Title: The Gist of Japan - The Islands, Their People, and Missions
Author: Peery, R. B.
Language: English
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[Illustration: Cover]



[Frontispiece: Fuji San.]



The Gist of Japan

The Islands Their People And Missions


By the Rev.  R. B. Peery, A.M., Ph.D.



With Illustrations



New York -- Chicago -- Toronto

Fleming H. Revell Company

M DCCC XCVII



Copyright, 1897, by Fleming H. Revell Company



To My Wife

To whose Kindly Sympathy and Help is Largely Due Whatever of Value
there may be in these Pages This Book is Affectionately Dedicated



{3}

PREFACE

Although a great deal has already been published in English concerning
Japan and the Japanese people, nothing, to my knowledge, has yet been
published which attempts to give a full treatment of mission work in
Japan.  "An American Missionary In Japan," by Dr. Gordon, is the only
book I am aware of that deals exclusively with this subject; but its
scope is quite different from that of the present volume.  Therefore I
have been led to believe that there is a place for this book.

I have written for the common people and hence have tried to give the
subject a plain, popular treatment.  There has been no attempt at
exhaustive discussion, but great pains have been taken to make the hook
reliable and accurate.

In the preparation of this little book I have consulted freely the
following works in English: "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of
Japan"; files of the "Japan Mail"; "Transactions of the {4} Osaka
Conference, 1882"; Rein's "Japan"; Griffis's "Mikado's Empire";
Griffis's "Religions of Japan"; Chamberlain's "Handbook of Things
Japanese"; Miss Bacon's "Japanese Girls and Women"; Dr. Lawrence's
"Modern Missions in the East"; "Report of the World's Missionary
Conference, London, 1888"; and reports of the various missionary
societies operating in Japan. In Japanese I have consulted some native
historians and moral and religious writers--especially in the
preparation of the chapters on History, Morality, and Religions.

The book is sent forth with the prayer that it may be the means of
begetting in the American churches a deeper interest in the work it
portrays.

R. B. P.

SAGA, JAPAN.



{5}

CONTENTS


  I. The Land of Japan
  II. A Brief History of the Japanese People
  III. Japanese Characteristics
  IV. Manners and Customs
  V. Japanese Civilization
  VI. Japanese Morality
  VII. Religions of Japan
  VIII. First Introduction Of Christianity
  IX. Modern Roman and Greek Missions
  X. A Brief History of Protestant Missions in Japan
  XI. Qualifications for Mission Work in Japan
  XII. Private Life of the Missionary
  XIII. Methods of Work
  XIV. Hindrances
  XV. Special Problems
  XVI. The Outlook



{7}

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.


Fuji San . . . . . . . . . _Frontispiece_

A Bridge Scene

A Kitchen Scene

Hara-kiri

A Shinto Temple

A Buddhist Priest

A Buddhist Cemetery

The Author's Home

Jinrikishas



{9}

I

THE LAND OF JAPAN

The empire of Japan consists of a chain of islands lying off the east
coast of Asia, and extending all the way from Kamchatka in the north to
Formosa in the south.  Its length is more than 1500 miles, while the
width of the mainlands varies from 100 to 200 miles.  The entire area,
exclusive of Formosa, recently acquired, is 146,000 square miles--just
about equal to that of the two Dakotas or the United Kingdom of
England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.  On this territory, at the
beginning of the year 1893, there lived 41,089,940 souls.

The country is divided into four large islands and more than two
thousand smaller ones.  The larger ones are named respectively Hondo,
Kyushu, Shikoku, and Yezo.  Of these the first named is by far the
largest and most important.  This island originally had no separate
name, but {10} in recent years it is very generally called Hondo.
Western geographers have frequently made the mistake of applying the
term "Nihon" to it; but "Nihon" is the native name for the whole
empire, and not for its chief island.  The capital, Tokyo, the ancient
capital, Kyoto, and the commercial center, Osaka, are all situated on
this island.

Kyushu is the second largest island in the group, and lies southwest of
the main island.  It was on this island, in the town of Nagasaki, that
the Dutch lived for more than two hundred years, forming the only means
of communication Japan had with the outside world.

Shikoku is next in size.  It lies south of Hondo and northeast of
Kyushu.  Shikoku and Kyushu are separated from the main island by the
Inland Sea, one of the most beautiful bodies of water in the world.

The island of Yezo is in the extreme north, It has very cold winters
and resembles the central part of North America somewhat in climate and
productions.  On this island the aborigines of Japan, called Ainu, now
live.

Among the more important of the smaller groups are the Liukiu Islands,
in the extreme south; the Goto Islands, in the west; and the Kuriles,
in the north.  Besides these there are numerous other islands of
considerable size lying {11} around the coasts, and the whole Inland
Sea is beautifully dotted with them.

Japan is a very mountainous country.  For this reason hardly twelve per
cent. of her total area is cultivated.  In general the land gradually
ascends on both sides as it recedes from the ocean, at first forming
hills and table-lands, and then huge mountains.  Thus a chain of
mountains is formed in the center of the islands, extending throughout
the whole length of the empire.  The mountains are nearly all of
volcanic origin, which accounts for their jagged appearance.  There are
many active volcanoes, continually sending up great clouds of smoke,
and occasionally emitting streams of fire and molten lava, deluging the
whole neighborhood with sulphur and ashes.  One of the first sights
that greets the traveler from the West as he approaches Japan is the
smoke of a volcano, ever active, on Vries Island, in the entrance to
Yokohama harbor.  The chief volcanoes active at present are Asama,
Shirane-san, Bandai-san, Aso-san, and Koma-ga-take.  I shall never
forget the ascent of Asama at night, in 1894.  The volcano had been
unusually active recently, and a large part of the crater had fallen
in, completely changing its appearance.  The sulphurous vapors and
smoke came up so thick and fast that we dared not approach near the
crater for fear of {12} suffocation.  At that time we could not see
down into the crater at all, but occasionally one can see the blue-red
flames curling and writhing far down in the bowels of the earth like a
sea of fire, a veritable gate of hell.

Of extinct volcanoes Japan boasts a large number.  The mightiest of
these is the peerless Fuji-san, the pride of every Japanese, the
highest mountain in Japan.  It is 12,365 feet high, and snow is found
on its summit at all seasons.  This mountain is now a huge pile of
ashes, lava, and boulders--apparently harmless.  As late as 1708 it was
in eruption, and when I stood on its snowy summit in August, 1893,
there were certain places where vapors hot enough to cook an egg came
up from the ground.  For aught we know, it may at any time burst forth
again and devastate whole provinces.

This is a land of earthquakes.  The records show that from earliest
times this country has been subject to great ruin by their visitations.
Whole villages and towns have been suddenly swallowed up, and huge
mountains have disappeared in a day.  These earthquakes are of frequent
occurrence.  The seismic instruments now in use throughout the empire
record about three hundred and sixty-five per year--one for each day.
Certain localities are much more exposed to them than others, although
none is {13} entirely free from them.  These disturbances are very
destructive of life and property, especially injuring railways,
bridges, and high buildings.  They have left their mark upon the whole
country.  Through the effect of volcanoes and earthquakes together, the
surface of Japan presents an appearance seldom seen in any other land.

The forces of nature are unusually destructive in Japan.  Besides the
volcanoes and earthquakes, the country is subject to occasional tidal
waves, which kill thousands of people and destroy millions of dollars'
worth of property.  Impelled by some mighty force, the great sea rises
in its bed mountain high, and, angrily breaking out of its accustomed
bounds, sweeps everything before it.  While I am writing this chapter
(June, 1896) news has come of one of the most destructive waves known
here for decades, which has just swept over the north coast of Hondo.
More than 30,000 people were killed instantly, and great destruction
wrought to property.  So terrible is nature in her fiercer aspects!

Japan being a very narrow country, her rivers are short and small, few
of them being serviceable for navigation.  Ordinarily they are quiet,
lazy streams, but when the heavy rains fall in the mountains, the
waters sweep down like a flood, swelling these rivers to huge size and
converting them into fierce, angry torrents.  The {14} Tone-gawa is the
longest and widest river, but its length is only 170 miles.  Other
important ones are the Shinano-gawa, the Kiso-gawa, and the Kitakami.
A peculiar feature about these rivers is that none of them bears the
same name from source to mouth, but all change their name in nearly
every province.

There are few lakes of importance.  The largest is Lake Biwa, near
Kyoto; it is 50 miles long, and 20 wide at its widest point.  Lake
Inawashiro is of considerable size.  Lake Chuzenji, at the foot of
Nantai-zan, is unrivaled for beauty, and is hardly surpassed in any
land.  Hakone is also a beautiful lake, and the reflection of Fuji-san
in its waters by moonlight is a sight well worth seeing.  Indeed, the
whole of Japan abounds in picturesque landscapes and scenic beauty.
Mountain scenes rivaling those of Switzerland; clear, placid lakes, in
which the image of sky and mountains blends; and smiling, fertile
valleys, heavily laden with fruits and grain, make the landscape one of
surpassing beauty.  Few countries are more pleasing to the eye than is
Japan.

The coasts are indented by many bays and inlets, affording fine
harbors.  The seas are very deep and often wild and stormy.  The
islands are favorably located for commercial enterprises, and the
Japanese are by nature destined to be a {15} maritime people.  As
regards situation and harbors, there is a striking resemblance to
England.  The two countries are of nearly equal size, they both are
insular powers, and are situated about equidistant from a great
continent.  It is safe to assume that Japan's development will be along
lines somewhat similar to England's.

There is a good system of roads.  The mountain roads are carefully
graded; hollows are filled up and ridges cut through in such a manner
as we employ only for railroads.  Indeed, some of the roads are so
carefully graded that ties and rails could be laid on them almost
without any further modification.  Many of them are as straight as the
engineer's art can make them.  A new road was built recently from Saga
to the small seaport town of Wakatsu, and between the two towns it is
as direct as a bee-line.  This road crosses a river just at the
junction of two streams.  The fork of the river lay exactly in the path
of the road; by slightly swerving to either the right or the left a
bridge half the length of the present one would have sufficed, but the
long, costly bridge was built rather than have the road swerve from its
course even a little.

In the plains most of the roads are elevated three or four feet above
the surrounding fields.  They are not macadamized, but are covered with
large, coarse gravel known as _jari_.  When this {16} jari is first
spread on, the roads are almost impassable, but it soon becomes beaten
down and makes a good road.  Unfortunately, it must be applied nearly
every year.

Some of the chief highways are very old.  The most famous is the
Tokaido, extending from the old capital, Kyoto, the seat of the
imperial court, to the city of Yedo (now called Tokyo), the seat of the
shogun's government.  It was over this road that the ancient daimios of
the western provinces used to journey, with gorgeous pageantry and
splendid retinues, to the shogun's court.

Some highways are lined on either side with tall cryptomeria and other
trees, giving a delightful shade and making of them beautiful avenues.
The most beautiful of these is the road approaching Nikko.  This is
said to be lined on both sides with rows of magnificent cedars and
pines for a distance of 40 miles.

The bridges add a great deal to the peculiar beauty of the landscape.
They are substantial, beautiful structures, generally built in the
shape of an arch, and are of stone, bricks, or wood.  The Japanese are
very careful about bridges, and little streams across foot-paths, where
in America one sees at best only a plank or log, are here carefully
bridged.  The bridge called Nihon-bashi, in Tokyo, is said to be the
center of the empire, the point at which all roads converge.

[Illustration: A Bridge Scene.]

{17}

Japan is a land in which the rural population largely predominates.
Most of the people live in the villages and small towns.  But in recent
years a process similar to that going on in America has set in, and
large numbers of the rural classes are drifting into the cities.

The chief city is Tokyo, with a population of 1,323,295.  Being now the
home of the emperor and the seat of government, it is held in much
reverence by the people.  In popular parlance this city is exalted on a
pedestal of honor, and the people speak of "ascending to" or
"descending from" it.  It is really a fine city, with broad, clean
streets and many splendid buildings, and has been called the "city of
magnificent distances."  One can travel almost a whole day and not get
outside the city limits.  It was formerly called Yedo, but when the
emperor removed his court hither after the Restoration its name was
changed to Tokyo.  The term means "east capital."  The city has enjoyed
a marvelous growth and is to-day a vigorous, active place.  It has many
of the conveniences of modern Western cities, such as electric lights,
water-works, tram-cars, telephones, etc.

Kyoto is the ancient capital, the place where the mikados lived in
secluded splendor for so many centuries.  It was the most magnificent
city of old Japan, and many highly cherished {18} national memories and
traditions cluster around it.  The old classical Japanese, to whom the
ancient régime is far superior to the present, still lingers fondly in
thought round its sacred temples, shrines, and groves.  When the
imperial court was removed to Tokyo the name of Kyoto was changed to
Saikyo, a term meaning "west capital."  Western geographers frequently
have been guilty of the error of calling this city "Miyako"; but that
has never been the city's name, and is simply the Japanese word for
"capital."  Kyoto is a beautiful, prosperous city, with a population of
328,354.

Osaka is the commercial center.  It is a city of manufactories, and
nearly all native articles of merchandise bear the mark, "Made in
Osaka."  As a business center this city surpasses all others in the
empire.  It is centrally located, at the head of Osaka Bay, about 20
miles from the open port of Kobé.  Here we find the imperial mint, with
long rows of splendid buildings.  The population is 494,314.

The next largest city is Nagoya, with a population of 206,742.  Other
prominent cities are: Hiroshima, 91,985; Okayama, 52,360; Kanagawa,
89,975; Kagoshima, 55,495, etc.

There are seven open ports in which foreigners reside at present and
engage in commerce.  In the order of importance they are: Tokyo, {19}
population 1,323,295; Osaka, 494,314; Yokohama, 160,439; Kobé, 150,993;
Nagasaki, 67,481; Hakodate, 66,333; Niigata, 50,300.  Formerly Nagasaki
was in the lead, but now has fallen to the fifth place.  It is probable
that other ports will be opened to foreign trade in the near future.



_Climate_

As Japan is so long a country, she has every variety of climate.  In
the northern provinces, and especially on the northwest coast, it is
extremely cold in winter, and snow falls in such quantities as
practically to stop all kinds of business.  In Formosa and Liukiu there
is perpetual summer.  That part of Japan in which the West is most
interested, and about which it knows most,--which is far the most
important portion of the empire,--has a mild, damp climate, free from
great extremes of either heat or cold.  Each winter snow falls
frequently, but it is seldom known to lie on the ground for more than a
few hours at a time.  Cold frosts are rare.  Judged by the thermometer,
the summers are no warmer than those of the Carolinas or Tennessee, but
their effect upon people of the West resident here is much more trying
than the summers of those places.  Various reasons are assigned for
this.  Physicians are well aware that humidity affects {20} health for
good or bad as much as temperature.  In considering the healthfulness
of a climate, not only is the temperature to be taken into account, but
the amount of moisture in the air must also be considered.  Now, in
Japan there is so excessive an amount of moisture in the atmosphere
that it makes the heat exceedingly depressing.

The presence of this dampness makes it very hard to keep things clean
and free from rust and mold.  Sewing-machines, bicycles, scissors,
knives, and such things have to be watched carefully and oiled.
Carpets, clothing, shoes, etc., have to be sunned well and then shut up
in air-tight boxes during the summer season.  Often a single night is
sufficient to make a pair of shoes white with mold.  Were it only on
the machines and clothing that the dampness and mold settle, it would
not be so bad; but we feel that this same clammy mold is going down
into our very bones and marrow, gradually sapping their vigor and
strength.

Besides this great excess of moisture in the atmosphere, there are
other reasons why the climate is so debilitating.  One of these is the
lack of ozone.  This element is known to be one of the greatest
atmospheric purifiers, and also to have a very invigorating and
stimulating effect upon mind and body.  The proportion of ozone in the
atmosphere of Japan is only about one {21} third as great as that in
the atmosphere of most Western countries.

The proportion of electricity in the atmosphere is also thought to be
much below the average.  While not much is known in regard to the
effect of atmospheric electricity upon the healthfulness of a country,
it is generally believed by scientific and medical men that the
proportion of electricity in the air has much to do with our physical
well-being.

These three factors, viz., too much moisture, not enough ozone, and not
enough electricity, are named as the chief causes which conduce to make
the climate depressing and enervating to people from the West.  We
missionaries have neither the energy nor the strength to do here what
we could do at home, and after a five or six years' residence, to do
effective work must be permitted to recuperate in the home lands.

The rainfall is far above the average of most countries.  Two thirds of
the annual downpour falls during the six months from April to October.
The rainy season proper begins early in June and lasts about six weeks.
At this season it sometimes rains for weeks consecutively.  This year
(1896) during the rainy season we did not once get a sight of the sun
for at least three weeks.  The amount of rain varies greatly from year
to year, as also in different localities.

{22}

Notwithstanding the heavy rainfall, bright, sunny days are far in
excess of dark, rainy ones.  Clear, balmy skies are the rule rather
than the exception.  There is a softness and delicacy about Japanese
skies rare in America, but common in European countries bordering on
the Mediterranean Sea.

Japanese winds are irregular and violent, and subject to sudden
changes.  During three months of the year the dreaded typhoons are
expected, and once or twice each year great damage is done by them.
These typhoons generally blow from the southwest.  They often sweep
houses, forests, and everything else before them, their wake being a
mass of ruins.  In fair weather, on the sea-shore, there is a gentle
land- and sea-breeze in summer.



_Productions_

Japan is blessed with a fertile soil, capable of bearing a variety of
products.  By centuries of the most careful fertilization and
irrigation (arts in which the Japanese are adepts) the land has been
brought to a very high state of cultivation.  One of the peculiar
things to the people of the West is the manner in which the fields are
irrigated.  Nearly all the land under cultivation can be freely watered
at the will of the cultivator.  {23} Streams and canals everywhere wind
in and out through the plains and round the hills, making easy the
irrigation of all arable lands.

A striking feature of the farming is the manner of terracing the sides
of the hills and mountains.  These are not cultivated in their natural
state, as in America, but stone walls are built at regular gradations
on the mountain-sides, and the soil dug down until level with the tops
of the walls.  Arranged in this way a mountain-side looks not unlike a
huge stairway, and lends beauty to the landscape.

The land here is not divided into large farms, as is usual in the West.
Most of the farms are very small.  One never sees a field of ten or
fifteen acres, but little plots hardly as large as our vegetable
gardens.  The cultivation is mostly done by hand, the women laboring in
the fields with their husbands and brothers.  The implements in general
use are very rude.  Plows are used, but they are roughly made of wood,
with an iron point attached, and do poor work.  Nearly all the
cultivating is done with a hoe, the blade of which is almost as long as
the handle, and is attached to it at an angle of less than forty-five
degrees, making it an awkward thing to use.  All grains are harvested
and threshed by hand.  The land being so fertile, the yield is large.

In enumerating the products of their country, {24} the native writers
usually begin with the _go-koku_, or five cereals--wheat, rice, millet,
beans, and sorghum.  Fine crops of wheat are grown, especially in the
southern provinces.  Perhaps no country in the world produces better
rice or a greater quantity per acre.  One half of all the land under
cultivation is used in the production of rice.

Green grasses are remarkably rare in Japan, and the soil does not seem
to be adapted to their growth.  Long plains of green meadow- and
pasture-lands, so pleasing to the eye in home landscapes, are never
seen.  Almost the only grass in the empire is the long, coarse grass
that grows on the hills and mountains.

Corn and oats are met with rarely.  The cultivation of corn is now
being introduced in the northern provinces, however, and will probably
soon become more general.  Hemp and cotton both flourish.  The cotton
does not grow as large or yield as bountifully as it does in our own
Southern States, but a very good crop is raised each year.  There is a
large variety of vegetables, such as turnips, pumpkins, radishes,
beets, carrots, potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions, etc.

Japan produces a great variety of fruits and berries.  We can have
fresh fruit all the year round.  Some of the more prominent are
oranges, persimmons, figs, apricots, pears, peaches, {25} plums,
loquats, grapes, etc.  As a rule the fruit is inferior to that of the
West, but the oranges, persimmons, and figs are excellent.

Until comparatively recent years apples were unknown here, but now they
are being rapidly introduced and successfully cultivated.  They are
grown only in the northern provinces, the southern soil not being well
adapted to them.

For bright, gay flowers Japan can hardly be excelled.  At certain
seasons the whole country resembles an immense garden.  The
crysanthemum is the national flower, and magnificent specimens of it
are grown.  The cherry blossoms are universal favorites, and when they
are at their best the whole population turns out to see them.  Lotus
flowers are highly prized, and in our city of Saga there is an old
castle moat, 200 or 300 yards wide and more than 1 mile long, filled
with them, which in July and August is a sea of large red-and-white
blossoms, beautiful to behold.  The hills and valleys abound in wild
flowers, but the natives seem to prize them less than the cultivated
ones.  In recent years Western flowers are being extensively
cultivated, and most of them do well.  Flowers that must be carefully
housed and nursed in America, such as geraniums, fuchsias, etc., will
grow all the year in the open in Japan.  Some one only partially
acquainted with Japan has said that the flowers have no {26} odor, but
this is not true; they are, however, less fragrant than those of the
West.

There is no country in the East so well supplied with useful timber.
On the island of Yezo alone there are thirty-six varieties of useful
timber-trees, including the most useful of all trees, the oak.  These
vast forests as yet are untouched practically, and the whole of the
Hokkaido is one huge lumber-yard.  The main island, Kyushu, and Shikoku
are also well timbered.  But the demand for building material,
fire-wood, and charcoal is so great that rapid inroads are being made
upon the supply of timber.  Unless a more thorough system of forestry
is adopted the supply will some day be exhausted.  The mulberry-tree
flourishes, and immense tracts of land are given to its cultivation.
The fruit is not used, but the leaves are highly valuable in silk
culture.  Lacquer-trees also abound, from which a considerable revenue
is derived.

The camphor-supply of the world is almost entirely in the hands of
Japan.  Magnificent camphor-trees are growing over all southern Japan,
and in the newly acquired territory of Formosa there are large groves
of them.  The camphor industry is a lucrative one, and happy is the man
who possesses a few trees.  Within a few yards of my former home in
Saga, on a little strip of waste land, there were four camphor-trees
which sold, standing, for $2000, silver.

{27}

This account would be very incomplete without a notice of the bamboo,
which grows in large quantities over all the empire.  In the northern
provinces it is only a small shrub; in the southern it grows to a large
tree.  The uses to which it is put are innumerable, and the people
hardly could do without it.

The chief articles of foreign export produced in Japan are silk, tea,
and rice.  Silk is produced throughout the country, with the exception
of the island of Yezo, but the best yielding districts are in the
center and north of the main island.  The Japanese cocoon seems to be
equally as good as the European, but the methods of manufacturing are
not yet up to the highest standard; for this reason Japanese silks are
hardly as good as those of France or Italy.  The annual export of silk
is worth to Japan about $30,000,000.

Second only to silk in importance among exports is tea.  Most of it is
shipped by foreign merchants to America, Chinese and Indian teas being
more popular in Europe.  About 40,000,000 pounds are annually exported.
The quantity consumed at home must be very great, at least equal to
that sent abroad.

The foreign trade in rice is large, and is increasing continually.
Japanese rice is far better than that grown in India or Burmah, and is
esteemed highly in European markets.  Formerly {28} the government
exported the rice, as it levied taxes in rice and hence had great
stores of it; but this practice has been discontinued.  Native
merchants are now taking up this branch of the export trade and are
pushing it with vigor.  The value of the export varies very much each
year, in accordance with the crop produced.

Japan is not only rich and fertile, yielding the greatest variety of
products, but she is also endowed with great mineral wealth.  Kaempfer,
in the first history of Japan given to the West, enumerates the
minerals thus: sulphur, gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, coal, salt,
agates, jasper, pearls, naphtha, ambergris, etc.  Coal of fairly good
quality is present in great quantities in many parts of the empire.
Much of it is sold to the foreign steamers that call here on their way
to China.  The export of copper amounts to more than $5,000,000 per
year.  Iron, chiefly in the form of magnetic oxide, is present along
the sea-coast and in the diluvium of rivers.  As yet the iron resources
have not been developed.  Gold and silver are present in many places,
but the mines have never been worked to very great advantage.  Large
quantities of salt are made from sea-water.  Traces of petroleum are
found in several localities, but not much has yet been made of it.  The
great mineral wealth of Japan as yet is developed only partially.


{29}

_Animals_

The fauna is represented generally as very meager, but this is an
injustice.  A large portion of the animals now found here may have been
imported, but, taking Japan as we find her to-day, animals are abundant.

Horses and oxen are the beasts of burden, and are found everywhere.
The horses are smaller than those of the West, and are not so gentle,
though very sure-footed and hardy.  An effort is now being made to
improve the breed by importing American and Australian horses.  Native
oxen do most of the carrying and plowing.  Strange to say, the oxen are
gentler and more manageable than the horses.  There are very few sheep,
and it seems that the country is not adapted to them.  Almost the only
sheep I have seen here were in menageries, caged, along with lions,
bears, etc.  Pigs are found, but the people are not fond of their
flesh, and consequently not many are raised.

Domestic animals are plentiful, such as cats, dogs, ducks, geese,
chickens, etc.  Many of the cats have no tails, and the people are
prejudiced against cats that have tails.  If one happens to be born
with a tail they will probably cut it off.  Turkeys are scarce.

{30}

There are many wild animals, such as bears, wild boars, deer, monkeys,
_tanuki_, wild dogs, foxes, and hares.  The people are fond of the
chase, but, as large game is rare, the opportunity to indulge this
taste is very limited.

Among the wild birds are found herons, cranes, ducks, geese, pheasants,
pigeons, storks, falcons, hawks, ravens, woodcocks, crows, and a small
bird, called _uquisu_, resembling the nightingale.  The stork and the
heron are perhaps most popular, and have been pictured in all kinds of
native art.  Wild geese and ducks spend the summer in Yezo and the
winter in Hondo.  Singing birds are rare, but not, as some have
affirmed, unknown.

The seas surrounding Japan, and her numerous bays and rivers, are
teeming with animal life, and for multitude and variety of edible fish
are perhaps unsurpassed by any in the world.  Salmon, cod, mackerel,
herring, bait, tai, and other small fish are very abundant, so much so
that in many places they are used as a fertilizer.  From time
immemorial fish have formed a prominent part of the daily diet of the
people.  Whales are numerous on the shores of Kyushu and the southern
shores of Hondo, where they are taken by means of harping-irons or
darts.  Quantities of oil are extracted from them, and their flesh is
much relished for food.

The foregoing account will perhaps give the {31} reader some idea of
the nature, extent, climate, and products of the land of Japan.  With a
fertile soil, rich deposits of minerals, a genial climate, and a
landscape unsurpassed, surely this is a country highly favored by
Heaven.  How sad to think that those to whom God has given so much know
so little of Him!  How one's heart bleeds to see God's beautiful
handiwork all marred and stained by images and idols, and that praise
which the people so justly owe Him given to gods of wood and stone!
But such is the case in Japan to-day.  The people know that they are
indebted to some higher power for innumerable blessings, but they do
not know that this power is the God whom we preach to them.



{32}

II

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE JAPANESE

Nothing definite is known concerning the origin of the Japanese people.
Some authorities think that the southern portion of Japan was first
peopled by sailors and fishermen from Malay, who were drifted thither
by the strong current of the Black Stream.  That this has happened to
shipwrecked sailors in the present time is cited in confirmation of
this view.

Some of the northern islands are within sight of the mainland, and it
is possible that tribes from northern Asia made their way across the
narrow seas and settled there.  Ethnological and philological evidence
indicates that some immigrants came over from Korea, which they could
easily have done, as the southern part of Korea is very near.

If these suppositions are true, two races mingled in Japan--the Malay
from the south and the {33} Mongol from the west--and the Japanese
people are the joint product of the two.  But there is no certain
information regarding these immigrations, and we cannot affirm them as
historic facts.

Two of the greatest authorities on this subject, Baelz and Rein, affirm
that the Japanese are of Mongol origin.  Dr. Baelz supposes that there
were two chief streams of immigration from northern and central Asia by
way of Korea.  The immigrants gradually spread eastward and northward
and settled in the land, becoming the progenitors of the present
inhabitants.

It is historically certain that some Chinamen and Koreans have settled
in Japan and contributed toward the production of the Japanese race;
both Chinese and Japanese histories contain accounts of such
immigration; but it is likely that settlers were already here long
before these, of whom we have historic accounts, arrived.

This problem is made more difficult by the fact that there are two
separate and distinct races here--the Japanese and the Ainu.  The
latter do not appear to be Mongols.  The Japanese call them the
aborigines.  When they entered Japan, and where they came from, is not
known.  There is very little intermixing of these two races.  The
Japanese have gradually forced the Ainu back to the northern island,
just as the settlers in the United States have driven back the Indians.
{34} Efforts are being made lately to better the condition of this
race, but they do not meet with much success.  The Ainu appear to have
little capacity for civilization, and the race is rapidly becoming
extinct.

So much for the origin of the people.  We will endeavor to treat their
history, very briefly, under three heads: mythology, mythological
history, and reliable history.



_Japanese Mythology_

Although we of the West are perplexed as to the origin of the Japanese,
the national records give what has been a very clear and satisfactory
account of this.  Hence I have included a very brief statement of this
native account of the origin of the Japanese people under the head of
history, although it is pure mythology.

Japanese history teaches that in the beginning all things were chaos.
There was no Creator, and no First Cause of the universe.  There was
merely a cosmic mass.  By and by the ethereal matter sublimed and
formed the heavens; what remained formed the earth.  From the warm mold
of the earth sprang up a germ which became a self-animate being--the
first of the gods.  Then four other gods were generated, all sexless
and self-begotten.  These gods separated the {35} primordial substance
into the five elements of wood, fire, metal, earth, and water, and gave
to each its properties.  The last of these spontaneous divine
generations were a brother and a sister, named Izanagi and Izanami.
Uniting in marriage, they became the parents of the various islands of
Japan and of gods and goddesses innumerable.  Izanami died when giving
birth to the god of fire.  Her divine consort afterward visits her in
the lower regions to induce her to return to him.  She would fain do
so, but must first consult the gods of the place.  Going to ask counsel
of them, she does not return, and Izanagi, impatient at her tarrying,
goes in search of her.  He finds her a mass of putrefaction, in the
midst of which the eight thunder-gods are sitting.

Disappointed in his hope, he returns to Japan and purifies himself by
bathing in a stream.  As he bathes new gods are born from his clothing
and from each part of his body.  The sun-goddess was born from his left
eye, the moon-god from his right eye, and Susanoo, the last of all, was
born from his nose.  What a prolific breeder of gods was he!

The mythology goes on relating, tale after tale, the absurd actions of
these gods residing together for several generations in Japan, the
center of the universe, frequently visiting both heaven and hell, and
performing all kinds of miraculous feats.  {36} In native history this
period is called the "period of the gods."  About six generations after
Izanagi and Izanami, in the direct line of descent from them, the first
human emperor of Japan was born.  His name was Kamu-Yamato-Ihare-Biko,
posthumously called Jimmu Tenno.

Those Japanese to whose minds the problem of the origin of the outside
nations ever occurred solved it in this fashion: the barbarian nations
must likewise have descended from the mikado, the son of heaven, in
very remote times, but have wandered off and are now far from the
divine source.  The Japanese, being still under the protection of their
divine father, are very much nearer in the line of descent, and hence
are the first race in the world.

Thus they trace their descent direct to the gods, and their emperor is
to this day considered the divine father of his people.  It is a pity
we cannot join with them in accepting this easy solution of the
difficult problem of their origin.



_Mythological History_

By this term I would designate that period in Japanese history in which
mythology and history are so blended as to be inseparable.  For almost
one thousand years records purporting to be historical are so
intermingled with that which is {37} purely mythological as to make it
next to impossible to discriminate between them.

Japanese historians claim that the authentic history of their country
dates from the time of Jimmu Tenno (600 B.C.), and the national records
are unbroken from that time to the present.  Most European and American
historians have accepted these records as true, and yet critical
scholars here feel bound to reject them.  The oldest Japanese histories
were not written until the eighth century A.D., and it does not seem
probable that traditions handed down by word of mouth for more than a
thousand years would be reliable.  The records themselves are
contradictory and self-refuting.  Contemporary Chinese and Korean
history, in which are frequent references to the "land of Wa," i.e.,
Japan, does not agree with the Japanese records, which bear evidence of
having been written for a purpose other than a true statement of
historical facts.  These and other reasons have led Messrs. Aston and
Chamberlain, the scholars who have studied this subject perhaps more
than any others, to conclude that Japanese records prior to the date
461 A.D. are unreliable.

This period in dispute (from 600 B.C. to 461 A.D.) I have designated
the period of mythological history.  Even in the Japanese so-called
histories the mythology for centuries is narrated along with that which
claims to be genuine {38} history; the gods still mingle with men and
take part in their affairs.  The legends of the gods and those of the
emperors are given side by side in the same book, and as much credence
attaches to the one as to the other.

Orthodox Shinto scholars, while recognizing the fact of the parallelism
of the mythology and the history, inconsistently reject the
mythological legends of the gods while strenuously holding to those
relating to the emperors.  My own opinion is that most of the important
events related in the records during this period had some basis in
fact, but that the accounts of them are exaggerated and perverted.

Commencing with the period which native historians assign as the
beginning of authentic history, the first important event we find is
the accession of Jimmu Tenno to the throne (600 B.C.).  But the very
existence of Jimmu Tenno as an historical personage is not at all
certain.  The evidence adduced has never been sufficient to satisfy
Western scholars, although the Japanese would consider it almost
treason to disbelieve in him.

Japanese histories for this period are very meager.  They consist, for
the most part, of a recital of the names and ages of the mikados, with
perhaps a sentence or two concerning the state of the country during
their reigns.

One of the most important events noted in {39} this early period is the
subjugation of Korea by the Empress Jingo.  She is said to have
collected a large army, and, by the help of the fishes great and small,
and of favorable winds and currents, to have crossed over into Korea in
small junks, and completely subjugated the country, reducing it to the
position of a tributary state.  The Japanese firmly believe this story,
and are proud of the early success of their arms in this foreign war.
Korean records justify us in assuming that Japanese influence was
predominant in Korea at this time, but the story of the Empress Jingo,
especially in its details, must be received with caution.  She is
perhaps an historical personage, but whether she invaded Korea or not
is doubtful.

The next event of importance in the records is the introduction of
Chinese art, science, and learning, which took place in the early
centuries of the Christian era, and exerted an incalculable influence
upon the people of Japan.  Learning, religion, philosophy, literature,
laws, ethics, medicine, art--all were brought over bodily.  From this
time forward the Japanese were largely students and imitators of China.
Korea was the medium through which these continental influences were
transmitted.  With the introduction of learning and literature
historical records began to be kept over all Japan, and oral tradition
was no longer relied upon.  From this time the authentic history of
Japan begins.



{40}

_Reliable History_

Chamberlain, Aston, and others agree that the first trustworthy date in
Japanese history is 461 A.D., and that for the succeeding century too
much confidence must not be placed in details.  This disproves the
pretty stories told by the Japanese, and by many Western writers as
well, as to the great age of this nation, and its unbroken line of
emperors extending at least as far back as 600 B.C.; but it is not the
first time that pretty theories have been rudely broken up by an
investigation of facts.  The imperial line is probably as old as that
of the popes, but hardly older.  Japan, in fact and in authentic
history, is younger than Christianity.  Her existence as a state began
about the time of the fall of the Roman empire.

With the year 461 historical events and personages appear, and, in the
main, we may accept the history from this time forward as accurate.

About the middle of the sixth century began one of the most important
processes in Japanese history--the conversion of the nation to
Buddhism.  For some centuries previous Chinese learning and arts had
been gradually filtering into Japan; but they had not as yet gained
general acceptance.  The Buddhist priests brought Chinese civilization,
and in the course of two {41} centuries it spread over the country,
influencing morality, politics, and everything.  Sweeping changes were
made in the government, which was then organized on the Chinese
centralized plan.  Arts, sciences, and literature flourished.  This was
the golden age of classical Japan.

In the year 670 A.D. the great Fujiwara family came upon the stage.
The mikados were in theory absolute rulers, but eventually they became
mere figureheads.  Their mode of life was not such as to make of them
able rulers.  Surrounded by an effeminate court, living in indolence
and debauchery amid priests and court women, they were hardly competent
to direct affairs.  The emperor was often a mere child, who, when he
grew up, either abdicated freely or was forced to abdicate the throne
in favor of another child as weak as himself.  The government was
administered by the most powerful vassals.  The great Fujiwara family
held the affairs of state in its own hands from 670 to 1050 A.D.: all
the important posts were filled by its sons, while its daughters were
married to the imbecile emperors.

The next important event in Japanese history is the rise of feudalism.
The warlike samurai classes, disgusted with this weak petticoat
government, arose in arms and overthrew it.  The great clans of Taira
and Minamoto appeared and alternately held the reins of government for
nearly {42} two centuries.  Lawlessness and disorder prevailed.  The
leader who could command the most men and win the victory with his
sword was master of the empire.  All Japan became a military camp, the
chieftains waging war against one another.  Thus feudalism took its
rise and prevailed for many centuries, powerfully affecting every form
of thought and life, just as it did in Europe at a similar period.

The Taira family was finally overthrown by the Minamotos, and the chief
of the latter clan, Yoritomo, was raised to the supreme power.  This
man was the first to obtain from the imperial court in Kyoto the title
of "shogun"--generally spoken of in the West as "tycoon."  From this
time forward (1190-1867) the shogun was the real ruler of Japan.  The
mikado was still the theoretical head of the state, descendant of the
sun-goddess, and fountain of all honor, but he lived in the retirement
and seclusion of his court, never seen by his subjects, and all matters
of government were attended to by the shogun.  Yoritomo's descendants
gradually degenerated, and were finally overthrown by the Ashikaga
family.

This powerful clan took charge of the government in 1338 and held it
until 1565.  It encouraged literature and the arts, and the court
became a center of elegance and refinement.  Especially {43} did the
intricate tea ceremonies flourish at this time.  This family became
weak and effeminate finally, like its predecessors, and was overthrown.

Japan was first discovered by Europeans probably in 1542, when the
Portuguese adventurer Mendez Pinto landed on her coasts.  He brought
the first definite information concerning her received in Europe, and
his reports were so highly exaggerated that he was spoken of everywhere
as "mendacious Pinto."  Soon after his visit numbers of Portuguese
adventurers came, who were received warmly by the impressible people.
With them came the Jesuits and the introduction of Christianity.  The
growth of Christianity, and the bloody persecutions it encountered,
begin from this time.  These interesting subjects will be treated in
another chapter and hence are passed over here.

During this period lived successively three of the greatest men in
Japanese history--Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Iyeyasu.  On these men
devolved the tasks of breaking the power of the feudal lords and
bringing them into more complete subjection to the shogun; of unifying
the empire and of strengthening the central government.  The plan was
conceived by Nobunaga, begun by Hideyoshi, and completed by Iyeyasu.
The former was the friend and patron of the Christians, the two latter
their bitter persecutors.

{44}

After the rulers had succeeded in stamping out Christianity the country
was closed to foreign influence, and for two hundred years remained
hermetically sealed.  Even shipwrecked foreign sailors found on her
coasts were executed, and no Japanese was permitted to leave the
country on pain of death.  The only communication with the outside
world reserved was through the Hollanders, a small band of whom were
permitted to reside at Nagasaki.  Through them various arts and
sciences, including medicine, were introduced.

This calm seclusion was rudely broken in upon by the coming of
Commodore Perry, in 1853-54, with his big guns.  He came to establish
treaties of commerce and trade, and to secure better treatment for
American ships and sailors--peaceably if possible, forcibly if
necessary.  Here it is needful, in the interests of truth, to disprove
another pretty story, to the effect that Perry and his crew were very
pious, godly men, and that they secured the concessions desired by
peaceable methods--by praying and singing psalms.  The fact is that the
concessions gained were _forced_ from Japan by intimidation, by
threats, and by a show of strength.  Commodore Perry also used the same
tactics in Liukiu.  He effected his purpose, it is true, without using
his guns, except for intimidation, but it is safe to say that he would
not have accomplished it without them.

{45}

The treaties then forced from the government were humiliating to Japan;
for example, granting exterritoriality, by virtue of which foreigners
should live under their own consuls and in no sense be amenable to the
laws of the land.  Such concessions are demanded by civilized states of
the uncivilized only, and their very existence implies inferiority.
But nothing else was possible at that time, nor did Japan object.

The coming of Perry, and his forced opening of the country, marked the
birth of new Japan, so different from the old, and the beginning of an
era of unprecedented prosperity.  The Japanese now recognize this, and
speak of Perry as one of their greatest benefactors.

During the years immediately preceding this there was a great revival
of learning.  A school of literati arose, which zealously studied the
antiquities of its own country as opposed to the imported Chinese
classics.  A revival of Shinto sprang up, and with it grew again that
great reverence and esteem for the ancient imperial line, the divine
mikados, as against the upstart shoguns.  In this way began the
movement which ended in the revolution of 1868 and the overthrow of the
shogunate.

When Perry came the shogun's government was already tottering to its
fall, and when this government made treaties with foreign countries,
{46} admitting the "barbarians" to this "land of the gods," a loud cry
arose against it over all the land.  Finally the imperial court at
Kyoto, prompted by the mighty daimios of Choshu, Satsuma, and Tosa,
decided upon the abolition of the shogunate.  The shogun himself
submitted to the decree of the mikado, but many of his followers did
not.  The War of the Revolution ensued, and after much fighting the
imperial troops were victorious; the shogunate was forever abolished,
and the emperor once more took personal charge of the government.

The literary party had triumphed.  Buddhism was largely supplanted by
Shinto; the shogunate, which had admitted the foreigners, was
abolished; and the literati fondly supposed that the court would now
expel the intruders, abolish the treaties, again shut up the country,
and affairs would go on as in the "good old times."  But they were
deceived.  The mighty lords of Tosa, Satsuma, and Choshu now declared
in favor of foreign intercourse and the adoption of European
civilization.  These princes were too powerful not to be heard.  Their
advice was heeded; the foreigners were welcomed, the country was opened
more and more, old abuses were corrected, and the Europeanization of
Japan was begun.

The reformation was ably assisted from the very quarter where we would
expect to find it {47} most bitterly opposed.  The young and able
emperor Mutsuhito, coming out of the obscurity which had enshrouded his
ancestors for ages, and putting aside the traditions of centuries, ably
seconded the efforts of his ministers in every reform.  The
unparalleled progress during his long and enlightened reign is due in
no small part to his wisdom and prudence.  He has shown himself a
liberal, enlightened monarch, and I am sure that I express the
sentiment of every friend of Japan in saying, Long live his Majesty
Mutsuhito!

The reformation of the country, the assimilation of Western
civilization and institutions, and the gradual opening and development
of the empire have gone on uninterruptedly since the restoration of the
emperor to the supreme power.

In 1871 the daimiates were abolished and the old daimios retired to
private life.  Thus feudalism was at last broken up and the central
government strengthened.  In this same year the postal and telegraph
systems were introduced and a mint was established.

In 1889 the constitution was promulgated, whereby the people were given
a voice in the government, and Japan became a constitutional monarchy,
very much like Prussia or other European states.  In this year local
self-government was also established.  In accordance with the
constitution, the first Diet was opened in 1890.  {48} This highest
legislative body in Japan resembles somewhat, in its organization and
functions, the German Reichstag.

One of the greatest recent events in Japanese history is the successful
revision of the treaties.  After the Restoration and the adoption of
Western institutions and civilization, efforts were continually being
made to have these treaties revised on a basis more favorable to Japan;
but these efforts were always defeated.  Thus Japan was for many years
forced to submit to treaties made long ago, which were good enough
then, but are outgrown entirely now.  No recognition whatever was made
of her great progress during these thirty years, and the foreign powers
still treated her as an inferior.  This was unjust, and the people
naturally chafed under it.  Finally, by the wisdom and perseverance of
the present Japanese statesmen, treaty revision has been secured on the
basis of equality.  By this revision she regains the concessions forced
from her in former years.  After the year 1900 all foreigners residing
in Japan will become amenable to her laws; exterritoriality will be
abolished; power to levy taxes upon imports within prescribed limits
will be regained; and Japan will be recognized as an equal by the great
powers of the West.  In return for these concessions on the part of
foreign powers, she gives liberty of residence and travel {49} in any
part of the empire, and all privileges generally accorded aliens in
Western nations, except the right of ownership of land.  We rejoice
with Japan that justice has at last been accorded her, and that the
treaties have been satisfactorily revised.

A sketch of Japanese history would be incomplete without some mention
of the recent war with China.  This war was especially interesting
because it afforded the first opportunity Japan has had of trying her
strength with her new arms.  For years she has been to school to the
Western nations; now she goes out to put into practice the lessons she
has learned.  Her fine army and navy, constructed after the most
approved Western models, are tested for the first time.  The results
are such as to more than satisfy Japan with her new equipment.  The
story of her splendid success against a nation outnumbering her ten to
one is familiar to all and need not be recounted.

The war was a positive gain to Japan in many ways.  Aside from the
material gain in indemnity and the extension of her territory, it gave
her an opportunity to demonstrate to the world the substantial progress
she has made.  Nothing else would have gained for her so much respect
from Western powers as her prowess exhibited in this war.  A
demonstration of force and of ability to fight great battles is still
regarded as a mark of progress and civilization.

{50}

The war also helped to settle many troublesome internal questions.
Some feared the people would be so elated by their phenomenal success
that their pride and arrogance would be unendurable.  But it was not
so.  The Japanese expected to win from the beginning, and were not
surprised at the result.  After the war was over they settled down to
the even tenor of their ways as though nothing had happened.  They have
shown themselves as able to bear victory as to win it.

Such is an all too brief account of the history of this interesting
people.  An acquaintance with the main facts of this history I thought
necessary to enable American Christians rightly to appreciate the work
of their missionaries in their efforts to plant the church in Japan.



{51}

III

JAPANESE CHARACTERISTICS

It is next to impossible for an alien to judge accurately the
characteristics of a people.  That a foreigner's interpretation of a
nation's character, and of the moral influences that direct and mold
its life, is apt to be imperfect and erroneous is now a recognized
truth.  An Englishman cannot understand a Frenchman, nor a Frenchman an
Englishman.  Even people so closely related as the English and
Americans, with a common ancestry, common history and traditions, a
common speech, common laws, and a common faith, find great difficulty
in properly understanding one another.  The American essayist Emerson
did not venture to write "English Traits" until he had visited England,
mingled freely with the people, and familiarized himself with the
manifold phases of English character; and Bryce's excellent work on
"The American Commonwealth," in {52} which American characteristics are
reflected more truly than they have been by any other English writer,
did not see the light until its author had made frequent visits to the
United States and had carefully studied his subject for seventeen years.

If it is so hard to understand a kindred people, how much harder it is
to understand a people so alien as the Japanese!  Here the religion,
language, manners and customs, and moral ideas are so different from
our own that the task of portraying the real characteristics of the
race becomes a colossal one.  It should be attempted only by men who
have had years of practical experience with the people, who can read
their language and look at things from their standpoint, and who bring
to their task a loving sympathy with the people whose life they would
portray.

But nothing is more common than to meet with sweeping judgments on
Japanese character by persons utterly incompetent to make them.  Men
who have perhaps never seen Japan sit in judgment upon her with a gusto
unequaled.  Globe-trotters, spending at most only a few weeks here, and
necessarily learning nothing of the inner life of the people, have made
most sweeping statements concerning the traits of national character,
such as: "The Japanese are a nation of liars;" "They are mere
imitators, originating nothing;" "They are fickle and quite {53}
unreliable;" "Licentiousness is the most prominent trait in the
national character," etc.  Now it is unnecessary to say that judgments
formed in this way are worthless.  Here, if anywhere, it behooves one
to write only after careful study and observation, and even then to
speak with caution.

Physically the Japanese are inferior to the races of the West.  They
are shorter of stature and lighter of weight than Europeans or
Americans.  The upper part of their bodies is developed perhaps as
fully as our own; but the lower limbs have been so cramped by sitting
on the floor for centuries that they are shorter and weaker.  Their
habits of life and their vegetable diet have combined to make of them a
physically weak people.  They age earlier than the races of the
Occident.

In color they do not differ much from the American Indians or the
half-breeds of the South.  There are two types of facial expression:
the old samurai or noble classes have a long, narrow face, sharp nose,
high, narrow forehead, and oblique eyes; the lower classes have fat,
round, pudding faces, with broad mouths and flat noses.  These two
types are distinguished readily on the streets, and rank can be judged
by them.

The Japanese are a cheerful race.  The cares of life seem lightly to
weigh upon them.  On the surface they appear always smiling and happy.
{54} They are very fond of gay scenes and bright colors.  Politeness is
a national characteristic.  Etiquette has been carried to such an
extent as to have largely degenerated into empty forms.

Mentally they are bright and intelligent, receiving and apprehending
instruction readily.  The students are equally as diligent and earnest
as are those in the academies and colleges of America, though
physically they are not so able to endure prolonged study.  They have
great thirst for knowledge, and study for the sake of learning itself;
hence the various devices for evading study so common in the schools at
home are almost unknown.  The intensity of this thirst for knowledge on
the part of the young is remarkable.  Hundreds of young men over all
Japan are struggling for an education against very great odds.  Many
are now educated abroad, and these take their stand in our best
colleges and universities along with the brightest of our own students.
When their course is completed they are able to carry on all kinds of
learned scientific investigations independently of their teachers.
Witness what they have done in seismology, botany, and medicine.  These
facts indicate that the Japanese are an intellectual race.

In order rightly to appreciate the national character we must remember
that the idea of personality is developed here only partially.  {55}
This is strikingly evident in the structure of the language, which
consists of nouns and verbs almost exclusively.  Distinctions of person
and number are generally ignored, and true pronouns are entirely
wanting.  From ancient times men have been considered, not as
individuals, but _en masse_.  The family has been exalted above the
individual, who is hardly considered to have an existence apart from
it.  Thus, in ancient times, as among Occidental races also, if one
member of a family came under the censure of the government, all were
censured.  When one member was put to death, all were executed.  As the
family, and not the individual, was the unit with which the laws dealt,
the family became the subject of prime consideration.  To perpetuate
the family line came to be considered a very essential thing, and in
order thereto the system of concubinage was introduced.  It is proper
to state that in regard to this exaltation of the family over the
individual Japan is now in a transition period, and that the individual
is becoming more and more important in the eyes of the law.

A marked characteristic of the Japanese is their strong patriotism.
There is no more patriotic people on the face of the earth.  It is said
that the name of the emperor, whispered over the heads of an excited
mob, will calm it as readily as oil poured on troubled waters.  In the
recent war {56} with China there were many more volunteers for active
service than could be sent to the front.  I have seen old men lament,
with tears in their eyes, that they could no longer serve their country
as soldiers, even to the death if need be.  This principle of loyalty
is the strongest motive power in Japan to-day.  It supersedes all
others.  A man's duty to his family, even to his parents, is nothing
when compared with his duty to his country; and Japanese history
abounds in pathetic stories of men, women, and even children, who have
counted all other duties as naught and have willingly sacrificed their
lives for their country.

Patriotism here amounts to a passion--I had almost said a fanaticism.
From earliest infancy it is instilled into the minds of the children,
and there is not one of the little ones in whose heart his country has
not the first place.  A native writer has expressed the sentiments of
every Japanese thus: "My native land! everywhere and always the first
affections of my heart and the first labor of my hands shall be thine
alone."

This patriotism is not always held intelligently.  The masses of the
people have very mistaken ideas as to what patriotism is.  I meet not a
few who believe that love for Japan necessitates a hatred of all other
countries, and that no man can be loyal and at the same time admire and
praise foreign lands.  Fortunately, the class {57} whose nationalism is
so unenlightened is not an influential one; otherwise patriotism itself
would check the growth and development of the country.  As it is, the
strong nationalistic feeling serves to prevent a too indiscriminate
adoption of Western institutions and to preserve the good elements of
old Japan.

Respect for parents and teachers is one of the most prominent elements
in the national character.  The first principle of Confucian ethics, as
taught in China, is reverence and obedience to parents; and although in
Japan this has been subordinated to the principle of loyalty, it is
still a prominent factor in the national life.  The proper attitude of
children toward parents, and pupils toward teachers, is not one of
love, but one of absolute obedience and reverence.  It is said here
that true love can come only from a superior to an inferior, while the
proper feeling of inferiors toward their superiors is one of reverence.
This relation of superior and inferior is carried into every phase of
society, and on it depends much of the family and national life.  The
principle of obedience is almost the only moral teaching given to the
girls, and when they are grown up their moral ideas cluster round this
one point.  In olden times parents had absolute control over their
children and could dispose of them as they saw fit, even killing them
if they so desired.  But now the {58} parent's control over the child
is limited by law.  Children are expected to yield implicit,
unquestioning obedience to their parents, and Japanese children are
usually more virtuous in this respect than the children of Americans.

As a result of this fundamental principle of obedience, inculcated from
childhood, has grown the universal respect for authority found in
Japan.  Whatever the government does the common people do not question.
Even petty officials are respected and obeyed in a manner surprising to
us independently thinking people of the West.  No matter how
disagreeable and unjust an act on the part of the authorities may be,
it is usually accepted meekly with the comment, "There is no help for
it."

The counterpart of this reverence and unquestioning obedience to
authority is a feeling of meekness and dependence.  The government is
depended upon for much more than is the government in the United
States.  It is expected to inaugurate all great commercial and
industrial enterprises.  Thus the building of railroads, the
construction of telegraphs, and other great works have had to be
executed by the government.  In recent years this spirit is changing
somewhat, and private corporations are beginning to inaugurate great
enterprises.  But in general it may be said that the national character
is lacking in independence and decision.

{59}

Love of the beautiful is a prominent and highly developed Japanese
trait.  Their ideals of beauty differ much from Western ideals, and
many things that they pronounce beautiful would not be so judged in the
Occident.  Most Americans at first cannot appreciate Japanese art,
landscape scenery, or flowers; but a short residence here and an
acquaintance with native life and scenes soon bring one to appreciate
them.  The esthetic faculty is much more highly developed than in
America.  It is possessed by all classes.  The gardens of the rich are
laid out with especial care, and no money or pains are spared to make
them beautiful.  I have seen day-laborers stand and gaze for a long
time at a beautiful sunset, or go into raptures over a dwarfed
cherry-bush just putting forth its tiny buds.  Men who have worked in
the fields all day, until they are exhausted, on their return home in
the evening will stop by the wayside to pluck some beautiful shrub or
flower and carry it back with them.  Go into the room of a school-boy
and you will almost invariably find his table brightened by a pretty
bouquet of flowers.  When the cherries are in bloom the whole
population leaves off work and turns out to enjoy them.  Japan is a
beauteous land, and no people are more capable of appreciating her
beauty than her own.

The Japanese are open-minded and receptive of truth, from whatever
quarter it may come.  Were this not true it would have been impossible
{60} for her to have become what she is to-day.  When Buddhism was
first brought to Japan it was seen to possess elements of religious
power that Shinto did not have, and the people by and by accepted it.
When Confucianism was introduced its moral teachings were seen to be
lofty and inspiring, and it was given a warm welcome.  When
Christianity first came many of the daimios took especial pains to
examine into it to see if it were likely to benefit their country, with
the full intention of accepting it.  How many of them did accept it is
told in another chapter.  The present attitude of opposition is the
result of prejudice, instilled in part by past experience with
Christianity, and in part by the misrepresentation of its enemies; it
is not the result of natural intolerance.  The readiness with which
Western learning of all kinds has been adopted, and the patient hearing
and investigation native scholars give to all new theories of science
and knowledge, clearly show that their mind is an open and receptive
one.  A native professor has expressed this characteristic in these
words: "The Japanese as a race are open-hearted, with a mind free from
prejudice and open to conviction."  But that it is as receptive of
prejudice and misrepresentation as of truth and knowledge is evidenced
by its present attitude toward Christianity.

Many critics have pronounced the Japanese a {61} very speculative
people, but it is doubtful if this is true.  By nature, I think, they
are more inclined to be practical than speculative.  Abstract
metaphysical and theological ideas have little charm for them.

But there is a large element in Japan that simulates a taste for
philosophical study.  Philosophy and metaphysics are regarded by them
as the profoundest of all branches of learning, and in order to be
thought learned they profess great interest in these studies.  Not only
are the highly metaphysical philosophies of the East studied, but the
various systems of the West are looked into likewise.  Many of the
people are capable of appreciating these philosophies, too; but they do
it for a purpose.

Japanese character is lacking in steadfastness and fixedness of
purpose.  Huge enterprises will be begun with great enthusiasm, only to
be abandoned in a short while.  There is not that steadfastness and
fixedness which lays out far-reaching plans, extending years into the
future, and which adheres to these plans until their purpose is
accomplished.  On the contrary, they are vacillating and changeful, as
is shown by their migratory disposition.  This want of steadfastness is
even evinced by many ministerial candidates.  It is a frequent
occurrence for young men to enter the mission schools with the firm
intention of {62} becoming evangelists, and, by the time their academic
course is finished, to change their mind and go into some other
calling.  Some of those who have become evangelists are restless and
vacillating, and after they have been located in one place for a few
years like to be transferred to another.  The "stick-to-it-iveness" of
the Anglo-Saxon is largely wanting.  But we must not speak too
dogmatically upon this point, for the Japanese government has shown
itself capable of laying out far-reaching plans, and of adhering to its
original purpose until it is successfully accomplished.

Inconsistency is another trait of the Japanese mind, which often turns
square about and takes positions exactly opposed to its avowed
principles, realizing no inconsistency in doing so.  This is well
illustrated in the political life of the people.  In theory the
emperor, as the divine head of the nation, cannot go wrong, and
whatever he does is necessarily right.  It is the duty of every subject
unquestioningly to obey the will of the emperor.  To this all Japanese
will readily agree, but in practice the people are often found
arraigned against the government, which has the emperor for its head.
Lines of policy which the emperor himself has mapped out and pursued
for years are often bitterly opposed; and yet the people are all
unconscious of this, and resent very much any insinuation that they are
opposing his will.

{63}

Another evidence of inconsistency is seen in their opposition to
Christianity.  The usual objection that is made against our faith is
that it is a Western religion, and there are thousands of people who
oppose it solely on this ground.  But, even while opposing the Western
religion, they are daily using all kinds of Western institutions
gladly.  All manner of material things are received from abroad with
pleasure, and are considered none the worse for their foreign origin,
the line being drawn at religion.

Japanese character is largely wanting in originality.  The people have
originated almost nothing, having accepted nearly everything at the
hands of others.  In ancient times Japan had Korea for a teacher;
afterward she studied under China; now she is at school to Europe and
America.  Her medieval civilization was accepted bodily from Asia, just
as her modern is from Europe.  No important inventions have been made.
Even the little jinrikisha, which is the universal means of locomotion,
and which, I believe, is found nowhere else except in certain Chinese
ports, is said to have been first made by an American missionary for
the comfort and convenience of his invalid wife.  It should be said,
however, that some claim the native origin of the jinrikisha, and
contend that its inventor lived in Kyoto.

But while the Japanese are not originators, they {64} are excellent
imitators.  The ability to imitate well is a power not to be despised.
This, when coupled with assimilation, is a very fruitful source of
progress, as the Japan of to-day witnesses.  The ease and facility with
which Japan has imitated the West and assimilated her institutions,
applying them to new and changed conditions, is marvelous.  Given a
model, the people can make anything, no matter how diminutive or
complicated.  Even the American dude is most successfully imitated.

The Japanese do not slavishly follow their models, but are able to
change, modify, and develop them at will.  Given the general idea, they
can easily construct the rest.  Thus in the adoption of Western
institutions they have in some cases actually improved upon their
models.  Especially is this true of the postal and telegraph systems,
which, though copied after our own, are in many respects superior.
They are not blind followers of their teachers, but often start out on
independent exploration and investigation.  Such powers of imitation
are second only to those of invention, and have made Japan what she is
to-day.

Another national peculiarity is the slight value placed upon human
life.  The idea that the family, and not the individual, is of supreme
importance, and the Buddhistic teaching that life itself is the
greatest of all evils, are responsible for this.  To {65} pour out
one's blood upon the battle-field for one's lord has from of old been
considered a privilege.  Death has not that terror that it has in the
West, and the people are not afraid to die.  Hence suicides are of very
frequent occurrence, and to take one's own life is, under certain
circumstances, considered a meritorious act.  Under the old régime a
member of the samurai or warrior classes could not be executed like a
common man, but after condemnation was left to take his own life.

About seven thousand suicides occur in Japan each year.  The slightest
reasons will induce a man to take his own life.  Statistics show that
the proportion of suicides varies with the success or failure of the
rice crop.  If sustenance is cheap, people live; if it is dear, they
rid themselves of the burden of life.  The number of suicides also
varies much with the season of the year, showing that such little
matters as heat and discomfort will outweigh the value put upon life.

A young girl recently came to Saga from Kagoshima as a household
servant She did not like her new home, and asked her mistress to send
her back to her birthplace.  The mistress refused, and the next morning
the poor girl was found dead in the yard, having hanged herself during
the night--all, forsooth, because she could not go home.  So low is the
value placed upon life here!  Human life is valued highly in the West
{66} solely because of Christian teaching; outside of Christendom it is
cheap.

It has been charged upon the Japanese that they are wanting in
gratitude, or, at least, that their gratitude lasts only so long as
they are looking for favors.  This is but partially true.  Ever since I
came to Japan I have been teaching a few boys English at odd hours, and
they have really embarrassed me by the number of their presents.  On
the other hand, I have helped young men with money at school, who were
at first grateful apparently, and would come to my home to perform
various small services in return, but by and by would object to doing
the least service, even while living on my charity.

In past years Japan has in various capacities employed a great number
of Americans and Europeans, and has usually rendered them a very
adequate return for their services.  In addition to the stipulated
salary, she has often given them costly presents.  But recently a good
deal of complaint has been made by foreign employees to the effect
that, after they have given the best years of their lives to the
service of Japan, they have been summarily dismissed, without previous
notice and without thanks.

Evidences of ingratitude are very numerous in the native church.  The
missionary who has left home, friends, and country for the sake of
these {67} people, and who labors for them with all the powers God has
given him, is often not rewarded by that gratitude and kindness on the
part of his converts which he reasonably expects.  Frequently he takes
young men from the humbler walks of life, provides both their food and
clothing, gives them six or eight years' instruction in well-equipped
schools, supports them liberally as evangelists, only to have them rise
up against him, oppose him in his work, and pronounce him an ignoramus.
In many parts of the native church there is a strong anti-missionary
spirit, and the feeling of gratitude which these churches should have
for their founders, organizers, and supporters is wanting.  From such
facts as these we are forced to conclude that the feeling of gratitude
is not very strong.

Much has been said in regard to the commercial honor and integrity of
the Japanese.  Our first American minister to Japan, Townsend Harris,
pronounced them "the greatest liars upon the face of the earth."  A
foreign employee in a government school, when asked concerning the
native character, replied in two words--_deceit_ and _conceit_.  The
numerous exceptions to upright dealing in mercantile circles seem to
justify these judgments.  Native merchants are unreliable in such
matters as punctuality, veracity, and the keeping of contracts.  They
will do all in their {68} power to avoid the fulfilment of a contract
which would entail a loss.  The artisan class is even more unreliable
in these respects than are the merchants.

To offset this, it should be said that, while the people are frequently
unreliable in private matters, in public affairs and in all
governmental relations they are honest and fair-dealing.  Public office
is seldom perverted for private ends, and the national conscience would
quickly call to account any official who would enrich himself at the
public expense.  In this respect Japan is in striking contrast with the
other nations of the East, and, alas! with many of those of the West as
well.

I have not endeavored to give an exhaustive statement of the national
characteristics of the Japanese people, but have simply tried to give
enough to help my readers to an appreciation of the native character.
I have endeavored to be strictly truthful and at the same time to do
justice to the race.  While fully recognizing the failings of the
Japanese, we must also recognize the great improvement of the national
character in recent years, and must remember that they are in many
respects laboring at a great disadvantage, and deserve, not hatred and
contempt, but our warmest sympathy and love.



{69}

IV

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

A study of the manners and customs of foreign peoples is both
interesting and profitable.  If we have no knowledge of the customs of
other nations we are apt to think that our own customs have their
ground in eternal reason, and that all customs differing from ours are
necessarily false and wrong.  But if we study the manners of other
lands, and learn of the daily observance of customs many of which are
squarely opposed to our own, and which nevertheless work well, we will
be led to value our own customs at their true worth, and to realize
that we have not a monopoly of all that is good, convenient, and useful.

To know the manners and customs of a country is to know much about that
country.  There is no truer index of the character of a people's life.
Knowing these, the prevailing morality and governing laws may be very
largely inferred.  In fact, {70} every phase of a nation's life has so
intimate a connection with the manners and customs that a study of
these is exceedingly profitable.

Such a study is especially necessary to those who would gain a correct
knowledge of the nature and difficulties of mission work in foreign
lands.  The customs of a people will have a direct bearing upon mission
work among them.  If Christianity violates national customs it will be
condemned; if it observes them it will be tolerated.  Whether it
observes or violates them must depend upon the nature of the customs
themselves.  The success of Christianity in any country will depend, in
part, upon the nature of the customs prevalent there.  Therefore it is
wise for us to study those of Japan, in order to a better understanding
of the people and of the condition and prospects of mission work among
them.

One of the most striking facts in connection with Japanese customs is
that many of them are exactly opposed to those which prevail in the
West.  People who have been accustomed to doing certain things one way
all their lives, and have come to look upon that as the only way, upon
coming out here are shocked to find these very same things done in
precisely the opposite way.  This is so to such an extent that Japan
has been called "Topsyturvydom."  But to those who are acquainted with
the customs of both East and {71} West it is a serious question which
one is topsy-turvy.  After one has become used to them, many of the
customs appear just as sensible and convenient as those of America or
Europe.  Why this opposition, we do not know, but perhaps the fact that
the Japanese are antipodal to us makes it fitting that their customs
should be antipodal too.  I will point out a few of the things that are
so different.

The manner of making books and of writing letters is very different
from that to which my readers are accustomed.  An Occidental has an
idea that something inherent in things necessitates that a book begin
at the left side, and the thought of beginning at the other side
appears to him ridiculous.  But in reality it is every whit as
convenient, fitting, and sensible to begin at one side as at the other;
and all Japanese books begin at the side which people of the West call
the end, i.e., at the right side, and read toward the left.  While
English books are printed across the page in lines from left to right,
Japanese books are printed from right to left in columns.  An
Occidental generally turns the leaves of his book from the top with his
left hand; an Oriental turns them from the bottom with his right hand.
In Western libraries the books are placed on their ends in rows; in
Japan they are laid flat down on their sides and piled up in columns.
If we see several good dictionaries {72} or encyclopedias in a man's
study we are apt to infer that he is a man of studious habits; the
Japanese of olden times inferred just the opposite.  The idea seems to
have been that a scholar would already have the meaning and use of all
words in his head and would not need to refer to a dictionary.  A
Japanese friend who came into my study one day expressed great surprise
at seeing several large dictionaries there.  "You have certainly had
better educational advantages than I have," he said, "and yet I can get
along with a very small dictionary; why cannot you?"  Upon inquiry, I
learned that many Japanese keep their dictionaries concealed, because
they do not want it said that they must refer to them often.

The manner of addressing letters in Japan is exactly opposed to ours.
Take a familiar example.  We write:

  MR. FRANK JONES,
      110 Gay Street,
          Knoxville,
              Tennessee.

A Japanese would write it:

  Tennessee,
      Knoxville,
          Gay Street, 110,
              JONES, FRANK, MR.

The latter is certainly the more sensible method, because what the
postmaster wants to see is not {73} the name of the man to whom the
letter is addressed, but the place to which it is to go.

In matters of dress there are some customs quite opposed to our own.
The American lady, especially if she goes to a ball, has her neck and
arms bare, but she would be shocked at the very mention of having her
feet bare.  The Japanese lady puts her heaviest clothing on her arms
and shoulders, but does not at all mind being seen with bare feet and
ankles.  Many of the ladies do not wear any foot-gear at all in the
house, but these same women could hardly be induced to expose their
arms and necks as Western women do.

A Western lady is very anxious to have a thin, narrow waist; her
Japanese sister wants a broad one.  In the West curly hair is highly
prized on girls and women; in the East it is considered an abomination.
If you tell a little girl here that her hair is curly, she will
consider it a disgrace and will cry bitterly.  The most striking
difference in regard to dress, however, is in mourning dress.  Whereas
in the West it is always black, in Japan it is always white.

Another remarkable contrast is found in the relation of the sexes.  In
America the woman is given the precedence in everything.  Her husband,
and all other men who come within her influence, must serve and honor
her.  Attend an evening party and see woman in her glory.  How {74} the
men crowd round her, anxious to serve or entertain!  When supper is
announced they vie with one another for the honor of escorting her to
the dining-room.  She must have first seat at table and be first
served, and during the progress of the meal the men must be careful to
see that she has everything her sweet will desires.  When supper is
over the ladies precede the men to the drawing-room, and by the time
the men again appear on the scene the ladies, including the hostess,
are settled in the easiest chairs.  When the time for departure has
come it is my lady who announces to the hostess--not the host--her
departure, and her husband or escort simply awaits her bidding.  In
Japan all of this is changed.  The man takes precedence everywhere, and
the woman must serve him.  At meals the woman must first wait on her
husband and then she herself may eat.  When, guests come, the husband
is the chief entertainer, and the wife takes a back seat and says
little.  On passing through a door, entering a train or carriage, etc.,
the husband always precedes his wife.  When walking on the street
together she does not walk by his side, but comes along behind.  The
men do not intend to mistreat the women; they simply take what they
regard their due as the head of the family.

Among the customs most peculiar in the eyes of Westerners and most
squarely opposed to their {75} own are those relating to marriage.  In
Japan the young man and woman have nothing whatever to do with the
match-making, except to give their consent to the arrangements of their
parents; and frequently even this is not asked.  The wedding is
arranged in some such manner as this: Whenever the parents of a young
man think their son old enough to get married they secure the services
of some friend, who acts as "go-between."  It is the duty of this party
to search out a suitable girl and win the consent of her parents to the
marriage.  While this is going on it is not likely that either of the
young people is aware of it, but as soon as the parents have arranged
matters to their own satisfaction they are informed.  It often happens
that the man has never seen his bride until the wedding-day.  Young
people seldom object to the arrangements of their parents, and
marriages made in this way seem to work well.

In the West the wedding often takes place in church; in Japan the
temples are studiously avoided at such times.  There a minister is
nearly always present; here they are very careful to exclude priests.
The wedding is to be joyous, and as priests are known best as
officiators at funerals, and ideas of sadness and misfortune are
associated with them, they are excluded.

In the West, if the wedding does not take place in church, it will
probably be held in the home of {76} the bride; in the East it is
always held in the home of the groom.  There the bride's household
prepares the feast; here the groom's prepares it.  There the groom must
go to fetch his bride; here she must come to him.  It makes no
difference whether she lives in the same city or in a distant province;
she must go to the groom, not he to her.

The poor mother-in-law is evil spoken of in the East as well as in the
West; but while there it is the mother of the bride who is said to make
life miserable for the groom, here it is the mother of the groom who
often makes life miserable for the bride.

Customs in regard to the use of houses are quite different.  In America
the front rooms of a house are considered most desirable; in Japan the
back rooms are preferred.  There the parlors, sitting-rooms, etc., are
in front, and the kitchen and store-rooms are relegated to the back;
here the kitchen and store-rooms are in front, and the parlors and
sitting-rooms behind.  There the front yards are kept clean, but the
back yards are proverbially dirty; here all sorts of dirt and trash may
be lying around in the front yard, while the back yard is a perfect
little garden of beauty.

Signs made with the hands are very different in Japan from those to
which my readers are accustomed, and are much more graceful.  Here,
when we call some one to us by the hand, {77} instead of the awkward,
ungainly motion of the index-finger used in the West, we simply hold
out the whole hand horizontally in front of us and gently move all the
fingers up and down.  The latter motion is very graceful, while even a
pretty girl cannot execute the former one gracefully.  Here, when we
refuse a request or repel one from us by a sign of the hand, instead of
turning the palm of the hand outward and pushing it from the body in a
rough, uncivil manner, we merely hold the hand perpendicularly before
the face, palm outward, and move it back and forth a few times.

Japanese carpenters saw by pulling the saw toward them instead of
pushing it from them; the planes cut in the same way; and screws are
put in by turning them to the left instead of the right.

Even in the nursery we find customs directly antipodal.  While the
American nurse takes the child up in her arms, the Japanese nurse takes
it on her back.

These are some of the customs most squarely opposed to our own.  The
first thought of my readers when learning of them will probably be, how
ridiculous and inconvenient!  And yet they are just as convenient and
sensible as their own, and some of them much more so.  There is nothing
in the nature of things why most customs should be either this way or
that.

{78}

The most interesting things about foreign peoples are those connected
with their daily lives--their homes, food, and dress.  Let us examine a
Japanese house, take a meal with its occupants, and then observe their
manner of dress.

The houses are usually very light structures, built of wood, one or two
stories high.  They resemble an American house but little.  The roofs
are made of tiles, straw, or shingles.  Tiles make a pretty and durable
roof, but they cost much more than straw, and hence the common people
generally use the latter.  The skilful Japanese workman can make a very
pretty, lasting, and effective roof of straw.  The houses of the rich
are large and have many nice rooms in them; those of the poor are
small, with only one or two rooms.  Houses are so constructed as to
permit the air to pass through them freely.  The rooms are separated
only by light, detachable partitions made of paper, and these are
frequently taken away and the whole house thrown into one room.  Many
of the outer walls are also detachable, and on a warm summer day are
put aside, when a delightful breeze constantly passes through the
house.  The floors are covered with thick, soft straw mats, which are
kept so clean that the people, even when dressed in their best clothes,
sit or loll on them.  On entering a Japanese house you must leave your
shoes at the door, just as you {79} do your hat.  It would be an
unpardonable offense to come inside and tread on the mats with your
shoes on.

[Illustration: A Kitchen Scene.]

The average Japanese eats, sleeps, and lives in the same room.  He has
no chairs, no bedsteads, and no tables to get in his way.  During the
day he sits on the soft straw mats; when evening comes two large
comfortables are brought, and one is spread on the floor to lie on,
while the other is used for covering.  No sheets are used, and the
pillow is a funny little block of wood.  On this simple bed the man
sleeps as soundly as we in our more elaborate ones.  In the morning the
bed is rolled up and packed away.  At meal-time little tables, four or
six inches high and about sixteen inches square, are brought, and one
is placed before each person.  The food is served in pretty little
lacquer or china bowls, and each one's portion is placed on his own
table.  The people eat with chopsticks about eight inches long and one
fourth of an inch in diameter.  These answer their purpose well, but
are hard to use until one is accustomed to them.  When the meal is over
all these things are carried away to the kitchen, and the room is ready
for any other use to which one may desire to put it.  In this way one
room is made to serve for all the purposes of a household.

The most conspicuous thing in a Japanese room {80} is the _hibachi_--a
little wooden or china box about one foot square.  This is kept half
full of ashes, and on top of the ashes is a handful of burning
charcoal.  On this usually sits a little tea-kettle, filled with
boiling water used in making the tea, which is drunk without milk or
sugar at every hour of the day.  When one first enters a Japanese
house, politeness requires that the host or hostess immediately offer
the guest a small cup of this tea.  There is no other provision than
this hibachi for heating a room; and, as one would imagine, it gives
out but little heat Japanese houses are very cold in winter.  They
would not at all answer in a cold climate, and even here the people
suffer from the cold.

Japanese food is unpalatable to most foreigners, and the eating of it
is an art which must be acquired gradually.  After repeated experiments
we learn to like it, and can live on it fairly well; but most foreign
residents usually take more or less European food with them every time
they go into the interior.

From of old Buddhism forbade the eating of anything that had animal
life, and hence it came about that the Japanese are probably as
vegetarian in their diet as any people on earth.  Even such animal food
as butter and milk is not used.  Butter is very unpalatable to them,
but many are beginning to use a little milk.  Bread, so necessary {81}
to a Western table, forms no part of a Japanese bill of fare.  The
staple here is rice, not boiled and mashed to pieces, with milk and
butter, but simply boiled in water sufficiently to cook it well without
breaking the grains.  When it is cooked each grain remains intact, and
it is snowy white and perfectly dry.  No salt or seasoning of any kind
is put into it, as it is thought to spoil the flavor.

The rivers, lakes, and seas of Japan are teeming with splendid fish,
which form an important part of the native diet.  It seems that
Buddhism, while forbidding the use of meats generally, permitted the
eating of fish.  Certain kinds of fish, cut into thin slices and eaten
raw with a kind of sauce, are considered a great delicacy.  The idea of
eating raw fish seems very repugnant, but many of my readers would eat
it without realizing what it is unless they were told.  I often eat it.
But only a few of the fish consumed are eaten raw; most are boiled or
fried.

Foreign vegetables are rare, and are not much liked by the natives.
But there is an abundance of native vegetables.  The most common one is
a large, coarse radish called _daikon_, which is pickled, and eaten at
nearly every meal.  This daikon is very cheap, and is a chief part of
the diet of that small portion of the population that cannot afford
rice.  Sweet potatoes are abundant and cheap.  {82} They are considered
the poor man's food, and the well-to-do people are ashamed to eat them.
Often at hotels, when I have asked for sweet potatoes, the servant has
replied in astonishment, "Why, do you eat sweet potatoes?  They are for
coolies."  A mountain-potato and the roots of the lotus and bamboo are
also eaten.  Since the country has been opened to foreign trade and
foreigners have settled here it is possible to get meats and flour and
some foreign vegetables at most places.

Japanese clothing is frequently conspicuous by its absence.  Many of
the people do not realize the necessity of burdening themselves with
clothing on a hot summer day, and wear very little.  The government has
been constrained to make laws against nudity, but these are enforced
only in the cities.  The usual summer garment of many of the children
in my city is simply the dark-brown one given them by nature.  Most of
the coolies wear nothing but a little loin-cloth when at work.

The real native costume is both pretty and becoming.  It consists
usually of a single robe reaching from the shoulders to the ankles, and
tied round the waist with a heavy girdle.  Tight-fitting undergarments,
in foreign style, are sometimes worn now, but they form no part of the
original native costume.  A black outer garment, {83} reaching only to
the knees, is placed over the ordinary robe on state occasions.
Formerly the Japanese did not wear hats, and even now half of the men
one meets on the street are bareheaded.  The women wear neither hats
nor bonnets.

It is not considered improper to go barefooted in Japan, but generally
the better classes are shod when they go out of doors.  If anything
resembling a stocking is worn, it is what they call _tabi_, a sort of
foot-glove, made of either white or black cloth, with a separate
inclosure for the great toe.  A block of wood called _geta_ corresponds
to our shoes.  It has two cords attached to the same place in front,
and then dividing, one being fastened on each side at the back.  These
cords slip in between the great toe and the others, and, passing over
the foot, secure the geta.

Japanese bathing customs are peculiar.  Perhaps there are no other
people on earth that bathe as often as they.  It is customary for every
one, even the coolies, to bathe well the whole body every day.  The
baths are taken very hot--about 110°F.  Each private house has a large
bath-tub, which in many instances is capacious enough to accommodate
the whole family at once.  Besides these private baths each city and
town has its public ones, where a good hot bath, in a place large
enough for you to swim round, can be had for one cent.  Men, women, and
children go into {84} them at the same time, indiscriminately.  Japan
is a land of hot springs, so that almost every district has its natural
hot baths.  Most of them have medicinal value, and the people flock to
them by thousands.

The funeral customs are very different from ours.  It is a strange
feature of the native character that when one is deeply moved he is
very likely to cover up his emotion with a laugh.  If a man announces
to you the death of his child, he will probably laugh as he does so.
At funerals there is not that solemn silence which we expect, but
frequently loud talking and laughter.  The coffin is a square, upright
box with considerable ornamentation.  The corpse is placed in it in a
sitting posture.  In Japan are found the hired mourners of whom we read
in the Bible.  Anciently they were employed to follow the corpse,
mourning in a loud voice; but that has become obsolete, and now they
simply follow in the procession, wearing the white garments.  The usual
manner of disposing of dead bodies is by interment, but cremation is
rapidly growing in favor.  The government will not permit a body to be
buried until it has been dead twenty-four hours.

For several weeks after a body has been interred it is customary for
the members of the bereaved family to make daily visits to the tomb and
present offerings to the departed spirit in the temple.  {85} Each
year, on the anniversary of the death, the children are expected to
visit the tomb and worship the spirit of the departed.  This custom of
ancestor-worship is forbidden by Christianity, and hence the people
charge us with teaching disrespect to parents and ancestors.

[Illustration: Hara-kiri.]

A custom peculiar to Japan is a form of suicide known as hara-kiri, or
"belly-cutting."  From time immemorial, to take one's own life in this
manner has been considered very honorable and has expiated all crimes
and offenses.  In olden times, if the life of any one of noble blood
became hurtful to the state, he was simply sent a certain kind of short
sword.  This meant that he was to take his own life by the favorite
national method.  So the recipient quietly ate his last meal, bade his
family farewell, and, seating himself squarely on the mat, deliberately
thrust the sword into the left side of his abdomen, and drew it across
to the right side.  As this cut does not kill immediately, a retainer,
from behind, placed there for that purpose, struck off his master's
head with one blow of a heavy sword.  In the eyes of the law this death
atoned for all sins and offenses; hence it was often practised in old
Japan.  It is almost obsolete now.

The Japanese are an exceedingly polite people.  They have been called
the Frenchmen of the Orient in recognition of this national
characteristic.  Politeness is exalted above everything, above {86}
even truth and honor.  If you ask an ordinary Japanese which is better,
to tell a falsehood or be impolite, he will at once reply, "To tell a
falsehood."  But while the people are exceedingly polite, a large part
of this politeness is merely surface, without any meaning.  Etiquette
requires that you always address and treat your equals as though they
were your superiors.  There is a separate form of address for each step
in the social scale.  I have seen Japanese men stand at a door for five
minutes, and blush, and beg each other to pass through first, each
hesitating to precede the other.  A Japanese gentleman never stops to
converse with a friend, be he only a child, without taking off his hat.

To look down upon one from a superior elevation is considered very
impolite.  Thus if the emperor or any one of especial distinction
passes through a city, all the upper stories of the houses must be
vacated.  Under no circumstances are any permitted to observe the
procession from an upper window.  I was out walking one day in our good
city of Saga with a foreign friend who was leading his little boy by
the hand.  It happened that a countess was passing through the city.
The policemen had cleared the street for the procession, and a large
crowd was standing at the corner.  We joined this crowd.  The little
boy could not see, so his father held him up that {87} he might look
over the people's heads.  At once the police forbade it and made him
put the child down.

In many instances forms of politeness are carried to a ridiculous
extreme.  When you give a present, no matter how nice, you must
apologize by saying that it is so _cheap_ and _insignificant_ that you
are ashamed to _lift it up_ to the honorable person, but if he will
_condescend_ to accept it he will make you very happy.  If you receive
a present you must elevate it toward the top of the head (as that is
considered the most honorable part of the body) and at the same time
say that it is the _most beautiful thing on earth_.  When you are
invited to a dinner the invitation will carefully state that no special
preparation will be made for the occasion.  At the beginning of the
meal the hostess will apologize for presuming to set before you such
mean, dirty food, and will declare that she has nothing whatever for
you to eat, although she will doubtless have a feast fit for a king.
Even if it should not be good, you must say that it is and praise it
extravagantly.

The greetings between friends are sometimes right funny.  I have often
overheard such conversations as the following.  Two men meet in the
street, and, taking off their hats, bow very low, and begin as follows:

_A_.  "I have not had the pleasure of {88} hanging myself in your
honorable eyes for a long time."

_B_.  "I was exceedingly rude the last time I saw you."

_A_.  "No; it was surely I who was rude.  Please excuse me."

_B_.  "How is your august health?"

_A_.  "Very good, thanks to your kind assistance."

_B_.  "Is the august lady, your honorable wife, well?"

_A_.  "Yes, thank you; the lazy old woman is quite well."

_B_.  "And how are your princely children?"

_A_.  "A thousand thanks for your kind interest.  The noisy, dirty
little brats are well too."

_B_.  "I am now living on a little back street, and my house is awfully
small and dirty; but if you can endure it, please honor me by a visit."

_A_.  "I am overcome with thanks, and will early ascend to your
honorable residence, and impose my uninteresting self upon your
hospitality."

_B_.  "I will now be very impolite and leave you."

_A_.  "If that is so, excuse me.  _Sayonara_."



{89}

V

JAPANESE CIVILIZATION

The question is often asked, Are the Japanese a civilized people?  The
answer will entirely depend upon our definition of civilization.  If
civilization consists in a highly organized commercial and industrial
life, in the construction and use of huge, towering piles of
manufactories and commercial houses, such as are seen in New York and
Chicago, in amassing enormous capital, controlling the trade of the
country by monopolies, and doing the work of the world by machinery
that moves with the precision of clockwork, then Japan is not yet
civilized.  But if civilization consists in a courteous, refined
manner, in a calm enjoyment of literature and the arts, in an ability
to live easily and comfortably with a due regard to all the amenities
of life, then the Japanese are a civilized people.

A very brilliant writer on Japanese subjects[1] {90} has said that the
Japanese have been a civilized people for at least a thousand years.
Chinese civilization was brought to Japan early in the Christian era,
and flourished for more than fifteen hundred years.  While it differs
much from European civilization, it is a highly organized and developed
system, venerable with age.  When people of the West speak of civilized
countries they are apt to think of Europe and America, to the exclusion
of all the rest of the world.  This is unfair.  Chinese civilization is
much older than our own.  Long before the dark ages of Europe the
Chinese were living under a regular system of laws and were engaged in
all peaceful pursuits.  Systematic methods of agriculture, the art of
printing, gunpowder, and the mariners' compass were all known and used.
While our own forefathers in northern Europe roamed the forests as wild
men and dressed in skins, the Chinese were living quietly in cities and
towns, dressed in silks.  This venerable Chinese civilization was
readily adopted in Japan, and prevailed down to the time of the
Restoration, in 1868.  Since that time the adoption and assimilation of
Western civilization have been progressing with a rapidity and success
which have no precedent in the history of the world.  The old immobile,
crystallized Chinese civilization has been thrown off, and the
vigorous, elastic forms of the West have been successfully {91}
adopted.  Japanese civilization of to-day is European, only with a
national coloring.


[1] Lafcadio Hearn.


On the advice of an American missionary,[2] who was then president of
the Imperial University, and who arranged the program for the
expedition, in 1872 a committee of seventy intelligent Japanese
gentlemen, many of them from the noble families, was sent to the West
to visit the capitals of the several countries, examine into their
forms of government and civilization, and, of all that they found, to
choose and bring back with them what was best adapted to Japan.  This
committee, after visiting Washington, London, Berlin, and other places,
and carefully examining into their different institutions, returned and
reported to the government.  From this time began the rapid adoption of
Western civilization, which is still in progress.


[2] Dr. Verbeck.


Foreign employees have played an important part in this peaceful
revolution.  At first nearly everything that was adopted was under
foreign superintendence; but the Japanese are such apt learners that
they are now capable of managing this new civilization for themselves,
and the foreign employees have been mostly dispensed with.

With this brief history of Japanese progress before us, let us now
examine into the present condition of Japanese civilization.

{92}

One of the best indicators of the civilization of a country is its
literature.  No writers of world-wide fame have arisen in Japan, yet
the country has a literature of which she is not ashamed.  In ancient
times the Chinese classics were alone studied, and all literature was
molded by Confucian ideas; to-day these models have been cast aside,
and a school of young, independent writers has arisen, by whom history,
political and moral science, botany, sociology, belles-lettres, and
numerous other subjects are discussed with vigor and originality.

In the number of newspapers and magazines published Japan can compare
favorably with any country of equal size.  The great dailies have not
yet grown to such importance as those of America or England, but they
already wield a mighty influence.  Nearly every small town has its
morning and its evening sheet.  Even in our backward old town of Saga
we have two very good dailies.  There are a large number of able
magazines published.  Nearly every branch of learning has a magazine
devoted exclusively to its interests, as is frequently the case in the
West.  The very existence of this innumerable multitude of newspapers
and magazines shows that the Japanese are great readers.

The educational system in vogue is a good index of a nation's
civilization.  Perhaps no {93} nation of the West has a better
organized and developed free-school system than has Japan.  Schools are
found in every village and hamlet, and as all children of a prescribed
age are required to attend, they are full to overflowing.  The little
round-faced, sleek-headed Japanese children swarm round them like bees.
There are four grades of schools: the primary lower, the advanced
lower, the lower middle, and the higher middle.  The lower schools are
found everywhere; the higher ones only in the large towns and cities.
Of the higher middle schools (which correspond to our American colleges
of middle grade) there are seven, distributed at various points over
the empire.  At the head of this whole system stands the Imperial
University in Tokyo, which is itself the outgrowth of several colleges,
and is largely modeled after the German universities.  The lower
schools are modeled after our American schools.  Unfortunately, so
large a part of the time of the school-children must be spent in
studying Chinese characters that it takes about eight years to learn to
read.  What a pity that the awkward, antiquated system of Chinese
writing is not abandoned!  It seems that the native _kana_, of which
there are about forty-eight, with a few of the more common Chinese
characters, would answer all purposes; then the long years spent in
studying Chinese could be devoted to other things, to {94} the immense
advantage of the student.  In the lower schools very little is studied
except Chinese.  In the middle schools the branches studied are just
about what American youths study in the academies.  Formerly
considerable stress was laid upon the study of modern languages, and
all students of the middle schools were required to study English and
either French or German.  But in recent years only English has been
required, and it, even, is not studied so carefully as it was.  Since
the revision of the treaties the study of foreign languages seems to be
on the increase.

The Imperial University compares very favorably with Western
universities of the middle class.  It has six faculties, namely, law,
medicine, literature, science, engineering, and agriculture.  The
medical department is under German influence; the others have
professors of various nationalities, mostly English, German, and
Japanese.  The students number over 1000.  The government has recently
undertaken the establishment of another university in Kyoto.  It also
supports two higher normal schools, a higher commercial school, naval
and military academies, fine-arts school, technical school, the nobles'
school, the musical academy, and the blind and dumb school.  Professor
Chamberlain, of the Imperial University, says the leading idea of the
Japanese government {95} in all its educational improvements is the
desire to assimilate the national ways of thinking to those of European
countries.  In view of the difference between the East and the West,
this is an enormous task; and great credit is due that brave body of
educators who, fighting against fearful odds, are gradually
accomplishing their purpose.

The Japanese are a nation of artists.  Life in one of the most
beautiful countries in the world has, to a rare degree, developed in
them the love of the beautiful; and this has expressed itself in the
various phases of national art.  In general, Japanese art is pretty,
but small, isolated, and lacking in breadth of view.  Its chief use in
former times was largely decorative, to paint a screen or a piece of
porcelain, and the artists did this to perfection.  As a nation the
Japanese are very skilful with the pencil.  Long writing of Chinese
characters has given them a control of the pencil or crayon not
commonly found among the people of the West.  Drawing is taught in the
schools, and every school-boy can draw pretty pictures.  But in art, as
in other things, the Japanese are frequently inconsistent, and show a
haughty disregard of details.  They excel in portraying nature.

The government of Japan is progressive and enlightened.  In reality it
is an absolute monarchy, ruled by the "heaven-descended mikado." {96}
The empire belongs to him by divine right, and none has ever disputed
this.  Unquestioning, implicit obedience is the duty of all subjects.
But the present emperor, who is a liberal-minded monarch, has
graciously given his people a voice in the government.  In 1889 the
constitution was promulgated, which laid the foundation for a new order
of things.  It established the Diet, consisting of two houses, and gave
many rights to the people, including local self-government, within
certain limits.  The franchise is so limited in Japan that a man must
annually pay a stipulated amount of tax before he can either vote or
run for office.

Japanese laws have for years been gradually approaching Western
standards.  The transition has been difficult and necessarily slow, but
praise-worthy progress has been made.  A code somewhat resembling the
Code Napoleon is now the law of the land, and is being applied in the
courts as fast as circumstances will permit.  People coming from Europe
or America will find that, in the main, the laws are not very different
from those they have been accustomed to.

Nearly all the material expressions of an advanced civilization found
at home are likewise met with in Japan--good railways, steamboats,
telegraphs, mails, electric lights, etc.  It is often a surprise to the
traveler from the West who has {97} read little about the country, and
who expects only the rudest form of civilization, to find instead
nearly all the conveniences to which he has been accustomed.

RAILWAYS.--Japanese railways are narrow gauge, and while in recent
years the question of changing them to standard gauge has been
agitated, nothing definite has been done.  The narrow-gauge system
seems fairly adequate to the present demand.  The railways are modeled
after those of England, and are miniature as compared with those
thundering monsters that make the American valleys tremble with their
tread.  The coaches are much smaller than the American and are
differently arranged, opening on the side instead of the end, passage
from one coach to another being precluded.  There is no conductor to
come around and disturb one with the continual cry of "Tickets!"  The
_punch, punch, punch_, so annoying to sensitive people, is not heard.
As the passenger leaves the station to enter the train his ticket is
examined, and this ends the matter until he reaches his destination,
when he must pass out through the station, where his ticket is taken by
a polite official.  One of the things that have most impressed me about
the railroad service is the kindness and politeness of the officials,
in striking contrast with the gruffness and incivility one often
encounters in America.

{98}

The average Japanese train has three classes of coaches.  The first
class corresponds to the ordinary first-class day-coach at home; second
class corresponds to our smoking-cars; while third class is poorer
still.  The fares are just about one half what they are in America, and
one can travel in first-class style for a cent and a half per mile.
Third-class fare is only a little over half a cent, and most of the
people travel in this class.  The trains do not have the conveniences
to which my readers are accustomed.  There are no sleeping- and
dining-cars, no provision for heating in winter, and no water.  The
average running speed is about 20 miles per hour--a rate which would
not at all suffice for the high-tensioned, nervous, always-in-a-hurry
civilization of the West, but which meets all the demands of the
slower, quieter life of the East.  Running at this rate, accidents are
comparatively rare, and the trains easily make their scheduled time.

There is one main trunk-line running throughout the length of the land,
besides numerous shorter lines.  All of the more prominent towns and
cities are connected by rail.  At present a railroad-construction craze
has seized Japan.  Many are being constructed, others are being
surveyed, and the papers daily contain accounts of new ones projected.
So far, Japanese railway stocks have yielded good dividends.  That the
{99} more important lines are owned and operated by the government is
not the result of any political or economic theory, but simply because
at first private individuals had neither the means nor the energy to
inaugurate such huge and hitherto untried enterprises.  Many of the
smaller roads are now owned and controlled by private corporations, and
most of those in process of construction are private enterprises.  Some
months ago a private corporation made a proposition to the government
to buy its main railway, but the offer was rejected.

STEAMERS.--Steamboat service in Japan is good.  As the country is only
a range of islands, the largest of which are very narrow, and as all
the more important towns are on the sea-coast or only a short distance
inland, it is possible to go nearly everywhere by boat.  Travel by
water is very popular.  There are fairly good steamers plying daily
between the most important ports, but foreigners generally prefer to
travel only on those officered by Europeans or Americans.  There are a
number of native steamers, comfortable and speedy, which are officered
by foreigners, and differ but little from the transpacific liners.
These were nearly all built in England, but in recent years they are
building very good ones in Japan.  The facilities for travel in this
empire leave little to be desired.

TELEGRAPHS.--The Japanese telegraph {100} system is excellent.  It
extends to all towns of any size in the empire, and by cable to all
parts of the world.  From the old city of Saga, in which I live, I can
send a cablegram to any point in Europe or America.  A telegraph code
on the basis of the Morse code has been made in Japan, which admits of
internal telegrams being transmitted in the native syllabary.  In this
respect the Japanese system is unique among Eastern countries.  For
instance, in India or China telegrams can be transmitted only in Roman
letters or Arabic figures.  By the formation of a vernacular code the
telegraph was brought within the reach of the masses of the people, and
it soon became familiar and popular.

The tariff for messages is perhaps lower than any other in the world.
A message of ten kana, equaling about five English words, together with
name and address of sender and receiver, can be sent to any part of the
empire for eight or nine cents.  Telegrams in foreign languages are
sent within the empire for five sen per word, with a minimum charge of
twenty-five sen for five words or a fraction thereof.  No charge is
made for delivery within a radius of 2-½ miles of the telegraph office.

There are no private telegraph corporations.  The government builds,
owns, and operates the lines just as it does the mails.  The postal and
{101} telegraph systems are intimately connected, and the same office
does service for both.

The first telegraph line in Japan was opened in 1869.  The venture
proving a success, the following year the line was extended and a
general telegraphic system for the whole country decided upon.  The
rapid construction of telegraph lines began in 1872, from which year it
has gone forward uninterruptedly.  At present the lines extend to every
corner of the empire.  The first lines were surveyed, built, and
operated under foreign experts; but the natives have learned so rapidly
that they have been enabled to do away with all foreign employees.  All
of the materials and instruments in use, with the exception of
submarine cables and the most delicate electrical measuring apparatus,
are made in Japan.

MAILS.--The Japanese mail system was modeled after the American in
1871.  At first it was limited to postal service between the three
large cities of Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka; but in 1872 it was extended to
the whole country, with the exception of a certain part of the
Hokkaido, which was without roads and almost without population.
To-day there is no village or hamlet in the whole land which does not
enjoy the convenience of a good postal system.  The mails are sent with
promptness and despatch, and it requires only a few days to communicate
with any part of the {102} empire.  The postal rates are very low.
Postal cards cost one sen and letters two sen--about five eighths and
one and two eighths of a cent, respectively.

All mail is delivered free of charge.  Not only is this so in the
cities and larger towns, but in the villages and rural districts as
well.  There is no place where the dapper little postman does not go.
Another convenience of the mail system is its excellent parcel-post
department.  Very large parcels, containing almost anything, can be
sent for a small charge.  Still another praiseworthy feature is that
each office is a savings-bank, where the people can deposit small sums
of money at any time and receive a good rate of interest.  This money
can be withdrawn without previous notice.  The government has
established these savings-banks in connection with the post-offices to
encourage the people to lay up small sums of money, and they accomplish
their purpose well.

Japan was admitted into the International Postal Union in 1879, with
full management of all her postal affairs.  As all her rates are now
based on a silver standard, postage to foreign countries is much
cheaper than from them to Japan.  To the United States or to China we
pay five sen (about two and a half cents) per letter; to all other
countries within the Postal Union ten sen per letter.

{103}

LIGHTS.--The system of lighting is an index of the civilization of a
country.  In this respect Japan is not yet so far advanced as the
leading countries of the West, yet she is well lighted.  In all the
large cities there are good electric plants, and electricity is
extensively used.  The streets and many of the best stores and shops
are very well lighted with it.  However, electric lights are seldom
found in interior cities of less than 40,000 people.  I think
electricity is too costly to come into general use, except in the
centers.  Illuminating gas is very little used.

The only oil used in former times was extracted from whales and large
fish, and chiefly from the seed of a certain tree.  Since the opening
of the country, kerosene has come into general use, immense quantities
being imported from the United States and from Russia.  Oil has been
found in several places in Japan, but as yet has never been developed.

BANKING.--One of the most useful products of the introduction of our
modern civilization is the present system of banking.  This system will
compare favorably with those of the West.  There are a number of
national banks distributed over all the land, together with many
substantial private banking corporations.  All forms of banking
business are transacted, and good interest is given on deposits.  The
great {104} popularity of the banks is shown by the fact that to-day in
Tokyo, only eight years after bank-checks have come into use, the
amount annually drawn exceeds $100,000,000.

Having taken this rapid view of Japanese civilization, we are in a
position to judge as to whether or not this is a civilized land; and we
answer that it is.  But although modeled after that of the West, it in
many respects differs from Western civilization.  Japan has shown
herself capable of doing great things, but she does not do them in the
same way that they are done in Europe or America.  For example,
consider her manufactories, which now threaten to compete with those of
our own country.  In America manufactories mean enormous capital
invested.  Costly factories must be erected, the most approved
machinery provided, and the completed plant operated at great expense.
Here almost no capital is used.  The buildings are low, one-story
sheds, not more costly than a row of stables at home.  It is true that
Japan has a few large, substantial buildings for manufacturing
purposes; but such are rare, and, when found, look out of harmony with
their surroundings.  Even nature seems to protest against huge piles of
brick and stone, as she so frequently demolishes them.  Most of the
wares of Japan are manufactured in small, cheap buildings, and little
machinery is used.  The best silk {105} made is woven in a house that
cost scarcely $500.  The best cloisonne, of which only a small piece a
few inches high will cost hundreds of dollars, is made in a little,
two-story house with only six rooms.  Some of the greatest
porcelain-makers in the world, whose products are better known in
London and Paris than in their own country, do their work in small
wooden houses in Kyoto, no better than the homes of the American
laborer.  "The vast rice crop is raised on millions of tiny farms; the
silk crop in millions of small, poor homes; the tea crop on countless
little patches of soil.  Japan has become industrial without becoming
essentially mechanical and artificial."[3]  On this small scale the
great work of Japan is done.  Japanese civilization, in its parts, is
miniature.


[3] Lafcadio Hearn.


When compared with the civilization of the West, it is unstable; in
fact stability is almost unknown.  The land itself is a land of change.
The outlines of the coasts, the courses of the rivers, the form of the
mountains, by the combined action of volcanoes, earthquakes, winds, and
waves, are constantly changing.

The people themselves are continually drifting about from place to
place, changing their residence with the seasons.  It has been said
that no people in the world are so migratory.  {106} Preparation can be
made in a few hours for the longest journey, and all the necessary
baggage wrapped up in a handkerchief.  Japanese life is in a constant
state of fluidity.

The average house, likewise, seems built but for a day.  The walls, the
roof, the floors, are made of the lightest materials, and apparently
there is no thought of permanence.

We of the West are wont to think that no real progress can be made
without stability, but Japan has proved the contrary.  A uniformly
mobile race is, correspondingly, uniformly impressionable.  The fluid
mass of the Japanese people submits itself to the hands of its rulers
as readily as the clay to the hands of the potter, and thus it moves
with system and order toward great ends.  It is thus that Japanese
civilization is strong.

When compared with Western civilization, that of Japan is seen to be
less organized and developed, less hasty and feverish in its movements,
It does not impress one so much with its hugeness and ponderosity.  It
is lighter, brighter, quieter, more soothing.  It is the civilization
of the West robbed of its immensity and seriousness, and reflecting the
national characteristics of these light-hearted sons of the East.



{107}

VI

JAPANESE MORALITY

Japanese morality has been much written about by men of the West, and
many dogmatic judgments have been pronounced upon it.  At one extreme,
we have been told that "they are the most immoral people on the face of
the earth"; at the other, we are told that in morality "they have
nothing to learn from the people of Christendom."  There is about as
much--or rather as little--truth in the one statement as in the other.
The fact is that it is necessary to have an experimental acquaintance
with Japan before one can really understand or appreciate the moral
condition of her people.  The moral ideas and teachings to which they
have been accustomed from childhood are so different from our own that
they could not be expected to approximate to our standards.  Judged by
the ideas of the West, they are lacking in morality; but from {108}
their own standpoint they are a moral people.  While we cannot accept
theirs as the true standard, it is but fair that, in judging them, we
keep this in view.

Before the introduction of Chinese ethics there was no such thing as a
moral code.  The original native religion, Shinto, taught no doctrines
of morality, as we understand them.  According to it, to obey
implicitly the mikado was the whole duty of man.  As for the rest, if a
Japanese obeyed the natural impulses of his own heart he would be sure
to do right.  Modern Shinto writers, in all seriousness, account for
this absence of a moral code by stating that originally Japanese nature
was pure, clean, and sinless, possessing no tendency to evil or wrong.
Barbarians, like the Chinese and Americans, being by nature immoral,
were forced to invent a moral code to control their actions; but in
Japan this was not necessary, as every Japanese acted aright if he only
consulted his own heart.  They explain the need for the present moral
laws--a need which they acknowledge--by the fact of association with
outside nations.  Immorality and dissoluteness were introduced by the
Chinese and Western peoples, to counteract the evil influence of which
they now have the shameful spectacle of a moral law even among the
children of the "heaven-descended mikado."  So much for the teaching of
Shinto in {109} regard to morality.  It would be exasperating were it
not ludicrous.

Confucius is the master of Japanese morality.  His teachings were
introduced into Japan early in the Christian era, but they became
predominant only in the time of Iyeyasu, in the seventeenth century.
This great statesman, warrior, and patron of learning caused the
Chinese classics to be printed in Japan for the first time; and from
that day to this the morality of Japan has been dominated by Confucian
ideas.

In order to understand Japanese morality, it is necessary for us to
shift our moral base and try to look at the subject through Japanese
eyes.  The average native of the West thinks of "morality" as something
belonging to the individual.  Even in religion his first thought is to
save his own soul.  The value of the soul, its immortality, its
immediate relation to the infinite and eternal Father--these have been
emphasized ever since the first establishment of the church.  In
consequence, there is a duty which man owes to himself.  He may not
disregard it even at the command of father or king.  Within the soul is
the holiest of all, for there is heard in conscience the voice of God
himself.  No external authority may be supreme, and at no external
voice may one violate his own convictions of truth.

This thought exalts the individual, and, {110} therefore, sins which
degrade our own personality become most repulsive.  Thus, among
high-minded men truth is almost first among the virtues, and an
accusation of falsehood the most hateful of insults.  For truth seems
peculiarly personal and spiritual, as if belonging to the very
sanctuary of one's nature.  And in like manner, among women, in popular
esteem chastity is of the essence of morality, as its violation seems
to contaminate and debase her holiest self.

Now the Confucian ethics rest upon a quite different principle, and in
this are at one with the ancient teaching of the Greeks and Romans.
The supreme duty is not to the self, but to the organization of which
one is but a part--that is, to the family or to the state.  The great
Chinese moralists were statesmen, and their chief concern was, not the
salvation of the individual, but the peace and prosperity of the state.
In their view, the family was the unit, and the state a greater family.
So the conflict of duties, in their questions of casuistry, is never
between individual and social duties, but between duties owed to family
and to state.  Loyalty to the state and obedience to parents must be
supreme; but China and Japan differ as to the value of these two.

According to original Confucianism, the first duty of men is obedience
to parents; the second, loyalty to rulers; but in Japan the order of
these {111} duties has been changed, the second being given first place.

The people have learned well this teaching of Confucius.  Japan was
prepared soil for its sowing.  The native religion taught that the
emperor was a direct descendant of heaven, who ruled by divine right;
the provincial lords were his ministers, and hence loyalty was a plain
duty.  The Confucian teaching only strengthened, deepened, and gave
form and outline to a sentiment already existing.  This principle of
loyalty thus became the foundation stone of Japanese ethics, and one's
duty to one's lord paramount to all other duties.

In the olden times the people did not look beyond their own feudal
lords and clans to the emperor and the nation.  They were to be
faithful unto death to these, but no further.  Now that loyalty once
shown to the local princes and clans finds its apotheosis in the
emperor and the empire.

A man's duty to his friends, to his wife and children, and even to his
parents, is counted as nothing in comparison with his duty to rulers
and country.  There are many instances in Japanese history of men who,
having slain their own parents, children, wives, for the sake of their
prince, were praised.  At the time of the recent tidal wave in northern
Japan, when the waters were rushing furiously into one home, a husband
and {112} father turned a deaf ear to the cries of his drowning wife
and children, permitting them to perish that he might save the
emperor's picture; and he was applauded for the act.  A fire recently
demolished the beautiful new buildings of the middle school in Saga.
The library, laboratories, and scientific apparatus were mostly
destroyed, and many of the students lost their clothing and books.  The
loss in buildings alone was some $20,000.  Yet the thing the loss of
which they lamented most deeply was a photograph of the emperor which
could easily be replaced for a few yen.

A characteristic story, showing the devotion with which the old samurai
carried out this principle of loyalty, is the tale of the forty-seven
ronins.  It is rather long to insert here, but as it illustrates so
well the power of this principle, I will relate it.

In the year 1701 the lord of Ako, Asano by name, visited Yedo to pay
his respects to the shogun.  While there the shogun appointed him to
receive and entertain an envoy from the mikado.  Now, the reception of
an envoy from the imperial court was one of the greatest state
ceremonies of the day, and as Asano knew little of ceremonies and
etiquette, he asked the advice of another nobleman, named Kira, who was
expert in such matters.  This man, who seems to have {113} been of a
very mean disposition, grudgingly gave the information desired, and
then asked a fee for the same.  Asano refused to give the fee, and
Kira, becoming angry, twitted and jeered at him, calling him a country
lout, unworthy the name of daimio.  Asano endured the insults patiently
until Kira peremptorily ordered him to stoop down and fasten his
foot-gear for him,--a most menial service,--when he drew his sword and
gave the offender a deep cut across the face.  This quarrel took place
in the precincts of the palace, and instantly the whole court was in an
uproar.  To degrade the sacred place was an insult punishable with
death and the confiscation of all property; and Asano was condemned to
take his own life by hara-kiri that same evening, his estates were
confiscated, his family declared extinct, and his clan disbanded.
Henceforth his retainers became ronins ("wandering men"), with no
country and no lord.  According to the ethics of their country, it was
their bounden duty to avenge the death of their lord, and we shall see
how relentlessly they followed their purpose until it was accomplished.

The senior retainer of the dead Asano, Oishu Kuranosuke, together with
forty-six others of his most trusty fellow-lieges, took counsel as to
how they might avenge their lord.  They all were willing to lay down
their lives in the attempt, but {114} even then the task was difficult,
because of the vigilance of the government.  For such vengeance was
rigidly prohibited by law, although as rigidly required by custom.
Notwithstanding the fact that all who slew an enemy for vengeance were
punished by death, not to take such vengeance never entered the mind of
any chivalrous Japanese.  After much planning the forty-seven ronins
decided that to avoid the suspicions of the government it would be
necessary for them to separate and for the time conceal their purpose.
So they separated, settling in different cities, and taking up various
occupations.  Many of them became carpenters, smiths, and merchants,
and in these capacities gained access to Kira's house and learned all
about its interior arrangements.  The leader of this faithful band,
Oishu, went to Kyoto and plunged into a life of drunkenness and
debauchery.  He even put away his wife and children, and led the most
dissolute life possible, simply to throw off the suspicions of the
authorities.  All of the ronins were closely watched by spies, who
secretly reported their conduct to Kira.  But by these devices they
finally lulled all suspicion, and the vigilance ceased.  Then the day
long waited for had come.  Suddenly, on the night of January 30, 1703,
two years after the death of their lord, in the midst of a violent
snowstorm, these forty-seven faithful men attacked {115} Kira's castle,
forced the gate, and slew all the retainers.  Kira, who was a coward at
heart, concealed himself in an outhouse.  The ronins found him there,
drew him forth, and requested him to kill himself by hara-kiri, as was
the privilege of a man of his rank.  But he refused out of fear, and
the retainers of Asano were forced to kill him as they would have
killed a common coolie.  Thus did they accomplish their purpose and
fulfil the high duty of loyalty to their dead lord, after two years of
waiting, most careful planning, and ceaseless vigilance.

By the time their purpose was accomplished day had dawned, and, in
plain view of the whole city, this brave band marched in order to the
temple of Sengakuji, where Asano was buried.  The citizens showed them
every honor on the way.  A wealthy nobleman, as a reward for their
loyal deed, sent them out costly refreshments.  When they arrived at
the temple the head abbot received them in person and showed them every
honor.  Finding the grave of their dead lord, they laid thereon the
head of the enemy by whom he had been so deeply wronged, and then felt
that their duty was done.  They were all sentenced to commit hara-kiri,
which they did willingly.  Afterward they were buried together in the
same temple grounds with their lord, where their graves can be seen to
this day.

{116}

These men simply obeyed the ethical code of their time and country, and
as a reward for their loyalty they have received the enthusiastic
praise of their countrymen for two centuries.  No other story is so
popular to-day, or so stirs the hearts of the people, as this.  While
we, believing that vengeance belongs to the Lord, cannot indorse this
deed, we must admire the loyalty and faithfulness of those ronins, and
the perseverance with which they adhered to their purpose.  In this
true story we see clearly the power of this first principle of Japanese
morality--loyalty.

The sister principle of loyalty in Confucian ethics is obedience to
parents.  Unquestioning, absolute, implicit obedience is required of
all children.  Formerly the child was considered the property of the
parents, and could be disposed of at will, even to the taking of its
life.  To-day the father may sell his daughter to a life of shame, or
"lend" her to a private individual for immoral purposes; and, however
much she may dislike such a life, obedience to parents requires that
she acquiesce in his will, which she does uncomplainingly.

This principle of obedience is the foundation stone of Japanese family
life.  The relation between parents and children is stronger than that
between man and wife, and is given a prior place.  An only son cannot
be forced to leave his mother {117} and become a soldier, but a husband
may be forced to leave his wife.  Within the family circle, the son's
duty to his aged parents always precedes his duty to his wife.  Every
Japanese feels deeply this obligation to his parents, and properly to
support and nourish them in old age he holds to be a sacred duty.
Americans could learn much that would be profitable from the reverence
and respect shown for parents and teachers by the Japanese.

In Japan, however, this principle is carried too far.  It continues
after death as binding as before, and divine honors are paid to dead
ancestors.  Periodical visits are made to their tombs, religious
candles are kept burning in their honor, and prayers are said to them.
Among the more enlightened to-day there is perhaps nothing in these
ceremonies but reverence and respect; yet by the masses of the people
ancestors are worshiped.

There are two moral maxims that show well the relative importance in
which parents, relatives, and wives are held.  They are the following:
"Thy father and thy mother are like heaven and earth; thy teacher and
thy lord are like the sun and the moon."  "Other kinsfolk may be
likened to the rushes; husbands and wives are but as useless stones."

It is apparent that virtues have differing values in the Confucian and
Christian systems.  We can {118} appreciate their point of view best,
perhaps, as we remember the ethics of an army.  Here obedience,
loyalty, self-devotion, courage, are supreme.  Much is forgiven if
these are manifested.  The organization is everything, and the
individual nothing, save as he is a fraction of the great machine.
Carry that idea into the social community, and think of it as an army,
with all, women as well as men, of value only as parts of the greater
whole, and we shall understand why and how the Japanese may esteem men
and women righteous whom we judge debased and even criminal.  So would
the Japanese judge them, were the motive mere passion or selfish
desire, but not when the controlling power is loyalty or obedience.
Thus the forty-seven ronin were pre-eminently "righteous" when they
debauched themselves with every swinish vice.

Of course this view of morality puts great temptation in the way of
parents and rulers.  Having supreme power, they may use it to the
degradation of those whom they control.  Confucius, it is true, taught
parents and rulers that they too owed duties to the state, and that use
of their Heaven-given powers for selfish ends was treason against the
supreme law; but, beyond doubt, the duty of submission, of loyalty and
unquestioning obedience, was so exaggerated that evils many and great
resulted.  At the same time {119} a sympathetic view leads one to
wonder the rather that the ethical results are so wholesome.

Turning from this general view, one finds in particulars much the same
conditions as in other lands.  For example, immense quantities of
alcoholic stimulants are consumed annually.  There is a native liquor
called "sake," made from rice, that is very popular and, in some of its
forms, very intoxicating.  Its manufacture and sale is one of the most
lucrative businesses in the empire.  Foreign whiskies, wines, and beers
are sold in large quantities, but they are so costly as to be beyond
the reach of all but the wealthy.  Outside of the small circle of
Christians, there are few people who do not drink.  The total abstainer
is a rarity.  But, while nearly every one drinks, in general the
Japanese do not drink to such excess as other nations.  One seldom sees
such beastly drunkenness as is often seen in the West.  Drinking is
taken as a matter of course, and society does not condemn it.  The
usual way in which Japanese men pass a dull day is in feasting and
drinking.  The use of alcoholic stimulants is much more common here
than at home.

In business and commercial morality there is much to be desired.  The
merchants do not sell according to the worth of an article, but
according to what they can make the purchaser pay.  They are great
bargainers.  Recently I wanted to buy {120} two large wall-pictures.
The dealer asked me $21 for them, but finally sold them for $5.  It is
a very common thing to buy articles for less than half the price first
asked.  In matters of veracity and in the fulfilment of contracts
Japanese merchants are not generally to be trusted.  The average man is
famous for lying, and the merchants and tradesmen seem to have acquired
an extra share of this general characteristic.  A Japanese trader will
do all in his power to avoid the fulfilment of a contract if it entails
a loss.  This lack of commercial honor is recognized by the foreign
firms doing business here, and it has hindered not a little the growth
and development of trade.

The moral sense of the people in regard to taking one's own life is
very different from that of Christendom.  From ancient times, suicide
has been thought to be a praiseworthy act, and has been extensively
practised.  Formerly it was encouraged, and sometimes required, by the
government; but now it has no official sanction whatever.  Still, the
custom exists, and some authorities place the annual number of suicides
as high as 10,000.  The people laugh at our Western idea that it is
wrong to take one's own life.  On the contrary, they hold that when
misfortunes and calamities make this life unattractive it is the part
of wisdom to end it.  Even the feelings of young Japanese, {121} who
have been educated somewhat into our own way of thinking, do not seem
to have changed on this point; they still adhere to the old Roman view
that self-destruction is permissible and often meritorious.  The
Western fiction that all suicides are the result of some form of
insanity is not countenanced here.  The various causes leading to
self-destruction are coolly and carefully tabulated, and very few are
attributed to insanity.  Contrariwise, long and careful study of the
subject has shown that self-destruction is gone about with as much
coolness, precision, and judgment as any act of daily life.

The above are in brief the leading moral ideas and principles that
govern the Japanese people.  For their loyalty and obedience we have
only admiration.  But both of these principles are given an undue
importance and are carried to extremes.  The chief defect of Japanese
morality is the minor place it gives to the individual.  The moral need
of the nation is a Christian morality--not just the morality of the
West, but a morality founded on the ethical principles inculcated in
the Bible.  This would exalt truth and chastity, would soften and
temper the great duties of loyalty and obedience, and would make of
Japan an honest, temperate nation.



{122}

VII

RELIGIONS OF JAPAN

The Japanese are by nature a religious people.  In the earliest times a
conglomerate mass of superstitions and mythological ideas was made to
do service as a religion.  Fetishism, phallicism, animism, and tree-
and serpent-worship were very common.  The line of distinction between
the Creator and the creature was not clearly marked; gods and men
mingled and intermingled, and were hardly known apart.  But it is not
our purpose here to trace the ancient religious ideas of Japan, but
rather to give a short account of contemporary religions.  Therefore we
cannot dwell on these unwritten mythological-religious systems.

The religions of contemporary Japan are four--Shinto, Buddhism,
Confucianism, and Tenrikyo.  Shinto and Tenrikyo are indigenous;
Buddhism and Confucianism have been imported from China and Korea.
Tenrikyo is of recent origin and has {123} not yet the influence and
standing of the others.  Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism have
existed here side by side for centuries.  There is no great antagonism
between them, as there is between Christianity and the ethnic
religions.  Many of the people are disciples of all three at the same
time, taking their theology from Shinto, their soteriology and
eschatology from Buddhism, and their moral and economic ideas from
Confucianism.  No inconsistency is felt in thus believing all three
religions and worshiping at their shrines.  Indeed, these three faiths
have so commingled, the ideas and practices of one have so filtered
into the others, that it is hard now to distinguish the pure teachings
of each.  In the minds of the masses they are not distinguished in
detail.  And yet as regards origin, history, and teachings they are
separate and distinct faiths.



_Shinto_

Shinto may be called the national cult of Japan.  The word "Shinto"
means "the way of the gods."  This system hardly deserves the name
religion.  It has no moral code, no dogmas, no sacred books.
Originally it consisted chiefly of ancestor- and nature-worship, and of
certain mythological ideas.  A chief feature of it still is the worship
of ancestors, who are exalted to a high pedestal in thought {124} and
worshiped as gods.  The divine origin of the imperial family, and the
obligation to worship and obey it, was a prominent teaching of Shinto.
The ancestors of the imperial family were to be held in supreme
reverence and were the objects of especial worship.

According to the Shinto of this period, there was neither heaven nor
hell, but only an intermediate Hades.  There was a sort of priesthood,
but its duty was to watch over particular local gods, not to preach to
the people.  Pure Shinto taught that a man's whole duty lay in absolute
obedience to the mikado and in following the natural promptings of his
own heart.

Shinto was very much affected by the introduction of Buddhism, about
the middle of the sixth century, and its further growth was checked.
Buddhism adopted and largely absorbed it.  Shinto gods were given a
place in the Buddhist pantheon, and many of the Shinto ceremonies were
adopted.  But Shinto was completely overshadowed by Buddhism, and lay
in a dormant state from the year 550 to 1700, a night of more than a
thousand years.

[Illustration: A Shinto Temple.]

Since the beginning of the eighteenth century a revival of Shinto has
sprung up.  Native scholars tried to call up the past, to find out what
pure Shinto was before its corruption by Buddhism, and to teach it as
the national faith.  In this effort {125} they were partially
successful.  The old Buddhistic accretions were largely thrown off, and
many of the temples, stripped of their Buddhist ornaments, were handed
over to the Shinto priests.  Buddhism was disestablished, and Shinto
again became the religion of the state.  A Shinto "Council for
Spiritual Affairs" was appointed, which had equal rank with the Council
of State.  This, however, was reduced gradually to the rank of a
department, then to a bureau, later to a sub-bureau.  At present Shinto
is the state religion, in so far as there can be said to be any state
religion; but in reality there is no established religion.  The
connection of the government with Shinto extends no further than the
maintenance of certain temples and the attendance of certain officials
on some ceremonies.  Shinto enjoys a large amount of popularity because
it is indigenous, while Buddhism and Confucianism labor under the
disadvantage of being of foreign origin.  The majority of the upper
classes in Japan who to-day have any religion at all are Shintoists.



_Buddhism_

The religion founded by Buddha in India is six centuries older than
Christianity.  Its nominal adherents comprise almost one third of the
human race.  Its philosophical precepts are deep {126} and profound,
while its ethical teachings are, for the most part, lofty and
ennobling.  This religion is worthy the careful study of any man who
has the time and inclination.

We cannot attempt to give a full exposition of it, but will have to
content ourselves with a bare mention of its more prominent teachings.
Certain resemblances to Catholicism in ritual, ceremony, and
ornamentation strike one very forcibly in observing Buddhist rites.
The candles, the incense, the images and processions, all resemble
Rome.  But this resemblance extends no further than ritual and
ceremony.  In point of doctrine Buddhism is widely separated from every
form of Christianity.  In Buddhism the condition on which grace is
received is not faith, but knowledge and enlightenment.  Salvation is
accomplished, not by the vicarious sufferings of a Redeemer, but by
self-perfection through self-denial and discipline.

Dr. Griffis, a man who has written much and well on Japan, has
pronounced the principal features of Buddhism to be atheism,
metempsychosis, or the transmigration of souls, and absence of caste.

[Illustration: A Buddhist Priest.]

Buddhism knows nothing of the existence of a supreme God who created
the world.  It inherited ideas of certain gods from Brahmanism, but
these are made secondary to the _hotoke_, or buddhas, {127} who are
simply men who have finally reached the calm of perfect holiness after
toiling through endless ages and countless existences.  It teaches that
existence itself is the chief of all evils.  Instead of longing for
eternal life, the Buddhist longs for annihilation.  Happy, well-fed
Western people, to whom existence is a delight, can hardly understand
how any one can really desire its cessation.  But the life of the lower
classes in many countries of the East is one daily struggle for bread,
so full of sorrow and misery that it is not unnatural they should
desire to end it.

This religion teaches that the evil of existence springs from the
double root of ignorance and human passions, and is to be overcome by
knowledge and self-discipline.  The heaven it offers is absorption in
the Nirvana--the loss of personal identity and practical annihilation.

Buddhism numbers more devotees and exerts a greater influence than any
of the other religions of Japan.  It was received from Korea about the
middle of the sixth century.  After it had been transplanted and had
grown into popular favor, many Japanese were sent to Korea and China to
study its doctrines more fully; and they brought back with them not
only Buddhism, but also Chinese literature and civilization.  At first
Buddhism encountered fierce opposition, but it was fortunate in
securing court patronage, and {128} very soon the opposition entirely
ceased, so that in two or three centuries it spread itself throughout
the whole empire.  If ever a nation was ripe for the introduction of a
foreign religion, that nation was Japan at that time.  The national
cult was silent, or almost so, in regard to the destiny of man and many
other questions which religion is expected to answer.  The religious
nature of the people was asserting itself, and they were longing for
more light on the great questions of life--its _whence_, _why_, and
_whither_.  Buddhism gave this light, and therefore was warmly
welcomed.  It had the whole field to itself, and took complete
possession of it.

[Illustration: A Buddhist Cemetery.]

From the time of its introduction into Japan down to the present,
Buddhism has enjoyed a wide popularity and exerted a powerful
influence.  It is not too much to say that Buddhism has largely formed
Japanese civilization and national life.  In the words of Professor
Chamberlain, "All education was for centuries in Buddhist hands.
Buddhism introduced art and medicine, molded the folk-lore of the
country, created its dramatic poetry, deeply influenced politics and
every sphere of social and intellectual activity.  In a word, Buddhism
was the teacher under whose instruction the Japanese nation grew up."

Buddhism has by no means lost its hold in Japan.  It still has great
life and power.  Some {129} writers have said that they have never seen
a new temple in Japan--only old ones falling into decay.  Their
experience must have been limited.  I see plenty of new temples, some
of which are very costly.

Buddhist temples are numerous, and many are of imposing architecture.
Being generally surrounded by tall trees, they have a lonely, mournful
appearance.  Hideous beasts, dragons, and serpents are carved upon
them, and large, fierce-looking stone lions guard them, the effect
being to awe and terrify the beholder.  Some are furnished with
gorgeous altars covered with beautiful flowers, images, and statues.
Besides the temples there are everywhere little shrines.  The religious
spirit of the people prompts them to dedicate the most beautiful spots
and nooks to the gods, and there to erect shrines and idols.

Buddhist priests dress in robes not very unlike the official robes of
the Episcopal clergy.  Their heads are always close-shaven, a mark by
which they are easily distinguished.  Forbidden to marry, they are
expected to lead lives of purity and chastity.  They have greatly
degenerated, a large per cent. being illiterate and immoral.  Their
lives will not bear comparison with those of the Christian evangelists.
That nearly all the cemeteries of Japan are in their hands gives them
great influence.

{130}

Japanese Buddhism is divided into numerous sects, chief of which are
the Tendai, Shingon, Jodo, and Zen, of Chinese origin, and the Shin and
Nichiren, of native origin.  The latter two are most prosperous.

Buddhism has profited by its contact with Christianity.  As the
reaction of Protestantism upon Catholicism was beneficial to the
latter, so the reaction of Christianity upon Buddhism has been
healthful It has forced a revival and purification of the Buddhist
faith, and to-day it is better and more active than before it
encountered Christianity.  Still, Christianity is gradually encroaching
upon its domain and is crippling its influence.  That Buddhism is bound
to perish in its encounter with Western civilization and Christianity
seems a foregone conclusion.



_Confucianism_

Confucianism is even less deserving the name of a religion than Shinto.
It consists chiefly in a set of moral teachings, of narrow application
and mostly of a political nature.  Confucius, avoiding all metaphysical
abstractions and devotional rhapsodies, confined himself to the much
more practical field of morals and politics.  But his disciples and
commentators, especially during the middle ages, expanded his doctrines
and added ideas {131} more or less religious.  Thus developed, it
became a sort of religious system, the only one believed by the old
samurai or warrior classes.

Confucius, its founder, was born in the year 551 B.C., in the state of
Lu, province of Shantung, China.  He was an earnest student of the
older Chinese classics, and one of the most learned men of his time.
He gathered round him a circle of young men, whom he instructed, like
Socrates, by questions and answers.  He died in 478 B.C.  No other
human teacher has had more disciples or exerted a wider and stronger
influence.

From its birthplace in China Confucianism spread to Korea, where it
soon became, and still continues to be, the predominant faith.  From
Korea it advanced to the Japanese archipelago, where for many hundred
years it has had much to do with shaping and molding the character of
the people.  Confucianism has undergone many modifications.  At first a
comparatively simple system of ethics and politics, it has expanded
until to-day it is a complicated philosophico-religious system.

The basal principles of Confucian ethics are the "five relations."
These are: sovereign and minister; father and son; husband and wife;
elder brother and younger brother; friend and friend.  I have named
them in the order of their importance.  The duty of loyalty is above
that of filial {132} obedience, while the relation of husband and wife
is inferior to both of these.  We will briefly consider each of these
relations separately.

The duty of a minister, or servant, to his prince, or sovereign, is the
first duty of man, and is emphasized to an extreme degree.  In order to
discharge this obligation to the feudal lord or emperor, one must, if
necessary, give up everything: house, lands, kinsmen, name, fame, wife,
children, society--all.  And Japanese history is filled with instances
of retainers who have counted their lives, their families, their all,
as less than nothing when compared with their duty to their lord.
Loyalty is the one idea which dominates all others in the Confucianism
of Japan.  Thus it has exerted an influence hardly second to Shinto in
inculcating loyalty to the emperor and to Japan, and making the people
fanatically patriotic.

The second relation is that of father and son, or parent and child.  My
readers perhaps would consider the relation of husband and wife the
first of all human relations, but not so the Oriental.  With him the
family is of far more importance than the individual, and the chief aim
of marriage is the maintenance of the family line.  If the wife becomes
a mother she is honored because she assists in perpetuating the family
line; if she is childless she is probably neglected.  Where there are
no children adoption is the universal practice.  {133} The one adopted
takes the family name and perpetuates it.  No greater misfortune can be
conceived than for the house to become extinct.

The relation of parent and child is very different from that to which
we are accustomed.  Mutual love hardly exists.  The parent feels
compassion and love for his child; the child reverences the parent.  To
speak of a child's love for his father, or a man's love for God, is
repugnant to the Confucianist.  It is thought to be taking an undue
familiarity, and the proper relation is considered one of dependence
and reverence.  In old Japan the father was absolute lord and master,
and had power over the life and death of his child.  In recent times
his power is more limited, and the idea is beginning to dawn upon
thinking natives that children have rights as well as duties.  A
Japanese child feels more reverence for its parents, or at least for
its father, than does the average child reared in the Christian homes
of the West.

The third relation is that of husband and wife.  On this point the
teaching of Confucius is very different from that of Christ.  Instead
of having two parties bound together by mutual love, with equal rights
and duties, we have the relation of superior and inferior, of master
and servant.  The husband precedes the wife in all things.  She must
serve him and his family zealously and {134} uncomplainingly.  She must
be especially on her guard against the foolish sin of jealousy, and is
not to complain if her husband introduces a concubine into the same
house in which she resides.  She is to yield absolute obedience to him
in all things.  She can be divorced for very slight reasons, and
divorces are matters of every-day occurrence.  Statistics show that the
annual number of divorces is about one third the number of marriages.
Sentiment is gradually changing in this regard, and marriage and
divorce laws are becoming more strict.

Confucius condemned adultery as a heinous crime, but this teaching is
made to apply only to the wife.  She must remain true to her husband,
but he is not considered under the same obligation to her.

The fourth relation is that of elder brother and younger brother.  This
is evident from the language used to express the relation of children
of the same household to one another.  The word for brother or sister
is seldom used; in fact, there is no word to express just that idea.
In its stead we hear "elder brother," "elder sister," and "younger
brother," "younger sister."  The children of a household are not
considered equals; the elder ones are given the preference in all
things.  Especially does the eldest son hold a position of prominence
far above that of the other children.  {135} He is looked upon as the
perpetuator of the family line and is given especial honor.  His
younger brothers and his sisters, and even his mother, must serve and
obey him.

The younger sons are subjects for adoption into other families,
especially into those where there are daughters to be married and
family names to be perpetuated.  This is in accordance with the Eastern
idea that the house is of more importance than the individual.
Confucian ethics largely overlooks the idea of personality.

The fifth relation is that between friends.  Some writers have spoken
of this as that of man to man, and have thus read Christian ideas into
Confucianism; but this relation as taught by Confucius is only between
friends.  As regards man and man, Confucius taught the duties of
courtesy and propriety, but no others.  He taught the duty of kindness
to strangers, but most students of his writings are of the opinion that
he did not include foreigners among strangers.  The nearest approach to
Christianity in Confucianism is the negative of the golden rule, "Do
not do unto others as you would not have others do unto you."  This
approaches the teaching of Christ very nearly, but only in a negative
form.  Some have thought that Confucius taught the duty of returning
good for evil, but this is a mistake.  One of his contemporaries,
Lao-tse, did teach {136} this duty; but when Confucius was asked about
it he replied, "What, then, will you return for good?  Recompense
_injury with justice_, and return good for good."

Certain it is that this relation, as understood in Japan, does not
apply to foreigners.  How the Japanese treated foreigners in former
times is well known.  Foreign sailors shipwrecked on her coasts were
tortured and executed.  Ships from abroad, bringing shipwrecked
Japanese back to their own country, were met with powder and ball and
repulsed.  Commodore Perry, in attempting to establish a treaty with
Japan, justly complained to the native authorities that the dictates of
humanity had not been followed, that shipwrecked men were treated with
useless cruelty, and that Japan's attitude toward her neighbors and all
the world was that of an enemy and not of a friend.  The fifth relation
did not teach a common brotherhood of men and obligations of kindness
to foreigners.  It applied only to the charmed circle of friendship.

On these five relations rests the whole Japanese social and moral
structure.  Family and national life has been shaped and molded by
them.  They are the ten commandments of the East.  How very different
from the principles which have determined our own family and social
life!

Confucianism in Japan has been developed into {137} a highly
complicated religious system, and in this form is believed by large
numbers of high-class, educated Japanese.  It is wholly pantheistic in
its teaching, having points of resemblance with German pantheism.  It
knows no such thing as God as a separate existence.  Rather, all is
God.  Dr. Martin, of China, has well styled it "a pantheistic medley."

Although Confucianism has long had a strong hold upon Japanese minds,
its influence is waning.  The ancient classics are little studied, and
the younger generation knows almost nothing of them.  The great temple
of Confucius in Tokyo, the Seido, has been changed into an educational
museum.



_Tenrikyo_

Perhaps some will think that Tenrikyo does not deserve mention along
with the before-named great religions.  Certainly it is not worthy of
the respect accorded to them, and has not exerted such an influence as
they have.  It is of very recent origin and is as yet confined to the
lower strata of society.  But its disciples constitute one of the most
vigorous and active religious bodies in Japan to-day.  Its growth has
been remarkably rapid, especially during the past five years.
Government recognition has been already gained, and it is gradually
making a place for itself among {138} the religions of Japan.  Some
authorities place the number of its adherents as high as 5,000,000, but
these figures are probably too high.

Tenrikyo is a missionary religion, having very earnest representatives
in almost every district in Japan.  These men rely almost exclusively
upon preaching for the propagation of their doctrines, and their
efforts are generally successful.

Space permits us to say only a few words in regard to the origin of
this religion.  Its founder was a peasant woman named Nakayama Miiki,
popularly called Omiiki, who was born of a very poor family in the
province of Yamato in 1798, There was nothing remarkable about her life
until her fortieth year, when she fell into a trance.  While in this
state one of the old Shinto deities, Kuni-Toko-Tachi No Mikoto,
appeared to her, and, after causing her much distress, left her for a
short time undisturbed.  After this brief interval of quiet she again
fell into a trance, and was visited by a large number of gods, some of
them the greatest of the Shinto pantheon.  These gods revealed to her
the substance of her teaching, representing it as the only true
doctrine and the one which would ultimately triumph over all others.
They also informed her that she was the divinely appointed instrument
through whom this revelation was to be given to the world.  From {139}
this time forward Omiiki devoted herself to the propagation of this
revelation.

Not wishing to break entirely with the old religions, she represented
her revelation as having been received from the Shinto gods, and gave a
place in her teaching to some prominent Buddhist elements.  By this
means she won popular favor and gained an earnest hearing.

The term "Tenrikyo" signifies the "Doctrine of the Heavenly Reason."
While many of its teachings differ but little from current Shinto and
Buddhistic ideas, its more prominent tenets are radically different.

In the first place, Tenrikyo tends much toward monotheism.  Omiiki
herself accepted polytheism, but taught that man's real allegiance is
due to the sun and the moon.  These she regarded as the real gods; but
as they always work together, and as the world and all things therein
are the product of their joint working, they are practically one.
Since her death the teaching has become more and more monotheistic in
tendency, and some of its preachers teach explicit monotheism.

Omiiki taught a new relation between the gods and men--a relation of
parents to children.  The gods watch over and love their children just
as earthly parents do.  The emperor is the elder brother of the people,
who rules as the representative of the divine parents.

{140}

Faith-healing formed a prominent part in the original teaching of
Tenrikyo.  It asserted that neither physicians nor medicine was needed,
but that cures are to be effected through faith alone.  Marvelous
stories are told of the wonderful cures it has accomplished, many of
which seem well authenticated.  But while there seems no good reason
for doubting the genuineness of some of these cures, the power of mind
over mind, and the influence of personal magnetism in certain kinds of
nervous disorders, are so well known that they can be easily explained
without any reference to the supernatural.  The faith-cure feature of
this religion is now falling into disuse.

Tenrikyo makes very little of the future state, although Omiiki assumed
its reality.  In one passage she refers to the soul as an emanation
from the gods, and says that after death it will go back to them.  She
teaches that the cause of suffering, disease, and sin is found in the
impurity of the human heart, and that the heart must be cleansed before
believers can receive the divine favor.  She insists over and over
again that no prayers nor religious services are of any avail so long
as the heart is impure.

The aim of Omiiki and her followers seems to be a worthy one.  The
movement is highly ethical, and there is little doubt but that the
adherents of the Tenrikyo are superior in morals to {141} the rest of
their class.  Some features of this new religion are, however, looked
upon with suspicion, and it is being closely watched by the government.
Charges of gross immorality have been preferred against it, especially
in reference to the midnight dances, in which both sexes are said to
participate indiscriminately; but these charges are made by its enemies
and have never been proved.

In many respects Tenrikyo materially differs from the other religions
of Japan.  Its adherents assemble at stated times for worship and
instruction, while the Buddhists assemble in the temples for worship
and preaching only three or four times a year, and the Shintoists
seldom, if ever, assemble.  The worship of Tenrikyo, for the most part,
consists of praise and thanksgiving by music and dancing; but prayer is
also practised.

Another distinguishing characteristic of Tenrikyo is that it is
exclusive.  The other religions of Japan are very tolerant of one
another; one may believe them all.  But Tenrikyo will not tolerate
either Buddhism or Shinto.  Its adherents must give their allegiance to
it alone.

It is interesting to conjecture as to the influence Christianity has
had upon Tenrikyo.  It does not seem probable that Omiiki was at all
influenced by it, unless the traditions of the Catholic Christianity of
some two or three hundred years previous reached her in some way.  But
the expansion {142} and development of the system by its later teachers
have been very much affected by Christianity.  Some of its present
preachers, in constructing their sermons, borrow largely from Christian
sources.  In the minds of the common people Tenrikyo is generally
associated with Christianity.


There are several other small religious sects in Japan, such as the
Remmon Kyokwai, Kurozumi Kyokwai, etc., but they are not of sufficient
importance to command notice here.

Any statement of the religions of contemporary Japan would be
incomplete without notice of Christianity, but that will be reserved
for another portion of this book.

The three great religions, Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism, are
completely woven into the warp and woof of Japanese society.  As
Christianity has shaped the political, social, and family life of the
West, so these ancient faiths have that of the East.  The laws, the
morality, the manners and customs of these peoples all have been
determined by their religions.  And to-day the masses of the people
look to them for principles to guide their present life, and for their
future spiritual welfare, with just as much confidence and trust as my
readers look to Christianity.  The missionary, in his work, must
encounter and {143} vanquish all of these religions, which is no light
task.  They all have elements of superstition, and their origin and
supernatural teachings will not bear the search-light of the growing
spirit of criticism and investigation.  Each one of them is even now
modifying gradually its doctrines in some features, so as to bring them
into harmony with true learning and science; and as the nation
progresses intellectually the hold of these ancient faiths upon the
common mind will become more and more precarious.  We expect to see
them gradually retreating, though stubbornly resisting every inch of
ground, until they shall finally leave the field to their younger and
more vigorous antagonists, Christianity and civilization.



{144}

VIII

FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY

One of the most interesting chapters of Japanese history is that
relating to the introduction and growth of Catholic Christianity in the
sixteenth century.  This story has been eloquently told in nearly all
European languages, and is familiar to the reading public.  The
terrible persecutions then enacted are vividly represented in paintings
and other works of art on exhibition in art galleries of Europe and
America.  This chapter is not written with the hope of saying anything
new upon the subject, but because a story of mission work in Japan
would be incomplete without it; and it may be that some for the first
time will here read this story.

In order rightly to appreciate the introduction and spread of
Christianity in Japan, it is necessary that we take a bird's-eye view
of the internal condition of the country about the middle of the {145}
sixteenth century.  The Japanese were not then, as now, a homogeneous
people with a strong central government.  The emperor, although the
nominal ruler, was in reality the creature of the shogun, who was the
real ruler.  His title to the shogunate was frequently disputed,
however, and rival claimants waged fierce war upon him.  The whole of
Japan was divided into warring factions that were hardly ever at peace
with one another.  The feudal lords of the various provinces were only
bound to the central government by the weakest ties, and were
continually in a state of rebellion.  Many of these daimios were great
and powerful, able to wage war with the shogun himself.  Jealousy and
rivalry between the provinces kept up constant quarrels and divisions.
Bad government, internal wars, the disputes and quarrels of different
clans, and the ambitions and jealousies of their rulers had destroyed
the resources of the country and had devastated her rich and beautiful
cities.  Even the fine old capital of Kyoto is represented as at that
time in a state of dilapidation and ruin, its streets filled with
unburied corpses and all kinds of debris and filth.  Kamakura, the seat
of the shogun's government, once boasting 1,000,000 inhabitants, was in
ashes.

In those dark times there was little in the prevalent religions to
cheer and uplift discouraged {146} men.  Shinto was so completely
overshadowed by Buddhism that it was little more than a myth.  Buddhism
had become a political system, and paid little attention to purely
religious matters.  The priests had degenerated into an army of
mercenaries, living in luxury and dissoluteness.  The common people
were in a continual state of excitement and ferment.

Into this disordered, chaotic society Catholic Christianity was first
introduced.  The conditions were favorable to its reception.

St. Francis Xavier, one of the most devoted, earnest, and successful
missionaries ever sent out by the Roman Church, has the honor of having
been the first missionary to Japan.  He was led to go there in the
following manner: A refugee from Japan, named Anjiro, had wandered to
Malacca, and there he met Xavier, who was at that time engaged in
preaching the gospel in India and the Sunda Islands.  Through Xavier's
influence Anjiro was converted to Christianity.  The stories which he
told of his own people fired the great evangelist with the desire to
preach the gospel to the Japanese.  A few years prior to this some
Portuguese traders had made their way to Japan, had been warmly
received, and had begun a lucrative trade.  Some of the daimios
expressed to them a desire to have the Christian religion taught to
their people; and Xavier no {147} sooner heard of this than he set out
for Japan, accompanied by the native convert Anjiro.

They landed at Kagoshima, a large city on the coast of the southern
island of Kyushu, August 15, 1549.  The prince of Satsuma gave Xavier a
hearty welcome, but afterward became jealous because one of the rival
clans had been furnished with firearms by the Portuguese merchants, so
that Xavier was compelled to remove to Hirado.  From there he went to
Nagato, thence to Bungo, where he again met a warm reception.  Although
so great a missionary, and having labored in so many countries, Xavier
is said never to have mastered completely a single foreign tongue.  He
studied the rudiments of Japanese, but, finding that way much too slow,
began preaching through an interpreter, with marked success and power.
Anjiro had translated the Gospel of Matthew, writing it in Roman
letters, and Xavier is said to have read this to the people with
wonderful effect.  He stayed only two and a half years in Japan; yet in
that short time he organized several congregations in the neighborhood
of Yamaguchi and Hirado, and visited and preached in the old capital
Kyoto.  He then left the work in the hands of other missionaries, while
he undertook the spiritual conquest of China.  This ancient empire,
with her hard, conservative civilization, impervious to foreign
influence, lay like a burden {148} on his heart.  Contemplating her
learning, her pride, and her exclusiveness, he uttered the despairing
cry, "O mountain, mountain, when wilt thou open to my Lord?"  He died
December 2, 1551, on an island in the Canton River.

The inspiring example of Xavier attracted scores of missionaries to
Japan, and also incited the native converts to constitute themselves
missionaries to their kinsmen and friends; and their labors bore much
fruit.  In a very short time, in the region of Kyoto alone, there were
seven strong churches; and the island of Amakusa, the greater part of
the Goto Islands, and the daimiates of Omura and Yamaguchi had become
Christian.  In 1581 the churches had grown to two hundred, and the
number of Christians to 150,000.  The converts were drawn from all
classes of the people; Buddhist priests, scholars, and noblemen
embraced the new faith with as much readiness as did the lower classes.
Two daimios had accepted it, and were doing all in their power to aid
the missionaries in their provinces.  At this period the missionaries
and Christians found a powerful supporter in Nobunaga, the minister of
the mikado.  This man openly welcomed the foreign priests, and gave
them suitable grounds on which to build their churches, schools, and
dwellings; and under his patronage the new {149} religion grew apace.
Catholic Christianity took its deepest root in the southern provinces,
flourishing especially in Bungo, Omura, and Arima; but there were
churches as far north as Yedo, and evangelists had carried the tidings
of Christ and the "Mother of God" even to the northern boundaries of
the empire.  This was the high tide of Japanese Catholicism.

The native Christians were so earnest and loyal to the church that, in
1583, they sent an embassy of four young noblemen to Rome to pay their
respects to the pope and to declare themselves his spiritual vassals.
They were suspected by some of their countrymen of desiring to become
his vassals in another sense as well.  This embassy was received with
the greatest honors by the pope, as well as by the European princes,
and was sent away heavily laden with presents.  After an absence of
eight years it returned to Nagasaki, accompanied by seventeen more
Jesuit fathers.  Up to this time all of the priests laboring in Japan
were members of this order.  From time to time other embassies were
despatched from Japan to Rome, one of which was sent many years after
the persecutions had begun.  Catholic histories put the number of
native Christians at this time at about 600,000, but native authorities
put it much higher.



{150}

_Persecutions_

Such was the happy state of Christianity in this empire as the
sixteenth century was drawing to a close.  But, thick and fast, clouds
were gathering over the horizon, and suddenly and furiously the storm
broke.  The loss of their protector, Nobunaga, was the beginning of the
misfortunes of the Christians.  This great man was slain by an
assassin, Akechi by name, who attempted to take the reins of government
into his own hands.  Hideyoshi, one of the greatest men Japan ever
produced, now came upon the stage.  He was the loyal general of the
mikado, and, by the help of the Christian general Takayama, he
overthrew the usurper Akechi, and became the molder of the destinies of
the empire.  He was the unifier of Japan.

Hideyoshi was at first tolerant of Christianity; but his suspicions
were by and by aroused, and he became a cruel and relentless
persecutor.  According to Dr. Griffis, his umbrage arose partly because
a Portuguese captain would not please him by risking his ship in coming
out of deep water and nearer land, and partly because some Christian
maidens of Arima scorned his degrading proposals.  The quarrels of the
Christians themselves also helped to bring on the persecutions.  {151}
Franciscan and Dominican missionaries from Spain had recently landed in
Japan, and they were continually at strife with the Portuguese Jesuits.
The jealousy and indiscretion of these unfriendly religious orders, and
the slanders circulated by the Buddhists, stirred up the popular fury,
and a persecution of fire and blood broke out.  Hideyoshi issued an
edict commanding the Jesuits to leave the country in twenty days; but
this edict was winked at, and the persecutions were carried on only
locally and spasmodically.  The converts increased faster during these
persecutions than before, about 10,000 being added each year.

In open violation of the edict, four Franciscan priests came to Kyoto
in 1593 with a Spanish envoy.  They were allowed to build houses and
reside there on the express condition that they were not to preach or
teach, either publicly or privately.  Immediately violating their
pledge, they began preaching openly in the streets, wearing the
vestments of their order.  They excited a great deal of discord among
the Jesuit congregations and used most violent language.  Hideyoshi was
angered at this,--as he had good reason to be,--and caused nine
preachers to be seized while they were building chapels in Osaka and
Kyoto, and condemned to death.  These, together with three Portuguese
Jesuits, six Spanish {152} Franciscans, and seventeen native
Christians, were crucified on bamboo crosses in Nagasaki, February 5,
1597.  They were put to death, not as Christians, but as law-breakers
and political conspirators.

Hideyoshi was further confirmed in his opinion that these foreign
priests had political designs by the remark of a Spanish sea-captain
who showed him a map of the world, on which the vast dominions of the
King of Spain were clearly marked, and who, in reply to the question as
to how his master came by such wide territories, foolishly replied that
he first sent priests to win over the people, then soldiers to
coöperate with the native converts, and the conquest was easy.
Hideyoshi's fears were not entirely ungrounded.  The truth is that
Catholic Christianity has always been, and was especially at that time,
so intimately connected with the state that her emissaries could not
keep from entangling themselves in politics.

Hideyoshi died in 1597, and with the death of their persecutor the
missionaries again took heart and began their work anew.  The political
successor of Hideyoshi was Iyeyasu--a man even greater, perhaps, than
his predecessor.  He was not permitted to assume direction of affairs
without a fierce and bloody struggle.  Around the capital 200,000
soldiers were gathered under ambitious rival leaders.  Soon the camps
were {153} divided into two factions, the northern soldiers under
Iyeyasu, and the southern soldiers under their own daimios.  Most of
the Christians were naturally allied with the latter party.  Believing
Iyeyasu to be a usurper, the Christian generals arrayed themselves
against him and went forth to meet him in the open field.  On the field
of Sekigahara a bloody battle was fought, and 10,000 men lost their
lives.  The Christians were beaten, and were dealt with after the
custom of the time--their heads were stricken off.  Iyeyasu, finding
himself in undisputed possession of the reins of government, began at
once the completion of the work of Hideyoshi, i.e., the creation of a
strong central government and the subjugation of the several daimios.
Henceforth the Christians had to deal with this central government
instead of the petty local ones.

Systematic persecutions were now begun in the different provinces,
culminating in the year 1606, when Iyeyasu issued his famous edict
prohibiting Christianity.  At this time there were more than 1,000,000
Christians in Japan.  An outward show of obedience warded off active
persecution for a few years, when the Franciscan friars again aroused
the wrath of the government by openly violating the laws and exhorting
their converts to do likewise.  In 1611 Iyeyasu is reported to have
discovered documentary evidence of the {154} existence of a plot on the
part of the native Christians and the foreign emissaries to overthrow
the government and reduce Japan to the position of a subject state.
Taking advantage of the opportunity thus afforded, he determined to
utterly extirpate Christianity from his dominions.  January 27, 1614,
he issued the famous edict in which he branded the Jesuit missionaries
as triple enemies--as enemies of the gods, of Japan, and of the
buddhas.  Desiring to avoid so much bloodshed, if possible, he tried
the plan of transportation.  Three hundred persons--Franciscans,
Jesuits, Dominicans, Augustinians, and natives--were shipped from
Nagasaki to Macao.  But many priests concealed themselves and were
overlooked.  The native Christians refused to renounce their faith.  It
was evident that the end was not yet.  The Christians were sympathizers
with Hideyori, who had been a rival claimant with Iyeyasu for the
shogunate, and whose castle in Osaka was the greatest stronghold in the
empire.  In this castle Hideyori gave shelter to some Christians, and
Iyeyasu called out a great army and laid siege to it.  The war which
followed was very brief, but, if the report of the Jesuits is to be
relied upon, 100,000 men perished.  The castle finally fell, and with
it the cause of the Christians.  Hidetada, the next shogun, now
pronounced sentence of death upon {155} every foreigner, whether priest
or catechist, found in the country.  All native converts who refused to
renounce their faith were likewise sentenced to death.  The story of
the persecutions that followed is too horrible to be described.  Fire
and sword were freely used to extirpate Christianity.  Converts were
wrapped in straw sacks, piled in heaps of living fuel, and then set on
fire.  Many were burned with fires made from the crosses before which
they were accustomed to bow.  Some were buried alive.  All the tortures
that barbaric cruelty could invent were freely used to rid the land of
them.  The calmness and fortitude with which they bore their lot,
gladly dying for their faith, command our warmest admiration.  The
power of our religion to uphold and sustain even in the midst of
torture was never more strikingly illustrated, and the ancient Roman
world produced no more willing martyrs than did Japan at this time.

At last even the patient, uncomplaining Japanese Christians could stand
it no longer.  Persecuted until desperate, those who remained finally
arose in rebellion, seized and fortified the old castle of Shimabara,
and resolved to die rather than submit.  The rebelling party probably
numbered about 30,000, and there was not one foreigner among them.  A
veteran army, led by skilled commanders, was sent against the rebels,
{156} and after a stubborn resistance of four months the castle was
taken.  Men, women, and children--all were slaughtered.  There is an
old story to the effect that many of them were thrown from the rock of
Pappenburg into the sea; but it lacks confirmation and doubtless is
only a myth.  It has also been charged against the Protestant
Hollanders then resident in Nagasaki that they assisted in the
overthrow of the Shimabara castle and the destruction of the Catholics
with their heavy guns, but this probably is untrue.

There was now left no power to resist, and the sword, fire, and
banishment swept away every trace of Christianity.  The extermination
appeared so complete that non-Christian writers have pointed to Japan
as a land in which Christianity had been entirely conquered by the
sword, thus proving that it could be extirpated.  But the extirpation
was not so thorough as at first appeared.  Christian converts remained,
and assembled regularly for worship; but the utmost secrecy was
observed, for fear of the authorities.  When the country was reopened
in 1859, the Catholic fathers found remaining in and around Nagasaki
whole villages of Christians, holding their faith in secret, it is
true, but still holding it.  During the two hundred years in which they
had been left alone the faith had become corrupt, but there were still
thousands of people who, amid {157} much ignorance, worshiped the true
God and refused to bow at pagan shrines.  Christianity was not entirely
crushed, neither can be, by the secular arm.

After the government had, as it fondly supposed, entirely suppressed
the hated foreign religion, in order to prevent its return it
determined upon the most rigid system of exclusiveness ever practised
by any nation.  The means of communication with the outer world were
all cut off; all ships above a certain size were destroyed, and the
building of others large enough to visit foreign lands rigidly
prohibited; Japanese were forbidden to travel abroad on pain of death;
native shipwrecked sailors who had been driven to other lands were not
permitted to return to their own country, lest they should carry the
dreaded religion back with them; and all foreigners found on Japanese
territory were executed.  Over all the empire the most rigid
prohibitions of Christianity were posted.  The high-sounding text of
one of them was as follows: "So long as the sun shall continue to warm
the earth, let no Christian be so bold as to come to Japan; and let all
know that the King of Spain himself, or the Christians' god, or the
great God of all, if He dare violate this command, shall pay for it
with His head."  These prohibitions could still be seen along the
highways as late as 1872.

{158}

During this period of exclusion the only means of communication with
the outside world was through the Dutch, a small colony of whom were
permitted to reside in Nagasaki as a sort of safety-valve and a means
of communication with the outside world when such communication became
absolutely necessary.  They enjoyed the confidence of Japan more than
any other nation.  These Hollanders were compelled to live on the
narrow little island of Desima, in Nagasaki harbor, always under strict
surveillance.  Ships from Holland were permitted to visit them
occasionally, and they carried on a very lucrative trade between the
two countries.

The mistake of Catholic Christianity in Japan during the century the
history of which we have been reciting was its meddling in politics and
getting itself entangled in the internal affairs of the country.  If it
had avoided politics and been at peace and harmony with itself, it
might have enjoyed continued prosperity, and Japan to-day might have
been one of the brightest stars in the pope's crown.

While this was, as we firmly believe, a very corrupt form of
Christianity, we must remember that it was immeasurably better than any
religion Japan had yet known.  Although it taught Mariolatry, salvation
in part by works, penance, and many other errors, it also taught that
there {159} is but one God, and that His Son died for men.  It very
much improved the morals of its adherents, and purified and exalted
their lives.

At the present day very little remains of this century of Christianity
besides the few scattered and corrupt congregations found by the
Jesuits on their return, the introduction of firearms and a few rude
tools, and the infusion of a handful of foreign words into the
language.  The most important effect of this period is an inborn and
inveterate prejudice against and mistrust of Christianity on the part
of the people, which to-day hinders much our work of evangelization.



{160}

IX

MODERN ROMAN AND GREEK MISSIONS


_Roman Church_

The Roman Church was not discouraged by the fierce persecutions she was
called upon to endure during the seventeenth century.  Nothing daunted,
she continued to send missionaries at intervals during the eighteenth
century; but they were thrown into prison or executed as soon as they
landed.  In order to be in readiness for the opening of the country,
which could not be much longer delayed, the pope, in 1846, nominated a
bishop and several missionaries to Japan.  These men took up their
station in the neighboring Liukiu Islands and patiently awaited their
opportunity.  As soon as the treaties with foreign nations were made,
and the country was opened, they at once entered Japan, and resumed the
work so rudely interrupted two hundred years before.

{161}

A few years later these priests had the joy of discovering in the
neighborhood of Nagasaki several Christian communities that had
survived the bloody persecutions and had perpetuated their faith for
more than two centuries, in spite of the vigilance of the authorities
and the rigid prohibitions of Christianity.  Left for so long without
direction and guidance, bound for the sake of their lives to strictest
secrecy, and, above all, not having the Bible to enlighten them, the
faith of these communities had become very corrupt.  But they still
retained a certain knowledge of God, of Jesus Christ, and of the Virgin
Mary.  The rite of baptism and some prayers also survived.

Of the existence of these Christian communities, and the perpetuation
of their faith in secrecy for more than two hundred years, there is not
the slightest room for doubt.  The persecuting spirit, which had also
survived, found large numbers of them in 1867, and more than 4000 who
refused to renounce their faith were banished.  After six years of
exile they were permitted to return to their homes.

The mistake of the Romanists here, as elsewhere, was in not translating
the Bible into the vernacular.  Xavier and his successors did not give
the Word of God to the churches, and hence when the priests all were
banished the people were left without any light to guide them.  Had
{162} they possessed a Japanese Bible, the reopening of the country
would have shown us, instead of a few corrupt Christian communities, a
vigorous, aggressive native church, only made stronger by persecution.
Such was the case in Madagascar, and such probably it would have been
in Japan had the people been given the Word of God.

The relative importance of the Bible to the Romanist and the Protestant
is well shown in this matter of Bible translation.  One of the first
efforts of the Protestant Churches in Japan was a translation of the
Bible, and an excellent version was prepared and published more than
ten years ago.  The Roman Church, with more than a century of
unprecedented prosperity in former times, and with the same advantages
enjoyed by the Protestants in recent years, has not yet published its
Bible in Japanese.  Some priests and native scholars are now engaged on
a translation of the Vulgate, which will doubtless be published soon.

Ever since the opening of the country the Church of Rome has been very
earnest and zealous in her efforts to evangelize this land.  She has
used a great many men, who have labored hard and faithfully, and has
expended large sums of money.  Her success has not been great, because
she has had to contend against fearful odds.  The hindrances that have
made the progress of {163} Protestant missions in this land very slow
have had to be overcome also by Catholicism, besides some other strong
militating influences.  I will mention two of the most important of
these hindrances peculiar to Catholicism.

1. The genius of the Catholic Church is not adapted to Japan.  The
priority of the spiritual over the temporal ruler, the exaltation of
church over state, the allegiance required to a foreign pope, the
unqualified obedience to foreign ecclesiastical authority, and numerous
other things, come into conflict with the strong national feeling now
animating the Japanese, and seem to them to conflict with the great
duty of loyalty.  The celibacy of the clergy and the rite of extreme
unction are also very unpopular.  Both Catholicism and Protestantism
are regarded as evils, but the former is, on account of its nature and
organization, considered the greater.

2. The past history of Catholicism in Japan also militates very much
against its progress.  The people recognize it as the specific form of
Christianity that the government, in former times, felt bound, for the
sake of its own safety, to persecute to the death.  They cannot forget
that, although under great provocation, it dared bare its arm against
the imperial Japanese government and inaugurate a bitter rebellion.  In
their work to-day the priests encounter all of these {164} objections,
and must satisfactorily explain them away--a difficult task.

But, notwithstanding, the Roman Church has enjoyed an equal degree of
prosperity with the Protestant Churches since the opening of Japan in
1858.  The statistics for the year 1895 show 50,302 adherents--about
10,000 more than the Protestants.  But the manner of compiling
statistics differs so much that these figures do not fairly represent
the numerical strength of the two bodies.  The Catholics not only count
all baptized children, but all nominal adherents; while Protestants
count no nominal adherents, and many of the denominations do not even
count baptized children.  If the same method of compiling statistics
were used by both bodies, their numerical strength would probably
appear to be about equal.

These 50,302 adherents are comprised in two hundred and fifty
congregations.  There are one hundred and sixty-nine churches and
chapels; one theological seminary, with 46 pupils; two colleges, with
181 pupils; three boarding-schools for girls, with 171 pupils;
twenty-six industrial schools, with 764 pupils; and forty-one primary
schools, with 2924 pupils.

The Catholic Church throughout the East is noted for its splendid
charities.  It is doing more to care for the helpless, aged, and infirm
than all the Protestant bodies combined.  It supports in {165} Japan
one hospital for lepers that is exceedingly popular with that
unfortunate class.  The government has one good leper hospital, but it
is said that the lepers much prefer going to the Catholic hospital,
because there they are treated so much more kindly and considerately.
There are 70 lepers in this Catholic hospital.  The Catholic Church has
also one hospital for the aged, with 31 inmates; and nineteen
orphanages, with 2080 children in them.  This large number of
charitable institutions supported by the Roman Church makes a strong
appeal to the Japanese public and does much toward overcoming the
prejudice against her.

The active working force of the Catholic mission, besides the lay
members of the native church, consists of 1 archbishop, 3 bishops, 88
European missionaries, 20 native priests, 304 native catechists, 25
European friars, 85 European sisters, and 42 novices.  The archbishop
and bishops reside respectively in Nagasaki, Osaka, Tokyo, and Hakodate.



_Greek Church_

The Greek Church has had a flourishing mission in Japan ever since
1871.  It is always spoken of here as the "Greek Church" or the "Greek
Catholic Church," although it would more properly be called the
"Russian Church," {166} as it was founded and is supported by the
national church of Russia.

This mission is largely the result of the prodigious labors of one
man--Bishop Nicolai Kasatkin.  He first came to Japan in 1861 as
chaplain to the Russian consulate at Hakodate, but it was his desire
and intention from the beginning to do mission work.  For some years he
was so absorbed in the study of the language that he made no attempt
whatever to preach or teach.  After he had been in Hakodate several
years a Buddhist priest who came to revile him was converted through
his influence.  This man was the first convert to the Greek Church in
Japan, and was baptized in 1866.  Three years afterward the second
convert, a physician, was baptized.

The zeal of these converts, and Nicolai's own conscience, now incited
him to throw his whole life and influence into the cause of a mission
in Japan.  He was led deeply to regret that he had not done more to
make Christ known to the Japanese, instead of giving all his time and
attention to scholarship and letters.  In 1869 he returned to Russia
and began to agitate the founding of a mission in Japan.  The Holy
Synod gave the desired permission the next year, and appointed Nicolai
its first missionary.  In 1871 Nicolai returned to Japan and made his
headquarters in the capital city, Tokyo.  From this {167} time his
active missionary work began, and in it he has shown himself a master.
Whether in the work of preaching, translating, financiering, building,
or what not, he has been director and chief laborer.  In 1872 a new
priest, Anatoli by name, came out from Russia and ably assisted Nicolai
for eighteen years, at the end of which time declining health forced
him to return.

Nicolai again returned to Russia in 1879, and was consecrated bishop of
the Greek Church in Japan.  At this time he began a work which had long
been on his heart, viz., the collection of funds for the erection of a
fine cathedral in Tokyo.  This cathedral was begun in 1884 and
completed in 1891.  It is a magnificent building, by far the finest
ecclesiastical structure in Japan.  It stands on an eminence from which
it seems to dominate the whole city.  The cost of this cathedral was
$177,575, silver.

Here one may hear the finest choral music in the empire.  Those who
believe it to be impossible to train well Japanese voices have but to
attend a service at this cathedral to have their ideas changed.  A
choir of several hundred voices has been trained to sing in perfect
harmony, and the music is inspiring.  Travelers who have heard the
music of the most famous cathedrals and churches of Europe and America
say that this will compare favorably with the best.  The {168}
development of music in the Greek Church of Japan has been marvelous.

The work of this church, while scattered over the whole empire, is
chiefly carried on in the cities and larger towns.  Like the Roman
Church, it refuses fellowship with the various Protestant bodies.  Some
men of note belong to it, and it is to-day recognized as one of the
influential religious bodies.

A notable feature of its work is that it has employed comparatively few
foreign missionaries.  The burden of the work has been done by Bishop
Nicolai and an able body of trained native assistants.  At present
there are only two foreigners in connection with it, and there have
never been at any time more than three or four.  While foreign priests
have been little used, several of its native priests have been educated
abroad.

This church has 21 native priests and 158 unordained catechists.  It is
now conducting work in two hundred and nineteen stations and
outstations.  It has one boarding-school for boys, with 47 pupils; one
for girls, with 76 pupils; and one theological school, with 18 pupils.
The membership at the close of the year 1895 was 22,576, and the amount
contributed for all purposes during that year was $4754.95.



{169}

X

A BRIEF HISTORY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN

During Japan's period of seclusion, when no foreigner dared enter the
country upon pain of death, many godly people were praying that God
would open the doors, and some mission boards were watching and waiting
for an opportunity to send the gospel to the Japanese.  When, in the
year 1854, treaties were made with Western powers, and it became known
that Japan was to be reopened to foreign intercourse, great interest
was at once manifested by the friends of missions in the evangelization
of this land.

This same year the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church
in the United States of America requested one of its missionaries in
China to visit Japan and examine into the condition of affairs there,
with the purpose of establishing a mission.  At this time permanent
{170} residence of foreigners was not secured, and it was doubtless for
this reason that no progress was made toward the establishment of a
mission.

The country was not actually opened to foreign residence until the year
1859, and by the close of that year three Protestant missionary
societies, quick to take advantage of the opportunity offered, had
their representatives in the field.  The Protestant Episcopal Church of
the United States has the honor of sending the first Protestant
missionaries to Japan.  It transferred two of its missionaries from
China, the Rev. C. M. Williams and the Rev. J. Liggins.  Previous to
this time a few missionaries had made transient visits from China to
Kanagawa and Nagasaki, and found opportunity to teach elementary
English; but this work accomplished little.

According to the treaty with England, the four treaty ports of Japan
were opened July 1, 1859; according to that with America, July 4th.
Mr. Liggins arrived in Nagasaki May 2d, two months before the actual
opening of the port; he was joined by Mr. Williams one month later.

On, October 18th of the same year the first missionaries of the
Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, Dr. and Mrs. J. C.
Hepburn, arrived at Kanagawa.  A fortnight later the Rev.  S. R. Brown
and D. B. Simmons, M.D., of the Reformed Church in America, reached
Nagasaki.  {171} The Rev. Dr. G. F. Verbeck, also of the Reformed
Church, reached Nagasaki one month later.  Thus it will be seen that
missionaries were sent here as soon as the country was opened to
foreign residence, the Episcopalian, Presbyterian, and Reformed
churches of America beginning the work almost simultaneously.

The example set by these boards was soon followed by others.  The
American Baptists began the work in 1860, the American Board
(Congregationalist) in 1869, and the American Methodists in 1873.  From
time to time other boards also sent representatives.

Although the country was now open to foreign residence, it was by no
means open to the propagation of the foreign religion.  All that the
missionaries could do was to study the language and teach English.  In
this early period many of them found employment in the schools of the
various daimios and in those of the national government.

The first years were very trying ones.  The missionaries were in
imminent danger of their lives; attacks without either provocation or
warning were very common.  Foreigners, and especially those who wanted
to teach the foreign religion, were everywhere bitterly hated.  The
lordly samurai walked about with two sharp swords stuck into his belt,
and his very look was {172} threatening.  At their houses and when they
walked abroad foreigners had special guards provided them by the
government.

Great difficulty was at first experienced by the missionaries in
employing teachers, because of the suspicion in which foreigners were
held.  Those who finally agreed to teach were afterward found to be
government spies.

The government was still confessedly hostile to Christianity as late as
1869.  Shortly before this time some Roman Catholic Christians who had
been found around Nagasaki were torn from their homes and sent away
into exile.  The sale of Christian books was rigidly prohibited.  The
prohibitions against Christianity were still posted over all the
empire, and were rigidly enforced.  If a conversation on religious
subjects was begun with a Japanese his hand would involuntarily grasp
his throat, indicating the extreme perilousness of such a topic.

The following story shows what native Christians had to endure in some
parts of Japan as late as 1871.  "Mr. O. H. Gulick, while at Kobé, had
a teacher, formerly Dr. Greene's teacher, called Ichikawa Yeinosuke.
In the spring of the year named this man and his wife were arrested at
dead of night and thrown into prison.  He had for some time been an
earnest student of the Bible, and had expressed the desire to receive
{173} baptism, but had not been baptized.  His wife was not then
regarded as a Christian.  Every effort was made to secure his release;
but neither the private requests of the missionaries, nor the kindly
offices of the American consul, nor even those of the American
minister, availed anything.  Even his place of confinement was not
known at the time.  It was at length learned that he had been confined
in Kyoto, and had died there November 25, 1872.  His wife was shortly
afterward released.  She is now a member of the Shinsakurada church in
Tokyo."

At this early period no distinction was made between Catholic and
Protestant Christianity, and both were alike hated.  There was no
opportunity to do direct Christian work, and many of the supporters of
missions at home were beginning to doubt the expediency of keeping
missionaries where they were not permitted to work.  Some boards even
contemplated recalling their men.  But the missionaries were permitted
to remain and await their opportunity, which soon came.  With the
gradual opening of the country, and especially with the dissemination
of a knowledge of foreign nations and their faith, the opportunities
for work more and more increased and the old prohibitions were less and
less enforced.

During the period of forced inactivity the missionaries were busily
engaged in a study of the {174} language and in the writing of various
useful books and tracts.  At first Chinese Bibles and other Christian
books were extensively used, the educated classes reading Chinese with
facility.  The first religious tract published in Japanese appeared in
1867.  One of the most important of the literary productions of the
missionary body, Dr. J. C. Hepburn's Japanese-English and
English-Japanese Dictionary, appeared in this same year.  It was a
scholarly work, the result of many years of hard, persevering labor.
The first edition was speedily exhausted, and a second was issued in
1872.  The translation of the Holy Scriptures was also begun and gotten
well under way in this period.  Several separate portions of the
Scriptures from time to time appeared.  The first was the Gospel of
Matthew, translated by the Rev. J. Goble, of the Baptist mission, and
published in 1871.  Dr. S. R. Brown had previously prepared first
drafts of some portions of the New Testament, but unfortunately they
were destroyed by fire.  Translations of Mark and John, by Drs. Brown
and Hepburn, were published in 1872.

This irregular, piecemeal method of translation was not satisfactory;
so in order to expedite the work, and to elicit an active interest in
it on the part of all the missionaries in the country, a convention on
Bible translation was called to meet {175} in Yokohama on September 20,
1872.  As a result of this convention the Translation Committee was
organized.  At first it consisted of Drs. Brown, Hepburn, and Greene.
Other names were afterward added.  This committee was ably assisted in
its work by prominent Japanese Christian scholars.  The great
undertaking was brought to a successful conclusion in 1880, when an
edition of the whole Bible was published in excellent Japanese.

We have anticipated matters somewhat.  Let us now go back a few years
and take up the thread where we left off.  The work of the missionaries
for a long time was fruitless, but the day of reaping was near.  The
first Protestant convert of Japan was baptized in Yokohama by the Rev.
Mr. Ballagh, in 1864.  Two years later Dr. Verbeck baptized two
prominent men in southern Japan.  In 1866 Bishop Williams, of the
Episcopal Church, baptized one convert.  Who can tell the joy of these
missionaries when, after so many years of hard work, they were
permitted to see these precious fruits?  From time to time others were
baptized, but for many years accessions were rare.  The first church
was organized in Yokohama in 1872.  It was left to draft its own
constitution and church government, and was a very liberal body.

During all this time the prohibitions of {176} Christianity were still
posted over all the land, and the government had never officially
renounced its policy of persecution.  But the infringement of the laws
was permitted, and gradually they became a dead letter.  Many Japanese
of influence and of official position traveled abroad, and learning of
the status of Christianity in the countries of the West, and
particularly of the attitude of the chief nations of the world toward
the persecution of Christians, exerted their influence to have these
prohibitions rescinded.  Especially did the strong stand taken by some
Western governments influence Japan in favor of toleration.  Our own
Secretary of State in Washington plainly informed the Japanese
committee then visiting there that the United States could not regard
as a friendly power any nation that persecuted its Christian subjects.

As a result of various influences, the edicts against Christianity were
removed from the signboards in 1873.  This was an event of the utmost
importance to Christian work, for, although the infringement of the
edicts had been for some time winked at, their very existence before
the eyes of the people had a great deterring effect.  The government
announced that this action did not signify that the prohibition of
Christianity was now abrogated.  It declared that the edicts were
removed because their subject-matter, {177} having been so long before
the eyes of the people, "was sufficiently imprinted on their minds."
And yet their removal conveyed the idea to the people at large that
liberty of conscience was henceforth to be allowed, and this virtually
proved to be so.  Persecutions ceased and the work was allowed to go on
untrammeled.  The object for which the church abroad had waited and
prayed, and for which the missionaries on the ground had longed and
labored, was at last realized.  Joy and hope filled the hearts of the
workers.  The cause of missions had received a new and powerful
impulse, which ere long made itself felt in a wide enlargement of its
operations.

The work now went on much more rapidly.  Soon a great pro-foreign
sentiment sprang up.  With the rapid adoption of Western civilization
there grew up not only a toleration, but an actual desire for the
Western religion.  It became rather fashionable to confess Christ.
Some statesmen even went so far as to advocate as a matter of policy
the adoption of Christianity as the state religion.

In this happy time Christian schools, which had sprung up like
mushrooms over all the land, were filled with eager students; the
churches and chapels were crowded with interested listeners; and large
numbers were annually added to the church.

{178}

But the pendulum had swung too far.  About 1888 a reaction set in,
caused largely by the impatience of the Japanese at the refusal of
Western nations to revise the treaties on a basis of equality.  A
strong nationalism asserted itself.  Everything foreign was brought
into disrepute.  Christianity was frowned upon as a foreign religion,
and the old native religions again came into favor.  Attendance at
Christian schools fell off almost fifty per cent.; the churches and
chapels became empty; and few names were added to the church rolls.  A
sifting process began which very much reduced the membership.  When
Christianity was popular many had hastily and as a matter of policy
joined the churches, who in this time of disfavor fell away.  This
reactionary feeling has lasted uninterruptedly down to the present, and
in recent years the losses numerically have almost equaled the gains.
This reaction has in some respects worked good to the churches.  The
former growth was too rapid.  Many unconverted men came into the bosom
of the church.  Such have fallen away; the church has been pruned of
her old dead branches, and is now a livelier, healthier body.

In the judgment of some, this reactionary period is now on the decline.
The recent growth and progress of Japan have been recognized by the
West; treaty revision on a basis of equality has {179} been granted
her, and the cause which brought about the reaction has thus been
largely removed.  For these reasons we may look for a gradual breaking
down of the prejudice and opposition toward foreign institutions and
religion, though such a pro-foreign wave as swept the country during
the eighties will not probably be experienced again.

In order to give a correct idea of the work now being done by the
various missions in Japan, It will be well to give a short sketch of
each one separately.  We will consider them in the order of their size
and influence.



_American Board Mission_

This mission is conducted by the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions (organized on an undenominational basis, but now
Congregational), and has met with great success.  Begun in 1869, it is
younger than either the Episcopalian, Reformed, Presbyterian, or
Baptist missions, but has exerted a greater influence than any of them.
It has for years enjoyed the distinction of having more adherents than
any other Christian body at work here.  But there has been a large
falling off in its membership, and during the past year or so very few
new names have been added to its rolls.  At the {180} close of 1895 the
Church of Christ in Japan (Presbyterian) was only about 62 members
behind this body, and by the close of 1896 will in all probability be
ahead.

This mission was especially fortunate in reaching a wealthy,
influential class of people, which has given it a position and prestige
superior to the other missions.  In the number of self-supporting
native churches it has led all other denominations.

The first missionaries of the American Board to Japan were Dr. and Mrs.
Greene.  They arrived in Yokohama November 30, 1869, and, with the
usual intermissions for rest, have labored here continuously since that
time.  Three years later the Rev. O. H. Gulick and wife, and the Rev.
J. D. Davis and wife, joined the mission.  Since that time the number
of missionaries has been rapidly increased until now it reaches 74.
The membership of the native church is about 11,162.  There are 60
ordained native ministers and 54 unordained.  There are four
boarding-schools for girls, with 863 students.  The most advanced of
these is the Girls' School of Kobé, with a curriculum as high as that
of most female colleges in America.  There is also one school for the
training of Bible-women.

The chief educational institution of this body is the Doshisha
University, in Kyoto.  This {181} school is largely the result of the
labors of Dr. Neesima, easily the first Christian preacher and teacher
Japan has yet produced.  It is a large school, beautifully located and
well housed.  Last year only 320 students were in attendance, a great
decline from former years.  Unfortunately this institution does not now
exert the positive influence for Christianity that it formerly did.
Higher criticism and speculative philosophy have largely supplanted
Christian teaching.  The school is now entirely in the hands of the
trustees (all natives), and the mission has no control over it
whatever.  Recently all of the missionaries of the American Board who
were serving as professors in the Doshisha have, because of
dissatisfaction with the policy of the school authorities, resigned.
The trustees affirm that it is their intention to keep the school
strictly Christian, but they refuse to define the term "Christian."
Such vital matters as the divinity of Christ and the immortality of the
soul are not positively affirmed.  The rationalism which has emanated
from this school has perhaps done as much in recent years to impede the
progress of Christianity as any other one cause.  It is very sad to see
an institution, built up at great expense by bequests of earnest
Christian people, intended by its founder to lead the evangelical
Christianity of this country, thus turned aside from its original
purpose.  {182} We trust that a gradual growth of a deeper Christian
consciousness and a more positive faith in the hearts of the trustees
and professors may yet lead them to make of this school a positive
force for evangelical Christianity.

The mission of the American Board has experienced more trouble in
recent years than any other, especially in the attempt properly to
adjust the relations between the native and foreign workers, and in the
matter of mission property.  Most of the valuable property of the
mission has passed into native hands, and in some instances has been
perverted from its original purpose.  The missionaries are regarded
with jealousy by many in the native church; they are entirely excluded
from the church councils, and are being gradually pushed out of the
most important positions, and their places filled with Japanese.  It is
a question just how far the policy adopted by this mission from the
beginning is to blame for this unfortunate state of affairs.  This
policy has been to push the native workers to the front, to give them
the important positions, and to allow them perfect freedom in all
church matters.  As a consequence, that which was at first granted as a
concession is now demanded as a right.  As a teacher in one of their
own schools has comically put it, the mission said in the beginning--in
Japanese phraseology--to the native brethren, {183} "Please honorably
condescend to take the first place," and they are just doing what they
were bidden to do.  Other boards, with a different policy, have fared
better.  The Episcopal Church of Japan, which is one of the most
active, vigorous bodies at work here, is governed by foreign bishops,
and nearly all the positions of importance are filled by foreign
missionaries, and yet the relations between the native and foreign
workers are, on the whole, cordial and harmonious.  The Methodist
Church is governed by foreign bishops, and nearly all the presiding
elders are foreign missionaries, yet complete harmony prevails between
the native and the foreign ministry.  The Presbyterian Church, with a
policy somewhat resembling the Congregational, is encountering the same
difficulties in a milder form.  These facts seem to indicate that, at
least in part, the policy of the mission is itself responsible for the
position in which it now finds itself.

But in nearly every mission field, as soon as a strong native church is
developed, misunderstandings and friction between the native and
foreign workers have arisen.  Questions regarding the position of the
native church and its relation to the foreign boards and missionaries
almost inevitably arise.  Therefore what the American Board has
encountered may be partially encountered by all as soon as a stronger
native church is {184} developed.  Perhaps the national characteristics
of the people are to some extent responsible also for this trouble and
friction.



_The Church of Christ in Japan_

This body represents an attempt at church union on a large scale.  It
is composed of all the Presbyterian and Reformed churches working in
Japan.  These are the Presbyterian Church in the United States of
America, the Reformed Church in America, the United Presbyterian Church
of Scotland, the Reformed Church in the United States, the Presbyterian
Church in the United States (South), the Woman's Union Missionary
Society, and the Cumberland Presbyterian Church.  All of these bodies
are engaged in building up one and the same native church--the Church
of Christ in Japan.  Yet each has its own field and is doing its own
individual work.

The growth and success of this body have been phenomenal.  It has
11,100 members, 60 ordained native ministers, 113 unordained
catechists, and 146 missionaries.  Its leading educational institution
is the Meiji Gakuin, in Tokyo, with both an academic and a theological
department.  This is a large, well-equipped school, with a good faculty.

In connection with this Church of Christ there {185} is a good academic
and theological school in Nagasaki, known as Steele College, and
supported by the Dutch Reformed and Southern Presbyterian missions.
This school is as thoroughly evangelical and positive in its teachings
as any to be found in Japan.

There are besides these five boarding-schools for boys, with 376
students, and sixteen boarding-schools for girls, with 795 pupils.

The representatives of the Church of Christ are found throughout the
length and breadth of the land and are doing a good work.  It is likely
that this church will take the lead in the future.



_Methodist Churches_

There are five branches of the Methodist Church at work, namely, the
American Methodist Episcopal, the Canadian Methodist Episcopal, the
Evangelical Association of North America, the Methodist Protestant, and
the American Methodist Episcopal (South).  There is no organic union
between these bodies, but harmony and fraternity prevail.  Efforts at
union have been made time and again, but have been as yet unsuccessful.
We hope the future Methodist Church of Japan will be a united body.

At present each one of these different bodies supports its own schools;
their efficiency is thus {186} impaired, and great loss of men, time,
and money entailed.  In the whole Methodist Church there are five boys'
boarding-schools, with 329 scholars; sixteen girls' boarding-schools,
with 970 scholars; and five theological schools, with 60 students.

There are 143 missionaries, 115 native ministers, 116 catechists, and
7678 members.

The Methodist missions have had a rapid, substantial growth and are
exerting a strong influence.  They surpass all other bodies in annual
contributions per member, and I think it may be said that the native
Methodist churches have shown less of self-seeking and more of
self-sacrifice than the others.  The emotional character of Methodism
adapts it to the taste of the people.



_Episcopalians_

The five branches of this church working in Japan are laboring unitedly
for the establishment of one native church, called _Nippon Sei Kokwai_.
These five bodies are the American Protestant Episcopal Church, the
Church Missionary Society (English), the Society for the Propagation of
the Gospel (English), the Wyclif College Mission (Canada), and the
English Church in Canada.  The united body has 149 missionaries, 30
native ministers, 124 unordained helpers, and 5555 communicant members.

{187}

This church conducts five boarding-schools for boys, with 169 scholars;
eight boarding-schools for girls, with 263 scholars; and four
theological schools, with 52 students.  This body has done a great deal
of hard, substantial work, and has enjoyed a fair degree of the popular
favor.  During these late reactionary years, when other missions have
made little progress, its growth has continued uninterruptedly.  The
Nippon Sei Kokwai is presided over by five bishops, four of whom are
English and one American.  Two are located in Tokyo, one in Hokkaido,
one in Osaka, and one in Nagasaki.



_Baptists_

There are four Baptist societies doing mission work in Japan: the
Baptist Missionary Union (United States), the Disciples of Christ, the
Christian Church of America, and the Southern Baptist Convention.
There is no organic union between them, but the first- and last-named
bodies work together.  The four bodies unitedly have 92 missionaries,
14 native ministers, 68 native catechists, and 2327 members.

They have one boarding-school for boys, with 14 students; six
boarding-schools for girls, with 205 students; and two theological
schools, with 21 students.

{188}

The Baptist missionaries laboring in Japan are an able, hard-working,
evangelical body of men, and there are some good, strong native Baptist
ministers.



_Lutherans_

The Lutheran Church began mission work in Japan only four years ago,
and as yet her mission is small.  It is supported by the United Synod
of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the South (United States).  The
Lutheran Church in the United States has occupied a peculiar position.
A large per cent. of the emigrants from the Old World are of Lutheran
antecedents.  Hundreds of thousands of them have come over and settled
in the West, and the energies of the American Lutheran Church have been
largely expended in caring for these unhoused and unshepherded sheep of
her own flock.  It seems that Providence has allotted to her this
special work.  No other church in America is carrying on home mission
work on so large a scale, among so many different nationalities, and in
so many languages.  Because of the great home mission work that has
naturally fallen into her hands and demanded her men and money she has
not engaged in foreign work as extensively as some other American
bodies.

And yet the American contingent of this old {189} mother church of
Protestantism has a foreign-mission record of which she is not ashamed.
She has supported for many years a mission on the west coast of Africa,
at Muhlenberg, that is by universal consent the most successful mission
in West Africa.  She is also supporting two large and successful
missions in India.

The Lutheran mission in Japan was begun as a venture.  The after
development of the work has amply justified the wisdom of the
undertaking.  It is not the purpose of the Lutheran Church to
antagonize any of the bodies now at work in Japan, but rather to stand,
amid all the doctrinal unrest characteristic of Japanese Christianity,
for pure doctrine, as she has always done.  It is her purpose to teach
a positive, evangelical Christianity.

The working force of the mission consists of 2 missionaries and their
wives, 2 native helpers, and 1 Bible-woman.  The field occupied is
small.  There is only one station, and that is in the city of Saga, on
the island of Kyushu.  Much work is done in the surrounding villages
and towns from Saga as a center.  It is not the purpose of this mission
to use large numbers of men and great quantities of money, as some
others have done.  It purposes working intensively rather than
extensively.  It attempts to devote all of its time to evangelistic
work, and does not engage in {190} educational work further than
theological instruction.

Although the missionaries came to Japan in 1892, the station was not
opened until 1893.  Since that time about 55 converts have been
baptized.


There are numerous small Christian bodies at work, such as the
Scandinavian Japan Alliance, the Society of Friends, the International
Missionary Alliance, the Hephzibah Faith Missionary Association, and
the Salvation Army.  There are also three liberal bodies working here,
generally classed as unevangelical: the Evangelical Protestant
Missionary Society, the Universalist mission, and the Unitarian mission.

The English and American Bible and tract societies have ably seconded
these missionary bodies by the circulation of large numbers of Bibles,
tracts, and various kinds of Christian books.  The value of their work
can hardly be estimated.  The American Bible Society, the National
Bible Society of Scotland, the British and Foreign Bible Society, the
American Tract Society, and the London Religious Tract Society have all
had a part in the work.

Such is a brief enumeration of the Christian forces at work in Japan.
With so large a body of consecrated workers and so much missionary
{191} machinery, it seems that the work of evangelization ought to go
on rapidly.  A great deal has already been accomplished, as the figures
given above show.  A native church of 40,000 people is no mean prize;
but this is only the smallest part of the work of the missions.  They
have created a Christian literature, disseminated a certain knowledge
of the gospel among the people, and in a hundred different ways
indirectly influenced the life of this nation.  Japanese missions have
been a brilliant success.



{192}

XI

QUALIFICATIONS FOR MISSION WORK IN JAPAN

For mission work, as for every other calling in life, some men are
naturally adapted, others are not.  Those by nature fitted for the work
will in all probability have a reasonable degree of success, while no
amount of zeal or spiritual fervor can make successful those not so
fitted.  It is true to a large extent that missionaries are born, not
made.

How important it becomes, then, that mission boards and societies
should carefully consider the qualifications of all applicants before
they are sent to the mission field!  How necessary it is for all those
contemplating work in certain fields, before offering their services to
the boards, to examine whether their qualifications are such as to
justify an expectation of a reasonable degree of success in those
fields!

For the benefit of the various missionary {193} societies that are
annually choosing and sending out new men to Japan, as well as for the
advantage of those who contemplate offering themselves for work in this
field, I will put down a few thoughts on the necessary qualifications
for successful mission work here.

These may be roughly classified as physical, spiritual, and mental.

PHYSICAL QUALIFICATIONS.--I regard physical qualifications as of
supreme importance.  Many of my readers will think that the spiritual
should precede the physical, but with this opinion I do not agree.
Health is absolutely essential to successful work; deep spirituality,
while greatly to be desired, is not so essential.  Many men have failed
on the field and have been forced to withdraw because of a lack of
physical qualifications, while few have failed for lack of spiritual
qualifications.  I think it is true that young men who when in college
and seminary appear to be almost consumed with missionary zeal and
enthusiasm, who are pointed out as examples in spirituality, and who
are burning with a desire to get into the foreign field, do not make as
good missionaries as some others.  Men who pledge themselves in youth,
and who, actuated by a wild enthusiasm, which has more zeal than
knowledge, urge themselves upon the mission boards, do not do as good
work as those chosen {194} by the boards themselves, who may never have
considered seriously foreign work before the call was extended to them.
Enthusiasm and zeal are good things in their place, but they are apt to
lead men to extremes.  People who enter mission work simply because
they are filled with a burning enthusiasm and zeal are not likely to
stay as long or work as well as those who enter upon the work with more
hesitation, after careful deliberation and a counting of the cost.

Wallace Taylor, M.D., of Osaka, Japan, himself an experienced
missionary of the American Board, says: "I should advise that men be
chosen for their physical and mental adaptation and ability rather than
for their burning zeal for the foreign work.  To maintain health and be
a successful missionary a man must possess more judgment than
enthusiasm and more discretion than zeal.  Enthusiasm and zeal are good
qualities in a missionary, but to these you must add that which is
better--judgment, wisdom, and self-control.  The burning fire shut up
in the bones, that cannot be controlled, only consumes vital energies
and speedily produces failing health.  We need men who can stand and
face the white harvest and the many calls to work, and yet with cool
deliberation preserve their strength for future work.  We want men sent
for their cool deliberation and self-control rather than for their
{195} burning zeal and enthusiasm.  We need men who are intellect
rather than a bundle of nerves.  A nervous, excitable, uneasy person
will fret and wear himself out in from six months to three years in
Japan."

It is desirable, then, in the first place, that the missionary be a
sound physical man.  No one should be accepted by a mission board for
work in Japan who cannot secure a policy in a reliable life-insurance
company, and it would be well if the medical examination were made by
an examiner for such company.  The examinations made by a physician
appointed by the mission boards are usually mere farces, for the desire
to go as a missionary frequently covers up many physical weaknesses and
prevents a thorough examination.  The examination should therefore be
made by a disinterested medical man, who will not be influenced by such
motives.

It seems hard to subject candidates for mission work to such rigid
examinations, and perhaps refuse to send them because of some small
physical defect; but the interests of the work make it imperative.
Otherwise the young missionary will, in all probability, break down and
have to go home in three or four years, before he has been able to do
any active work.  The experiment will have cost the board a large
amount of money and a loss of several years, and the {196} missionary
some of the best years of his life, probably making of him an incurable
invalid.  In so serious a matter as this the boards cannot afford to be
swayed by sentiment.  Nothing but sound business principles should be
followed.

The same physical requirements should be made for the woman as for the
man.  She, too, should be subjected to a medical examination, and any
serious defect in her constitution should cause her immediate
rejection.  It seems hard to subject the wife to this test, as she is
not a missionary in the strict sense of the term, and to many the
requirement will be distasteful; but for their protection, and for a
judicious use of consecrated funds, the boards should require it.  A
little thought will show that the failure of the wife's health is just
as disastrous for the mission as the failure of her husband's.  It
cripples his efficiency while on the field, and ultimately drives him
home.  Most boards operating in Japan have not made this requirement,
and as a consequence many missionaries' wives are in poor health, and
as many men have had to return home because of the failure of their
wives' health as for any other one cause.

The mission boards should not appoint too young men to work in Japan.
It is well known that young men cannot endure so well as older ones
change of climate and hard work.  Those {197} who are physically and
mentally immature will very probably be unable to bear the strain.  In
general, no one should be sent out under twenty-five years of age, and
it would be safer if all who came had attained the age of thirty.
Against this it is argued that a young person will acquire the language
more readily than an older one, and this is doubtless true.  But health
is of first importance.

SPIRITUAL QUALIFICATIONS.--Although I consider spiritual qualifications
after physical ones, I nevertheless regard them as of great importance.
It is highly desirable that every missionary be a deeply spiritual man,
fully consecrated to the cause of Christ.  The consecration needed in
the missionary is little different from that needed in the home pastor.
If he has given himself and all that he has to Christ, he will be ready
to work for Him anywhere.  Those who come to the mission field without
such consecration, expecting the grandeur of the work to beget it, will
be bitterly disappointed.  In many instances contact with heathenism
weakens more than it strengthens consecration.  The societies should
require that those who are to do spiritual work should be consecrated,
spiritual men.

The missionary should be sound in the faith, should clearly discern and
readily accept the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, and should
{198} be able to distinguish between essentials and non-essentials,
tenaciously holding to the former, while allowing liberty in regard to
the latter.  He will encounter many strange things in his new
environment; many of his pet theories will be exploded, and he will
meet much that will try his faith.  His belief in the essentials of
Christianity should be so strong that even if his views undergo a
change in non-essentials he shall not be shaken at the center.  He must
be able to defend his faith against its enemies, as well as to impart
it to those to whom he is sent.  To do this his own hold upon it must
be firm and unyielding.

The missionary should have a positive, not a negative, faith.  His
position should continually be one of offense, not of defense.  His
faith must be aggressive and dominant in its hold upon others, must be
both persuasive and constructive.  He must be sure of the faith in
which he trusts, and must be positive in his presentation of it to the
world.

It is especially important that the missionary's doctrinal development
be full and rounded.  He should see all the doctrines of the Christian
system in their proper relation to one another, and should give due
importance to each.  A one-sided, eccentric man, who has struck off
from the main line of doctrinal development and is on a {199}
side-track, having exalted some one phase of the Christian teaching or
life to the exclusion of others, is not fitted for mission work.  He
can be used to better effect at home, because there he is continually
under restraining influences, while here there are no restraints.  For
this reason what would be only a harmless eccentricity at home may
result in great mischief abroad.  Those who are to found the church in
Japan, to shape its theology and its life, should be well-rounded men,
who will not unduly exalt any one doctrine, but who, having a
comprehensive view of the Christian system, will give due importance to
every part.

It is very important that prospective missionaries fully count the
cost, and be prepared beforehand to endure patiently the trials and
hardships that will be sure to meet them.  No one should go out without
having carefully considered all of these things, and gained the full
consent of his heart to endure them.  If the cost has not been counted,
and the work willingly entered upon with a full knowledge of its
hardships and difficulties, the encounter of these upon the field is
apt to result in disappointment and dissatisfaction.

Every missionary should be a lover of humanity, even in its lowest and
most degraded forms.  It is useless for us to attempt to persuade and
influence non-Christian men if we do not love {200} them.  The
audiences we address may not be moved by our logic or rhetoric; our
most eloquent sermons may have no effect on them; but practical
illustrations of our love for them will always meet with a hearty
response.  Love is the key that opens all hearts.  "Faith, hope, love,
these three; but the greatest of these is love."

To love refined Christian men and women is easy, but to love humanity
in its more degraded forms is hard.  And yet the missionary must be
prepared to love an alien race, that regards him with coolness and
distrust.  He must be ready to associate with lowly people, amid humble
and immoral surroundings, and to be patient, kind, and loving to the
most degraded.  No one who has not lived on the mission field and
associated freely with the people knows how hard this is.  Such love
will win more men to Christ than eloquent preaching or most careful
instruction.  The man who possesses a large amount of it, other things
being equal, will meet with success.

The missionary should, as far as possible, present in his own character
all Christian graces.  He will be looked upon as a product of the faith
he represents, and will exercise more influence by his life than by his
words.  He must not be impatient, quarrelsome, or wilful, and, above
all, he must not be proud.  Constant association with an inferior race
is apt to beget a haughty, {201} domineering manner, and the missionary
needs to be especially on his guard against this.  He may present no
striking defects of character, else his faith will be held responsible
for them.  Peculiarities and faults that are known to be merely
personal at home are regarded in the mission field as the result of a
bad religion.

It is very important that the missionary be an attractive man,
possessed of personal magnetism.  He should by nature draw men, not
repel them.  Although hard to define, we all know what this power is.
Let a little child come into a room where two men are sitting.  It will
readily go to the one, but no amount of coaxing will induce it to go to
the other.  The one possesses an innate power to attract, while the
other repels.  Where the personal element plays so important a role it
is essential that the missionary possess the power to draw men.

MENTAL QUALIFICATIONS.--Hardly less important than physical and
spiritual are the mental qualifications.  A mediocre man cannot do good
work in any mission field, least of all in a field like Japan.  None
but strong men should be sent out.  In former years, when the science
of missions was little understood, it was thought a waste to send a man
of unusual intellectual endowments, because an ordinary man could do
the work just as well; but the boards have wisely {202} abandoned that
policy.  Experience has clearly demonstrated the wisdom of sending the
very best men that can be had.

In the first place, the prospective missionary to Japan should have as
complete and thorough a mental training as possible.  A full academic
and theological course is highly desirable.  He should know how to
reason logically and profoundly, and should be a skilled dialectician,
able to meet the native scholars on their own ground.  The subtle
philosophies of the East, which he will daily encounter, can only be
dealt with by a man thoroughly trained.  The atheistic and agnostic
philosophies of the West are spread over all Japan, and the missionary
must be able to combat them.

Another reason why the missionary should be as highly educated as
possible is that large numbers of the Japanese people are highly
educated, and a man of poor ability and training cannot command their
respect.  Education is to-day being diffused more and more throughout
Japan, and the missionary must work among an educated people.  It is
necessary that he feel himself to be at least the intellectual equal of
all with whom he comes in contact.

In order, then, successfully to combat the subtle philosophies of the
East, to show the fallacies of the prevalent skeptical philosophies of
the {203} West, and to command the respect of the people among whom he
labors, the missionary to this land should have a thorough intellectual
training.

Linguistic talent is another essential, and especially so in Japan.  No
one should be sent here who is deficient in this.  This language is
perhaps the most difficult of all spoken languages for an Occidental to
acquire.  It is so thoroughly unlike any of the European languages that
the student must change his view-point and learn to look at things as
the Japanese do before he can make much progress.  To master it one
must study both Japanese and Chinese.  While a fair linguist can, by
hard work, preach with comparative intelligibility after three years of
study, a complete mastery of the language is the work of a lifetime.

If any one contemplating mission work in Japan remembers that he was a
poor student of languages at college and made little progress in them,
let him feel assured that he can probably serve the Lord better at
home.  I state this matter strongly because just here is where so many
missionaries fail.  There are men who have been here ten or fifteen
years and yet who experience great difficulty in constructing the
smallest sentence in Japanese.  Such men are not useless; in certain
departments they serve well; {204} but they would probably be of more
use at home.  At least one third of all the missionaries in Japan, if
called upon to make an extempore address in Japanese, would be found
wanting.  In view of these facts, how important it becomes that only
those men be sent out who have a reasonable expectation of learning the
language!

Along with natural linguistic talent, the prospective missionary should
have a large amount of perseverance.  Nothing but persistent, slavish
work through many years will enable one to speak Japanese well; and no
one should come here who is not willing to stick to an unattractive
task until it is accomplished.

It is of primary importance that the missionary have a large endowment
of common sense.  Nothing else will make up for deficiency in this.  It
alone gives power to adapt one's self to a new environment and to live
under changed conditions.  The demands upon common sense here are much
greater than at home, because the conditions under which we live are so
different, and the practical questions that daily meet us are so
numerous.  Dr. Lawrence finely says: "At home so much common sense has
been organized into custom that we are all largely supported by the
general fund, and many men get along with a very slender stock of their
own.  But on the {205} mission field, where Christian custom is yet in
the making, the drafts on common sense would soon overdraw a small
account."

A knowledge of music will be found of great assistance to the
missionary, the more the better.  He will often have to start his own
hymns, play the organ, or direct the music.  He may have to translate
hymns and set them to music, or even compose tunes himself.  Good
church music is now so essential in worship that every missionary
should have a knowledge of it.  But this qualification, while highly
desirable, is not indispensable.

The missionary also needs to a great degree the power of self-control.
He should be a cool, conservative man, able to govern himself under all
circumstances.  He must not be moved to excessive labor by the present
needs of the work, but must exercise self-restraint, husbanding his
strength for future tasks.  One of the most difficult things to do is
to refrain from overwork when the need of work is so apparent.  But the
missionary must consider the permanent interests of the work ahead of
its temporary needs.

To sum up the desired intellectual qualifications: a missionary to
Japan should have a good mind, well disciplined by thorough training;
an abundant supply of common sense; linguistic ability, and the power
of self-control.

{206}

There is one other qualification, that can hardly be classed under any
of the above heads, i.e., _the missionary should be a married man_.
The vast majority of missionaries in the field to-day are unanimous in
this judgment.  The experience of the various mission boards and
societies also confirms it, and they are sending out fewer single men
each year.

Married men make more efficient workers for many reasons.  They enjoy
better health and are better satisfied.  They have a home to which they
can go for rest and sympathy, and in which they can find agreeable
companionship.  They have the loving ministrations of a wife in times
of sickness and despondency, and they also have the cheer and
relaxation of children's society.  All of these things tend to make the
missionary healthier and happier, and enable him to do better work.

Again, he should be married because a man of mature years who is single
is regarded with more or less suspicion.  To the Japanese celibacy is
an unnatural state, and it is seldom found.  Most unmarried men here
are immoral, and therefore the unmarried missionary is naturally
suspected of leading an immoral life, which cripples his influence.

But the strongest argument in favor of married as against single
missionaries is that the former {207} alone are able to build Christian
homes.  The homes of single men are very poor things at best, and
certainly cannot be pointed to as models.  But the married man
establishes a Christian home in the midst of his people, and sets them
a concrete example of what Christian family life should be.  This
example is one of the most potent influences for good operating on the
mission field.

In home life perhaps more than in any other respect Japanese society is
wanting.  The renovation of the home is one of the crying needs of the
hour.  An open Christian home, exhibiting the proper relations between
husband and wife, parents and children, will do much toward bringing
this about.

This argument is not intended to apply against single women who come
out to teach in the girls' schools.  Their work is entirely different,
and is such as can be done best by single women.  The argument applies
only to the missionary engaged in evangelistic work.

Such I believe to be the qualifications essential to successful mission
work in Japan.  To many the requirements may seem too strict.  But the
work to which the missionary is called is a high and noble one, and the
ideal for a worker should be correspondingly high.  The extreme
difficulty of the work, and its great expense, make it imperative that
only men adapted to it be sent out.  {208}

While setting forth this high ideal of what a missionary to this land
should be, no one is more sensible than the writer of the fact that
many missionaries, including himself, fail to realize it.  But he is
glad to be able to affirm that a large per cent. of these desired
qualifications are found in the majority of the missionary brethren in
Japan.



{209}

XII

PRIVATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY

It is our purpose in this chapter to show the churches at home
something of the life which their missionaries lead in Japan.  We will
attempt to draw aside the veil and look at their private life--the holy
of holies.  This is a delicate task, and I hesitate to undertake it.
And yet I think a knowledge of the trials, perils, discouragements,
temptations, hopes, and fears of the missionary may be very profitable
to those who support our missions.

Missionaries are men of like appetites, passions, hopes, and desires
with those at home.  They long for and enjoy the comforts and amenities
of life.  They have wives and children whom they love as devotedly, and
for whom they desire to provide as comfortable homes, as the pastor at
home.

There was a time when missionaries were {210} called upon to forego
nearly all social pleasures and submit to endless discomforts, but that
time is past.  The mission home to-day is frequently as comfortable as
that of the pastor in America.  It is right that the standard of living
in the home lands should be maintained by the missionaries abroad, and
that they surround themselves with all available pleasures and
conveniences.  There is no reason why a man should lay aside all
pleasures and comforts so soon as he becomes a missionary.

Those who live in the foreign ports in Japan have nice, roomy houses
modeled after Western homes.  Many of them are surrounded with
beautiful lawns and fine flowers, and are a comfort and delight to
their possessors.  Most of the missionaries who live in the interior
occupy native houses, slightly modified to suit foreign taste.  By
building chimneys, and substituting glass for paper windows, the native
houses can be made quite comfortable, though they are colder in winter
and do not look so well as foreign ones.  The writer has lived in such
a home during most of his residence in Japan, and has suffered little
inconvenience.  Some of the wealthier mission boards have built foreign
houses even in the interior, and to-day there are a good many such
scattered over Japan.

As has been before remarked, the mission {211} home is one of the most
important factors in connection with the work; it is a little bit of
Christendom set down in the midst of heathendom.  It presents to the
non-Christian masses around it a concrete example of exalted family
life, with equality and trust between husband and wife, and mutual love
between parents and children--things not generally found in the native
home.  It is a beacon-light shining in a dark place.

This is one of the many reasons why a missionary should be a married
man.  The single man cannot create this model home, which is to teach
the people by example what Christian family life should be.  In this
respect Catholic missions are deficient, the celibacy of the priests
precluding family life.

First, then, the mission home is an example to the non-Christian people
around it.  It is frequently open to them, and they can see its
workings.  They often share its hospitality and sit at its table.
Their keen eyes take in everything, and a deep impression is made upon
them.

Just here arises one of the greatest difficulties the missionary has to
contend with in his private life.  The people are so inquisitive
naturally, the mission home is so attractive to them, and our idea of
the privacy and sanctity of the home is so lacking in their etiquette,
that it is hard to keep {212} the home from becoming public.  People
will come in large numbers at the most unseasonable hours, simply out
of curiosity, wanting to see and handle everything in the house.  It is
often necessary, in self-defense, to refuse them admittance, except at
certain hours.  Not only are the seclusion and privacy of the home
endangered, but the missionary also is in great danger of having his
valuable time uselessly frittered away.

Notwithstanding all that the mission home is to the people, it is much
more to the missionary.  It should be to him a sure retreat and
seclusion from the peculiarly trying cares and worries of his work.  It
should be a place where he can evade the subtle influences of
heathenism which creep in at every pore--a safe retreat from the sin
and wickedness and vice around it.

The mission home should be a Western home transplanted in the East.  It
may not become too much orientalized.  It should have Western
furniture, pictures, musical instruments, etc., and should make its
possessor feel that he is in a Western home.  It should be well
supplied with books and newspapers, and everything else that will help
to keep its inmates in touch with the life of the West.  The missionary
may not be orientalized, else he will be in danger of becoming
heathenized.

For the sake of his children the missionary's {213} home should be as
exact a reproduction of the Western home as possible.  These children
are citizens of the West, heirs of its privileges; and to it they will
go before they reach years of maturity.  Therefore it is but fair that
their childhood home should reflect its civilization.

In order that the missionary may be able to build up such a home it is
necessary that he be paid a liberal salary.  While living in native
style is very cheap, living in Western style is perhaps as dear here as
in any country in the world.  Clothing, furniture, much of the food,
etc., must be brought from the West; and we must pay for it not only
what the people at home pay, but the cost of carrying it half-way round
the world, and the commission of two or three middlemen besides.

Most boards operating in Japan pay their men a liberal salary.  They
also pay an allowance for each child, health allowance, etc.  All this
is well.  Man is an animal, and, like other animals, he must be well
cared for if he is to do his best work.  No farmer would expect to get
hard work out of a horse that was only half fed, and no mission board
can expect to get first-class work out of a missionary who is not
liberally supported.  The missionary has enough to worry him without
having to be anxious about finances.

Especially is it wise that the boards give their {214} men an allowance
for children.  The expenses incident to a child's coming into the world
in the East are very high.  The doctor's bill alone amounts frequently
to more than $100.  Then a nurse is absolutely necessary, there being
no relatives and friends to perform this office, as sometimes there are
in the West.  The birth of a child here means a cash outlay of $150 to
$200, to pay which the missionary is often reduced to hard straits.  If
he belongs to a board that makes a liberal child's allowance he is
fortunately relieved from this difficulty.

The allowance is also necessary to provide for the future education of
the child.  As there are no suitable schools here, children must be
sent home to school at an early age.  They cannot stay in the parental
home and attend school from there, as American children do, but must be
from childhood put into a boarding-school, and this takes money.  Now
no missionaries' salaries are sufficiently large to enable them to lay
up much money, and unless there is a child's allowance there will be no
money for his education, in which event the missionary must sacrifice
his self-respect by asking some school or friends to educate his child.
He feels that if any one in the world deserves a salary sufficient to
meet all necessary expenses without begging, he does; and it hurts him
to give his life in hard service to {215} the church in a foreign land,
and then have his children educated on charity.

All mission boards should give their men an allowance for each child,
unless the salary paid is sufficiently large to enable them to lay
aside a sufficient sum for this very purpose.

The health allowance is also a wise provision because the climate is
such as often to necessitate calling in a physician, and doctors' bills
are enormously high.  If the missionary is not well he cannot work; but
if he is left to pay for medical attendance himself out of a very
meager salary, all of which is needed by his wife and children, he will
frequently deny himself the services of a physician when they are
really needed.

The work of the missionary is most trying, and the demands on his
health and strength are very exhausting.  The petty worries and trials
that constantly meet him, the rivalries and quarrels which his converts
bring to him for settlement, the care of the churches, anxiety about
his family, etc., are a constant strain on his vital force, in order to
withstand which it is necessary that he should have regular periods of
rest and recreation.  Nature demands relaxation, and she must have it,
or the health of the worker fails.

It is customary in Japan for the missionaries to leave their fields of
work during the summer season and spend six weeks or two months in
{216} sanatoria among the mountains or by the seashore.  Here their
work, with its cares and anxieties, is all laid aside.  The best-known
sanatoria in Japan are Karuizawa, Arima, Hakone, Sapporo, and Mount
Hiezan.  In most of these places good accommodations are provided, and
the hot weeks can be spent very pleasantly.  Large numbers of
missionaries gather there, and for a short time the tired, isolated
worker can enjoy the society of his own kind; his wife can meet and
chat with other housewives; and his children can enjoy the rare
pleasure of playing with other children white like themselves.  These
resorts are cool, the air is pure and invigorating, and the missionary
returns from them in September feeling fresh and strong, ready to take
up with renewed vigor his arduous labors.

It is objected to these vacations that they take the missionary away
from his field of work, and that so long an absence on his part is very
injurious to the cause.  This is partially true; but a wise economy
considers the health of the worker and his future efficiency more than
the temporary needs of the work.  The absence of the foreign worker for
a short period is not as hurtful as one would at first glance suppose.
A relatively larger part of the work is left in the hands of the native
helpers in Japan than in most mission fields, and these evangelists
stay at their posts {217} all through the summer, and care for its
interests while the foreigner is away.  The same need of a vacation
does not exist in their case, because they are accustomed to the
climate, and they work through their native tongue and among their own
people.

The need of this missionary vacation is so evident that we need only
give it in outline.  In the first place, the unfavorable climate makes
a change and rest desirable.  As I have already stated, the climate of
Japan is not only very warm, but also contains an excessive amount of
moisture and a very small per cent. of ozone, and is lacking in
atmospheric magnetism and electricity; hence its effect upon people
from the West is depressing.  Besides the climate, the missionary's
work is so exhaustive and trying, and its demands upon him are so
great, that a few weeks' rest are absolutely necessary.  The same
reasons which at home justify the city pastor in taking a vacation are
intensified in the missionary's case.

Not least of these reasons is that the missionary may for a while enjoy
congenial society.  Many of us spend ten months of the year isolated
almost entirely from all people of our own kind.  The Japanese are so
different that we can have but little social life with them; and it is
but natural and right that, for a short period, we should have the
opportunity to meet and {218} associate with our fellow-missionaries.
The work which we do the remainder of the year is done much better
because of this rest and fellowship.

Dr. J. C. Berry, in a paper read before the missionary conference at
Osaka in 1883, discusses very fully this question of missionary
vacations and furloughs.  After elaborating the reasons for them, which
reasons I have given in brief above, he says: "It therefore follows
that, because of the numerous and complex influences operating to-day
to produce nerve-tire in the missionary in Japan, regard for the
permanent interests of his work requires that a vacation be taken in
summer by those residing in central and southern Japan, the same to be
accompanied by as much of recreation and change as circumstances will
permit."

With all the care and precaution that can be taken, with systematic
rests and vacations, there soon comes a time when it is necessary for
the missionary to return to his home land, to breathe again the air of
his youth, and to replenish his physical, mental, and moral being.  All
the mission boards recognize this and permit their men in this and in
other fields to return home on furlough after a certain number of
years.  The definite time required by the different missions before a
furlough is granted varies from three to ten years, the latter period
being the most general.  {219} But this has been found to be too long,
and failing health usually compels an earlier return.  Some boards have
no set time, but a tacit understanding exists that the missionary may
go home at the end of six or eight years.

At the end of the prescribed period the missionary family is taken home
at the expense of the board, and is given a rest of a year or eighteen
months.  During this time, if the missionary is engaged in preaching or
lecturing for the board, as is generally the case, he is paid his full
salary.  If he does no work he is sometimes paid only half his salary.
This is very hard, as the salary is just large enough to support him
and his family, and their expenses while at home are almost as great as
while in the field.  If the salary is cut down the pleasure and benefit
of the furlough are curtailed.  If the missionary in the service of the
board exhausts his health and strength in an unfavorable climate it
seems but fair that he should be properly supported while endeavoring
to recuperate.  When a church at home votes its pastor a vacation,
instead of cutting down his salary during his absence, it is customary
to give him an extra sum to enable him to enjoy it.  Why should not the
same be done for the missionary?  He should at least be permitted to
draw the full amount of his small salary.

Against these vacations is urged their great {220} expense to the
boards, the greater loss to the mission because of the absence of the
worker, and the moral effect of frequent returns upon the church at
home.  All of these objections have weight, but they are far outweighed
by the reasons that necessitate the furlough.  The accumulated
experience of the different boards makes the judgment unanimous that
these are necessary.  The judgment of competent medical men also
confirms the statement.  Dr. Taylor said in the Osaka conference: "I am
convinced that a missionary's highest interest requires, and the
greatest efficiency in his work will be secured by, a return home at
stated intervals."  Dr. Berry said in the same conference: "The new and
strange social conditions under which the missionary is obliged to
work; the effects of climate, intensified in many cases by comparative
youth; the absence of many of those home comforts and social,
intellectual, and religious privileges with which the Christian
civilization of to-day so plentifully surrounds life; the home ties,
strengthened by youthful affections,--all these combine with present
facilities of travel to render it advisable that the young missionary
be at liberty to take a comparatively early vacation in his native
land."

From an economic standpoint it is wise to grant these furloughs.  It is
poor economy to keep the workers in the field until they are completely
{221} broken down, and then have to replace them by inexperienced men,
who will not be able to do the work of the old ones for years.  Far
wiser is it to let them stop and recuperate in the home lands before
this breakdown comes.  It costs less money to keep a missionary well
than to care for him during a long, unprofitable period of sickness.  I
quote again on this point Wallace Taylor, M.D., who, in the paper
referred to above, said: "The present haphazard, unsystematic methods
of most missions and boards is attended with the greatest expense and
the poorest returns.  Some of the boards working in Japan have lost
more time and expended more money in caring for their broken-down
missionaries than it would cost to carry out the recommendations herein
made.  Again, I observe that many who do not break down begin to fail
in health after the fourth or fifth year from entering on their work.
They remain on the field, and are reluctantly obliged to spend more or
less time in partial work, while experiencing physical discomfort and
dissatisfaction of mind.  Very many of these cases would have
accomplished more for the means expended by a furlough home at the
close of the fifth or sixth year....  Over $90,000 have been expended
in Japan by one mission alone in distracted efforts to regain the
health of its missionaries."

These furloughs are also needed to keep the {222} missionary in touch
with the life of the home churches.  The West is rapidly progressing in
civilization, in arts and sciences, and in theology as well.  The
missionary who spends ten or more years on the field before returning
home finds himself in an entirely new atmosphere, with which he is
unfamiliar.  He looks at things from the standpoint of ten or more
years ago; his methods of work, his language, all are belated.  In
order that he may give to the nascent churches of Japan the very best
theology, the very best methods, and the very best life of the Western
churches, it is necessary for him to return frequently to breathe in
their spirit and life and keep up with their forward march.

For the missionary's personal benefit he should be permitted to come
into frequent contact with the home churches.  A too long uninterrupted
breathing of the poisonous atmosphere of heathenism has a wonderfully
cooling effect upon his ardor and zeal, and is trying to his faith.  He
needs to come into contact with the broader faith and deeper life of
the home churches, and receive from them new consecration and devotion
to his work.

The church at home needs also to come frequently into contact with its
missionaries.  Nothing will so stir up interest and zeal in the mission
cause as to see and hear its needs from living, {223} active workers,
fresh from the field.  If missionaries were more frequently employed to
represent the cause to the churches at home perhaps our mission
treasuries would not be so depleted.  Mission addresses from home
pastors are abstract and theoretical; those from missionaries are
concrete and practical.  The former speak from reading, the latter from
personal experience.  The address of the missionary comes with power
because he speaks of what he has seen and felt, and his personality is
thrown into it.

For the sake, then, of the work abroad, of the missionary himself, and
of the home churches, missionaries should be required to take regular
furloughs at stated intervals, and should spend them in the home lands.

How long can the missionary safely work in Japan before taking his
first furlough?  That will depend upon the nature of the man himself,
and the kind of mission work in which he is engaged.  The average
length of time spent here by the missionaries before the first furlough
is about seven years.  There are no men more competent to pass judgment
upon this matter than Drs. Berry and Taylor, who have spent the better
part of their lives here, in the service of the American Board, and who
are thoroughly acquainted with the conditions that surround us.  Dr.
Berry says: "I do not hesitate to affirm that the {224}
'ten-year-or-longer rule,' still adhered to by some missionary
societies, and by many missionaries as well, is too long for the first
term....  I indorse what in substance has been suggested by my friend
Dr. McDonald, viz., that the time of service on the field prior to the
first furlough be seven years, and that prior to subsequent furloughs
be ten years; this plan to be modified by health, existing conditions
of work, home finances, and by individual preferences."  Dr. Taylor
says: "My observations have led me to the conclusion that the first
furlough ought to be taken at the close of the fifth or sixth year, and
after that once every eight or ten years."


We have yet to look at the trials and sorrows, the encouragements and
joys, of the missionary.  We have already looked into the missionary's
home; let us now endeavor to look into his heart.  If the former is his
_sanctum_, this is his _sanctum sanctorum_; and I trust my missionary
brethren will pardon me for exposing it to the public view.

We will pass by all physical hardships, such as climate, improper food,
poor houses, etc.  Although these are often greater hardships than the
people at home know, they are but "light afflictions" to the
missionary.  His real trials lie in an entirely different sphere.

The greatest hardship the missionary has to {225} bear is his
loneliness and isolation.  Separated almost entirely from his own race,
he is deprived of all those social joys that are so dear to him.  The
thought of his kinsmen and friends is ever in his mind, but alas! they
are so far away.  He must go on year after year living among a people
from whom an impassable gulf separates him, leading the same lonely
life.  For the first year or two he rather enjoys the quiet and
privacy, but by and by it becomes almost unendurable.  Dr. Edward
Lawrence has correctly styled the missionary "an exile."  We cannot do
better than quote his words: "Very many of the missionary's heaviest
burdens are summed up in the one word whose height and breadth and
length and depth none knows so well as he--that word 'exile.'  It is
not merely a physical exile from home and country and all their
interests; it is not only an intellectual exile from all that would
feed and stimulate the mind; it is yet more--a spiritual exile from the
guidance, the instruction, the correction, from the support, the
fellowship, the communion of the saints and the church at home.  It is
an exile as when a man is lowered with a candle into foul places, where
the noxious gases threaten to put out his light, yet he must explore it
all and find some way to drain off the refuse and let in the sweet air
and sun to do their own cleansing work....  The {226} missionary is not
only torn away from those social bonds that sustain, or even almost
compose, our mental, moral, and spiritual life, but he is forced into
closest relations with heathenism, whose evils he abhors, whose power
and fascinations, too, he dreads.  And when at last he can save his own
children only by being bereft of them, he feels himself an exile
indeed."

The missionary's life is full of disappointments.  Men for whom he has
labored and prayed it may be for years, and in whom he has placed
implicit confidence, will often bitterly disappoint him in their
Christian life.  Boys who have been educated on his charity, who are
what they are solely by his help, will frequently be guilty of base
ingratitude, and, worse yet, will repudiate his teachings.  The native
church not having generations of Christian ancestry behind it, and not
being in a Christian environment, is often, it may be unwittingly,
guilty of heathen practices that sorely try the heart of the
missionary.  The struggle between the new life and the old heathenism
is still seen in the church-members and even in the native ministry.
Each missionary, if he would be well and cheerful in his work, must
learn to cast all burdens of such a character on the Lord, and not be
oppressed by them.

One of the greatest trials some of us have to bear is that we must live
in an environment so {227} unconducive to personal growth and
development There is a great deal of ambition lurking about us still,
and we do not like to see our own development cut short because of an
unfavorable environment, while our friends and classmates at home, who
were no more than our equals in former days, far surpass us in
intellectual development and in influence and power.  Perhaps a
missionary should be above such thoughts and should be perfectly
content with a life of obscurity and partial development; but
missionaries are still men, and to many an ambitious one the limits
placed upon his personal development are very irksome.

But why are the conditions unfavorable to high personal development?
Because those stimulants to prolonged, vigorous effort that exist in
the West are lacking.  The stimulus of competition, the contact of
thinking minds, so necessary to enlist the full exercise of a man's
powers, are largely wanting.  One is shut up to his own thoughts and to
those he gets from books, and his development, in so far as it does
proceed, is very apt to be one-sided.  This is the reason why so many
missionaries are narrow, unable to see a subject in all its relations
and to give due importance to each.

The work of the missionary from beginning to end is one of
self-sacrifice and self-effacement.  {228} There is no future for him
in the councils of the native church.  As the work grows and extends he
must gradually take a back seat.  As the native ministry develops, the
foreign minister is less and less needed, and must gradually withdraw.

Again, the home land, father and mother, brothers and sisters, friends
and companions, are just as dear to the missionary as to any one else.
Yet it seems inevitable that he will gradually grow away from them and
be forgotten by them.  Prolonged absence brings forgetfulness; diverse
labors and interests put people out of sympathy with one another.  When
the new missionary first comes out to his field, communication between
him and friends is frequent.  Letters pass regularly, little
remembrances are sent from time to time, and he is still in touch with
his friends at home.  But by and by a change comes.  After one or two
years exchange of presents and remembrances ceases; gradually the
letters cease also, and none come except those from his immediate
family.  Even these become less and less frequent.  The arrival of the
mails, which at first was looked forward to with so much joy, is now
scarcely noted.  An old American gentleman who has spent some forty
years in the East tells me that he now receives from the home land not
more than two or three letters per year.  {229} After a few years of
residence here one feels that he is largely out of touch with the life
of the West, and that he is forgotten, by home and friends.

It seems to me that churches and friends can do much toward preventing
this, and toward brightening the lives of their missionaries, if they
will.  Let pastors and friends throughout the church take special pains
to write interesting personal letters to the missionary.  It will do
him good just to be remembered in this way.  It is natural that the
same kindness, attention, and love that are shown to the home pastor
should not be shown to the missionary, because he is so far away and
the strong personal element is wanting.  But if the churches would make
an effort to share their kindness and beneficence between the home
pastor and the foreign one it would be highly appreciated by the latter.

Especially does this seem but fair in a case where a church supports
its own missionary and where most of its members are personally
acquainted with him.  Such churches speak of having two pastors; one at
home ministering to them, and one abroad, in their stead, preaching the
gospel to the heathen.  Why should not these pastors have equal place
in their hearts and receive equally their kindness and their gifts?  If
any preference is shown, it would seem that it should {230} be to the
foreign pastor, for he has much the harder work.  But the foreign
pastor is generally forgotten, while the home pastor, with whom living
is much cheaper, is paid a larger salary; he is given a vacation, and a
purse to enable him to spend it pleasantly; at Christmas he is
substantially remembered, and all through the year he is presented with
numerous gifts and shown many favors.  The poor lonely missionary is
paid a moderate salary and is given no further thought.  Imagine the
feelings of a man in a mission field, supported by one church which
always speaks of him as its foreign pastor, as he takes up a church
paper and reads of the favors shown the home pastor; among them such
items as "a nice purse of fifty dollars," "a three months' leave of
absence, and expenses to ----."  He cannot help thinking with a sigh of
that unpaid doctor's bill of fifty dollars incurred by his wife's ill
health last summer, or of the money needed to send his boy home to be
educated.

A church should try to remember its pastor abroad as well as the one at
home.  The home pastor himself could see to it that this is done.  If
he should simply say, when handed a present for some purpose, "Our
foreign pastor has not been remembered by us, and he needs it more than
I, therefore we will send this to him," the result would probably be
that he and the foreign {231} pastor would both be remembered.  If
little expressions of appreciation and kindness, such as this, were
occasionally shown the missionaries, it would do much to brighten and
cheer their hard lives.  These are little things, but the little things
have much to do with our happiness.

If the missionary life has its sorrows and disappointments, it has its
pleasures and joys as well.  It is with great pleasure that I turn from
the dark to the bright side of our lives.

First I would mention that sweet peace and joy that come from the
consciousness of doing one's duty.  The true missionary feels that God
has called him into the work, and that he is fulfilling the divine
will.  This knowledge brings with it much pleasure.  The joy is all the
sweeter because of the sacrifices that must be undergone in answer to
the divine call.  He feels not only that he is in the field by the call
of God, but also that God is with him in his work, leading, guiding,
blessing, helping him.  He hears the words of his Master, "Lo, I am
with you alway," and he gladly responds, "In Thy presence is fullness
of joy."  The brooding Spirit of God is especially near the Christian
worker in foreign lands, and imparts to him much joy and peace.

Another of the missionary's joys is to see the gospel gradually taking
hold of the hearts of the people and renewing and transforming them.
It {232} is passing pleasant to tell the gospel story, so full of hope
and joy, to these people whose religious ideas and aspirations are only
dark and gloomy.  Who could desire sweeter joy than to watch the
transforming power of the gospel in the heart of some poor heathen,
changing him from an idol-worshiping, immoral creature into a pure,
consistent Christian?  It is the good fortune of the missionary to see
such changes taking place in the people to whom he ministers.  And what
a change it is!  For gloom and dejection it gives joy and hope; for
blind, irresistible fate it gives a loving providence.  The change is
so great that every feature of the face expresses it.

Lastly, the crown of the missionary's life is to see a strong, vigorous
native church springing up around him, the direct result of his labors;
to see it gradually and silently spreading itself throughout the whole
nation as the leaven through the meal, permeating every form of its
life and impressing itself upon every phase of its character.  To this
native church he confidently looks for the evangelization of the masses
and the accomplishment of all that for which he has labored so long and
so earnestly.  When the missionary can look upon such a native church
with the feeling that it will be faithful to its Lord and do His work;
when he can sit in its pews and hear soul-nourishing gospel sermons
from his {233} own pupils, now grown strong in the Lord--then indeed
his cup of joy is full.  The trials and sorrows that were endured in
connection with the work are all forgotten, and his only emotion is one
of glad thanksgiving.

In some lands many missionaries have already received this crown to
their labors; it has been partially received in Japan, and if we are
but faithful to our trust shall yet be received in all lands.



{234}

XIII

METHODS OF WORK

Missionaries attempt in various ways to evangelize the nations to which
they are sent.  The extent and variety of the work which the missionary
is called upon to perform are much greater than the people at home are
apt to think.  He must be at the same time a preacher, a teacher, a
translator, a financier, a judge, an author, an editor, an architect, a
musician.  The great variety of the work necessitates a well-rounded
man.

All of these offices are, in an indirect sense, ways of doing mission
work; but we will here confine ourselves to the consideration of the
more direct and positive methods in vogue in Japan.  These are direct
evangelization, educational work, literary work, and medical work.



_Direct Evangelization_

By this I mean the actual propagation of the gospel, by word of mouth,
to the people to whom {235} we are sent.  I mention this first because
I regard it as the most important of all methods.  The supreme vocation
of the missionary is, not to educate, not to heal, but to preach the
gospel.  It is well for mission boards and missionaries to remember
this, for there is danger in many places of making this primary method
secondary to education.  While it is probably true that the
evangelization of the masses will depend ultimately upon the efforts of
the native ministry, this should not therefore be construed to mean
that the foreign missionary has nothing to do with this department of
the work.  He should personally engage in this evangelistic work,
should himself come into actual contact with the unevangelized masses,
and should proclaim the gospel directly to them.  In this way only can
he understand thoroughly the nature of the work in which he is engaged,
and be enabled to sympathize with and advise his evangelists.  He
should not only train native evangelists, but should be an evangelist
himself, teaching his helpers, by earnest, zealous example as well as
by precept, right methods of the proclamation of the gospel.  Such work
must also bear direct fruit in the conversion of souls; for even in
this land, in spite of the great nationalism and strong prejudice
against foreigners, a foreigner will draw larger congregations and be
listened to with more attention than {236} a native.  And this is not
simply because of curiosity; the people have more confidence in his
ability properly to represent the foreign religion.  For these reasons,
then, viz., for the sake of the souls he may win, for the sake of the
example he may set to his helpers, and for his own sake, that he may
rightly understand and appreciate the work, every missionary should, as
far as possible, be an evangelist.  This is emphasized here because in
many places the evangelistic work is in danger of being subordinated to
the educational, and missionaries are not lacking who take the strange
ground that it is neither necessary nor profitable for the missionary
personally to come into contact with the unevangelized masses.  This
seems to me to be a very mistaken view of the sphere of the foreign
worker.  He should not only train helpers, support and advise them, but
he should also go with them among the people and preach to them himself.

The direct propagation of the gospel may be either local or
itinerating.  The missionary may reside in one place, have a fixed
chapel, and there teach all who come to him; or he may go on long tours
through the country, preaching from town to town and from village to
village.  In general these methods are combined in Japan.  The
missionary is located in one town and to the work there gives most of
his attention; but he {237} also at stated intervals visits the
surrounding towns and country, doing evangelistic work wherever he can.

LOCAL EVANGELISM.--For obvious reasons, local evangelistic work yields
the greatest returns.  To it the missionary gives his constant care and
attention, while his visits to the country are only periodical.  Local
evangelistic work in Japan is carried on somewhat in the following
manner:

A house, as centrally located in the town as possible, is rented and
fitted up as a chapel.  The only furnishings needed are a small table
and some lamps.  Japanese houses are so constructed that the whole wall
on the street side can be removed, and people standing in the street
can see and hear all that is going on within.  In this new chapel, one
or two evenings a week, the gospel will be preached.  In China there is
preaching in such chapels every day, but in Japan the people will not
come oftener than once or twice a week.  In all probability both the
missionary and the native evangelist will preach the same evening, one
after the other.  At first very few people will come into the house,
but numbers will congregate in the street and will listen to what is
said.  After the service is over an opportunity is given for personal
conversation on religious topics.  By and by a little interest is
manifested, and some begin to come into the house.  A great {238} deal
has been gained when people will go so far as to come up into the
Christian chapel, in plain view of the multitudes, and hear the sermon.

In many cases the native evangelist lives in the chapel (in the same
building, but occupying different rooms) and daily meets and talks with
people about religion.  In this way he hears of those who are
interested, and he and the missionary visit such in their homes and
converse privately with them.  In my own mission, as soon as any are
interested, they are organized into a catechetical class, which meets
weekly, and are thoroughly instructed in Luther's Small Catechism.  But
I find that unless this is preceded by more elementary instruction this
excellent little manual will not be well understood.  Real inquirers
are glad to come and study the catechism and the Bible, and they study
them well.  Some of the most satisfactory work I have done in Japan has
been along the line of catechetical instruction.  Some of the larger
missions working here have not been sufficiently careful about giving
their converts sound elementary instruction in Christian doctrine, but
have left them to gather all the necessary knowledge from the sermons
they hear and the instruction given in the Sunday-schools.  One of the
desiderata of most missions in Japan is more systematic catechetical
instruction.

Among the first things a missionary does in {239} beginning work in a
town is to open a Sunday-school.  The children are generally more
accessible than the older people, and many of them will come to the
school.  They cannot at first be organized into classes, as their
interest is not sufficiently great to induce them to attend regularly
and to study.  The first instruction is usually by means of large Bible
pictures that catch the eye and teach a religious truth.  By and by,
when the work becomes more substantial and the interest more developed,
the pupils can be organized into classes and more systematic
instruction given.  If there are any Christians in connection with the
chapel their children form the backbone of the Sunday-school.

A considerable part of the time of the missionary doing local
evangelistic work, if he is wise, will be occupied in house-to-house
visitation.  The Japanese are a very social people, and it is wonderful
how a little personal kindness and interest in them will break down the
prejudice against us and our work.  As a rule, the missionary who goes
into a native home with humility, simplicity, and love will gain the
good will of the whole household.  Men feel freer to talk about
religious subjects in the privacy of their own homes.  In a discourse
to a promiscuous audience the truth is scattered broadcast, and each
one catches what he can; but in a private {240} conversation in the
home the truth especially adapted to the hearer can be given.  It is
like a man trying to fill a bottle with water; he will get it full much
quicker by taking it up in his hand and pouring the water into it than
by throwing a whole bowlful at it from a distance.

It is a very pleasant experience to enter a friendly home in the
evening, to sit around the social hibachi (fire-box), sip tea, and talk
about the great questions of time and eternity.  One is generally
received with cordiality and made to feel at home.  He is listened to
attentively and respectfully, and the questions asked are intelligent,
appreciative ones.  If the missionary expects his host immediately to
be convinced by his eloquence, to agree to all he says, to discard at
once his old religion and embrace the new, he will be disappointed.
But if he is content to seek an opportunity to present the truth under
most favorable circumstances, leaving it to do its own work silently
and gradually, he will be sure to find it.

House-to-house visitation and personal talks with the people are of
great importance in local evangelistic work.  But in doing such work
great care should be taken to comply strictly with Japanese etiquette
and rules of propriety, and especially to avoid a haughty bearing.  The
ordinary native home is much smaller, simpler, {241} and frequently
dirtier, than the missionary's, and the people are constantly watching
for any recognition of this fact on his part.  He should carefully
guard himself against any look or expression which might imply his
superiority, or his dissatisfaction with things around him.

I have been both amused and pained by overhearing Japanese imitate the
sayings and actions of two visiting missionaries.  According to the
imitation, the one bears himself haughtily and proudly; as soon as he
comes near the door he instinctively draws back as though fearing bad
odors; when he comes in he bows stiffly, seats himself on the best mat,
carefully draws up his clothes as though fearing contamination, casts a
scornful look at the bare walls, utters a few commonplace sentiments,
and hastily departs.  The other one comes with a cheery greeting, a
smiling countenance, and a humble demeanor.  He never notices the lowly
house and bare walls, but quietly and unconcernedly takes the place
assigned him, freely and appreciatively partakes of the tea and cakes
set before him, and kindly and sympathetically talks with the people as
one of them.  It is very evident which one of these two will do the
most good.

As soon as the work grows and a small company of believers has been
gathered the duties of the missionary increase.  There now rests upon
{242} him that burden which so oppressed Paul--the care of the
churches.  He must look after the regular worship of the church, must
develop in his people a church-going sentiment, and must instruct them
in the observance of all Christian duties.  In this work he will need
much patience, wisdom, and zeal.  The native converts, not having
generations of Christian ancestors as we have, will need oft to be
exhorted, oft rebuked, and loved much.  Christian duties that are with
us almost habitual must be urged upon these people time and again.  The
church must be organized and developed into an harmonious working body.
In all of this the missionary is fortunate if he has the assistance of
a wise, godly native helper.

Perhaps the most attractive and interesting feature of all mission work
is this forming and molding, under one's own hand, of the theology, the
life, and the activities of a young church.  The one who is privileged
to do this occupies a position of responsibility than which none could
be greater.  May God give us grace to do it aright.

ITINERATING EVANGELISM.--No true missionary living in a non-Christian
land will confine his labors to the town in which he resides.  His
heart will be constantly yearning over the people in the surrounding
towns and country, and he will gladly take advantage of every
opportunity {243} to make them occasional visits, telling to them also
the old, old story.

But there are other workers whose sole business it is to visit these
outlying points and carry a knowledge of the gospel to those who cannot
have regular gospel ministrations.  Perhaps this feature of missionary
work is the one most prominent in the minds of the people at home, who
are fond of picturing their missionary as a man who goes about from
town to town and from village to village, proclaiming the gospel to all
who will hear.

Christianity is by nature diffusive.  It spreads itself as naturally as
the leaven spreads in the meal.  Confucius taught: "The philosopher
need not go about to proclaim his doctrines; if he has the truth the
people will come to him."  In striking contrast to this Christ taught:
"Go ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature."
We are not only to teach those who come to us, but we are also to go
out in search of hearers, to carry our message to the people.

When our Saviour was upon earth the work He did was largely
itinerating; going about from place to place, teaching in the
synagogue, by the wayside, or on the sea-shore.  The disciples were all
itinerating evangelists, carrying their message from city to city and
from land to land.  {244} St. Paul was an itinerating missionary on a
large scale.  Not content to abide long in any one place, but looking
out continually to the regions beyond, his life was one ceaseless
activity in itinerating evangelism.  The missionaries through whom
northern Europe and England were converted were itinerants.  And those
who to-day in mission fields take their valises well stocked with
tracts and sermons and go out into the country on long evangelistic
tours can feel that they are following in the footsteps of worthy
exemplars.

We can hardly overestimate the importance of this work.  The word of
mouth is still the most effective means of conveying a message to the
masses, and a knowledge of Christian principles that could else hardly
be given is in this way spread abroad throughout the land.

[Illustration: Jinrikishas.]

The facilities for itinerating in Japan are excellent.  Most of the
important points are easily reached by rail or water.  But in general,
on an itinerating tour, the missionary has little use for the steamers
and railways.  The points he wants to visit are not on the great
thoroughfares, but are in out-of-the-way places.  There is, however, a
good system of roads, and the jinrikisha, which is everywhere found, is
easily capable of carrying one 40 or 50 miles a day.  This little cart
resembles a buggy, except that it has only two wheels and is much
smaller.  The seat is {245} just large enough to accommodate one
person.  A small Japanese coolie between the shafts furnishes all the
necessary motive power.  These are very convenient and comfortable
little conveyances, and are the ones in ordinary use by missionaries in
their itinerating work.

In recent years the bicycle has become popular for this purpose.  As
the "wheel" has been made to serve almost every other interest, it is
but fair that it should also serve the gospel.  Perhaps to-day one half
of all the male missionaries in Japan ride wheels.  They have decided
advantages over the jinrikisha, chiefly in the way of speed, personal
comfort, and pleasure.  I wish my readers could see their
representatives in Japan just starting on their wheels for a tour in
the interior.  Dressed in negligée shirts, caps, and knickerbockers,
with a large bundle tied upon the wheel in front of each one, they
present a comical appearance.  Many sermons have been preached in Japan
in negligée shirts and knickerbockers.

There are nice, clean little inns in all the villages and towns, and
the missionary is not put to such straits for a place in which to rest
and sleep as he is sometimes in other mission fields.  But as the food
offered him is unpalatable to most foreigners, he carries with him a
few things, such as bread, canned meats, and condensed milk.

{246}

The splendid telegraph system extending over all Japan keeps him in
communication with his family and friends, no matter where he may go,
and he need not hesitate to go into the interior on that score.  A good
daily mail system is also at hand to carry his letters.

Formerly the greatest hindrance to itinerating in Japan was the
difficulty of obtaining passports to travel in the interior.  No one
was permitted to go outside of certain limits without a special
passport, and such passports were only given for two purposes: for
health, and for scientific observation.  The government did not intend
by this restriction to prohibit mission work in the interior, but aimed
simply to prohibit foreigners from engaging in interior trade.  As the
missionaries were not going for purposes of trade, many of them availed
themselves of these passports; but there were some whose consciences
would not permit them so to do.  Several high officials were directly
spoken to about the matter by missionaries; and they replied that, in
the eyes of the law, a man could want to travel for only three
purposes: for health, for trade, or for scientific observation.  As
this restriction was simply to prevent foreigners from engaging in
interior trade, and as the missionaries were not going for that
purpose, they were told that they should go on with their work.  The
government knew well {247} the purpose for which they were going, and
permitted it; hence their consciences might be at rest.  These
explanations on the part of the officials removed the difficulty in the
minds of some, but not of all.  Fortunately, since the revision of the
treaties, passports are granted without any question as to the purpose
for which they are wanted, and all who ask it are freely given
permission to travel where they will.  Since this restriction has been
removed more itinerating is being done, and it is probable that it will
still increase.

The missionary does two kinds of itinerating in Japan: (1) he visits
periodically a large number of outstations, where are native
evangelists; (2) he goes into regions where there are no evangelists
and heralds the gospel.

Itinerating among stations where native workers are located and regular
work kept up is by far the most frequent.  These tours are generally
made about every two or three months, one missionary visiting perhaps a
dozen stations.  The local evangelist makes all preparations for the
meetings, which are generally of a special character.  There will
probably be a special preaching service for non-believers, and a
communion service with the Christians.  If there are any baptisms the
sacrament is then administered.  The visit of the missionary is
intended to be as much a stimulus and encouragement to the evangelist
{248} as anything else.  These men, living in out-of-the-way places
where there are few, if any, Christians, are apt to get despondent and
discouraged, and they need occasionally the sympathy and advice of a
fellow-worker.  The missionary who has charge of this kind of work is a
sort of bishop, with an extended parish.

When fields where no regular work is carried on are visited the work is
necessarily different.  In this case the missionary must take his
helper with him.  He seldom goes alone, for various reasons.  When on
one of these tours he will spend one or two days in a village, talking
personally with all who will come to him.  Very likely he will rent a
room in the inn in which he is stopping, and he and his helper will
there preach one or two evenings.  Sometimes, if the weather is good,
he obtains permission of the authorities to hold the meeting in the
open air, and preaches on the street or in the public squares.
Wherever an audience can be gathered the message is told.  After one or
two days spent in this manner they move on to the next town, and there
do as they did before, thus going their whole round.  The most that is
accomplished by this method of preaching is to spread abroad a general
knowledge of Christianity among the people and break down their
prejudice against it.  Not many conversions result from it.

{249}

Some may ask what kind of sermons one preaches on these itinerating
tours.  They should be of the plainest, simplest character.  It is
profitable to consume a good deal of time in disproving the false ideas
which prevail concerning Christianity, and in giving the people correct
views of its nature.  The nature of God must be carefully explained,
both because the word we use for God is in Japanese applicable to an
earthly hero as well as to a divine being, and because the divinities
of Japan differ very much in nature from the Christian conception of
God.  One can preach a long time on sin before getting the people
properly to understand it.  The Japanese are really without any sense
of sin, and have no word in their language to express the idea exactly.
We use the word which means crime or offense against the laws of the
land.  Then the old story of Christ simply told always commands a
hearing everywhere.

The kind of itinerating last described is open to serious objection.
It is uncertain and fitful.  One visit may be made to a town each year,
or some years not even one.  No provision is made for carrying on the
work, or for keeping alive any interest that may have been aroused.  To
be made very profitable such itinerating should be regular and
systematic; the visits should not be too far apart; and as soon as some
inquirers are {250} found, a native evangelist should be stationed
there to care for them.  When conducted in this way it is conducive of
great good.



_Educational Work_

The educational department of mission work has in recent years been
coming more and more into prominence.  This feature of the work
attracts the attention of the visitor from the home lands more than any
other, because it makes more show.  The imposing buildings that are
erected, and the large number of students that can be gathered into
them, make a favorable impression.

Educational work is generally more attractive than evangelistic.  The
former is regular, while the latter is desultory.  The former is
continuous, occupying one's time and attention every day; the latter is
intermittent.  The former can be pursued at home, and the missionary
can enjoy the constant society of his family; the latter takes him away
from his family and occupies him abroad.  Educational work is usually
carried on in the open ports and large cities, where one enjoys all the
conveniences of life, with sympathetic society; evangelistic work takes
the missionary into the interior, where there are few conveniences and
no society.  Lastly, educational work is more {251} or less welcomed by
the natives, while evangelistic work is unwelcome.

Japan possesses a large number of mission schools.  Their imposing
buildings are seen in almost every city of the empire.  Every mission
of large size has its schools for both boys and girls.  The annual
support of these schools costs the various boards more money than all
the evangelistic work that is done in Japan.  More missionaries are
engaged in educational than in evangelistic work.

A certain amount of educational work seems necessary to the success of
every mission.  First in importance is theological training.  A body of
well-trained native pastors is absolutely essential.  Especially in
this land, where there are many educated people and where all forms of
rationalism and skepticism are rife, is it necessary that the
evangelist have a liberal education, that he be well rooted and
grounded in Christian doctrine, and able to answer the philosophical
objections to Christianity that meet him on every side.  An educated
ministry is just as necessary in Japan as it is in the West, and the
schools that are providing such a ministry are doing a good work.

But some of the methods used by them are open to criticism.  Heretofore
most theological training has been in the English language, and {252}
the language alone has taken up a great deal of the student's time and
strength.  And again, very few Japanese young men gain a sufficient
knowledge of English to appreciate or derive full benefit from a
theological course in that language.  Against this is urged the paucity
of Christian literature in Japanese, and the wide field of religious
thought which a knowledge of the English language opens to the student.
This is very true; but if the same amount of time and energy that has
been expended in instruction in English had been given to the creation
of a native Christian literature the evil would not exist.  I am glad
to note that recently nearly all the theological schools have
introduced courses in the vernacular for those who cannot take the
English course.  It would be well if the English course were dispensed
with entirely and all instruction were given in the vernacular.

Many of the missions operating in Japan have sent worthy young men to
America and England for theological training.  In nearly every instance
this has proved an unwise investment.  The good people at home take up
these young men and nurse and pet them until they are completely
spoiled.  They come back to Japan unfitted by taste and education for
the position they must occupy and the work they must do.  Most of them
become dissatisfied in the work after a few {253} years.  Foreign
education largely denationalizes them and removes them from the
sympathies of their own people.  Of course there have been some
exceptions to this rule; but, in general, experience has proved that
locally trained evangelists are best suited for the work and give most
satisfaction in it.

By this it is not intended to imply that Japanese pastors and teachers
should not have the advantages offered by the Western seminaries when
they desire them and are able to obtain them for themselves.  They are
as capable of receiving advanced instruction as we are, and have the
same right to it.  But the money which foreign boards spend for
training evangelists should be spent in the field.

Besides the theological schools there are large numbers of academical
schools for young men, in which a great deal of mission money is spent.
In justification of these it is argued that they are necessary for the
preparatory training of evangelists.  It is said that the education of
these future pastors of the church should be Christian from the
beginning, and this is true.  But more than half the evangelists now
laboring in Japan have not received such training.  The education they
received from government and private schools answers very well in their
case.  Actual experience has proved that, whatever may be the {254} aim
of these academies, as a matter of fact they do not train evangelists.
Most of the men who take their full course enter other professions.
One of the oldest missions in Japan, employing about twenty
evangelists, has among them only one man who has taken the full
academical course in its mission college; but many men have been
educated at the church's expense for other professions.

Again, it is said in justification of these academies and their large
expenditure of mission money that a Christian education must be
provided for the children of the constituency of the mission.  The
church provides a Christian education for her sons and daughters at
home; why should she not do it for her wards abroad?  Far be it from me
to attempt to minimize the importance of Christian education; but will
it not be time enough for such education when the constituency of the
native church feels its need to such an extent that it will demand this
education itself, support the schools with its money, and send its sons
and daughters to them?  At present even the Christian people frequently
prefer a government school to a mission school; and they often send
their children to the latter, when they do send them, because they will
there be given financial aid.

There was a time when Christian schools did a good work in Japan.
Before the government {255} schools were brought up to their present
standard the mission schools were well patronized, and they
considerably benefited the cause of missions.  But to-day the
government has schools of every grade, and frequently they are better
than the mission schools.  The students who formerly flocked to the
mission schools now flock to those of the government, and the former
have but few pupils.  The times have changed, and these large,
expensive schools are now hardly needed.  In so far as they are needed
for the preparatory training of a native ministry, and can be made to
serve that end, they may be all right, but certainly as an evangelizing
agency they are not justified.  The native church should be encouraged
and stimulated to educate its own children; it might even be assisted
in the attempt, when it has shown an honest effort to do this; but its
children should not be educated for it by the mission free of charge.
To spend so large an amount of the people's money in purely secular
education seems to me a misappropriation of funds.

More than half the mission schools in Japan are boarding-schools for
girls.  Nearly all the unmarried women engaged in mission work are in
these schools, and there are many of them.  Some of these schools have
very fine locations and buildings, about as good as those of the
average {256} girls' college at home.  That they are more popular and
better patronized than those for boys is because the government does
not provide for the higher education of girls as it does for boys.

The purpose of these girls' boarding-schools is to train up earnest
Christian women, who will be the wives and mothers of the new Japan.
It is said that if the mothers of the nation are made Christian the
evangelization of the whole people will speedily follow.  This purpose
is a worthy one.  Most of the girls who enter these mission schools
become Christians, and the training given them seems to be good.  I
recently attended the closing exercises of one of the largest of these,
and was surprised at the progress made by the girls.  They could paint
and draw, and recite classical music as well as the young ladies of the
seminaries at home; and I have no doubt that the graduates leave the
schools pure-minded, earnest Christians, with worthy aims and
aspirations, and with a full intention to exert their influence for God
and His church.

But alas! when they go back to their homes the position Japanese
etiquette assigns them so effectually ties their hands that the results
are bitterly disappointing.  I will mention one case which came under
my own observation.  A young lady was educated by a mission school in a
certain city, who was noted for her piety and {257} earnest Christian
spirit.  Her teachers had most extravagant hopes as to the strong
positive influence she would exert for Christianity.  After her
graduation she spent several years in the same school as a teacher, and
her Christian life was broadened and deepened by longer and more
intimate contact with the foreign teachers.  She finally married and
removed to her new home, in a distant city.  There she attended church
once or twice and then stopped entirely.  Neither the urgent personal
request of the native pastor nor the oft-repeated invitation of the
Christian congregation could induce her to come any more.  Instead of
exerting an influence for good upon others she herself became a fit
subject for mission work.  I have known several cases of this kind, and
all missionaries have had the same experience.  Social conditions in
Japan are such that a girl marrying into a non-Christian home can exert
little Christian influence.

But admitting for the moment the utility of this Christian training for
the girls, these large schools are open to serious objections on other
grounds.  The course is too long, and the instruction given too
advanced.  In many of these schools the girls are kept for twelve or
fourteen years.  During all this time they are more or less supported
by mission funds, even down to pin-money.  They are taught all kinds of
abstract {258} sciences and advanced ideas that can be of no possible
use to them.  Latin and Greek, biology, geology, psychology, and many
other things are taught them that they neither need nor can appreciate.
Painting, drawing, vocal and instrumental music form a prominent part
of the curriculum.  Girls are made to practise on the piano for ten
years or more who will in all probability never see a piano after they
leave school.  Of course these are not the only subjects taught; more
useful ones are taught as well.

If mission schools for the education of girls should exist at all the
instruction should be much more elementary and practical.  A course of
two or three years, teaching them how wisely to fill their position as
wives and mothers, would amply suffice.

It is claimed by the Japanese with great reason that these schools
unfit the girls for the sphere they must occupy in after life.  A life
of ten, twelve, or fourteen years in constant association with foreign
teachers, in a foreign building, with all necessaries and conveniences
supplied, pursuing a pleasant course of study, does not fit the pupil
for life in her humble home.  No wonder she loves the school and dreads
to see the day approaching when she must leave it.  Having lived so
long under much better circumstances, her home, with its thatched roof,
narrow walls, {259} and homely duties, becomes distasteful to her.  Of
what use now are her music and painting, her Latin and Greek, when her
time must be spent in boiling rice and mending old, worn-out clothes?
There is such a thing as educating people above their sphere in life,
and such education is more hurtful than otherwise.

But it is said, "We are training future Bible-women who will go out and
teach the gospel to their country-women."  In reply to this it can be
answered that not a great many graduates of girls' schools become
Bible-women; and it is the experience of nearly every missionary that
the best Bible-women are middle-aged women, who may never have been in
a mission school.

Again, it is said that it is worth while to have these schools if only
to train educated Christian wives for the native evangelists.  But many
of the evangelists, even among those who themselves have received a
more or less foreign training, prefer wives who have never been in a
mission school, saying that these girls who have lived so long under
better surroundings will not be contented and happy in the homes they
can provide.  It is also true that many of the young ladies who
graduate from these schools object to marrying at all, feeling that
they have been unfitted for the life they would have to lead.

A very serious objection to the present {260} educational method in use
by many missions in Japan is that it hinders self-support in the native
churches.  These large foreign plants, with their costly appliances,
can never be supported by the native churches, and the evident futility
of the effort so discourages them that they will not even do what they
can.  The day when the churches of Japan can become self-supporting is
very much postponed by the existence of these costly schools.  At
present the native churches could hardly keep the school buildings in
repair.

The whole work of missions in Japan was in the beginning projected on
too high a plane.  To many it seems a great mistake that such large and
costly buildings were erected and the schools started on a foreign
basis.  Should not the buildings have been entirely of native
architecture from the beginning, and the educational work projected on
a plane corresponding to Japanese life?  If small wooden houses, with
straw roofs and no furniture, are good enough for these people to live
in and to transact all kinds of business in, then they are good enough
for them to study in and to worship God in.  If from the very beginning
the schools and churches had been built on a plane corresponding with
ordinary Japanese houses and life the day would much sooner have come
when the Japanese themselves could undertake their support.  When, in
the providence of {261} God, the native church shall have been
sufficiently developed, materially and spiritually, to undertake the
education of her children and the training of her own pastors, the
manner in which she will do it will be very different from that in
which it is now done by the mission boards.

I am aware that many missionaries in Japan, for whose opinions I have
all respect, will not agree with these views.  But, after most careful
thought and investigation, the above are the conclusions to which I
have arrived; and I am glad to know that my views are shared by many of
my fellow-missionaries.  It is my sincere conviction that most of the
money now being used for educational purposes in Japan is misapplied,
and would yield far greater results if used in other ways.



_Literary Work_

One of the most important and fruitful branches of missionary work is
the literary.  The creation of a sound Christian literature is one of
the first and most imperative duties pressing upon the missionary to
the heathen.

This is an exceedingly difficult task.  When we think of how much labor
and how many precious lives our own Christian literature has cost us,
we begin to have some conception of the immensity of the task of
creating a Christian {262} literature in a heathen land.  In the first
place, the missionary must have a complete mastery of the language,--in
Japan an appalling task,--and then he must create the terms to express
so many ideas.  Many of our Christian ideas have no counterpart in
non-Christian lands, and the very words to express them must be coined.
A common device is to take words of kindred meaning and to make them
serve the purpose, endeavoring to attach our own meaning to them by
gradual processes of instruction and use.  Thus with the words for God
and sin in use by most missions in Japan.  These words are _kami_ and
_tsumi_.  Now _kami_ is the word used for numerous mythological
divinities, with natures very different from our God, and is also
applied to the ancient heroes of Japan.  As it expresses the idea
better than any other word we have, we use it for God; but we must be
careful always to explain the sense in which we use it.  The word
_tsumi_ means crime, or offense against the laws of the land.  Our idea
of sin is lacking in the Japanese mind, and hence there is no word that
exactly expresses it.  We take the word _tsumi_ as being nearest it,
and endeavor to impart to it our own meaning.  In this way we have not
only to translate the ideas, but also to coin or modify the words to
express them.

This work of the missionary is very different {263} from that of
translating English books into a European language which has a circle
of ideas similar to our own, for there the words are found ready-made
to express the ideas.

Generally the first literary work to be done by missionaries is the
translation and publication of portions of Scripture and of tracts.  As
soon as their knowledge of the language is sufficiently advanced, they
translate the whole Bible and some good hymns.  Then follow
apologetical and evidential works, and treatises on theology and
morality.  Afterward biographical and devotional books, magazines, and
Christian newspapers are published.  We cannot overestimate the value
of a good Christian newspaper.  It will carry gospel truth to people
whom the missionary and the native evangelist cannot reach, and it will
help much to nourish and strengthen the life of the native converts.
In such a paper the latter will probably see their religion set forth
in all its relations to the questions of practical life in a way they
seldom hear it done in sermons.  I think parish papers, which are
becoming so common at home, would also exert a splendid influence in
Japan.

In this field a considerable Christian literature has already been
created.  Among the most important books translated so far might be
mentioned the Bible, the Book of Common Prayer, {264} Luther's Small
Catechism, the Heidelberg Catechism, Bynyan's "Pilgrim's Progress."  A
considerable number of books on apologetical, evidential, dogmatic, and
historical theology have been published, besides biographical, ethical,
and devotional books.  There are also several Christian newspapers, and
recently the missionaries of the American Board have begun the
publication of a Christian magazine.

A Christian literature which will be a powerful auxiliary to our work
is at present forming rapidly in Japan.



_Medical Work_

Medical work is one of the youngest departments of missionary labor.
Christ healed the body as well as the soul, and it is peculiarly
fitting that the missionary be able to heal the body likewise.  Medical
missions have done more in some countries toward breaking down the
prejudice against Christianity than any other one thing.  Doors
effectually closed to the evangelist have been opened wide to the
doctor.  The power for good of a consecrated physician in many mission
fields is boundless.  The mission boards have fully recognized this
fact, and have wisely used large numbers of medical missionaries.

In former times medical missionaries accomplished much good in Japan.
They helped greatly {265} to break down the prejudice and opposition to
Christianity.  Many who came to the hospitals to have their bodies
healed went away having their ears filled with words from the great
Physician, and their hearts moved by the kindness and love of these
Christian doctors.  Not only was much direct mission work accomplished
in this way, but the principles of physiology and medicine were also
taught to large numbers of native physicians and students.  Among the
men who did most in this work were Drs. Hepburn, Berry, and Taylor.

Although they have accomplished much good, medical missions are no
longer needed in Japan.  The Japanese themselves have become adepts in
medical science, and especially in surgery.  Every town and city has
one or more hospitals where competent medical consultation and
treatment can be had, and these now occupy the position formerly filled
only partially by the mission hospitals.  A few hospitals and
dispensaries are still kept in operation by some missions, but most of
them were years ago dispensed with as no longer profitable.  We rejoice
that Japan has so far progressed as to be well able to care for the
health of her own people, and we adapt ourselves to the changed
circumstances, diverting into more fruitful channels the energies
formerly expended in this way.



{266}

XIV

HINDRANCES

Many of the hindrances that oppose the progress of Christianity in
Japan have already been indirectly suggested in other portions of this
book.  But that they may be more clearly apprehended by the friends of
missions at home, and that the effect of their militating influence may
be fully felt, we will endeavor in this chapter to arrange them in
order and show just how they oppose our work.  For the sake of
clearness and logical order we will consider the subject under two
divisions: 1. Hindrances in Japan common to all mission fields; 2.
Hindrances peculiar to Japan.

1. There are certain things inherent in the very nature of Christianity
that impede her progress.  They are necessities of her being, and
cannot be gotten rid of.  These things may be either a part of
Christianity herself, belonging to her nature, {267} or they may be
necessary results of her acceptance by non-Christian peoples.  For this
reason they are encountered wherever the gospel is propagated; they are
common hindrances to the advance of our faith alike in China, India,
Africa, and Japan.

Although not peculiar to Japan, it seems to me wise briefly to refer to
these universal hindrances, because often they are not realized in
their full force and power either by the people of our home churches or
even by our pastors.  To appreciate fully their militating influence
one must go to the mission field, and there observe them actually
hindering the rapid progress of evangelization.  There they are seen in
a new light, and are impressed upon the mind as they can hardly be
otherwise.  If I can succeed in causing the constituency of the
churches at home to realize the number, magnitude, and power of these
hindrances I will have done good service for the cause of missions.

As the first one of these universal militating influences, inherent in
the very nature of missions, opposing the progress of Christianity
wherever its teachings are newly propagated, I would mention its
_revolutionizing tendency_.  Christian missions are in their nature
revolutionizing.  The result is inevitable and unavoidable.  The
advance of Christianity in a heathen land {268} necessitates the
revolutionizing of many institutions that have obtained for centuries.
Not only must the religious ideas undergo a revolution, but all moral
ideas, and manners and customs as well.  The reasons for this are very
evident.

Religion is intimately connected with the life of man.  It furnishes
the motive power of his life, controls his actions, creates his
morality, determines his manners and customs, and shapes his laws.  The
ethnic religions are just as intimately interwoven with the lives of
their adherents as Christianity is with the lives of Christians; and
Buddhism, Confucianism, and Brahmanism have shaped and determined the
lives and actions of their adherents.

The connection between religion and morality is a necessary and
indissoluble one.  The two are united in their growth and development,
and the form of morality is necessarily colored by the dominant
religion.  Wherever the Buddhist faith has been accepted there has
sprung up a system of morality peculiar to it; so that we speak of a
Buddhistic in opposition to a Christian morality.  This morality is
dependent upon the religion, and a change of religion must bring about
a change of morality.

Christianity, having necessarily developed a morality in accord with
its principles, must, as it advances, destroy the existing systems and
create {269} widely different ones.  While the better element in
heathen nations has more or less outgrown its religious ideas and
superstitions, and can calmly contemplate a change of religion, yet its
moral system has a stronger hold, and anything which antagonizes it is
severely condemned.  This necessary revolutionizing of moral ideas very
much opposes the progress of Christianity.

The acceptance of Christianity necessitates also a revolution in
manners and customs.  These are partially an expression of the faith
that is in us, their nature being determined by it.  A change of
religion, therefore, means a change in all of these.

People have great respect for time-honored customs, and that which
antagonizes these brings upon itself condemnation.  Christianity
changes the manners and customs, and therefore the people do all they
can to oppose it.

In these ways the work of missions is revolutionizing, and must expect
to encounter the opposition of the spirit of conservatism, which is
much stronger in the East than in the West.

A second principle inherent in the very nature of Christianity which
hinders its progress in heathen lands is its _exclusiveness_.  Our
religion is among the most intolerant in its attitude toward other
faiths.  We believe and teach that "there is none other name under
heaven given among {270} men, whereby we must be saved," than the name
of Christ.  While acknowledging that other religions contain grains of
truth, we must affirm that, as religious systems, they are false.
Christ sent forth His apostles to make disciples of all, winning them
to the Christian faith.  And the aim of the church to-day is, not to
cultivate brotherly love and communion with other _religions_, but
rather to exterminate them and make Christians of all.  She can brook
no rival.  Her adherents must give their allegiance to her alone.

Christianity not only claims to be the only religion, but she can offer
no hope to those outside of her pale.  While the Bible does not demand
that I teach the Japanese that their ancestors are surely lost, it
certainly gives me no ground for assuring them of their salvation.  We
all revere our forefathers, but none so much as the Oriental.  He pays
periodical visits to the tombs of his ancestors; he worships his father
and commemorates the day of his death by mourning.  A heaven from which
his ancestors are excluded has little attractions for him.  Often does
the Shintoist say, "I would rather be in hell with my ancestors than in
heaven without them."

If Christianity could be less exclusive and more tolerant of other
faiths she would find a much more ready acceptance at the hands of
non-Christian peoples.  But she cannot be so and be true {271} to her
own nature and mission.  In ancient Rome, when the church was called to
pass through fire, the manifestation of a more tolerant spirit would
have saved her from that awful persecution.  The Romans had many gods
and did not object to one more.  They adopted those of all the
conquered peoples, and were ready to adopt the Christians', and erect
an altar to Him, if the Christians would acknowledge Him as simply one
among the other gods.  And from that day to this the exclusive claims
of Christianity have brought upon her trials and persecutions, and have
hindered her progress throughout the earth.  Especially is this
religious exclusiveness unpopular in Japan, because there the native
religions are very tolerant of one another.

These are some of the strongest hindrances to the rapid progress of
Christianity in pagan lands.  They belong to the very nature of our
faith, and cannot be avoided.  Their antagonizing influence is
encountered wherever the gospel is preached.

2. But I think that the greatest hindrances to mission work in Japan
to-day are those which are peculiar to this field.  Many circumstances
conspire to make Japan stand alone among mission fields.  She has been
pronounced at once the most promising and the most difficult of all
fields for evangelistic work: the most promising because of the life,
force, and ability of her people; the {272} most difficult because of
the host of peculiar hindrances under which the evangelist must labor
there.  I will proceed to point out some of these.

(1) Perhaps the most potent at present is the _extreme nationalistic
feeling_, which has brought into disrepute everything of foreign
origin.  The Christian religion, being a foreign institution, is
therefore unpopular, and is thought to be less adapted to the people
and less liable to nourish a strong national feeling than the native
Shinto.

It is hard for us to realize the fanatical intensity of their
patriotism.  Having been taught for so many centuries that this is the
first virtue, the people have exalted it above everything else.  "Japan
first, forever, and always," is the universal motto.  There is hardly a
man, woman, or child in the empire to-day who would not be perfectly
willing to lay down his life for the good of the country.

This extreme patriotism operates in several ways to hinder the progress
of Christianity.  It prevents the ready acceptance of the new religion.
There are a great many so ignorant and inconsistent as to hate
Christianity just because it is of foreign origin, thinking that
nothing good can originate outside of Japan.  Such people adhere to the
native religion, in spite of its inferiority, simply because they think
that to do so is patriotic.  But there is a much larger and more {273}
influential class that is led to antagonize Christianity from patriotic
motives other than this.  They hold that a belief in the native
religions is necessary to preserve their darling patriotic spirit, and
that the adoption of any foreign religion would gradually destroy all
patriotism and loyalty.  Christianity is not national, but
cosmopolitan.  It teaches the Fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of
man, both of which great ideas are repugnant to most Japanese, because
they do not harmonize with their ideas of the divine origin of the
imperial family, and their national superiority to the other races of
the world.  They want a religion which exalts Japan above everything
and inculcates patriotism and loyalty to her alone.

But the most hurtful influence of this extreme nationalism is felt
within the pale of the church herself.  Actuated by it, many of the
native Christians, both clerical and lay, want to do away with
everything foreign in connection with the churches.  The more strictly
national they can make their work the better satisfied are they.  Not
only do they antagonize the missionary and try to push him off the
field, but they also antagonize foreign theology, and want to build up
a native system with no foreign taint.  The result is great friction
between the native and foreign workers, strained relations, and in many
instances {274} open antagonism.  This want of cordiality and harmony,
for which the national feeling is largely responsible, is very hurtful
to the best interests of our work.

But the desire for a purely native theology, which this strong,
benighted patriotism begets, is even more hurtful than its sowing seeds
of discord among the workers.  Many of the leading native ministers and
laymen say that it is folly for their churches to perpetuate the
theological divisions and creeds of the West, and they propose to
develop a theology peculiarly their own.  Now Christianity cannot be
kept pure and sound without paying due regard to its historical
development; and the Japanese, in cutting loose from this, have already
run into heresy.  The danger is that a Christianity may be developed
which is lacking in all that is distinctively Christian, and which will
be harder to overcome than the old heathenism.

(2) Another hindrance which has operated with great power throughout
the whole history of Protestant missions in Japan is the _past record
of Christianity_.  In a former chapter upon the "First Introduction of
Christianity" I have told how Christianity was first introduced, how it
grew to magnificent proportions, and how finally it was crushed by the
secular arm.  The fact that the government once felt constrained to
extirpate {275} Christianity, at whatever cost, and especially the fact
that the Christians dared oppose the government, have brought our
religion into disrepute.  Since, according to native morality, whatever
government does is right and whatever government opposes is wrong, the
mere fact of this opposition on the part of the government is enough to
condemn Christianity in the eyes of many.  Then the fact that the
Christians at last rebelled gives color to the idea already formed that
Christianity is disloyal to Japan.  That idea prevails widely, and in
many quarters Christians are regarded with suspicion.

A memory of the past bitter persecutions and of the hated rebellion
still lingers.  The old people talk of them around the hibachi, as they
sip their tea and smoke their pipes; the young read of them in the
histories, and thus their memory is kept alive.  Many are still living
who saw and read the rigid prohibitions of Christianity on the
sign-boards over all the country, and they cannot forget them.  There
are not a few people in the empire who to this day have hardly learned
that the changed attitude of the government toward Christianity is more
than outward; and these still regard the foreign faith as the chief of
all evils.  It is really pathetic sometimes to hear them talk of it.
There was an old man living near a Christian chapel not far from here,
who one day was {276} complaining of his woes and wishing to die.  He
said it had been a bad year, and none of his crops had done well, two
of his children had died, his country had been insulted by a foreign
power, and, to cap the climax, Christianity had come and taken up its
abode next door to him.  This last evil was too much, and he wanted to
die.  He still regarded our faith as the worst of evils.  I once gave a
few tracts to some old men in a mountain village near Saga, and they
remarked that they remembered the time when it would have meant certain
death to be seen with one of those little books.

(3) The _character of the education_ prevalent in Japan to-day is also
antagonistic to Christianity.  The Japanese are a studious race and are
capable of high mental development.  The country is so well supplied
with schools--nearly all of them government institutions--that no one
is too poor to receive some education.  There is, on the part of the
school authorities, no open antagonism to Christianity as such.
According to the regulations, no one religion is to be favored more
than another in the schools, and complete religious liberty is to be
allowed.  But the general tenor of the education given is
unchristian--an exaltation of reason above faith, of science above
religion.  Especially is the tendency of the higher education against
any form of religion.  The {277} educators of Japan are training a
nation of atheists and agnostics.  The scientific schools of the West
that have no room for religion are studied earnestly and copied by
educated Japan.  In philosophy Herbert Spencer and his school have been
acknowledged masters.  Indeed, it never seems to have occurred to the
minds of thinking Japanese that there are systems of philosophy other
than the materialistic.  All religious sentiment is crushed in the
schools, other things being substituted.  Science, learning, is thought
to be all that is necessary, and religion is left for old women and
children.  Men who still believe in religion are thought superstitious
and uneducated, and are regarded with a sort of lordly contempt.  In a
conversation some time ago with a graduate of the Imperial University I
was dogmatically told that Christianity was acknowledged to be absurd
by all thinking men everywhere, that all religions are only for the
infancy of the race, and that full-grown men can dispense with them.
This man's views are the usual product of the higher education, of
Japan to-day.  Hence it happens that few students of the higher schools
are Christian, and frequently men go there with Christian sentiments,
only to lose them before they leave.

(4) The _old religions of Japan_ strongly oppose the march of
Christianity.  Men often speak as though the old heathen faiths had
lost their power {278} and were no longer really believed.  Their power
is on the wane, but they lack much of being dead.  They still possess
enough vitality strongly to oppose the evangelization of this land.
The old Shinto faith, having the decided advantage of national origin,
and fitting in exactly with Japanese ideas of their relative national
importance and the nature of their emperor, is a strong opposing
influence.  Buddhism still possesses a strong hold upon the masses of
the people.  It has the recommendation of age, has played a prominent
part in the national history, and is dear to the hearts of the people.
It occupies a decided vantage-ground from which it opposes us and our
work.  To some in the West it seems almost incredible that these people
should really believe and trust in these faiths.  And yet be assured
that they do believe and trust in them.  There are about the same
sincerity, the same confidence, and the same faith placed in Buddhism
by its adherents as are placed in Christianity by its.  The religious
cravings and instincts of the people are, on the whole, satisfied by
their native religions.

The opposition of Buddhism to Christianity does not consist solely in
misrepresentation, nor is it founded on ignorance, but is an
intelligent opposition.  Some of the Buddhist priests study carefully
our language for the purpose of reading {279} our theology and
informing themselves as to our faith.  It is said that one of the very
best collections of books of Christian evidences and apologetics to be
found in all Japan is in the Buddhist library in Kyoto.  Buddhism has
learned some useful lessons from Christianity.  She is now learning the
value of stated preaching for the information of her people in Buddhist
doctrine, and the value of organized, systematic effort.  A Young Men's
Buddhist Association has been formed, after the model of the Young
Men's Christian Association, which is doing much toward holding the
young men to the Buddhist faith.  Buddhism is on the alert, is quick
and active, antagonizes us at every turn, and is one of the very
strongest hindrances to the progress of Christianity.

(5) The _social ostracism_ visited upon those who become Christians
very much hinders our progress.  Most of our converts, unless their
relatives and friends are Christians, are ostracized; in many cases
they are entirely cut off from their families and are disinherited.  In
America, when one becomes a Christian, he has the encouragement and
sympathy of all good people, and his family and friends rejoice with
him.  In Japan for a member of a family to become a Christian is
considered a disgrace, and the united influence of family and friends
is powerfully exerted to prevent such a {280} calamity.  Influential
men in our city have told me that perhaps the greatest hindrance to my
work is that by becoming a Christian a man shuts himself off from his
family and friends.  I am convinced that many would take a stand for
Christ much more readily if the home influence were not so
antagonistic.  A student in the Normal School of our city, who came to
me for many months to study Christianity, told me that his family
bitterly hated the Christian religion, and that he could not return
home if he became a believer.  In spite of this he was led by the
Spirit to ask for baptism, and I baptized him.  Afterward he wrote very
dutiful letters to his home, trying to explain that he felt impelled by
duty to take this step, and that Christianity was not so heinous a
thing as they supposed; but no answers came.  In course of time, being
compelled to return to his own town on business, he went to his home to
spend the night; but his mother and brothers would not recognize him,
and he had to go away to a hotel.  His father was dead, and his mother
tried to disinherit him, but was by the law prevented.  His family and
friends have never forgiven him, and now he never sees them.  Similar
cases could be cited without number proving the same thing.  Is it not
natural, then, for a man to hesitate to take this step?

{281}

(6) Another obstacle to the progress of missions in Japan is that the
_church is too much divided_.  Almost every small religious body known
has felt it incumbent upon itself to undertake work here.  It may be
true that denominations working separately are no hindrance to the
cause of Christ in the home field, but I think they are surely a
hindrance in the foreign work.  It is a fine rhetorical figure to liken
the various denominations and sects to different divisions of one vast
army, all engaged under the same general, in the same work; but the
figure does not represent the facts.  We do not have one vast Christian
army, each division occupying only its own field, directed by one mind,
and moving in unison.  The most optimistic cannot so regard the
different denominations and sects of Christendom.  Like other oft-used
figures, this one is entirely at variance with the facts.  Oftener is
it true that these sects oppose one another, and much prefer their own
welfare to that of the whole body of Christ.

You cannot satisfactorily explain to non-Christian people the reasons
why you must have a Lutheran, a Methodist, a Presbyterian, and a
Baptist church; and if they could be brought to understand our
differences this would in no way recommend us or our creed to them.  It
is a great pity that each mission field is not allotted to some one
denomination and left alone by all {282} the others.  If this cannot
be, at least only one body should work in one town.  Then these
complications would be partially avoided, and Christianity would more
recommend itself to the thoughtful citizen.

We suffer in Japan more from a superfluity of sects than of
denominations.  The Universalists and Unitarians are here with their
heresies, and are poisoning many minds.  Many other bodies are here,
antagonizing the established order of things and teaching religious
anarchy.  I suppose there is no mission field in the world that has a
larger number of sects and divisions.

But the regular orthodox denominations work more harmoniously in Japan
than in the home lands.  Strifes and jealousies between them are rare,
while expressions of mutual appreciation and of Christian courtesy are
common.

(7) I think the _foreign communities_ in the open ports of Japan are a
hindrance to the work of evangelization.  In the seven treaty ports
there are regular concessions for foreign residence and trade, and
thousands of foreigners live in them.  These communities are largely
composed of merchants and of those connected with the various
consulates, most of whom have come here for purposes of gain, and are
interested in nothing besides money-getting.  A large per cent. of this
population is very undesirable.  As representatives {283} of Western
civilization (the product of Christianity) the foreign settlements
should be model Christian communities, and were they such they could
exert a powerful influence for good.  But as it is, their example does
not recommend itself to the Japanese.

To say nothing whatever of the charges of immorality and dissoluteness
preferred against these men, they are certainly not Christians.  One
would think, to observe them, that they had not come from Christian
lands at all.  Many who are here only temporarily, being away from all
home influences and restraints, set a most ungodly example.  They will
not attend church; they take no interest in religious work; they speak
disparagingly of religion in general, and of the Christian religion in
particular; and to them a missionary is an eyesore.  While we are
laboring to Christianize the people, our own countrymen, the
representatives of Christian lands and the exponents of a Christian
civilization, are in the foreign ports setting a most ungodly example.
The natives are quick to notice these things, and they reason that, if
our faith is as good as we represent it to be, why have our countrymen
not profited better by it?  The presence of these antichristian
representatives of Christendom is a great hindrance.

But not all of the foreigners in the open ports {284} of Japan are of
this character.  There are some good Christian men and women among the
business classes, who are interested in all kinds of Christian work.
And yet the prevailing tendency of the foreign business communities is
against Christian work.

(8) The last but not the least hindrance I will mention is the
_language_.  It has been said of both Chinese and Japanese that they
were invented by the devil to keep Christian missionaries from speaking
freely with the natives.  Whether that be true or not, it certainly is
true that Japanese is one of the most difficult languages on the globe.
To know it well, three different languages must be acquired: spoken
Japanese, written Japanese, and Chinese.  The colloquial and the book
language are quite different, the literary being partly Chinese.  The
latter is written by ideographs, and you must have a sign for each
idea.  About five thousand of these characters will enable one to get
along, although there are probably fifty thousand in all.  By a sheer
act of memory to learn five thousand hideous characters is no little
task.  The colloquial itself is exceedingly difficult to use aright.
My readers may be surprised to learn that of the missionaries laboring
in Japan one third cannot speak the language intelligibly to the
natives.  It seems that many Occidentals, laboring never so hard,
really cannot {285} acquire the language.  One never feels sure in this
language that he is saying just what he wants to say.  If it were less
difficult, so that missionaries could acquire complete command of it
and use it as readily as they do their mother tongue, the work of
evangelization would go on more rapidly.

These, as I understand them, are the principal things which at present
hinder the progress of Christianity in Japan.  Some of them are
inherent in the very nature of the work, and will be encountered to the
end.  Others, I believe, are transient, and will by and by pass away.



{286}

XV

SPECIAL PROBLEMS

In the broad sphere of labor which the missionary must fill he daily
meets most difficult problems, whose solution requires the exercise of
consummate judgment, skill, and patience.  Although these problems are
not given a prominent place in mission reports, and are not therefore
very well known at home, they loom up mountain-high before every
missionary.  They have a practical importance in the field surpassed by
none other.  Men differ so widely in regard to their solution that they
not infrequently work division in a mission.

A brief presentation of some of these problems will enable the home
churches better to understand our work and to sympathize with us, and
will be of practical worth to those who contemplate coming to work in
this field.

The first problem to meet the missionary is, _how to deal with
inquirers_.

{287}

In Japan not one in three at first comes with sincere motives and good
intentions.  On the contrary, he comes seeking some material advantage,
hoping in some way to profit by his association with the missionary, or
vaguely expecting to be benefited by an alliance with what appears to
be a stronger and more living cause.  Those who from the first are
impelled to come by real spiritual motives are indeed rare.  How to
deal with such inquirers is the question.  To turn them away would be
to send them back into heathenism.  Manifestly we must hold them until
they have more spiritual motives.

I suppose all missionaries would agree that, no matter how material and
selfish their motives, inquirers should be encouraged to continue
coming, with the hope of gradually leading them into the truth.  We
could hardly expect them at first to have pure motives, as such are
practically unknown to them.  Heathenism, with its degrading idolatries
and immoralities, does not beget these, and we cannot expect to
discover them until the old religions have been discarded and the
inquirers have been brought under the instruction and care of the
church.  Therefore, whatever the motive, we should receive them, and
after a long period of Christian teaching and discipline look for a
change of heart.  But the length of this probation before they are
received {288} into the church, and whether it shall be required--those
are matters upon which the practice of missions differs widely.  Some
have a prescribed time which must elapse before candidates are admitted
to membership; others leave it to the judgment of the local evangelist
or missionary.  The latter seems the better plan.

Another question is, _Just how much shall candidates for
church-membership be required to give up_?  As to strictly heathen
practices, such as idolatry and gross immorality, there can be no
question.  But what of practices about which the judgment of men
differs?  Some missions require total abstinence from all intoxicating
drinks.  Some, like the Methodist, require abstinence from the use of
tobacco, especially on the part of pastors and evangelists.  These
churches urge in favor of their position the comparative ease with
which such restrictions may be applied in the young churches of Japan.
Shall we follow the lead of these more conservative churches, or shall
we adopt a more liberal policy?  Shall we require converts who are
engaged in any way in the manufacture or sale of tobacco or liquor to
change their business?  The practice of our own mission (the Lutheran)
is, except in the manufacture, sale, or inordinate use of intoxicants,
to allow liberty of conscience.

{289}

Another and a very perplexing problem we find to be, _what to do with
honest inquirers who have no means of support_.  This class is
numerous.  There are a great many poor in Japan--in fact, nearly all
are poor.  As Japanese custom--even more in ancient times than at
present--made the poorer classes look to the rich for their maintenance
and support, many converts look to the missionary, not to support them
outright, but to help them into positions where they can earn a living.
Not a few have their means of support cut off by the very act of
becoming Christians.  In such cases it seems but fair that the mission
should do what it can to assist them.  But how?  To support them is too
expensive, besides being demoralizing to them and the community.  In
some mission fields industrial schools, mission farms, and various
other enterprises are established to provide employment for such, and
in this way they are helped to support themselves.  But in a country
like Japan, where industrial and commercial life is highly organized
and developed, it is almost impossible for the missions to do such
work.  We have neither the means nor the skill to compete with the
industries around us.  This question of support for the poor of the
churches is a pressing one, and causes the missionary much anxiety and
thought.  The native church can do {290} much more toward its solution
than the missionary, and as the church grows in influence and resources
the problem may solve itself.

After a body of converts has been gathered, and the time has come for
organizing a church, the greatest problem of all arises--_the problem
of the native church_.

This is not one problem, but is rather a combination of problems, some
of which are the following: What shall be the form of its organization?
How shall its ministry be supplied?  How shall it be supported?  What
is the relation of the missionary to the native church?  What shall be
its attitude toward national customs?  These are important and
difficult problems, and on their right solution will depend in no small
measure the prosperity and success of the native church.

Some missions do not seem thoroughly to grasp and give due prominence
to this idea of the native church.  They interpret their commission to
mean the evangelization of the masses rather than the building up of a
strong native church.  But the Christianization of any land will
ultimately depend upon the native church, and not upon the foreign
missionary.  Therefore the first and chief aim of the missionary should
be to call out and develop a strong, self-supporting, and
self-propagating native church, in whose hands the {291} evangelization
of the masses of the people can ultimately be left.

In the organization of the native church, what polity shall be given
it?  Shall it be organized exactly as the home church which the mission
represents, or shall it be free to develop its own form of
organization?  Both of these plans are unsatisfactory.  Most churches
are agreed that no special form of church polity has divine sanction,
this being merely a question of expediency; and that therefore the new
churches should, as far as possible, be left free to adopt a
constitution in harmony with the national character and habits.

At the same time, forms of church government that have been tried at
home and approved should not be ignored.  What has stood the test of
time, and proved its worth in many lands, doubtless will in its main
features be of substantial value in the mission field.  It is but
natural that Presbyterian societies should organize native churches
under their own form of government, Methodist under theirs, and
Episcopal under theirs.  But, in the very nature of the case, a first
organization will only be tentative.  As the church develops it will
probably develop a polity of its own.  In view of this, the polity
imposed upon the native church by the mission at its first organization
should be as flexible as possible.

{292}

It would be folly for the Lutheran Church, for instance, which has one
polity in Germany, another in Sweden, another in Iceland, and still
another in America, to attempt permanently to impose any one of those
special forms upon the Japanese Lutheran Church; it will have its own
special polity, but this should not cause us any anxiety or concern.
If the faith and life of the church are right, it matters but little
about its polity.  We should be more concerned for the broader
interests of the kingdom than for the perpetuation of our special form
of the church, for the promise of final triumph is only to the kingdom.

Experience has settled certain points in regard to the native church,
which Dr. Lawrence, in his admirable book on "Modern Missions in the
East," denominates "axioms of missions."  My own experience and
judgment lead me to give them my hearty indorsement.  Three are named:

1. "The native church in each country should be organized as a distinct
church, ecclesiastically independent of the church in any other
country."

2. "The pastorate of the native church should be a native pastorate.
Whatever else the missionary is, he should not be pastor."

3. "The principles of self-control, self-help, and self-extension
should be recognized in the {293} very organization of the church.  To
postpone them to days of strength is to postpone both strength and
blessing."

The question of self-support and independence is one of the gravest in
connection with the native church.  All are agreed as to its
desirableness, and all aim ultimately to attain it; but the success
hitherto attained in Japan is not what might be expected.  There are
perhaps a larger number of self-supporting churches in Japan than in
most mission fields, but not so many as there should be.  The native
churches, as a rule, do not contribute what they should or could toward
their own support.  In this regard the statistics usually given are
very deceptive.  Many of those churches put down as self-supporting
either are so largely through the private contributions of the
missionaries of the station, or are churches in connection with mission
schools, where the expense is small because one of the professors, who
draws a salary from the board, acts as pastor.  I have heard of one
church marked "self-supporting" that was composed of only one man and
his family.  This man was the evangelist, who, having some private
means, supported himself.

While the annual statistics show fairly good contributions "by the
native churches," it should be borne in mind that the contributions of
a large body of missionaries, who are liberal givers, are {294}
included.  At most stations they give more than the whole native church
combined.

Native Christians do not contribute as much toward the support of the
gospel as they formerly did toward the support of their false
religions.  The reasons for this are, first, that heathenism induced
larger gifts by teaching that every one who makes a contribution for
religious purposes is thereby heaping up merit for himself in the life
to come.  And, second, that the native churches have from the beginning
leaned on the missionaries and societies, until independent giving and
self-sacrifice have been discouraged.  The mission board is looked upon
as an institution of limitless resources, whose business it is to
provide money for the work.  And, third, that in many instances the
native evangelists do not heartily second the efforts of the
missionaries to bring the churches to a self-supporting basis.  They
would much rather draw their salaries from the mission treasurer than
from the members of their churches.  The reasons for this are obvious:
they could not conscientiously urge their flocks to support them on a
better scale than they themselves live, but they can ask the mission to
do this; again, when their salaries come from the mission they are
prompt and sure, while if they come from the churches they are
irregular and uncertain.  But in justice to Japanese {295} pastors it
should be said that, while the above is true of many of them, there are
others who have willingly made personal sacrifices, living on much
smaller salaries than formerly, in order to assist their churches to
self-support.

How to overcome all these obstacles and develop a liberal,
self-supporting spirit in the native church is a difficult problem with
which the mission boards are at present grappling.  The Congregational
Church has more nearly solved it than any other, yet its number of
independent churches fell off considerably during the past year.

The native church must not be judged too harshly for its failure in
self-support.  It has not yet been educated in giving as the home
churches have, and its resources are very limited.  Most of its members
are exceedingly poor and have all they can do to provide for the
support of themselves and families.  Our proper attitude toward them in
this matter is one of patience, sympathy, and help.

How shall the native church be provided with a competent ministry?
This is a perplexing question to the churches in the home lands; how
much more so in a mission field!  It is necessary to provide pastors,
evangelists, catechists, teachers, Bible-women, etc.--a whole army of
workers.

{296}

The first question in this connection is, How is the material to be
provided?  Shall bright, active boys who seem adapted to the work be
selected out of the mission schools and especially trained for this
work at the expense of the mission, without waiting for a divine call?
This is the usual method, but it is far from satisfactory.  Such, not
having sought the ministerial office, do not feel its dignity and
responsibility as much as those who are brought into it by a personal
call.  Some of the brightest and most promising, after having been
educated at the expense of the mission, are easily enticed into other
callings.  Men so chosen and educated are very apt to consider
themselves, and to be considered by others, as simply paid agents of
the mission.  Often their labors are performed in a mere routine and
perfunctory manner, they evidently caring more for employment than for
conversions.  These are serious objections, and yet many good and noble
men have been so trained; it does seem that in the early stages of
mission work there is hardly any other way of providing a native
ministry.

So soon as a native church is developed, with its accompanying
Christian sentiment, the personal call to the ministry can be relied
upon to furnish the material.  An effort is then made by most of the
larger missionary bodies to give a broad training to many men, and to
rely upon a {297} certain number, in answer to a divine call, seeking
the ministerial office.  In this way the mission schools supply a
portion of the theological students, but in Japan the larger portion
are not graduates of the mission schools.

After the men are supplied, how shall they be trained for work?  Shall
instruction be given in Japanese only, or shall English be taught also?
(For full discussion of this question see Chapter XIII.)  Shall Greek
and Hebrew be studied?  How far shall the native religions be taught?
Shall the curriculum in other respects be about what it is at home, or
shall it be modified and especial stress laid upon certain subjects?
Shall students study privately with the missionaries, or shall
theological seminaries be erected?  Shall students be encouraged to
complete their theological training in Europe and America?  Space does
not permit a discussion of each of these questions, but only a bare
statement of the consensus of judgment and practice in Japan after
years of experience.

Shall instruction in the original languages of Scripture be given?  As
to the desirability of this there can be no question; but as the whole
science of theology is entirely new here, and a study of its more
important branches requires a long time, it has not been customary to
give instruction in either of these languages.  In recent years some
seminaries have been trying to {298} introduce primary courses in Greek
and Hebrew, and as the schools grow older, and their equipment
improves, these languages will gradually be added to the curriculum.

Shall the religious systems and books of Japan be taught in theological
schools?  It is highly desirable that native ministers clearly
understand and be able intelligently to combat the false religions
around them; and to this end some seminaries give instruction in the
doctrines of Buddhism and Shinto as well as Christianity.  In one or
two instances Buddhism is taught in Christian theological schools by
Buddhist priests, but it is usually taught by Christian teachers in
connection with dogmatic theology.  As a rule, the native ministry
desires more thorough instruction in the native religions, while the
missionaries oppose any extension of the curriculum in that direction.

In general the same branches of theology are taught here that are
taught at home.  It is especially desirable that instruction in
dogmatics and apologetics be thorough and sound, and these branches
should perhaps be emphasized more than others.

Experience has proved that it is much better to have theological
schools where the native ministry may be instructed than for the
missionary to undertake such instruction in private.  All the larger
missions have fairly well-equipped {299} theological schools, and
private instruction is only given by a few men whose missions have not
yet been able to establish these.  It is unfortunate, both for the
student and for the missionary, when theological instruction must be
given in private.

Many Japanese have been sent abroad to complete their theological
course, but the experiment has not been satisfactory.  The consensus of
opinion now is that for the main body of pastors and evangelists a
local training is much better than a foreign one.  A few men of
exceptional ability may be educated abroad as teachers and leaders, but
great care must be taken not to denationalize them.

Another perplexing question in connection with the native church is its
relation to the missionaries.  On this subject there is great diversity
of opinion.  Shall the missionary retain any control over the native
church, or shall he have only advisory power?  Can he take an active
part in its deliberations, or shall he be excluded from them?

As the church grows and develops it will come more and more to rely
upon itself and to act independently of the mission.  The majority of
Japanese Christians take the ground that the missionary has nothing to
do with the organized native church, but that his sphere is with the
unevangelized masses and unorganized chapels.  {300} In the
Congregational churches the missionaries have no voice or vote in the
meetings and councils, and are recognized only as advisory members.  In
contrast to this policy is that of the Episcopal and Methodist bodies,
in whose councils natives and foreigners meet together and deliberate
in harmony.  The meetings are presided over by the foreigners, and they
have a controlling voice in all legislation.  The Presbyterians also
take part in presbytery and synod, but the Japanese usually preside and
are in the majority.

Certainly the missionary should not be pastor of the native church and
should not exercise lordly control over it; but it "does seem that he
should retain some influence, or at least should have veto power
against unwise legislation.

What shall be the attitude of the native church toward certain national
habits and customs?  Here is a problem that often perplexes
missionaries and evangelists.  It is recognized by all that anything
squarely in contradiction to Christianity must be opposed.  On the
other hand, it is recognized that national customs should be carefully
observed when they are not antichristian or immoral.  There are some
customs in Japan about the nature of which great difference of opinion
prevails, such as the honors shown dead ancestors, bowing before the
emperor's picture, contributing to certain religious festivals, etc.

{301}

When a parent dies it is customary for the children to pay regular
visits to the tomb, to make offerings there, and to reverence or
worship the departed.  In the eyes of some this act involves real
worship; to others it is merely an expression of reverence and respect.
It seems that Paul's principle of not eating meat for his weak
brother's sake should be applied here.  The act in itself may be
performed without compromising a Christian's conscience; but for the
sake of the common people, to whom it means worship, it should be
omitted by Christians, and the churches generally forbid it.

In all the schools, at certain festivals, the emperor's picture is
brought out, and all teachers and pupils are required to bow before it.
This is a national custom very dear to the hearts of the people, and
any one failing to comply with it is severely censured.  Much has been
said and written as to the religious significance of the act.  To the
more enlightened of the Japanese this prostration before the emperor's
picture may be only an act of deep reverence and respect, such as is
shown to royalty in the West by the lifting of the hat, but to the
masses it doubtless is real worship, in so far as they know what
worship is.  This is not strange when we remember the almost
universally accepted belief as to the divine origin of the mikado.  The
government itself virtually {302} acknowledged the religious
significance of the act when it passed a law permitting foreign
teachers in the various schools to absent themselves on the day of the
exaltation of the imperial picture, if they so desired.

Now here is a national custom very dear to the people, in itself
harmless, but which in the eyes of many involves real worship.  What
shall be the attitude of the church toward it?

Some religious festivals are observed in Japan which have more or less
political significance.  While they are generally held in connection
with some temple, there may be nothing distinctively heathen about the
festival itself.  To provide for the expense, each house is asked to
contribute a certain amount of money--the Christians along with the
rest.  There is no legal compulsion in the matter, but every one
contributes, and there is a moral necessity to do so.  Now what stand
shall the Christian church take on this matter?  Shall the members be
advised to comply with the custom, or shall they be forbidden to do so?

How to remain faithful to her Lord, and yet not unnecessarily wound the
national feelings of her countrymen, is the delicate and difficult
problem which the native church must solve.

A very important problem is, _how to bring about more coöperation in
mission work_.  It is highly desirable that Christianity present an
{303} undivided front to the enemy, that its forces at least work in
harmony with one another.

While men's views on important theological questions differ so
radically as at present it is useless to talk of organic union; but
there can and should be brotherly recognition, mutual assistance
whenever possible, respect for one another's views, absence of
controversy, scrupulous regard for another's recognized territory, and
hearty coöperation in all possible ways.

There is something of this realized in Japan to-day.  The Christian
bodies, as a rule, dwell together in peace and harmony, rejoicing in
one another's welfare.  Contentions and strife are much less common
than in the West.  All the various branches of the Reformed and
Presbyterian churches are laboring in hearty coöperation to build up
one united native church.  The various Episcopal bodies, while
themselves organically distinct, are also building up an undivided
Japanese Episcopal Church.

But much yet remains that might be done in this line.  In matters of
publication, theological education, etc., that involve heavy expense,
plans might be devised whereby several missions could coöperate, and
thus the expense be lessened to each and the work better done.  To
illustrate: here is a small mission, with only a few workers and a very
small amount of money wherewith to {304} operate.  It has all the
evangelistic work it can do, and is unable to support its own
theological school.  Some of its missionaries are taken from the
evangelistic work and forced to train, as best they can, one or two
theological students.  In the same community is a good theological
school belonging to a sister mission, that has only a few students and
would be glad to give its advantages to the students of the other
mission.  It does seem that some plan of coöperation should be devised
whereby each could be accommodated.  This problem is unsolved, and each
little mission goes on working independently of all the others, at the
cost of larger expenditure and poorer work.  An easier form of
coöperation very much to be desired, which has not yet been
consummated, is that between different branches of the same church.
That those known by the same name, whose doctrine and polity differ but
little, and who are separated in the West only by geographical
divisions, should coöperate on the mission field is a plain duty,
failure to effect which is culpable.  Take the great Methodist Church.
There are five different Methodist bodies at work in Japan--each one
prosecuting its work separate and distinct from the others.  There is
no conflict between them, neither is there any coöperation.  What a
saving there would be if these bodies would coöperate, especially in
the matter of {305} educational work!  As it is, each one of them
supports its own academical and theological school, at a cost of men
and money almost sufficient for the needs of all if united.  Many of
these different schools are at present poorly attended and consequently
poorly equipped; whereas if the whole educational work were done by one
or at most two institutions there would be a large number of students
and the equipment could be made first-class.

An effort has been made on several occasions to unite these various
Methodist bodies, and most of them desire a union, but as yet it has
failed of accomplishment.

The responsibility for this failure lies much more with the home boards
than with the missionaries.  The latter generally desire more
coöperation, and could bring it about were it not for the restrictions
placed upon them.  This is a problem to the solution of which the
various missionary societies should set themselves in earnest.  If the
advance of the kingdom is partly hindered by a lack of this
coöperation, then the mission boards are responsible before God.

The above are but some of the problems which present themselves to-day
in Japan.  If I have succeeded in impressing the reader with their
number, complexity, and difficulty of solution, my purpose is
accomplished.



{306}

XVI

THE OUTLOOK

It is exceedingly difficult to form a reliable conjecture concerning
the future state of Christianity in Japan.  In this land the unexpected
always happens.  It has been called a land of surprises.  Instability,
vacillation, and change are its characteristics.  What is in favor
to-day may be out to-morrow; what is out of favor to-day may be in
to-morrow.  The signs of the times may clearly indicate a certain trend
of events for the next year, but ere that year has come all may change
and the happenings be quite different from what was expected.  The fact
is, Japan is undergoing a peaceable social and political revolution,
and it is hard to tell what a day may bring forth.

But there are certain factors which, if left to their natural
development, will tend to bring about a certain condition, and by
considering {307} those factors we can tell something about what that
condition ought to be.  We will attempt, then, to take a bird's-eye
view of the influences in operation on this mission field, and will
make a surmise as to their probable outcome in the future.

There are three factors which must be considered in attempting to form
an opinion as to the outlook: _the working forces; the opposition to
their work; and the natural adaptability or inadaptability of the
people_.  We will endeavor to look right closely into these.

Humanly speaking, the forces engaged in any work will determine, to
some extent, the future condition of that work.  The future of
Christianity in Japan will depend in part upon the present working
Christian forces.  These forces are the native church, the body of
missionaries, and the whole mass of mission machinery.

The burden of the work rests with the native church.  The
evangelization of the masses must be chiefly by her effort.  The
standing of Christianity in the empire will depend upon her.  If true
to her Lord, and faithful in the discharge of the task which He has
given, the result will probably be good.  Now what is the condition of
the native church in Japan to-day?  There are 100,000 Christians,
including Protestants, Greeks, and Romanists.  These Christians have
manifested commendable zeal, earnestness, and {308} piety.  The native
church is organized, hopeful, and aggressive, yet in many respects not
what her friends desire and what they pray she may be.  Very much is
yet to be desired in the matters of orthodoxy, self-support, and
internal harmony, but it is not sure that this native church is more
lacking in these respects than native churches in other mission fields.
Church history seems to indicate that the church in every land must go
through a certain period of doctrinal development.  The old heresies of
Arianism, Pelagianism, and Sabellianism spring up in their order on
each mission field, and are finally succeeded by orthodoxy.  Japan is
now in that developing period, and loose theological views are to be
expected.  There are many men of unorthodox views in the native church,
who exert a strong influence; but there are also many men of sound
evangelical views, who will be able probably to restrain the radicals
and determine the future development.  I think in time there will come
to the church in Japan a sounder faith and a fuller Christian
consciousness, and that she will faithfully bear her part in the
evangelization of this land.  Although there are now many elements in
the church which should not be there, we must have faith to leave the
removal of them to the influence of time and the guidance of the Holy
Spirit.  God will take care of His church {309} and endow her for the
work He has given her to do.

The foreign missionaries in Japan can be depended upon to do all in
their power to bring about the triumph of Christianity.  They are a
large body of earnest, consecrated workers, led by the Spirit of God.
With but a few exceptions, a more faithful and talented body of men
cannot be found.  There are in all branches of the church, including
Greek and Roman Catholics, 876 European missionaries.  This number
includes single and married women.  Such a force, led by the Holy
Spirit, ought to be able to do much to hasten the coming of the kingdom
in Japan.

Besides the native and foreign workers, all the machinery and
institutions of various kinds necessary for the growth and expansion of
the church are now in operation.  A good Christian literature is
rapidly forming, numerous Christian schools of various grades are
planted over all the empire, and a large number of Christian colleges
and theological seminaries are already open.

When we thus review the human forces upon which the future depends we
have reason to feel encouraged.

But no matter how strong and consecrated the body of workers, the
success of the work will in some degree be conditioned by the
hindrances {310} which are placed in the way.  There may be certain
social or governmental oppositions, certain combinations of militating
circumstances, which will prove insurmountable to the best workers,
effectually hindering the future of a work otherwise promising.

Formerly, as has been shown, the government put every opposition it
could in the way of Christian work.  Long after the prohibitions of
Christianity were removed governmental influence was exerted against it
in many ways.  Even after religious liberty was granted by the
promulgation of the constitution it was far from being realized.  In
certain departments of the governmental service, especially in the
military and educational departments, until very recent years
persecutions were still practised in a mild but effective way.  But all
this is now a thing of the past.

The attitude of the government has changed recently, and instead of
hindering it has actually encouraged and in several ways helped in our
work.  During the late war with China it permitted the sending to the
army of three native chaplains, and on the field encouraged and helped
them all it could.  These men were not officially styled "Christian
chaplains," but were called _imonshi_, or comforters.  It is not true,
as has recently been affirmed by a minister in New York, {311} that
there are regularly appointed permanent Christian chaplains to the
Japanese army.  None but these three have ever been appointed, and
their appointment was only temporary.  But the fact that the government
granted them permission to accompany the armies and encouraged their
work shows clearly a changed attitude toward the Christian religion.

The same is indicated by the fact that the authorities willingly gave
permission for the distribution of Bibles to the soldiers in every
department of the army.  They even aided in the distribution, and often
arranged for those who distributed them to preach to the soldiers.  I
think few non-Christian lands have ever gone so far as this in their
encouragement of Christianity.

From these facts I infer that the government will no longer place
obstacles in the way of our work.  Such obstacles have in the past
prevented many from favoring Christianity, and their removal augurs
well for the future.

The native religions have very much hindered the evangelization of
Japan.  Their militating influence is still active and powerful, but I
think it is gradually declining.  Buddhism will die hard, but she is
too old, effete, and corrupt permanently to withstand her younger and
more powerful foe.  The inherent truth of Christianity must ultimately
give it the victory.  As Japanese education and {312} enlightenment
advance, the intrinsic superiority of Christianity over Buddhism must
appear and must recommend it to the people.

The hope of our religion in this land lies largely in the fact of the
insatiable desire of the people for Western learning and civilization.
The ever-increasing introduction of Western literature, the adoption of
our civilization and institutions, will necessarily bring about a
better acquaintance with Christianity, its spirit and aims.  Then the
prejudice against it will gradually die out, and it will, appealing to
them in its true light,--the germ and base of all true civilization,
and the foster-mother of education and enlightenment,--be readily
accepted.

The social hindrances operating against Christianity to-day are all
local and personal, and will probably become less and less until they
die a natural death.  Every part of the empire is absolutely open, and
there is nothing to hinder a full and free proclamation of the gospel
in every town, village, and hamlet in Japan.

The superior position of Christianity at present to that which it held
a few years ago is striking.  Professor Chamberlain, a very close
observer, whose experience in Japan has extended over many years, says:
"To those who can look back thirty years, or even only twenty years,
the change in the position of Christianity in Japan {313} is most
striking, indeed well-nigh incredible."  From a hated and despised
thing it has risen to a position in which it commands the respect of
many of the best men in the land.

But there is another element which must be taken into consideration in
making up an estimate of the outlook, and that is the natural
adaptability or inadaptability of the people for Christianity.  The
farmer may labor long and hard; he may sow the best seed; sunshine and
rain may lend their encouragement; but if the soil is uncongenial the
yield will be small.  In the same way, a strong, consecrated working
force may labor, unopposed, with might and main in the mission field,
but if the soil is not congenial the results will be small.

Are the Japanese people well or ill adapted by nature to the reception
of Christianity?  The strongest opposition to our work, and the one
which makes us most anxious for the future, lies in the natural
constitution of the people for whom we labor.  Many natural
characteristics of this people predispose them to reject Christianity.

I must again refer to that strong nationalistic feeling which is inborn
in every Japanese and which hinders the rapid progress of the gospel.
This principle, operating within the church, threatens to destroy the
orthodoxy and integrity of the faith.  Animated by a patriotic feeling
{314} that is more blind than enlightened, the creeds, the polity, the
life of the church of the West, are considered as of little worth, and
many parts of the native church are extremely anxious to cut off
everything possible that has a foreign flavor, and to create a form of
Christianity peculiarly Japanese.

Again, the nationalistic feeling prompts many, both in the church and
out of it, to chafe at the presence of foreign religious teachers in
their midst.  The very presence of these teachers is looked upon as an
implication that the Japanese are not competent to instruct themselves
in religious matters, and this is much resented.  As a prominent
Japanese put it not long ago, "What could be more inconsistent or
improper than for great Japan, that has so recently humbled China and
forced the admiration of the world for her skill in arms, as well as
for her educational, commercial, and industrial development, to be
instructed in religious matters by foreigners?"

Operating in these ways, Japanese patriotism ill adapts the people for
a reception of Christianity.

Another feature of the native character which is not favorable is its
lack of seriousness and stability.  Religion is a serious, solemn
matter, but the Japanese are not a serious-minded people.  Their
beliefs have always sat lightly upon them, to be taken off and put on
at will.  Where these {315} characteristics are largely wanting the
progress of Christianity will probably be slow.

At present the Japanese are too materialistic properly to appreciate a
religion so spiritual as ours.  In religion, as in all other things,
they desire to receive some present material benefit; and when the
rewards of Christianity are found to be chiefly spiritual, and most of
them not realized in the present life, a deaf ear is turned.  This is
an era of great material prosperity in Japan, and the minds of the
people are fully occupied with commercial and industrial questions, to
the exclusion of moral and religious ones.

The most common attitude of the Japanese public toward Christianity
to-day is one of absolute indifference.  The people think that if the
government permits this religion it cannot be so very bad; it is making
little progress anyway, and they need give it no notice whatever.  If
others care to go and hear about it, all right, but as for themselves,
they have no relations with it.  The usual experience now when a new
chapel is opened and preaching begun is that for a few times large
numbers of people will come out of curiosity; then after a little they
stop, and no further regard is paid to the chapel or the preaching.
The conflict of religions, the inconsistencies and shortcomings of the
old faiths, the advancing knowledge, have combined to bring about a
state {316} of indifference, wide-spread and hard to overcome.  It is
in many respects more hurtful than a position of open antagonism.

The natural tendency of the Japanese mind to be skeptical in regard to
all supernatural questions has been fostered by education to such an
extent that educated Japan is to-day largely a nation of atheists, or
at least of agnostics.  The proud pharisaic spirit is abroad,
indisposing the race to accept Christ.

The course of Christianity in the future will not be an unopposed, easy
march to victory.  There yet remains a great deal to be done, Many
clouds still linger on the horizon, making us anxious about the morrow.
But so much has already been done that the churches at home should feel
encouraged to renew their energies for the final contest.  When one
division of an army has forced a breach in the enemy's lines, it is not
left to hold the position alone, but reinforcements are hurried forward
to its assistance, and the advantage gained is instantly followed up.
The attack has been made in Japan; the enemy's lines have been broken,
but the victory is not yet.  This is no time for retreat, for
hesitancy, or for cavil; this is a time for prompt reinforcement and
liberal support.  Let the home churches feel that such is their present
duty toward the work in Japan.

{317}

Although the outlook to-day is not to the natural eye very bright, to
the spiritual eye all is as noonday.  The victory has been assured from
the beginning.  However indisposed by nature the people among whom we
labor may be, whatever hindrances may oppose our work, the word of the
Almighty has gone forth--_the kingdoms of this world shall become the
kingdoms of our Lord and of His Christ_.  The victory is sure, because
God reigns.  In His own good time every opposing influence will pass
away, and the banner of King Immanuel will wave over all this fair
land.  It may not be in the present century; it may not even be in the
lifetime of any now living; but it will surely be when God's time is
fulfilled.

With an assured faith, built upon the firm promises of God, we
confidently look forward to the time when the empire of Japan shall no
longer be a mission field, but shall herself send the message of light
and life to the darkened millions around her.

May God hasten the day.



{319}

INDEX


Ainu, 10, 33.

American Board (Congregational), 171; history of work, 179; strained
relations with native church, 182.

Ancestors, worship of, 117, 270, 301.

Animals, 29.

Art, 95.

Asama, 11.

Ashikaga, 42.


Ballagh, Rev. Mr., baptized first convert, 175.

Banking, 103.

Baptists, 171, 187.

Bathing, 83.

Beautiful, love of the, 59.

Belief, missionary's, 198.

Berry, Dr. J. C., opinions on vacations, 218, 220, 223; his medical
work, 265.

Bible, first portions translated, 147, 174; translation of, essential,
162; translation committee and work, 175; distribution to soldiers, 311.

Bible and tract societies of America and England, work of, 190.

Bicycle, 245.

Birds, 30.

Biwa, 14.

Bridges, 16.

Brotherhood, universal, unknown, 136; repugnant, 273.

Brothers, relation of, 134.

Brown, Rev. Dr. S. R., 170; drafts of New Testament, 174.

Buddhism, introduction of, 40; principal features of, 126; history of,
127; formative power of, 128; temples and priests, 129; and
Christianity, 126, 130, 279; vitality of, 278, 311.


Camphor, 26.

Census of 1893, 9.

Chamberlain, Professor, on advance of Christianity in Japan, 312.

Chaplains, Christian, appointed by the government, 310.

Character, missionary's, 200.

Cheerfulness, native, 53.

Children, an allowance for, 214.

China, early influence of, 39; ancient civilization of, 90; recent war
with, 49, 310.

Christianity, first introduction of, 144; early successes, 148;
attempted extermination of, 154; cannot be extirpated, 156;
prohibitions of, 157, 172; edicts against, removed, 176; reaction
against, 178; by nature diffusive, 243; revolutionizing tendency of,
267; exclusiveness of, 269; past record of, 274; advance of, 312.

Church, first organized, 175; sifting of, 178.

Church of Christ in Japan, 184.

Civilization, definition of, 89; Japan's compared with Western, 106;
adoption of Western, 177.

Climate, 19-22.

Clothing, 73, 82.

Commercial honor, 67; morality, 120.

Confucianism, and Japanese morality, 109; ethics of, 110; history of,
130; basal principles of, 131; nearest approach to Christianity, 135;
contrasted with Christianity, 243.

Consecration of missionary, 197.

Constitution of Japan, 47, 96.

Converts, first, 175; social ostracism of, 279; requirements of, 288;
indigent, 289.

Curiosity, native, 212.

Customs, bearing of, upon mission work, 70, 269.


Davis, Rev. and Mrs. J. D., 180.

Death, not afraid of, 65.

Disappointments, missionary's, 226.

Doshisha University, 180; rationalistic teaching of, 181.

Duty, ours to the missionary, 229; joy of doing, 231.


Earthquakes, 12, 13.

Educational system of Japan, 93, 255; antagonistic to Christianity, 276.

Educational work of missions, compared with evangelistic, 250;
criticism of, 253; hinders self-support, 260.

Embassy to Rome, 149.

Emperor, power of name, 55; worship of picture, 112, 301.

Environment, missionary's, unfavorable, 227.

Episcopalians, 170, 183; five branches of, 186; native church, 187, 303.

Ethnology, 32, 33.

Europeanization of Japan, 46, 91; our hope, 312.

Evangelization, 234; missionaries must be evangelists, 235;
subordinated to educational work, 236; local, 237; itinerating, 242.

Exiles, missionaries, 225, 228.

Exports, 27.


Facial expression, 53.

Farms, 23.

Festivals, religious, 302.

Feudalism, rise of, 41; conditions under, 145.

Fish, 30.

Food, 80.

Foreign pastor, 230.

Foreigners, treatment of, 44, 136; country open to, 170, 171; ungodly
example of, 282.

Formosa, 9.

Franchise, limited, 96.

Friends, 135.

Fuji-san, 12.

Fujiwara family, 41.

Funerals, 84.


Geography of Japan, 9-15.

Girls' boarding-schools, 255; purpose of, 256; end defeated by
etiquette, 257; reasons for and against, 258, 259.

Goble, Rev. J., translation of Matthew, 174.

God, Japanese word for, 249, 262.

Government, Japanese, 95; paternalism of, 58; hostile to Christianity,
172, 173, 313.

Gratitude, 66.

Greek Church (Russian), 165; its founder, 166; its cathedral, 167; its
work, 168.

Greene, Dr. and Mrs., 180.

Greetings, 88.

Gulick, Rev. O. H., 180; story of his teacher, 172.


Hara-kiri (belly-cutting), 85.

Haughty bearing of missionary, 241.

Health of missionary, the first qualification, 193; medical
examinations, 195; allowance for, 215; and vacations, 216.

Heathen faiths opposed to Christianity, 277, 311.

Hibachi, 80.

Hideyoshi, 43; persecutor of Christians, 150.

Hindrances to Christianity, 266; common to all fields, 267; peculiar to
Japan, 271; the greatest, 313.

Hiroshima, 18.

Hollanders, 10, 44, 156, 158.

Homes, mission, necessity of as examples, 207, 211; comfort of, 210; a
Western home, 212.

Hondo, 9.

Houses, Japanese, use of, 76; construction of, 78; furniture, 79.

Human life, cheap, 64.


Imitativeness, 64.

Imperial University, 94.

Inconsistency, 63.

Inland Sea, 10.

Inns, Japanese, 245.

Inquirers, how to deal with, 238, 286.

Instability, of people, 61, 314; of civilization, 105.

Intellectual life, 54; open-mindedness, 59.

Islands of Japan, 9, 10, 11.

Itinerating, 242; greatest hindrance to, 246; kinds of, 247; objections
to, 249.

Iyeyasu, 43, 109; and the battle of Sekigahara, 153; persecution of
Christianity, 153.


Japan, the land of, 9; new, birth of, 45; religions of, 122.

Japanese, reliable history of, 40; characteristics, 51; manners and
customs, 69, civilization, 89; morality, 107; skeptical, 316.

Jesuits, introduction of Christianity by, 45.

Jimmu Tenno, 36, 38.

Jingo, Empress, 39.

Jinrikisha, 63, 244.

Joys of the missionary, 231.


Kagoshima, 18.

Kanagawa, 18.

Kasatkin, Bishop Nicolai, founder of Greek mission, 166.

Korea, subjugation of, 39.

Kyoto or Saikyo, 10, 17, 18.

Kyushu, 9; Dutch residence on, 10.


Lakes, 14.

Land, cultivated, 11, 22; picturesque, 14; irrigation of, 22;
terracing, 23.

Language, structure of, 55; difficult to learn to read, 93; first
dictionary of, 174; talent for, essential to the missionary, 203;
difficult to master, 262, 284.

Lawrence, Dr. E., on common sense, 204; on exiles, 225; "axioms of
missions," 292.

Laws, 96.

Libraries, how regarded, 72.

Life, chief of all evils, 127.

Liggins, Rev. J., 170.

Lights, 103.

Literature, native, 92; Christian, 261, 263.

Love of humanity, missionary's, 199.

Loyalty, first moral principle, 111, 132.

Lutherans, missionary problems of, 188; purpose in Japan, 189.


McDonald, Dr., on furloughs, 224.

Mails, 101, 246.

Manufactories, 104.

Marriage, customs, 75; relation, 133; essential to missionary, 206.

Martyrs, 115.

Materialism in Japan, 277, 315.

Maxims, 117, 272.

Medical missions, 264; no longer needed in Japan, 265.

Mental qualifications of the missionary, 201.

Methodist Church in Japan, 171, 183; branches of, 185, 304; present
status of, 186.

Mikados, 41.

Minamoto, great clan, 41.

Minerals, 28,

Missionaries, lives in danger, 171; qualifications of, 192; private
life of, 209; extent and variety of work of, 234; number of, in Japan,
309.

Missions in Japan, modern Roman and Greek, 160; Protestant, 169; the
"happy time" of, 177; differing policy of, 182; small bodies, 190;
results of, 191; projected on too high a plane, 260; hindrances to,
266; special problems of, 286; the outlook of, 306.

Morality, compared with West, 109, 117; chief defect of, 121.

Music in the Greek Church, 167.

Mutsuhito, 47.

Mythological history, 36-39.

Mythology, 34, 122.


Nagasaki, 10.

Nagoya, 18.

Native church, its relation to the missionary, 182, 228, 299, 314;
missionary's crown, 232; development of, 242; hurtful national feeling
in, 273; problem of, 290; polity of, 290; self-support, 293; reasons
for dependence, 294; attitude toward national habits and customs, 300;
condition of, to-day, 307.

Native ministry, educated, 251; how provided, 295; how trained, 297.

Neesima, Dr., 181.

Newspapers, Japanese, 92; value of Christian, 263.

Nihon, native name of empire, 10.

Nihon-bashi, center of empire, 16.

Nobunaga, 43; patron of early Christianity, 148; assassinated, 150.


Obedience, result of, 58.

Official honor, 68,

Okayama, 18.

Omiiki, founder of Tenrikyo, 138.

Open ports, 19.

Originality, native, 63.

Outlook in Japan, 306; bright to spiritual eye, 317.


Parental relation, 133.

Parental respect, 57; great ethical principle, 116.

Passports, 246.

Patriotism, extreme, 55; hinders Christianity, 272, 313.

Perry, Commodore, and the opening of Japan, 44.

Persecutions, causes of, 150; Christians exiled, 172; United States
government and, 176; cessation of, 177; memory of, 275.

Physique, native, 33.

Politeness, the exalted virtue, 85; ridiculous extremes, 87.

Portuguese, discovery of Japan, 43; captain and Hideyoshi, 150.

Prayer, 169.

Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in the United States, 169, 170.

Problems, special, 286.


Railways, 97.

Rainfall, 21.

Reformed Church in America, 170.

Religion, Japanese, composite, 123; influence of, 142; and morality,
268.

Rivers, 13.

Roads, 15, 16.

Roman Catholic Church in Japan, pioneer work of, 144; driven out, 154;
early mistakes, 158, 161; the work resumed, 160; peculiar hindrances
to, 163; prosperity of, 164.

Ronins, story of the forty-seven, 112.


Sake, 119.

Salary of the missionary, 213; when on furlough, 219.

Schools, Sunday, 239; mission, 251; academical, 253; girls', 255.

Sectarianism, a hindrance to missions, 281; disappearing, 303;
advantages of coöperation, 304.

Self-control of missionary, 205.

Sermons, kind of, 249.

Sexes, relation of, 73.

Shikoku, 10.

Shimabara, fall of, 155.

Shinto, revival of, 45; morality, 108; history of, 123; state religion,
125; ancestors, 270; opposing Christianity, 278.

Shogun (tycoon), 42; abolition of the office, 46.

Sign language, graceful, 76.

Simmons, Dr. D. B., 170.

Sin, no word for, 249, 262.

Society, missionary's need of, 216, 217, 225.

Spiritual qualifications of the missionary, 197.

Steamers, 99.

Suicides, 65, 120.


Taira, great clan, 41.

Taylor, Dr. W., 265; opinions on missionary's qualifications, 194;
furloughs, 220, 221, 224.

Telegraphs, 99, 246.

Tenrikyo, missionary religion, 137; origin of, 138; teachings of, 139;
distinguishing characteristics, 141.

Theological training, necessity of, 251; in English language, 252;
abroad, 252, 299; place of native religions in, 298.

Theology, native, rationalistic, 181; desire for, 274; formative stage,
308.

Tidal waves, 13.

Tokaido, most famous road, 16.

Tokyo, the capital, 10, 17.

Tone-gawa, largest river, 14.

"Topsyturvydom," 70.

Treaties, American, 45, 107; English, 170; revision of, 48, 178.

Typhoons, 22.


Vacations of missionaries, summer, 216; furloughs, 218, 224; argument
against, 219; medical opinions in favor of, 220; from an economic
standpoint, 221; useful to native and home churches alike, 222.

Vegetarians, 80.

Verbeck, Rev. Dr. G. F., 171, 175.

Visitation, advantages of, 239; and Japanese etiquette, 240.

Volcanoes, 11.


Wife, missionary's, health of, 196.

Williams, Rev. C. M. (Bishop), 170, 175.

Work, methods of, 234.


Xavier, St. Francis, first missionary to Japan, 146.


Yezo, 9; location and climate, 10,

Yoritomo, first shogun, 42.

Yokohama, 11.





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