finishing
department, showing the machinery for straightening and drilling
rails.]

What is Done to Keep Railroad Rails from Breaking?

The breaking of rails has been the cause of much attention on the part
of railroad and steel engineering experts ever since the tendency toward
the construction of heavy locomotives and greater train loads became
evident.

The report of the Interstate Commerce Commission for 1915 gave broken
rails as the cause of 3,345 accidents, in which 205 people were killed
and 7,341 were injured, with a property loss of $3,967,188. A steel man
is authority for the statement that one cold winter day in 1913, a
single locomotive, making excessive speed, broke about a hundred rails
in the distance of a mile on one of the leading railroad systems.

Both steel and railroad men were, therefore, much interested in the
announcement made by the New York Central Railroad, in August, 1916, to
the effect that the road’s staff of specialists had discovered the cause
and remedy for the hidden flaws in steel rails. It was said that no
rails produced under the specifications provided by them had yet
developed any fissures.

The process by which those rails were prevented from developing fissures
consisted mainly of rolling them from reheated blooms, and although that
method is said to have been used in a number of rail mills for many
years, no mention had previously been recorded of the prevention of
breakage in that way. The experiments are, therefore, sure to be watched
with a great deal of interest, and it is probable that fewer accidents
will occur from broken rails in the near future.

The technical man will be interested in an outline printed in the _Iron
Age_, which said: “Induced interior transverse fissures in basic
open-hearth rails are due in part to an occasional hot rail being cooled
so rapidly by the rolls or so chilled by the gusts of air before
recalescence on the hot beds as to cause a log of some of the
transformations of the metal in the interior of the rail head. Induced
interior transverse fissures can only develop in the track from the
effects of preceding causes, either of which is no longer a mystery.”

The report of the railroad experts also laid stress on the theory that
“gagging” rails--subjecting them to blows for the purpose of
straightening them--was also likely to cause faults by injuring the
metal.

How does a “Master Clock” Control Others by Electricity?

With the aid of electric currents, one clock can be made to control
other clocks, so as to make them keep accurate time.

By means of this method one high-class clock, usually in an astronomical
observatory, compels a number of other clocks at considerable distances
to keep time with it.

The clocks thus controlled ought to be so regulated that if left to
themselves they would always gain a little, but not more than a few
minutes per day.

The pendulum of the controlling clock, in swinging to either side, makes
a brief contact, which completes the circuit of a galvanic battery, and
thus sends a current to the controlled clock. The currents pass through
a coil in the bob of the pendulum of the controlled clock, and the
action between these currents and a pair of fixed magnets urges the
pendulum to one side and to the other alternately. The effect is that,
though the controlled clock may permanently continue to be a fraction of
a second in advance of the controlling clock, it can never be so much as
half a second in advance.

An electrically controlled clock usually contains a small magnetic
needle, which shows from which direction the currents are coming. The
arrangements are usually such that at every sixtieth second no current
is sent, and the needle stands still. Any small error is thus at once
detected.

The Story of the Calculating Machine

How did Men Learn to Count?

Historians tell us that man was able to count long before he was able to
write. Of course, he could not count very far, but it was enough for his
needs at that time. He had no money and very few possessions of any
kind, so that he did not have much occasion to use arithmetic.

It was fairly simple for prehistoric men to distinguish one from two,
and to distinguish a few from a great number, but it was more difficult
for him to learn to think of a definite number of objects between these
extremes. Those who have studied the evolution of figures say that man
found it hard to think of a number of objects without using a mark or a
finger or something to stand for each object. That is how the first
method of counting came into use.

Because man had ten fingers and thumbs, he learned to count in tens.
When he had counted ten, he could make a mark to remind him of the fact,
and then count them over again. Some of the early races learned to
designate units from tens and tens from hundreds by working their
fingers in various ways. Other peoples also made use of their toes in
counting, so that they could count up to twenty without getting
bothered.

Cantor, the historian, tells of a South African tribe which employed an
unusual system of finger counting. Three men sat together facing a
fourth who did the counting. Each of the three held up his fingers for
the fourth man to count. The first man’s ten fingers and thumbs
represented units; the second man represented tens, and the third
hundreds. By this means, it was possible to count up to 999.

Who Invented the First Adding Machine?

Early cuneiform inscriptions, made about 2200 B. C., show that the
Babylonians had developed a fairly extensive system of figuring. This
was in the days of the patriarch Abraham. When men’s minds were
overtaxed with the strain of counting into the hundreds and thousands,
the Babylonians invented the first adding machine, a “pebble board,” a
ruled surface on which pebbles were shifted about to represent different
values.

The next adding and calculating machine was an evolution from the digits
of the human hand and is known as the abacus in China, and the soroban
in Japan.

The abacus may be defined as an arrangement of movable beads which slip
along fixed rods, indicating by their arrangement some definite
numerical quantity. Its most familiar form is in a boxlike arrangement,
divided longitudinally by a narrow ridge of two compartments, one of
which is roughly some three times larger than the other. Cylindrical
rods placed at equal intervals apart pass through the framework and are
fixed firmly into the sides. On these rods the counters are beaded. Each
counter slides along the rod easily and on each rod there are six tamas
or beads. Five of these slide on the longest segment of the rod and the
remaining one on the shorter. Addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and even square and cube root can be performed on the abacus,
and in the hands of a skilled operator considerable speed can be
obtained.

[Illustration: FINGER COUNTING WAS COMMON AMONG EARLIER PEOPLES, AND WAS
BROUGHT TO A FAIR DEGREE OF EFFICIENCY BY SOUTH AFRICANS

_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._]

[Illustration: THE “ABACUS” WAS ONE OF THE EARLIEST AIDS TO CALCULATION

It is still used extensively in China, and occasionally will be found in
Chinese laundries in the United States.

_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._]

The Oriental tradesman does not deign to perplex himself by a process of
mental arithmetic; he seizes his abacus, prepares it by a tilt, makes a
few rapid, clicking movements and his calculations are completed. We
always look with some slight contempt upon this method of calculation,
but a little experience and investigation would tend to transform this
contempt into admiration, for it may be safely asserted that even the
simplest of all arithmetical operations, the abacus, possesses
distinctive advantages over the mental or figuring process. In
competition in simple addition between a “lightning calculator” and an
ordinary Japanese small tradesman, the Japanese would easily win the
contest.

Blaise Pascal, the wonderful Frenchman, who discovered the theorem in
conic sections, or Pascal’s hexogram, was not only one of the foremost
mathematicians of his day but also excelled in mechanics; when he was
nineteen years old he produced the first machine for the carrying of
tens and the first arithmetical machine, as we know it, was invented by
him about 1641. This was the first calculating machine made with dials.
The same principle, that of using discs with figures on their
peripheries, is employed in present-day calculating machines. Among
these are numbering machines of all kinds, speedometers, cyclometers and
counters used on printing presses.

[Illustration: A MODERN BOOKKEEPING MACHINE, USED FOR LEDGER POSTING AND
STATEMENT MAKING

It has seventeen “banks” or rows of keys, is electrically operated, and
automatically adds, subtracts, and computes balances.

_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._]

Who Discovered the Slide Rule Principle?

It was early in the seventeenth century that Napier, a native of Naples,
invented the first actual mechanical means of calculating. He arranged
strips of bone, on which were figures, so that they could be brought
into various fixed combinations. The instrument was called “Napier’s
rod” or “Napier’s bones.” It was the beginning of the slide rule, which
has been found of invaluable aid to accountants and engineers.

One trouble with all these contrivances was that, although they aided
man to figure, they offered no means of making a record of the work. The
man who used these machines had no way of checking his work to know if
it was right unless he did it all over again.

The first machine to perform multiplication by means of successive
additions was invented by Leibnitz in the year 1671 and completed in
1694. It employed the principle of the “stepped reckoner.” This model
was kept first at Göttingen and afterward at Hanover, but it did not act
efficiently, as the gears were not cut with sufficient accuracy. This
was long before the days of accurate machine tools.

The first satisfactory calculating machine of this nature was that of
C. X. Thomas, which was brought out about 1820. It is usually called the
Thomas de Colmar Arithmometer. This Thomas type of machine, which is
commonly known as the beveled gear type, is still in use today in modern
business.

The “Difference Engine.”

In the year 1822 a very ambitious project was conceived by Charles
Babbage. He commenced to construct an automatic calculating machine,
which he called a “difference engine.” The work was continued during
the following twenty years, the English government contributing about
$85,000 to defray its cost. Babbage himself spent a further sum of about
$30,000. At the end of that time the construction of the engine, though
nearly finished, was unfortunately abandoned, owing to some
misunderstanding with the government. A portion of this engine is
exhibited in South Kensington Museum, London, along with other examples
of Babbage’s work. If the engine had been finished it would have
contained seven columns of wheels, twenty wheels in each column, and
also a contrivance for stereotyping the tables calculated by it. It was
intended to perform the most extended calculations required in astronomy
and navigation, and to stamp a record of its work into plates of copper
or other material.

[Illustration: CHARLES BABBAGE’S “ENGINE OF DIFFERENCES” WAS THE FIRST
ADDING MACHINE INVENTED WHICH WAS DESIGNED TO PRINT A RECORD OF ITS
WORK, BUT IT WAS NOT A SUCCESS

_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._]

Babbage began to design his “analytical engine” in 1833 and he put
together a small portion of it shortly before his death in 1871. This
engine was to be capable of evaluating any algebraic formula. The
formula it is desired to evaluate would be communicated to the engine by
two sets of perforated cards similar to those used in the Jacquard loom.
These cards would cause the engine automatically to operate on the
numerical data placed in it, in such a way as to produce the correct
result. Notwithstanding its simple action, its structure is complicated
by a large amount of adding mechanism. A complete set of adding wheels
with carrying gear being required for the tabular number, and every
order of difference except the highest order.

After Babbage, there was much experimenting done by inventors to produce
a real adding and listing machine. Also inspired by Babbage’s work
Scheutz of Stockholm made a “difference engine,” which was exhibited in
England in 1864, and subsequently acquired for Dudley Observatory,
Albany, N. Y. Scheutz’s engine had mechanism for calculating with four
orders of differences of sixteen figures each.

As far as we know the first patent in this country issued by the patent
office for a calculating machine was to O. L. Castle of Alton, Illinois,
in 1850. It was for a ten-key adding machine which did not print and
only added in one column.

Work on Some of the Present-Day Models.

Frank S. Baldwin, a construction engineer, living in the United States,
began to work on calculating machines in 1870. In 1874 he received a
patent for a small hand adding machine. In 1875 a patent was granted
him on a calculating machine. This machine was along entirely original
lines. Mr. Baldwin did not even know of the existence of the Thomas
machine at that time. The machine had a number of important advantages
over the Thomas system. Scientists were very much interested in the
invention at the time, and the John Scott medal for meritorious
inventions was conferred upon Mr. Baldwin by the Franklin Institute. The
only other invention being honored in that year (1875) was the George
Westinghouse air brake.

[Illustration: THE MODERN ADDING MACHINE

_Courtesy of the Monroe Calculating Machine Company._]

This calculating machine, however, seemed to be too much in advance of
the times, and Mr. Baldwin was unable to interest capital in it. He was
very successful in his business as construction engineer and continued
to spend all his spare time and money in experimental work. He brought
out a number of models at later dates with important improvements.

In the early eighties one of Mr. Baldwin’s 1875 models found its way to
Europe into the hands of one Ohdner, a Swede. He took out patents in all
European countries on a machine that did not vary in any important
particular from Mr. Baldwin’s machine, and several large manufacturing
companies in Europe took it up. It is now appearing under ten to fifteen
different names in Europe, the most important being “Brunsviga” and
Triumphator in Germany. There is no essential difference between the
machines they are turning out today and Mr. Baldwin’s original machine.
More than 50,000 machines of this type have been sold throughout the
world.

[Illustration: ONE OF THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL ADDING AND LISTING MACHINES

_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._]

In 1883 a young man who started to work in a bank in Auburn, N. Y.,
discovered that nine-tenths of his work was mechanical addition. He also
found that the human brain is but an imperfect tool, incapable of
sustained effort without accident. His health gave way under the strain,
and he quit the bank to begin work in a machine shop in St. Louis.

This was William S. Burroughs. He was of mechanical turn of mind, with
an intense hobby for painful accuracy. By lamplight at home he worked
out pencil outlines of a machine which would write figures and at the
same time add them. It required the most painstaking work for him to
make a machine to do what he had in mind. His early associates say of
Burroughs that no ordinary materials were good enough for his creation.
His drawings were on metal plates that would not stretch nor shrink by
the fraction of a hair. He worked with hardened tools ground to a point,
and when he struck a center or drew a line, he did it under a
microscope.

In 1884 Burroughs took his plans to a St. Louis dry goods merchant, who
thought so well of the idea that he raised $700 toward forming a
company. The young man took up his work in the machine shop conducted by
Joseph Boyer.

It was in January, 1885, that he applied for his patent, which was not
issued until 1887.

His mechanism throughout operated on the pivotal principle. This means a
minimum of friction, therefore the least wear on the machine and the
least exertion on the part of the operator. The principle elements in
the machine remain practically unchanged today, a fact which testifies
to the excellence of the inventor’s work.

Experimenting on the machine swallowed a great deal of capital, and the
stockholders of the company he had formed became impatient. Burroughs
objected strenuously, for he did not wish to market the machine until he
was convinced that it was perfect, but he finally agreed to manufacture
fifty machines.

[Illustration: THE BOYER MACHINE SHOP, ST. LOUIS, WHERE ONE OF THE FIRST
SUCCESSFUL ADDING AND LISTING MACHINES WAS BORN

_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._]

In his public demonstrations, he could do wonders with the machine. The
public was skeptical, however, and some averred that he was a “lightning
calculator” who did sums in his head and printed them on the machine.
The first machines worked all right for the inventor, but inexperienced
operators obtained surprising results through punching the keys and
jerking the crank.

To meet this trouble and make the machines “fool proof,” he invented the
“automatic control” in 1890. This was a governor, called the “dash
pot”--a small cylinder partially filled with oil, and in which was a
plunger. This, in connection with an ingenious management of springs,
absorbed the shocks and governed the machine so that no matter what was
done to it, it would operate only at a certain speed. It is this same
shock-absorbing device which is used to catch the recoil on the immense
siege guns used in modern warfare.

Other improvements were made, and in 1891 the first hundred machines
that were really marketable were manufactured. While still flushed with
his success, Burroughs thought of the first fifty machines which had
proved such a disappointment. These machines still remained in a dusty
storeroom to mock him. Determined to get them out of his sight and
memory, he seized them and threw them one by one from a window to the
pavement below.

[Illustration: “THERE’S AN END TO MY TROUBLES,” SAID WILLIAM SEWARD
BURROUGHS AS HE THREW INTO THE STREET THE FIRST FIFTY ADDING MACHINES HE
HAD MADE

He wished nothing to remain to remind him of this early failure.

_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._]

When he had disposed of the last one, he called Mr. Boyer to see the
ruin. “There,” he exclaimed, “I have ended the last of my troubles.”

The first machines were called “Registering Accountants,” and
“Arithmometers.” Burroughs lived to see the fulfilment of his dreams and
the machine a commercial success. He died September 14, 1898, at his
country home in Citronelle, Alabama, a victim of tuberculosis.

There were at that time 8,000 banks in the country, and it was
Burroughs’ idea that as soon as these were supplied the market for
adding machines would be exhausted. Today, there are more than 200,000
adding machines of that one make in use.

The need for an all-around office assistant that could multiply, divide,
subtract as easily as it could add, was an idea nourished in the mind
and thought of a young student of the University of Michigan.

After graduation, Jay R. Monroe turned his attention to clerical and
commercial lines. He became acquainted with all the different types of
adding and so-called calculating machines. He saw their limitations and
restrictions. He saw the need for versatility--for more simplicity in
operation--for getting away from arbitrary rules--for release from the
sapping mental tax.

[Illustration: THE LATEST MODEL CALCULATING MACHINE

_Courtesy of the Monroe Calculating Machine Company._]

So in 1911 Monroe met Mr. Baldwin. Mr. Monroe realized the possibilities
of Mr. Baldwin’s idea. Together they set about designing the machine to
make it as nearly perfect as possible in adaptation to the needs of
modern business.

They produced a machine in which the best of the European features are
said to be combined with the operating ease and simplicity of
American-made machines. Provision is made for the correction of errors,
and operation is in two directions, forward for addition and
multiplication, and backward for subtraction and division. The latest
model is a desk machine, occupying less than one square foot of space
and weighing about twenty-six pounds.

One of the latest developments of the adding machine is a type that will
post ledgers and statements. This machine is said to be the final step
in relieving bookkeeping of its drudgery.

[Illustration: THE “DUODECILLION”--THE LARGEST CAPACITY ADDING MACHINE
IN THE WORLD--HAS FORTY ROWS OF KEYS AND WILL ADD TO WITHIN A UNIT OF
TEN DUODECILLIONS

To appreciate this prodigious figure, imagine that a marvelous
high-speed flying machine were invented that would go to the sun and
back in a day. If you made this 186,000,000-mile trip every day, it
would take you just 14,729,700,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 years to
travel a duodecillion miles.

_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._]

How Big is the Largest Adding Machine in the World?

The largest adding machine ever made was produced in 1915 and has a
capacity of forty columns, or within one unit of ten duodecillions. This
is a number too prodigious for the mind of man to grasp. This machine
was exhibited at the Panama Expositions in 1915.

To get an idea of the capacity of this machine, suppose that your
income is $1,000,000 a second. At this rate for twenty-four hours a
day, with no stops for eating or sleeping, it would take you
352,331,022,041,828,731,333,333,333 years to accumulate a duodecillion
dollars. All the hairs on the heads of all human beings, which are
supposed to be numberless, are only a small fraction of a duodecillion.

This machine has a practical use in adding several sums simultaneously,
and takes the place of from ten to a dozen smaller machines.

Adding machines are made that figure in English pence, shillings and
pounds; in Japanese yen, and in the monetary system of most civilized
countries. They will change inches into feet, pounds into bushels, and
do other “stunts” that would make the average schoolboy envious when it
comes to arithmetic.

The most complicated problems of multiplication, division and fractions
may be handled with ease on these machines. They have taken a great part
in the day’s work of modern business, and it would be hard to imagine
how the world’s finance and industry could be handled without them.
Adding and calculating machines have become almost as necessary in
modern business as the telephone and the typewriter.

How are Adding Machines Used?

Adding machines may be found at work in all kinds of business places
from corner groceries to department stores and manufacturing plants. In
the various offices and plants of the Western Electric Company, which
are scattered through the country, more than 1,600 machines are in use.
Other big users are railroads, banks, mail-order houses, and city, state
and government offices.

The Bank of France, the Bank of England, and other of the world’s
largest financial institutions do the burden of their figure work on
adding machines made in the United States. The German post-office uses
more than 1,200 machines. There are individual American banks, like the
Corn Exchange National Bank of New York, that employ as many as 150
adding machines in their work.

[Illustration: ONE OF THE SMALLEST ADDING MACHINES IS ADAPTED FOR USE BY
RETAIL MERCHANTS AND OTHERS WHO DO NOT ADD FIGURES OF MORE THAN FIVE
DIGITS

_Courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company._]

Some surprising uses are found for adding machines. One is used in a
Japanese boarding house in California; another is used by a retired
Dayton millionaire to count the coupons he clips; the Rockefeller
Sanitary Commission uses a machine in fighting the hook-worm; the United
States government uses thousands in making census tabulations and in
other ways. Others are used by newsboys, egg farmers, housewives,
undertakers, dentists, judges in automobile races, and by persons in a
thousand different lines of business. Without adding machines the public
would be obliged to wait for days for the results of most elections.

In this way, the idea of a tired bank clerk came to change the figuring
methods of the world.

* * * * *

The words “Almighty Dollar” have been generally adopted since Irving
first used them in his “Creole Village,” and the use of “lynching” to
represent mob law and the action of mobs has become common since a
Virginia farmer by that name instituted the first vigilance committee in
America.

Where does Ermine Come From?

The ermine fur, with which we are all familiar, is furnished by the
stoat, a small animal of the weasel tribe. It is found over both
temperate Europe and North America, but is common only in the north.

Because of that change which occurs in the color of its fur at different
seasons--by far most marked in the Arctic regions--it is not generally
known that the ermine and stoat are the same. In winter, in cold
countries or severe seasons, the fur changes from a reddish-brown to a
yellowish-white, or almost pure white, under which shade the animal is
recognized as the ermine. In both states the tip of the tail is black.

[Illustration: ERMINE (_Mustela Erminea_)]

Like many other species of this genus, the ermine has the faculty of
ejecting a fluid of a musky odor.

Its fur is short, soft and silky; the best skins being brought from
Russia, Sweden and Norway and Hudson Bay territories. Its fur was
formerly one of the insignia of royalty, and is still used by judges.
When used as linings of cloaks the black tuft from the tail is sewed to
the skin at irregular distances.

What is the Principle of “Foreign Exchange”?

Exchange, in commerce, is a transaction by which the debts of people
residing at a distance are canceled by a draft or bill of exchange,
without transfer of any actual money.

A merchant in New York who owes $1,000 worth of goods in London, gives a
bill or order for that amount which can be negotiated through banking
agencies or otherwise against similar debts owing by other parties in
London who have payments to make in New York. This obviates the expense
and risk of transmitting money.

The process of liquidating obligations between different nations is
carried on in the same way by an exchange of foreign bills. When all the
accounts of one country correspond in value with those of another, the
exchange between the countries will be at par, that is, the sum for
which the bill is drawn in the one country will be the exact value of it
in the other.

Exchange is said to be at par when, for instance, a bill drawn in New
York for the payment of $1,000 in London can be purchased there for
$1,000. If it can be purchased for less, exchange is under par and is
against London. If the purchaser is obliged to give more, exchange is
above par and in favor of London.

Although the thousand circumstances which incessantly affect the state
of debt and credit prevent the ordinary course of exchange from being
almost ever precisely at par, its fluctuations are confined within
narrow limits, and if direct exchange is unfavorable between two
countries this can often be obviated by the interposition of bills drawn
on other countries where an opposite state of matters prevails.

What do We Mean by “The Old Moon in the New Moon’s Arms”?

“Earth-shine,” in astronomy, is the name given to the faint light
visible on the part of the moon not illuminated by the sun, due to the
illumination of that portion by the light which the earth reflects on
her. It is most conspicuous when the illuminated part of the disc is at
its smallest, as soon after new moon. This phenomenon is popularly
described as “the old moon in the new moon’s arms.”

The Story in a Bowling Alley[27]

From the “stone age” onward the probabilities are that man has always
had some kind of bowling game.

Bowling, as we know today, is an indoor adaptation of, and an
improvement upon, the old Dutch game of “nine-pins.” This game was
brought from Holland by those colonists who settled Manhattan Island in
1623.

Washington Irving, in his story, “Rip Van Winkle,” refers to the old
Dutch fairy tale, that the rolling thunder on the mountain tops of the
Catskill was the noise made by the rolling balls as the elfs and gnomes
engaged in their favorite pastimes of bowling.

That little section of New York City known as Bowling Green is the
original spot which, in 1732, Peter Bayard, Peter Jay and John Chambers
leased for eleven years and enclosed for a bowling green.

With the influx of German immigrants, who brought with them a game
similar to the Dutch game, additional popularity was given to the sport.

[Illustration: LOOP THE LOOP RETURN]

The game was originally played on the bare ground. The Germans used a
board about a foot wide on which to roll the ball, and then improved on
this by using cohesive mineral substances solidly packed together. At an
early date, the Dutch had covered the alley with a roof, and later
enclosed it in a rough shed, to protect it and make play possible in any
kind of weather. But, great as these improvements were over the
crudeness of previous centuries, they are not worthy of comparison with
a modern bowling academy.

In the best hard-wood section of the United States, one of the large
bowling equipment manufacturers owns about thirty thousand acres of
maple. From this raw material is gathered the chief stock that goes into
bowling alleys and the pins.

The company has its own logging crews that cut the timber and pile it on
flat cars, whence it is transported over a private railroad until it
arrives at the company sawmills. Here the raw material enters upon the
manufacturing process.

The rough stock-strips for the alley “bed,” “leveling strips,” “return
chute,” “post” and “kick-backs” are sawed out of certain of the logs.
They are then shipped to a factory where they are seasoned, being kiln
dried. The stock is next cut to the required sizes.

The bed stock is cut into strips, planed on all sides, and tongued and
grooved on the widest sides. When finished, the strips measure 3 x 1
inch. Part of the bed stock, however, is hard pine, shipped from the
Southern states in the rough boards. This is finished similar to the
maple strips.

The “kick-backs” are the two partitions, shaped somewhat like a ship’s
rudder, which form the two pit sides. Each consists of two facings of
the best maple with a core of hard but resilient wood in the middle.
They are built in this way to make the pins that fly side-wise spring
back on the bed and knock down other standing pins, and also to
withstand the exceedingly rough usage to which they are subject by the
flying pins and rolling balls.

The cushion forms the rear end of the pit. The frame is stoutly
constructed, and the face thickly upholstered with scrap leather and a
heavy but pliable covering. It swings on hinges which suspend it from
the cross bar, running from each of the kick-backs across the pit end at
the top. The cushion diminishes the force of the rolling balls and
flying pins, permitting them to fall gently into the pit.

The “gutters” are the concave boards that extend the complete length of
the alley, from the foul line to the pit, on both sides of the bed. The
purpose is to take care of the misdirected balls that roll off the bed
before reaching the pit.

The “return chute,” or “loop-the-loop return,” is the railway along
which the balls travel in their return from the pit to the bowler. It is
usually placed on the right-hand side of the alley, or between a pair of
alleys.

At the pit end, the chute is solidly constructed with a concave flanged
surface placed on the top of the kick-back. It conforms to the downward
curve of the latter, but the rail work begins at the top of the incline
and extends back to the newel post at the bowler’s end of the alley. The
flanges easily accommodate the balls when placed on the chute by the pin
boy.

The newel post is not made of a solid block, but is built up, being
veneered on the inside, as well as on the outside, to make it impervious
to atmospheric changes. The top contains a sponge cup to moisten the
fingers of the bowler.

[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF BOWLING BED SHOWING STEEL CLAMP]

The rails form a semicircle at the post, with the ends of the arc
pointing down the alley. A tightly stretched leather strap extends
horizontally from the upper end of the arc back to the post, where it is
fastened with a swivel screw. Half way up, from the points of the arc, a
second rail, _i. e._, the “receiver,” is built, with sufficient space
between it and the strap to allow the passage of the largest size ball.
With the momentum gained by rolling down the incline of the kick-back,
the ball rolls back on the inside of the curve until it strikes the
strap, where its course is stopped, and it drops on the receiver, ready
again for use by the bowler.

In beginning the construction of an alley, the mechanic lays the
leveling strips on which the bed is to rest. These are set at right
angles to the direction in which the bed is to lie, and must be
spirit-leveled for accuracy, and firmly fastened to the foundation. A
strip of cork carpet is then laid the full width of the alley and
extending the entire length of the bed. This is to reduce to a minimum
the sound of the balls dropping on and rolling down the bed.

On the leveling strips at the extreme side of where the bed is to lie, a
3 x 1-inch maple strip is laid, widest side downward, with its finished
one-inch edge nearest to the gutter. One end of this strip marks the
extreme end of the approach. The other end of the strip is continued by
adding other strips the full length of the bed. When these have been
carefully squared to the exact direction the alley is to run, they are
fastened to the leveling strips.

The next strip, also of maple, is tongued into the lower one, but its
continuous length extends only about five feet beyond the foul line, or
about eighteen feet from the approach end.

A bowling bed cannot be laid as an ordinary floor. It is built upon its
side and when finished resembles a wooden wall about seventy-five feet
long four inches high and three inches wide.

The approach end of the bed, approximately eighteen feet long, is
constructed of maple, with each alternate strip of the 3 x 1-inch bed
stock about eighteen inches shorter. The pit end of the bed is similarly
constructed for a distance of about six feet. The space between is
filled in with the pine strips of the same dimensions, and the alternate
long and short strips at the inner ends of the approach and pit ends
form mortices into which the pine dovetails.

[Illustration: PIT END SECTION OF BOWLING ALLEYS]

The wear on the bed occurs where the bowler walks and drops the ball and
where the ball strikes the pins; hence the hard maple. The interior is
filled with pine, which is softer, because it retains a higher polish
and prevents the rolling ball from bumping; thus throwing it from its
proper course.

The bed is thus built up for its continuous length, strip by strip, the
tongue of one strip fitting into the groove of the other, and both
nailed firmly together, until the proper width (while being built, the
height) is attained. When the bed is finished, the strips are clamped
with steel clamps, the turned-up ends of which firmly grip the sides of
the bed, thus preventing warping or spreading. While the bed is still in
this upright position, a one-inch slot is cut across where the foul line
is to rest, and holes are bored through the bed. A black composition
strip, _i. e._, the “foul-line,” is inserted in the slot and bolted
through the holes to the bottom of the bed.

At the pit end, circular slots are cut and holes bored for the purpose
of countersinking and fastening the “pin spots.” The latter are of the
same substance as the foul-line and all are sunk flush with the surface
of the bed.

This--clamping and fastening--explains the necessity for building the
bed on its side.

It is now ready to be placed into position. It is merely toppled over,
face side upward, clamped side underneath. So exact has it been built,
according to specifications and alignment, and the mass is so heavy,
that the dead weight makes it lie where it falls and only the slightest
adjustment is necessary.

The height of the leveling strips, plus the height of the bed, lift its
surface about six inches from the foundation floor. At the pins end of
the bed, this forms one of the sides and the bottom of the pit. The
bottom is floored with maple and covered with a specially prepared pit
mat, durable, yet soft, so as not to damage the balls and pins falling
upon it. The back and sides of the pit are formed by the kick-backs,
braces and cushion.

After the kick-backs are placed in position, the gutters are laid, and
then the return chute railway is laid, between and slightly above them.
At the approach end of the bed the newel post is firmly fastened to the
foundation, and the floor that is laid above the latter and flush with
the surface of the bed serves to brace the post, making it immovable.
The curved end of the chute and the receiver are then added.

The bed is then planed its entire length, sandpapered, shellaced and
polished. The remainder of the woodwork is finished in its natural color
except the gutters, which are stained mahogany and shellaced. They are
thus stained, not only for artistic effect, but to clearly define the
outer edges of the bed--a matter of great importance to the bowler when
trying to knock down the two outer pins in the third row.

In making the pins, the best selected logs are sawed into blocks about 2
x 1 feet. These are placed in a lathe and gouged out, forming the pin in
the rough. They are next turned down to size and selected for quality
and weight, after which they are kiln dried and receive a final turning
to perfect their formation, then smoothed and finished.

[Illustration: BACKUS AUTOMATIC PIN SETTERS]

The Backus pin-setter is almost human in its operation. The old way was
to hire boys to set up the pins on the spots and return the ball via the
return chute. The pin-setter relieves the boy of the major and most
time-consuming part of this work. A frame holding the machine is set up
over the spots. It is placed so high that it does not interfere with
either the flying pins or the rolling balls.

As the pins are knocked off into the gutters, or the pit, the pin boy
picks them up and lays them flat on their sides into the pockets at the
top of the machine. When a “frame” is rolled those pins standing on the
alley remain there and the machine is lowered by a balance weight
controlled by a lever. As it descends the pins are automatically set on
end, and when they rest on the spots on the alley the machine releases
them and springs up to its original position.

Wooden balls for bowling were never satisfactory. They wore out too
easily and never retained perfect rotundity. Fortunes were spent in
experimenting with other materials until at last the famous “mineralite”
ball was perfected.

Its composition is a trade secret, but its chief ingredient is rubber.

First the composition is rolled into sheets. These are then molded and
later vulcanized, being subject to terrific pressure. The balls are then
smoothed and polished.

As it is impossible to make a perfectly round ball and have the weight
equally distributed, the ball can not roll true; an ingenious device
overcomes the difficulty. The ball is set in a basin of mercury, where
it floats. Naturally, the heavier side of the ball swings to the bottom.
On the top, diametrically opposite to the center of weight, a chalk mark
is placed on the ball and it is then lifted out of the mercury.

Diametrically opposite to the chalk mark a small hole is punched into
the ball to indicate the weightiest point. Directly beneath this is
stamped the trademark of the firm.

Having ascertained the proper distance apart the finger holes are to be
bored, the ball is weighed to determine the excess of its proposed
weight when finished.

The holes are then machine bored at the respective points, sufficiently
deep to reduce the weight to exact specifications.

* * * * *

How are Artificial Precious Stones Made?

The art of manufacturing gems synthetically, that is, by the combination
of chemical elements present in the real stone, has reached a high
degree of success.

The diamond, which is an allotropic form of carbon, has hitherto
resisted attempts to reproduce it of sufficient size to have a
commercial value. By dissolving carbon in molten iron and suddenly
cooling the molten mass by a stream of water, whereupon the outer part
contracts with great force and compresses the interior so that the
carbon separates out, Moissan, the French chemist, succeeded in
isolating small crystals, none, however, as large as one-twenty-fifth of
an inch in diameter.

Experiments in the manufacture of the ruby have met with such success
that the synthetic ruby is produced of a size and of a perfection that
would place a prohibitive value on the natural stone. The ruby,
chemically considered, is crystallized alumina, or oxide of aluminum,
with a small percentage of oxide of chromium.

Sapphire is of the same material, differing from the ruby only in color.
The ruby owes its fine red color to the presence of oxide of chromium;
the sapphire its deep blue to either a lower oxide of chromium or to an
oxide of titanium.

Crystallized alumina in the different colors receives different trade
names, as Oriental emerald for the green; Oriental topaz for the yellow;
Oriental amethyst for the purple; while the water-clear, colorless
crystal is known as white sapphire.

The process of manufacture of rubies is carried on with the oxyhydrogen
blow-pipe, to whose intense heat the powdered alumina with its coloring
oxides is subjected. Rubies have been thus produced weighing twelve to
fifteen carats when cut. The average weight of the native Burmese ruby
is about one-eighth of a carat. The sapphire and the so-called Oriental
stones are prepared in the same manner, with the addition of proper
coloring matter.

The emerald and opal have not emerged from the experimental stage,
although Becquerel, a French chemist, is reported to have produced opals
from solutions of silicates with high-tension electric currents.

To be distinguished from synthetic gems are reconstructed stones, which
(as yet only done with the ruby) are pieces of the natural stone fused
together. They are very brittle.

The pearl is not produced synthetically, but many imitations exist. The
Japanese produce them by fastening a piece of mother-of-pearl in the
shells of the pearl-oyster and allowing it to remain there for a number
of years.

The turquoise, a phosphate of aluminum colored with copper, is not
synthetically produced, although various experiments with its
manufacture have been made.

[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission of The Philadelphia Museum._

MAZZANTINI BULL-FIGHT

The last act in a bull fight, City of Mexico. The bull, tired out by the
attacks of the _picadores_ or pikemen, and _banderilleros_ or dart men,
whose _banderillas_ or darts are seen planted in the bull’s shoulders,
faces the _matador_, armed with the _estoque_ or sword, and carrying the
_muleta_ or red flag in his left hand, and about to deliver the death
stroke.]

What is a Mexican Bull-Fight Like?

Bull-fights are among the favorite diversions of the Spaniards. They are
usually held in an amphitheater having circular seats rising one above
another, and are attended by vast crowds who eagerly pay for admission.

The combatants, who make bull-fighting their profession, march into the
arena in procession. They are of various kinds--the _picadores_,
combatants on horseback, in the old Spanish knightly garb; the _chulos_
and _banderilleros_, combatants on foot, in gay dresses, with colored
cloaks or banners; and finally, the _matador_ (the killer).

As soon as the signal is given the bull is let into the arena. The
_picadores_, who have stationed themselves near him, commence the attack
with their lances, and the bull is thus goaded to fury. Sometimes a
horse is wounded or killed (only old, worthless animals are thus
employed), and the rider is obliged to run for his life. The _chulos_
assist the horsemen by drawing the attention of the bull with their
cloaks; and in case of danger they save themselves by leaping over the
wooden fence which surrounds the arena. The _banderilleros_ then come
into play. They try to fasten on the bull their _banderillas_--barbed
darts ornamented with colored paper, and often having squibs or crackers
attached. If they succeed, the squibs are discharged and the bull races
madly about the arena.

The _matador_ or _espada_ now comes in gravely with a naked sword and a
red flag to decoy the bull with, and aims a fatal blow at the animal.
The slaughtered bull is dragged away, and another is let out from the
stall. Several bulls are so disposed of in a single day.

What is the Difference between “Alternating” and “Direct” Current?

Strong currents of electricity are generated in the electric central
stations and supplied to our homes, street lamps and so forth, in one of
the two forms, either “alternating” or “direct.” While many of us know
which kind is furnished to our homes, everyone does not always
understand the difference between the two.

The central station contains a number of powerful dynamo machines,
driven usually by steam power. The positive and negative terminals of
the dynamo are put in connection with the positive and negative main
conductors which are to supply the district, and from these mains
smaller conductors branch off to the houses or lamps. All these
conductors are of copper, that metal when pure having seven times the
conductivity of iron.

Different methods are in use for keeping the supply of electricity
steady in spite of the varying demands made upon it. In some systems of
distribution, instead of the two main conductors being one positive and
the other negative, each is positive and negative alternately, the
reversals taking place some hundreds of times per second. The currents
are then said to be “alternating.” When such reversals do not take
place, the currents are said to be “direct.”

What was the “Court of Love”?

The “Court of Love” existed in what we call the chivalric period of the
middle ages.

It was composed of knights, poets and ladies, who discussed and gave
decisions on subtle questions of love and gallantry. The first of these
courts was probably established in Provence about the twelfth century.
They reached their highest splendor in France, under Charles VI, through
the influence of his consort, Isabella of Bavaria, whose court was
established in 1380. An attempted revival was made under Louis XIV by
Cardinal Richelieu.

The Story of the Addressograph[28]

If you were asked to enumerate the different kinds of clerical work
performed in the modern business office, you would probably fail to
mention the writing of names. Yet the writing and rewriting of names is
as essential in most offices as the addition of figures or the dictation
of correspondence.

In fact, names represent the backbone of nearly every business or
organization. There is the list of names of those people you sell to;
the names of those people you want to sell to; the names of those people
you buy from; the names of those people who owe you money; the names of
those people to whom you owe money and the names of those people who
work for you. Then, lodges, clubs, churches and other organizations must
maintain lists of names of their members; and so the different kinds of
lists go on _ad infinitum_.

Now, in most offices, these names must be written and rewritten over and
over again--often many times each month--on envelopes, price-lists,
statements, checks, pay forms, ledger sheets, order forms, tags, labels,
etc. And in many offices the writing of names is still a slow, tedious,
drudging task--as the workers in those offices will testify.

The Birth of Mechanical Addressing.

But in one office this monotonous task of writing and rewriting the same
names over and over again became such a hardship that the man who had to
do it, thinking twenty-five years ahead of his time, had a vision of
performing such work mechanically. That vision was the forerunner of the
Addressograph.

In the early 90’s, Mr. Joseph S. Duncan was manager of a little flour
and grist mill in Iowa. The requirements of his business necessitated
the daily addressing of 100 quotation cards. Those were the days of pen
and ink and the imperfectly developed typewriter. Mr. Duncan’s office
was small. He was the sole worker in that office--and as the typewriter
was still a curiosity in that section of the country, Mr. Duncan was
obliged to depend upon pen and ink in addressing his daily price cards.
This routine task wasted a great deal of his valuable time each day. In
an effort to finish the work quickly, so that he could devote his
attention to more important matters, Mr. Duncan found that he was
frequently sacrificing accuracy for speed. Result--his concern often
suffered considerable loss of profit because his quotation cards did not
reach the people for whom they were intended. Finally, becoming
disgusted with inefficient and inaccurate pen and ink addressing
methods, Mr. Duncan made a trip to Chicago for the purpose of purchasing
a machine for addressing his price cards. But, on visiting the leading
stationery and office equipment stores, he was told there was no such
machine. He returned to his office resigned to the task of addressing
his 100 daily quotation cards by pen and ink. But the drudgery and
monotony of this work would not down in his mind. The mistakes and
omissions made in addressing these price cards became no less frequent.
Finally, because Mr. Duncan could no longer be reconciled to the
drudgery, inaccuracy and expense of hand addressing, he determined to
build for himself a machine that would lift from his shoulders this
monotonous task.

Builds First Addressograph.

Mr. Duncan invented and built his first addressing machine in 1892. He
called it the “Addressograph”--a coined word meaning “to write
addresses.” Although Mr. Duncan appreciated the saving of time and
money and increase in accuracy which his little invention would surely
create in the writing of names and addresses, he did not at first
realize the great place his remarkable invention was destined to take in
the commercial world as a “business energizer” and simplifier of routine
work.

Like the first steam engine, telephone or automobile, the first
addressograph was crudely simple and of course presented an uncouth
mechanical appearance. Mr. Duncan experimented by gluing the rubber
portion of a number of hand stamps to a wooden drum. This drum was
placed on an operating shaft in the addressograph, so that after the
printing of one name and address, the drum revolved so that the next
name and address came into printing position. The type impressions thus
obtained were fairly readable. But Mr. Duncan soon realized that the
idea of gluing the type permanently to a wooden drum was unpractical.
Only a few addresses could be placed around the drum and the method of
gluing them permanently into place made it practically impossible to
make corrections when changes in address occurred, or to add new names
as occasion demanded.

[Illustration: THE FIRST ADDRESSOGRAPH]

Greater flexibility was needed. So Mr. Duncan designed and built what is
now known as the first chain addressograph. Individual rubber type
characters were pushed into metal type holders with a pair of tweezers.
These type holders were then ingeniously linked together in the form of
an endless chain. These chains were placed over a revolving metal drum,
and as each separate name and address came to the printing point of the
addressograph, the operator pushed down on a vertical stamper rod which
pushed the envelope, or whatever form was to be addressed, against the
rubber type which was inked just before reaching the printing point.
Here, at last, was a practical addressing machine which enabled the user
to accurately print names and addresses--typewriter style--ten times
faster than was possible by any other method, and, quite as important,
to make changes and additions to the list.

The Beginning of a Great Industry.

By this time, Mr. Duncan had moved his base of operations from Iowa to
Chicago. So well was his first practical model of the addressograph
received by Chicago business men that he sold the first half-dozen
manufactured within a short time. Enthused with his success, Mr. Duncan
decided to enter into the manufacture and sale of addressographs on as
extensive a basis as the demand for his invention warranted. But to do
this it was necessary for him to secure more capital. Consequently, he
interested Mr. J. B. Hall--a Chicago business man--in his project, and
in January, 1896, Mr. Duncan and Mr. Hall formed a partnership and
called it the “Addressograph Company.”

Mr. Hall’s first step was to find out what the leading business men of
his time thought of the addressograph. So he made a trip to New York
City--taking with him one of the little hand-operated chain
addressographs. Here, Mr. Hall called upon Henry Clews, J. Pierpont
Morgan and other prominent business men. He also visited the offices of
the large public service and insurance companies. In every case, Mr.
Hall was courteously received, but after demonstrating the addressograph
was told that while it was interesting and a step in the right
direction, it was still in too primitive a state to prove of any great
value in addressing a large list of names.

Answering Demand for Greater Speed.

Naturally, Mr. Hall’s first thought on his return to Chicago was to
induce Mr. Duncan to build a larger model, capable of greater speed and
greater output. Acting upon Mr. Hall’s suggestion, Mr. Duncan, in a
short time, perfected a larger chain addressograph, operated by
foot-lever and embodying several important improvements. As the
Addressograph Company was maintaining at that time only a small sales
office, a contract was let to the Blackman Machine Company, of Chicago,
to build fifteen of these new foot-lever chain addressographs. And it
was this new model which caused the addressograph to take its place in
the business world as one of the leading office appliances. Many of
these new chain addressographs were sold. Having formerly been engaged
in the public service field, Mr. Hall was quick to realize the
advantages which mechanical addressing offered to gas, electric light,
water and telephone companies. As a result, the majority of the first
addressograph sales were made to these lines of business.

[Illustration: RUBBER CHAIN ADDRESSOGRAPH OPERATED BY FOOT LEVER AND
MOUNTED IN WOOD CABINET]

With the constantly increasing use of the addressograph, suggestions for
improvement and further development were freely offered by addressograph
customers and just as liberally entertained by Mr. Duncan. As a result
of these suggestions, another important advance took place in
addressograph development. A customer, after writing words of praise
about his addressograph, suggested that if some means could be arrived
at to avoid the necessity of setting and resetting the individual pieces
of rubber type, a great saving in time and money could be accomplished
in making changes and additions to a list of names.

Invents Embossed Metal Address Plate.

After considerable thought, Mr. Duncan hit upon the plan of embossing,
typewriter style, characters upon a metal plate. To do this, it was
necessary for him to invent and perfect the Graphotype--a machine which
writes names and addresses on metal plates almost as quickly as the same
data can be written on paper with the typewriter. The first embossed
metal plates were linked together in the form of an endless chain,
similar to the rubber type plates. A new addressograph was perfected for
printing impressions from these embossed metal plates. It was called the
No. 2 Chain Addressograph.

The Addressograph Company now had two models to sell. But, owing to the
fact that the rubber chain addressograph permitted users to make changes
and additions in their own offices, a greater number of machines of this
model were sold than of the metal chain addressograph; because, with the
latter model, it was necessary for the customer to send to Chicago to
have his new metal links embossed with the graphotype for the changes
and additions of his list.

By this time, the Addressograph Company had established itself in its
own factory in Chicago. Branch offices had also been opened in New York,
Philadelphia, Boston and other principal points, and out of these
offices was traveling a small but enthusiastic group of salesmen. Many
firms, large and small, throughout the country were using and
recommending the chain addressograph. And, crude as that model seems
now, it was proving a wonderful time and labor saver in the offices in
which it was used--and paying back its cost many times each year because
of the fact that it accurately printed names and addresses ten times
faster than was possible to write such data by pen or typewriter.

A Card Index that Addresses Itself.

As the use of the addressograph increased, Mr. Duncan and Mr. Hall
realized the need of a more efficient way of making changes and
additions to the list of names. It was important that individual names
be located and removed from the list more quickly than was possible with
the chain addressograph. Demand for improvement along this line was
stimulated by the loose-leaf and card index wave which was just then
beginning to sweep the country. And Mr. Duncan, taking the card index
idea as a basis, designed what he called the Model “A” or Rubber Card
Index Addressograph. Instead of the separate plates being linked
together in the form of a chain, they were inserted into a tin
holder--called the frame--which closely resembled in appearance a 3 x 5
paper file card. In addition to carrying a printing plate, this frame
also carried a paper card bearing a proof of its respective printing
plate. In this complete form, these address plates were filed in steel
filing drawers like ordinary paper cards. About every fifteenth address
plate in a drawer was equipped with a vertical, subdividing
tab--numerical, alphabetical or geographical as the case might require.
Each filing drawer carried a printed label showing the contents of the
drawer--and by means of these complete card index features it proved a
simple matter to locate and remove individual names when making
revisions to the list; and, in addition, these features afforded all of
the advantages of a perfect reference file, as the paper proof card
could be provided with a printed form for retaining memoranda.

[Illustration: RUBBER CARD INDEX ADDRESS PLATE]

Of course, a new addressograph was necessary to handle this card index
improvement. And in the Model “A” Addressograph, we find the basic
principle of the addressograph of today. A drawerful of plates is
emptied into the magazine. The empty filing drawer is placed beneath the
addressograph so that after addressing the address plates fall back into
the original drawer in their original card index order.

[Illustration: METAL CARD INDEX ADDRESS PLATE]

Electric Motor Increases Speed.

Not only was it necessary to meet the demand for card index
conveniences, but it was also important to equip the Model “A”
Addressograph with an electric motor for increasing its speed of
operation and insuring a greater output. As was to be expected, the card
index and electrically operated features caused thousands of concerns,
large and small, to adopt the addressograph. Large mercantile houses,
addressing thousands of names--who had formerly held aloof from the
addressograph because of its limited advantages for making changes and
additions--now placed their orders with instructions to rush delivery.
With business houses all over the country rapidly changing from bound
books to loose-leaf card index records, the demand for chain
addressograph models diminished and more and more orders were received
for the rubber card index addressographs. Business men, generally, were
now taking a real interest in mechanical addressing and the saving which
the addressograph made possible in their offices. This interest was
increased materially with the growth of mail-order businesses and the
constantly increasing use of direct-by-mail advertising by business
concerns, large and small. Firms having mailing lists were increasing
them. Those firms which had not previously used direct-by-mail
advertising were now coming to realize the many advantages of that
modern selling short-cut and were compiling large lists of names. The
rubber card index addressograph had by now proved itself a wonderful
time and labor saver in addressing and maintaining lists of names of
average size. But, with the advent of large lists, the high cost of
rubber type presented a serious objection to many firms regarding the
installation of the addressograph. Furthermore, large lists of names
were subject to many changes and additions--and in this connection,
setting up the address plates in rubber type proved quite slow and
expensive. So, to bring the addressograph abreast of modern conditions,
Mr. Duncan combined the card index filing idea with the embossed metal
plate which he had previously worked out for use with the chain
addressograph. With the coming of the metal card index addressograph and
the modern graphotype for making the metal address plates, the
addressing machine business was “revolutionized,” as Mr. Duncan put it.
With the graphotype, address plates for changes and additions could be
made at almost typewriter speed. The card index address plate required
less filing space than was true of the rubber card index address plate,
printed cleaner impressions and from every standpoint was superior to
the rubber type system. In order that customers could make their changes
and additions right in their office, the graphotype was further
developed and furnished in two models, one operated by motor, the other
by hand.

[Illustration: ELECTRIC GRAPHOTYPE WHICH EMBOSSES TYPEWRITER STYLE
CHARACTERS ON METAL ADDRESS PLATES]

[Illustration: HAND GRAPHOTYPE WHICH EMBOSSES TYPEWRITER STYLE
CHARACTERS ON METAL ADDRESS PLATES]

Attachments Increase Utility of Addressograph.

The first addressographs were intended for printing names and addresses
consecutively on envelopes and post cards. And so much time was saved on
this one application that customers soon began applying it to other
kinds of work in their offices. To do this effectively, it was necessary
for Mr. Duncan to work out additional parts called “attachments” which
permitted the addressing, listing and imprinting of names and other data
on office forms of every nature. To illustrate: the dating attachment
enabled users to apply the addressograph to their statement work. With
this attachment--which can quickly be thrown in or out of operation--the
current date is printed at the head of a statement simultaneously with
the printing of the name and address. Further, to use the addressograph
effectively for statement work, it was necessary to devise a skipping
attachment--manipulated by the operator’s knee--permitting him to skip
the printing of impressions from address plates of those customers who
had paid their accounts. By working out the listing attachment, Mr.
Duncan made it possible for users to list names in one or more vertical
columns on pay sheets, drivers’ route sheets, dividend and trial balance
sheets. This attachment automatically feeds the paper and spaces the
proper distances between the printing of each address. Then came the
electric bell signal and automatic selector attachments. Users of
classified lists of names were enabled by these attachments to place
tabs in sockets at the top and back of the address plates to indicate
the different classifications on the list, such as “Buying Seasons,”
“Kinds of Products Wanted,” “Territories,” “Expired Dates,” etc., and by
means of these attachments, automatically select for addressing certain
address plates, skipping the addressing of others.

[Illustration: AUTOMATIC LISTING ATTACHMENT]

[Illustration: HIGH SPEED AUTOMATIC FEED ADDRESSOGRAPH. CAPACITY, 7,500
ADDRESSED ENVELOPES PER HOUR]

[Illustration: AUTOMATIC ENVELOPE FEED ADDRESSOGRAPH. SPEED, 5,000
ADDRESSED ENVELOPES AN HOUR]

As the various uses for the addressograph increased, so the demand for
different special attachments increased, until today, the addressograph
addresses, lists and imprints names, addresses and other data upon every
office form. The history of the addressograph has been one of constant
development. With the growth of large lists, the demand for greater
speed in addressing was answered by automatic feed addressographs. The
Automatic No. 1 Addressograph was designed to automatically feed and
address envelopes and cards at the rate of 4,000 to 5,000 an hour. In
the Automatic No. 3 Addressograph we find the highest development of the
system. This machine automatically feeds and addresses public service
bills, insurance premium notices and receipts, cards, envelopes,
circulars, etc., at the great speed of 6,000 to 8,000 an hour. The
wrapper addressograph answered the demand of publishers for great speed
and 100 per cent accuracy. This model of the addressograph automatically
feeds wrappers from a roll and in addition to printing the name and
address exact typewriter style, also prints the name of the publication
and postal permit from electrotypes, indicates mail routes on the back
of the wrappers, separates into a separate drawer the address plates of
those people whose subscriptions have expired, and cuts the wrapper to
the proper size--all at the speed of 7,500 per hour.

Small Users not Overlooked.

But, while Mr. Duncan and his associates have given every attention to
the needs of users of large lists of names, he has not overlooked the
lodge secretaries and other users of small lists of names. In the hand
addressograph, which sells for as low as $27, he has worked out three
practical models having an average speed of from 750 to 1,500 names and
addresses an hour. Thousands of these little machines are in daily use
and, like the larger models of the addressograph, are driving drudgery
out of the office--freeing thousands of hands from the monotonous,
laborious task of writing names and addresses by pen and ink--in short,
elevating the position of the office worker far above that of a mere
automaton and making it possible for him to earn more money and enjoy a
happier existence by doing brain work instead of manual labor.

[Illustration: WRAPPER FEED ADDRESSOGRAPH. SPEED, 6,000 TO 8,000
ADDRESSED WRAPPERS PER HOUR]

[Illustration: HAND ADDRESSOGRAPH (PRINTS THROUGH A RIBBON). SPEED,
1,000 TO 1,500 TYPEWRITTEN ADDRESSES AN HOUR]

[Illustration: SHOWING HOW TABS ARE INSERTED IN BACK OF ADDRESS PLATE
FOR PURPOSES OF INDEXING AND CLASSIFYING LISTS]

The Addressograph--Its Place in Business.

Twenty-five years’ use of the addressograph in over 300 different lines
of business--manufacturers, wholesalers and dealers, insurance
companies, public service companies, government departments,
associations, clubs, churches, lodges, hotels and schools, laundries,
commission merchants, publishers, railroad and steamship companies--in
truth, every business, large and small, where a list of names is
frequently addressed--have proved the utter folly of slow, tiring hands
attempting to compete with swift, untiring wheels. Wherever names are
written, there you will usually find the addressograph in use, saving
time and money, guaranteeing 100 per cent accuracy and insuring maximum
efficiency. There are many different models--some operated by hand or
foot-lever, others by electric motor; some are entirely automatic. So,
no matter how many names and addresses are written--fifty or a
million--the addressograph, like the telephone or typewriter, has come
to be recognized as a modern business necessity.

* * * * *

What is “Dry Farming”?

Dry farming is a method which has been recently developed and which is
coming into even wider use. The United States Department of Agriculture,
through its experiment stations, has made a careful study of the
conditions, possibilities and limitations of the practice, and the
following is a brief abstract of the results:

In defining the term dry farming it is explained that the practice
includes (1) deep plowing before the rainy season sets in, in order to
provide in the soil a capacious water storage reservoir and an ample
space for root development; (2) light, deep, even seeding or planting in
a well-prepared, moist soil; (3) frequent, thorough, level cultivation
before as well as after sowing or planting; (4) the use of seed bred and
selected for the conditions prevailing; (5) the use of machinery of
large capacity; (6) the adoption of methods for the concentration of
crops.

Crops must be selected or developed that will fit the environment, and
there is ample field for investigation in the improvement and
development of crops suitable to dry lands. Wheat stands at the head
among cereal crops. The durum or macaroni wheats do especially well; but
other varieties are also grown, as are oats, rye, barley and spelt. The
millets are among the best paying dry-farming crops. There are few
legumes that have shown value on dry lands, but peas, beans and alfalfa
are the most promising of development. Vegetables and both shade and
fruit trees are being grown in districts where dry farming is practiced.

Fall seeding of cereals, wherever the conditions will permit, is
preferable to spring seeding, and it is important to retain the snow
upon the land, especially in sections where it forms the chief part of
the total precipitation. The snowfall may be retained by leaving the
ground rough after the late fall plowing, by throwing up borders across
the field at right angles with the prevailing winds, or by planting
hedge rows or shrubbery across the field at short intervals. Usually
less seed should be planted per acre under dry-farming conditions than
is used in humid sections. The less precipitation, the smaller should be
the amount of seed planted.

What is a “Drying Machine” Like?

This is a machine used in bleaching, dyeing and laundry establishments,
consisting of two concentric drums or cylinders, one within the other,
open at the top, and having the inner cylinder perforated at its side
with numerous small holes. The goods to be dried are placed within the
inner cylinder, and the machine is then made to rotate with great
velocity, when, by the action of centrifugal force, the water escapes
through the holes in the side.

[Illustration: _Copyright by Brown Bros._

NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE

This is the only photograph ever made of the interior of the New York
Stock Exchange, the financial heart of the country. Each stock listed is
allotted to one of the posts seen on the floor, which, during a panic,
become the scene of the wildest excitement. The exchange is connected by
private telegraph wires and “ticker” wires with every important
financial center.]

How does the New York Stock Exchange Operate?

The New York Stock Exchange is typical of most American stock exchanges,
the leading ones of which are located in Boston, Pittsburgh,
Philadelphia, Chicago, Baltimore, Cleveland, Cincinnati, New Orleans,
Salt Lake City, Denver, San Francisco and St. Louis. American stock
exchanges differ somewhat in their operation from the foreign stock
exchanges, the principal ones of which are those of London, Paris,
Berlin, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels, Vienna and Petrograd.

A stock exchange is really an organization of professional brokers,
which conducts speculation and investment in securities, the paper
representatives of transportation, industrial, mining, commercial and
other properties. On the American stock exchanges one broker may
specialize in the shares of the Union Pacific Railroad, for instance,
another in those of the United States Steel Corporation, and so on. Some
brokers deal particularly in “odd lots”--blocks of less than one hundred
shares--and some members, called “room traders,” speculate entirely for
their own account and do no commission business for customers. The
commission charged for buying or selling is twelve and a half cents a
share, so that on the usual order of one hundred shares, the broker
receives twelve dollars and a half.

The business of buying and selling shares is done in a large room known
as the “floor.” Scattered over the floor are a large number of high
posts. Each post bears the name of the stock or stocks which may be
traded in at that post. This provision is to bring buyers and sellers in
any security together as quickly as possible. A broker desiring to buy
shares of a certain stock will go to the part allotted to that stock and
call out its name with the number of shares wished and the price he will
pay. This is his bid. Other brokers may offer the stock to him at a
slightly higher price, or his bid may be accepted at once. As soon as a
price is agreed on, each broker--the buyer and the seller--makes a
memorandum of the transaction, which is reported to the offices at once
by telephone. Meanwhile the broker also hands another memorandum of the
transaction to an errand boy, who takes the memorandum at once to the
telegraph operator, who in turn sends it out onto the little instrument
called the “ticker.”

Transactions on the New York Stock Exchange may be made in three
different ways: “Cash,” “regular” or on a “limited option” to buyer and
seller as to the time of delivery or acceptance. “Cash” means that stock
bought in this manner is taken up and paid for the same day; “regular”
transactions mean that the stock bought in this way must be taken up and
paid for by a quarter past two o’clock of the following afternoon.

Upon the outbreak of the European war, panic ensued among holders of
securities, and the stock exchanges of the world were closed to prevent
the selling of stocks at prices which would have brought ruin to banks
and other financial houses. Practically none of them were opened until
December, 1914, and then only under severe restrictions which were held
in force until confidence had returned.

How did the Term “Cowboys” Originate?

The term “cowboys” was first used during the American Revolution. It was
applied to a band of Tories who infested the neutral ground of
Westchester County, New York, stealing cattle from both parties and
doing other mischief.

It has been used of recent years to designate the skilled horsemen who
have charge of the cattle on the great ranges of the West. Many of them
enlisted in the Rough Rider regiment of the Spanish war and proved
daring soldiers.

The Story in a Chemical Fire Extinguisher[29]

A little smoke, a flash, and a waste basket, a curtain or something else
is in flames. A few years ago an excited person would fail to extinguish
the blaze with water or with any other first aid at hand and would call
for the fire department. When that arrived the fire frequently would be
beyond control.

Modern methods have wrought great changes. Nowadays, in case of fire,
any man, woman or child can reach for a fire extinguisher and after a
few strokes of the pump the fire is out.

This change did not come all at once. The fire extinguisher has been
developing ever since man learned to fear fire. Devices for
extinguishing fire are almost coeval with that element itself. In the
second century before Christ, the Egyptians had pumps worked by levers
to put out their fires. The Roman, Pliny, refers to fire extinguishers
but gives no account of their construction. Apollodorus, architect of
the Emperor Trajan, speaks of leathern bags with pipes attached. Water
was projected by squeezing the bags. Medieval Europe used various forms
of water pumps, and it was not until the opening of the nineteenth
century that chemicals were used to combat fire.

[Illustration]

There are two classes of chemical fire extinguishers: the soda and acid
tank or three-gallon type, and the one-quart pump type. The latter came
when the efficiency of carbon tetrachloride as an extinguishing agent
became known. All the extinguishers of this type use a liquid which has
carbon tetrachloride as a base. The liquid is a combination of organic
materials with an aromatic odor and high specific gravity. When
subjected to a temperature of 200° F. or over, it changes to a heavy,
cohering, non-poisonous gas blanket which surrounds the burning material
and cuts off the air supply necessary for the life of the fire.

The first one-quart pump type of extinguisher appeared in the United
States in 1907. There was little resemblance between it and the
extinguisher of today. A cylindrical tube with a perforated end
contained the liquid. The user was expected to sprinkle the liquid over
the fire just as salt is sprinkled from a saltcellar over meat.

One company applied the idea of pumping the liquid on the fire in 1909.
They introduced a single-acting pump. The user inserted the nozzle in
the liquid, drew it into the pump, and then ejected it on the flames.
This company substituted a double-acting pump early in 1910. The
container for the fluid and the pump were thus combined and the
extinguisher had the general appearance of those now on the market.

Brass construction was substituted for tin in the latter part of 1910,
and in 1911 all brass construction was adopted. The extinguisher has
remained practically unchanged since 1911.

This was the only one-quart type extinguisher on the market until 1911.
Since then several others have been marketed. All use an extinguishing
liquid with carbon tetrachloride as a base. They differ principally in
the manner of its ejection. The original type pumps the liquid out by
hand. Others eject it by air pressure or by a combination of the two
methods. The objection made by some people to the use of air pressure is
that it demands attention and the use of a complicated mechanism which
more readily gets out of order.

[Illustration]

The liquid extinguishing agent has seen little change since 1907. In
1914 it was modified so that it injures nothing with which it comes in
contact. It puts out fires originating in oily wastes, turpentine and
shellac, and fires resulting from the ignition of gasoline, benzine or
acetylene gas, on which ordinary chemicals and water are useless. It
extinguishes electrical fires without injuring insulation or apparatus
and without injury to the operator. A stream of this liquid has been
directed upon a circuit of 110,000 volts without the least harm to the
operator.

A German originated the soda and acid type of extinguisher from tests
made in Denmark between 1830 and 1835. The enterprising Teuton divided a
hogshead into two parts. He filled one part with a solution of alcohol
and water; the other division was partly filled with sulphuric acid. His
problem was to unite the two when he wanted to put out a fire. This was
accomplished by fastening a charge of gunpowder in such a way that when
exploded it would break the partition and mix the solutions. French
ingenuity added slight improvements a short time later.

[Illustration]

Alexander Graham, of Lexington, Virginia, applied for patents on this
type of extinguisher a number of times between 1844 and 1849. He was
unable to patent his invention. A fire extinguisher company in Chicago
and one in Baltimore obtained patents on what was known as the
“bicarbonate of soda and sulphuric acid” extinguisher by a special act
of Congress in 1865. These patents were known as the Graham patents, and
both extinguishers were called the “break-bottle type” because the soda
and acid were mixed when a glass bottle containing the latter was
broken.

The “up-set” type of soda and acid extinguisher was adapted by Meyerose
in St. Louis in 1891. The improvement lay in the vessel containing the
acid being upset instead of broken. This extinguisher was of copper
construction and had a capacity of three gallons. One fire extinguisher
company improved upon the original type of “up-set” extinguisher in 1893
by lining the extinguisher with lead which the acid did not affect.
Since 1893 there have been no improvements of consequence on the soda
and acid extinguisher. It consists of a cylindrical container with a
solution of sodium bicarbonate. Over the bicarbonate is suspended a
vessel containing sulphuric acid. When in use the acid is tilted over
and comes in contact with the bicarbonate. This liberates carbon
dioxide. The pressure generated is sufficient to throw a stream of the
bicarbonate solution forty feet. The chief disadvantages of the soda and
acid type of extinguisher are that its weight makes it cumbersome to
operate and it cannot be safely used on electrical fires until the
current has been turned off.

* * * * *

How is Gold Leaf Made?

The gold is cast into ingots weighing about two ounces each, and
measuring about three-quarters of an inch broad. These ingots are passed
between steel rollers till they form long ribbons of such thinness that
a square inch will weigh six and one-half grains. Each one of these is
now cut into 150 pieces, each of which is beaten on an anvil till it is
about an inch square. These 150 plates are interlaid with pieces of fine
vellum about four inches square, and beaten till the gold is extended
nearly to the size of the vellum leaves. Each leaf is then divided into
four, interlaid with goldbeater’s skin, and beaten out to the dimensions
of the skin. Another similar division and beating finishes the
operation, after which the leaves are placed in paper books ready for
use. The leaves are about three and a quarter inches square and are
produced in ten different shades of color, according as the gold was
alloyed with much or little copper or silver.

What is the Natural Color of Goldfish?

It is greenish in color in the natural state, the golden-yellow color
being found only in domesticated specimens, and retained by artificial
selection.

These fishes are reared by the Chinese in small ponds, in basins or
porcelain vessels, and kept for ornament. By careful selection, many
strange varieties have been propagated.

They are now distributed over nearly all the civilized parts of the
world, but in large ponds they readily revert to the color of the
original stock.

When was “Liquid Fire” First Used in Warfare?

Long before the European war, an inflammable and destructive compound
was used in warfare, especially by the Byzantine Greeks.

It was poured from caldrons and ladles, vomited through long copper
tubes, or flung in pots, phials and barrels.

The art of compounding it was concealed at Constantinople with the
greatest care, but it appears that naphtha, sulphur and nitre entered
into its composition.

How did the Greyhound Get His Name?

The name appears to have no reference to the color, but is derived from
the Icelandic “grey,” meaning a dog. They are used chiefly in the sport
of coursing, a work for which their peculiar shape, strength, keenness
of sight and speed make them exceedingly well fitted. This sport is
preferred by many people to horse racing. There are several varieties,
as the Irish greyhound, the Scottish, the Russian, the Italian and the
Turkish.

The common greyhound is of an elegant make of body, and is universally
known as the fleetest of dogs.

A good hound has a fine, soft, flexible skin, with thin, silky hair, a
great length of nose, contracting gradually from the eye to the nostril,
a full, clear and penetrating eye, small ears, erect head, long neck,
chest capacious, deep, but not wide, shoulders deep and placed
obliquely, ribs well arched, contracted belly and flank, a great depth
from the hips to the hocks of the hind-legs, fore-legs straight and
shorter than the hind legs.

[Illustration: THE GATEWAY TO AMERICA

The famous statue of Liberty in New York Harbor. The grassy space in the
foreground is Battery Park, and the round building is the Aquarium. Here
in the early days stood a rude “castle” or fort, later supplanted by an
opera house. Washington often walked in the old garden around the
building, as did other great Americans.

_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._]

Why is It Called “Battery Park”?

The extreme southern end of Manhattan Island is both popularly and
officially known as “Battery Park” because it was fortified in the
seventeenth century for the protection of the town. In the picture the
round building is the Aquarium, which is abundantly supplied with sea
and river fishes. The picture was taken from a platform of the Elevated
Railway, the trains of which run from this point to practically the
northern extremity of the island, making stops en route at stations
situated at approximately every eighth street.

Manhattan Island was first visited in 1609 by Henry Hudson. The first
settlement was located three years afterward on the present site of
Battery Park. The Dutch settlement here formed gradually grew into a
town called New Amsterdam, which in 1648 had 1,000 inhabitants. In 1664
it surrendered to the British and took its new name from the Duke of
York, into whose hands it came. It was the capital of the State of New
York from 1784 to 1797, and from 1785 to 1790 it was the seat of the
Federal Government. Washington was inaugurated to the presidency at New
York in 1789. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 gave the city
command of internal commerce and since that date its progress has been
rapid, almost beyond example.

How do we Know that the Earth is Round?

We have all been taught that the earth is a nearly spherical body which
every twenty-four hours rotates from west to east around an imaginary
line called its axis--this axis having as its extremities the north and
south poles respectively--while in the course of a year it completes a
revolution around the sun.

To an observer whose view is not obstructed, any part of the earth
presents itself as a circular and horizontal expanse, on the
circumference of which the heavens appear to rest. Accordingly, in
remote antiquity, the earth was regarded as a flat, circular body,
floating on the water. But even in antiquity the spherical form of the
earth began to be suspected.

It is only on this supposition that we can explain how the horizon of
vision grows wider and wider the higher the position we choose, how the
tops of towers and mountains at a distance become visible before the
bases, how the hull of a ship disappears first as she sails away, and
how, as we go from the poles towards the equator, new stars become
visible. Besides these proofs, there are many others, such as the
circular shadow of the earth seen on the moon during an eclipse, the
gradual appearance and disappearance of the sun, and especially the fact
that since 1519 the earth has been regularly circumnavigated.

The earth is not, however, an exact sphere, but is very slightly
flattened at the poles, so as to have the form known as an oblate
spheroid. In this way the polar diameter, or diameter from pole to pole,
is shorter than the diameter at right angles to this--the equatorial
diameter. The most accurate measurements make the polar diameter about
twenty-seven miles less than the equatorial, the equatorial diameter
being found to be 7,925.6 miles, and the polar 7,899.14.

What were “Ducking Stools”?

A ducking stool was a sort of a chair in which “common scolds” were
formerly tied and plunged into water. They were of different forms, but
that most commonly in use consisted of an upright post and a transverse
movable beam on which the seat was fitted or from which it was suspended
by a chain.

The ducking stool is mentioned in the Doomsday survey; it was
extensively in use throughout the country from the fifteenth till the
beginning of the eighteenth century, and in one rare case at least--at
Leominster--was used as lately as 1809.

The Story in Photo-Engraving[30]

Modern advertising would not have been possible without photo-engraving.
Attention has been attracted, desire has been created and goods have
been sold, largely through the pictorial or other artistic
embellishments which have lifted particular “ads” out of the mass and
attracted the favorable attention of the cursory reader. Pictures are
the universal language, not only to those of divers tongues, but to
those of every stage of mental development.

Photo-engravings are a comparatively modern product. They superseded
wood engravings, which for years has been the recognized medium for
illustrations to print on a type printing press. Photo-engravings,
broadly speaking, are divided into two classes--line engravings and
halftones. The distinction between them lying in the fact that one, as
its name implies, is a reproduction of a drawing made in lines or
stipples, while the other, the halftone, gets its name from the method
of its manufacture.

Briefly stated, the process of making halftones is as follows: The
subject to be engraved is photographed through a halftone screen,
so-called. This halftone screen is a glass plate ruled with lines at
right angles ranging, for different purposes, from 60 to 200 lines to
the inch. This screen is placed between the lens and the sensitized
plate which is to be the negative. The necessity for this screen is due
to the fact that a photograph is made up of “tones.” That is to say,
that the color changes imperceptibly in subtle gradations of light and
shade. If this copy were photographed on a piece of copper it would
present no chance for the etching fluid to act. The idea is to break up
the surface into various sized dots, as the various gradations of color
on the original cannot be transferred by any other method to a sheet of
copper and etched.

[Illustration: HALFTONE ENGRAVING]

The various tones must be changed either to lines or dots, so as to make
a printing surface for the ink roller of the press to operate. This is
necessary to get the desired printing surface.

The dots are of various sizes, ranging from a minute stipple to a solid
black, and they present to the eye the same effect as the unbroken tones
of a photograph. The negative when finished shows the drawing exactly
like the original. The whites are opaque, the solid blacks are clear
glass, the intermediate tones showing the same values in stipples of
various sizes. The film of the negative is next removed from the glass,
turned and placed on a heavier plate glass with a number of others and
printed on a sheet of metal which has been coated with a sensitized
solution.

This plate of heavy glass containing the several negatives is placed
with the sensitized metal in a printing frame. The light passes through
the clear part of the negative, the solid parts prevent the passage of
light; thus we have the light acting chemically on the sensitized
surface.

After the print is removed from the printing frame, it is developed, the
parts acted on by the light adhering to the metal. The opaque parts,
through which no light has penetrated, leave the solution soft on the
surface of the metal. This is removed by placing in water and wiping
gently with absorbent cotton. The print is then dried and heated over a
stove which bakes the sensitized solution to the metal. It can readily
be seen that this sheet of metal is now in such shape that the etching
fluid will etch away the uncovered portions of the metal and allow the
protected parts, which represent the color of the original, to remain in
relief.

[Illustration: LINE ENGRAVING]

This plate is etched--a flat proof, so called, is pulled on a hand
press--and it is then taken up by the re-etcher. The re-etcher is the
artist of the etching room. He takes the plate and by covering up
certain parts and etching again gives additional play of color. Smaller
developments of lights are worked out by careful manipulation of the
etching fluid with small sable brushes. The differences in cost in the
production of halftones is due largely to the length of time devoted to
this work. The engraver or finisher then takes charge of it, preparing
the engraving for the routing department, where the superfluous metal is
removed. The plate is then returned to the engraving department, which
completes the work, burnishing darks, engraving highlights, removing
slight imperfections and otherwise perfecting the plate.

It is then proofed and blocked. Nine separate men handle each engraving
in the halftone department.

The making of line engravings follows the same general course, with the
exception that no halftone screen is needed, the copy to be reproduced
being already made up of lines or dots or a combination of them. In the
handling of line work, eight skilled men successively handle each plate.

[Illustration: COMBINATION ENGRAVING]

In addition to plates made by either line or halftone process,
combinations of the two are frequently used, as, for instance, where
decorative pen work is used to embellish a halftone picture, or where
lettering is to be used in connection with a halftone and form part of
the same plate. These plates made up of both line work and halftones are
known as combination plates or double-prints, depending upon the way
they are produced. In both cases, negatives are made of both the
halftone and fine copies.

Combination plates are made by combining the halftone and line negatives
together and making one complete print on the metal.

Double-print is used where the surface is covered with halftone screen,
either the line or halftone negative is printed on the metal, the other
is superimposed on it.

The Benday process, so called, is the use of mechanical appliances for
adding lines or stipples to either drawings or plates. Its use is very
extensive in the making of tint blocks or color work, used either in
connection with line or halftone key plates.

The highlight process, possible only with certain kinds of copy, is a
modification of the halftone in which, by manipulation of the time of
exposure and the screen when making the negative, the halftone stipples
are lost and in this way halftones are produced in which there are pure
whites, without the necessity of the finisher cutting them by hand.

[Illustration: BENDAY ENGRAVING]

Color Engravings.

Let us assume that we have a painting or a drawing in colors from which
it is desired to produce a set of printing plates to produce that
drawing in facsimile. Under the old method of procedure, lithography, it
would have been necessary to make a stone for each of the colors, which
would mean, roughly speaking, from twelve to eighteen stones to
reproduce it--it will be understood that this means the finished print
must go through the press once for each color. This would mean twelve to
eighteen impressions to get the desired result. The expense of doing
this limited the use of lithography.

[Illustration: HIGHLIGHT ENGRAVING]

The modern or photo-engraving method of reproducing a colored copy is
based on the theory of the three primary colors, yellow, red and blue.
It is assumed that every color is formed by some combination of these
three colors--the problem confronting us, therefore, is to separate
these three colors and if possible make a printing plate of each color
with the color values varying from light to dark in such proportions
that when the three are printed in proper register over each other, with
transparent printing inks, the varying color values will blend so as to
reproduce the original. We go about this by making three negatives, one
of each color, the red negative is made by placing at the lens a
so-called color filter, which separates the red rays, whether they
appear as pure red or any part of an orange or a purple, or any of the
many tones of which red may form a part. In like manner the yellow and
blue plates are made by the use of appropriate color filters, each of
which acts for its required color as that used for the red.

So far this would appear to be a purely mechanical operation, requiring
simply the usual care in negative making, but unfortunately this theory
does not work out so absolutely in practice, and for this reason, while
any color may be produced in light rays by the union of the three
primary colors of the proper quality, when the operation is attempted
with material pigments or ink, produce results varying widely from the
ideal. No pigment is absolutely pure, the adulterants or foreign
substances will cause sufficient deviation from the abstract standard to
cause a very noticeable difference in the finished result when united
with another color which is of itself impure. The result is that the
three negatives, instead of each being a true unit, ready for
combination with the others, is really only a basis for further work. It
might justly be compared with a sketch which is all right as far as it
goes, but which requires toning down and elaboration before becoming a
finished work of art.

The three negatives are each printed on sensitized copper, as was noted
with the black and white halftone; they are then turned over to the
re-etcher, who may be rightly termed an “artist-etcher.” He has before
him three prints on copper; on each of them are tones which to his
trained eye are too light or too dark to produce the desired result when
printed with the other two, which also vary more or less. It is his duty
to strengthen and reduce and otherwise manipulate the plates so that
they will, when finally printed, have the desired result.

For every particular use to which an engraving can be put, there is some
particular style or grade of engraving better adapted than any other.
The successful use of halftones, whether in black and white or in
colors, depends on the care with which the particular screen is selected
to suit the paper stock and printing conditions. To illustrate this, the
150-line screen has 22,500 stipples to the square inch. It is apparent,
therefore, that only certain kinds of paper can be used for such
halftones, whereas a 60-line screen contains only 3,600 stipples to the
square inch, which permits its use on a newspaper stock.

The production of engravings is just as highly technical and scientific
and involves as much experience and judgment in their application as any
of the learned professions.

* * * * *

Where are Milk-Pails Filled from Trees?

In South America there are some trees known as “cow-trees” which, when
wounded, yield a rich, milky, nutritious juice in such abundance as to
render it an important article of food. This fluid resembles in
appearance and quality the milk of the cow.

The cow-tree is a member of the bread-fruit family, and is most common
in Venezuela, growing to the height of a hundred feet. The leaves are
leathery, about a foot long and three or four inches broad.

In British Guiana the name is given to another large, much-branched
tree, and there are also other varieties in Para and along the Rio
Negro, which is a tributary of the Amazon River.

How did the Wearing of a Crown Originate?

When we speak of a crown now we mean the head-dress worn by royal
personages as a badge of sovereignty, but it was formerly used to
include the wreaths or garlands worn by the ancients upon special
occasions.

Among the Greeks and Romans, crowns made of grass, flowers, twigs of
laurel, oak, olive and so forth, and later of gold, were made use of as
honors in athletic contests, as rewards for military valor, and at
feasts, funerals and so forth.

It is, however, with the eastern diadem rather than with the classic
corona that the crown, as a symbol of royalty, is connected; indeed, it
was only introduced as such a symbol by Alexander the Great, who
followed the Persian usage. Antony wore a crown in Egypt, and the Roman
emperors also wore crowns of various forms, from the plain golden fillet
to the radiated or rayed crown.

[Illustration: CROWNS

1. Crown of England. 2. Russian Crown. 3. French Crown. 4. Austrian
Crown. 5. Imperial Crown (Charlemagne’s).]

In modern states they were also of various forms until heralds devised a
regular series to mark the grades of rank from the imperial crown to the
baron’s coronet.

The English crown has been gradually built up from the plain circlet
with four trefoil heads worn by William the Conqueror. This form was
elaborated and jeweled, and finally arched in with jeweled bands
surmounted by the cross and scepter. As at present existing, the crown
of England is a gold circle, adorned with pearls and precious stones,
having alternately four Maltese crosses and four fleur-de-lis. From the
top of the crosses rise imperial arches, closing under a mound and
cross. The whole covers a crimson velvet cap with an ermine border.

The crown of Charlemagne, which is preserved in the imperial treasury of
Vienna, is composed of eight plates of gold, four large and four small,
connected by hinges. The large plates are studded with precious stones,
the front one being surmounted with a cross; the smaller ones, placed
alternately with these, are ornamented with enamels representing
Solomon, David, Hezekiah and Isaiah, and Christ seated between two
flaming seraphim.

The Austrian crown is a sort of cleft tiara, having in the middle a
semicircle of gold supporting a mound and cross; the tiara rests on a
circle with pendants like those of a miter.

The royal crown of France is a circle ornamented with eight
fleur-de-lis, from which rise as many quarter-circles closing under a
double fleur-de-lis. The triple crown of the popes is more commonly
called the tiara.

Why do Lobsters Change Colors?

Before a lobster is cooked he is green, that being the color of the
rocks around which he lives on the bottom of the ocean. However, as soon
as a lobster is placed in boiling water his shell changes from green to
red. This is due to a certain chemical substance contained in the shell
which acts in that way when boiled.

How do Fishes Swim?

The fish is entirely surrounded by water which exerts an equal pressure
on all sides. When the fish moves its tail, or makes any movement at
all, he moves in the water. Of course, by moving his tail from side to
side he propels himself forward and by bending his tail he goes in the
direction in which it is bent.

Where do Pearls Come From?[31]

Below the surface of the ocean, there’s a strange, enchanted world.
Living in the midst of its grandeur are most marvelous and delicate
creatures that ceaselessly toil to strew the ocean’s bed with lustrous
gems--pearls.

Nature provides for the denizens of the deep that make these beautiful
gems. The ocean pearl oyster or bivalve (_avicula margaritifera_) and
fresh water mussel (_unio margaritifera_) have wonderful homes--their
shells. Coarse, rough, rugged, often distorted on the outside, within
they are lined with smooth, softly-glowing, iridescent “mother of
pearl.” The membrane, attaching the bivalve to its shell, extracts lime
from the water, building the shell from the inside outward in successive
layers, preserving the finest nacreous secretions for the smooth inside
lining, thus protecting its delicate body.

In this comfortable home the mollusk is contented, but an enemy
sometimes attacks it by boring through its hard shell. Leucodore, clione
and other borers, parasitic or domiciliary worms work into the shell,
and instinctively the protecting nacreous fluid envelops the intruder.
This is the birth of the pearl. The intruder, now covered entirely with
the pearl-nacre, is constantly rolled and lapped about, and successive
layers of nacre are applied until in a few years a pearl of great size
and value is formed and awaits the hardy, daring pearl fisher.

Pearls were the first gems discovered and used as ornaments in
prehistoric ages. Found in their natural state in utmost perfection,
needing no cutting nor polishing, these glowing beads of the sea were
the first baubles of savages, tribes and nations. Today the pearl is the
favored gem of those who are surfeited with valuable jewels. It is
essentially a gem for the wealthy. The connoisseur, accustomed to the
possession of jewels, finds in its soft luster a grandeur above that of
all the sparkling stones.

Fancy pearls include all those of decided color, having a rare and
beautiful tint. “White pearls” include pure white and white slightly
tinted with pink, blue, green or yellow. Of these colored white pearls,
the delicate, lightly-tinted, pink pearl of fine color and luster known
as “rose” is most beautiful. Every white pearl is classified according
to its respective tint and thus its price is determined, the values
ranging in the order named above, from highest for pure white, to lowest
for yellowish-white.

What is Cork?

Cork is the outer bark of a species of oak which grows in Spain,
Portugal and other southern parts of Europe and in the north of Africa.
The tree is distinguished by the great thickness and sponginess of its
bark, and by the leaves being evergreen, oblong, somewhat oval, downy
underneath, and waved.

The outer bark falls off of itself if let alone, but for commercial
purposes it is stripped off when judged sufficiently matured, this being
when the tree has reached the age of from fifteen to thirty years. In
the course of eight or nine years, or even less, the same tree will
yield another supply of cork of better quality, and the removal of this
outer bark is said to be beneficial, the trees thus stripped reaching
the age of 150 years or more.

The bark is removed by a kind of ax, parallel cuts being carried around
the tree transversely and united by others in a longitudinal direction,
so as to produce oblong sheets of bark. Care must be taken not to cut
into the inner bark, or the tree would be killed. The pieces of cork are
flattened out by heat or by weights, and are slightly charred on the
surface to close the pores.

Cork is light, impervious to water, and by pressure can be greatly
reduced in bulk, returning again to its original size. These qualities
render it peculiarly serviceable for the stopping of vessels of
different kinds, for floats, buoys, swimming-belts or jackets,
artificial limbs, etc. Corks for bottles are cut either by hand or by
means of a machine. The best corks are cut across the grain.

The Story in a Giant Cannon

Origin of the Cannon.

The shotgun and rifle, the familiar weapons of the sportsman and the
foot-soldier, are not the ancestors of the cannon, as might be surmised.
On the contrary, the cannon was the predecessor of the musket and its
successors. The rifle, however, antedated the rifled cannon, the type of
modern artillery. We do not know when cannon first appeared, but it may
have been soon after the discovery of gunpowder in Europe. This
explosive seems to have been known in China long before knowledge of it
reached the west, but we do not know to what extent it was developed and
used in that country.

[Illustration: THREE-INCH FIELD GUN UNDER TEST AT FORT RILEY, KANSAS

In the trials conducted by the Board of Ordnance and Fortification of
the United States Army. This gun and carriage, complete, weighs 2,020
pounds. Charge, 18.5 ounces of smokeless powder. Weight of projectile,
15 pounds. Muzzle velocity, 1,800-foot seconds.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

The earliest cannon of which we have any knowledge were clumsy
contrivances, at first wider at the mouth than at the chamber, and made
of wood, and later of iron bars, hooped together with iron rings, a
system of the same type as that now in use in the wire-wound cannon.
They at first seem to have fired balls of stone, iron balls coming
later. A doubtful statement exists to the effect that cannon were used
at the siege of Belgrade in 1073, and it is said that Edward III used
them against the Scotch in 1327. Other dates of their use are 1338 and
1346, in which latter year Edward III employed them against the French
at Crecy. For this we have the authority of Froissart. They were known
under the varied names of bombards, serpentines, etc. Twelve cannon cast
by Louis VII were named after the twelve peers of France, and Charles V
gave twelve others the names of the twelve apostles. Other titles came
later into general use, the royal or carthorne, carrying 48 pounds; the
culverin, 18 pounds; the demi-culverin, 9 pounds; the basilisk, 48; the
siren, 60, etc. In still later times cannon became known by the weight
and the balls they carried, 6-pounders, 12-pounders, etc. But they are
now usually called after the size of their bores, as 6-inch, 8-inch, or
12-inch cannon. The oldest example still in existence is “Mons Meg,”
preserved at Edinburgh Castle. This is one of the iron-bar type, hooped
by iron rings. It is supposed to have been used by James II of Scotland,
at the siege of Threave Castle in 1455.

[Illustration: THREE INCH NAVAL LANDING GUN, CARRIAGE AND LIMBER

Weight of gun and mechanism, 675 pounds. Length of gun, 74.35 inches (25
calibers). Weight of projectile, 13 pounds. Travel of projectile in
bore, 62.9 inches (20.97 calibers). Weight of charge, 18 ounces of
smokeless powder. Muzzle velocity, 1,650-foot seconds. Muzzle energy,
246-foot tons. Weight of gun, carriage, limber, drag ropes, tools, etc.,
and 60 rounds of ammunition, complete, 3,420 pounds. The carriage and
limber have each two removable interchangeable ammunition boxes for 12
rounds each, with a box for 12 rounds below the axle of the limber.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

Louis VI used bombards of great length and power against the Flemish in
1477, while as early as 1401 bronze cannon had been cast in several
cities of West Prussia. Iron cannon were not cast until near the end of
that century. Coming down to the seventeenth century, we are told of the
great Bijapur cast-iron gun, the “Lord of the Plain,” cast by the Mogul
emperor Auremgzebe or by his foes the Mahrattas. This huge gun was 14
feet long, 28 inches bore, and fired a ball of 1,600 pounds weight.
Smooth-bore cannon and mortars of cast-iron and bronze are still
retained in some fortresses, though rifled cannon are the only type now
made. As late as 1864 smooth-bore 100- and 150-pounder wrought-iron guns
were made for the British navy and a few bronze rifled guns were made in
1870 for service in India, but all such guns are now obsolete.

[Illustration: TWENTY-EIGHT TON AUSTRIAN SIEGE HOWITZER WHICH FIRES A
THOUSAND-POUND PROJECTILE

The Germans borrowed a large number of these great siege pieces from the
Austrians and used them in the reduction of the Belgian defenses. Huge
shells filled with high explosives from these mammoth guns rapidly
destroyed the most modern and powerful fortifications known at the
beginning of the great war. It is known that against such weapons of
offense no fortifications can last and that the employment of such
weapons has forced both armies to depend on their trenches as their main
defense.]

[Illustration: CONQUERING THE ALPS.

Immense labor and great ingenuity were required to haul the monster
Italian guns up the steep mountain sides to their positions.]

[Illustration: THE MOST FORMIDABLE OF THE FRENCH ARMY’S TRENCH ARTILLERY

80-m.m. mountain gun loaded with air-mine weighing 130 pounds. These
mines can be thrown for a considerable distance and create havoc in the
enemy’s trenches if the aim is true.]

[Illustration: THE BENNETT-MERCIER MACHINE GUN

This new automatic machine gun has been adopted by the United States
Army, Navy and Marine Corps. It is handled by two men, one to aim and
fire it, the other to feed the cartridges which are held in brass clips
of 30 each. The complete gun weighs only about 35 pounds, fires 400
shots per minute, using regular 30-caliber Springfield rifle cartridges,
with a maximum range of 3 miles and an effective range of about 2,000
yards. The weapon is air cooled and can be fired steadily for about 10
minutes without undue heating.]

[Illustration: THREE-INCH FIELD GUN, LONG RECOIL CARRIAGE AND LIMBER

Weight of gun, carriage and limber complete, including 36 rounds of
ammunition, 4,200 pounds; ground clearance, 22.5 inches. Seats are
provided on axle of carriage for two gunners in transportation, one of
whom operates the road brake.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

The development of the rifle from the old smooth-bore musket, by cutting
grooves or channels in the form of a screw in the interior surface, was
found so advantageous in increase of precision of aim and length of
range, that the rifling of cannon in time followed and is now
universally used. Breech loading has also replaced muzzle loading,
another vast advantage in the use of artillery. A form of breech-loading
cannon was introduced in the sixteenth century, but the advantageous use
of this device is of late invention. An important result of these
changes is the use of elongated instead of round balls, this permitting
of the employment of much heavier projectiles for the same width of
bore.

Modern Cannon.

Until 1888 the largest cannon in use was the 119-ton Krupp, made in 1884
for Italy; but in 1888-90 the same house produced a 135-ton gun for
Cronstadt. The heaviest British gun at that time was of 111-ton weight.
This threw a projectile of 1,800 pounds with a muzzle velocity of 2,216
feet per second. But there later came a reaction in favor of lighter
guns and quick firers. The heavy cannon of recent times are not cast, as
of old, but are made of forged-steel by what is known as the building-up
process. The different parts of these are called the tube, jacket,
hoops, locking rings, trunnion rings, wire winding, etc.

Cannons are subject to great stress in firing, this being of two kinds.
One is the longitudinal stress, acting in the direction of the length
and tending to pull the muzzle away from the breech. The other is the
circumferential or tangential stress, which tends to split the gun open
in lines parallel to the axis of the bore. These stresses are results of
the longitudinal and radial pressures of the gas developed by the
ignition and explosion of the powder. Such destructive forces have to be
guarded against in the building of a cannon and have led to a great
development over the old-time casting processes. As long as projectile
velocities under 1,500 feet per second were employed cannons cast in one
piece sufficed, but when greater velocities were sought, the pressure
grew so extreme that no cast or forged metal tube would stand the
strain.

[Illustration: THREE-INCH MOUNTAIN GUN AND CARRIAGE

Weight of gun, 206-1/2 pounds. Length of gun, 37.25 inches (12.4
calibers). Weight of projectile, 12 pounds. Travel of projectile in
bore, 27.55 inches (9.2 calibers). Weight of charge, 12.5 ounces of
smokeless powder. Muzzle velocity, 1,224-foot seconds. Muzzle energy,
123-foot tons. Weight of gun and carriage complete, 726 pounds. This gun
and carriage break up into four loads of approximately 200 pounds each.
The equipment carries 16 complete rounds of ammunition with it, which
are divided equally among four boxes. The saddles are so made that the
load will go on any saddle.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

How Cannon are Now Made.

It was found that the inner surface of the tube stretched more than the
outer surface, and that after the inner surface had been stretched to
its limit of elasticity the outer part failed to add to its strength, so
that further thickness was of no benefit. To do away with this
condition cannon were constructed on the principle of varying
elasticity, the metal with the greatest elongation within its elastic
limit being placed next to the bore, yet in high-powered guns this
system failed to yield the result desired and it was replaced by what is
known as the initial tension system. This comprised two methods: the
plain built-up gun and the wire-wound gun. In the latter certain parts
of the gun were wrapped with wire in the form of a ribbon.

[Illustration: RAPID-FIRE GUN

Six-inch rapid-fire gun equipped with patented two-handed elevating
gear, consisting of two hand wheels on opposite ends of the same shaft,
the handles being 180 degrees apart. The pointer uses both hands in
elevating and depressing the gun. The electric firing trigger _A_ is
worked by the index finger of the right hand without releasing the
handle. There is a second firing handle _B_ attached to the slide, for
firing either electrically or percussively.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

Built-Up and Wire-Wound Guns.

A built-up gun is made of several layers of forged steel. The parts of
such a gun are known as the liner, the tube, the jacket and the hoops.
The liner is a single piece which extends the length of the bore and is
intended to contain the rifling and the powder chamber. This is inclosed
by the tube, which is also in one piece, surrounding the liner
throughout its length. Outside this is the jacket, made in two pieces
and shrunk on the tube. Over the jacket lie the hoops, six or seven of
these being used in a big gun. Like the jacket, these also are shrunk
on. All these parts are made of the finest quality of open-hearth
steel.

[Illustration: FIVE-INCH NAVAL GUN AND MOUNT

The latest type of gun used in the U. S. Naval Service in the secondary
batteries on a battleship.]

[Illustration: COAST DEFENSE GUN

A modern 14-inch coast defense gun at Sandy Hook. The gun is mounted on
a disappearing carriage, which lowers it out of sight behind the
breastworks after firing. This is one of the most powerful guns in the
world, firing a projectile which would pierce the armor of a battleship
more than five miles away.]

[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._

A BATTERY OF 12-INCH COAST DEFENSE MORTARS

These powerful weapons fire a projectile which weighs from 700 to 1,046
pounds, depending on the range desired, and which is capable of piercing
the deck armor of any battleship. They have a range of 20,000 yards with
the 700-pound projectile. The gun is 16-2/3 feet long and is fired only
at elevations between 45° and 65°.]

[Illustration: GIANT GUNS--THEIR MUZZLE-ENERGY, PROJECTILES, AND
PENETRATING POWERS

The British 13.5, which was known as the 12-inch-A until the “Lion” was
launched, has a length of 45 calibers, and a muzzle-energy ten per cent
greater than that of the 50-caliber 12-inch of 1909 and 1910. It may be
noted that the caliber is the diameter of the bore of a gun. The
statement that a gun has a length of 45 calibers, for example, implies
that the gun is forty-five times the bore’s diameter. Thus a 12-inch gun
of 45 calibers is 45 feet long.]

These pieces are prepared with the utmost care to prevent any defective
material entering into the make-up of the gun. After the parts are put
together a thorough forging follows, either by use of hammer or press,
the latter being now used in preference. The usual practice in forging
is to continue it until the ingot is decreased to one-half its original
thickness and is within two inches of the desired diameter of the
finished work. It is then annealed with great care to relieve the
strains set up in the metal by the forging and next goes to the machine
shop to be rough bored and turned. The final boring takes place after a
second annealing. The above is only a rapid sketch of the total process,
in which elaborate care is taken to prevent imperfection of any kind.

[Illustration: ORDNANCE PROVING GROUND

View showing smoke cone occurring during the proof firing of a
twelve-inch gun with brown powder.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

In a wire-wound gun an inner tube of steel is thoroughly wrapped by
successive layers of ribbon wire, each layer being wound with wire at a
different tension. This type of gun is preferred by foreign
manufacturers, but within the United States the built-up system is in
higher favor and is almost exclusively employed. The makers of the
wire-wound cannon claim for it a positive soundness of material
impossible to secure in a built-up gun, and that it has greater firmness
of material and superior tangential strength. But with this come certain
disadvantages, a notable one being a lack of rigidity in the
longitudinal direction, this tending to increase the “droop” of the
muzzle and give a certain “whip” to the piece when fired that reduces
accuracy. This and other disadvantages have given the built-up guns
general preference in this country, they being found strong enough to
bear any pressure desirable in service. In addition they are much
cheaper to build than the wire-wound guns.

Modern heavy guns are made of medium open-hearth carbon steel, forged as
stated. The liner and tube are then placed upright in an assembling pit,
the jacket and hoops shrunk on, and the finishing work done, as above
said, the breech mechanism being finally fitted. Within recent years
there has been a steady increase in the size and range of cannon, until
an immense size and weight have been attained. For naval purposes the
14-inch gun is the largest now used in American battleships, but in the
United States coast defense forts, 16-inch guns are installed. England
has equipped several of her latest battleships with 15-inch guns and
other nations are following in the same direction. In recent great
battleships four turrets are used, each carrying three of these great
guns, giving a broadside of twelve of these monster weapons of war. Of
the three guns, the middle one is raised above the line of the others. A
battleship thus armed is able to fire six guns ahead and six astern by
raising the second and third turrets so as to fire over the others.

[Illustration: FOUR-INCH FIFTY CALIBER RAPID-FIRE GUN ON PEDESTAL MOUNT

Extraction of cartridge case by opening of breech mechanism. Weight of
gun, 6,170 pounds. Length of gun, 205 inches (51.2 calibers). Weight of
projectile, 33 pounds. Travel of projectile in bore, 165.6 inches (41.4
calibers). Weight of charge, 15 pounds of smokeless powder. Muzzle
velocity, 2,900-foot seconds. Muzzle energy, 1,928-foot tons. Weight of
mount with shield, 9,470 pounds. Thickness of shield, 2 inches of nickel
steel. Gun equipped with telescopic and night sights and with electric
and percussion pull-off firing gear.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

Military cannon are divided into three classes, based upon the length of
caliber, and technically known as guns, mortars and howitzers. In guns
the length is relatively great, in mortars relatively small, compared to
their calibers. Howitzers form a class between guns and mortars in
length. The field guns of the American army are the 3.6-inch
breech-loading mortars, and the 3.6-inch heavy and 3.2-inch light guns.
The siege guns in the service are the 5-inch siege guns, the 7-inch
howitzer, and the 7-inch mortar. The coast defense artillery consists of
the 8-, 10-, 12- and 16-inch guns and the 12-inch mortars. In the recent
European war very heavy cannon were used for field service, pieces of
the size usually placed in forts being drawn to the field by powerful
tractors, set on concrete platforms and used in attacks on fortified
cities. It was through the use of such ordnance that the German army so
easily reduced the strongly fortified Belgian cities.

[Illustration: FLUID COMPRESSION PLANT

While still in a molten condition in the mold, the steel used in
manufacturing guns and shafting is subjected to hydraulic pressure until
the ingot has cooled, thus insuring the solidity of the metal. The upper
head of the compressor weighs 125 tons, and the lower one, including the
cylinder through which the hydraulic pressure is applied, 135 tons.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

[Illustration: AMMUNITION.[32] (See page 410.)]

[Illustration: TWO-HANDED ELEVATING GEAR.[32] (See page 410.)]

[Illustration: RANGE FINDER AND PREDICTOR; HOME AND DISTANT STATION
INSTRUMENTS.[33]

(See page 410.)]

[Illustration: ARMOR PIERCING PROJECTILES, CAPPED AND UNCAPPED.[33] (See
page 410.)]

[Illustration: RANGE FINDER AND CHART ATTACHMENT[34]. (See page 410.)]

[Illustration: EIGHTEEN-INCH, THIRTY-CALIBER TORPEDO GUN.[34] (See page
410.)]

[Illustration: FIRING GEAR FOR GUNS.[35] (See page 410.)]

[Illustration: FUSES.[35] (See page 410.)]

The range of these giant cannon is enormous and their destructive power
great, this being added to by the fact that the explosive shell has
replaced the solid round shot of old-time gunnery. A 14-inch gun of 45
caliber can discharge a 1,400-pound projectile at a muzzle velocity of
2,600 feet per second. If we compare this with a locomotive going at the
speed of sixty miles an hour, we have in the latter a speed of
eighty-eight feet per second to compare with the 2,600 feet per second
of the cannon ball. From this we can well conjecture the vast speed with
which the latter moves, its enormous range and vast powers of
destruction.

[Illustration: THREE-INCH HORSE ARTILLERY GUN, LONG RECOIL CARRIAGE AND
LIMBER

Length of gun, 85 inches (28 calibers). Weight of projectile, 12 pounds.
Travel of projectile in bore, 74.65 inches (24.88 calibers). Weight of
charge, 17.1 ounces of smokeless powder. Muzzle velocity, 1,750-foot
seconds. Muzzle energy, 255-foot tons. Weight of gun, carriage and
limber, containing 36 rounds of ammunition, 3,355 pounds. Ground
clearance, 18 inches.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

As facts are better than theories, it will be of interest to adduce a
recent example of gunnery of a most illuminating type, but as regards
distance and remarkable accuracy of aim. In September, 1916, the
American battleship “Pennsylvania,” armed with a main battery of twelve
14-inch guns, fired these simultaneously at a target in the Chesapeake
22,000 yards, or more than twelve miles, away. The target was the sunken
hulk of the “San Marcos,” formerly the battleship “Texas,” which for
several years had been used for similar purposes. As the target was
invisible to the gunners it was hardly to be expected that any of the
shots should fall near the target. But the extraordinary result appeared
that five of these twelve shots struck the hulk. As each of these
projectiles weighed 1,400 pounds any battleship receiving such a
broadside would probably have gone promptly to the bottom. The result,
which has never before been equaled in accuracy, sufficiently attests
the remarkable proficiency in range-finding that modern engineers have
developed.

As for the penetrating powers of such huge shot we may take the 15-inch
gun, the type of the largest guns in our fortifications and which is
claimed to be able to pierce sixteen inches of armor at a range of
18,000 yards and ten inches at a range of 20,000 yards. A notable
example of this took place on September 15, 1916, at the proving grounds
at Indian Head, on the Potomac River, when a 16-inch, 2,100-pound, solid
steel shell, said to be the first ever fired from a naval gun of that
caliber, with a small charge of explosive, went through a plate of
armor, penetrated a thick sand backing, and continued its course,
striking the house of an employee of the proving grounds and plunging
through the kitchen rending all before it. This was a naval gun, the
largest yet made for naval purposes.

[Illustration: PATENTED CHAIN RAMMER

As applied to loading twelve-inch turret guns. The space occupied by
this rammer in the rear of the gun is less than one foot, with a
possible ramming stroke of fifteen feet. The rammer being attached to
the gun’s cradle or slide, moves with the gun in elevation and
depression. The ammunition car also moves with the gun. Loading can be
performed while the gun is kept in motion following a moving target.
This rammer is stiff in all directions when extended.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

In the make-up of modern guns the breech-loading mechanism is of
essential importance, it being necessary that the breech should be
capable of rapid opening for the insertion of the charge into the
loading chamber, as rapidly closed and firmly secured to prevent it
being forced open by the reaction of the discharge. It also must fit
with such tightness as to prevent any escape of the gas in that
direction, and force it to exert all its impelling power upon the ball.
Various methods are used for this purpose, with the result that loading
and firing can be very quickly and effectively performed. In the case of
guns in fortifications, the disappearing carriage is a highly important
invention of recent date. By its aid the gun is quickly lifted to fire
over the walls of the fort and is driven backward by the force of its
discharge, sinking to a place of safety behind the walls. This saves the
gun and its crew from injury by return fire.

We may say in conclusion that the great European war was notable for the
use of artillery to an extent far surpassing its employment in any
previous war. This great conflict, indeed, was very largely a contest of
gun fire, in which the opposing fields of the battling armies were so
swept with shells and other explosives as to render life impossible on
the open land, trench digging being one of the main employments of the
embattled hosts. Never before had the supreme value of gunnery in
warfare been so fully demonstrated.

[Illustration: GEAR WHEEL AND DRUM FOR COAL HOISTING PLANE

Diameter of wheel, 20 feet 9-1/2 inches; face, 43-1/2 inches; diameter
of hub, 26 inches; number of teeth, 128; pitch, 6-1/8 inches; pitch
diameter, 249.554 inches; shipping weight, 108,873 pounds.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

[Illustration: SIX-INCH RIBBED CAVITY ARMOR-PIERCING SHELL

Projectile was loaded with two pounds of black charcoal powder and fused
with magazine fuse. Fired at six-inch Krupp hard-faced armor plate.
Shell burst about eight feet to rear of plate after penetrating the
same. Weight of largest fragment recovered 10-1/4 pounds. Average weight
of fragments, 2-5/16 ounces. Total number of pieces recovered, 650.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

AMMUNITION. (See page 402.)

Made-up ammunition, with brass cartridge cases, and cast-iron and forged
steel shells and armor-piercing projectiles. The rounds shown are as
follows: Rounds with forged steel shell for one-pounder gun, for
three-pounder gun and for six-pounder gun respectively; round with
cast-iron shell for three-inch field gun; round with capped
armor-piercing shell for three-inch fifty-caliber rapid-fire gun; round
with forged steel shell for four-inch forty caliber rapid-fire gun;
round with capped armor-piercing projectiles for the four-inch and
twelve-centimeter fifty-caliber rapid-fire guns respectively, and round
with forged shell for six-inch gun.

TWO-HANDED ELEVATING GEAR. (See page 402.)

Method of obtaining a variable movement of a miniature target,
corresponding to rolls of a vessel of from 1 to 10 degrees. A series of
25,000 shots were fired thus, by eight gun pointers, at targets
corresponding to the size of a battleship as seen at ranges of 1,500,
3,000, 6,000 and 9,000 yards. Using a sub-caliber rifle rigidly attached
to the muzzle of the gun and fired electrically by the firing gear of
the big gun. The record shows that under circumstances of average
difficulty at sea (say 5 degrees roll and range of 3,500 yards), the
gain in accuracy (increase in hits with a given expenditure of
ammunition) is about 25 per cent, and the gain in speed of hitting
(number of hits in a given time) is 50 per cent, with the two-hand gear
as compared with the usual one-hand gear.

RANGE FINDER AND PREDICTOR; HOME AND DISTANT STATION INSTRUMENTS. (See
page 403.)

Continuous readings, by means of automatic indicators, of either the
actual or the predicted ranges and azimuths of moving target at every
instant and for any distance from 1,000 to 15,000 yards and through an
azimuth of 160 degrees, are clearly presented at all times. The ranges
are read in scales of 10-yard steps, and the azimuths for each .01
degree are traversed. The corrected ranges for the various guns served
by the instruments, either actual or automatically predicted for any
interval of time, are constantly communicated to the various guns whose
fire is being directed by the observation instrument.

ARMOR-PIERCING PROJECTILES, CAPPED AND UNCAPPED. (See page 403.)

The projectiles shown are a three-inch capped, a four-inch capped, a
five-inch and a six-inch uncapped, eight-inch uncapped and capped,
ten-inch uncapped and capped and twelve-inch capped.

RANGE FINDER WITH CHART ATTACHMENT. (See page 404.)

The chart is drawn on the lower and ground side of a ground glass plate.
A pencil point is secured to moving cross-head and marks position of
target on ground glass, tracing movement of same thereon. The pillar
mounting allows of ready removal of chart attachment when it is not
desired to use the same.

EIGHTEEN-INCH, THIRTY-CALIBER TORPEDO GUN. (See page 404.)

Weight, 134,000 pounds. Length of gun, 528 inches. Weight of projectile,
2,000 pounds. Travel of projectile in bore, 432.4 inches (24.02
calibers). Weight of charge, 310 pounds of smokeless powder. Muzzle
velocity, 2,000-foot seconds. Muzzle energy, 55,500-foot tons. Greatest
diameter of gun, 45 inches. Its breech mechanism was opened and closed
by one man in nine seconds. It was also opened without great effort by a
boy twelve years of age.

FIRING GEAR FOR GUNS. (See page 405.)

External firing gear for guns using loose ammunition. The primer is
inserted in the firing gear when the breech mechanism is open, but is
held at an angle to the lighting vent until the final locking motion of
the breech block, making it impossible to light the gun’s charge before
the breech mechanism is safely closed, even if the primer should be
prematurely exploded. The primer case is automatically ejected by the
opening of the breech mechanism.

FUSES. (See page 405.)

The fuses shown from left to right are: minor caliber percussion fuse,
minor caliber magazine percussion fuse, major caliber percussion fuse,
major caliber magazine percussion fuse, triple, double and single train
time fuses. The time fuses all contain a percussion element to insure
their exploding on impact if not previously exploded. No special tool is
required for setting these fuses. They are made up to 27 seconds burning
time for guns of 2,600-foot seconds muzzle velocity, and up to 36
seconds for mortars and guns of 1400-foot seconds muzzle velocity.

* * * * *

What is a Deep-Sea Diver’s Dress Like?

There are now two general types of deep-sea diving equipment: an India
rubber dress, covering the entire body, except the head, which is
covered by a helmet, and another apparatus which is constructed entirely
of metal.

The India rubber dress has a neck-piece or breast-plate, fitted with a
segmental screw bayonet joint, to which the head-piece or helmet, the
neck of which has a corresponding screw, can be attached or removed. The
helmet has usually three eye-holes, covered with strong glass, and
protected by guards. Air is supplied by means of a flexible tube which
enters the helmet and communicates with an air pump above. To allow of
the escape of the used air there is sometimes another flexible tube,
which is led from the back part of the helmet to the surface of the
water. But in the more improved forms of the dress, the breathed air
escapes by a valve so constructed as to prevent water from getting in,
though it lets the air out. Leaden weights are attached to the diver,
and his shoes are weighted, that he may be able to descend a ladder,
walk about below, etc.

[Illustration: DIVING-DRESS AND DIVING-HELMET, BY SIEBE, GORMAN & CO.

A. Pipe by which air is supplied.
B. Valve by which it escapes.]

Communication can be carried on with those above by means of a cord
running between the diver and the attendants; or he may converse with
them through a speaking tube or a telephonic apparatus. One form of
diving-dress makes the diver independent of any connection with persons
above the water. It is elastic and hermetically closed. A reservoir
containing highly compressed air is fixed on the diver’s back, which
supplies him with air by a self-regulating apparatus at a pressure
corresponding to his depth. When he wishes to ascend he simply inflates
his dress from the reservoir.

Another form, known as the Fleuss dress, makes the diver also
independent of exterior aid. The helmet contains a supply of compressed
oxygen, and the exhaled breath is passed through a filter in the
breast-piece which deprives it of its carbonic acid, while the nitrogen
goes back into the helmet to be mixed with the oxygen, the supply of
which is under the diver’s own control, and to be successively breathed.
A diver has remained an hour and a half under thirty-five feet of water
in this suit.

A considerable enlargement of the field of deep-sea diving is the result
of the invention recently of a form of diving apparatus which is
unaffected by the limitations hitherto imposed on work of this kind. A
possible depth of 204 feet is recognized by the British Admiralty
regulations under the conditions that obtain with the common form of
diving suit. Yet this depth has probably never been reached. One hundred
feet is the rare descent of the average diver and 150 feet his maximum.
With the new apparatus a submergence of 212 feet has been obtained, and
this might have been indefinitely extended had there been a greater
depth of water at the place where the experiment took place--Long Island
Sound during the latter part of 1914.

The new diving apparatus is constructed entirely of metal, is rigid and
is made of such materials that it is strong enough to resist the great
pressures found in the depths to which it can penetrate. The material
used is an alloy of aluminum, and the diving case weighs complete about
500 pounds. When in the air, the man inclosed in it is incapable of
imparting movement to it, but in the water, which counterbalances the
dead weight of the apparatus, he can easily move the articulated
sections as well as give himself motion through the water. The
articulated portion consists of about fifty turning joints, fitted with
leather packing, which swells and has an increased effectiveness under
increased water pressure. To prevent the pressure-force of the deep sea
from jamming the joints, roller bearings are so arranged about them that
freedom of action is constantly maintained.

The diving case is not absolutely water-tight, nor is it desired that it
should be so, as the slight leakage acts as a lubricant to the joints,
and aids in their movements. The danger arising from the intake of water
thus into the diving case is averted by the action of an ingenious pump
appliance, which serves two purposes: that of pumping the water out and
pumping the air in. The diver in this invention carries his pump with
him and has air supplied to him at atmospheric pressure.

At the back of the diving case is a recess and in it is installed a
compact but powerful pump, which sucks from the feet of the suit all
leakage and forces it at once outward. This pump is worked by compressed
air, and the air, after performing its mechanical part of driving the
pump, is exhausted into the suit for the diver to breathe and then
passes to the surface through the free space in an armored rubber tube,
within which are led down to the diver the compressed air pipe for
driving the pump, and the electrical connections for telephone and lamp.
Thus the diving case receives a thorough ventilation, and it has been
found that should the pump fail to work for a number of minutes there
would still be enough air remaining in the diving case and the tube
space to supply the diver’s needs for at least the length of time he is
being hauled to the surface.

During the experiment in Long Island Sound the pump was stopped for ten
minutes, while the diver was at a depth of 100 feet. He suffered no
inconvenience, and when the compressor again was started he was lowered
to a depth of 212 feet. If such a condition as failure of the pump to
work for ten minutes had arisen during a descent in the old elastic
diving dress the result must necessarily have been fatal. Nor is a delay
necessary in hoisting the diver clad in the new diving apparatus to the
surface. According to the British Admiralty regulations, should a diver
go down to a depth of 204 feet, the time of his ascent must be not less
than one hour and a half. In the Long Island Sound experiments the diver
was hoisted to the surface in eighty-seven seconds. He was totally
unaffected by the abrupt change in pressure, although the deepest he had
ever been was ninety feet, and on that occasion he had suffered from
bleeding at the nose and ears.

Why do We Smile when We are Pleased?

We smile to express our pleasure. When you meet a friend on the street
you smile as you greet him. This is an indication of your pleasure at
seeing him. This is often caused by an unconscious nervous action
produced by the impression the occurrence creates on the brain. You do
not have to think about smiling, but the muscles of your face contract
and give you that pleased look without any effort on your part.

Why do Some of Us have Freckles?

Some people have freckles, when others do not, because all skins are not
alike, just the same as eyes are not all of one color. People with
certain kinds of skin freckle more quickly when the skin is exposed to
the sun. The action of the sun on their skin causes small parts of the
second layer of skin to give out a yellow or yellowish brown substance.
Freckles are most common in persons of fair complexion and hair. In some
cases freckles are permanent, but in most cases they disappear with the
coming of cold weather.

Pictorial Story of the Steel Industry

[Illustration: MINING ORE, ISLAND OF CUBA.[36] (See page 415.)]

[Illustration: LOADING ORE, ISLAND OF CUBA.[36] (See page 415.)]

[Illustration: PIG IRON CASTING MACHINE.[37] (See page 415.)]

[Illustration: OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE STOCK YARD.[37] (See page 415.)]

MINING ORE, ISLAND OF CUBA. (See page 413.)

The immense veins of magnetic ore lie close to the surface and are mined
or quarried by working along a series of benches or ledges.

LOADING ORE, ISLAND OF CUBA. (See page 413.)

The ore is loaded into small buggies at the mines and run down an
inclined plane, where it is dumped into railroad cars for transportation
to the shipping wharves, seventeen miles distant.

PIG IRON CASTING MACHINE. (See page 414.)

No. 1 casting machine has a capacity of 1,000 tons per day. There are
180 molds, each pig weighing about 125 pounds.

No. 2 machine has a capacity of 1,800 tons per day. It has 278 molds,
each for 125-pound pig.

Product, low phosphorus, Bessemer and basic, or high phosphorus
machine-cast pig iron.

OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE STOCK YARD. (See page 414.)

The raw materials for the open-hearth furnaces are received on elevated
railroad tracks graded and piled preparatory to sending to the furnaces.
Yard No. 1 is 950 feet long and 87 feet wide, and is served by three
electric traveling cranes of twenty tons and sixty tons capacity. Yard
No. 2 is 790 feet long and 84 feet wide, and is served by two ten-ton
electric traveling cranes.

OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES. (See page 416.)

No. 1 open-hearth plant consists of twelve furnaces, two ten-ton, two
twenty-ton, five forty-ton and two fifty-ton basic furnaces and one
forty-ton acid furnace with gas producers. Length of floor, 623 feet.

No. 2 plant consists of ten fifty-ton furnaces with gas producers.
Length of floor, 890 feet.

CHARGING FLOOR OF OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES. (See page 416.)

The stock is delivered to the charging floor in iron boxes loaded on
narrow-gauge buggies, and is charged into the furnaces by electric
charging machines. Length of floor of No. 1 open-hearth plant, 477 feet;
width, 28 feet. Length of floor of No. 2 open-hearth plant, 890 feet;
width, 50 feet.

BLAST FURNACE STORAGE PLANT. (See page 417.)

The coal, coke, ore, etc., is delivered direct by the railroad cars
under a traveling cantilever crane running on tracks laid the length of
a wharf and is dumped from the cars through chutes into buckets and
piled until needed at the furnaces. The plant is capable of storing over
1,000,000 tons of material.

BLAST FURNACES. (See page 417.)

Showing stock house, blowing-engine house, etc. Plant consists of four
furnaces 70 feet high, 18-foot boshet and 12-foot hearth. One furnace 90
feet high, 22-foot boshet and 11 feet 6 inches hearth. Blowing engines
are of horizontal compound and horizontal vertical compound types,
capable of blowing a pressure of 25 pounds of air. Four furnaces
provided with fire-brick regenerator stoves 100 feet high and 18 feet in
diameter. Large furnace has six stoves 100 feet high by 22 feet in
diameter. Boilers fired with waste got from furnace.

[Illustration: OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES.[38] (See page 415.)]

[Illustration: CHARGING FLOOR OF OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES.[38] (See page
415.)]

[Illustration: BLAST FURNACE STORAGE PLANT.[39] (See page 415.)]

[Illustration: BLAST FURNACES.[39] (See page 415.)]

[Illustration: 15,000-TON HYDRAULIC FORGING PRESS

In all respects this press is the largest and most powerful forging
press in the world. Water is supplied to the two plungers under a
pressure of 7,000 pounds per square inch, giving it a maximum capacity
of 15,000 tons. The columns supporting the cross-head are 14 feet 6
inches apart, and the working height under cross-head is 17 feet 1-1/4
inches.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

[Illustration: DROP FORGE DIE SHOP.[40] (See page 421.)]

[Illustration: VIEW OF A SECTION OF PROJECTILE FORGE SHOP.[40] (See page
421.)]

[Illustration: FORGING HOLLOW HEAVY SHAFT.[41] (See page 421.)]

[Illustration: OIL-TEMPERING HEAVY SHAFT.[41] (See page 421.)]

DROP FORGE DIE SHOP. (See page 419.)

This shop has a floor space of 20,400 square feet. With full equipment
of most modern die sinking tools.

VIEW OF A SECTION OF PROJECTILE FORGE SHOP. (See page 419.)

This shop has a floor space of 22,000 square feet and is thoroughly
equipped with the necessary hammers, presses, furnaces, etc., for the
forging, punching, closing in, treating and tempering of all sizes of
armor-piercing and explosive projectiles and shells.

FORGING HOLLOW HEAVY SHAFT. (See page 420.)

No. 22. The block has a hole bored through its center, and in this the
mandrel is inserted, the tube being forged around it. The hydraulic
pressure for this 5,000-ton press is furnished by Whitworth pumping
engines. This department contains also a 2,500-ton press of similar
design.

OIL-TEMPERING HEAVY SHAFT. (See page 420.)

Showing a shaft weighing about 33,000 pounds being taken from the
vertical heating furnace and suspended over the oil-tank preparatory to
being lowered for tempering. The heating furnace and oil tank are served
by a sixty-ton traveling crane and forty-ton jib crane. The shrinking
pit for assembling is situated between the heating furnace and oil tank.

ARMOR PLATE MACHINE SHOP. (See page 423.)

The varied and complex machining required on armor plate demands tools
of enormous size and strength as well as varied capacity. The equipment
of this shop consists of large saws, planers, etc., together with
numerous portable drill presses, grinders, etc. In this shop the
different groups of armor are assembled in the positions they will
occupy on the vessel and are finally inspected before shipment.

FORGING ARMOR. (See page 423.)

After heating, the ingot is placed under a 14,000-ton hydraulic forging
press and forged to the required dimensions. The press is served by two
200-ton cranes with hydraulic lift and pneumatic travel. Weight of the
porter-bar and chuck which hold the plate for forging is 125,000 pounds,
exclusive of counterweights used.

SPECIAL CAR BUILT FOR THE SHIPPING OF LARGE AND HEAVY MATERIAL. (See
page 424.)

Length of car over couplers, 103 feet 10-1/2 inches; capacity, 300,000
pounds. Weight of car, 196,420 pounds. Shown here loaded with casting of
large 5,000-ton flanging press. Weight of casting, 252,000 pounds.

THE LARGEST STEEL CASTING IN THE WORLD. (See page 424.)

Combining the product of five 40-ton open-hearth furnaces. Steel casting
forming part of a 12,000-ton armor-plate hydraulic forging press. Weight
of casting, 325,000 pounds (145 gross tons).

[Illustration: BENDING ARMOR PLATE

After being rough-forged to size and re-heated, the plate is sent to the
bending press to be straightened or bent to shape. The one shown is a
nickel steel side armor plate, 14 inches thick. The press exerts a
hydraulic thrust of 7,000 tons, with two independently operated
plungers, and is served by direct-fired furnaces with movable car
bottoms and two seventy-five ton hydraulic cranes.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

[Illustration: ARMOR PLATE MACHINE SHOP.[42] (See page 421.)]

[Illustration: FORGING ARMOR.[42] (See page 421.)]

[Illustration: SPECIAL CAR BUILT FOR THE SHIPPING OF LARGE AND HEAVY
MATERIAL.[43] (See page 421.)]

[Illustration: THE LARGEST STEEL CASTING IN THE WORLD.[43] (See page 421.)]

[Illustration: BATTLESHIP TURRET.[44] (See page 427.)]

[Illustration: NICKEL STEEL FIELD RING FORGED WITHOUT WELD FOR A
5,000-HORSE-POWER DYNAMO.[44] (See page 427.)]

[Illustration: TURRET FOR TWO TWELVE-INCH GUNS FOR UNITED STATES
BATTLESHIP “ALABAMA”.[45] (See page 427.)]

[Illustration: CONNING TOWER AND ENTRANCE SHIELD FOR UNITED STATES
BATTLESHIP “MASSACHUSETTS.”[45] (See page 427.)]

BATTLESHIP TURRET. (See page 425.)

Twelve-inch turret carrying two forty-five caliber twelve-inch guns for
the U. S. Navy. These guns can be loaded at any angle of elevation or
azimuth or while in motion. The turret is equipped with a broken or
double hoist. The lower hoist supplying ammunition from the magazine to
an upper handling room immediately below, and revolving with, the turret
pan. This makes the upper or gun hoist shorter and increases the speed
of ammunition service, besides interposing two fireproof bulkheads
between the guns and the magazine handling room.

NICKEL STEEL FIELD RING FORGED WITHOUT WELD FOR A 5,000-HORSE-POWER
DYNAMO. (See page 425.)

Forged dimensions: outside diameter, 141 inches; inside diameter, 131
inches; width, 51 inches. Rough machined dimensions: outside diameter,
139-3/8 inches; inside diameter, 130 inches; width, 50-3/4 inches;
weight, 28,840 pounds. Average physical properties shown in United
States Standard test bar taken from full-sized prolongation of end of
forging: Elastic limit, 53,560 pounds per square inch. Elongation, 27.05
per cent.

TURRET FOR TWO TWELVE-INCH GUNS FOR UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP “ALABAMA.”
(See page 426.)

Balanced type. Thickness of inclined plate, 14 inches; of side plates,
10 inches. Height of side plates, 7 feet. Largest diameter of turret,
393 inches. Weight of turret, 192.41 tons.

CONNING TOWER AND ENTRANCE SHIELD FOR UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP
“MASSACHUSETTS.” (See page 426.)

Conning tower, one piece hollow forging, nickel steel, oil tempered.
Thickness of walls, 10 inches. Inside diameter, 83 inches. Height,
82-1/2 inches. Top plate, nickel steel, oil-tempered, 1-1/2 inches
thick. Shield, face-hardened nickel steel, 10 inches thick, 66 inches
high.

[Illustration: SAFE DEPOSIT ARMOR PLATE VAULT

Size, 42 feet 6 inches by 24 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 6 inches high;
weight, 450 gross tons.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

[Illustration: FRONT DOOR, WITH TIME LOCK, FOR ARMOR PLATE SAFE DEPOSIT
VAULT

Thickness of front door plate, 12-1/2 inches; weight of door plate,
12,000 pounds.

_Courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co._]

[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission of the Philadelphia Museums._

CASTING PIG IRON

Molten iron from the blast furnace in the rear is allowed to flow out on
this molding floor in which the shape of the “pig” is molded in the
sand. After cooling, the pigs are broken apart and stored.]

[Illustration: _Courtesy of Indiana Steel Co._

OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES

Iron is converted into steel by the basic or open-hearth method in the
furnaces shown here. The 100-ton ladles are in position at the tapping
side of the furnaces to receive the molten steel.]

[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission of the Philadelphia Museums._

POURING STEEL INTO MOLDS

The great ladle in the upper portion of this picture is filled with
steel at the furnace. A traveling crane then takes it to the train of
flat cars on which the molds stand and the steel is poured. After
cooling, the molds are removed and the steel in the form of a “billet”
is taken to the next process in manufacture.]

[Illustration: GIRDLING THE EARTH WITH STEEL

A steel beam, red-hot, drawn out 90 feet long in a huge steel mill in
Pittsburgh. Steel rolled here may find its place as part of a skyscraper
in the Babel of New York, be builded into the framework of a vessel in
the shipyards of San Francisco, or help to construct a railroad into the
heart of China.

_Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._]

[Illustration: ARMOR PLATE FORGING PRESS

The Bethlehem Steel Company installed this great hydraulic press to
replace a 135-ton steam hammer, which was abandoned because the shock of
its blow disturbed the alignment of the big machines in nearby shops.
This press is the largest of its kind in the world, having a capacity of
15,000 tons, induced by pressure as much as 7,000 pounds per square inch
in its two hydraulic cylinders of over 50-1/2 inches diameter.]

[Illustration: MAKING ARMOR PLATE

View of the armor plate machine shop at the Bethlehem Steel Company. The
varied and complex machining required on armor plate demands tools of
enormous size and strength as well as varied purpose. In this shop the
different groups of armor are assembled in the position they will occupy
on the vessel for which they are intended, and inspected before
shipment.]

[Illustration: _Courtesy of Bethlehem Steel Co._

FORGING

One-piece, 90-degree, double-throw crank shaft for 5,400 H. P. gas
engine. Diameter of shaft, 37 inches, with 10-inch hole. Length over
all, 25 feet 5 inches. Crank webs, 16-3/8 inches thick, 6 feet 1-1/2
inches long, 4 feet 1 inch wide. Forged weight of shaft, 133,400 pounds.
Finished weight, 83,855 pounds.]

* * * * *

We have always said “a white elephant” when we have meant something we
didn’t know what to do with, since the King of Siam first sent a white
elephant to a courtier whose fortune he wished to destroy.

What do We Mean by “Deviation of the Compass”?

When people speak of “deviation of the compass” they mean the difference
of a ship’s compass from the magnetic meridian, caused by the near
presence of iron. In iron ships the amount of deviation depends upon the
direction, with regard to the magnetic meridian, in which the ship lay
when being built. It is least when the ship has been built with her head
south. Armor-plated ships should be plated with their head in a
different direction from that in which they lay when built.

The mode now generally employed to correct deviation is by introducing
on board ship masses of iron and magnets to neutralize the action of the
ship’s magnetism so far as possible.

Compasses are sometimes carried on masts in iron vessels as a means of
removing them from the disturbing influence of the iron of the hull. In
this position they serve as standards of comparison for the binnacle
compass.

Wooden ships are also affected, though in a far less degree, by the
direction in which they lie when building.

The Story in the Making of a Pair of Shoes[46]

The covering and protection of the feet has been a necessity in all but
the warm climates for very many centuries, various articles being used
for this purpose. Leather is now very generally employed, though wood is
often used in Holland and France and paper in China and Japan. The
moccasin of the American Indian was made of untanned deer skin. The
first historical mention of a shoe is in the Old Testament, where
Abraham refused to take as much as a “shoe-latchet” from the King of
Sodom. This probably meant a sandal, leather strapped to the foot,
though the Jews wore shoes as well, and both shoes and sandals were worn
in Greece and Rome. Both in ancient and modern times the styles of shoes
worn have varied greatly, fashion taking hold of them. In the reigns of
the English kings Henry I and Stephen, the people of the court wore
shoes with long points stuffed with tow and made to coil like a ram’s
horn, and by the time of Richard II the points had grown so long as to
reach the knee, to which they were fastened by silver or gold chains. In
the eighteenth century ladies wore shoes with absurdly high heels, a
ridiculous fashion which has come back within our own times. An
improvement which was adopted in the early nineteenth century was that
of making shoes right and left. Boots, which have at times been much
worn, are a variety of shoe lengthened to protect part of the legs.

Until within a recent period the trade of shoemaker was an active one,
all boots and shoes being made by hand. At the present time, however,
the old-time shoemaker, with his bench, lapstone, last and awls has
almost gone out of business, except as a cobbler, mending instead of
making having become his usual occupation. In his place has come the
factory hand, nearly all footwear being now a product of machinery, and
this of greatly varied and effective character. In this form shoemaking
has become a thriving industry in New England and in some other parts of
the United States. This method has greatly decreased the cost of shoes,
invention having so hastened and cheapened all its processes that the
number of shoes that it would take an old-time shoemaker a year to make
can be turned out in a few hours by modern machinery.

Shoemaking by Machine.

The variety of inventions used in shoe factories is rather bewildering,
every one of the many processes having a machine of its own, and each of
these doing its work with admirable precision. We can name here only the
more important of these implements.

First comes the clicking machine. This has a cutting board resembling
that used by the hand workmen. Over this is a beam containing a cutting
die under which the leather is passed. At every descent of the die a
piece of leather is cut out of the skin of the size and shape needed for
the upper leather of a shoe. Thus in an instant is done what was slowly
done by a sharp knife moved around a pattern in the old method.

[Illustration: IN THE DAYS OF THE AWL, LAPSTONE AND HAMMER]

[Illustration: AMAZEEN SKIVING MACHINE]

[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF GOODYEAR WELT SHOE, SHOWING THE
DIFFERENT PARTS AND THEIR RELATION TO EACH OTHER]

[Illustration: INSOLE TACKING MACHINE]

[Illustration: IDEAL CLICKING MACHINE]

[Illustration: DUPLEX EYELETING MACHINE]

[Illustration: ENSIGN LACING MACHINE]

[Illustration: REX PULLING-OVER MACHINE]

[Illustration: REX UPPER TRIMMING MACHINE]

[Illustration: CROWN TIP PUNCHING MACHINE]

[Illustration: BED LASTING MACHINE]

[Illustration: GOODYEAR UNIVERSAL INSEAM TRIMMING MACHINE]

[Illustration: TACK-PULLING AND RESETTING MACHINE]

[Illustration: CONSOLIDATED HAND METHOD WELT LASTING MACHINE]

[Illustration: IMPROVED SOLE LAYING MACHINE]

[Illustration: STAR CHANNEL CEMENTING MACHINE]

[Illustration: GOODYEAR AUTOMATIC SOLE LEVELING MACHINE]

[Illustration: AMERICAN LIGHTNING NAILING MACHINE]

The piece of leather thus cut out is next passed under the skiving
machine, which shaves down its edges to a bevel, the thinned edge being
then folded, after which the toe caps are passed through a punching
machine which cuts a series of ornamental perforations along the edge of
the cap. The linings of the shoe are then prepared and put in place and
the whole goes to the stitchers, by which all the parts of the upper are
united. This is done by a range of machines, which perform the varied
operations with wonderful rapidity and accuracy. The eyelets are next
added by a machine which places them in both sides of the shoe at the
same time and directly opposite each other, this operation finishing the
upper part of the shoe.

The sole leather portions of the shoe pass through another series of
machines, being cut from sides of sole leather by the dieing-out
machine, cut to exact shape by the rounding machine and to exact
thickness by the splitting machine, and then toughened by passing under
a heavy rolling machine. These and other machines complete the soles and
heels, which are finally sent to the making or bottoming room, where the
completed shoe uppers await them.

The first process here is that of the ensign lacing machine, which puts
a strong twine through the eyelets and ties it in an accurate manner.
This is done very swiftly and exactly, its purpose being to hold the
parts of the shoe in their normal position while the shoe is being
completed. The last, made of wood, is now put in place and tacked fast
by the insole tacking machine, when the upper is placed over it and
fastened by two tacks to hold it in place. Then comes the pulling-over
machine, the pincers of which draw the leather securely against the wood
of the last, to which it is fastened by other tacks. These tacks in the
upper are driven only part way in, so that they may be easily drawn out
when no longer needed.

The welt lasting machine next takes the job in hand, it being almost
human-like in the evenness and tightness with which it draws the leather
around the last, other tacks being driven partly in to hold it in place.
A second lasting machine of different kind, draws it around the toe and
heel. Then comes the upper trimming machines, which cuts away the
surplus parts of the leather, the Rex pounding machine, which hammers it
around the heel, the tack pulling machine which removes the lasting
tacks and puts in others to hold the new placed leather, and the upper
stapling machine, which forms a little staple fastening from wire which
securely holds the shoe upper to the channel lip of the insole.

The shoe is now ready to receive the welt, a narrow strip of prepared
leather which is sewed along the edge of the shoe and holds all its
parts firmly together. This used to be one of the most difficult tasks
in hand-work, but is done rapidly and exactly by this machine. After
this all protruding parts of the welt and upper are trimmed off by
another machine, the insole tack pulling machine removes all the
remaining temporary tacks, and the welt-beating and slashing machines
beat the welt with little hammers till it stands out evenly from the
side of the shoe.

It may seem as if the number of machines engaged in this work are almost
beyond number, but there are nearly as many more to come. In fact, a
factory shoe in many cases is not completed until 170 machines and 210
pairs of hands have taken part in putting it together and getting it
into shape for the wearer, and each of these machines works with an
accuracy which no hand-work can equal. We have so far witnessed the
assembling of the several parts of the shoe into one connected whole.
The remaining processes must be run over more rapidly.

There is a sole-laying machine, a rounding and channeling machine, a
loose nailing machine (the latter driving nails into the heel at the
rate of 350 per minute), a heel seat rounding machine, and various
others, one sewing the welt to the shoe, a leveling machine, a second
nailing machine, which does the final work of attaching the heel to the
shoe, and so on somewhat indefinitely.

[Illustration: EDGE TRIMMING MACHINE]

[Illustration: CLIMAX FINISHING SHAFT]

[Illustration: GOODYEAR HEEL SEAT ROUNDING MACHINE]

[Illustration: LOOSE NAILING MACHINE]

[Illustration: THE HADAWAY STITCH SEPARATING MACHINE]

[Illustration: NAUMKEAG BUFFING MACHINE]

[Illustration: REGENT STAMPING MACHINE]

[Illustration: GOODYEAR UNIVERSAL ROUNDING AND CHANNELING MACHINE]

[Illustration: GOODYEAR WELT AND TURN SHOE MACHINE]

[Illustration: STITCH AND UPPER CLEANING MACHINE]

[Illustration: TWIN EDGE SETTING MACHINE]

[Illustration: GOODYEAR OUTSOLE RAPID LOCKSTITCH MACHINE]

[Illustration: IMPROVED VAMP CREASING MACHINE]

[Illustration: MILLER SHOE TREEING MACHINE]

[Illustration: THE EVOLUTION OF A GOODYEAR WELT SHOE

1. A last. 2. An upper. 3. An Insole. 4. Shoe lasted and ready to have
welt sewed on. 5. Welt partly sewed on. 6. Welt entirely sewed on the
shoe. 7. An outsole. 8. Shoe with outsole laid and rounded; channel lip
turned up ready to be stitched. 9. Shoe with sole stitched on. 10. Shoe
with heel in place. 11. Heel trimmed and shoe ready for finishing.]

The remaining machines have to do with the final finishing. They include
trimmers, stitch separators, edge setters, buffers, finishers, cleaners,
stampers, shoe treers, creasers, etc., each playing a part of some
importance in giving a final finish to the shoe and making it
presentable to the wearer. The whole operation, as will be seen, is a
highly complicated one, and is remarkably effective in preparing an
article that shall appeal to the salesman and purchaser and prove
satisfactory when put into use.

Such is the complicated process of making a shoe by machinery. It would
be hard to find any machine process that surpasses it in complexity and
the number of separate machines involved. Poor old St. Crispin would
certainly expire with envy if he could see his favorite thus taken out
of the hands of his artisans and the shoe whirled rapidly through a host
of odd but effective contrivances on the way to become made fit for
wear.

* * * * *

What is “Standard Gold”?

Gold is one of the heaviest of the metals, and not being liable to be
injured by exposure to the air, it is well fitted to be used as coin.
Its ductility and malleability are very remarkable. It may be beaten
into leaves so exceedingly thin that one grain in weight will cover
fifty-six square inches, such leaves having the thickness of only
1/282000th part of an inch. It is also extremely ductile; a single grain
may be drawn into a wire 500 feet long, and an ounce of gold covering a
silver wire is capable of being extended upwards of 1,300 miles. It may
also be melted and remelted with scarcely any diminution of its
quantity. It is soluble in nitromuriatic acid and in a solution of
chlorine. Its specific gravity is 19.3, so that it is about nineteen
times heavier than water. The fineness of gold is estimated by carats,
pure gold being twenty-four carats fine.

Jeweler’s gold is usually a mixture of gold and copper in the
proportions of three-fourths of pure gold with one-fourth of copper.
Gold is seldom used for any purpose in a state of perfect purity on
account of its softness, but is combined with some other metal to render
it harder. Standard gold, or the alloy used for the gold coinage of
Britain, consists of twenty-two parts of gold and two of copper (being
thus twenty-two carats fine).

Articles of jewelry in gold are made of every degree of fineness up to
eighteen carats, _i. e._, eighteen parts of gold to six of alloy. The
alloy of gold and silver is found already formed in nature, and is that
most generally known. It is distinguishable from that of copper by
possessing a paler yellow than pure gold, while the copper alloy has a
color bordering upon reddish yellow. Palladium, rhodium and tellurium
are also met with as alloys of gold.

Gold has been found in smaller or larger quantities in nearly all parts
of the world. It is commonly found in reefs or veins among quartz, and
in alluvial deposits; it is separated, in the former case, by quarrying,
crushing, washing and treatment with mercury. The rock is crushed by
machinery and then treated with mercury, which dissolves the gold,
forming a liquid amalgam; after which the mercury is volatilized, and
the gold left behind; or the crushed ore is fused with metallic lead,
which dissolves out the gold, the lead being afterwards separated by the
process of cupellation.

By the “cyanide process,” in which cyanide of potassium is used as a
solvent for the gold, low-grade ores can be profitably worked. In
alluvial deposits it is extracted by washing, in dust grains, laminæ or
nuggets.

In modern times large supplies of gold were obtained after the discovery
of America from Peru, Bolivia, and other parts of the New World. Till
the discovery of gold in California, a chief source of the supply was
the Ural Mountains in Russia. An immense increase in the total
production of gold throughout the world was caused by the discovery of
gold in California in 1848, and that of the equally rich gold fields
of Australia in 1851. The yield from both sources has considerably
decreased. Other sections of the United States have of late years proved
prolific sources of gold, especially Colorado, which now surpasses
California in yield, and Alaska, which equals it. Canada has gold fields
in several localities, the richest being those of the Klondike.

[Illustration: CASTING INGOTS]

[Illustration: ROLLING ROOM

The upper view shows the melting room in the United States Mint,
Philadelphia. The man at the right is about to pour hot metal into the
iron molds. The lower view is in the coining department, where the
ingots such as are seen on the truck in foreground, are rolled into long
strips of the thickness of the several coins, and then cut into blanks
or planchets.]

At present the richest gold field in the world is that of South Africa,
which yielded in 1910 a value of $175,000,000, somewhat exceeding the
combined yield of the United States and Australia. Russia and Mexico
followed these in yield. The total production throughout the world
amounted to over $450,000,000, of which the United States produced
$96,000,000.

What are Cyclones?

A cyclone is a circular or rotatory storm, or system of winds, varying
from 50 to 500 miles in diameter, revolving around a center, which
advances at a rate that may be as high as forty miles an hour, and
towards which the winds tend.

Cyclones of greatest violence occur within the tropics, and they revolve
in opposite directions in the two hemispheres--in the southern with, and
in the northern against, the hands of a watch--in consequence of which,
and the progression of the center, the strength of the storm in the
northern hemisphere is greater on the south of the line of progression
and smaller on the north than it would if the center were stationary,
the case being reversed in the southern hemisphere.

An anti-cyclone is a storm of opposite character, the general tendency
of the winds in it being away from the center, while it also shifts
within comparatively small limits. Cyclones are preceded by a singular
calm and a great fall of the barometer.

What Metals can be Drawn into Wire Best?

The wire-drawing of metals depends on the property of solid bodies,
which renders them capable of being extended without any separation of
their parts, while their thickness is diminished. This property is
called “ductility.”

The following is nearly the order of ductility of the metals which
possess the property in the highest degree, that of the first mentioned
being the greatest: gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, zinc, tin,
lead, nickel, palladium, cadmium.

Dr. Wollaston succeeded in obtaining a wire of platinum only 1/30000th
of an inch in diameter. The ductility of glass at high temperatures
seems to be unlimited, while its flexibility increases in proportion to
the fineness to which its threads are drawn.

How are Cocoanuts Used to Help Our Warships?

The fibrous husks of cocoanuts are prepared in such a way as to form
“cellulose,” which is used for the protection of warships, preventing
the inflow of water through shot holes.

The United States adopted the preparation for this purpose in 1892.

It is very light and compressible and when tightly packed between the
steel plating and the side of the vessel will expand when wet and fill
up the space through which a shot may have passed.

Another and cheaper product experimented with is the pith of the
cornstalk, which is much lighter than the cocoanut fiber and serves the
same purpose.

How did the Dollar Sign Originate?

The sign, $, used in this country to signify a dollar, is supposed to
date from the time of the pillar dollar in Spain. This was known as the
“Piece of Eight” (meaning eight reals), the curve being a partial
representation of the figure 8. The two vertical strokes are thought to
represent the Pillars of Hercules, which were stamped upon the coin
itself.

Pictorial Story of Fire Apparatus

[Illustration: MOTOR DRIVEN AERIAL TRUCK[47]

The 66-foot ladder of this truck is raised by the motor which drives the
machine. A full equipment of scaling ladders and fire-fighting apparatus
is carried.]

[Illustration: MOTOR FIRE ENGINE AND HOSE TRUCK[47]

One of the latest fire-fighting units. A powerful gasoline engine
supplies the motive power and drives the pump which has a capacity of
700 gallons per minute. The machine also acts as a hose cart and carries
a full complement of firemen.]

[Illustration: A CRANE NECK HAND FIRE ENGINE[48]

This engine was manned by sixty trained men and under expert operation
would throw a stream of 1.53 gallons per stroke more than 200 feet.]

[Illustration: THE FIRST STEAM FIRE ENGINE BUILT IN 1841[48]]

[Illustration: THE SPLENDID HORSES BY WHICH THE HAND-DRAWN FIRE
APPARATUS WERE SUPPLANTED ARE IN TURN GIVING WAY TO POWERFUL MOTOR
ENGINES AND TRUCKS.[49]]

[Illustration: AN OLD-TIME LAFRANCE PISTON STEAM FIRE ENGINE[49]

Built in 1894, at which time it had a capacity of 900 gallons per
minute. This steam engine was equipped with a LaFrance boiler. This
particular engine was in service in Superior, Wis., and was in
continuous service pumping water on a coal fire night and day from
November 18, 1913, to February 18, 1914 (just exactly three months),
during which time it was only shut down twice to replace burned-out
grates and three times to replace broken springs. During all of this
time this steamer was incased in snow and ice.]

[Illustration: GASOLINE TWO-WHEEL FRONT-DRIVE, FIRST SIZE STEAM FIRE
ENGINE[50]

Seventy horse-power, four-cylinder motor; speed, 35 miles per hour;
locomotive bell and hand-operated siren horn; boiler, 36 x 66 inches;
suction hose, 2 lengths, 4-1/2-inch diameter; lanterns, three, fire
department standard; hydrant connections; carrying capacity, four men.]

[Illustration: COMBINATION CHEMICAL ENGINE AND HOSE CAR[50]

Seventy horse-power, four-cylinder motor; speed, 60 miles per hour; hose
capacity, 1,200 feet 2-1/2-inch hose; chemical cylinder, one 40-gallon
capacity; chemical hose, 200 feet 3/4-inch chemical hose; acid
receptacles, two; one 10-inch electric searchlight; locomotive bell and
hand-operated siren horn; extinguishers, two 3-gallon Babcock, fire
department standard; ladders, one 20-foot extension ladder, one 12-foot
roof ladder with folding hooks; lanterns, four, fire department
standard; axe, one, fire department standard; pike pole, one; crowbar,
one of steel held by snaps; carrying capacity, seven men.]

[Illustration: COMBINATION CHEMICAL AND HOSE CAR

Equipped with Junior Pump. This pump is intended to boost the pressure
of the chemical tank and can also be used as an auxiliary pump. On this
type of steamer the pump will deliver 250 gallons of water at 120 pounds
pump pressure.

_Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co._]

[Illustration: COMBINATION CHEMICAL ENGINE AND HOSE CAR

Equipped with hose reel instead of hose basket as in other types
illustrated.

_Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co._]

[Illustration: THE BODY OF THIS CAR HAS A CAPACITY OF 800 FEET OF
2-1/2-INCH FIRE HOSE AND IS ALSO EQUIPPED WITH A 40-GALLON TANK, WITH
CHEMICAL HOSE, FIRE EXTINGUISHER AND EXTENSION LADDER.[51]]

[Illustration: GASOLINE TWO-WHEEL FRONT-DRIVE AERIAL TRUCK[51]

One hundred horse-power; six-cylinder motor; speed, 25 miles per hour;
locomotive bell and hand-operated siren horn; extinguishers, two
3-gallon Babcock, fire department standard; lanterns, four, fire
department standard; axes, four, fire department standard; wall picks,
two; crowbars, two; shovels, two; wire cutter, one; door opener, one;
tin roof cutter, one; pitchforks, two; battering ram, one; Manila rope,
tackle and snatch block; pull-down hook with pole, chain and rope;
rubber buckets, four; crotch poles, two; pike poles, six, assorted
lengths; wire basket, one under frame; one 10-inch electric
searchlight.]

[Illustration: GASOLINE TWO-WHEEL BEVEL-GEAR FRONT-DRIVE WATER TOWER[51]

One hundred horse-power; six-cylinder motor; speed, 25 miles per hour;
one 10-inch electric searchlight; locomotive bell and hand-operated
siren horn; deck turret, one, mounted; nozzle tips, three for deck
turret, 1-1/2-inch, 1-3/4-inch, 2-inch; three for tower nozzle,
1-1/2-inch, 1-3/4-inch, 2-inch; hose, one 35-foot length, 4-inch cotton,
rubber lined; lanterns, two, fire department standard; axes, two heavy
pick back, fire department standard; crowbar, one of steel, held by
snaps.]

The Story of the Taking of Food From the Air[52]

What is the greatest discovery of the last twenty-five years? Probably
you will say the wireless telegraph, the flying machine, moving pictures
or the phonograph, but it would be none of these, according to the
_Scientific American_. This publication discussed at great length the
subject of what invention of the last twenty-five years was of greatest
value to mankind. First place was given not to the wonderful inventions
that are so large in the public eye, but to the fixation of nitrogen
from the air for fertilizer purposes. Why? Simply because this discovery
stands between man and starvation. Other inventions are vastly
important, but this one is vital. Looking at it from the broadest view
there can be no other decision. The time is here when to feed the world
is becoming a more and more difficult problem.

During the past ten years our population has increased at the rate of
two per cent per annum, while our crop production has increased only
one-half as fast. In six years the number of beef cattle produced in
this country has fallen off about five per cent per annum. The cost of
foodstuffs recently has been increasing at the rate of five per cent per
annum. The hardships experienced by wage-earners, particularly in the
United States, have been very great in view of the fact that the cost of
food increased more rapidly than wages--at a rate approximately double.
The same tendencies apply with some modifications to the clothing of
mankind. These facts point to the necessity of increasing the yields
both of the food crops and the crops that are used in the making of
clothing.

[Illustration: WRAPPER LEAF TOBACCO CROP FERTILIZED WITH CYANAMID
MIXTURES. GROWN IN HATFIELD, MASS.]

The problem of decreasing the cost of living has been given far more
attention abroad than it has in this country, owing to the much greater
density of population in the principal nations of Europe. For a long
time it has been known that plants require food the same as animals and
human beings. Without food plants cannot live and grow, and just to the
extent that plant food is present in the soil, to that extent will a
crop be produced. The most important of plant foods is nitrogen. While
the earth is literally bathed in nitrogen, this element is found to only
a very slight degree in the soil. That is to say, the air which we
breathe and in which we move is four-fifths nitrogen, yet in the richest
soil there is seldom more than one-tenth or two-tenths of one per cent
of nitrogen. Put on a wheat crop one pound of nitrogen and you can take
off twenty pounds more wheat and forty pounds more straw than you could
if you failed to make this application. One pound of nitrogen properly
applied to a cornfield will add thirty-five pounds to the crop; one
pound of nitrogen will produce one hundred pounds of increase in the
potato crop; one pound of nitrogen will produce five pounds of cotton,
without any extra labor being devoted to the production of the crop.
Nitrogen is the heart and soul of the problem of growing more crops and
cheaper crops. Take any nation that produces large crop yields per acre
and you will find that the nation that uses the most nitrogen per acre
grows the largest crops.

For years the nations of Europe have been depending to a great extent
upon supplies of nitrate of soda obtained from Chile, in South America.
Germany alone imported nearly a million tons of this salt annually
before the war. Then, too, the by-products of many industries furnish a
quantity of nitrogen, but all this, it was realized, furnished but a
small part of what was required to combat the constantly rising cost of
producing food.

For years it was the dream and life-ambition of the world’s greatest
scientists to discover how to make the supplies of nitrogen in the air
available to plants as food. The only way that this could be done in
nature was through the agency of bacteria working on the roots of
certain plants, such as clovers, but this process was entirely too slow
for practical purposes and could be applied on only a small acreage at
one time. The free nitrogen of the air cannot be utilized directly by
plants. It must first be converted into some combination with other
chemicals, as a solid or liquid, which can be absorbed by the plant.
Among others who worked on the problem of fixing atmospheric nitrogen
were two German chemists, Doctors Caro and Frank, who found that a
compound of calcium and carbon heated to a high temperature would absorb
nitrogen and retain it in a form that could be applied to the soil and
serve as a food for plants.

[Illustration: SUGAR CANE CROP FERTILIZED WITH CYANAMID MIXTURES. GROWN
IN CALUMET, LA.]

This discovery is the basis of the Cyanamid “Atmospheric Nitrogen”
industry or the making of fertilizer from the nitrogen in the air. After
the discovery was made and tested on the laboratory scale it took
several years to put it on a practical basis, as can well be imagined
when it is understood what the problems involved were. Besides air this
process required as raw materials limestone and coke. The limestone must
be burned to quicklime and the quicklime and coke must be fused together
to form calcium carbide. Only the most powerful electric furnaces are
capable of performing this work. Any other means of heating is far from
adequate. For instance, the hottest flame that can be produced by the
burning of gas, namely, the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe flame, can be
directed against a stick of burnt lime without doing anything beyond
making the lime glow brilliantly, thus producing the calcium or
lime-light formerly much used in theaters as a spot-light. In the
electric furnaces, however, the lime is heated so powerfully that it
actually melts to a liquid, and in this condition it dissolves the coke
with which it is mixed and the compound resulting is calcium carbide
which can be run off from the interior of the furnace in liquid form.

[Illustration: TWO OF THE CARBIDE FURNACES AND ELECTRODE REGULATORS]

At the cyanamid plant at Niagara Falls, in Canada, there are seven of
these great carbide furnaces, each about fifteen feet long and half as
wide and one-third as deep. We all have some idea of how much heat is
generated in the ordinary electric arc light such as is used for street
lighting. In the carbide furnace the carbon pencil, instead of being six
or eight inches long and as large around as your finger, is six feet
long and two feet in diameter. There are three of these in each furnace,
and when the furnace is in full action it can be imagined that there is
a terrific heat generated; in fact, when the fused lime and coke come
out of the furnace in the form of molten carbide the brightness of the
molten material is so dazzling that one cannot look at it with the naked
eyes without injury.

[Illustration: ONE OF THE CARBIDE MILLS]

Then there is the problem of producing pure nitrogen gas, that is,
separating the eighty per cent of nitrogen in the air from the twenty
per cent of oxygen. The latter is the element that we breathe and which
passes into the body, there to combine with the impurities resulting
from the various life activities. If the nitrogen and the oxygen were
both allowed to act upon calcium carbide the oxygen would burn up the
carbide before the nitrogen could be fixed in it, hence these two
elements must be separated and all other impurities removed so that only
chemically pure nitrogen is brought to the calcium carbide for fixation.
The separation is accomplished by means of liquid air machines. This
industry, therefore, not only utilizes the greatest heat obtainable on a
practical scale, but it also utilizes the greatest cold. While the
electric furnaces produce a temperature of over 4000° F., or about twice
as hot as molten cast-iron, the liquid air machines work at a
temperature of 372° F. below zero. The air must first be purified and
dried. It is then compressed, cooled while under pressure, and then
expanded. The expansion lowers its temperature considerably. If this
extra cool air is used for cooling another batch of air under pressure,
the latter upon expansion becomes still colder than the first batch
expanded. By repeating this operation the final temperature of 372°
below zero is reached, at which the air liquifies.

How cold this is can be seen from some simple experiments. For instance,
if a dipper full of the liquid air is drawn, in an instant the outside
of the dipper is covered with a coating of frost deposited upon it from
the surrounding atmosphere. The surrounding air is so much hotter than
the liquid air that the liquid boils violently. If a piece of rubber
hose is held in the liquid air for eight or ten seconds and then struck
with a hammer the rubber flies into pieces just like glass. To dip one’s
finger into this liquid air would freeze it solid in a second and would
be as disastrous as dipping it in red-hot iron.

[Illustration: LIQUID AIR PLANT]

When the liquid air is allowed to warm up a little, the nitrogen gas
evaporates, while the oxygen remains behind in the liquid. The pure
nitrogen then can be pumped into the fixation ovens.

To fix the nitrogen in the carbide it is necessary to cool the latter
after it comes from the electric furnaces and grind it to a very fine
powder. This powder is then placed in furnaces that look like steel
barrels but are three or four times larger than an ordinary barrel. The
oven filled with calcium carbide is then electrically heated with a
carbon rod running through the center. When the temperature is about as
hot as that of molten iron the pure nitrogen gas from the liquid air
plant is pumped in and allowed to act on the calcium carbide for about a
day and a half. When the carbide has absorbed all it will absorb the
crude cyanamid formed is removed from the oven as a single large cake
which is run through pulverizing drums and then put through an elaborate
process of refinement and finally bagged for shipment in carload lots to
fertilizer factories throughout the country.

The fertilizer manufacturers mix the cyanamid with other ingredients to
make a balanced plant food and so ship it to farmers for feeding their
crops. In 1914 7,500,000 tons of fertilizer worth $175,000,000 were
consumed in this country. This seems like a large quantity, but it
allows only a scanty application per acre cultivated. Germany, on
one-fourth of our cultivated acreage, uses almost twice as much
fertilizer as the entire United States. As a consequence she raises 30
bushels of wheat where we average 14 bushels per acre; 52 bushels of
oats where we average 30; and 196 bushels of potatoes per acre where we
raise 97 bushels per acre. The explanation is simple, German farmers pay
only about one-half as much for their plant food as American farmers
pay. Where the German farmer gains $2.00 to $3.00 increase in crop from
fertilizer that costs him $1.00 the American farmer pays $2.00 for the
same fertilizer, which leaves him less profit and less incentive to use
fertilizer.

[Illustration: A CARBIDE COOLING SHED]

[Illustration: CYANAMID OVEN ROOM]

[Illustration: _Photo by William H. Rau_

FOREVER RUSHING AND FOREVER WONDERFUL

Niagara Falls from Prospect Point on the American side, looking
southwest, across and up the stream. The American Falls may be seen in
the foreground rushing past to make their plunge of 165 feet to the
rocks below.]

The air-nitrogen industry in the United States is said to be
considerably handicapped because the large quantities of electricity
required are not available at a low enough price. There are excellent
water-power sites in the United States sufficient to furnish many times
the required power, but the existing water-power laws are so burdensome
that investors will not put their money into power development except on
such high terms that the power is much dearer than it can be bought for
in other countries. Practically every civilized country in the world,
except the United States, had one or more cyanamid factories in 1916.
These include Germany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, France, Italy,
Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Japan and Canada. Their combined output is
about 1,000,000 tons per annum. The cyanamid plant at Niagara Falls,
Ontario, which was established in 1909, with a capacity of 10,000 tons,
had a capacity of 64,000 tons per annum in 1916. It utilizes about
30,000 electrical horse-power twenty-four hours a day, and three hundred
and sixty-five days a year. Germany, at the beginning of the war,
produced about 30,000 tons of cyanamid; in 1916 she was making 600,000
tons a year. She is using it both to grow crops and to make explosives
for her guns.

[Illustration: SUGAR BEET CROP FERTILIZED WITH CYANAMID MIXTURES. GROWN
IN CARO, MICHIGAN]

[Illustration: COTTON CROP FERTILIZED WITH CYANAMID MIXTURES. GROWN IN
SUMTER, S. C.]

At the time the war broke out, in August, 1914, Germany was importing
nearly one million tons of nitrate of soda per annum from Chile, South
America. This supply was immediately cut off by enemy fleets. Not only
was her agriculture thereby threatened with a great decrease in crop
production but her supply of military explosives was also threatened.
Professor Dr. Lemmermann, a famous German scientist, advised his
government that unless the nitrogen shortage were made good the
resulting crop shortage would amount to 3,300,000 tons of grain. But if
people require food, guns require powder, and no powder can be made
without nitric acid. It has been reported on good authority that Germany
has consumed one and one-third million pounds of powder a day during the
war. To make one pound of powder requires one and one-half pounds of
nitric acid, so that Germany required for military purposes 2,000,000
pounds of nitric acid per day. From her coke ovens she indeed could
derive some nitrogen, but this actually furnished only about one-fifth
of her total requirements. For the other four-fifths she turned to
atmospheric nitrogen. For it is also true that this remarkable compound,
cyanamid, which is a food for plants, can be decomposed by high-steam
pressure into the purest ammonia gas. The ammonia can in turn be
oxidized to nitric acid, which is the basis of all explosives. Without
the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen on a tremendous scale there is no
doubt that Germany would have become helpless before her enemies within
a year after the war began, for no nation can fight unless it has
sufficient food for its people and powder for its guns.

[Illustration: TURBINE GENERATORS, NIAGARA FALLS POWER HOUSE

Eleven turbine generators in the Niagara Falls Power House, each set
developing 5,000 horse-power.]

The preservation of food is also dependent on ammonia, which produces
the refrigerating effect in the numerous cold storage houses and
artificial ice plants in this country. In the cold storage plants alone
the cold produced by means of ammonia is equal to 750,000 tons of ice
consumed per day, while 25,000,000 tons of artificial ice are produced
and sold as such per annum. Cyanamid ammonia gas is especially valuable
for this purpose on account of its high degree of purity.

Then, too, the ammonia gas can be fixed in any acid desired, for
instance, in phosphoric acid, making ammonium phosphate, a fertilizer of
unusual merit, or ammonium sulphate, another fertilizer, or ammonium
nitrate, an explosive. So, for peace or war, the fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen has become a tremendous factor in the life of nations.

If the United States should be forced into war with a foreign power it
would be a simple matter for an enemy fleet to cut off our large
importations of nitrate of soda from Chile. These amount to about
700,000 tons per annum in normal times and at present about 900,000 tons
per annum. In other words, we would be short just this quantity of
nitrogen in addition to the quantity that would be required by the
government for the manufacture of military explosives. It has been
suggested that our coke-oven industry could be expanded to furnish a
large part of this requirement, but even with the largest expansion
considered practical by the coke-oven people within the next several
years, the coke ovens would not be able to supply even one-third of our
requirements, thus leaving a large balance which could be furnished only
by the establishment of a large nitrogen industry in this country.

* * * * *

The expression “The King can do no wrong” has been widely used since it
first caught people’s fancy at the time of the explanation, made in
England, that the Ministers, and not the King, were responsible for
mistakes of government.

What is a Drawbridge Like Today?

We have all read of the castles in olden days into which the owner could
retire and raise a drawbridge across a ditch, thus putting a barrier in
the way of his enemies.

That old style drawbridge, with, of course, many improvements, has been
adopted in these modern times to use in permitting navigable rivers and
channels to be crossed by railroads and other kinds of transportation,
without preventing the passage of vessels up and down the rivers.

Modern drawbridges across rivers, canals, the entrances of docks, etc.,
are generally made to open vertically, and the movable portion is called
a bascule, balance or lifting bridge; a turning, swivel or swing bridge;
or a rolling bridge, in accordance with the mode in which it is made to
open.

Swing bridges are usually divided into two parts meeting in the middle,
and each moved on pivots on the opposite sides of the channel, or they
may move as a whole on a pivot in the middle of the channel.

Rolling bridges are suspended from a structure high above the water, and
are propelled backwards and forwards by means of rollers.

[Illustration: BASCULE BRIDGE OPEN[53]]

[Illustration: BASCULE BRIDGE CLOSED[53]

The advantages of this type of bridge are that the entire width of the
channel is available for navigation, and the draw may be opened and
closed more readily than the swing type.]

The Story of a Deep Sea Monster[54]

The early day was blue and silver; one of those colorful mornings
peculiar to southern Florida. Sandwiched between the earth and the
turquoise sky, the Atlantic lay gleaming like a huge silver wafer in the
sunlight. Not the faintest suggestion of a ripple marred its shining
surface.

Suddenly out of the stillness of the silver water a huge black fin was
lifted, and a little group of men lounging on the deck of an idle
fishing craft drew near the rail and used their glasses.

“Shark,” remarked the captain pleasantly after a moment’s scrutiny. “Who
wants to go out with me for a little fun?”

The hastily lowered lifeboat pointed a slim nose toward the large black
shape thrashing about in the shallow water. Three men were in the
boat--Captain Charles H. Thompson of the yacht “Samoa,” one of the
yacht’s crew, and a winter visitor to southern Florida. As they drew
near, the sailor took one look at the gigantic creature and yelled to
the captain:

“For heaven’s sake, man, don’t harpoon that thing; we will be crushed
like an egg shell!”

Poised in the bow of the boat, harpoon in hand, stood the captain, and
as they drew alongside there was a flash; the steel glittered for a
moment in the sunlight, then sank into the huge black bulk.
Simultaneously the little boat spun around and shot out toward the Gulf
Stream like an agitated and very erratic rocket, flinging great sheets
of spray high into the air as it sped.

Thus began a thirty-nine hours’ ride filled with wildest thrills, during
which time Captain Thompson battled with the fish, the sailor bailed the
boat unceasingly, lest they be swamped, and the tourist raised an
anxious and eloquent voice to high heaven. The men were without food the
entire time, sharing only a small bottle of water among them.

The news of the struggle spread rapidly, and soon hundreds of interested
spectators gathered on the trestle of the East Coast sea-extension
railway. Scores of times the men in the boat escaped death only by a
miracle, as the wildly thrashing black tail missed them but by a hair’s
breadth. Finally, after two days and one night, the monster was worn
out, and the triumphant captor managed to fasten it to the trestle work
on Knight’s Key, where, after a few hours’ rest, it wigwagged a festive
tail, smashing the large pilings as though they were toothpicks. After
another battle the fish was firmly tied up once more, this time to the
yacht “Samoa;” and again it waved a wicked tail, disabling the
thirty-ton yacht by smashing her propeller and breaking the cables. A
tug was then summoned, and the big fellow was towed one hundred and ten
miles to Miami, Florida, where it was viewed by thousands of people.

Five harpoons and one hundred and fifty-one bullets were used in
subduing the monster, and it took five days to finally kill it.

It was thought at first the creature was a whale, but later it was
classified as a fish, for it breathed through gills of which there were
five in number. Upon careful examination it seemed probable that it was
a baby of its species, as the backbone was of a cartilaginous nature, a
condition found only in a young creature; in a full-grown one this
develops into true bone. That it was a deep-sea fish was indicated by
the small eye, which was about the size of a silver dollar. The pressure
of the water is so great at the bottom of the ocean that were the eyes
large they would be ruptured. That the pupil did not dilate and contract
seems additional proof that the fish must have lived at a depth of
probably fifteen hundred or two thousand feet, where there is little
light.

[Illustration: _Photograph by Capt. Chas. H. Thompson_

DEEP SEA MONSTER CAPTURED OFF FLORIDA

So far as the scientific world is concerned, this is the only fish of
its kind ever captured. Length, 45 feet; weight, 30,000 pounds;
circumference, 23 feet 9 inches; diameter 8 feet 3 inches; mouth (open),
31 inches; mouth, 38 inches wide; mouth, 43 inches deep; tongue, 40
inches long; several thousand teeth; hide, three inches thick, no
scales; had swallowed an animal weighing 1,500 pounds; tail measures 10
feet from tip to tip; pectoral fin, 5 feet long, 3 feet wide; dorsal
fin, 3 feet long, 2 feet 9 inches wide; gills, 4 feet; the liver weighed
1,700 pounds.]

It is generally believed that some volcanic eruption drove the fish to
the surface where, owing to the difference in water pressure, the
swim-bladders burst, making it impossible for him to return to his
level.

* * * * *

What is an Armored Railway Car Like?

The armored car shown in this picture is the first of a new type of
armored car to be constructed by the United States. It was designed
under the direction of the Board of Engineers of the U. S. Army, and was
constructed by the Standard Steel Car Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., at their
Hammond, Ind., plant. The car was designed and built within twenty-seven
days.

[Illustration: THE RAPID FIRE-GUN HERE SHOWN IS A MODEL OF A THREE-INCH
FIELD GUN MOUNTED UPON A SPECIAL CARRIAGE. THE WELL IN WHICH THE GUN IS
LOCATED MAY ALSO BE USED AS A FIGHTING TOP FOR TROOPS ARMED WITH RIFLES
OR MACHINE GUNS.

_Courtesy of the Railway Age Gazette and Standard Steel Car Co._]

The car consists of heavy steel plate structure, erected upon a flat car
of standard type. The interior is divided into three compartments. The
end compartments are for use of troops operating machine guns and rifles
through the port-holes shown on side of car. The center compartment,
which is not the full height of the car, is used for ammunition storage,
and is capable of holding a large quantity of ammunition, either for
small arms or for the rapid-fire gun which is mounted on top of the car.
The rapid-fire gun here shown is a model of a three-inch field gun
mounted upon a special carriage. The well in which the gun is located
may also be used as a fighting top for troops armed with rifles or
machine guns.

[Illustration: THE FIRST OF A NEW TYPE OF ARMORED CARS[55]]

[Illustration: THE HEAVY STEEL PLATE STRUCTURE IS ERECTED UPON A FLAT
CAR OF STANDARD TYPE[55]]

This car is known as a light-armored car. It is armed with a three-inch
rapid-fire gun, two machine guns and any number of rifles which the
troops occupying it may carry. The service for which this car is
intended is primarily to guard railroads and depots adjacent to
railroads. It is not ordinarily to be employed in aggressive movements.
In effect, it is a movable block-house which may be used at any point
along the line, or it may be used as a retreat for troops when
necessary. It may also be used for transporting troops past danger
points, and for transporting explosives or other perishable material
which might be damaged by fire from the ends. The car as constructed
weighs 86,200 pounds. It is 47 feet long, 9 feet 3 inches wide, and 7
feet high at the ends. When used for transportation of troops, it will
accommodate a company of infantry seated on camp stools or benches. When
used for patrol purposes, there would not be more than twelve men in the
car, to operate the rapid-fire gun and machine guns.

[Illustration: THE INTERIOR IS DIVIDED INTO THREE COMPARTMENTS

_Courtesy of the Railway Age Gazette and Standard Steel Car Co._]

The car was shipped to the Sandy Hook proving grounds to be equipped
with rapid-fire guns and ammunition and thoroughly tested and inspected
by the Engineer and Ordnance Officer of the U. S. Army.

What is an “Electric Eel”?

This is an eel abundant in the fresh waters of Brazil and the Guianas,
which possesses organs capable of developing a strong electric current
and thus of giving a violent shock to any one touching the eels. These
organs replace the lower muscles along the sides of the tail. The eels
can be taken by driving horses into the water to be shocked and seizing
them when thus weakened.

The Story of Salt[56]

Salt is a chemical compound composed of two elements, sodium and
chlorine. Chemically it is known as sodium chloride.

[Illustration: A SALT WELL]

It is one of the things which comes into our lives daily, perhaps more
than any other, with the exception of water. Probably no other thing
than water is used more by all civilized people than salt.

Nature provides salt for us in three different forms. First, in sea
water in solution; second, in salt springs; and third, in the form of
salt rock.

From time immemorial man has obtained salt from sea water. This is still
being done on our sea coasts, but the salt obtained by evaporating the
water is very crude and usually contains many impurities.

It has been possible to obtain a large supply of salt from what are
known as salt springs. These springs are usually the result of water
flowing over a deposit of salt rock. The amount of salt obtained from
evaporating this spring water is, however, so small that salt springs
are an impractical source of supply when it comes to making salt for
commercial purposes.

Rock salt forms the most common and practical source of supply. It is
found in all parts of the world and reasonably near the surface. The
deposit is said to be what is left of ancient salt seas. In the United
States the largest deposits of salt are found in the states of Michigan,
New York, Ohio, Utah, Louisiana, Kansas, Texas and California. The
above-mentioned states are the largest producers of salt in this
country.

[Illustration: SALT HEATERS AND FILTERS]

One of the largest sources of salt supply in Europe is at Wielizka in
Poland. This deposit of salt is said to be the largest in the world, the
bed of salt rock being 500 miles long, 20 miles wide and 1,200 feet
thick. Some of the salt mines in Poland are so extensive that it is said
some of the miners spend all of their lives in them, never coming to the
surface of the earth.

Most of the deposits of salt rock contain impurities which need to be
removed before the salt is fit for use commercially; however, some
deposits show a very pure salt rock and when ground up this rock salt is
suitable for table use. In general, however, the salt made from crude
salt rock is only fit for the crudest commercial uses. The most common
impurity is gypsum and it is necessary to remove this gypsum before the
salt can be considered pure.

[Illustration: _Photo by Brown Bros._

SALT BEDS NEAR SALT LAKE CITY

These extensive salt beds about eighteen miles from Salt Lake City are
part of the deposit left when Lake Bonneville dwindled to Great Salt
Lake.]

The general way of obtaining salt from the earth is by means of salt
wells. These wells are drilled in the same way that wells are bored for
oil and gas. A pipe about six inches in diameter is lowered to the
surface of the salt rock and then an inside pipe is put down, water is
forced down between the two pipes and the pressure exerted brings up the
dissolved rock or salt brine through the inside pipe.

As the salt brine reaches the surface the salt is extracted from it in
various ways. At present the crude open-pan system, where the brine was
poured into open pans and fires were built below the pans, is almost
obsolete. The most practical methods of refining salt today are known as
the Grainer, Vacuum Pan and Alberger systems.

[Illustration: BOLTERS FOR SIFTING SALT]

The Grainer system is similar in its operation to the old open-pan
system. The brine is run through long, shallow tanks and the heat is
applied through steam pipes inside of the pan. The salt settles to the
bottom of the pan and large rakes operated either by hand or machinery
collect the salt.

In the Vacuum Pan process tiny cubes of salt are formed and settle to
the bottom of the pan in which a vacuum has been created. The salt is
then drained out and is ready for drying.

Variations of the two above processes make possible the production of
certain grades of table salt. Oftentimes the brine is relieved of
impurities through the action of certain chemicals. In some instances a
chemical known as “barium chloride” is used, but the wisdom of this
process has been much questioned, owing to the fact that barium chloride
is a deadly poison.

[Illustration: FILLING SALT PACKAGES]

[Illustration: FILLING SALT BAGS]

The Alberger system of salt manufacture is a mechanical process which
subjects the salt brine to a much higher temperature and removes the
impurities by means of mechanical filters. This process is known to make
a very pure salt and has been used for some time as a practical method
for manufacturing high-grade dairy and table salt. Unlike the other two
common methods of making salt, it forms tiny salt flakes instead of the
usual cubes or lumps.

After manufacturers obtain the salt from the brine they usually put it
through drying processes. After drying, the salt is sifted and the fine
table salt is separated from the coarser products. When salt is sifted
it is ready for packing in bags or packages suitable for shipment to the
consumer.

According to recent government reports, it is estimated that the average
consumption of salt per capita for all purposes is about 100 pounds per
year. The salt industry is now said to have reached a very stable basis
and the demand for salt in the United States is practically all supplied
by American manufacturers. Salt can be put to a great many uses in
addition to the usual requirements for table and cooking. It is used by
food manufacturers and performs highly important functions in certain
commercial fields.

* * * * *

Why do We Call it “Denatured Alcohol”?

Under a law passed by the United States Congress in 1907, on alcohol
intended for use as fuel or for illuminating purposes, or other
mechanical employment, the internal tax need not be paid. But to avoid
taxation it must be rendered unfit for drinking by the addition of such
unpalatable substances as wood alcohol, pyridin, benzola, sulphuric
ether or animal oil. Thus treated, it is spoken of as denatured.

What is the Difference Between a Cruiser and a Battleship?

A cruiser is a vessel built to secure speed and fuel capacity at the
expense of armor and battery strength.

The modern cruiser may be regarded as the offspring of the frigate of
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The later construction has been
designed for a minimum speed of twenty-five knots an hour, with a
possible attainment of thirty knots or over, under favorable conditions.

The battleship and one form of cruiser were evolved from the conflicting
opinions of two opposite schools of design. The battleship is the
expression of the thoughts of those who stood for extremely developed
battery power, great thickness of armor plate, and moderate speed. The
cruiser is the result of the triumph of those who contended for high
speed at the sacrifice of heavy armor protection and excessive battery
strength.

The armored cruiser was the particular development of the antagonistic
views prevailing among naval architects. The type of this class in the
United States navy was the “Brooklyn,” which figured prominently in the
war with Spain in 1898.

Recently the armored cruiser has been superseded by the battle cruiser.
The armor protection in this type of ship is much lower than that of the
battleship, while the ordnance, on the other hand, is practically the
same. High speed, wide radius of action and great battery strength are
the characteristics of this type; and to meet these requirements the
battle cruiser is planned of a size considerably larger than the
battleship.

The protected cruiser is a later development of naval construction. Its
distinguishing features are certain modifications in the distribution of
the mass of protective armor of the ship.

Light cruisers are vessels of from 1,500 to 7,500 tons, used in
scouting, as commerce destroyers, etc. They are outside the armored
class.

[Illustration: SINKING OF THE GERMAN CRUISER “BLUECHER”

This most dramatic photograph of the Great North Sea Battle, in which
the British fleet was victor, January 24, 1915, shows the death agony of
the German cruiser “Bluecher” just as she turned turtle and sank. The
ship is shown lying on her side with her machinery and armament shot
into masses of twisted iron and steel, great fires raging forward,
amidship and aft.

_Copyright by the International News Service._]

[Illustration: _Photo by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._

UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP “OKLAHOMA”

One of the latest types of super-dreadnaught is here shown, racing along
at 20-1/2 knots an hour on a speed test. This great warship is a
sister-ship of the “Nevada.” Her displacement is 27,500 tons, her
engines develop 28,000 horsepower and she is armed with ten 14-inch guns
in her four turrets, twenty-one 5-inch and four 3-pounders, together
with four 21-inch Torpedo Tubes. She cost over $6,000,000.]

The Story of the Growth of the Motor Truck[57]

While exact dates are not easily obtainable, it is thought to be quite
within the bounds of reasonable accuracy to say that the motor truck
only began to be recognized as a practical vehicle for commercial
purposes in 1905.

Today motor vehicles, both pleasure and commercial, are such a common
sight in every city and town, and even throughout the rural districts,
that one can scarcely believe that they were a novelty such a little
time ago.

[Illustration: ONE OF THE EARLIEST GASOLINE TRUCKS]

The statistics show, however, that in 1906 the total registrations of
both pleasure and commercial vehicles, as reported by the various
states, was 48,000--about one month’s production today of one well-known
pleasure-car maker.

In 1915 the registrations totaled nearly 2,500,000, and every day has
added to the number.

It can be truthfully said that the pleasure car is the father of the
truck or commercial car.

The application of the internal combustion engine to the use of
propelling vehicles was the beginning of a new era in that world. The
idea, born, one might say, with the new century, has already done more
to revolutionize transportation than all of the inventions of all the
centuries that have gone before.

The automobile, first looked upon as a freak, then “a rich man’s
plaything,” has in a few years come to be recognized as a necessity,
and literally millions of people are employed in its production and
dependent on the industry for support.

To trace the ramifications of the industry back through the mills, mines
and factories that produce the iron, steel, copper, brass, zinc,
aluminum, lead, leather, lumber, glass, celluloid, etc., would make a
long and interesting story, but this chapter deals with the motor
vehicle as a commercial car or truck and the part it is playing in
transportation of the world’s goods.

While the first commercial vehicles to come into use were electrically
propelled, and while the electric truck has become a factor in the large
cities, the gasoline power vehicles are, as yet, the dominant factor.

[Illustration: A 1907 MODEL SIGHT-SEEING CAR]

At the first, business men were slow to take up the use of trucks for
delivery and hauling purposes and one of the specialties of early
factories was the making of “sight-seeing” cars which were sold to
enterprising individuals in cities and summer resorts for the purpose of
showing visitors the sights. These wagons became popular throughout the
country and are still being used in many places.

Little by little, however, progressive business men saw the advantages
to be gained by motor delivery and the motor truck began to gain favor.
Several of the pleasure-car manufacturers took advantage of the
awakening interest and added a commercial vehicle section to their
plants.

Others began to see visions of the day when horses would no longer be
used for other than strictly farm work, and motor-truck factories sprang
up here and there, even faster than pleasure-car plants.

Like the seed mentioned in the parable of the sower, some fell on good
ground and grew to produce a bountiful harvest, but many withered by the
wayside.

[Illustration: RELIANCE TRUCK--1908]

[Illustration: 1908 TRUCK MODEL]

[Illustration: RELIANCE TRUCK--1909]

[Illustration: 1909 TRUCK MODEL]

In the early days of the motor-truck industry men bought the finished
vehicle, but later on the practice of selling chassis only became
popular, and while today some manufacturers cater to the body trade, a
large percentage of trucks are sold to the purchaser without the body,
this being built by a local builder, the truck manufacturer furnishing a
body builder’s blue-print.

As in everything else, it has taken time to overcome the faults of the
early trucks. Most all trucks above 1,500 pounds capacity are equipped
with solid rubber tires, and while the solid rubber tires and the
springs on the trucks give a great deal of resiliency, it was discovered
that the steady pounding over all kinds of pavements soon racked a truck
to pieces and that pleasure-car practice could not be followed
successively in building motor trucks.

[Illustration: 5-TON TRUCK--1913-14]

In the earlier days truck buyers made many mistakes in selecting the
size or capacity of trucks. Some made the mistake of buying trucks too
light for their work. Others selected trucks large enough to provide for
exceptional or emergency loads, and would, for example, buy a truck of
3-1/2-tons capacity when 90 per cent of their hauling was loads not
exceeding 1-1/2 or 2 tons. Thus they not only had a greater investment
than necessary in the truck itself, but were paying an exclusive charge
in the way of operating costs and depreciation.

[Illustration: LATEST 3/4-TON MODEL]

[Illustration: SOME 3/4-TON TRUCKS OF THE LATEST MODEL]

[Illustration: A 1-1/2-TON TRUCK OF THE LATEST MODEL DUMPING]

[Illustration: A 1-1/2-TON TRUCK OF THE LATEST MODEL LOADING]

[Illustration: REAR END CONSTRUCTION OF A MODERN 5-TON TRUCK]

[Illustration: A 3-1/2-TON TRUCK OF THE LATEST MODEL IN ACTIVE SERVICE]

[Illustration: THE LATEST 3-1/2-TON TRUCK DOING DUTY]

But the experimental days have passed, both in the manufacture of motor
trucks and in their adaption to various lines of work. If the buyer has
not determined by experience and investigation the kind and capacity of
truck he should use, the older manufacturers are able to step in and
analyze the work to be done and to intelligently recommend to the buyer
what he should have.

That motor trucks not only furnish cheaper transportation than
horse-drawn vehicles, but greatly extend the radius of operation, is
quite generally conceded. This is shown by the enormous increase in the
demand for motor trucks in all lines of business where goods of any kind
are to be moved over any considerable distance.

[Illustration: CHASSIS OF THE LATEST MODEL 3-1/2-TON TRUCK]

With motor trucks, merchants have extended their deliveries to reach
territory they could not touch under the horse-delivery system.

Market gardeners, who must have their product in the city markets early
and have it fresh, can now sell their high-priced land adjoining the
cities and go miles back in the country where as good ground can be
bought for from one-tenth to one-fourth the price their suburban
property will bring--and still be closer to market with their motor
trucks than they were before with their horses.

Contractors can transport material long distances and save both time and
money. Dairymen collect milk over a radius of thirty or forty miles and
get it to market fresh. Freight and passenger lines are possible with
motor trucks where a steam railroad or trolley system would not be
practicable.

In short, the motor truck is revolutionizing transportation. As made
today by the leading manufacturers, it is simple, durable and easy to
operate and care for.

* * * * *

What is a Diving Bell?

Diving, aside from the pleasure afforded to good swimmers, is important
in many different industries, particularly in fishing for pearls,
corals, sponges, etc.

Without the aid of artificial appliances a skilful diver may remain
under water for two, or even three minutes; accounts of longer periods
are doubtful or absurd.

[Illustration: LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF HOPPER DREDGER, Employed on the
River Clyde

The Vessel steams to place of working and is moored by the Steam Winches
A A at bow and stern to buoys, the Bucket Ladder B is then lowered by
steam power, and thereafter Buckets set in motion by gearing C C. The
depth of water at which the Bucket Ladder dredges is regulated by the
Hoisting Shears and Chain Barrel D D, driven by shafting E E from the
Engines. The Buckets discharge the material by the shoot F into the
Hopper G. The dredged material is discharged by the doors of the Hopper
being opened by the Lifting Chains H H. These doors are hinged on to the
side of Vessel, and suspended at centre by the Lifting Chains, which are
connected to geared Crab Winches I I.]

[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF DIVING BELL AND BARGE, Employed on the
River Clyde

All the appliances are worked by steam, rendering manual labour
unnecessary. A is the Bell, which is raised and lowered by means of the
Chain and Steam Winch B. _c c_ are Seats within the Bell; _d d_,
Footboards. E, Air-pipe entering the Bell at _f_, the air being supplied
by Air-pump G driven by the Engine H. J is a Steam Crane for raising or
lowering material. K K, Steam Winches for working moorings and shifting
position of the barge.]

Various methods have been proposed and engines contrived to render
diving more safe and easy. The great object in all these is to furnish
the diver with fresh air, without which he must either make but a short
stay under water or perish.

Diving bells have been used very effectively. A diving bell is a
contrivance for the purpose of enabling persons to descend, and to
remain, below the surface of water for a length of time, to perform
various operations, such as examining the foundations of bridges,
blasting rocks, recovering treasure from sunken vessels, etc.

Diving bells have been made of various forms, more especially in that of
a bell or hollow truncated cone, with the smaller end closed, and the
larger one, which is placed lowermost, open.

The air contained within these vessels prevents them from being filled
with water on submersion, so that the diver may descend in them and
breathe freely for a long time provided he can be furnished with a new
supply of fresh air when the contained air becomes vitiated by
respiration. This is done by means of a flexible tube, through which air
is forced into the bell.

A form, called the “nautilus,” has been invented which enables the
occupants, and not the attendants above, to raise or sink the bell, move
it about at pleasure, or raise great weights with it and deposit them in
any desired spot.

How are Harbors Dredged Out?

There are several forms of mechanical, power-operated dredges. One of
the most common is the “clam-shell” dredge, consisting of a pair of
large, heavy iron jaws, hinged at the back, in general form resembling a
pair of huge clam shells. This with its attachments is called the
grapple. In operation it is lowered with open jaws, and by its own
weight digs into the ground that is to be excavated. Traction is then
made on the chains controlling the jaws, which close; the grapple is
hoisted to the surface and its contents discharged into scows alongside
the dredge.

The dipper dredge, an exclusively American type, has a bucket rigidly
attached to a projecting timber arm. In operation the bucket is lowered
and made to take a curving upward cut, thus dipping up the bottom
material, which is discharged through the hinged bottom of the bucket.
The pump or suction dredge operates by means of a flexible pipe
connected with a powerful centrifugal pump. The pipe is lowered into
contact with the bottom to be excavated and the material is pumped into
hopper barges or into a hopper-well in the dredge itself.

The center ladder bucket dredge operates by means of an endless chain of
buckets moving over an inclined plane, which in structure is a strong
iron ladder, one end of which is lowered to the sea bottom. The steel
buckets scoop up the material at the bottom of the ladder, which they
then ascend, and are discharged by becoming inverted at the upper end of
the ladder. This dredge is the only one found satisfactory in excavating
rock.

How is a Razor Blade Made?

The best scissors, penknives, razors and lancets are made of cast steel.
Table knives, plane irons and chisels of a very superior kind are made
of shear steel, while common steel is wrought up into ordinary cutlery.

In making razors, the workman, being furnished with a bar of cast steel,
forges his blade from it. After being brought into true shape by filing,
the blade is exposed to a cherry-red heat and instantly quenched in cold
water. The blade is then tempered by first brightening one side and then
heating it over a fire free from flame and smoke, until the bright
surface acquires a straw color (or it may be tempered differently). It
is again quenched, and is then ready for being ground and polished.

The Story of the Tunnels Under the Hudson River[58]

The building of the Hudson River tunnels was probably one of the most
daring engineering feats ever accomplished. As is well known, the Hudson
River, for the length of Manhattan Island, is approximately a mile wide,
reducing in width at the Palisades north of Hoboken. In consequence of
the unusual geographical situation, all trunk lines and other transit
facilities in New Jersey terminate on the westerly shore of the Hudson,
and passengers were of necessity compelled to use ferries to reach New
York. A conservative estimate, which was confirmed by various counts,
indicates that, prior to the construction of the tubes, the annual
passenger traffic between New Jersey and New York was 125,000,000, and
to handle this great volume of traffic the transportation companies
assembled in the Hudson River a fleet of rapid ferry boats and
maintained them up to the highest and most modern standards. But this
very expeditious ferry service was not enough, and for many years there
was a demand for facilities for more rapid transportation of the
tremendous population residing in the suburban district of New Jersey
tributary to New York City. As far back as 1873, a company had been
organized to construct a tunnel under the river, but had met with
numerous and most discouraging difficulties and obstacles, so that it
was finally compelled to abandon the work, although it succeeded in
building a considerable length of structure. Efforts were made at
various times after that date to revive the work, with little or no
results. In 1902 it was resumed, however, and a few years later was
pushed to a successful end.

During the undertaking, more than 40,000 men were engaged in
air-pressure work and there were many thousand more who did not work
under air pressure. This vast army of men consisted of all nationalities
and all grades and conditions of labor. The skilled tunnel workmen are
men of character and ability, usually young, of good intelligence and
sound of body, without a streak of fear or cowardice in their makeup.
All of those characteristics are essential to under-water air-pressure
work.

As is quite generally known, air pressure and tunnel shields were used
in all of the under-water work. It might be well to here correct the
misconception which exists in the minds of many, that the use of air
pressure for such purposes is something comparatively new. This is not
the case. The use of air pressure was a very early invention, and it is
a matter of record that in 1830, Admiral Cochrane, afterwards Lord
Dundonald, was granted letters patent for the use of air pressure in
tunnel construction. The modern engineer has merely developed the art to
a high degree.

The method of construction used in the Hudson River tunnels has been
designated the “shield method.” In this type of construction, the
primary part of the tunnel structure consists of an iron shell, formed
of segmental rings, bolted together through inside flanges, and forming
a large articulated pipe or tube, circular in section. This iron shell
is put in place segmentally by means of a shield, an ingenious mechanism
which both protects the work under construction and assists in the
building of the iron shell.

[Illustration: THE NEW SHORT CUT TO NEW YORK

Hudson River Tubes of the Hudson & Manhattan R. R. Co.]

A tunneling shield consists essentially of a tube or cylinder slightly
larger in diameter than the tunnel it is intended to build, which slides
over the exterior of the finished lining like the tubes of a telescope.
The front end of this cylindrical shield is provided with a diaphragm or
bulkhead in which are apertures which may be opened or closed at will.
Behind this diaphragm are placed a number of hydraulic jacks, so
arranged that by thrusting against the last erected iron ring the entire
shield is pushed forward. The hind end of the shield is simply a
continuation of the cylinder which forms the front end, and this hind
end, or tail, always overlaps the last few feet of the built-up
iron-shell tunnel.

When the openings in the bulkhead are closed, the tunnel is protected
from the inrush of water or soft ground, and the openings may be so
regulated that control is maintained over the material passed through.
After a ring of iron lining has been erected within the tail of the
shield, excavation is carried out ahead. When sufficient excavation has
been taken out, the jacks are again extended, thus pushing the shield
ahead, and another ring of iron is erected as before.

[Illustration: ONE OF THE SIXTY-SEVEN-TON TUNNEL SHIELDS]

For the erection of these heavy plates, a hydraulic swinging arm, called
the “Erector,” is mounted, either on the shield itself or on an
independent erector platform, according to conditions. This erector
approaches closely the faculties of the human arm. It is hydraulically
operated and can be moved in any desired direction. This method of
construction can be followed in almost every kind of ground that can be
met with, and it is especially valuable in dealing with soft, wet
grounds. In passing through materials saturated with water, the shield
is assisted by using compressed air in the working chamber.

[Illustration: CUTTING SHIELD HEAD]

The employment of compressed air under such conditions is really a
rather simple thing in itself, and means merely that the pressure of air
in the chamber where men are working is maintained at a point sufficient
to offset the pressure of the hydrostatic head of water and thereby
prevent its inflow. A crude comparison may be made by saying that if the
ceiling of a room was weak and threatening to fall--if we filled the
room with sufficient pressure of air, it would support the ceiling and
prevent it falling in. In tunnel work, air is supplied under compression
from the mechanical construction plant located on the surface, and the
pressure of air maintained in the working chamber is determined by the
depth of the work below tide level, as the hydrostatic head increases
with the depth.

Control of air pressure is never entrusted to any but the most reliable,
competent and experienced man, as it is of the utmost importance that
air pressure be maintained properly. The first impulse of an
inexperienced man, should he notice an inrush of water, would be to
increase the air pressure, which might be a very dangerous thing to do.
An experienced man, however, would very likely first lower his pressure
in such an emergency, and then put up with the nuisance and difficulty
of having a good deal of water in his working chamber. By doing this, he
would permit the greater external pressure to squeeze the soil into the
leaking pockets and thereby choke the leak.

[Illustration: APRON IN FRONT OF SHIELD, FIVE MINUTES BEFORE SHOVING]

To improperly or inopportunely raise the air pressure would be quite
likely to result in the air blowing a hole through the roof of the
tunnel heading, allowing all air pressure to escape, and permitting an
uncontrollable volume of water to rush in and flood the work.

The outer shell of the tunnel shield is composed of two- or three-ply
boiler plates, and the interior is braced with a system of steel
girders. The shields used weighed approximately sixty-seven tons each.
Sixteen or eighteen were used. To move the shield forward, each shield
was equipped with sixteen hydraulic jacks, arranged around the shield
circumferentially. These jacks were controlled by a series of valves,
which were so designed that any one jack or any set of jacks desired
could be operated. This was necessary as the direction of the shield
was, as it were, guided by the pressure of the jacks. When it was
desired to alter the direction of the shield, either upwards or
downwards, or to the right or left, the jacks on the opposite side to
which the shield was to point, were operated. The hydraulic pressure
operating these jacks was 5,000 pounds per square inch, and the total
energy, when all jacks were employed at the same time, was equivalent to
2,500 tons, which was equal to eleven tons per square foot of heading.

[Illustration: CUTTING EDGE OF SHIELD IN NORTH TUNNEL]

Air pressure used to prevent the inflow of water and soft dirt varied
from nothing up to forty-two pounds, although a fair average throughout
was thirty-two pounds. It varied, of course, according to the condition
encountered.

The working chamber is the space between the tunnel heading where work
is in progress and the air-lock. The air-lock is a device used for the
purpose of enabling workmen and materials to pass from the portion of
the tunnel where the atmospheric pressure is normal into the portion
where the air pressure is greater than normal; that is, the working
chamber. The air-lock is a cylinder, usually about six feet in diameter
and twenty feet in length, with a heavily constructed iron door at each
end. This lock is placed horizontally in the tunnel at such a level as
the conditions of the work necessitate, but usually near the bottom, and
around this cylinder, and completely filling the cross-section of the
tunnel, a concrete bulkhead is built and is known as the lock bulkhead.
The two doors open in the same direction; the one at the normal pressure
end opening into the cylinder, and the one at the heading end opening
away from the cylinder. One door is always closed, and both doors are
closed during the operation of entering or leaving the air-pressure
section.

Going into the air pressure, the door at the heading end is held closed
by the pressure of air against it while one is entering the lock, after
which the outer door is also closed. A valve is then opened which
permits the air to flow from the working chamber into the lock, until
the lock becomes filled with air of the same pressure as exists in the
heading. As soon as the pressure is thus equalized, the door at the
heading end can be opened and the workmen pass into the heading. Going
out, the operations are simply reversed. After the heading door is
closed, with the workmen in the air-lock, a valve is opened which
permits the air in the lock to exhaust into the normal air, until the
pressure within the lock reduces to the same as that outside, when the
outer door can be opened and persons inside the lock pass out. Both
operations must be gradual, as a sudden change from normal to high
pressure, or _vice versa_, would be very dangerous to anyone.

[Illustration: SHIELD CUTTING EDGE BREAKING THROUGH WALL AT SIXTH AVENUE
AND TWELFTH STREET, LOOKING SOUTH, OCTOBER 23, 1907]

In tunneling under the river, nearly every conceivable combination of
rocks and soils were met, but for the most part the material was silt.
In such material, with a pressure of 5,000 pounds per square inch on the
shield jacks, the shield was pushed through the ground as though one
pushed a stick into a heap of snow, pushing aside the silt, and thus
obviating the necessity of removing any excavated material. Sand or
gravel, or any material which would not flow or become displaced by the
shield, of course, had to be excavated ahead of the shield, and removed
from the heading prior to pushing it forward. In the silt the most
satisfactory and economic progress was attained, and a record was made
of seventy-two feet of finished tunnel, completely lined with iron, in
one day of twenty-four hours.

The most difficult combination that had to be dealt with under the river
was when the bottom consisted of rock and the top of silt and wet sand.
In such cases, and there were many of them, the upper section of soft
ground was first excavated and the exposed face securely supported with
timbers ahead of the shield, and the rock underlying then drilled and
blasted. This was very tedious and expensive work. Exceedingly small
charges of dynamite had to be used and the procedure conducted with the
utmost caution.

In the course of their progress, the shields were subjected to the most
intense strains and hard usage, as may well be imagined. One of the
shields is illustrated. It was used to construct the south tunnel of the
up-town pair of tubes, and passed from under the Hudson River, through
Morton, Greenwich and Christopher Streets, into Sixth Avenue, and north
to Twelfth Street, a total distance of 4,525 feet, of which 2,075 feet
was through rock overlaid with wet sand. During the progress of this
shield, 26,000 sticks of dynamite were exploded in front of the cutting
edge, causing great damage to the structure of the shield, so that when
it arrived at its destination at Sixth Avenue and Twelfth Street, it was
in such a condition of distortion that it was with difficulty that the
tunnel lining could be erected behind it.

[Illustration: NORTH TUNNEL, SHOWING COMMENCEMENT OF NEW WORK]

In pushing a shield forward with the battery of powerful hydraulic
jacks, each advance is of two feet, and must be followed immediately by
installation of the permanent lining in the rear. In the early days,
brick work was used for lining, and in recent years it has also been
used to some extent, but even with the use of quick-setting Portland
cement, neither brick work nor concrete has proved successful for
subaqueous work, as the cement cannot reach the required strength within
the time it is feasible to leave the shield standing before advancing it
again.

[Illustration: HOLE BROKEN THROUGH THE SOUTH TUBE OF THE NEW YORK AND
JERSEY TUNNEL LOOKING WEST]

During the early work on the north tube of the uptown tunnels, a point
was reached where the rock was sixteen feet above the bottom of the
tunnel, and the overlying silt was in a semi-fluid state. Five barges of
clay had been dumped in the river over this point to make a roof for the
tunnel, but the fluid clay could not be controlled, and crept through
the doors of the shield. After trying all known methods to get through,
it was decided to bake this wet clay by means of intense heat. Two large
barges of kerosene were sent into the tunnel, and an air pipe connected
to them. Fine blow-pipes were also attached, and the fire from the
blow-pipes was impinged on the exposed clay until it became caked
sufficiently dry and hard to overcome slipping. It required eight hours
of this baking to dry the clay hard, and, during this period, water had
to be played continuously on the shield to avoid damage due to the high
temperature. It is believed that this was the first time that soft
material met with in tunneling under a river has been solidified by
means of fire. Seven days after passing this troublesome point, the rock
suddenly disappeared and the work proceeded without further trouble.

[Illustration: NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY TUNNEL SHOWING SIGNAL AND CAR]

Another unusual situation occurred in the south tunnel of the uptown
tubes. When the shield had advanced 115 feet from the Jersey side, the
night superintendent in charge of the tunnel work, in his anxiety to
push the work, disobeyed instructions, and the tunnel got away from him
and was flooded, and his men had a narrow escape with their lives. In
order to regain the tunnel, several schemes were considered, including
that of sending a dredge through to dredge out the bed of the river just
in advance of the shield, a sufficient depth to enable a diver to go
down and timber up the exterior opening of the doorway, where the silt
and mud had come through and filled the tunnel. This plan had to be
abandoned, as the river above was almost entirely occupied by shipping
that could not be interrupted.

[Illustration: AN X-RAY VIEW OF A BUSY HALF-MILE UNDER THE GROUND ON THE
JERSEY SIDE OF THE HUDSON RIVER]

[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION ON SIXTH AVENUE AT THIRTY-THIRD STREET, NEW
YORK

1. FOOT PASSAGE
2. MANHATTAN ELEVATED RAILROAD
3. STREET SURFACE AND METROPOLITAN STREET RAILWAY
4. NEW RAPID TRANSIT SUBWAY
5. HUDSON AND MANHATTAN RAILROAD STATION
6. PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD TUNNEL]

Finally the difficult situation was met by obtaining two large and heavy
mainsails, which made a double canvas cover measuring about sixty by
forty feet. This canvas cover was then spread on a flat barge, small
sections of pig iron being attached around the edges of it. Ropes were
carried to fixed points to hold it in exact position. The barge was then
withdrawn, and the canvas cover dropped to the bed of the river, and,
most fortunately, it settled over the point where the leak had occurred,
and a large number of bags of dirt were then deposited on it. An opening
was then made in the bulkhead of the tunnel below, and for eight days
material, under hydrostatic pressure, forced its way into the tunnel,
where it was loaded on cars, and finally the canvas was drawn into the
hole, stopping it up. Additional material was then deposited into the
river to fill the cavity, and finally the tunnel was recovered, pumped
out and work resumed. This event is of somewhat historical interest, in
that the two mainsails which were used were procured from the owner of
the famous American cup defender, the well-remembered “Reliance.”

Probably the most unique and interesting pieces of construction are the
three junctions on the Jersey side of the river, where the uptown
tunnels from New York diverge, north to Hoboken and south to Jersey City
and New York downtown. For safe and expeditious operation of trains,
where the schedule is only one and one-half minutes, it was imperative
that grade crossings should be avoided. By grade crossings is meant the
tracks of one service crossing the tracks of another service at the same
grade. At the point in question, this was a knotty problem to solve,
owing to the unusual operating conditions which had to be met, there
being six separate and distinct operating classes of trains to be
handled around this triangle.

To meet this situation, three massive reinforced concrete caissons were
built on the surface. They are practically large two-story houses, each
being over one hundred feet in length, about fifty feet in height, and
about forty-five feet in width at their widest point. The bottom edges
were sharp, and, with the use of air pressure and great weights, the
three structures were sunk in the ground to the same grade as the
intercepting tunnels, and the tunnels were then driven into them.

Particular attention should be given to the Jersey City to Hoboken tube,
in the lower part of the caisson in the foreground, in the accompanying
illustration, which curls around the Hoboken to Jersey City tube, and
rises to the elevation of, and connects into, the New York to Hoboken
tube, at the caisson in the background, at the left of the illustration.
Very few of the people who travel through the tube are probably aware of
such manipulation. At the same time, the arrangement absolutely avoids
any grade crossing whatever, and without such an arrangement of tracks
the road could not be operated with trains run so closely together as
under the prevailing system.

In constructing the river tunnels the work was carried on simultaneously
from opposite sides of the river, the tunnels meeting under the river,
and it is interesting, if not remarkable, when one considers the
difficulties under which the engineering work had to be carried on, to
note that the tunnels met with practically absolute accuracy.

* * * * *

What Causes Floating Islands?

A floating island consists generally of a mass of earth held together by
interlacing roots.

They occur on the Mississippi and other rivers, being portions of the
banks detached by the force of the current and carried down the stream,
often bearing trees. Sometimes such islands are large enough to serve as
pasture grounds.

Artificial floating islands have been formed by placing lake mud on
rafts of wicker-work covered with reeds. They were formerly used in the
waters around Mexico, and may be seen in Persia, India, and on the
borders of Tibet. On these the natives raise melons, cucumbers and other
vegetables which need much water.

Pictorial Story of the Airship

[Illustration: A “PUSHER” OF SEVERAL YEARS AGO, WITH MANY OF THE MORE
PROMINENT AIR-MEN

_Courtesy of The Curtis Aeroplane Co._]

[Illustration: _Courtesy of The Curtis Aeroplane Co._

UP-TO-DATE TWIN MOTORED MILITARY TYPE TRACTOR--200 H. P.]

[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._

THE FIRST PLANE TO CROSS THE ATLANTIC

The honor of being first to make the journey from America to Europe by
airship fell to Lieut.-Commander A. C. Read, who piloted the U. S.
seaplane, NC-4, from Newfoundland to Lisbon, Portugal, with a stop at
the Azores. The photo shows Lieut.-Commander Read and the seaplane,
NC-4, in readiness for their long trip, which began May 16, 1919, and
ended May 27th.]

[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._

THE FIRST FLIER TO CROSS THE OCEAN WITHOUT STOP

In this Vickers-Vimy aeroplane, Captain Alcock and Lieutenant Brown made
the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic on June 15, 1919,
traversing 1,650 nautical miles in 16 hours 12 minutes.]

[Illustration: CHART OF THE TRANSATLANTIC FLIERS

This shows graphically the course of the transatlantic aviators. The
U. S. navy seaplane was first to make the flight, leaving Newfoundland May
16, 1919, flying to the Azores in 15 hours, to Lisbon in 13-1/2 hours,
and to Plymouth in 13 hours. Hawker, in a Sopwith aeroplane, left
Newfoundland May 18th, and covered half the distance to Europe, but was
compelled to descend. He was picked up by a steamer. Captain Alcock and
Lieutenant Brown made the first non-stop flight June 15th; and the
British dirigible, R-34, made the first round-trip, leaving Scotland on
July 2d.]

[Illustration: THE WRIGHT BROTHERS AND THEIR FAMOUS AEROPLANE

The machine is shown in action and resting on the ground. The pictures
were taken during the army test flights at Fort Myer, Virginia.]

[Illustration: _Copyright by Western Newspaper Union._

FROM BRITAIN TO AMERICA AND BACK BY BALLOON

The great British dirigible, R-34, was the first lighter-than-air vessel
to cross the Atlantic. She left East Fortune, Scotland, July 2, 1919,
under command of Major Scott, and covered 3,200 miles to Mineola, Long
Island, in 4 days 12 hours 12 minutes. The return journey was made in 3
days 3 hours 3 minutes. Note the piles of hydrogen gas bottles needed to
replenish the gas supply.]

[Illustration: HIDE AND SEEK IN THE BALTIC

A Zeppelin flying over a British submarine in the stormy sea.]

[Illustration: A BATTLE OF FOUR ELEMENTS

British monitors shelling the German land batteries near Nieuport.
German submarines were actively engaged in trying to torpedo these
monitors and the British monoplane was useful for giving the range to
the ship and reporting the accuracy of the shots.]

[Illustration: ZEPPELIN DEVICE FOR DROPPING BOMBS

An armored car is suspended by three cables from the Zeppelin airship to
a distance of several thousand feet below the monster aircraft, which is
concealed in the clouds above. (_Sphere copr._)]

[Illustration: A BELGIAN MILITARY OBSERVATION BALLOON

The car of this balloon is equipped with wireless, which is used to send
word of the gun positions of the enemy, movements of troops, ranges for
the gunners and much other valuable information. A cable holds the
balloon captive.]

[Illustration: THE FRENCH DIRIGIBLE AIRSHIP, “LA PATRIE”]

[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y._

THE DIRIGIBLE “RUSSIA”

The great dirigible balloon “Russia,” one of the fleet of Russian
aircraft engaged in the European War. The photograph shows the hanging
car of the “Russia.” The captain’s bridge is in front above the engine
room, which is forward on the lower deck. Two propellors are in front.
The cabin is just behind the pilot’s seat.]

The Story of an Automobile Factory[59]

In visiting the factory where a half million automobiles are made each
year, the visitor first comes to the power house.

In the construction of this building 5,200 tons of structural steel were
used, the equivalent necessary to build a modern twenty-story
skyscraper.

Six engines of a combination gas-steam type, housed in this building,
develop 36,000 combined horse-power. They are said to be the first
gas-steam engines to be put to practical use. Another engine, using
steam only, develops 2,000 horse-power, while several pumping engines
increase the total horse-power of the plant to 45,000, probably the
largest individual unit of any power-plant in the world, and said to be
the only one of its kind in actual operation.

[Illustration: CRANK SHAFT GRINDING DEPARTMENT]

Some idea of the size of the engines is gained from the fact that the
stroke is 72 inches, while the gas cylinders are 42 inches in diameter
and the steam cylinders are 36 and 68 inches in diameter.

[Illustration: THE POWER HOUSE EQUIPMENT INCLUDES THE LARGEST DIRECT
CURRENT CONTROL BOARD IN THE WORLD]

In producing the gas and steam for these engines only twenty-two tons of
coal per hour are consumed, which speaks well for the efficiency of the
engines. In addition to the steam, the daily consumption of producer gas
for power purpose only is 28,512,000 cubic feet. Added to this figure
for power gas, is another item of gas used in the factory for various
purposes, which averages nearly 1,000,000 cubic feet per day, bringing
the per diem consumption of gas by the company up to 29,512,000 cubic
feet.

The main factory buildings are 900 feet long and 800 feet wide, four
stories in height and of fire-proof construction. They are so designed
that every part of the interior receives a full share of daylight.

The heating and ventilating of the factory building is accomplished in a
modern, scientific manner. In the winter, warm washed air is forced
through long ducts in the floor up into the room. In the summer, cool
washed air is handled in the same way, thus providing a clean, healthful
atmosphere the year around. By this system the air in the factory is
completely changed five times per hour.

[Illustration: OVERHEAD MONORAIL SYSTEM]

At the right as the visitor enters the factory, is seen the tool
construction department. Here are employed approximately 1,000 expert
tool makers, machinists and die sinkers. These men are engaged in making
new machinery (designed in the company shops), tools, jigs, fixtures and
other machine shop accessories, and repairing those in use.

Overhead are traveling cranes which have a capacity of forty tons each.
These cranes facilitate the work of the tool construction department by
carrying cumbersome parts of machinery to and from it for alterations
and repairs.

Here the visitor is standing upon the roof of a great tunnel, in which
are all the heating, water and steam pipes, and the power cables running
from the power house to various parts of the shop. This tunnel is large
enough to permit the easy passage of a touring car.

Standing in front of the factory office, the visitor is doubly impressed
with the magnitude of the view before him. In one continuous room,
containing approximately 700,000 square feet of floor space, there are,
in round numbers, 8,000 machines in actual operation, representing an
outlay of about $5,000,000. These machines use some 2,500 gallons of
lubricating oils and 11,000 gallons of cutting fluids each day. For
driving the many machines, about fifty miles of leather belting are
used, giving the room the appearance of a dense forest.

The visitor who is familiar with machine shop practice will notice at
once the peculiar location and setting of machinery in this shop. The
machines of a class, or type, are not all located in a single group or
unit. Each department contains all of the necessary machinery to
complete every operation on each part or piece it produces. To
illustrate, a rough forging or casting is started in a department at one
point, and after passing through the machines doing the required
operations, it leaves this department in a finished condition, ready to
be assembled into the car.

[Illustration: A CORNER OF THE MAIN HOSPITAL]

Such a system necessitates the grouping together of many different kinds
of machines, as well as including brazing furnaces, cyanide furnaces and
other special units (most generally found in separate buildings). Chutes
run from one machine to another, so that a workman can transport a part
from his operation to the next one by gravity. The results of this
transportation system are remarkable, making a big saving in trucking
expense, loss of material and the absence of usual delays.

[Illustration: PISTON MACHINING DEPARTMENT]

As the visitor passes down through the machine shop, he particularly
notices the sanitary conditions of the plant. There is a department,
enrolling about 500 men, whose duties are to keep the floors swept
clean, the windows washed, in fact to keep the sanitary conditions
surrounding the workmen as nearly perfect as possible. The floors of the
entire plant are scrubbed at least once a week, with hot water and a
strong solution of alkali, which removes the grease. Another department
of about twenty-five men does nothing but paint the walls and ceilings
of the factory, keeping everything fresh and clean.

To facilitate the inter-departmental transportation of materials in the
factory, there is an overhead monorail system, comprising over 1-1/2
miles of I-beam track. On this system are nine monorail cars, each car
having two 2-ton hoists, by means of which great boxes and trays of
material can be picked up and carried overhead from point to point in
the shop.

Near the pay office is the main first-aid department. Here the chief
surgeon has on his staff eight regular doctors and several first-aid
nurses. The surgical equipment, which includes an X-ray machine,
pulmotor, operating table and electrical appliances, as well as improved
surgical instruments, enables the surgeon to cope with any accident.

[Illustration: REAR AXLE ASSEMBLY]

The factory service office houses a department which is responsible for
the well-being of factory employees. Of the 200 men in the division the
majority are employed in the capacities of watchmen, to take care of the
many entrances and exits of the plant and also to inspect the
fire-fighting equipment which is distributed over the entire plant.

This fire-fighting equipment is being continually added to as the plant
expands and now embraces more than a mile and a half of large hose,
10,000 feet of smaller hose, and 2,900 feet of hose attached to chemical
tanks. There are 1,421 three-gallon chemical extinguishers and
fifty-eight 40-gallon chemical tanks, mounted on wheels. Surrounding the
plant are twenty-seven water hydrants equipped to handle two and three
lines of hose, while inside the plant are eight hose-houses fully
equipped. Pyrenes to the number of 175 are distributed about the
departments for combatting electrical fires.

A new alarm system, said to be the most modern in the country, is being
installed throughout the factory. Back of all other preparation is the
sprinkler system, composed of water pipes hung next to the ceiling in
all buildings and so designed that there is a sprinkler head every ten
feet. Should the temperature in a room, for any reason, reach 160
degrees, the sprinkler heads in the immediate vicinity will open
automatically, spraying out water which is piped from two tanks having a
combined capacity of 600,000 gallons.

In addition to its other duties the factory service department has
charge of the lost and found articles. Since this work was included,
almost every sort of personal property, from key-rings to motor-cycles
has been found and restored to the rightful owners.

Proceeding from the factory service office, the visitor finds himself in
the main crane-way, devoted exclusively to the storage of parts in the
rough, or semi-finished condition. This crane-way contains over 67,000
square feet of floor space. Overhead are two 5-ton electric cranes, so
arranged that they can unload material from railway cars at one end of
the crane-way and deposit it in a position to be picked up by the
monorail cars, or placed in bins or barrels for storage. An interesting
item in regard to these cranes is that the load can be moved in three
directions at one time, this being accomplished by means of the small
car hoist. While the crane proper is moving through the crane-way, this
car travels across the crane, and at the same time raises or lowers
whatever may be suspended from it.

[Illustration: CYLINDER MACHINING DEPARTMENT]

Passing by the crane-way one comes to the rear axle unit assembly. The
manufacturing policy of the company is to make unit assemblies in
different departments and deliver them to the final assembly.

In the unit assembly departments are received the finished parts from
the machine shop. These parts are assembled on progressive traveling
tracks. By this system each assembler, or operator, performs one
operation only, and repeats this operation on every unit passing through
the department. As a result, every operator soon becomes a specialist,
and specialization is the fundamental principle of the entire
organization.

The economic results from this system have been wonderful, as will be
shown in some of the departments yet to be described. It saves floor
space, and eliminates congestion due to trucking, as large quantities
of material are piled along each side of the conveyor, and the unit in
process of assembling is moved to the stock, rather than each individual
piece of the assembly being distributed at different places.

After the rear axle has been completely assembled, it is immersed in a
tank containing enamel, and is hung on a special trolley which runs by
gravity along an I-beam track. This trolley carries the axle to an
elevator, which lifts it to a conveyor baking oven, located in a section
of the roof. The axles are continually moving through this oven, and at
the expiration of about forty-five minutes emerge from the far end
completely baked. They are automatically dropped onto another elevator
which lowers them to the point near where they are used in the final
assembly. All material and unit assemblies move in one direction--that
is, toward the final assembly.

[Illustration: MOTOR ASSEMBLY]

Beyond the rear axle section is the department that makes the magnets
for the magneto, and also that in which the transmission is assembled on
a conveyor track, ending in an automatic elevator which transports the
completed transmission to the motor assembly line.

In the rear of the transmission department is the motor assembly. This
assembly begins at the point where the cylinder machine shop ends, so
that the movement of the cylinder from the time it arrives in the
machine shop until it goes into the finished motor, is continuous. In
the machining of the cylinder castings, and the operation of assembling
the motor, close inspection of the work is noticeable. By the use of the
assembling line, better inspection is possible, than where one or two
men assemble the entire motor. In addition to the inspection in the
assembly, there are three points of trial, or working or testing, which
show up any defects in the motor.

The final operation in the motor assembly line is the block test, where
the motor is inspected and tested before being assembled into the
chassis. On the block test, the motor is driven by an electric motor for
the final O. K. and tryout before being installed in this chassis.

At the end of this testing period, if no defect has developed, the motor
is approved, placed upon a special truck and wheeled to the final
assembling line.

The motor department just described furnishes an interesting
illustration of the economy of the moving assembling system. Before the
present system was installed about 1,100 employees were required in this
department, working a nine-hour day to build 1,000 motors. Today, as a
direct result of the new methods of assembling, and the efficiency
gained through the profit-sharing with employees, about 1,000 men are
assembling more than 2,000 motors in an eight-hour day.

The assembling of the front axle, dash and radiator are fully as
interesting as the unit just described, but space will not permit a
detailed explanation of them.

[Illustration: TRANSMISSION COVER DEPARTMENT]

Perhaps the most interesting department in the whole factory, to the
visitor, is the final assembly. In this division, all the assembled
units meet the assembly conveyor at the point where they are needed. At
the start of the track a front axle unit, a rear axle unit and a frame
unit are assembled. This assembly is then started in motion by means of
a chain conveyor, and as it moves down the room at a constant speed of
eight feet per minute, each man adds one part to the growing chassis or
does one operation, which is assigned to him, so that when the chassis
reaches the end of the line, it is ready to run on its own power.

In following the final assembly line from the point where the chain
conveyor engages the frame and axles, the visitor is impressed with the
dispatch with which every movement is executed. The gasoline tank, for
example, comes down from the fourth floor on a conveyor outside of the
building, and drops through a chute onto a bridge over the assembly
line. On this bridge is located a gasoline pump, from which each tank
receives one gallon of gasoline before it is installed in the car.

After the gasoline tank is assembled, a number of small units are added,
such as the hand brake control lever, gasoline feed pipe, and fender
irons, until the point is reached at which the motor is placed in the
frame.

Ordinarily the setting of a motor in the frame is a long operation, but
in this assembly the motor is elevated by a hoist, and lowered into
place while the chassis is moving along the conveyor track. From this
point, other small parts are added, and bolts tightened, until the
growing chassis reaches the bridge on which the dash unit is deposited
by a chute from the second floor, where it is assembled. The dash unit
includes the dash, complete steering gear, coil, horn, and all wiring
ready to be attached to the motor, so that its installation is rapid.

Further along, such parts as the exhaust pipe, muffler, and side pans
for the motor are quickly fastened in place, and the wheels are brought
into the assembly.

There will be noticed the vertical chutes, extending through the
ceiling. Down through these, from the third floor, come the wheels, with
the tires mounted and inflated to the proper pressure. From this point
the chassis moves under the bridge upon which are stored the radiators,
which have been delivered by a belt conveyor.

At the end of the assembly line, the rear wheels on the finished chassis
drop into a set of revolving grooved wheels, sunk into the concrete
floor, and driven by an overhead motor. Two ends are accomplished by
this operation. First, when the wheels of the car revolve with the
grooved wheels, this motion is transmitted to the differential, through
the drive shaft to the motor, limbering up all these parts. The second
is that while the parts are being limbered up, the switch is turned on
and the motor started.

[Illustration: INSPECTION OF FRONT AXLE AFTER MACHINING]

At the end of the line the complete chassis is driven out into the yard
under its own power. Guided by practiced hands it moves swiftly out into
the yard, turns sharply and enters the final inspection line. A corps of
inspectors at this point takes charge of the chassis, and the
responsibility for each part is assigned to some one man.

From the final testing line the chassis is driven to the body chutes,
which extend into the factory yard from the third floor of the new
six-story building, and are so constructed that the chassis may be
driven under them. The bodies are let down the chutes on belt
conveyors, picked up by small derricks and swung over onto the chassis.
The bodies are at this time placed on the chassis merely as a means of a
rapid transportation to the freight cars, for in ordinary transportation
the bodies are packed in the cars separate from the chassis.

In the rear of the main plant are two six-story buildings each 60 feet
wide by 845 feet long, built parallel to each other and connected by a
crane-way 40 feet wide the full length and height of the buildings.

The boiler house, which furnishes the steam for heating the entire
plant, is located in the rear of these buildings. The method of heating
is worthy of particular interest, as the air is forced over coils of
steam pipes located in pent houses on the roofs, and from this point is
driven down into the various rooms through the hollow columns which
support the floors. In the summer, cool washed air is forced down
through these same columns, maintaining a normal, even temperature,
compatible with the state of the weather.

[Illustration: INSTALLING MOTOR ON FINAL ASSEMBLY LINE]

Various unit assemblies, small machine departments, and store rooms are
located here in addition to all the body work.

Practically the entire first floors are used as a receiving department,
where all the material consigned to the company is checked and
inspected. Railway tracks run the full length of both crane-ways,
facilitating the unloading and loading of supplies and parts.

The body department occupies the greatest amount of space, requiring,
with the upholstering department, most of the three upper floors. In
addition to this work the construction of tops, curtains and radiators
is carried on, and a large space is used for the storage of equipment
and parts, such as lamps, horns, tires, etc. A part of the second floor
is devoted to the storage and the shipping of parts to branches and
agents.

Having seen the body placed upon the chassis, the visitor passes along
toward the north. In succession are the chutes on which the crates of
fenders are sent down from the fourth floor of the main factory building
to the shipping platform. Here is also a chain elevator, which raises
the wheels out of the freight cars to a runaway on which they travel by
gravity to the third floor of the main factory. With this device it is
possible for three or four men to unload about 6,000 wheels each day.

[Illustration: MECHANICAL STARTER--END OF FINAL ASSEMBLY]

One passes the loading docks, where crews of six to eight men each,
working as a unit, remove the bodies and wheels from the chassis, and
load them into freight cars. So proficient are these loaders that a
freight car is loaded in twenty minutes. Approximately 150 loaded
freight cars are sent out every day. Besides these factory shipments
there are more than 300 loaded freight cars in transit each day from
branch factories.

The bodies are shipped separate from the chassis, being stood on end in
one-half of the car and protected from dust by coverings.

The chassis are put in the other end of the car, the first one being
carried in, minus the wheels, and placed in a diagonal position.
Brackets of cast iron, for holding the axle to the floor, are made in
the foundry. The front axle rests on the floor, and the rear axle rests
against the opposite wall near the top of the car. A block, with a hole
which just fits the axle, holds it against the wall.

[Illustration: THE BODY CHUTE, WHERE BODIES ARE PLACED ON EACH CHASSIS]

The next chassis is brought in and placed with its front axle opposite
the first one. In this way the chassis alternate until the car is full.
The space in the center of the car contains the fenders, and other
removable parts of the equipment.

Just beyond the loading docks is the foundry.

The foundry is one of the most interesting divisions of the entire
plant, and ranks, perhaps, as one of the most unique in the country, as
far as practice and equipment are concerned. As a general rule, foundry
practice has not shown the changes in an increase of production that
machine departments have, but in this foundry, due to standardization of
parts and specialization on the one car, it has been possible to devise
and install the unique equipment now used, which brings this department
down to the plane of expense and up in the labor-saving efficiency
prevailing throughout the entire plant.

[Illustration: CRANEWAY, SHOWING LOADING PLATFORMS]

This department works twenty-four hours a day, in three shifts of eight
hours each; iron is being melted and poured continuously during the day
and first night shifts. An average of over 400 tons of iron is poured
daily, and 426 tons of gray iron have been poured in a single day. This
tonnage is especially interesting, as it is produced on a floor space of
only 36,324 square feet.

All this iron is poured on overhead power-driven mold carriers, which
travel about twelve feet per minute. These mold carriers have suspended
from them pendulum-like arms, on the lower end of which is a shelf. The
molders who make the molds for the castings are stationed alongside of
these conveyors; the molding sand with which they fill the flasks is
stored overhead in a hopper, the gate of which discharges directly onto
the molding machine. There are two molders for each part, one making the
“drag,” or lower part of the mold, the other making the “cope,” or the
upper half. When these two halves of the mold are finished they are put
together, or “closed” on the shelf of the conveyor, which carries the
finished mold to the man who pours the molten metal. The molten metal is
brought to this man’s station by means of large ladles, suspended on a
trolley on an I-beam track, running from the cupola through the entire
length of the foundry. This does away with the necessity of carrying the
ladle of iron a long distance, thus saving much time and lessening the
liability to accidents.

[Illustration: CONTINUOUS CORE-OVEN]

[Illustration: QUENCHING STEEL FORGINGS IN HEAT-TREATMENT OPERATION]

While the mold is being poured it is in constant motion, and continues
so from the pouring station to the end of the conveyor, where the
casting is shaken out of the sand. The casting is thrown to one side to
cool, the flasks are hung upon hooks on the arm of the conveyor, to be
returned to the molder, and the sand drops through a grating in the
floor onto a belt conveyor; on this conveyor it is dropped on an
elevator, raised overhead and “cut,” or mixed with new sand, and passed
on to another conveyor, which deposits it in the hoppers above referred
to, ready for the molder’s use. In all this journey the sand is never
shoveled.

In casting cylinders, on account of their size and the care needed in
setting the cores, a different style conveyor is used. The molder,
instead of putting the mold on a pendulum conveyor, places it upon a
track, where it is moved by means of a chain. During this travel the
various cores are set, and the molds closed, moving to the point where
the men with large ladles pour the mold. From this point it is
transferred to another track. As it travels down this track, the casting
is given an opportunity to “set,” or cool. At the end of this line it is
shaken out over a grating, and the sand handled in the same manner as on
the smaller conveyors.

[Illustration: STRAIGHTENING CRANK SHAFTS ON STEAM HAMMERS]

As soon as the castings have cooled sufficiently they are put into great
horizontal cylinders, called tumblers. Small metal stars are placed in
these tumblers with the castings, and when the tumbler is full it is
started revolving. This shakes all the sand from the castings and they
come out clean and bright. This process continues for some time,
depending on the size of the castings. Near the tumblers are the
grinding wheels, upon which are ground off the rough edges and the
castings put into shape for the machine shop. They are sorted, inspected
and counted before removing from the foundry.

Another interesting feature is the handling of sand in the core room.
The sand is handled entirely in a gallery built above the room, equipped
with storage bins and sand mixers. Over each core-maker’s bench is a
hopper, connected with the floor of the gallery. When the sand is mixed
it is dropped through holes in the floor into the hoppers, which deposit
the sand on the bench convenient for the core-maker.

This core room contains perhaps the only endless chain core oven in this
country in which are two endless chain conveyors. These have hanging
upon them large sets of shelves, upon which the cores are placed for
baking. It is impossible to over-bake or under-bake a core, as the rate
of travel of the conveyor is fixed at a speed which leaves the core in
the oven the correct length of time.

All the aluminum parts as well as a large proportion of the brass, are
also cast in this foundry.

The process of heat-treating steel forgings before they are machined is
one of the most scientific and accurate features in the manufacture of
this car. Vanadium steel is used throughout the construction of the car.
It has been found from long and deep experimental work by engineers,
that the structural condition of steel may be changed by the application
of heat, and with certain conditions ascertained, by bringing a piece of
steel to a certain temperature, and then setting the molecular condition
in the steel by sudden cooling, or quenching, that the steel of a crank
shaft can be made to stand impact, that the steel of a front axle can
be made a most efficient agent to withstand vibration. Practically every
forging in the car is made of a special steel, for which a special
formula of heat-treating has been worked out, in accordance with the
work, or strain, the part must stand in the finished car.

It is by the use of this high-grade, scientifically heat-treated
vanadium steel that it is possible for the company to manufacture a
light-weight car, which has the ability to stand up under severe usage,
and to sell at the low price at which it is sold today.

The heat-treating department contains about seventy-five large furnaces,
which consume from 5,000 to 6,000 gallons of fuel oil per day. It is
into these furnaces that the various forgings are placed for
heat-treating. In each one is introduced a pyrometer, connected
electrically with a switchboard located in a separate building. This
switchboard is very similar to those used in telephone exchanges. The
operator takes the temperature reading of every furnace on his board
about every minute. The furnace foreman is notified by the operator as
to the temperature by means of small colored electric lights, located
above the furnace. The lighting of all the colors at the same time is
the signal to pull the heat or, in other words, extinguish the fires and
empty the furnace. After the required heat has been reached, the
forgings are allowed to either cool in the air, be covered with
pulverized mica, or quenched in a special solution, as the case may
require.

[Illustration: PYROMETERS BY WHICH THE TEMPERATURE OF THE FURNACES IS
REGULATED]

In this department are also located many grinding wheels and tumbling
barrels, similar to those used in the foundry, so that the various
forgings may be put in first-class condition before they are laid down
in the machine shop.

[Illustration: THIS BELT CARRIES THE FINISHED PARTS AND SCRAPS FROM THE
PUNCH PRESSES]

The operations in the manufacture of the crank case, or engine pan, of
the motor is of interest for several reasons, and the visitor has the
opportunity of viewing these processes.

The crank case in itself is interesting because it is made from drawn
sheet steel, instead of cast aluminum, as was once thought necessary.

[Illustration: TAKING INDUSTRIAL MOTION PICTURES

Operator suspended from traveling crane.]

The presses on which these crank cases are drawn are especially worthy
of note, for they weigh about fifty tons each, and exert a downward
pressure of about 900 tons. It is necessary that this drawing be made in
four operations; the first and second are particularly interesting, on
account of their depths, which are 5-1/2 and 9-3/16 inches,
respectively. After each drawing operation it has been found necessary
that the case be annealed, to restore the strained or calloused surface
produced at certain points by contact with the dies, to a soft, ductile
condition, to conform to the balance of the case, or, in other words,
to produce a homogeneous condition of the surface.

This annealing is accomplished by a furnace through which the cases are
moved by a chain conveyor onto an elevator which raises them up through
the roof, and down again, depositing them near the press which is to
perform the next drawing operation. While moving on this elevator the
cases are cooled so that they can be handled as soon as they are
lowered.

After the drawing operations have been completed, the case is trimmed;
the side arms, front end supports, radius rod support, are riveted and
brazed to it, making a case as strong and solid, and yet as light, as it
is possible to make.

[Illustration: ASSEMBLING INDUSTRIAL MOTION PICTURE FILMS]

Near these crank case presses are located several hundred punch and
drawing presses of various sizes. These presses blank out and draw from
sheet steel of special analysis, a large number of parts (which in
ordinary practice are made from castings or forgings), carrying the same
strength, but also very much lighter in weight.

The interesting feature of this department is the arrangement of the
presses, which enables all finished parts, as well as the scrap steel,
to be deposited upon a traveling belt conveyor, at the end of which are
stationed men who sort the various parts, and place them in proper
receptacles. By this arrangement it is possible to place the presses
closer together than could be done if it were necessary to leave aisles
large enough for trucking the material to and from the presses,
effecting a great saving in floor space.

[Illustration: A THOUSAND ASSEMBLED CHASSIS

At last accounts the production was 2,768 cars in a single day.]

The pictures with which this story is illustrated were all made by the
photographic department of the company, and are but a few of the
thousands on file, portraying details of every operation in the
manufacture of a car. The department is completely equipped to take and
produce motion picture films of the highest quality.

The growth of this department, in its own peculiar field, has kept pace
with the growth of the company as an industrial factor. But a few years
ago, this department was an incident only. The quarters were small, the
staff was composed of two men, and the entire work was confined to
making photographs of the cars and parts for advertising literature.

A modern studio is now maintained on the fourth floor of the
factory--the staff of skilled operators numbering twenty.

The moving picture portion of the company’s work is, in volume, the
largest conducted by any industrial concern. As a matter of interest, it
is estimated that the operations of this department in the “movie” field
are equal in magnitude to the efforts of many of the better known
film-producing studios which specialize in such work. And, large as the
scope of operations already is, it is still growing, in response to an
increasing demand for pictures of the factory as well as of events of
general interest.

* * * * *

The expression “The tune that the old cow died of” has been used to
express the giving of advice instead of material help, because of an old
song which told of a man who had nothing to feed his cow upon and so
played her this tune: “Consider, good cow, consider. This isn’t the time
for grass to grow.”

How do Big Buildings Get their Granite?

Stones suitable for important building purposes are usually found at a
good distance below the surface. In the case of unstratified rocks, such
as granite, the stone is most frequently detached from the mass by
blasting, a process by which much valuable stone is wasted, and a
different method is employed whenever it is found possible. In the case
of stratified rocks, blocks are separated by hand tools alone. Small
holes a few inches apart are cut along a certain length of rock, into
which steel wedges are inserted. These are driven in by heavy hammers
until the stratum is cut through. The large blocks necessary for
monumental purposes are generally obtained in this way, and before they
leave the quarry they are usually reduced as nearly as possible to a
rectangular form.

Granite is a fire-formed rock which has been exposed to great heat and
pressure deep down in the earth. It is one of the most abundant of that
species of rocks seen at or near the surface of the earth, and was
formerly considered as the foundation rock of the globe, or that upon
which all sedimentary rocks repose. Granite supplies the most durable
materials for building, as many of the ancient Egyptian monuments
testify. It varies a great deal in hardness as well as in color and for
that reason must be selected with care when desired for building
purposes.

Granite abounds in crystallized earthy materials, and these occur for
the most part in veins traversing the mass of the rock. Of these
minerals, beryl, garnet and tourmaline are the most abundant. The
decomposed felspar of some varieties of granite yields the kaolin used
in porcelain manufacture. Granite is not rich in mineral ores.

It is abundant in America and is largely quarried in the United States
for building purposes, especially in New England. The best known
quarries are those of New England. There is a great deal of granite
found in South Carolina and Georgia, but much of this, as well as that
of some parts of California, is in a singular state of decomposition, in
many places being easily penetrated by a pick. Granite quarried anywhere
in which felspar predominates is not well adapted for buildings, as it
cracks and crumbles down in a few years.

[Illustration: GRANITE QUARRY

A large quarry near Barre, Vermont. The rock occurs in what is known as
“sheet formation.”]

Railroad Scenes from Shop and Road

[Illustration: THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD COMPANY’S “BROADWAY LIMITED,” A
TWENTY-HOUR TRAIN BETWEEN NEW YORK AND CHICAGO[60]]

[Illustration: ALL-STEEL PASSENGER TRAIN, DRAWN BY ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE,
AS USED IN THE NEW YORK TUNNELS OF THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD[60]]

[Illustration: ELECTRIC TRAIN ON THE MAIN LINE OF THE PENNSYLVANIA
RAILROAD[61]]

[Illustration: LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPPED WITH FIRE-FIGHTING APPARATUS[61]]

[Illustration: TRAIN OF 120 LOADED COAL CARS DRAWN BY A SINGLE
LOCOMOTIVE[62]]

[Illustration: EXPRESS TRAIN READY TO LEAVE THE BROAD STREET STATION OF
THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD AT PHILADELPHIA[62]]

[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co._

ABOARD THE “BROADWAY LIMITED”

The observation car is provided with book-cases, a writing desk and
stenographer.]

[Illustration: A STRING OF ALL-STEEL FREIGHT CARS JUST TURNED OUT OF THE
SHOPS[63]]

[Illustration: ELECTRIC BAGGAGE TRUCK HAULING TRAILERS[63]]

[Illustration: BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF THE PENNSYLVANIA STATION, NEW YORK
CITY[64]]

[Illustration: THE “UNION STATION” AT WASHINGTON, D. C.[64]]

[Illustration: FREIGHT TRAIN, EASTBOUND, ON THE HORSESHOE CURVE[65]]

[Illustration: OVEN FOR DRYING PAINT ON PASSENGER CARS AT THE ALTOONA,
PA., SHOPS OF THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD COMPANY[66]]

[Illustration: LOCOMOTIVE BUILDING

View in the erecting shop where the locomotives are assembled. The
traveling crane in the foreground is capable of transporting a
locomotive to any part of the shop.

_Courtesy of the Baldwin Locomotive Works._]

[Illustration: MODERN LOCOMOTIVES

The upper view shows a passenger locomotive used on the fastest heavy
express trains. It weighs 272,000 pounds, with tender 70 feet long, and
has a draw-bar pull of 30,700 pounds. The lower view shows a Mallet
Articulated Type freight locomotive, one of the largest ever built. It
consists of two units, linked together to give flexibility to the wheel
base. The locomotive is 108 feet 10 inches long, weighs 700,000 pounds,
and has a draw-bar pull of 96,000 pounds. Oil is used for fuel.

_Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Baldwin Locomotive
Works._]

[Illustration: TYPE FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE--THE DELAWARE & HUDSON CO.

Built by American Locomotive Company.]

[Illustration: FOUNDRY

Schenectady, N. Y., Works, American Locomotive Company]

[Illustration: PACIFIC TYPE PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE--NEW YORK CENTRAL R. R.

Built by American Locomotive Company.]

[Illustration: 4-8-2 TYPE PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE--CHICAGO, ROCK ISLAND &
PACIFIC R. R.

Built by American Locomotive Company.]

[Illustration: MACHINE SHOP

Schenectady, N. Y., Works, American Locomotive Company.]

[Illustration: MIKADO TYPE FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE--DELAWARE, LACKAWANNA &
WESTERN R. R.

Built by American Locomotive Company.]

[Illustration: ROD SHOP

Schenectady, N. Y., Works, American Locomotive Company.]

[Illustration: MALLET TYPE FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE--BALTIMORE & OHIO R. R.

Built by American Locomotive Company.]

[Illustration: CYLINDER SHOP

Schenectady, N. Y., Works, American Locomotive Company.]

[Illustration: 2-10-2 TYPE FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE--NEW YORK, ONTARIO &
WESTERN R. R.

Built by American Locomotive Company.]

[Illustration: ERECTING SHOP

Schenectady, N. Y., Works, American Locomotive Company.]

[Illustration: NEW YORK CENTRAL ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE[66]]

[Illustration: PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE[67]

Two of the best known types of electric locomotive. The New York Central
type is 43 feet long, 14 feet 9-1/2 inches high, and weighs 230,000
pounds. It is equipped with four 550-horse-power motors and has a
maximum speed of 60 miles per hour. The Pennsylvania type is the latest
development. It is built in two halves for flexibility and either half
may be replaced during repairs. The complete unit weighs 157 tons, is 64
feet 11 inches long, and the motors have combined horse-power of 4,000,
giving a draw-bar pull of 79,200 pounds, and a speed of 60 miles per
hour.]

The Story of an Up-to-Date Farm[68]

A man who had been tied in a great city all his life made his first
visit the other day to an up-to-date farm. He was so surprised at what
he saw that he wrote a letter describing his emotions. Some of it is
worth quoting because it shows a picture of the modern farm as it was
cast upon the eye of a man who had never seen it before.

“I was whisked from the railway station in a big touring car, through
beautiful country. Then we turned up a flower and shrub lined concrete
driveway, and stopped by a home, capacious and modern. Inside I found
electric lights, electric iron and bathroom with running water.

[Illustration: THE WOMAN ON THE FARM AT LAST ENJOYING THE BENEFIT OF
LABOR-SAVING MACHINES

This small mounted kerosene engine runs the washing machine, pump, cream
separator and churn. It is easily drawn about from place to place by
hand where its energy is needed to lighten the housework.]

“I found that the good man of the house had his own electric light and
water plant, run by kerosene engines, that his cows were milked
automatically, that he pulled his plows, harrows, drills, manure
spreader and binder with a kerosene tractor, that his hired men went
about the farm doing everything as they rode on some machine, that he
went to church and town in an automobile, and that he delivered the
products of his farm to market with a motor truck. Everything was
managed like a factory. Things went forward with order and with
assurance. Everyone was busy and happy.”

This is an optimistic picture of one of our best farms, but compare it
with the best that could be found only a few hundred years ago. The
best farmer of those days held all the land for miles around and lived
in a castle in the middle of it. The castle was dark and cold and was
made of rough stones fitted together. The poor farmers were serfs and
came two or three days out of a week to their master’s house to work.
Those were the great days of their lives, for then they ate of the
master’s food.

Food--that was the problem of those long tired years which dragged
through the ages, when nearly everyone was a farmer, and a farmer with
crude tools held in his hands. Time was when practically the whole world
went to bed hungry and rose again in the morning craving food, just as
half the millions of India do today because they do with their hands
what a machine should do.

[Illustration: THE MOTOR TRUCK MAY BE USED BY THE FARMER EVEN IN HILLY
AND MOUNTAINOUS PLACES

This photograph was taken near the summit of Pike’s Peak.]

People in the hungry, unfed ages grew so used to privation that even the
philosophers accepted sorrow and woe as a matter of course and dilated
upon their virtues for chastening the human soul. “It is better to go to
the house of mourning than the house of mirth,” said one of the
prophets, and such words brought comfort to the hungry, miserable
millions who had to mourn and go hungry whether it was to their
advantage or not.

[Illustration: THE REAPING HOOK WAS THE FIRST IMPLEMENT USED FOR
HARVESTING GRAIN OF WHICH WE HAVE RECORD

This pictures the reaping hook as still used in India.]

Today the years glide by like pleasant pictures. We are fed, busy and
happy. We almost let the dead bury their dead today while the living
drive forward their tasks, achieving as much in a year as the old ages
did in twenty. We have learned to feed ourselves and the food fills our
bodies and brains with energy which must find expression in useful
accomplishment. “Blessed is he who has found his work to do,” we say
nowadays, “but thrice blessed is he who has found a machine to do it for
him.”

Thread your way back through history to the time when the slender lives
of men expanded into full and useful employment, and you will find that,
so far as raising the world’s food is concerned, it all began with the
invention of the reaper in only the last century. It is interesting to
know something of the precarious entry of this machine and something of
the dark background from which it emerged.

[Illustration: THE SCYTHE IS A DEVELOPMENT OF THE REAPING HOOK

The blade was made larger and the handle longer so two hands could be
used.]

The Reaping Hook or Sickle.

From the first pages of history we find that the reaping hook or sickle
is the earliest tool for harvesting grain of which we have record.
Pliny, in describing the practice of reaping wheat says, “One method is
by means of reaping hooks, by which the straws are cut off in the middle
with sickles and the heads detached by a pair of shears.” Primitive
sickles or reaping hooks made of flint or bronze are found among the
remains left by the older nations. Pictures made in 1400 or 1500 B. C.
upon the tombs at Thebes in Egypt, which are still legible, show slaves
reaping with sickles. This crude tool, brought into use by ancient
Egypt, remained almost stationary as to form and method of use until the
middle of the last century.

The scythe, which is a development from the sickle, enables the operator
to use both hands instead of one. The scythe is still a familiar tool on
our farms, but it serves other purposes than that of being the sole
means of harvesting grain.

[Illustration: THE CRADLE WAS DEVELOPED IN AMERICA BETWEEN 1776 AND 1800
AND IS AN OUTGROWTH OF THE SCYTHE. IT IS STILL USED IN SOME PLACES]

The Cradle.

Gradually the blade of the scythe was made lighter, the handle was
lengthened, and fingers added to collect the grain and carry it to the
end of the stroke. With the cradle the cut swath could be laid down
neatly for drying preparatory to being bound into bundles. This tool is
distinctly an American development. The colonists, when they settled in
this country, probably brought with them all the European types of
sickles and scythes, and out of them evolved the cradle.

With the cradle in heavy grain an experienced man could cut about two
acres a day, and another man could rake and bind it into sheaves, so
that two men with the cradle could do the work of six or seven men with
sickles.

The American cradle stands at the head of all hand tools devised for the
harvesting of grain. When it was once perfected, it soon spread to all
countries with very little change in form. Although it has been
displaced almost entirely by the modern reaper, yet there are places in
this country and abroad where conditions are such that reaping machines
are impractical and where the cradle still has work to do.

[Illustration: HARVESTING IN THE WEST

_Reproduced by permission of the Philadelphia Museums._]

[Illustration: STEAM HARVESTER AND THRESHER

The upper view shows side-hill harvesters drawn by teams of twenty-eight
horses each. The machines cut the grain, and tie it up in bundles, which
are dropped alongside. The machine in the lower view is self-propelling,
cuts and threshes the grain, throwing out the straw, and places the
grain in sacks ready for loading on the wagon.

_Reproduced by permission of the Philadelphia Museums._]

Early Attempts to Harvest with Machines.

The beginning of practical efforts in the direction of harvesting by
wholly mechanical means may be said to date from the beginning of the
last century, about the year 1800, although very little progress was
made from that time up to the year 1831.

It is true that the Gauls made use of an instrument nearly two thousand
years before, but this contrivance fell into disuse with the decline of
the Gallic fields. Pliny describes this machine which was used early in
the first century and which might be termed a stripping header.
Palladius, four centuries later, describes the same sort of machine.
This device of the Gauls had lance-shaped knives, or teeth with
sharpened sides, projecting from a bar, like guard teeth, but set close
together to form a sort of comb. As it was pushed forward, the stalks
next the heads came between these sharp teeth and were cut or stripped
off into a box attached to and behind the cutter bar and carried by two
wheels. When the box was filled with heads, the machine was driven in
and emptied. This is the way in which it is supposed that it was worked,
and the illustration is the generally accepted representation of it as
roughly reconstructed from the old Latin description of Pliny.

[Illustration: THE MOWING MACHINE HAS REPLACED THE SCYTHE FOR CUTTING
HAY, AND THE KEROSENE TRACTOR HAS REPLACED EXPENSIVE HORSE POWER FOR
PULLING THE MOWERS

The tractor has 10 H. P. on the drawbar and is pulling three mowers,
laying down a swath of hay 21 feet wide.]

Near the close of the past century, the subject of grain-reaping
machines again began to claim the attention of inventors. In July, 1799,
the first English patent was granted to Joseph Boyce. In 1806, Gladstone
of England built and patented a machine which not only attempted to cut
the grain, but also to deliver it in gavels to be bound. In 1807,
Plucknett and Salmon both patented machines. In 1811, Smith and Kerr
took out patents. In 1822, Henry Ogle, a schoolmaster of Rennington,
assisted by Thomas and Joseph Brown, invented the so-called Ogle reaper.
The next, and last, reaper of this period was invented by Patrick Bell
of Carmyllie, Scotland, in 1826.

Nearly all of these early reapers relied upon scythes or cutters with a
rotary motion or vibrating shears. This method of cutting was
essentially wrong, and none of the machines ever appeared to have gained
or long retained the favor of the farmers. That these early attempts
were all unsuccessful is evidenced by the fact that at the great World’s
Fair in London in 1851, the United Kingdom could not present a single
reaping machine. English journals and writers of that period, without a
single exception, spoke of the American reapers which were exhibited as
“completely successful.” For the real progress towards solving the
problem of harvesting grain with machines we must turn to America.

[Illustration: THE MCCORMICK REAPER OF 1845]

American invention in this line, so far as there is any record, began
with the patent issued to Richard French and T. J. Hawkins of New
Jersey, May 17, 1803. No reliable description of this machine seems to
be extant. Five patents of no importance were issued between that time
and 1822, when Bailey took out a patent. Cope and Cooper of Pennsylvania
obtained a patent in 1826, and Manning obtained one in 1831.

[Illustration: A CORN BINDER CUTS THE HEAVIEST CORN WITH EASE]

Up to 1831, no successful and practical reaper had been developed. With
all the patents taken out in England, and with those taken out in
America from 1803 down to 1831, we might say that nothing had been
accomplished toward perfecting a reaping machine which actually worked
successfully.

[Illustration: A VIEW OF THE FIRST MCCORMICK REAPER OF 1831 AS USED IN
THE FIELD]

The First Successful Reaper.

[Illustration: THE MCCORMICK REAPER OF 1845 IN THE FIELD, WITH A SEAT
ADDED FOR THE RAKER

Formerly the raker walked by the side of the machine.]

In 1831 came McCormick’s reaper, the first practical machine of its kind
ever taken into the field. It was crude at first, but improved from year
to year. Although McCormick’s reaper was not patented until 1834, one
year after the patent granted to Obed Hussey for his reaper, young
McCormick gave a public exhibition in Virginia three years before, in
1831. It was in the fall of that year when Cyrus McCormick hitched four
horses to his machine, which had been built in the old blacksmith shop
at Steel’s Tavern, and drove into a field of late oats on the farm of
John Steele, adjoining his father’s. The reproduction of an old
lithograph depicting this scene indicates the interest of the neighbors
in this event. Although the United States had been established more than
fifty years past, this was the first grain that had ever been cut by
machinery. McCormick’s machine continued to operate to the surprise of
everyone and in less than half a day had reaped six acres of oats--as
much as six men would have done by the old-fashioned method.

This was not the first attempt of a McCormick to solve the problem of
harvesting wheat by machinery, for Robert McCormick, the father of
Cyrus, had, himself, worked on a machine of this kind as far back as
1816. His father tried it again in 1831 and abandoned it, and in that
same year the son Cyrus took up the work and started the world toward
cheaper bread.

[Illustration: MCCORMICK REAPER OF 1858]

The first practical reaper taken into the field in 1831 embodied the
essential parts of the reaper with which we are familiar. It had a
platform for receiving the grain, a knife for cutting it, supported by
stationary fingers over the edge, and a reel to gather it. The driver of
the machine rode one of the horses, while the man who raked off the
grain walked by the side of the machine.

Development of the Reaper.

The ten years following this first instance of a successful reaper were
strenuous times indeed for Cyrus McCormick, for it was not until 1840 or
1841 that he was able to make his first sale. Twenty more were sold in
1843 and fifty in 1844.

[Illustration: THE PROGRESSIVE FARMER OF TODAY DOES NOT LET HIS
CORNSTALKS GO TO WASTE IN THE FIELD, BUT CUTS THEM WITH A CORN BINDER
AND EITHER PUTS THEM INTO A SILO OR SHREDS THEM INTO STOVER FOR HIS
HAY-LOFT

This picture shows the husker and shredder in operation with kerosene
for power.]

During all these years from 1831 to 1844 Mr. McCormick was diligently at
work changing, testing and experimenting. In 1845 he secured a second
patent, which embodied many improvements--the principal ones referring
to the cutting mechanism.

[Illustration: THE MCCORMICK REAPER OF 1858 IN THE FIELD

Note that an automatic raker has been substituted for the man who rode
on the machine and raked off the cut grain.]

In this year, Mr. McCormick started for the western prairie, and in 1847
built his own factory in Chicago, thus starting the world’s greatest
reaper works. This factory, known as “McCormick Works,” is still in
progress. It covers today more than 120 acres in the heart of Chicago,
and has an annual capacity of 375,000 machines of all types.

[Illustration: A MARSH HARVESTER AS BUILT BY THE MCCORMICK COMPANY IN
1874

Note the two men riding on the platform and binding up the grain as
delivered to them by the elevator of the machine.]

The third step in the development of the reaper was the addition to the
machine of a seat for carrying the raker. The machine built in 1831
required that the raker walk by the side of the machine. In 1845 Mr.
McCormick added the seat, patent for which was added in 1847. This seat
which carried the raker enabled him while riding to rake the grain from
the platform and deposit it in gavels on the ground. This type of
reaper, patented in 1847, is the one taken by Cyrus H. McCormick to the
first world’s fair held in London, England, in 1851, and about which the
records of that exposition state “The McCormick reaper is the most
valuable article contributed to this exposition, and for its originality
and value and perfect work in the field it is awarded the council
medal.”

This same reaper received the grand prize in Paris in 1855 and is the
reaper which created so much surprise in the world’s fair in London that
the comments made by the press demonstrated beyond a doubt that England
had not as yet built a successful reaper. In 1858 the machine was
further improved by substituting an automatic rake for the raker on the
machine.

[Illustration: A MCCORMICK HEADER BINDER WHICH ELEVATES THE GRAIN INTO
WAGONS WHICH DRIVE ALONGSIDE]

Many other patents were granted from time to time until 1870, when the
foundation features of all reapers had been invented and substantially
perfected. The reaper is still used extensively, especially in foreign
countries.

The interest in this machine centers not in its development as used
today, but in the fact that it led to the invention and perfection of
the self-binder.

The prototype of all machines designed to bind the grain before being
delivered to the ground is the Marsh harvester. It is the half-way mark,
the child of the reaper and the parent of the self-binder. The original
patent for this machine was granted August 17, 1858, to two farmer boys
of De Kalb, Illinois, the Marsh brothers.

Previous to this time, attempts had been made to build harvesting
machines which would bind the grain before delivered to the ground, but
not one could be considered a success. At the time the Marsh harvester
began seeking a place in the market, about 1860, reapers--hand-rakers,
self-rakers, and droppers--held the trade substantially to the exclusion
of any other kind of harvesting machine.

[Illustration: A COMBINED SWEEP RAKE AND STACKER

This ingenious machine is a great labor saver in the hay field. The hay
can be gathered by any number of sweep rakes and dumped near the
stacker, which will stack on any side and in any shape.]

The first successful Marsh harvester, built in 1858, was operated
through the harvest of that year. It has never been changed materially
in principle or form since. The theory of the inventors was that two men
might bind the grain cut by the five-foot sickle in ordinary motion
provided it could be delivered to them in the best possible position and
condition for binding and if they could have perfect freedom of action.
They knew that the binders must have a free swing and open chance at the
grain to enable them to handle it, so they arranged the elevated
delivery, the receptacle, the tables and the platform for the man with
these things in view.

The second Marsh harvester was built in Chicago in 1859. Improvements
were made during the years 1861, 1862 and 1863. The manufacture of the
Marsh harvester began in earnest at Plano in the fall of 1863 by Stewart
and Marsh, twenty-five machines being put out in 1864.

[Illustration: NO MORE TIRESOME HAY PITCHING ON THIS FARM, WHERE HAY
LOADERS ELEVATE THE HAY TO THE MEN ON THE WAGONS

The small kerosene tractor has taken the place of horses and is drawing
two wagons at a time.]

In 1875 McCormick began putting out harvesters of the Marsh type. Of
straight Marsh harvesters--carrying a man to bind--there had been made
up to and including 1879 over 100,000, of which about two-thirds had
been produced by the Marsh combination and the rest by outsiders.

The Self-Binder.

The development of the automatic binder followed quickly after the
introduction of the Marsh harvester, although attempts were made to
perfect this machine as early as 1850.

[Illustration: A MODERN GRAIN BINDER IN HEAVY OATS]

[Illustration: THE WITHINGTON BINDER BUILT BY THE MCCORMICKS IN 1876

This machine binds the grain with wire.]

The self-binding harvester was borne on the shoulders of the Marsh
harvester. Carpenter, Locke, Gordon, Appleby and every inventor who
succeeded in any measure in binding grain, first did so by placing his
binding attachment upon a Marsh harvester, taking the grain from a
receptacle where it fell to another receptacle where it was bound. The
first record of these attempts is a patent granted to J. E. Heath, of
Warren, Ohio, in 1850. Watson, Renwick and Watson secured patents in
1851 and 1853, but their machines were very complicated and never more
than experiments. From that time until 1865 many patents were granted,
none of which may be considered successful.

In 1865 S. D. Locke of Janesville secured a patent which ultimately
developed into the Withington wire binder first put out by McCormick in
1875.

The Withington machine was an improvement on the binding device patented
by Locke in 1865. McCormick built 50,000 of these machines between 1877
and 1885. It was a simple mechanism which consisted mainly of two steel
fingers that moved back and forth and twisted a wire band around each
sheaf of grain.

Farmers did not take kindly to the wire binder. They said that wire
would mix with the straw and kill their horses and cattle.

The Twine Binder.

[Illustration: THE DEERING TWINE BINDER OF 1879

This is the perfected Marsh harvester with a perfected Appleby twine
binding attachment and was first put out by the Deering Company in
1879.]

[Illustration: THE MCCORMICK TWINE BINDER OF 1881 WITH THE APPLEBY
BINDING ATTACHMENT, WHICH USED TWINE INSTEAD OF WIRE]

[Illustration: A TRACTOR PULLING FIVE HARVESTER BINDERS

These machines cut a swath 40 feet wide in the grain field, gathering
the grain into bundles and dropping them alongside to be picked up by
the sweep rake.]

This was the situation in the harvesting industry about the time that
William Deering took an active interest. He looked about for a better
machine. He found John F. Appleby, who, in 1878, had perfected a twine
binder attachment. When Deering saw the strong steel arms flash a cord
around a bundle of grain, tie a knot, cut the cord and fling off the
sheaf, he knew he had what the world needed. Appleby began working on
his invention in 1858, but accomplished nothing until 1869 when he took
out his first patent on a “wire binder.” In 1874 he began what is known
as the Appleby twine binder, operating one in 1875 and 1876 and several
in 1877. In 1879 Deering bought out Gammon, joined forces with Appleby,
moved the factory from Plano to Chicago in 1880, and began putting out
twine binders. In 1881 McCormick, also, and Champion began building the
Appleby binder.

[Illustration: THE PROGRESSIVE FARMER NOW USES A MECHANICAL MANURE
SPREADER TO INCREASE THE PRODUCTIVENESS OF HIS LAND

The modern spreader is built low and equipped with a special wide spread
attachment which throws the manure well beyond the wheels.]

[Illustration: A GRAIN DRILL WITH DISK AND CHAIN ATTACHMENTS

This drill is large enough to require the strength of four horses to
pull it.]

[Illustration: A SMALL KEROSENE TRACTOR CAN PULL TWO OR THREE GRAIN
DRILLS FASTENED TOGETHER BY SPECIAL TRACTOR HITCHES]

With the development of an attachment to bind with twine, a new problem
arose--where to get a cheap serviceable twine. William Deering again
arose to the occasion. He met Edwin H. Fitler in Philadelphia, one of
the three twine makers in the United States, and after a good deal of
persuasion induced him to take an order for a single-strand binder
twine. From that time on, all manufacturers have been building
practically the same machine--the Appleby binding attachment on the
Marsh type of harvester which, in turn, was founded on the McCormick
cutting mechanism. The self-binder of today is of that type.

Other Machines Follow.

The completion of the reaper set the wheels of farm invention spinning.
It was the first great battle successfully won and gave a spirit of
confidence and an irresistible spirit of victory to the men who were
lifting the burdens off the bodies of men. After the reaper, the mowing
machine came naturally. Following the binder in easy sequences came the
corn binder, push binder, header and harvester thresher.

Every variety of haying machine, from side-delivery rake and tedder to
sweep rake and loader, came eventually to make hay-making easy. The
thresher, ensilage cutter, riding plow, disk harrow, cream separator,
manure spreader and seeding machines succeeded in making the raising of
the world’s food a profitable occupation; at the same time, they made it
an easy one. Lately, the internal combustion engine, together with its
application in the kerosene tractor, promises to make the farmer’s
emancipation practically complete. If Herbert Casson could say “The
United States owes more to the reaper than it does to the factory or the
railroad or the Wall Street stock exchange,” what can be said of these
myriad machines that now do the food-grower’s work for him?

Where formerly nearly all the people had to engage in food raising and
even then went to bed hungry, now nearly half the people live away from
the farm and there is a great abundance of bread and of food.

* * * * *

What Causes an Echo?

An echo is caused by the reflection of sound waves at some moderately
even surface, such as the wall of a building. The waves of sound on
meeting the surface are turned back in their course, according to the
same laws that hold for reflection of light. In order that the echo may
return to the place from which the sound proceeds, the reflection must
be direct, and not at an angle to the line of transmission, otherwise
the echo may be heard by others, but not by the transmitter of the
sound. This may be effected either by a reflecting surface at right
angles to the line of transmission or by several reflecting surfaces,
which end in bringing the sound back to the point of issue.

Sound travels about 1,125 feet in a second; consequently, an observer
standing at half that distance from the reflecting object would hear the
echo a second later than the sound. Such an echo would repeat as many
words and syllables as could be heard in a second. As the distance
decreases the echo repeats fewer syllables till it becomes monosyllabic.

The most practiced ear cannot distinguish in a second more than from
nine to twelve successive sounds, so that a distance of not less than
sixty feet is needed to enable a common ear to distinguish between the
echo and the original sounds. At a near distance the echo only clouds
the original sounds. This often interferes with the hearing in churches
and other large buildings. Woods, rocks and mountains produce natural
echoes in every variety, for which particular localities have become
famous.

In Greek mythology, Echo was a nymph (one of the Oreads) who fell in
love with Narcissus, and because he did not reciprocate her affection
she pined away until nothing was left but her voice.

The Story of the Motion-Picture Projecting Machine[69]

Few businesses have had a more spectacular rise than the motion-picture
industry. It may be true that there are other industries of recent
growth that are more highly capitalized than the motion-picture
business. I shall not make any comparisons nor look up statistics, but
will present some facts about an enterprise that, scientifically,
industrially and commercially, is one of the great wonders of the world.

It is fair to estimate that more than $375,000,000 is invested in this
business in the United States. It looks like an exaggeration or as if
the typesetter had slipped in several extra ciphers by mistake, does it
not? Nevertheless, the estimate is said to be extremely conservative. In
the first place, it concerns every branch of the business, of which
there are five. Taken in their natural order there are: 1. The
manufacture of motion-picture cameras. 2. The manufacture of films. 3.
The taking of the pictures. 4. The manufacture of the projecting
machines. 5. The exhibition of the pictures.

The projecting machine is the subject of this story. One sees very
little about it in the newspapers and popular magazines, in spite of the
fact that it is the keystone, so to speak, of the motion-picture
industry. Of the entire business, in all its ramifications, this machine
is the most important not only from a technical standpoint, but as
regards both the pleasure and safety of the public. Here, again, a great
deal of money is invested. Its manufacture involves costly and highly
specialized machinery, the most intelligent of mechanics and the
constant thought and endeavor of the men at the head of the business.

The advancement in the manufacture of motion-picture projecting machines
from the start has been along two avenues--to secure better projection,
a sharper, clearer and steadier picture, and to eliminate the danger of
fire resultant from the ignition of combustible film. Experts have
watched and studied the picture machine through all its stages of
development. For seventeen years they have slowly improved the machine
and brought it to its present high state of mechanical perfection. The
development of the fireproof magazine, the automatic fire-shutter, the
loop-setter, flame shields and the famous intermittent movement have all
been vital factors in the elimination of fire and also in securing
perfect projection. The oldest invention was patented by W. E. Lincoln
on April 23, 1867. The contrivance was a mere toy, employing no light
and being merely a little machine which, when revolved, gave figures,
printed in different positions, the semblance of motion. The second
oldest was of an “optical instrument” patented by O. B. Brown on August
10, 1869. This was really the first American motion-picture projection
machine. There was a sort of disk or moving-shutter movement which, on
revolving, gave projected objects the appearance of animation. Of
course, there were no films in those days and the inventor had used
translucent glass to obtain the results. Yet here was the germ of our
native modern machine.

[Illustration: THE LATEST MOTION-PICTURE PROJECTING MACHINE]

A well-known moving-picture projecting machine manufacturer tells the
following story: “A bet was made in 1871 by the late Senator Leland
Stanford, of California, that a running horse at no time had all four
feet off the ground. Edward Muybridge, an Englishman, by way of
experiment, placed numerous cameras at regular intervals about the
track, which, by electrical contact, were snapped by the horse in
passing. It proved that the horse always had, when running, one foot on
the ground. Although this was not the first record of motion pictures,
it served to demonstrate their practicability.

“Development had dragged until the Muybridge experiment. In 1880
Muybridge produced, in San Francisco, the ‘Zoopraxiscope,’ which
projected pictures (on glass positives) on a screen. Later Muybridge
conferred with Edison regarding a combination of his machine with the
phonograph, then in its infancy; about 1883 he went abroad and held
frequent conferences with M. Marey of the Institute of France.

“Marey first utilized the continuous film, though it was George Eastman
who brought it to its present state of high perfection. A great deal of
the tremendous present popularity of motion pictures is due to the
invention of the translucent film. The early kodak film became the great
factor in the cinematograph manufacture.

[Illustration: THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE LAMPHOUSE AFFORDS EASY ACCESS]

“In 1893 Lumiere produced the ‘Cinematograph,’ the first machine to
project from a film. Edison in 1896 produced his ‘Vitascope.’ These
machines became the models of the greatly improved article of today.

“The first real machine was brought to America in 1894. At least, that
is as near as I can recollect the date. It was a Lumiere cinematograph
and was exhibited at the Union Square Theater, New York City. The French
manufacturing firm instructed J. B. Cole & Co. to furnish an operator.
The Cole Company was interested in the sale of lanterns and slides and
the foreign firm naturally turned to them for assistance.

“They furnished an operator, Edward Hadley. Although he had never seen a
motion-picture machine, Hadley was a man who had been in their employ
and was naturally familiar with lanterns and electricity. To the best of
my belief, Hadley was the first motion-picture operator in America. He
afterwards became the operator for Lyman H. Howe, the well-known pioneer
traveling motion-picture exhibitor, and later became an exhibitor
himself.

[Illustration: THE NEW ARC LAMP]

“The films then had one perforation on either side of each picture. That
was the French method. The American method of four perforations on
either side of each picture, formulated by Thomas A. Edison, was taken
up later. The Edison perforation method became the standard in America
and finally throughout the world. We find no more single-holed films.”

Here, for the benefit of the uninitiated, a little description of the
film and the projecting head of a machine is necessary. A motion-picture
film is a thin ribbon of transparent pyroxylin plastic or
nitrocellulose, which is highly inflammable. The photographs on the
film, one by three-fourths of an inch in size, leave a margin of five
thirty-seconds of an inch on each side. In the margins are the
perforations necessary to feed the film through the machine head. There
are sixteen pictures to the foot.

The mechanism of the machine head moves the film over an aperture, so
that the rays of light from the lamp will project an enlargement of the
film picture upon the screen. The reels upon which the film is wound are
mounted above and below--the upper is the feed reel and the lower is the
take-up reel. Sprocket wheels control the action of the film. The top
feed sprocket pulls the film from the upper feed reel, the middle
intermittent sprocket (below the aperture) turns in a way to give each
picture a certain time of stop over the projection aperture, and the
bottom take-up sprocket assists in winding the film on the take-up reel.

[Illustration: NARROW SHUTTER WINGS AFFORD BRIGHTER ILLUMINATION ON THE
SCREEN]

“The early films were in very short lengths,” continued the
manufacturer. “The average was from twenty to seventy-five feet. A
hundred-foot film was considered extra long. They were mostly comic and
not educational. The vast possibilities of the film had not yet dawned
upon the pioneers. They aimed only to get a laugh with a crude comic
picture.

“But those with more foresight realized that the film had come to stay.
So the advancement began. Today the public is always looking toward
something better. It has been educated up to an exceedingly high
standard. The average spectator today can see a defect in an exhibited
film as quickly as an expert.

“Machines in the early days were very crude, permitting only short
films, which were an endless belt. They were threaded over spools
contained in a box at the rear end of the lamphouse, passing over the
lamphouse to the head of the machine; thence down through the head, past
the projection aperture and back to the spools. This exposed the film at
all times, which was extremely dangerous. About 1900, longer films came
into use, which necessitated a change in handling. At the machine head,
the film was piled on the floor. This being dangerous and destructive, a
receptacle was devised and fastened to the frame below the reel, into
which the film passed. This soon gave way to a reel known as the take-up
reel, which received the film after it had passed from the upper reel
through the head and before the aperture, where it was projected on the
screen.

“These are a few steps in the march towards improvement. My first
machine was called the ‘Peerlesscope.’ I kept continually improving it,
and in 1902 changed the name to ‘Cameragraph;’ my latest machine, No.
6B, possesses every known device for safety--fire-shutters, which
automatically cut off the film from the rays of the lamp while
motionless; film-shields, which enclose and protect the film;
fire-valves, which prevent entrance of flame into magazines; the
loop-setter, which prevents breakage of the film while in motion, etc.”

Concerning projection, this manufacturer said: “Pictures cannot succeed
without perfect projection, resulting in absolutely clear, flickerless
pictures. The longer the period of rest of each picture on the screen,
the better the detail and the clearer the picture. This I accomplished
by means of an intermittent movement.

“You know that in projecting pictures the motion in the film is not
continuous in front of the aperture of the machine head, each picture
pausing long enough for proper projection on the screen. Through this
intermittent movement I obtain a longer period of rest for each picture,
which accomplishes perfect projection of pictures without flicker.

“A very annoying feature until recently has been the losing of the lower
film loop, due to poor patching of the film, tearing of the perforations
in the films, etc., causing the film to jump the lower sprocket, with
the probable tearing and re-adjustment of the film. This I overcame with
my loop-setter invention. To explain briefly--

“As the full movement at the upper and lower reel is continuous, while
at the aperture it is intermittent, a loop is necessary as a feeder for
the take-up or the lower sprocket. If this loop is lost, the film
becomes taut, the machine stops and the film may break. The loop-setter
instantly readjusts this loop automatically, keeping it always in
force.”

The taking of pictures is, of course, one of the interesting phases of
the business from a popular standpoint. Here we find not only large sums
invested but the action, setting, plots--in fact, the entire order of
pulsating life and convincing reality that give to motion pictures their
remarkable hold upon the public. In vying with each other to make the
most attractive films possible, the concerns in this end of the industry
engage the most talented players, who are transported on long journeys
so that the settings may be realistically satisfactory; while often the
company includes not only two-footed actors, but horses, one or two
clever dogs and sometimes a trained bear and other animals, besides all
of which there is usually an array of “properties” that far exceeds in
quantity and variety the list of such appurtenances carried by the
average stock theatrical company or theater of the ordinary kind.

Then, too, there is the presentation of the pictures, where we find
another vast outlay of money in land, buildings and equipment. And,
remember, the matter of taking and presenting the pictures must not be
considered only from the amusement standpoint. Motion pictures are being
employed more and more every day for educational and industrial
purposes.

The Story of Leather[70]

We all know that leather is the skins of animals, dressed and prepared
for our use by tanning, or some other process, which preserves them from
rotting and renders them pliable and tough.

The larger and heavier skins, such as those of buffaloes, bulls, oxen,
horses and cows, are called “hides;” while those of the smaller animals,
such as calves, sheep, pigs and goats, are called “skins.”

[Illustration: SCOURING]

The tanning of raw hides taken from animals is an ancient trade. The
bark of trees made into a liquor has been used for centuries in treating
practically all kinds of hides.

The oak, fir, hemlock and sumach are the most familiar of the many trees
from which “tannin” is obtained for this purpose.

The cow hide is used practically altogether for sole leather and is bark
tanned in the majority of cases. After the hide is taken from the animal
it is either dry cured, or else salted green, and packed for shipment or
storage.

The first process of preparing sole leather is to cut these hides in
half or sides. The sides are then run through lime vats for the purpose
of loosening the hair. They are then run through the unhairing machine,
in which large rollers remove the hair.

From the unhairing machine the hides pass to a fleshing machine, which
cuts away all the flesh or fat on the hide. They are then trimmed and
scraped by hand, after which the real tanning process begins.

The old method of tanning leather was in large vats, which were filled
alternately with tan bark and hides, then filled with water and allowed
to soak for a period of eight to nine months before the tanning process
was complete. The extract of bark in liquor form is used today by all
large tanneries.

After the hides have been all prepared for tanning they are hung on
rockers in the tanning vats, where they are kept in motion both day and
night so that all parts of every hide are equally tanned. They are
changed from time to time from weaker into stronger liquor until the
tanning process is complete.

[Illustration: TANNING VATS]

All sole leather is filled more or less to make it wear the better.

The drying process comes next. The hides are all hung in a dry loft,
where artificial heat of different temperatures is used until they are
thoroughly dry. The drying of the hide is as important as the tanning.
Hides that are dried too quickly become brittle, so that great care must
be taken in this drying process. Even the weather conditions play an
important part.

[Illustration: ROLLERS]

After the hides are thoroughly dried they are then oiled and ironed by
large rollers having several hundred pounds pressure. This gives the
grain side of the leather a finished appearance and also serves to press
the leather together compactly.

[Illustration: RUBBING]

Before this leather can be cut into sole leather it has to be again
dried and properly edged to secure the best results.

[Illustration: BOARDING ROOM]

Bark-tanned leather that is used for upper stock in shoes is tanned
practically the same way as the bark sole leather, except lighter hides
are used and the finishing processes are of a nature to make it softer
and smoother.

The above tannage is what is called vegetable tannage. There is also a
tannage made from minerals that is called chrome. This is used mostly in
tanning soft, glovey upper leather, which when finished makes a very
tough yet soft and pliable leather for footwear.

Ninety to one hundred days are required to tan bark leathers, while the
chrome tannage is very quick and on the average requires only about
three weeks.

The brilliant smooth surface of patent, enameled, lacquered, varnished
or japanned leather is due to the mode of finishing by stretching the
tanned hides on wooden frames and applying successive coats of varnish,
each coat being dried and rubbed smooth with pumice stone. There is also
a process called “tawing,” which is employed chiefly in the preparation
of the skins of sheep, lambs, goats and kids. In this process the skins
are steeped in a bath of alum, salt and other substances, and they are
also sometimes soaked in fish-oil. The more delicate leathers are
treated in this manner, those especially which are used for
wash-leathers, kid gloves, etc.

[Illustration: MEASURING]

In currying leather for shoes the leather is first soaked in water until
it is thoroughly wet; then the flesh side is shaved to a proper surface
with a knife of peculiar construction, rectangular in form with two
handles and a double edge. The leather is then thrown into the water
again, scoured upon a stone till the white substance called “bloom” is
forced out, then rubbed with a greasy substance and hung up to dry. When
thoroughly dry it is grained with a toothed instrument on the flesh side
and bruised on the grain or hair side for the purpose of softening the
leather. A further process of paring and graining makes it ready for
waxing or coloring, in which oil and lampblack are used on the flesh
side. It is then sized, dried and tallowed. In the process the leather
is made smooth, lustrous, supple and waterproof.

* * * * *

What is a “Glass Snake”?

“Glass snake” is the name which has been given to a lizard resembling a
serpent in form and reaching a length of three feet.

The joints of the tail are not connected by caudal muscles, hence it is
extremely brittle, and one or more of the joints break off when the
animal is even slightly irritated.

The Story in Diamond-Cutting[71]

Diamonds were known and worn as jewels (in the rough) in India 5,000
years ago and used as cutters and gravers 3,000 years ago. India was the
source of supply until diamonds were discovered in Brazil about the year
1700, when Brazil became the largest producer and remained so until
diamonds were found in South Africa about 1869. The African mines now
produce four-fifths of the diamond supply. Previous to the discoveries
in Africa, diamonds were known to originally come only from high places
in the mountains, because the diamond deposits were found in India and
Brazil, on high plateaus, on the sides of mountains, in the beds of
mountain streams, and in the plains below; where mountain torrents had
rolled them.

In Africa, for the first time, the true original home of the diamond was
found at high levels in the mountains, in enormous fissures, open
chasms, chimneys or pipes, extending to great and unknown depths. Into
these immense chimneys, nature forced from subterranean sources, slow
rivers of a peculiar blue clay, a diamondiferous earth termed
“serpentine breccia” or “volcanic tuf” and now known by the latter-day
name of “Kimberlite.” As this soft mixture oozed into the “chimneys” or
“pipes” from the bottom, it was gradually forced upwards, filling the
whole chasm from wall to wall and to the top, where its progress ended
by hardening in a small mound ten to twelve feet higher than the
surrounding surface.

In this blue clay or Kimberlite in these chimneys, is found nature’s
most wonderful creation, the diamond crystallized from pure carbon, in
intense heat, and under titanic pressure.

The greatest mines of Africa are the Jagersfontein, Wesselton, Premier
and Robert Victor. The Kimberlite of the Jagersfontein mine is free from
pyrites, and to that is attributed the remarkable brilliancy and purity
of color for which the diamonds of this mine are celebrated. Their color
includes the blue, and they command the highest prices of any diamonds.

The Wesselton mine crystals are noted for their octahedra and purity.
The color and brilliancy are so superior that nearly all fine white
“Rivers” are rated as Wesseltons. The Robert Victor yields a big average
of fine white stones, and many of the crystals are very perfect and
beautiful. The Dutoitspan diamonds mostly show color, but many are
“fancy” and demand a high price. The Bulfontein crystals are usually
small white octahedras of very good color, but many are flawed. The De
Beers stones are good white, some color, some broken crystals and smoky
stones. The Kimberly diamonds are much the same as those from the De
Beers mine. The Premier is the largest diamond mine in the world. Of its
diamonds some have an oily lustre and are quite blue--many are of the
finest quality and color. This mine also produces a large number of
“false color” stones which change color in different lights. The
Voorspoed and the Koffyfontein produce fair white and some colored
diamonds.

Diamonds in small quantities are also found in Borneo, British and Dutch
Guiana, Australia, Sumatra, China and the United States.

One of the largest diamonds known (weight 367 carats) was found in
Borneo about a century ago, and belongs to the Rajah of Mattan. One of
the most celebrated is the Koh-i-noor (Mountain of Light), belonging to
the British crown. It weighed originally nearly 800 carats, but by
subsequent recuttings has been reduced to 103-3/4 carats. The Orloff
diamond, belonging to the Emperor of Russia, weighs 195 carats; the Pitt
diamond, among the French crown jewels, 136-1/2. The former, which came
from India, has been thought to have originally formed part of the
Koh-i-noor stone. The largest Brazilian diamond weighed 254-1/2 carats
and was cut to a brilliant of 125. Some of the South African diamonds
are also very large, one being found in 1893 weighing 971 carats, or
nearly half a pound. More recently a much larger one has been found,
weighing 3,034 carats. This has been cut into eleven pieces, the
largest, a drop brilliant, weighing 516-1/2 carats. This, called the
Star of South Africa, has been placed in King George’s scepter, and
another, of 309-3/16 carats, in his crown.

A rough diamond is a hard-looking, luminous object, somewhat like a
piece of alum, with a dull skin, called the “nyf,” over a brilliant
body. The ancients wore their diamonds uncut because they could not find
a substance that would grind or cut them. About 1,500 years ago,
however, it was found that by rubbing or grinding one diamond against
another the outer skin could be removed. At Bruges, in 1450, diamonds
were first polished with diamond dust. In Holland, in 1700, diamonds
were first cut with an idea of bringing out real beauty and brilliance
by cutting them square with a large flat table and some small facets,
ten in all, sloping to the edge of the square. From this beginning
cutters gradually added additional facets to increase the brilliancy
until there were thirty-four in all. Then came the English round-cut
brilliants with fifty-eight facets, but the diamond was left thick and
lumpy, until about seventy-five years ago, when an American cutter,
Henry D. Morse, of Boston, developed the cutting of diamonds to its
present perfection by fearlessly sacrificing weight to get proportion.
This greatly increased the price of diamonds, but enhanced their
brilliancy.

[Illustration: OLD SQUARE CUT DIAMONDS]

[Illustration: ENGLISH SQUARE CUT DIAMONDS]

All cutters have been compelled to follow this method, and the perfectly
cut brilliant of today has a depth from table to culet of six-tenths of
the diameter, of which one-third is above the girdle and two-thirds
below. In this form the diamond resembles two cones united at their
bases, the upper one cut off a short distance from its base, the lower
one having its extreme point cut off. It has fifty-eight facets, of
which thirty-three, including the table, are above the girdle and
twenty-five, including the culet, below the girdle. Stones which are not
scientifically cut in this true proportion, if too deep, are called
“lumpy,” if too shallow they are called “fish eyes.” A slightly spread
stone is desirable, provided it has not lost brilliancy, and so become a
“fish eye.” Looking larger than its weight indicates, it offers a larger
appearing diamond for the price of a smaller perfectly cut stone. Most
cutters remove as little of the rough stone as possible in cutting so as
to retain weight (they sell by weight). This often results in the
finished diamond being too thick at the girdle, making a lumpy stone.
Many people think deep, lumpy stones are most desirable. This is not
true, as they are imperfectly cut.

In preparing to cut a diamond the rough crystal is studied until the
grain is found. Along the grain another sharp-pointed diamond is ground
until there is a V-shape incision or nick. The blunt end of a flat piece
of steel is placed in this nick and a smart blow of a hammer divides the
crystal evenly and perfectly. After this “cleavage” has removed the
unnecessary portions, or they have been sawed off by the use of
rapidly-revolving thin wheels charged with diamond dust, the diamond is
set in a turning wheel and ground with another diamond until it takes
the shape in which we know it.

The fifty-eight facets are cut and polished one at a time on a
rapidly-revolving wheel charged with diamond dust and oil. It takes from
two and one-half to four days to properly cut a stone. Knife-edge girdle
diamonds are impractical owing to the liability of chipping the thin
edge in setting or by blows while being worn. Polishing the rough edge
of the girdle is rarely done and then usually to conceal a girdle which
is too thick or lumpy. The principal diamond cutting centers are
Amsterdam, Antwerp and New York.

[Illustration]

Inherent flaws can be perfectly understood by imagining a pond of water
frozen solidly to its center. At the shore, where the ice has been
partly forced out along the banks, it will be full of grass, leaves,
pebbles and sticks, and presents a broken and frosted appearance.
Further out there are only traces of such débris, some bubbles, spots,
etc. Out at the center is clear, transparent, unbroken, unflawed, purest
blue-white ice, such as you delight to see in your glass on a hot day.
So is it with diamonds; some (like the ice along the shore) are full of
cracks, carbon specks, bubbles, clouds, splits and cavities; some have
all of these; some only a few; others only one, and some are without
flaws.

[Illustration]

Of all the imperfections (not considering glaring cracks or nicks),
carbon spots are the most discernible. They range from mere specks
scarcely visible with a powerful magnifying glass, to large black spots
or clusters of large or small black specks sometimes quite plain to the
naked eye. These are carbon which failed to crystallize with the rest of
the diamond, or intrusions of titanic iron. The blackest and often most
numerous carbon specks occur in the finest white and blue-white stones.
“Capes” and other yellow diamonds are usually perfect, something in the
color of these stones seemingly being of a nature which helps clear and
perfect crystallization. Blue-white stones of exceptionally fine color
are often massed full of shaggy or jet-black carbon spots.

White specks and bubbles are common flaws, which vary in size and which
may be best illustrated by looking at a pane of glass in your window.
There you will find small knots, white bubbles and whitish specks.
These seldom injure the brilliancy, as they are often a glittering
silver color, more brilliant than the diamond.

Clouds are dark flat patches in the grain, of a brownish color, and
appear as a sprinkling of dust in a small patch in the interior. This
seldom injures brilliancy.

Glessen or glasses are flat sectional streaks having an icy appearance.
When large or abundant they disturb or cut off the proper reflection of
the interior light rays, causing an appearance known as “shivery.” When
clouds or glessen occur at the surface of a diamond they appear as
cracks, and if at or near the girdle are dangerous, as the stone is
liable to split or crack there when being mounted or by any hard blow,
which would result in the loss of a sliver or wedged-shaped piece out of
the edge.

[Illustration]

Surface flaws consist of nicks or cavities in the face of the stone
either above or below the girdle. The brilliancy of the diamond hides
these flaws when the diamond is clean, but when clouded with soap and
dust these cavities fill up and show plainly.

[Illustration]

Diamonds are so brilliant, the radiance from the facets so bewildering
to the eye, that the flaws cannot be seen by the human eye unless the
imperfection is pronounced and at the top surface of the diamond. Each
facet of a diamond (by reason of the method of cutting) is a window
looking down a clearly defined walled chamber, like a hall-way to the
culet. With a one-inch loup or magnifying glass such as watchmakers and
diamond dealers use, it is possible to clearly look down through each
facet and its hall-way to the culet, and observe throughout each chamber
the very slightest imperfection if one exists, thus thoroughly examining
and exploring the entire diamond.

Diamond brilliancy is of two kinds: “surface brilliancy” and “internal
brilliancy.” Light falling vertically on a diamond is reflected back in
straight, unbroken rays. This constitutes “surface brilliancy.” Light
falling in a slanting direction is partly reflected and partly enters
the stone; that part which enters is refracted or bent and causes the
“internal brilliancy.”

In a perfectly cut diamond, the facets are so carefully arranged that
entering rays of light jump from wall to wall of this transparent
enclosure and emerge again at the very point of entry. Cleverly arranged
mirrors sending a ray of light from one to all the others and back again
to the first will produce the same effect. Lights entering a diamond are
reflected, refracted and dispersed. The dispersion of a ray of white
light separates it into its component color rays. These are the spectrum
colors often seen radiating from a diamond. Placing a diamond in the
sun’s rays and holding a sheet of white paper at the proper angle to
catch the reflections from the stone clearly shows these colors.

[Illustration: MODERN AMERICAN CUT DIAMONDS]

Brilliancy is often said to be the most important quality of a diamond,
but that is not true. Yellow diamonds are more flashingly brilliant than
white stones that cost much more. In each color grade, greater
brilliance determines higher value over stones of the same color grade
with less brilliancy. The diamond is the hardest known substance in the
world, cutting and grinding all other known hard things, but itself only
cut and ground by its mates.

Because of their hardness, diamonds worn by many previous generations
remain as brilliant as they were in the beginning and they will continue
so to the end of time.

No other thing can scratch or mar the polished facets and sharp corners
of the diamond. It is the hardest of all known things. While all
diamonds are of practically the same hardness, this is not, however,
absolutely true, as stones from wet diggings or rivers are slightly
harder than those from dry diggings. All diamonds are infusible and
unaffected by acids or alkali. The heat of a burning building will not
affect them, they can be raked from the ashes uninjured and can only be
burned in oxygen under a scientifically produced intense heat of 4000°
F. While the hardest known thing, the diamond is brittle and can be
crushed to a powder. It is the only absolutely pure gem, being composed
of crystallized carbon--all others are composed of two or more elements.

* * * * *

The term “Shibboleth” has come to mean a countersign or password of a
secret society since the Biblical days, when the Ephraimites, who had
been routed by Jephthah, tried to pass the Jordan. They were made to
pronounce the word “Shibboleth” and were easily detected as enemies when
they pronounced it “Sibboleth.”

Why do We Get Hungry?

Hunger is a sensation partly arising in the stomach, since it may be
relieved temporarily by the introduction into the stomach of material
which is incapable of yielding any nutriment to the body. It may be due
to a condition of fulness of the vessels of the stomach, relieved by any
stimulus which, acting on the lining membrane, induces a flow of fluid
from the glands. But it also arises from a condition of the system,
since the introduction of nutriment into the blood, apart altogether
from the stomach, will relieve it. This is also evident from the fact
that hunger may be experienced even when the stomach is full of food,
and when food is supplied in abundance, if some disease prevents the
absorption of the nourishment, or quickly drains it from the blood.
Hunger may be partially allayed by sleep or by the use of narcotics,
tobacco and alcohol, all of which tend to diminish the disintegration of
tissues.

The Story in the Modern Lifting Magnet[72]

Nearly every boy has had among his treasured possessions a small
horseshoe magnet, painted red, with bright ends, and has spent many
happy hours picking up needles, steel pins or other small objects, and
finally tired of it because of its small lifting capacity and dreamed of
one which would lift a hammer, or possibly even the family flatiron.
Little did he know at that time of the long and interesting history of
magnetism, the many stories and superstitions based on its strange
power; or of its intimate relation to the wonderful growth of
electricity within the last hundred years. His wildest dreams of lifting
power would be realized if he could see a modern electric lifting magnet
which has only come into use within the last ten years and is meeting
with instant approval in nearly every industry where iron and steel is
handled in any quantity.

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

There are three primary kinds of magnets: the lodestone or natural
magnets, the artificial or permanent steel magnet, and the electric
magnet. At present the lodestone is little used. The permanent steel
magnet is used for compass needles, as the familiar horseshoe magnet,
and in certain types of electric machinery. The electric magnet forms a
part of nearly every kind of electrical machinery and is by far the most
useful form of the magnet. The modern high-duty lifting magnet is a form
of the electric magnet.

The properties of the lodestone and the permanent magnet have been known
for thousands of years, while the electric magnet is a comparatively
recent discovery.

All magnets, whether natural, permanent or electric, possess the same
magnetic properties. Every magnet has two poles commonly called a north
pole and a south pole. It has also been found that when a magnet is
broken in two each piece becomes a magnet in itself with its own north
and south poles.

For practical purposes it has been found convenient to assume that
magnetism consists of a series of “lines of force” running through the
magnet from one end to the other and back again through the air. Each
one of these lines is assumed to have a certain strength, and the power
of any magnet is determined by the number of lines of force flowing
through it. These lines are clearly shown in Fig. 1, which was made by
sprinkling iron filings on a sheet of paper over a bar magnet, and
tapping the paper slightly so that the filings could arrange themselves
along the magnetic lines of force.

Since Oersted’s first electric magnet in 1820, electric magnets have
been made in a variety of forms and for many different purposes. The
simplest form of electric magnet is shown in Fig. 2. It consists of an
iron bar with an insulated electric wire wound around it carrying an
electric current.

[Illustration: FIG. 2]

Another form of the electric magnet is shown in cross-section in Fig. 3.
This consists of a short steel cylinder with a groove in its face for
the electric coil. The modern lifting magnet is a highly specialized
form of this type of electric magnet.

Although the use of a magnet for lifting purposes seems to be a very
simple idea and easily adopted, many difficulties had to be overcome and
years of experimenting done before the lifting magnet was a commercial
success. Nearly all electrical machinery may easily be protected from
rough usage and moisture, but the lifting magnet must be so strongly
designed that it will withstand the countless blows due to heavy pieces
of iron flying against it, and the banging it must get against the sides
of cars, ships, etc. All light parts must be placed inside of the magnet
or in such a position that they can never be knocked off or broken. To
moisture in some form or other nearly all lifting-magnet troubles can be
traced. Hence the importance of an absolutely moisture-proof
construction. The result of moisture in the interior of a magnet is to
weaken the effectiveness of the installation, leading eventually to
short circuits and burn-outs. It is necessary not only to guard against
moisture in the form of rain, snow or dew, but precaution must also be
taken against the entrance into the magnet of moisture-laden air, since
moisture so introduced will presently be condensed in the form of drops
of water.

[Illustration: FIG. 3]

[Illustration: A 43-INCH MAGNET HANDLING PIG IRON]

A very natural question is, how much such a magnet will lift. For a
given size of magnet, the lifting capacity varies greatly with the
nature of the load handled. With a magnet sixty-two inches in diameter,
this may vary from in the neighborhood of 1,000 pounds for light scrap,
to from 4,000 to 5,000 pounds for pig iron, and as high as 60,000 pounds
for a solid mass of steel or iron such as, for instance, a skull-cracker
ball or a casting affording surface for good magnetic contact.

The lifting magnet has been adopted for the handling of materials in all
branches of the steel and iron industry. It is used for handling pig
iron, scrap, castings, billets, tubes, rails, plates, for loading and
unloading cars and vessels, and for handling skull-cracker balls and
miscellaneous magnetic material.

Probably one of the best illustrations of the saving accomplished by
means of a lifting magnet is its use in unloading pig iron from
steamers. By the old hand method it required twenty-eight men, two days
and two nights, to unload a cargo of 4,000,000 pounds. When the lifting
magnet was introduced, the total time for unloading was reduced to
eleven hours, and was done by two men whose labor consisted in
manipulating the controllers in the cages of the cranes. Thus two men
and two magnets did the work of twenty-eight men in less than one-fourth
of the time. Furthermore, the vessels were enabled to double their
number of productive trips.

[Illustration: 36-INCH LIFTING MAGNET PICKING UP 3,500-POUND WINDING
DRUM]

In railroad work, lifting magnets are at the present time used
principally in scrap yards and around store-room platforms, where it is
necessary to handle iron and steel rapidly and economically. For this
class of work magnets are generally used in connection with a locomotive
crane, making a self-contained, self-propelled unit which may be
operated over the shop-yard tracks as required. The use of this
combination has reduced very greatly the cost of handling both new and
scrap material, both by reducing the actual expense of handling and by
enabling the material to be handled much more rapidly than was before
possible.

Probably the best possible endorsement of the waterproof construction of
the modern lifting magnet is the fact that one of them was successfully
operated seventy feet below the surface of the Mississippi River. At New
Orleans a large load of kegged nails was raised from a depth of seventy
feet. A load of steel cotton ties was raised near Natchez and a barge of
iron wire near Pittsburgh. And these are only a few instances of such
work.

The magnets used in this river work were three and one-half feet in
diameter. They were dropped into the stream, the current turned on, and
five or six kegs of nails or bundles of wire were raised each trip. The
nails weighed 200 pounds to the keg, so there were lifted each time,
from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds from the bed of the river.

The variety of uses to which these magnets may be put are shown by the
accompanying illustrations and there are many industries handling iron
and steel where the introduction of the modern, high-duty lifting magnet
will effect a great saving in time and labor.

[Illustration: 36-INCH MAGNET HANDLING HEAVY CASTINGS

Note that there is no hoisting tackle to be adjusted.]

An amusing incident occurred recently in a factory where a large lifting
magnet is used in connection with a crane to carry pig iron through the
shop. Just as the operator was bringing it across the shop unloaded, he
saw two laborers ahead of him in altercation. One held a short pinch bar
and the other a heavy shovel. As he approached, they both raised their
tools like weapons. In a flash the operator switched on the current and
the two men stood as if transfixed, hanging desperately to their weapons
that were held aloft as by some giant’s hand. The laughter of everyone
who saw the tableau ended the quarrel.

* * * * *

Why is the Thistle the Emblem of Scotland?

According to tradition, the Danes were attempting to surprise an
encampment of the Scotch one night, and had come very near to it without
being observed, when a Dane stepped on a thistle and its sharp points
made him cry out with pain. The Scotch were then awakened and succeeded
in defeating their assailants. Ever since that time the thistle has been
made the insignia of Scotland.

How are Animals Identified on Cattle Ranges?

The question of how to mark animals started with the first stock
raisers. In those days the main object was to provide some way animals
could be identified as to ownerships, and many crude and more or less
cruel methods were used, such as notching or lopping off part of the ear
or branding with a hot iron, burning a letter or figure often ten or
twelve inches high on the side of an animal. Branding in this way was
used mostly by cattle raisers when large herds were grazed on the
western plains. The large brand made it possible for cowboys on
horseback to separate the cattle of different owners, as the brand could
be seen at some distance.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of Wilcox & Harvey Mfg. Co._

BRANDS FOR IDENTIFICATION]

As the industry advanced the methods of marking improved. At the present
time a mark in the ear made of metal is most commonly used. These are in
many different styles such as narrow bands looped into the edge or in
the form of a button fastened through the ear.

Tags are lettered with owner’s name and address and numbered, which
serves not only as a mark for identification of ownership but as a means
of keeping a record of each animal by number; also in making health
tests before shipping from one point to another.

How is Glue Made?

The best quality of glue is obtained from fresh bones, freed from fat by
previous boiling, the clippings and parings of ox hides, the older skins
being preferred; but large quantities are also got from the skins of
sheep, calves, cows, hares, dogs, cats, etc., from the refuse of
tanneries and tanning works, from old gloves, from sinews, tendons and
other offal of animal origin.

By a process of cleaning and boiling the albuminoid elements of the
animal matter are changed into gelatine. This, in a soft, jelly-like
state, constitutes “size;” dried into hard, brittle, glassy cakes,
which, before use, must be melted in hot water, it forms the well-known
glue of the joiner, etc.

When a solution is mixed with acetic or nitric acid it remains liquid,
but still retains its power of cementing; in this state it is called
liquid glue.

Marine glue is a cement made by dissolving India rubber in oil of
turpentine or coal-naphtha, to which an equal quantity of shellac is
added.

Why does a Hot Dish Crack if We Put Ice Cream in It?

If we take a hot dish and put ice cream in it, it cracks because the
dish when hot has expanded. All the tiny particles that make up the dish
have absorbed some heat and have expanded. When the ice cream is put in
the particles composing the inside of the dish are cooled off and begin
to contract, while the outside particles have not cooled and they pull
away from each other, causing the dish to crack.

Footnotes

[1] Illustrations by courtesy of the Lake Torpedo Boat Co., unless
otherwise indicated.

[2] The following information and statistics by courtesy of The Panama
Canal, Washington office.

[3] Illustrations by courtesy of the Columbia Graphophone Co.

[4] Illustrations by courtesy of the Hendee Manufacturing Co.

[5] Courtesy of the Waltham Watch Company, and “The American Boy.”

[6] Illustrations by courtesy of the Remington Arms-Union Metallic
Cartridge Company, unless otherwise indicated.

[7] Illustrations by courtesy of Plymouth Cordage Co.

[8] Illustrations by courtesy of Colt’s Patent Fire Arms Manufacturing
Co.

[9] Illustrations by courtesy of Consolidated Fireworks Company of
America.

[10] Illustrations by courtesy of Eastman Kodak Company.

[11] Illustrations by courtesy of R. Hoe & Co.

[12] Illustrations by courtesy of the A. I. Root Co.

[13] Illustrations by courtesy of the Hotpoint Electric Heating Co.

[14] Illustrations by the courtesy of the American Telephone and
Telegraph Co.

[15] Illustrations by courtesy of the Otis Elevator Co.

[16] Illustrations by courtesy of the International Silver Co.

[17] Illustrations by courtesy of the McClure Co.

[18] Illustrations by courtesy of New York Edison Co., unless otherwise
indicated.

[19] Illustrations by courtesy of The Curtis Publishing Co.

[20] Courtesy of George A. Hormel & Co.

[21] Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

[22] Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

[23] Courtesy of the California Redwood Association.

[24] Illustrations by courtesy of The Brunswick-Balke-Collender Co.

[25] Illustrations by courtesy of the American Pin Company.

[26] Illustrations by courtesy of the Common Sense Gum Co. Story by
courtesy of the American Chicle Co. and the Common Sense Gum Co.

[27] Illustrations by courtesy of The Brunswick-Balke-Collender Co.

[28] Illustrations by courtesy of the Addressograph Co.

[29] Illustrations by courtesy of the Pyrene Manufacturing Co.

[30] Illustrations by courtesy of Gatchel & Manning.

[31] Courtesy of Mr. Charles L. Trout.

[32] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[33] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[34] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[35] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[36] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[37] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[38] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[39] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[40] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[41] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[42] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[43] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[44] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[45] Illustrations by courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Co.

[46] Illustrations by courtesy of United Shoe Machinery Co.

[47] Courtesy of James Boyd & Bro., Inc.

[48] Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co.

[49] Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co.

[50] Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co.

[51] Courtesy of American LaFrance Fire Engine Co.

[52] Illustrations by courtesy of American Cyanamid Company.

[53] Courtesy of The Strauss Bascule Bridge Co.

[54] Courtesy of The American Magazine.

[55] _Illustrations by courtesy of the Railway Age Gazette and Standard
Steel Car Co._

[56] Illustrations by courtesy of Diamond Crystal Salt Co.

[57] Illustrations by courtesy of the General Motors Truck Co.

[58] Illustrations by courtesy of Jacobs & Davies, Engineers.

[59] Illustrations by courtesy of Ford Motor Co.

[60] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co.

[61] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co.

[62] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co.

[63] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co.

[64] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co.

[65] Courtesy of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co.

[66] Courtesy of the General Electric Co.

[67] Courtesy of the Westinghouse Co.

[68] Illustrations by courtesy of International Harvester Company of
America, unless otherwise indicated.

[69] Illustrations by courtesy of the Nicholas Power Co.

[70] Illustrations by courtesy of Endicott, Johnson & Co.

[71] Courtesy of Mr. Charles L. Trout.

[72] Illustrations by courtesy of Cutler-Hammer Mfg. Co.

Index

Abacus, 347
Acid, Nitric, 464
“Adam’s Apple,” 321
Adding Machines, 345
Addressograph, 364
Aerial Railway, 120
Aerials, 264
Aerial Trucks, 451
Aeroplane Bombs, 158
Aeroplanes, 505
Aestivation, 241
“After-damp,” 247
Agate, 49, 149
Agriculture, 461, 556
Air, Liquid, 461
Air Currents, 158, 231, 244, 263
Air-locks, 497
Air-mines, 390
Air-pressure, 411, 492
Airships, 505
Alcohol, 336, 478
Alloys, Gold, 448
“Almighty Dollar,” 355
Alternating Current, 363
Amazon, 98
“American Turtle,” 9
Amethysts, 149
Ammonia, 466
Ammunition, 75, 94, 158, 398
Animals, 51, 138, 146, 229, 241, 293, 297
Anthracite, 244
Anti-cyclones, 450
“A-1”, 136
Apaches, 147
Apartment-houses, First, 334
Apiaries, 183
Apples, 136
Aquarium, 378
Arack, 214
Arc Lamps, 577
Area of Oceans, 169
Armored Railway Car, 470
Armor-piercing Shells, 402
Armor Plate, 422, 435, 470, 478
Army Ambulances, 485
Arrows, 79
Artesian Wells, 96
Artificial Precious Stones, 361
Artillery, 386
Astronomical Observatory, 66
Atmospheric Conditions, Recording, 58
Atmospheric Nitrogen, 459
Atmospheric Pressure, 180
“Atmospherics,” 264
Atoms, 324
Austrian Guns, 388
Autographic Photography, 168
Automatic Bowling Pin Setters, 360
Automatic Machine Guns, 144, 391
Automatic Pistols, 143
Automatic Rakers, 565
Automatic Rifles, 89
Automobile Factory, 518
Automobile Guns, 145
Automobiles, 145, 223, 278, 290, 451, 481, 518, 557
Auxiliary Pumps, Fire, 455

Bacon, 300
Bacon, Roger, 83
Baggage Trucks, 545
Baking Clay under Water, 501
Balanced Rations, 298
Balance-wheels, 65
Balloons, Captive, 58, 515
Balloons, Fire, 157
Balloons, Military, 515
Balls, 309, 357
Bascule Bridges, 466
Battery Park, 378
Battle of Four Elements, 513
Battleship Aeroplanes, 506
Battleships, 22, 266, 480
Battleship Turrets, 425
Beaches, 149, 180
Bed Lasting Machines, 440
Beef, 297, 299, 458
Bees, 184
Beets, 464
“Before you can say Jack Robinson,” 119
Bell, Alexander Graham, 217
Belting, 118, 535
Benday Engravings, 382
Bending, Illusion, Stick in Water, 308
“Benedicts,” 149
Bicycles, 52
“Big Trees,” 304
Billiard Tables, 309
Binders, 562
Biplanes, 505
Birds, 303
Blackberries, White, 316
Blackfeet Indians, 148
Blast Furnaces, 417
Bleriot’s Monoplane, 509
Boats, Submarine, 9
Body Chute, Auto, 530
Bolters, Salt, 476
Bomb-dropping Device, 514
Bombs, 152
Boots, 436
Boots, Rubber, 111, 116
Boring Tool, 87
Bow and Arrow, 79
Bow-drill, 77
Bowling Alleys, 357
Box Kites, 59
“Breathing Bags,” 248
Breech-loaders, 85
Bridges, 467
Briquetting Machines, 249
Broadway, 274, 280, 308
Bud-grafting, 136
Buffing Machines, 444
Buildings, Large, 221, 234, 274, 280, 540
Bulbs, Rubber, 116
Bullets, 93
Bull-fights, 362
Burbank, Luther, 317
Bureau of Mines Rescue Crew, 247
Burnishing, Silverware, 260

Cabinet-making, 310
Cable, Hemp, 123
Cable, Wire, 132
Cactus, Spineless, 316
Caissons, 504
Calcium Carbide, 459
Calculating Machines, 345
Calendering, 109, 116
Calibers, Guns, 389
California, 49, 304, 332
“Calling-crabs,” 229
Cameras, 162
Canal Navigation, 39
“Canary-bird Test,” Mining, 250
Candles, 63
Cannel Coal, 251
Cannon, 386
Carats, 317
Carbide Furnaces, 460
Carbines, 87
Carbon Filament Lamps, 275
Carboniferous Strata, 247
Carburetors, 56
Carnelians, 149
Carrier Pigeons, 216
Cars, Armored Railway, 470
Cars, Freight, 545
Cars, Motor, 145, 223, 290, 451, 481, 518, 557
Cars, Pullman, 544
Cars, Sight-seeing, 482
Cars, Special Heavy Duty Freight, 424
Cars, Street, 215
Cartridges, 85, 94
Casting Gold Ingots, 449
Casting Machines, 414
Castings, 424, 531
Catenary Construction, 284
Cat’s-eye, 149
Cattle, 297, 458
Cattle Food, 298, 317
Cave Men, 75
Cellulose, 450
Cellulose Acetate, 168
Central Exchanges, Telephone, 218
Central Station, First Commercial, 273
Centrifugal Extractors, Honey, 190
Chafing Dishes, Electric, 210
Chain Rammers, 407
Channel Cementing Machines, 441
Chattering, Teeth, 182
Chemical Engines, 454
Chemical Fire Extinguishers, 375, 523
Chemicals, Photographic, 162
Chewing Gum, 337
Chicle, 337
Chimes, 260
Chimneys, 158
Chinese Firecrackers, 150
Chrome Leather, 582
Circuits, Telephone, 225
Citrus Fruits, 331
“Clam-shell Dredges,” 491
Clay, 247, 496
Clicking Machines, 438
Cliff Dwellings, 334
Clinking Glasses, 231
Clocks, 61, 344
Clothes, 252
Coal, 244, 543
Coast Defense Guns, 396
Cobbler Shop, 437
Cocoanuts, 132, 138, 214, 450
Cod, 216, 325
Coffee-machines, Electric, 207
Coining, 302, 449
Coir, 132
Coke, 251, 460
Cold Storage, 299, 466
Color-printing, 289, 382
Comb, Honey, 183, 197
Combination Engravings, 381
Combined Sweep Rake and Stacker, 567
Combustion, Spontaneous, 42
Combustion Engines, 12, 53
Compass, Gyro, 74
Compasses, 435
Composition Billiard Balls, 315
Compressed Air Construction, 492
Compressed Air Engines, 133
Conduits, 223
Conning Towers, 425
Continuous Core Ovens, 532
Conveyor Belts, 535
Conveyors, Spiral, 240
Cooking, 121
Cooking Appliances, 205
Co-operative Agriculturists, 333
Copper, 448, 450
Cordage, 121
Cork, 385
Corn Binders, 562
Cotton, 464
Counting, 345
Coursing, 377
“Court of Love,” 363
“Cowboys,” 374
“Cow-trees,” 383
Crabs, 138, 229
Cradles, 559
Cradle Springs, 55
Crane Neck Hand Fire Engine, 452
Cranes, Traveling, 536, 543
Crane way, 531
Crank-shafts, 435, 518, 535
Cravats, 270
Crops, 458, 556
Cross-bow, 82
Cross-section on Sixth Avenue at Thirty-third Street, New York, 503
Crowns, 384
Crude Rubber, 99
Cruisers, 478
Cucaracha Slide, 27
Cues, Billiard, 313
“Culebra Cut,” 25, 29
Culverins, 83
Curfew, 289
Curing, Fish, 329
Meat, 292, 300
Currying, 583
Cutlery, 333, 491
Cutting Shield Head, 495
Cyanamid, 458
Cyanide Gold Process, 448
Cyanometer, 199
Cyclones, 450
Cylinder Machining, 524
Cylinder Presses, 173
Cylindrical Valve Machines, 26

Daguerreotypes, 164
Dates, 97
“Davids,” 10
“Death Valley,” 315
Deep Sea Monster, 469
Deer-stalking, 82
Delivery Trucks, 481
Denatured Alcohol, 478
Desk ’Phones, 223
Detonators, 85
“Deutschland,” 14
“Deviation of the Compass,” 435
Diamond Boring Machines, 97
Diamond Cutting, 584
Diamonds, Artificial, 361
Dictograph, 262
Diesel Engines, 12, 252
Die-sinking, 285
“Difference Engine,” 348
Dipper Dredges, 491
Direct Current, 363
Dirigibles, 516
Diving Bells, 489
Diving Equipment, 411, 490
“Divining Rods,” 199
“Dog-days,” 310
“Dog-towns,” 42
“Dog-watch,” 317
Dollar Sign, 450
Double Octuple Press, 179
Drawbridges, 467
Dreams, 182
Dredges, 23, 27, 490
Dredging, Submarine, 15
Drills, Steam, 19
Drinking, 231
Driving Shields, 494
Drop Forging, 419
Dry Docks, 159
“Dry Farming,” 372
Drying Machines, 372
Ducking Stools, 379
Ducks, 180
Ductility of Metals, 448, 450
Dumbwaiters, 237
Dumping Trucks, 486
Dynamo Room of First Edison Station, 276
Dynamos, 262, 274

Earth, 181, 379
“Earth-shine,” 356
Echoes, 574
Eclipses, 181
Edge Trimming Machines, 443
Efficiency Systems, 518
Electric Baggage Trucks, 545
Control Boards, 519
Delivery Wagons, 278
Eels, 472
Locomotives, 22, 24, 541
Magnets, 589
Sewing Machines, 279
Train Chart and Switch Control, 283
Transmission, 261
Electricity, Domestic Utensils, 200
Progress, 273
Electrification of Railroads, 284, 541
Electrode Regulators, 460
Electro-magnetic Waves, 263
Electro-plating, 257
Elevating Gears, Gun, 402
Elevators, 232
Emblem of Scotland, 593
Engines, Combustion, 12, 53
Compressed Air, 133
Diesel, 12, 252
Electric Railroad, 541
Fire, 451
Gasoline-electric, 214
Gas-steam, 518
Kerosene, 556
Steam Railroad, 541
English Guns, 398
Engraving, 380
Ensilage, 271
Ermine, 356
Escapements, 68
Exchanges, Telephone, 218
Explosions, 37, 231, 244, 333
Eyes, Impressions of Vision, 162
Eyeleting Machines, 438

Factory Hospitals, 521
Farming, 458, 556
Fast Express Trains, 541
Federal Government, Coal Lands, 251
Felspar, 539
“Fenian Ram,” 10
Ferris Wheel, 342
Fertilizers, 298, 458, 572
Fiber, Manila, 132
“Fiddler-crabs,” 229
Field Guns, 386
Field Ring Forgings, 425
“Fighting Fish,” 199
Figs, 198
Files, 138
Films, 162, 537, 578
Filters, Salt, 474
Finger-prints, 74
Finishing Shafts, 443
Fire Apparatus, 451, 523, 542
Fire-arms, 75, 139, 386
Fire-damp, 244
Fire Extinguishers, 375, 523
Fireflies, 161
Fire-making, Early, 121
Fireworks, 150
Firing Gears, 405
Fish, 99, 216, 325, 333, 377, 384, 468
Fixation of Nitrogen from the Air, 458
Flash Pans, 83
Flax, 132
Flight of Projectiles, 398
Flint, 149
Flint-lock, 84
Floating Docks, 159
Floating Islands, 504
Flowers, 317
Fluid Compression, 401
Flying, Birds, 303
“Flying Dutchman,” 180
Flying Machines, 505
Focus, Eye and Camera, 162
Fog Horns, 60
Folding Machines, 175, 288
Food, Cooking, 121
Food Crops, 458, 556
Foreign Exchange, 356
Forestry, 268
Forging Press, 418
Forgings, Quenching, 532
Forks, 254
“Forlorn Hope,” 306
“Fossil Forests,” 50
Foundry Methods, 531
Freckles, 412
Free Electric Current, 278
Freezing Points, 336
French Guns, 390
Fresco Painting, 336
Front Axles, Auto, 527
Front-drive Motor Trucks, 457
Fruits, 317, 331
Fuel Economy, 244
“Fundamental Development Plans,” 222
“Funditor,” 77
Fur, 356
Furnaces, Carbide, 460
Furnaces, Steel, 416, 534
Fuses, 405

Gaillard Cut, 25, 29
Galileo’s Swinging Chandelier, 63
Gamboa Dike, 37
Game Preserves, 270
Gas, Coal, 244
Gas Meters, 270
Gas, Nitrogen, 460
Gasoline-electric Cars, 215
Gas-steam Engines, 518
Gatling-guns, 145, 391, 470
Gatun Locks, 24, 31-2
Gear Wheels, 408
Gelatine Films, 152
Generators, 262, 465
German Guns, 398
“Get the Sack,” 169
Geysers, 41
Glacier National Park, 324
Glaciers, 322
Glass, 231, 450
“Glass Snakes,” 583
Glowworms, 161
Gold, 303, 317, 377, 448
Goldfish, 377
Gold Leaf, 377
“Goodyear Welt,” 437, 447
Grab-buckets, 245
Grade Crossing Elimination, 504
Grafting, Bud, 136
Grain Binders, 569
Grain Drills, 572
Granite, 540
Graphophones, 43
Graphotypes, 368
Gravity Conveyors, 240
“Great White Way,” 274
Greek-fire, 83, 377
Greyhound, 377
Grills, Electric, 209
Grinding Crank Shafts, 518
Groundnuts, 241
Guard Gates, 31-2
Gun-carriages, 141, 386
Gunpowder, 83
Guns, 75, 139, 386
Gyroscopes, 72

Halftone Engravings, 380
Ham, 292
Hammers, Steam, 533
Hand Bombards, 83
Hand Presses, Printing, 172
Hand-shaking, 308
Harvesting, 557
Hay Loaders, 568
Header Binders, 566
Hearth Furnaces, 416
Heat, 315
Heating Element, Electric, 208
Heating Pads, Electric, 211
Heat-treatment, 532
Heel-seat Rounding Machines, 443
Helmets, Diving, 41
Oxygen, 248
Hemp, 130
Henequen, 130
Hibernation, 241
Hides, 580
High Tension Currents, 262
Highlight Engravings, 382
Hives, Bee, 186
“Hob-nobbing,” 231
“Hobson’s Choice,” 169
Hogs, 293
“Holland” Under-sea Boats, 10
Honey, 183
Hopper Dredgers, 490
Hoppers, Coal, 246
Horizon, 121
Horse-drawn Fire Engines, 453
Horseshoe Curve, 547
Hose, 117
Reels, 456
Trucks, 451
Hour Glasses, 63
Household Appliances, 200, 556
How a Newspaper is Printed, 172
How are Artificial Precious Stones made? 361
Cannon made? 386
Chewing Gum tablets coated? 342
Cocoanuts Used to Help our Warships? 450
Composition bowling balls made? 360
Diamonds cut? 584
“Electric Eels” Caught? 472
Explosions guarded against in mines? 244
Files made? 138
Fireflies used as dress ornaments? 161
Fireworks made? 150
Glaciers Formed? 324
Harbors Dredged Out? 491
Magazines made? 286
Oranges Packed? 331
Rifles made? 75
Sand-dunes formed? 180
Sausages made? 301
Vessels handled while going through the Panama Canal? 39
Watches made? 61
we able to hear through Speaking Tubes? 308
we taking care of our forests now? 267
How big do Redwood Trees grow? 304
How big is the Largest Adding Machine in the world? 354
How can a factory make two Automobiles a minute? 518
How can we hear through the Walls of a Room? 251
How can we send Messages through the Air? 263
How can we travel in trains under water? 492
How cold is 372° below zero? 461
How could a large hole in a tunnel under water be repaired? 501
How deep is the deepest part of the Ocean? 169
How did Chemical Fire Extinguishers develop? 375
Men learn to count? 345
Men learn to eat pork? 292
Nodding the head up and down come to mean “yes”? 149
the cooking of food originate? 121
the Dollar Sign originate? 450
the expression “A-1” originate? 136
the expression “Before you can say Jack Robinson” originate? 119
the expression “Forlorn Hope” originate? 306
the fashion of wearing Cravats commence? 270
the Greyhound get his name? 377
the ringing of the Curfew originate? 289
the term “Cowboys” originate? 374
the term “Yankee” originate? 171
the wearing of crowns originate? 384
we learn to tell time? 61
your State get its Name? 243
How do bees make honey? 183
big buildings get their Granite? 539
Calculating Machines calculate? 345
“Carrier Pigeons” Carry Messages? 216
Chimes strike the Hour? 260
Elevators operate? 232
Fishes Swim? 384
Moving Pictures get on the Screen? 575
Peanuts get in the Ground? 241
Shoe Machines operate? 436
the Indians Live now? 146
they make Chewing Gum? 337
we know that the Earth is Round? 379
How does a Bird Fly? 303
a Camera take a Picture? 162
a Gasoline Motor run an Electric Street Car? 214
a Lifting Magnet lift? 589
a “Master Clock” control others by electricity? 344
a Monorail Gyroscope Railway operate? 72
a Siren Fog Horn Blow? 60
a Talking Machine talk? 43
an Artesian Well keep up its supply of Water? 96
Electricity help the Housewife? 200
Telephone Development in this country compare with that abroad? 222
the Addressograph operate? 364
the Beach get its Sand? 149
the Gas Meter measure your Gas? 270
the New York Stock Exchange operate? 374
the Poisonous Tarantula live? 146
How far away is the Sky-line? 121
How far can a powerful Searchlight send its Rays? 229
How has Electricity advanced? 273
How has man helped nature give us Apples? 136
How has the Motor Truck developed? 481
How is a Five Dollar Gold Piece made? 303, 449
a Newspaper printed? 172
a Paper of Pins filled? 321
a Pool Table made? 309
a Razor Blade made? 491
a Teaspoon Silver-plated? 253
Die-sinking done? 285
Electricity brought into a House? 262
Food taken from the air by Electricity? 458
Fresco Painting done? 336
Gold Leaf made? 377
Leather tanned? 580
Lime Juice used in Curing Rubber? 110
Photo-engraving done? 380
Pine Tar made? 129, 134
Rope made? 121
the exact color of the Sky determined? 199
the Weather Man able to predict tomorrow’s Weather? 58
Howitzers, 388
How large are Molecules? 324
How long does it take “Hello” to reach ’Frisco from New York on the
Transcontinental Line? 226
How many Post Offices are there in the U. S.? 218
How much Gold in a 14-carat Ring? 317
How much is a Duodecillion? 354
How much Salt do we each use a year? 478
How much silver is there in “Sterling” ware? 260
How the Self-loading Pistol developed, 139
How was Vulcanizing discovered? 105, 115
How were Motorcycles first made? 52
Hudson River Tubes, 493
Hunger, 588
Hunting, 75
Hybridization, 317
Hydraulic Compressors, 401
Forging Presses, 418
Jacks, 497
Swinging Arms, 494
Hydroaeroplanes, 507
Hydroelectric Station, 20
“Hypo,” 163

Ice, 322
Illumination, Electric, 273
Immersion Heaters, Electric, 211
Imperfections in Diamonds, 586
Incandescent Lamps, 275
Indians, 146, 336
Inner-tubes, 117
Inseam Trimming Machines, 440
Insole Tacking Machines, 437
Installing Motors, Auto, 528
Instruments, Range-finding, 403
Insulated Wire, 118
Interior Transverse Fissures, 344
Iron, 413
Irons, Electric, 200
Isinglass, 216
Istle, 132
Italian Guns, 389
Ivory, 314

Jaggery, 214
Jasper, 49, 149
“Jeweler’s Gold,” 448
Jewels, Synthetic, 361

Kerosene Engines, 556
Tractors, 561
“Kick the Bucket,” 171
“King can do no wrong,” 466
Knives, Table, 260, 333
Krupp Guns, 398

Lacing Machines, 438
Ladder Dredges, 23, 27, 490
Ladders, Fire, 451
“Lake” Submarines, 9
Land-crabs, 138
Lard, 301
Latten Spoons, 254
League Island Navy Yard, 160
Leather, 580
Lemons, 331
Lifting Magnets, 589
Lightning Bugs, 161
Lights, Electric, 273
Lignite, 251
Lilies, Violet-odored, 317
Limit Switches, 26
Line Engravings, 381
Liquid Air Plant, 461
“Liquid Fire,” 377
Listing Machines, 350
Lizards, 583
Llama, 99
Loading Platforms, 531
Lobsters, 384
Lock Gate Operating Machinery, 34
Locomotive Building, 543
Locomotives, 22, 24, 541
Long-bow, 80
Loose Nailing Machines, 443
Low Tension Currents, 262
Lumbering, 306
“Lump in the Throat,” 308
“Lynching,” 355

Machine Guns, 142, 391, 470
Magazines, 286
Magnets, 589
Mailing System, Magazines, 289
Manila Fiber, 132
Manure Spreaders, 572
Map, Tree-planting Regions of U. S., 269
Marsh-gas, 244
Masonic Signs, 262
“Master Clocks,” 344
Matchlock, 83
Matrix-drying Machines, 179
“Measurer of Blue,” 199
Meat, 292, 299
Mechanical Starter, Auto, 529
Megaphones, 308
Merchant Submarine Liners, 14
Mercury, 336
Mer de Glace, 322
Meters, Gas, 270
Mica, 203
Micrometric Regulators, 67
Military Air Tractors, 506
Milk, 383
Mine-planting Submarines, 11
“Mineralite” Balls, 360
Mining, Coal, 244
Mining, Gold, 448
Mining, Iron, 413
Mint, 302
Mobilization, 228
Molds, Steel, 431, 531
Molecules, 324
Monoplanes, 509
Monorail Railways, 73, 520
Moon, 181, 356
Mortars, 397
“Mother of Pearl,” 385
Motion Pictures, Assembling Films, 537
Projecting, 575
Taking, 536
Motor Assembling, Auto, 525
Motorcycles, 52
Motor Delivery Vans, 58
Fire Apparatus, 451
“Motor-paced Tandems,” 55
Motors, Electric, 262
Gasoline-Electric, 215
Motor Trucks, 223, 451, 481, 557
Mountain Guns, 390
Mt. Rainier, 323
Mt. Weather, 60
Moving-stairways, 238
Mowing Machines, 561
Multiple Switchboards, Telephone, 220
Muskets, 88
Muzzle-energy, Giant Guns, 398

Nailing Machines, 441
Names of States, 243
“Napier’s Rod,” 348
“Nautilus,” 10, 491
Naval Guns, 387
Navy Yards, 161
Neckties, 270
Negatives, 163
Nets, Fish, 328
Newspapers, 121, 172, 282
New York Sky-line, 493
New Zealand Flax, 132
Niagara Falls, 463
“Nine-pins,” 357
Nitrate of Soda, 459
Nitric Acid, 464
Nitrogen, 458
Nitrogen Fixation Ovens, 462
“No,” 149
Nuts, Cocoanuts, 214

Oats, 569
Observation Balloons, 515
Oceans, 169
Oil, Cod-liver, 216
Oil Cushion Buffers, 235
“Old Moon in the New Moon’s Arms,” 356
On-tempering, 420
Onyx, 149
Opals, 49, 149
Open-hearth Furnaces, 416
Oranges, 332
Ordnance, 386
Outsole Rapid Lockstitch Machines, 446
Ovens, Continuous Core, 532
Drying Painted Cars, 547
Electric, 210
Overhead Monorail Systems, 520
Oxygen Reviving Apparatus, 248
Oyster Dredging Apparatus, 16

Painting, Fresco, 336
Palms, 97, 214
Panama Canal, 17
Panama City, 35
Panama-Pacific Exposition, 230
Patent Leather, 583
Peanuts, 242
Pearl Fishing Equipment, 16
Pearls, 385
Imitation, 361
“Pebble Board,” 345
Pedro Miguel Locks, 22
Penetrating Powers of Projectiles, 398
Pennsylvania Station, 546
Percolators, Electric, 206
Percussion Fuses, 405
Periscopes, 13
Petrified Forests, 50
Phantom Circuits, 225
Philippine Carts, 131
Photo-engraving, 380
Photography, 162, 536
Pigeons, 216
Pig Iron, 429
Pigs, 293
Pike’s Peak, 557
Pine Tar, 129, 134
Pins, 318
Pirates, 150
Pistols, 139
Piston Machining, 522
Plants, 317
Plating, Electro, 257
“Plumcot,” 317
Pole Lathes, 87
Poles, Telephone, 222
Pool, 309
Pork, 292
Potato-diggers, 242
Power House, Niagara Falls, 465
Power Stations, 278, 519
Prairie Dogs, 42
Predictors, Range, 403
Printing, Color, 289
Printing-presses, 172, 282, 286
Projectile Forging, 419
Projectiles, 158, 398
Projecting Machines, 576
Proving Grounds, 399
Prunes, Stoneless, 317
Pulling-over Machines, 439
Pullman Cars, 544
Pyro, 163
Pyrometers, 534
Pyrotechnics, 150

Quarry, 540
Quenching Steel Forgings, 532

Radio Telephone and Telegraph, 263
Railroads, 344, 424, 470, 492, 541
Rails, Steel, 343
Railways, Aerial, 120
Monorail, 73, 520
Rakes, 567
Rammers, Gun, 407
Range Finders, 403
Ranges, Electric, 213
Rapid-fire Guns, 144, 391, 470
Rasps, 138
Razor Blades, 491
Reapers, 562
Reaping Hooks, 557
Rear Axle Assembling, Auto, 523
Record Making, Graphophone, 44, 47
Redwood, 272, 305
Refraction, 308
Refrigerating Machinery, 296
Return Chutes, Bowling Ball, 357
Revolvers, 139
Rifles, 75
Rock-boring, 97
Rock-crystal, 49, 149, 539
Rockets, 151
Rock Salt, 474
Roentgen Rays, 169
Rolling Bridges, 466
Roman Candles, 156
Rope, 121
Rounding and Channeling Machines, 444
Rubber, 98

Safe Deposit Vaults, 428
Safety Crew, Mines, 248
Salt, 473
Salt Fish, 330
Sand, 149, 180, 247
Sand-dunes, 180
Sandwiches, 119
Sausages, 292
Scythes, 558
Searchlight Projectiles, 158
Searchlights, 229
Self-binding Harvesters, 568
Semi-submersible Wrecking Apparatus, 16
Set Pieces, Pyrotechnic, 154
Sewing Machines, 279
Shaking Hands, 308
Sheep-growing, 252
Sheffield Plate, 256
Shells, 409
“Shibboleth,” 588
Shoes, 436
Shoes, Rubber, 115
Shoe Treeing Machines, 446
Shot-guns, 92
“Showing the White Feather,” 231
Shutters, Motion Picture Machine, 578
“Side-cars,” 56
Siege-howitzers, 388
Sight-seeing Cars, 482
Silhouettes, 163
Silica, 149
Silos, 271
Silver Plating, 253
Sinking of the “Bluecher,” 479
Siren Horns, 60
Sisal, 130
Skins, 580
Skiving Machines, 437
Sky, 180, 199
Sky-line, 121
Sky-rockets, 150
Slaughter-houses, 295
Sling-shot, 78
Smiling, 412
Smoking, Meat, 292
Snakes, “Glass,” 583
Soap, 298
Sole Laying Machines, 441
Sole Leather, 580
Sole Leveling Machines, 441
Soroban, 345
Sound, 47, 251, 333, 574
Speaking Tubes, 308
Spiders, 51, 146
Spineless Cactus, 317
Spinning, Hemp, 124
Spiral Chutes, 240
Spontaneous Combustion, 42
Spoons, 253
Sprinkler Systems, 523
Stabilizers, 74
Stamping Machines, 444
“Standard Gold,” 448
“Standard Yard,” 61
States, 243
Stations, Railroad, 546
Statue of Liberty, 378
Steam Drills, 19
Dynamos, 275
Fire Engines, 452
Hammers, 533
Harvesters, 560
Shovels, 28, 30, 38
Velocipedes, 52
Steel, 333, 343, 413, 470, 491, 532
“Sterling,” 260
Sting, Bee, 187
Stitch and Upper Cleaning Machines, 445
Stitch Separating Machines, 443
Stoat, 356
Stock Exchanges, 373
Stockyards, 297
Stoneless Prunes, 317
Story in a Billiard Table, 309
Bowling Alley, 357
Box of California Oranges, 331
Chemical Fire Extinguisher, 375
Giant Cannon, 386
Honey-comb, 183
Pin, 318
Rifle, 75
Sausage, 292
Silver Teaspoon, 253
Watch, 61
Story in Diamond-cutting, 584
Elevators and Escalators, 232
Firecrackers and Sky-rockets, 150
Photo-engraving, 380
Story in the making of a Pair of Shoes, 436
making of a Magazine, 286
making of a Picture, 162
Modern Lifting Magnet, 589
Printing of a Newspaper, 172
Talking Machine, 43
Telephone, 217
Story of a Deep Sea Monster, 468
a Piece of Chewing Gum, 337
America’s First Horseless Carriage, 290
an Automobile Factory, 518
an Up-to-date Farm, 556
Coal Mining, 244
Electricity in the Home, 200
Leather, 580
Rope, 121
Rubber, 98
Salt, 473
Self-loading Pistols, 139
the Addressograph, 364
the Advance of Electricity, 273
the Big Redwood Trees, 304
the Building of a Silo, 271
the Calculating Machine, 345
the Growth of the Motor Truck, 481
the Motion Picture-Projecting Machine, 575
the Motorcycle, 52
the Panama Canal, 17
the Submarine, 9
the Taking of Food from the Air, 458
the Tunnels Under the Hudson River, 492
the Wireless Telegraph, 263
Stoves, Electric, 208
Straightening Crank Shafts, 533
Street Cars, Gasoline, Electric, 215
Submarines, 9
Subway Construction, 283
Suction Dredges, 23, 27
Sugar Beets, 464
Sugar Cane, 459
Sugar-coating Machines, 338
Sulphuric Ether, 336
Sun, 181
Sun Dials, 61
Swine, 293
Swing Bridges, 466
Switchboards, 519
Synthetic Precious Stones, 361

Table Appliances, 205
Table-ware, 253, 333
Tack-pulling and Resetting Machines, 440
Taking Food from the Air, 458
Talking Machines, 43
Tanning, 580
Tar, Pine, 129, 134
Tarantulas, 146
Tawing, 583
Teeth, Chattering, 182
Telegraph, Wireless, 263
Telephone, 217
Telephone, Wireless, 226
Temperature, 315
Temperature Regulation, Foundry Furnaces, 534
Tension Spokes, 342
Third Rails, 283
Thistle, 593
Threshers, 560
Throat, 308
Time, 61
“Times Square,” 274
Tip-punching Machines, 439
Tires, Automobile, 117
“Tirth’s Stainless Steel,” 333
Toasters, Electric, 205
Tobacco, 458
Torpedo Guns, 404
Torpedoes, Gyroscope Equipment, 74
Torpedoes, Toys, 153
Tortoises, 171
Totem Poles, 149
“Touching Glasses,” 231
Towline, 126
Traction Elevators, 233
Tractors, Kerosene, 561
Train Chart, 283
Trains, 541
Trans-Atlantic Submarine Navigation, 14
Transcontinental Line, 225
Transmission, Electric, 261, 363
Transmission Covers, Auto, 526
Traveling Belt Conveyors, 535
Traveling Cranes, 536
Trawls, 327
Trees, Apple, 136
Buried, 247
Cocoanut, 214
Cow, 383
Date, 97
Fig, 198
Forestry, 267
Petrified, 49
Redwood, 304
Rubber, 108
Trench Artillery, 390
Tri-cars, 55
Trinity Church, 308
Trucks, Electric, 278
Electric Baggage, 545
Fire, 451
Motor, 223, 451, 481, 557
“Tune the old cow died of,” 539
Tunneling Shields, 494
Tunnels, 492, 520
Turbine Generators, 465
Turrets, 426
Twine Binders, 570
Twin Edge Setting Machines, 445
Type, 172

Under-water Boats, 9
Under-water Construction, 492
U. S. Battleship “Arizona,” also “Nevada” and “Oklahoma” Type, 266
U. S. Battleship “Mississippi,” 160
U. S. Battleship “Ohio,” 22
U. S. Guns, 386
U. S. Mint, Philadelphia, 449
Upper-trimming Machines, 439

Vacuum Cleaners, Electric, 212
Vacuum Dryers, 107, 112
Vamp Creasing Machines, 446
Vanadium Steel, 533
Vats, Tanning, 581
Vaults, 427
Ventilating Systems, 221, 247, 298, 520
Vessels, Fishing, 325
Veterinarians, Government, 298
Vulcanizing, 105, 115

Wall Street, 307
Washington Union Station, 546
Watches, 61
Watches, Nautical, 317
Water, 308, 333, 336, 411
Water Bottles, 118
Water Clocks, 63
“Water-finders,” 199
Water Fireworks, 158
Water-power, 461
Waterproofing, 106
Water-towers, 457
Weather Bureau, 58
Weight of Projectiles, 398
Wells, 96, 199
Wells, Salt, 473
Welt and Turn Machines, 445
Welt Lasting Machines, 440
Wetterhorn Mountain, 120
What Animals are the best Architects? 51
What are Cyclones? 450
Dreams? 182
Dry Docks like? 159
“Fighting Fish”? 199
Petrified Forests? 49
White Blackberries like? 317
What causes a Lump in a Person’s Throat? 308
an Echo? 574
Floating Islands? 504
What do we mean by an “Eclipse”? 181
“Deviation of the Compass”? 435
“Hobson’s Choice”? 169
the “Flying Dutchman”? 180
“The Old Moon in the New Moon’s Arms”? 356
What does the biggest Fish ever caught look like? 468
expression “Showing the White Feather” come from? 231
Sheep-Grower get for the wool in a Suit of Clothes? 252
What Family has over 9,000,000 members? 216
What happens when Animals Hibernate? 241
What is a Deep Sea Diver’s Dress like? 411
Dictagraph? 262
Diesel Engine like? 252
Diving Bell? 489
“Divining Rod”? 199
Drawbridge like Today? 466
“Drying Machine” like? 372
Game Preserve? 270
Geyser? 40
“Glass Snake”? 583
Mexican Bull-fight like? 363
Silo? 271
What is an Aerial Railway like? 120
Armored Railway Car like? 370
“Electric Eel”? 472
Electro-magnet? 317
up-to-date Farm like? 556
What is Cork? 385
“Dry Farming”? 372
Forestry Work, 267
Rubber? 98
Spontaneous Combustion? 42
“Standard Gold”? 448
What is the difference between a Cruiser and a Battleship? 478
difference between “Alternating” and “Direct” Current? 363
Greatest Discovery of the last twenty-five years? 458
Hottest place in the U. S.? 315
Natural Color of Goldfish? 377
principle of “Foreign Exchange”? 356
What kind of a Crab Climbs Trees? 138
Dogs are Prairie Dogs? 42
Steel Knives do not Stain or Rust? 333
What makes a Chimney Smoke? 158
a Stick seem to Bend in Water? 308
our Teeth Chatter? 182
What Metals can be Drawn into Wire best? 450
What Progress has been made toward Universal Service since the opening
of the Transcontinental Telephone Line? 226
What started the habit of Touching Glasses before drinking? 231
What was the “Court of Love”? 363
the origin of Masonic Signs? 262
What were “Ducking Stools”? 379
Hour Glasses originally used for? 63
the First Apartment Houses in this country? 336
When does a Tortoise move quickly? 171
When is Exchange at Par? 356
When was “Liquid Fire” first used in Warfare? 377
New York the Capital of this Country? 379
Where are Fireflies used for Domestic Lighting? 161
Milk-pails filled from Trees? 383
Where did the Ferris Wheel get its name? 342
Where do Dates come from? 97
Figs come from? 199
Pearls come from? 385
Where does Ermine come from? 356
Rubber come from? 98
White Blackberries, 316
“White Elephant,” 435
Who discovered Rubber? 98
the Slide Rule Principle? 348
Who invented Arms and Ammunition? 76
Who made the first American Automobile? 290
the first practical Talking Machine? 43
Why are Finger-prints used for Identification? 74
Why are they called “Newspapers”? 121
Why are Windows broken by Explosions? 231
Why do Lobsters Change Colors? 384
some of us have Freckles? 412
Why do they call it “Shibboleth”? 588
call them “Fiddler-crabs”? 229
have a Dog-watch on Shipboard? 317
say “The King can do no Wrong”? 466
Why do we always shake Hands with our Right Hand? 308
Why do we call a Man “A Benedict” when he Marries? 149
Why do we call it “Denatured Alcohol”? 478
“Hob-Nobbing”? 231
the “Adam’s Apple”? 321
the “Almighty Dollar”? 355
Why do we call them “Artesian Wells”? 96
“Cravats”? 270
“Dog-days”? 301
“Sandwiches”? 119
“X-Rays”? 169
Why do we call 32° above Zero “Freezing”? 336
Why do we Count in Tens? 345
Why do we Dream? 182
get Hungry? 588
say “a White Elephant”? 435
say “Get the Sack”? 169
say “Kick the Bucket”? 171
say “the Tune that the Old Cow Died of”? 539
Smile when we are Pleased? 412
Why does a Duck’s Back shed Water? 180
Why does a Lightning Bug light her Light? 161
rope cling together? 136
shaking the head mean “No”? 149
Why doesn’t the sky ever Fall Down? 180
Why is it called “Battery Park”? 379
“Death Valley”? 315
“Lynching”? 355
Why is it necessary to keep unusually quiet when fishing? 333
Why is the Thistle the Emblem of Scotland? 593
Why is there always a soft spot in a cocoanut shell? 214
Why is “Wall Street” known round the World? 308
Why were rubber trees called “Siphonia”? 108
Windows, 231
Wire, 118, 132
Wire-drawing, 450
Wireless Telephone and Telegraph, 263
Wire Stitching Machines, Magazines, 287
Wood, Apple, 136
Cocoanut, 214
Redwood, 272, 304
Wool, 252
Woolworth Building, 234
Wrapper, Leaf Tobacco, 458
Wrecking Apparatus, 16

“X”-Rays, 169
X-Ray View of a New York Street Crossing, 503
X-Ray View of Underground Tunnel Construction, 502

“Yankee,” 171
Yard Measure, 61
“Yes,” 149

“Zeppelins,” 511

Acknowledgment

The Editor wishes to express his gratitude and appreciation to the
following, to whom he is indebted for much valuable assistance in the
form of illustrations and special information:

ADDRESSOGRAPH CO.
“THE AMERICAN BOY.”
AMERICAN CHICLE CO.
AMERICAN CYANAMID CO.
AMERICAN LAFRANCE FIRE ENGINE CO.
AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE CO.
“AMERICAN MAGAZINE.”
AMERICAN PIN CO.
AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH CO.
ARMOUR & CO.
BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS.
“BALTIMORE AMERICAN.”
BETHLEHEM STEEL CO.
JAMES BOYD & BROTHER, INC.
BRUNSWICK-BALKE-COLLENDER CO.
BURROUGHS ADDING MACHINE CO.
CALIFORNIA FRUIT GROWERS’ EXCHANGE.
CALIFORNIA REDWOOD ASSOCIATION.
CHESAPEAKE AND POTOMAC TELEPHONE CO.
COLT’S PATENT FIRE ARMS MANUFACTURING CO.
COLUMBIA GRAPHOPHONE CO.
COLUMBIAN ROPE CO.
COMMON SENSE GUM CO.
CONSOLIDATED FIRE WORKS COMPANY OF AMERICA.
CURTIS AEROPLANE CO.
CURTIS PUBLISHING CO.
CUTLER-HAMMER MANUFACTURING CO.
DIAMOND CRYSTAL SALT CO.
G. M. DODGE CO.
EASTMAN KODAK CO.
ENDICOTT, JOHNSON & CO.
“THE FIELD.”
“FIRE AND WATER ENGINEERING.”
FORD MOTOR CO.
GATCHEL & MANNING.
GENERAL ELECTRIC CO.
GENERAL MOTORS TRUCK CO.
GLOUCESTER (MASS.) BOARD OF TRADE.
B. F. GOODRICH CO.
HAYNES AUTO CO.
HENDEE MANUFACTURING CO.
R. HOE & CO.
GEORGE A. HORMEL & CO.
HOTPOINT ELECTRIC HEATING CO.
HUDSON AND MANHATTAN RAILROAD CO.
INDIANA STEEL CO.
INGERSOLL-RAND CO.
INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER COMPANY OF AMERICA.
INTERNATIONAL SILVER CO.
JACOBS & DAVIES, ENGINEERS.
LAKE TORPEDO BOAT CO.
MCCLURE CO.
MERGANTHALER LINOTYPE CO.
MONROE CALCULATING MACHINE CO.
NEW YORK CENTRAL RAILROAD CO.
NEW YORK EDISON CO.
NIAGARA FALLS POWER CO.
OTIS ELEVATOR CO.
THE PANAMA CANAL, WASHINGTON OFFICE.
PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD CO.
THE PHILADELPHIA MUSEUMS.
PLYMOUTH CORDAGE CO.
NICHOLAS POWER CO.
PYRENE MANUFACTURING CO.
“RAILWAY AGE GAZETTE.”
MR. GEORGE A. READING.
REMINGTON ARMS-UNION METALLIC CARTRIDGE CO.
A. I. ROOT CO.
“SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.”
“SCRIBNER’S MAGAZINE.”
STANDARD STEEL CAR CO.
CAPT. CHARLES H. THOMPSON.
MR. CHARLES L. TROUT.
MR. HAROLD L. TUERS.
UNITED SHOE MACHINERY CO.
UNITED STATES RUBBER CO.
WALTHAM WATCH CO.
WESTINGHOUSE CO.
WINCHESTER REPEATING ARMS CO.
WILCOX & HARVEY MFG. CO.
“WINSTON’S CUMULATIVE ENCYCLOPEDIA.”

+--------------------------------------------------------------------+
| TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES |
| |
| This e-book uses the text of the original printed work, including |
| all inconsistencies in spelling, capitalisation, lay-out, |
| hyphenation, etc. Examples are can not, cannot; æstivation, |
| Aestivation; ax, axe; Buenos Aires, Ayres; Hong Kong, Hongkong; |
| saltpeter, saltpetre, etc. The spelling of non-English words (Abbe,|
| Lumiere, Cinematograph) has not been corrected. |
| |
| Remarks on the text: |
| Page 17: Bremenhaven is possibly a typographical error for |
| Bremerhaven. |
| Page 172: Blaew is more commonly spelled Blaeu. |
| Page 317: The accompanying illustrations: there is only one |
| illustration on white blackberries. |
| Page 321: as shown in the illustrations: there is only one |
| illustration with pin sizes. |
| Page 394: reference to A in illustration: this is invisible in the |
| original work. |
| Page 450: the original work uses the $ sign with two vertical |
| strokes, which is not supported in many fonts, and has therefore |
| been replaced with the symbol with the single stroke. |
| Page 505-517: The table of contents calls this chapter Pictorial |
| Story of the Airship; the page headings are Views of Airships or |
| Views of Air Ships. The former has been used as chapter title for |
| this e-book. |
| Page 561: reference to illustration of roughly reconstructed Gallic|
| reaper: this illustration is not present in the original work. |
| |
| Changes made to the text: |
| Chapter headings have been inserted for the Pictorial Stories |
| (Fishing Industry, Steel Industry, Fire Apparatus, Airship, |
| Railroad Scenes from Shop and Road) to replace the page headers |
| used in the original work. |
| Footnotes have been moved to the end of text. |
| Some obvious minor typographical errors and punctuation errors have|
| been corrected silently. |
| Page 14: become changed to became |
| Page 40: simple changed to simply; there about changed to there are|
| about |
| Page 45: to-day changed to today as elsewhere |
| Page 74: finger prints changed to finger-prints as elsewhere |
| Page 108: become hard changed to became hard |
| Page 149: snaking changed to shaking |
| Page 150: flintlock changed to flint-lock as elsewhere |
| Page 185: counter his changed to counter, his |
| Page 207: percolater changed to percolator as elsewhere |
| Page 224: Aboard changed to Abroad |
| Page 324: lormed changed to formed |
| Page 357: footnote anchor [27] added |
| Page 411: eyeholes changed to eye-holes as elsewhere |
| Page 415: uneffected changed to unaffected |
| Page 421: counter-weights changed to counterweights as elsewhere |
| Page 504: cropped changed to dropped |
| Page 518: sky-scraper changed to skyscraper as elsewhere |
| Page 601: Oynx changed to Onyx (and moved to proper place) |
| Index: several entries moved to proper alphabetical order. |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Wonder Book of Knowledge - The Marvels of Modern Industry and Invention the Interesting - Stories of Common Things the Mysterious Processes of Nature - Simply Explained" ***

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