Title: The Passing of the Frontier: A Chronicle of the Old West
Author: Hough, Emerson, 1857-1923
Language: English
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University, and Alev Akman



THE PASSING OF THE FRONTIER

A CHRONICLE OF THE OLD WEST


By Emerson Hough


New Haven: Yale University Press

Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co.

London: Humphrey Milford

Oxford University Press

1918



CONTENTS


     I.    THE FRONTIER IN HISTORY
     II.   THE RANGE
     III.  THE CATTLE TRAILS
     IV.   THE COWBOY
     V.    THE MINES
     VI.   PATHWAYS OF THE WEST
     VII.  THE INDIAN WARS
     VIII. THE CATTLE KINGS
     IX.   THE HOMESTEADER

     BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE



THE PASSING OF THE FRONTIER



Chapter I. The Frontier In History

The frontier! There is no word in the English language more stirring,
more intimate, or more beloved. It has in it all the elan of the old
French phrase, En avant! It carries all of the old Saxon command,
Forward!! It means all that America ever meant. It means the old hope of
a real personal liberty, and yet a real human advance in character and
achievement. To a genuine American it is the dearest word in all the
world.

What is, or was, the frontier? Where was it? Under what stars did it
lie? Because, as the vague Iliads of ancient heroes or the nebulous
records of the savage gentlemen of the Middle Ages make small specific
impingement on our consciousness today, so also even now begin the tales
of our own old frontier to assume a haziness, an unreality, which makes
them seem less history than folklore. Now the truth is that the American
frontier of history has many a local habitation and many a name. And
this is why it lies somewhat indefinite under the blue haze of the
years, all the more alluring for its lack of definition, like some old
mountain range, the softer and more beautiful for its own shadows.

The fascination of the frontier is and has ever been an undying thing.
Adventure is the meat of the strong men who have built the world for
those more timid. Adventure and the frontier are one and inseparable.
They suggest strength, courage, hardihood--qualities beloved in men
since the world began--qualities which are the very soul of the United
States, itself an experiment, an adventure, a risk accepted. Take away
all our history of political regimes, the story of the rise and fall
of this or that partisan aggregation in our government; take away our
somewhat inglorious military past; but leave us forever the tradition
of the American frontier! There lies our comfort and our pride. There
we never have failed. There, indeed, we always realized our ambitions.
There, indeed, we were efficient, before that hateful phrase was known.
There we were a melting-pot for character, before we came to know
that odious appellation which classifies us as the melting-pot of the
nations.

The frontier was the place and the time of the strong man, of the
self-sufficient but restless individual. It was the home of the rebel,
the protestant, the unreconciled, the intolerant, the ardent--and
the resolute. It was not the conservative and tender man who made our
history; it was the man sometimes illiterate, oftentimes uncultured, the
man of coarse garb and rude weapons. But the frontiersmen were the true
dreamers of the nation. They really were the possessors of a national
vision. Not statesmen but riflemen and riders made America. The noblest
conclusions of American history still rest upon premises which they
laid.

But, in its broadest significance, the frontier knows no country. It
lies also in other lands and in other times than our own. When and what
was the Great Frontier? We need go back only to the time of Drake
and the sea-dogs, the Elizabethan Age, when all North America was a
frontier, almost wholly unknown, compellingly alluring to all bold
men. That was the day of new stirrings in the human heart. Some strange
impulse seemed to act upon the soul of the braver and bolder Europeans;
and they moved westward, nor could have helped that had they tried. They
lived largely and blithely, and died handsomely, those old Elizabethan
adventurers, and they lie today in thousands of unrecorded graves upon
two continents, each having found out that any place is good enough for
a man to die upon, provided that he be a man.

The American frontier was Elizabethan in its quality--childlike, simple,
and savage. It has not entirely passed; for both Elizabethan folk and
Elizabethan customs are yet to be found in the United States. While
the half-savage civilization of the farther West was roaring on its
way across the continent--while the day of the keelboatman and the
plainsman, of the Indian-fighter and the miner, even the day of the
cowboy, was dawning and setting--there still was a frontier left far
behind in the East, near the top of the mountain range which made the
first great barrier across our pathway to the West. That frontier, the
frontier of Boone and Kenton, of Robertson and Sevier, still exists and
may be seen in the Cumberland--the only remaining part of America which
is all American. There we may find trace of the Elizabethan Age--idioms
lost from English literature and American speech long ago. There we may
see the American home life as it went on more than a hundred years
ago. We may see hanging on the wall the long muzzle-loading rifle of an
earlier day. We may see the spinning-wheel and the loom. The women still
make in part the clothing for their families, and the men still make
their own household furniture, their own farming implements, their own
boots.

This overhanging frontier of America is a true survival of the days of
Drake as well as of the days of Boone. The people are at once godly and
savage. They breed freely; they love their homes; they are ever ready
for adventure; they are frugal, abstemious, but violent and strong.
They carry on still the half-religious blood feuds of the old Scotch
Highlands or the North of Ireland, whence they came. They reverence
good women. They care little for material accumulations. They believe in
personal ease and personal independence. With them life goes on not in
the slow monotony of reiterated performance, but in ragged profile, with
large exertions followed by large repose. Now that has been the fashion
of the frontier in every age and every land of all the world. And so,
by studying these people, we may even yet arrive at a just and
comprehensive notion of what we might call the "feel" of the old
frontier.

There exists, too, yet another Saxon frontier in a far-off portion
of the world. In that strange country, Australia, tremendous unknown
regions still remain, and the wild pastoral life of such regions bids
fair to exist yet for many years. A cattle king of Queensland held
at one time sixty thousand square miles of land. It is said that the
average size of pastoral holdings in the northern territory of Australia
is two hundred and seventy-five thousand acres. Does this not recall the
old times of free range in the American West?

This strange antipodal civilization also retains a curious flavor
of Elizabethan ideas. It does not plan for inordinate fortunes, the
continual amassing of money, but it does deliberately plan for the use
by the individual of his individual life. Australian business hours are
shorter than American. Routine is less general. The individual takes
upon himself a smaller load of effort. He is restive under monotony. He
sets aside a great part of his life for sport. He lives in a large and
young day of the world. Here we may see a remote picture of our own
American West--better, as it seems to me, than that reflected in the
rapid and wholly commercialized development of Western Canada, which is
not flavored by any age but this.

But much of the frontier of Australia is occupied by men of means who
had behind them government aid and a semi-paternal encouragement in
their adventures. The same is true in part of the government-fostered
settlement of Western Canada. It was not so with the American West. Here
was not the place of the rich man but of the poor man, and he had no one
to aid him or encourage him. Perhaps no man ever understood the American
West who did not himself go there and make his living in that country,
as did the men who found it and held it first. Each life on our old
frontier was a personal adventure. The individual had no government
behind him and he lacked even the protection of any law.

Our frontier crawled west from the first seaport settlements, afoot, on
horseback, in barges, or with slow wagon-trains. It crawled across the
Alleghanies, down the great river valleys and up them yet again; and at
last, in days of new transportation, it leaped across divides, from one
river valley to another. Its history, at first so halting, came to be
very swift--so swift that it worked great elisions in its own story.

In our own day, however, the Old West generally means the old cow
country of the West--the high plains and the lower foothills running
from the Rio Grande to the northern boundary. The still more ancient
cattle-range of the lower Pacific Slope will never come into acceptance
as the Old West. Always, when we use these words, we think of buffalo
plains and of Indians, and of their passing before the footmen and
riders who carried the phantom flag of Drake and the Virgin Queen from
the Appalachians to the Rockies--before the men who eventually made good
that glorious and vaunting vision of the Virginia cavaliers, whose party
turned back from the Rockfish Gap after laying claim in the name of King
George on all the country lying west of them, as far as the South Sea!

The American cow country may with very good logic arrogate to itself
the title of the real and typical frontier of all the world. We call
the spirit of the frontier Elizabethan, and so it was; but even as the
Elizabethan Age was marked by its contact with the Spanish civilization
in Europe, on the high seas, and in both the Americas, so the last
frontier of the American West also was affected, and largely, deeply,
by Spanish influence and Spanish customs. The very phraseology of range
work bears proof of this. Scores of Spanish words are written indelibly
in the language of the Plains. The frontier of the cow-range never was
Saxon alone.

It is a curious fact also, seldom if ever noted, that this Old West of
the Plains was very largely Southern and not Northern on its Saxon
side. No States so much as Kentucky and Tennessee and, later,
Missouri--daughters of Old Virginia in her glory--contributed to the
forces of the frontiersmen. Texas, farther to the south, put her stamp
indelibly upon the entire cattle industry of the West. Visionary,
impractical, restless, adventurous, these later Elizabethan
heroes--bowing to no yoke, insisting on their own rights and scorning
often the laws of others, yet careful to retain the best and most
advantageous customs of any conquered country--naturally came from those
nearest Elizabethan countries which lay abandoned behind them.

If the atmosphere of the Elizabethan Age still may be found in
the forgotten Cumberlands, let us lay claim to kinship with yonder
roystering heroes of a gallant day; for this was ever the atmosphere
of our own frontier. To feel again the following breezes of the Golden
Hind, or see again, floating high in the cloudless skies, the sails of
the Great Armada, was the privilege of Americans for a double decade
within the memory of men yet living, in that country, so unfailingly
beloved, which we call the Old West of America.



Chapter II. The Range

When, in 1803, those two immortal youths, Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark, were about to go forth on their great journey across the
continent, they were admonished by Thomas Jefferson that they would in
all likelihood encounter in their travels, living and stalking about,
the mammoth or the mastodon, whose bones had been found in the great
salt-licks of Kentucky. We smile now at such a supposition; yet it was
not unreasonable then. No man knew that tremendous country that lay
beyond the mouth of the Missouri.

The explorers crossed one portion of a vast land which was like to
nothing they had ever seen--the region later to become the great
cattle-range of America. It reached, although they could know nothing of
that, from the Spanish possessions on the south across a thousand miles
of short grass lands to the present Canadian boundary line which certain
obdurate American souls still say ought to have been at 54 degrees 40
minutes, and not where it is! From the Rio Grande to "Fifty-four forty,"
indeed, would have made nice measurements for the Saxon cattle-range.

Little, however, was the value of this land understood by the explorers;
and, for more than half a century afterwards, it commonly was supposed
to be useless for the occupation of white men and suitable only as a
hunting-ground for savage tribes. Most of us can remember the school
maps of our own youth, showing a vast region marked, vaguely, "The Great
American Desert," which was considered hopeless for any human industry,
but much of which has since proved as rich as any land anywhere on the
globe.

Perhaps it was the treeless nature of the vast Plains which carried the
first idea of their infertility. When the first settlers of Illinois and
Indiana came up from south of the Ohio River they had their choice of
timber and prairie lands. Thinking the prairies worthless--since land
which could not raise a tree certainly could not raise crops--these
first occupants of the Middle West spent a generation or more, axe in
hand, along the heavily timbered river-bottoms. The prairies were long
in settling. No one then could have predicted that farm lands in that
region would be worth three hundred dollars an acre or better, and that
these prairies of the Mississippi Valley would, in a few generations,
be studded with great towns and would form a part of the granary of the
world.

But, if our early explorers, passing beyond the valley of the Missouri,
found valueless the region of the Plains and the foothills, not so the
wild creatures or the savage men who had lived there longer than science
records. The buffalo then ranged from the Rio Grande to the Athabaska,
from the Missouri to the Rockies, and beyond. No one seems to have
concluded in those days that there was after all slight difference
between the buffalo and the domestic ox. The native cattle, however, in
untold thousands and millions, had even then proved beyond peradventure
the sustaining and strengthening nature of the grasses of the Plains.

Now, each creature, even of human species, must adjust itself to its
environment. Having done so, commonly it is disposed to love that
environment. The Eskimo and the Zulu each thinks that he has the best
land in the world: So with the American Indian, who, supported by the
vast herds of buffalo, ranged all over that tremendous country which
was later to be given over to the white man with his domestic cattle.
No freer life ever was lived by any savages than by the Horse Indians
of the Plains in the buffalo days; and never has the world known a
physically higher type of savage.

On the buffalo-range--that is to say, on the cattle-range which was to
be--Lewis and Clark met several bands of the Sioux--the Mandans and
the Assiniboines, the Blackfeet, the Shoshones. Farther south were the
Pawnees, the Kaws, the Otoes, the Osages, most of whom depended in part
upon the buffalo for their living, though the Otoes, the Pawnees, the
Mandans, and certain others now and then raised a little corn or a few
squashes to help out their bill of fare. Still farther south dwelt the
Kiowas, the Comanches, and others. The Arapahoes, the Cheyennes, the
Crows, and the Utes, all hunters, were soon to come into the ken of the
white man. Of such of these tribes as they met, the youthful captains
made accounting, gravely and with extraordinary accuracy, but without
discovering in this region much future for Americans. They were
explorers and not industrial investigators.

It was nearly half a century after the journey of Lewis and Clark that
the Forty-Niners were crossing the Plains, whither, meanwhile, the
Mormons had trekked in search of a country where they might live as they
liked. Still the wealth of the Plains remained untouched. California was
in the eyes of the world. The great cow-range was overleaped. But, in
the early fifties, when the placer fields of California began to be less
numerous and less rich, the half-savage population of the mines roared
on northward, even across our northern line. Soon it was to roll back.
Next it worked east and southeast and northeast over the great dry
plains of Washington and Oregon, so that, as readily may be seen, the
cow-range proper was not settled as most of the West was, by a directly
westbound thrust of an eastern population; but, on the contrary, it was
approached from several different angles--from the north, from the east,
from the west and northwest, and finally from the south.

The early, turbulent population of miners and adventurers was crude,
lawless, and aggressive. It cared nothing whatever for the Indian
tribes. War, instant and merciless, where it meant murder for the most
part, was set on foot as soon as white touched red in that far western
region.

All these new white men who had crowded into the unknown country of the
Plains, the Rockies, the Sierras, and the Cascades, had to be fed. They
could not employ and remain content with the means by which the red
man there had always fed himself. Hence a new industry sprang up in the
United States, which of itself made certain history in that land. The
business of freighting supplies to the West, whether by bull-train or
by pack-train, was an industry sui generic, very highly specialized,
and pursued by men of great business ability as well as by men of great
hardihood and daring.

Each of these freight trains which went West carried hanging on its
flank more and more of the white men. As the trains returned, more and
more was learned in the States of the new country which lay between the
Missouri and the Rockies, which ran no man knew how far north, and no
man could guess how far south. Now appears in history Fort Benton, on
the Missouri, the great northern supply post--just as at an earlier date
there had appeared Fort Hall, one of the old fur-trading posts beyond
the Rockies, Bent's Fort on the Arkansas, and many other outposts of the
new Saxon civilization in the West.

Later came the pony express and the stage coach which made history and
romance for a generation. Feverishly, boisterously, a strong, rugged,
womanless population crowded westward and formed the wavering, now
advancing, now receding line of the great frontier of American story.

But for long there was no sign of permanent settlement on the Plains,
and no one thought of this region as the frontier. The men there
who were prospecting and exploiting were classified as no more than
adventurers. No one seems to have taken a lesson from the Indian and the
buffalo. The reports of Fremont long since had called attention to the
nourishing quality of those grasses of the high country, but the day of
the cowboy had not yet dawned. There is a somewhat feeble story which
runs to the effect that in 1866 one of the great wagon-trains, caught by
the early snows of winter, was obliged to abandon its oxen on the range.
It was supposed that, of course, the oxen must perish during the winter.
But next spring the owners were surprised to find that the oxen, so far
from perishing, had flourished very much--indeed, were fat and in good
condition. So runs the story which is often repeated. It may be true,
but to accredit to this incident the beginnings of the cattle industry
in the Indian country would surely be going too far. The truth is that
the cow industry was not a Saxon discovery. It was a Latin enterprise,
flourishing in Mexico long before the first of these miners and
adventurers came on the range.

Something was known of the Spanish lands to the south through the
explorations of Pike, but more through the commerce of the prairies--the
old wagon trade from the Missouri River to the Spanish cities of Sante
Fe and Chihuahua. Now the cow business, south of the Rio Grande,
was already well differentiated and developed at the time the first
adventurers from the United States went into Texas and began to crowd
their Latin neighbors for more room. There it was that our Saxon
frontiersmen first discovered the cattle industry. But these
southern and northern riflemen--ruthless and savage, yet strangely
statesmanlike--though they might betimes drive away the owners of the
herds, troubled little about the herds themselves. There was a certain
fascination to these rude strangers in the slow and easeful civilization
of Old Spain which they encountered in the land below them. Little
by little, and then largely and yet more largely, the warriors of San
Jacinto reached out and began to claim lands for themselves--leagues
and uncounted leagues of land, which had, however, no market value. Well
within the memory of the present generation large tracts of good land
were bought in Texas for six cents an acre; some was bought for half
that price in a time not much earlier. Today much of that land is
producing wealth; but land then was worthless--and so were cows.

This civilization of the Southwest, of the new Republic of Texas, may
be regarded as the first enduring American result of contact with the
Spanish industry. The men who won Texas came mostly from Kentucky and
Tennessee or southern Ohio, and the first colonizer of Texas was a
Virginian, Stephen Fuller Austin. They came along the old Natchez Trace
from Nashville to the Mississippi River--that highway which has so much
history of its own. Down this old winding trail into the greatest valley
of all the world, and beyond that valley out into the Spanish country,
moved steadily the adventurers whose fathers had but recently crossed
the Appalachians. One of the strongest thrusts of the American
civilization thus entered the cattle-range at its lower end, between the
Rio Grande and the Red River.

In all the several activities, mining, freighting, scouting, soldiering,
riding pony express, or even sheer adventuring for what might come,
there was ever a trading back and forth between home-staying men and
adventuring men. Thus there was an interchange of knowledge and of
customs between East and West, between our old country and our
new. There was an interchange, too, at the south, where our Saxon
civilization came in touch with that of Mexico.

We have now to note some fundamental facts and principles of the cattle
industry which our American cattlemen took over ready-made from the
hands of Mexico.

The Mexicans in Texas had an abundance of small, hardy horses of African
and Spanish breed, which Spain had brought into the New World--the same
horses that the Moors had brought into Spain--a breed naturally hardy
and able to subsist upon dry food. Without such horses there could
have been no cattle industry. These horses, running wild in herds, had
crossed to the upper Plains. La Verendrye, and later Lewis and Clark,
had found the Indians using horses in the north. The Indians, as we have
seen, had learned to manage the horse. Formerly they had used dogs to
drag the travois, but now they used the "elk-dog," as they first called
the horse.

In the original cow country, that is, in Mexico and Texas, countless
herds of cattle were held in a loose sort of ownership over wide and
unknown plains. Like all wild animals in that warm country, they bred
in extraordinary numbers. The southern range, indeed, has always been
called the breeding range. The cattle had little value. He who wanted
beef killed beef. He who wanted leather killed cattle for their hides.
But beyond these scant and infrequent uses cattle had no definite value.

The Mexican, however, knew how to handle cows. He could ride a horse,
and he could rope cattle and brand them. Most of the cattle of a wide
range would go to certain water-holes more or less regularly, where they
might be roughly collected or estimated. This coming of the cattle to
the watering-places made it unnecessary for owners of cattle to acquire
ranch land. It was enough to secure the water-front where the cows must
go to drink. That gave the owner all the title he needed. His right to
the increase he could prove by another phenomenon of nature, just as
inevitable and invariable as that of thirst. The maternal instinct of a
cow and the dependence of the calf upon its mother gave the old rancher
of immemorial times sufficient proof of ownership in the increase of
his herd. The calf would run with its own mother and with no other
cow through its first season. So that if an old Mexican ranchero saw a
certain number of cows at his watering-places, and with them calves,
he knew that all before him were his property--or, at least, he claimed
them as such and used them.

Still, this was loose-footed property. It might stray away after all,
or it might be driven away. Hence, in some forgotten time, our shrewd
Spaniard invented a system of proof of ownership which has always lain
at the very bottom of the organized cow industry; he invented the method
of branding. This meant his sign, his name, his trade-mark, his proof of
ownership. The animal could not shake it off. It would not burn off in
the sun or wash off in the rain. It went with the animal and could not
be eradicated from the animal's hide. Wherever the bearer was seen, the
brand upon its hide provided certain identification of the owner.

Now, all these basic ideas of the cow industry were old on the lower
range in Texas when our white men first drifted thither. The cattle
industry, although in its infancy, and although supposed to have no
great future, was developed long before Texas became a republic. It
never, indeed, changed very much from that time until the end of its own
career.

One great principle was accepted religiously even in those early and
crude days. A man's cow was HIS cow. A man's brand was HIS brand. There
must be no interference with his ownership. Hence certain other phases
of the industry followed inevitably. These cattle, these calves, each
branded by the iron of the owner, in spite of all precautions, began
to mingle as settlers became more numerous; hence came the idea of the
round-up. The country was warm and lazy. If a hundred or a thousand cows
were not collected, very well. If a calf were separated from its mother,
very well. The old ranchers never quarreled among themselves. They never
would have made in the South anything like a cattle association; it was
left for the Yankees to do that at a time when cows had come to have
far greater values. There were few arguments in the first rodeos of the
lower range. One rancher would vie with his neighbor in generosity
in the matter of unbranded calves. Haggling would have been held
contemptible. On the lower range in the old times no one cared much
about a cow. Why should one do so? There was no market for cows--no one
who wished to buy them. If one tendered a Mexican cinquo pesos for a
yearling or a two-year-old, the owner might perhaps offer the animal as
a gift, or he might smile and say "Con mucho gusto" as he was handed a
few pieces of silver. There were plenty of cows everywhere in the world!

Let us, therefore, give the old Spaniard full credit alike in
picturesque romance and in the organized industry of the cow. The
westbound thrust which came upon the upper part of the range in the days
of more shrewd and exacting business methods was simply the best-known
and most published phase of frontier life in the cow country; hence we
have usually accepted it as typical. It would not be accurate to say
that the cattle industry was basically much influenced or governed by
northern or eastern men. In practically all of its great phenomena the
frontier of the old cow-range was southern by birth and growth.

There lay, then, so long unused, that vast and splendid land so soon to
write romantic history of its own, so soon to come into the admiration
or the wonder of a great portion of the earth--a land of fascinating
interest to the youth of every country, and a region whose story holds
a charm for young and old alike even today. It was a region royal in
its dimensions. Far on the west it was hedged by the gray-sided and
white-topped mountains, the Rockies. Where the buffalo once lived, the
cattle were to live, high up in the foothills of this great mountain
range which ran from the Rio Grande to Canada. On the east, where lay
the Prairies rather than the Plains, it was a country waving with high
native grasses, with many brilliant flowers hiding among them, the
sweet-William, the wild rose, and often great masses of the yellow
sunflower.

From the Rio Grande to the Athabaska, for the greater part, the
frontier sky was blue and cloudless during most of the year. The
rainfall was not great. The atmosphere was dry. It was a cheerful
country, one of optimism and not of gloom. In the extreme south, along
the Rio Grande, the climate was moister, warmer, more enervating; but
on the high steppes of the middle range in Colorado, Wyoming, Montana,
western Nebraska, there lay the finest out-of-doors country, man's
country the finest of the earth.

But for the time, busy with more accustomed things, mining and
freighting and fighting and hunting and trading and trapping, we
Americans who had arrived upon the range cared little for cows. The
upper thrust of the great herds from the south into the north had not
begun. It was after the Civil War that the first great drives of cattle
from the south toward the north began, and after men had learned in
the State of Texas that cattle moved from the Rio Grande to the upper
portions of the State and fed on the mesquite grass would attain greater
stature than in the hot coast country. Then swiftly, somewhat luridly,
there leaped into our comprehension and our interest that strange
country long loosely held under our flag, the region of the Plains, the
region which we now call the Old West.

In great bands, in long lines, slowly, towheaded, sore-footed, the vast
gatherings of the prolific lower range moved north, each cow with its
title indelibly marked upon its hide. These cattle were now going to
take the place of those on which the Indians had depended for their
living these many years. A new day in American history had dawned.



Chapter III. The Cattle Trails

The customary method of studying history by means of a series of events
and dates is not the method which we have chosen to employ in this study
of the Old West. Speaking generally, our minds are unable to assimilate
a condensed mass of events and dates; and that is precisely what would
be required of us if we should attempt here to follow the ways of
conventional history. Dates are at best no more than milestones on the
pathway of time; and in the present instance it is not the milestones
but the road itself with which we are concerned. Where does the road
begin? Why comes it hither? Whither does it lead? These are the real
questions.

Under all the exuberance of the life of the range there lay a steady
business of tremendous size and enormous values. The "uproarious
iniquity" of the West, its picturesqueness, its vividness--these were
but froth on the stream. The stream itself was a steady and somber
flood. Beyond this picturesqueness of environment very few have cared to
go, and therefore sometimes have had little realization of the vastness
of the cowboy's kingdom, the "magnitude of the interests in his care, or
the fortitude, resolution, and instant readiness essential to his daily
life." The American cowboy is the most modern representative of a human
industry that is second to very few in antiquity.

Julius Caesar struck the note of real history: Quorum pars magna
fui--"Of which I was a great part." If we are to seek the actual truth,
we ought most to value contemporary records, representations made by men
who were themselves a part of the scenes which they describe. In that
way we shall arrive not merely upon lurid events, not alone upon the
stereotyped characters of the "Wild West," but upon causes which are
much more interesting and immensely more valuable than any merely
titillating stories from the weirdly illustrated Apocrypha of the
West. We must go below such things if we would gain a just and lasting
estimate of the times. We ought to look on the old range neither as a
playground of idle men nor as a scene of hysterical and contorted human
activities. We ought to look upon it from the point of view of its uses
to mankind. The explorers found it a wilderness, the home of the red man
and the buffalo. What were the underlying causes of its settlement and
development?

There is in history no agency so wondrous in events, no working
instrumentality so great as transportation. The great seeking of all
human life is to find its level. Perhaps the first men traveled
by hollowed logs down stream. Then possibly the idea of a sail was
conceived. Early in the story of the United States men made commercial
journeys from the head of the Ohio to the mouth of the Mississippi
by flatboats, and came back by keelboats. The pole, the cordelle, the
paddle, and the sail, in turn helped them to navigate the great streams
which led out into the West. And presently there was to come that
tremendous upheaval wrought by the advent of the iron trails which,
scorning alike waterways and mountain ranges, flung themselves almost
directly westward across the continent.

The iron trails, crossing the northern range soon after the Civil War,
brought a market to the cattle country. Inevitably the men of the
lower range would seek to reach the railroads with what they had to
sell--their greatest natural product, cattle on the hoof. This was the
primary cause of the great northbound drives already mentioned, the
greatest pastoral phenomena in the story of the world.

The southern herds at that time had no market at their doors. They had
to go to the market, and they had to go on foot. That meant that they
must be driven northward by cattle handlers who had passed their days
in the wild life of the lower range. These cowmen of course took their
character and their customs northward with them, and so they were
discovered by those enthusiastic observers, newly arrived by rail, whom
the cowmen were wont to call "pilgrims."

Now the trail of the great cattle drives--the Long Trail-was a thing of
tremendous importance of itself and it is still full of interest. As it
may not easily be possible for the author to better a description of it
that was written some twenty years ago, that description is here again
set down. *


    * "The Story of the Cowboy," by E. Hough. Appleton. 1897.
Reprinted by permission.


The braiding of a hundred minor pathways, the Long Trail lay like a vast
rope connecting the cattle country of the South with that of the North.
Lying loose or coiling, it ran for more than two thousand miles along
the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains, sometimes close in at their
feet, again hundreds of miles away across the hard tablelands or the
well-flowered prairies. It traversed in a fair line the vast land of
Texas, curled over the Indian Nations, over Kansas, Colorado, Nebraska,
Wyoming, and Montana, and bent in wide overlapping circles as far west
as Utah and Nevada; as far east as Missouri, Iowa, even Illinois; and as
far north as the British possessions. Even today you may trace plainly
its former course, from its faint beginnings in the lazy land of
Mexico, the Ararat of the cattle-range. It is distinct across Texas, and
multifold still in the Indian lands. Its many intermingling paths still
scar the iron surface of the Neutral Strip, and the plows have not
buried all the old furrows in the plains of Kansas. Parts of the path
still remain visible in the mountain lands of the far North. You may
see the ribbons banding the hillsides today along the valley of the
Stillwater, and along the Yellowstone and toward the source of the
Missouri. The hoof marks are beyond the Musselshell, over the Bad Lands
and the coulees and the flat prairies; and far up into the land of
the long cold you may see, even today if you like, the shadow of that
unparalleled pathway, the Long Trail of the cattle-range. History has no
other like it.

The Long Trail was surveyed and constructed in a century and a day.
Over the Red River of the South, a stream even today perhaps known but
vaguely in the minds of many inhabitants of the country, there
appeared, almost without warning, vast processions of strange horned
kine--processions of enormous wealth, owned by kings who paid no
tribute, and guarded by men who never knew a master. Whither these were
bound, what had conjured them forth, whence they came, were questions
in the minds of the majority of the population of the North and East
to whom the phenomenon appeared as the product of a day. The answer to
these questions lay deep in the laws of civilization, and extended far
back into that civilization's history. The Long Trail was finished in a
day. It was begun more than a century before that day, and came forward
along the very appointed ways of time.... Thus, far down in the vague
Southwest, at some distant time, in some distant portion of old,
mysterious Mexico, there fell into line the hoof prints which made the
first faint beginnings of the Long Trail, merely the path of a half
nomadic movement along the line of the least resistance.

The Long Trail began to deepen and extend. It received then, as it
did later, a baptism of human blood such as no other pathway of the
continent has known. The nomadic and the warlike days passed, and
there ensued a more quiet and pastoral time. It was the beginning of a
feudalism of the range, a barony rude enough, but a glorious one,
albeit it began, like all feudalism, in large-handed theft and generous
murdering. The flocks of these strong men, carelessly interlapping,
increased and multiplied amazingly. They were hardly looked upon as
wealth. The people could not eat a tithe of the beef; they could not
use a hundredth of the leather. Over hundreds and hundreds of miles of
ownerless grass lands, by the rapid waters of the mountains, by the
slow streams of the plains or the long and dark lagoons of the low coast
country the herds of tens grew into droves of hundreds and thousands
and hundreds of thousands. This was really the dawning of the American
cattle industry.

Chips and flakes of the great Southwestern herd began to be seen in the
Northern States. As early as 1857 Texas cattle were driven to Illinois.
In 1861 Louisiana was, without success, tried as an outlet. In 1867
a venturous drover took a herd across the Indian Nations, bound for
California, and only abandoned the project because the Plains Indians
were then very bad in the country to the north. In 1869 several herds
were driven from Texas to Nevada. These were side trails of the main
cattle road. It seemed clear that a great population in the North needed
the cheap beef of Texas, and the main question appeared to be one of
transportation. No proper means for this offered. The Civil War stopped
almost all plans to market the range cattle, and the close of that war
found the vast grazing lands of Texas covered fairly with millions of
cattle which had no actual or determinate value. They were sorted and
branded and herded after a fashion, but neither they nor their increase
could be converted into anything but more cattle. The cry for a market
became imperative.

Meantime the Anglo-Saxon civilization was rolling swiftly toward the
upper West. The Indians were being driven from the Plains. A solid army
was pressing behind the vanguard of soldier, scout, and plainsman. The
railroads were pushing out into a new and untracked empire. They carried
the market with them. The market halted, much nearer, though still some
hundred of miles to the north of the great herd. The Long Trail tapped
no more at the door of Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas, but leaped north
again definitely, this time springing across the Red River and up to the
railroads, along sharp and well-defined channels deepened in the year of
1866 alone by the hoofs of more than a quarter of a million cattle.

In 1871, only five years later, over six hundred thousand cattle crossed
the Red River for the Northern markets. Abilene, Newton, Wichita,
Ellsworth, Great Bend, Dodge, flared out into a swift and sometime evil
blossoming. Thus the men of the North first came to hear of the Long
Trail and the men who made it, although really it had begun long ago and
had been foreordained to grow.

By this time, 1867 and 1868, the northern portions of the region
immediately to the east of the Rocky Mountains had been sufficiently
cleared of their wild inhabitants to admit a gradual though precarious
settlement. It had been learned yet again that the buffalo grass and
the sweet waters of the far North would fatten a range broadhorn to a
stature far beyond any it could attain on the southern range. The
Long Trail pushed rapidly even farther to the north where there still
remained "free grass" and a new market. The territorial ranges needed
many thousands of cattle for their stocking, and this demand took a
large part of the Texas drive which came to Abilene, Great Bend, and
Fort Dodge. Moreover, the Government was now feeding thousands of its
new red wards, and these Indians needed thousands of beeves for rations,
which were driven from the southern range to the upper army posts and
reservations. Between this Government demand and that of the territorial
stock ranges there was occupation for the men who made the saddle their
home.

The Long Trail, which had previously found the black corn lands of
Illinois and Missouri, now crowded to the West, until it had reached
Utah and Nevada, and penetrated every open park and mesa and valley of
Colorado, and found all the high plains of Wyoming. Cheyenne and Laramie
became common words now, and drovers spoke as wisely of the dangers of
the Platte as a year before they had mentioned those of the Red River
or the Arkansas. Nor did the Trail pause in its irresistible push to
the north until it had found the last of the five great transcontinental
lines, far in the British provinces. Here in spite of a long season of
ice and snow the uttermost edges of the great herd might survive, in a
certain percentage at least, each year in an almost unassisted struggle
for existence, under conditions different enough, it would seem, from
those obtaining at the opposite extreme of the wild roadway over which
they came.

The Long Trail of the cattle-range was done! By magic the cattle
industry had spread over the entire West. Today many men think of that
industry as belonging only to the Southwest, and many would consider
that it was transferred to the North. Really it was not transferred
but extended, and the trail of the old drive marks the line of that
extension.

Today the Long Trail is replaced by other trails, product of the swift
development of the West, and it remains as the connection, now for the
most part historical only, between two phases of an industry which, in
spite of differences of climate and condition, retain a similarity in
all essential features. When the last steer of the first herd was driven
into the corral at the Ultima Thule of the range, it was the pony of the
American cowboy which squatted and wheeled under the spur and burst down
the straggling street of the little frontier town. Before that time, and
since that time, it was and has been the same pony and the same man who
have traveled the range, guarding and guiding the wild herds, from the
romantic to the commonplace days of the West.



Chapter IV. The Cowboy

The Great West, vast and rude, brought forth men also vast and rude. We
pass today over parts of that matchless region, and we see the red hills
and ragged mountain-fronts cut and crushed into huge indefinite shapes,
to which even a small imagination may give a human or more than human
form. It would almost seem that the same great hand which chiseled out
these monumental forms had also laid its fingers upon the people of this
region and fashioned them rude and ironlike, in harmony with the stern
faces set about them.

Of all the babes of that primeval mother, the West, the cowboy was
perhaps her dearest because he was her last. Some of her children lived
for centuries; this one for not a triple decade before he began to
be old. What was really the life of this child of the wild region of
America, and what were the conditions of the experience that bore him,
can never be fully known by those who have not seen the West with wide
eyes--for the cowboy was simply a part of the West. He who does not
understand the one can never understand the other.

If we care truly to see the cowboy as he was and seek to give our wish
the dignity of a real purpose, we should study him in connection with
his surroundings and in relation to his work. Then we shall see him not
as a curiosity but as a product--not as an eccentric driver of horned
cattle but as a man suited to his times.

Large tracts of that domain where once the cowboy reigned supreme have
been turned into farms by the irrigator's ditch or by the dry-farmer's
plan. The farmer in overalls is in many instances his own stockman
today. On the ranges of Arizona, Wyoming, and Texas and parts of Nevada
we may find the cowboy, it is true, even today: but he is no longer the
Homeric figure that once dominated the plains. In what we say as to
his trade, therefore, or his fashion in the practice of it, we speak
in terms of thirty or forty years ago, when wire was unknown, when the
round-up still was necessary, and the cowboy's life was indeed that of
the open.

By the costume we may often know the man. The cowboy's costume was
harmonious with its surroundings. It was planned upon lines of
such stern utility as to leave no possible thing which we may call
dispensable. The typical cowboy costume could hardly be said to contain
a coat and waistcoat. The heavy woolen shirt, loose and open at the
neck, was the common wear at all seasons of the year excepting winter,
and one has often seen cowboys in the winter-time engaged in work about
the yard or corral of the ranch wearing no other cover for the upper
part of the body but one or more of these heavy shirts. If the cowboy
wore a coat he would wear it open and loose as much as possible. If
he wore a "vest" he would wear it slouchily, hanging open or partly
unbuttoned most of the time. There was a reason for this slouchy habit.
The cowboy would say that the vest closely buttoned about the body would
cause perspiration, so that the wearer would quickly chill upon ceasing
exercise. If the wind were blowing keenly when the cowboy dismounted to
sit upon the ground for dinner, he would button up his waistcoat and be
warm. If it were very cold he would button up his coat also.

The cowboy's boots were of fine leather and fitted tightly, with light
narrow soles, extremely small and high heels. Surely a more irrational
foot-covering never was invented; yet these tight, peaked cowboy boots
had a great significance and may indeed be called the insignia of a
calling. There was no prouder soul on earth than the cowboy. He was
proud of being a horseman and had a contempt for all human beings who
walked. On foot in his tight-toed boots he was lost; but he wished it
to be understood that he never was on foot. If we rode beside him and
watched his seat in the big cow saddle we found that his high and narrow
heels prevented the slipping forward of the foot in the stirrup, into
which he jammed his feet nearly full length. If there was a fall, the
cowboy's foot never hung in the stirrup. In the corral roping,
afoot, his heels anchored him. So he found his little boots not so
unserviceable and retained them as a matter of pride. Boots made for
the cowboy trade sometimes had fancy tops of bright-colored leather. The
Lone Star of Texas was not infrequent in their ornamentation.

The curious pride of the horseman extended also to his gloves. The
cowboy was very careful in the selection of his gloves. They were made
of the finest buckskin, which could not be injured by wetting. Generally
they were tanned white and cut with a deep cuff or gauntlet from which
hung a little fringe to flutter in the wind when he rode at full speed
on horseback.

The cowboy's hat was one of the typical and striking features of his
costumes. It was a heavy, wide, white felt hat with a heavy leather
band buckled about it. There has been no other head covering devised so
suitable as the Stetson for the uses of the Plains, although high and
heavy black hats have in part supplanted it today among stockmen. The
boardlike felt was practically indestructible. The brim flapped a little
and, in time, was turned up and perhaps held fast to the crown by a
thong. The wearer might sometimes stiffen the brim by passing a thong
through a series of holes pierced through the outer edge. He could
depend upon his hat in all weathers. In the rain it was an umbrella; in
the sun a shield; in the winter he could tie it down about his ears with
his handkerchief.

Loosely thrown about the cowboy's shirt collar was a silk kerchief. It
was tied in a hard knot in front, and though it could scarcely be said
to be devoted to the uses of a neck scarf, yet it was a great comfort to
the back of the neck when one was riding in a hot wind. It was sure to
be of some bright color, usually red. Modern would-be cowpunchers do not
willingly let this old kerchief die, and right often they over-play it.
For the cowboy of the "movies," however, let us register an unqualified
contempt. The real range would never have been safe for him.

A peculiar and distinctive feature of the cowboy's costume was his
"chaps" (chaparejos). The chaps were two very wide and full-length
trouser-legs made of heavy calfskin and connected by a narrow belt
or strap. They were cut away entirely at front and back so that they
covered only the thigh and lower legs and did not heat the body as
a complete leather garment would. They were intended solely as a
protection against branches, thorns, briers, and the like, but they were
prized in cold or wet weather. Sometimes there was seen, more often on
the southern range, a cowboy wearing chaps made of skins tanned with
the hair on; for the cowboy of the Southwest early learned that goatskin
left with the hair on would turn the cactus thorns better than any other
material. Later, the chaps became a sort of affectation on the part of
new men on the range; but the old-time cowboy wore them for use, not as
a uniform. In hot weather he laid them off.

In the times when some men needed guns and all men carried them, no
pistol of less than 44-caliber was tolerated on the range, the solid
framed 45-caliber being the one almost universally used. The barrel
was eight inches long, and it shot a rifle cartridge of forty grains
of powder and a blunt-ended bullet that made a terrible missile. This
weapon depended from a belt worn loose resting upon the left hip and
hanging low down on the right hip so that none of the weight came upon
the abdomen. This was typical, for the cowboy was neither fancy gunman
nor army officer. The latter carries the revolver on the left, the butt
pointing forward.

An essential part of the cow-puncher's outfit was his "rope." This was
carried in a close coil at the side of the saddle-horn, fastened by one
of the many thongs scattered over the saddle. In the Spanish country it
was called reata and even today is sometimes seen in the Southwest made
of rawhide. In the South it was called a lariat. The modern rope is a
well-made three-quarter-inch hemp rope about thirty feet in length, with
a leather or rawhide eye. The cowboy's quirt was a short heavy whip, the
stock being of wood or iron covered with braided leather and carrying a
lash made of two or three heavy loose thongs. The spur in the old days
had a very large rowel with blunt teeth an inch long. It was often
ornamented with little bells or oblongs of metal, the tinkling of which
appealed to the childlike nature of the Plains rider. Their use was to
lock the rowel.

His bridle--for, since the cowboy and his mount are inseparable, we
may as well speak of his horse's dress also--was noticeable for its
tremendously heavy and cruel curbed bit, known as the "Spanish bit." But
in the ordinary riding and even in the exciting work of the old round-up
and in "cutting out," the cowboy used the bit very little, nor exerted
any pressure on the reins. He laid the reins against the neck of the
pony opposite to the direction in which he wished it to go, merely
turning his hand in the direction and inclining his body in the same
way. He rode with the pressure of the knee and the inclination of the
body and the light side-shifting of both reins. The saddle was the
most important part of the outfit. It was a curious thing, this saddle
developed by the cattle trade, and the world has no other like it. Its
great weight--from thirty to forty pounds--was readily excusable when
one remembers that it was not only seat but workbench for the cowman.
A light saddle would be torn to pieces at the first rush of a maddened
steer, but the sturdy frame of a cow-saddle would throw the heaviest
bull on the range. The high cantle would give a firmness to the cowboy's
seat when he snubbed a steer with a sternness sufficient to send it
rolling heels over head. The high pommel, or "horn," steel-forged and
covered with cross braids of leather, served as anchor post for this
same steer, a turn of the rope about it accomplishing that purpose at
once. The saddle-tree forked low down over the pony's back so that the
saddle sat firmly and could not readily be pulled off. The great broad
cinches bound the saddle fast till horse and saddle were practically one
fabric. The strong wooden house of the old heavy stirrup protected
the foot from being crushed by the impact of the herd. The form of the
cow-saddle has changed but little, although today one sees a shorter
seat and smaller horn, a "swell front" or roll, and a stirrup of open
"ox-bow" pattern.

The round-up was the harvest of the range. The time of the calf round-up
was in the spring after the grass had become good and after the calves
had grown large enough for the branding. The State Cattle Association
divided the entire State range into a number of round-up districts.
Under an elected round-up captain were all the bosses in charge of the
different ranch outfits sent by men having cattle in the round-up. Let
us briefly draw a picture of this scene as it was.

Each cowboy would have eight or ten horses for his own use, for he had
now before him the hardest riding of the year. When the cow-puncher went
into the herd to cut out calves he mounted a fresh horse, and every few
hours he again changed horses, for there was no horse which could long
endure the fatigue of the rapid and intense work of cutting. Before the
rider stretched a sea of interwoven horns, waving and whirling as the
densely packed ranks of cattle closed in or swayed apart. It was
no prospect for a weakling, but into it went the cow-puncher on his
determined little horse, heeding not the plunging, crushing, and
thrusting of the excited cattle. Down under the bulks of the herd, half
hid in the whirl of dust, he would spy a little curly calf running,
dodging, and twisting, always at the heels of its mother; and he would
dart in after, following the two through the thick of surging and
plunging beasts. The sharp-eyed pony would see almost as soon as his
rider which cow was wanted and he needed small guidance from that time
on. He would follow hard at her heels, edging her constantly toward the
flank of the herd, at times nipping her hide as a reminder of his own
superiority. In spite of herself the cow would gradually turn out
toward the edge, and at last would be swept clear of the crush, the calf
following close behind her. There was a whirl of the rope and the calf
was laid by the heels and dragged to the fire where the branding irons
were heated and ready.

Meanwhile other cow-punchers are rushing calves to the branding.
The hubbub and turmoil increase. Taut ropes cross the ground in many
directions. The cutting ponies pant and sweat, rear and plunge. The
garb of the cowboy is now one of white alkali which hangs gray in his
eyebrows and moustache. Steers bellow as they surge to and fro. Cows
charge on their persecutors. Fleet yearlings break and run for the open,
pursued by men who care not how or where they ride.

We have spoken in terms of the past. There is no calf round-up of the
open range today. The last of the roundups was held in Routt County,
Colorado, several years ago, so far as the writer knows, and it had only
to do with shifting cattle from the summer to the winter range.

After the calf round-up came the beef round-up, the cowman's final
harvest. This began in July or August. Only the mature or fatted animals
were cut out from the herd. This "beef cut" was held apart and driven on
ahead from place to place as the round-up progressed. It was then driven
in by easy stages to the shipping point on the railroad, whence the long
trainloads of cattle went to the great markets.

In the heyday of the cowboy it was natural that his chief amusements
should be those of the outdoor air and those more or less in line with
his employment. He was accustomed to the sight of big game, and so had
the edge of his appetite for its pursuit worn off. Yet he was a hunter,
just as every Western man was a hunter in the times of the Western game.
His weapons were the rifle, revolver, and rope; the latter two were
always with him. With the rope at times he captured the coyote, and
under special conditions he has taken deer and even antelope in this
way, though this was of course most unusual and only possible under
chance conditions of ground and cover. Elk have been roped by cowboys
many times, and it is known that even the mountain sheep has been so
taken, almost incredible as that may seem. The young buffalo were easy
prey for the cowboy and these he often roped and made captive. In fact
the beginnings of all the herds of buffalo now in captivity in this
country were the calves roped and secured by cowboys; and these few
scattered individuals of a grand race of animals remain as melancholy
reminders alike of a national shiftlessness and an individual skill and
daring.

The grizzly was at times seen by the cowboys on the range, and if it
chanced that several cowboys were together it was not unusual to give
him chase. They did not always rope him, for it was rarely that the
nature of the country made this possible. Sometimes they roped him and
wished they could let him go, for a grizzly bear is uncommonly active
and straightforward in his habits at close quarters. The extreme
difficulty of such a combat, however, gave it its chief fascination for
the cowboy. Of course, no one horse could hold the bear after it was
roped, but, as one after another came up, the bear was caught by neck
and foot and body, until at last he was tangled and tripped and hauled
about till he was helpless, strangled, and nearly dead. It is said that
cowboys have so brought into camp a grizzly bear, forcing him to half
walk and half slide at the end of the ropes. No feat better than this
could show the courage of the plainsman and of the horse which he so
perfectly controlled.

Of such wild and dangerous exploits were the cowboy's amusements on the
range. It may be imagined what were his amusements when he visited the
"settlements." The cow-punchers, reared in the free life of the open
air, under circumstances of the utmost freedom of individual action,
perhaps came off the drive or round-up after weeks or months of unusual
restraint or hardship, and felt that the time had arrived for them
to "celebrate." Merely great rude children, as wild and untamed and
untaught as the herds they led, they regarded their first look at the
"settlements" of the railroads as a glimpse of a wider world. They
pursued to the uttermost such avenues of new experience as lay before
them, almost without exception avenues of vice. It is strange that the
records of those days should be chosen by the public to be held as the
measure of the American cowboy. Those days were brief, and they are
long since gone. The American cowboy atoned for them by a quarter of a
century of faithful labor.

The amusements of the cowboy were like the features of his daily
surroundings and occupation--they were intense, large, Homeric. Yet,
judged at his work, no higher type of employee ever existed, nor
one more dependable. He was the soul of honor in all the ways of his
calling. The very blue of the sky, bending evenly over all men alike,
seemed to symbolize his instinct for justice. Faithfulness and manliness
were his chief traits; his standard--to be a "square man."

Not all the open range will ever be farmed, but very much that was long
thought to be irreclaimable has gone under irrigation or is being more
or less successfully "dryfarmed." The man who brought water upon the
arid lands of the West changed the entire complexion of a vast country
and with it the industries of that country. Acres redeemed from the
desert and added to the realm of the American farmer were taken from the
realm of the American cowboy.

The West has changed. The curtain has dropped between us and its wild
and stirring scenes. The old days are gone. The house dog sits on the
hill where yesterday the coyote sang. There are fenced fields and in
them stand sleek round beasts, deep in crops such as their ancestors
never saw. In a little town nearby is the hurry and bustle of modern
life. This town is far out upon what was called the frontier, long after
the frontier has really gone. Guarding its ghost here stood a little
army post, once one of the pillars, now one of the monuments of the
West.

Out from the tiny settlement in the dusk of evening, always facing
toward where the sun is sinking, might be seen riding, not so long
ago, a figure we should know. He would thread the little lane among the
fences, following the guidance of hands other than his own, a thing he
would once have scorned to do. He would ride as lightly and as easily
as ever, sitting erect and jaunty in the saddle, his reins held high and
loose in the hand whose fingers turn up gracefully, his whole body free
yet firm in the saddle with the seat of the perfect horseman. At the
boom of the cannon, when the flag dropped fluttering down to sleep, he
would rise in his stirrups and wave his hat to the flag. Then, toward
the edge, out into the evening, he would ride on. The dust of his riding
would mingle with the dusk of night. We could not see which was the
one or the other. We could only hear the hoofbeats passing, boldly and
steadily still, but growing fainter, fainter, and more faint. *


    * For permission to use in this chapter material from the
author's "The Story of the Cowboy," acknowledgment is made to D.
Appleton & Co.



Chapter V. The Mines

If the influence of the cattle industry was paramount in the development
of the frontier region found by the first railways, it should not be
concluded that this upthrust of the southern cattle constituted the
only contribution to the West of that day. There were indeed earlier
influences, the chief of which was the advent of the wild population of
the placer mines. The riches of the gold-fields hastened the building of
the first transcontinental railroads and the men of the mines set their
mark also indelibly upon the range.

It is no part of our business here to follow the great discoveries of
1849 in California. * Neither shall we chronicle the once-famous rushes
from California north into the Fraser River Valley of British Columbia;
neither is it necessary to mention in much detail the great camps of
Nevada; nor yet the short-lived stampede of 1859 to the Pike's Peak
country in Colorado. The rich placer fields of Idaho and Montana, from
which enormous amounts were taken, offer typical examples of the mining
communities of the Rockies.


    * See Stewart Edward White: "The Forty-Niners" ("Chronicles of
America").


We may never know how much history remains forever unwritten. Of the
beginnings of the Idaho camps there have trickled back into record only
brief, inconsequent, and partial stories. The miners who surged this
way and that all through the Sierras, the upper Cascades, north into the
Selkirks, and thence back again into the Rockies were a turbulent mob.
Having overrun all our mountain ranges, following the earlier trails of
the traders and trappers, they now recoiled upon themselves and rolled
back eastward to meet the advancing civilization of the westbound rails,
caring nothing for history and less for the civilized society in which
they formerly had lived. This story of bedlam broken loose, of men gone
crazed, by the sudden subversion of all known values and all standards
of life, was at first something which had no historian and can be
recorded only by way of hearsay stories which do not always tally as to
the truth.

The mad treasure-hunters of the California mines, restless,
insubordinate, incapable of restraint, possessed of the belief that
there might be gold elsewhere than in California, and having heard
reports of strikes to the north, went hurrying out into the mountains of
Oregon and Washington, in a wild stampede, all eager again to engage in
the glorious gamble where by one lucky stroke of the pick a man might be
set free of the old limitations of human existence.

So the flood of gold-seekers--passing north into the Fraser River
country, south again into Oregon and Washington, and across the great
desert plains into Nevada and Idaho--made new centers of lurid activity,
such as Oro Fino, Florence, and Carson. Then it was that Walla Walla
and Lewiston, outfitting points on the western side of the range, found
place upon the maps of the land, such as they were.

Before these adventurers, now eastbound and no longer facing west, there
arose the vast and formidable mountain ranges which in their time had
daunted even the calm minds of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. But
the prospectors and the pack-trains alike penetrated the Salmon River
Range. Oro Fino, in Idaho, was old in 1861. The next great strikes were
to be made around Florence. Here the indomitable packer from the West,
conquering unheard-of difficulties, brought in whiskey, women, pianos,
food, mining tools. Naturally all these commanded fabulous prices.
The price for each and all lay underfoot. Man, grown superman, could
overleap time itself by a stroke of the pick! What wonder delirium
reigned!

These events became known in the Mississippi Valley and farther
eastward. And now there came hurrying out from the older regions
many more hundreds and thousands eager to reach a land not so far
as California, but reputed to be quite as rich. It was then, as the
bull-trains came in from the East, from the head of navigation on the
Missouri River, that the western outfitting points of Walla Walla and
Lewiston lost their importance.

Southward of the Idaho camps the same sort of story was repeating
itself. Nevada had drawn to herself a portion of the wild men of the
stampedes. Carson for its day (1859-60) was a capital not unlike the
others. Some of its men had come down from the upper fields, some had
arrived from the East over the old Santa Fe Trail, and yet others had
drifted in from California.

All the camps were very much alike. A straggling row of log cabins or
huts of motley construction; a few stores so-called, sometimes of logs,
or, if a saw-mill was at hand, of rude sawn boards; a number of saloons,
each of which customarily also supported a dance-hall; a series of
cabins or huts where dwelt individual men, each doing his own cooking
and washing; and outside these huts the uptorn earth--such were the
camps which dotted the trails of the stampedes across inhospitable
deserts and mountain ranges. Church and school were unknown. Law there
was none, for of organized society there was none. The women who lived
there were unworthy of the name of woman. The men strode about in
the loose dress of the camp, sometimes without waistcoat, sometimes
coatless, shod with heavy boots, always armed.

If we look for causes contributory to the history of the mining-camp, we
shall find one which ordinarily is overlooked--the invention of Colt's
revolving pistol. At the time of the Civil War, though this weapon was
not old, yet it had attained very general use throughout the frontier.
That was before the day of modern ammunition. The six-shooter of the
placer days was of the old cap-and-ball type, heavy, long-barreled, and
usually wooden-handled. It was the general ownership of these deadly
weapons which caused so much bloodshed in the camps. The revolver in
the hands of a tyro is not especially serviceable, but it attained great
deadliness in the hands of an expert user. Such a man, naturally of
quick nerve reflexes, skillful and accurate in the use of the
weapon through long practice, became a dangerous, and for a time an
unconquerable, antagonist.

It is a curious fact that the great Montana fields were doubly
discovered, in part by men coming east from California, and in part by
men passing west in search of new gold-fields. The first discovery of
gold in Montana was made on Gold Creek by a half-breed trapper named
Francois, better known as Be-net-see. This was in 1852, but the news
seems to have lain dormant for a time--naturally enough, for there was
small ingress or egress for that wild and unknown country. In 1857,
however, a party of miners who had wandered down the Big Hole River on
their way back east from California decided to look into the Gold Creek
discovery, of which they had heard. This party was led by James and
Granville Stuart, and among others in the party were Jake Meeks, Robert
Hereford, Robert Dempsey, John W. Powell, John M. Jacobs, Thomas Adams,
and some others. These men did some work on Gold Creek in 1858, but seem
not to have struck it very rich, and to have withdrawn to Fort Bridger
in Utah until the autumn of 1860. Then a prospector by the name of Tom
Golddigger turned up at Bridger with additional stories of creeks to the
north, so that there was a gradual straggling back toward Gold Creek and
other gulches. This prospector had been all over the Alder Gulch, which
was ere long to prove fabulously rich.

It was not, however, until 1863 that the Montana camps sprang into
fame. It was not Gold Creek or Alder Gulch, but Florence and other
Idaho camps, that, in the summer and autumn of 1862, brought into the
mountains no less than five parties of gold-seekers, who remained in
Montana because they could not penetrate the mountain barrier which lay
between them and the Salmon River camps in Idaho.

The first of these parties arrived at Gold Creek by wagon-train from
Fort Benton and the second hailed from Salt Lake. An election was held
for the purpose of forming a sort of community organization, the first
election ever known in Montana. The men from the East had brought with
them some idea of law and organization. There were now in the Montana
fields many good men such as the Stuart Brothers, Samuel T. Hauser,
Walter Dance, and others later well known in the State. These men were
prominent in the organization of the first miners' court, which had
occasion to try--and promptly to hang--Stillman and Jernigan, two
ruffians who had been in from the Salmon River mines only about four
days when they thus met retribution for their early crimes. An
associate of theirs, Arnett, had been killed while resisting arrest.
The reputation of Florence for lawlessness and bloodshed was well known;
and, as the outrages of the well-organized band of desperadoes operating
in Idaho might be expected to begin at any time in Montana, a certain
uneasiness existed among the newcomers from the States.

Two more parties, likewise bound for Idaho and likewise baffled by the
Salmon River range, arrived at the Montana camps in the same summer.
Both these were from the Pike's Peak country in Colorado. And in the
autumn came a fifth--this one under military protection, Captain James
L. Fisk commanding, and having in the party a number of settlers bound
for Oregon as well as miners for Idaho. This expedition arrived in the
Prickly Pear Valley in Montana on September 21, 1862, having left St.
Paul on the 16th of June, traveling by steamboat and wagon-train. While
Captain Fisk and his expedition pushed on to Walla Walla, nearly half of
the immigrants stayed to try their luck at placer-mining. But the
yield was not great and the distant Salmon River mines, their original
destination, still awaited them. Winter was approaching. It was now too
late in the season to reach the Salmon River mines, five hundred miles
across the mountains, and it was four hundred miles to Salt Lake, the
nearest supply post; therefore, most of the men joined this little
army of prospectors in Montana. Some of them drifted to the Grasshopper
diggings, soon to be known under the name of Bannack--one of the wildest
mining-camps of its day.

These different origins of the population of the first Montana camps are
interesting because of the fact that they indicate a difference in the
two currents of population which now met here in the new placer fields.
In general the wildest and most desperate of the old-time adventurers,
those coming from the West, had located in the Idaho camps, and might
be expected in Montana at any time. In contrast to these, the men lately
out from the States were of a different type, many of them sober, most
of them law-abiding, men who had come out to better their fortunes and
not merely to drop into the wild and licentious life of a placercamp.
Law and order always did prevail eventually in any mining community.
In the case of Montana, law and order arrived almost synchronously with
lawlessness and desperadoism.

Law and order had not long to wait before the arrival of the notorious
Henry Plummer and his band from Florence. Plummer was already known as
a bad man, but was not yet recognized as the leader of that secret
association of robbers and murderers which had terrorized the Idaho
camps. He celebrated his arrival in Bannack by killing a man named
Cleveland. He was acquitted in the miners' court that tried him, on
the usual plea of self-defense. He was a man of considerable personal
address.

The same tribunal soon assembled once more to try three other murderers,
Moore, Reeves, and Mitchell, with the agreement that the men should have
a jury and should be provided with counsel. They were all practically
freed; and after that the roughs grew bolder than ever. The Plummer band
swore to kill every man who had served in that court, whether as juryman
or officer. So well did they make good their threat that out of the
twenty-seven men thus engaged all but seven were either killed or driven
out of the country, nine being murdered outright. The man who had acted
as sheriff of this miners' court, Hank Crawford, was unceasingly hounded
by Plummer, who sought time and again to fix a quarrel on him. Plummer
was the best shot in the mountains at that time, and he thought it
would be easy for him to kill his man and enter the usual plea of
self-defense. By good fortune, however, Crawford caught Plummer off his
guard and fired upon him with a rifle, breaking his right arm. Plummer's
friends called in Dr. Glick, the best physician in Bannack, to treat
the wounded man, warning him that if he told anything about the visit
he would be shot down. Glick held his peace, and later was obliged to
attend many of the wounded outlaws, who were always engaged in affairs
with firearms.

Of all these wild affrays, of the savage life which they denoted, and
of the stern ways in which retribution overtook the desperadoes of
the mines, there is no better historian than Nathaniel P. Langford, a
prominent citizen of the West, who accompanied the overland expedition
of 1862 and took part in the earliest life of Montana. His work,
"Vigilante Days and Ways," is an invaluable contemporary record.

It is mentally difficult for us now fully to restore these scenes,
although the events occurred no earlier than the Civil War. "Life in
Bannack at this time," says Langford, "was perfect isolation from the
rest of the world. Napoleon was not more of an exile on St. Helena than
a newly arrived immigrant from the States in this region of lakes
and mountains. All the great battles of the season of 1862--Antietam,
Fredericksburg, Second Bull Run--all the exciting debates of Congress,
and the more exciting combats at sea, first became known to us on the
arrival of newspapers and letters in the spring of 1863."

The Territory of Idaho, which included Montana and nearly all Wyoming,
was organized March 3, 1863. Previous to that time western Montana and
Idaho formed a part of Washington Territory, of which Olympia was the
capital, and Montana, east of the mountains, belonged to the Territory
of Dakota, of which the capital was Yankton, on the Missouri. Langford
makes clear the political uncertainties of the time, the difficulty
of enforcing the laws, and narrates the circumstances which led to the
erection in 1864 of the new Territory of Montana, comprising the limits
of the present State. *


    * The Acts of Congress organizing Territories and admitting
States are milestones in the occupation of this last West. On the eve of
the Civil War, Kansas was admitted into the Union; during the war, the
Territories of Colorado, Nevada, Dakota, Arizona, Idaho, and Montana
were organized, and Nevada was admitted as a State. Immediately after
the war, Nebraska was admitted and Wyoming was organized as a Territory.
In the Centennial Year (1876) Colorado became a State. In 1889 and 1890
North and South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming were
admitted as States. In the latter year Oklahoma was carved out of the
Indian Territory. Utah with its Mormon population was kept waiting at
the doors of the Union until 1896. Oklahoma became a State in 1907;
Arizona and New Mexico were admitted in 1912.


In Montana as elsewhere in these days of great sectional bitterness,
there was much political strife; and this no doubt accounts for an
astonishing political event that now took place. Henry Plummer, the most
active outlaw of his day, was elected sheriff and entrusted with the
enforcement of the laws! He made indeed a great show of enforcing the
laws. He married, settled down, and for a time was thought by some of
the ill-advised to have reformed his ways, although in truth he could
not have reformed.

By June, 1863, the extraordinarily rich strike in Alder Gulch had been
made. The news of this spread like wildfire to Bannack and to the Salmon
River mines in Idaho as well, and the result was one of the fiercest
of all the stampedes, and the rise, almost overnight, of Virginia City.
Meanwhile some Indian fighting had taken place and in a pitched battle
on the Bear River General Connor had beaten decisively the Bannack
Indians, who for years had preyed on the emigrant trains. This made
travel on the mountain trails safer than it had been; and the rich
Last Chance Gulch on which the city of Helena now stands attracted a
tremendous population almost at once. The historian above cited lived
there. Let him tell of the life.

"One long stream of active life filled the little creek on its
auriferous course from Bald Mountain, through a canyon of wild and
picturesque character, until it emerged into the large and fertile
valley of the Pas-sam-a-ri... the mountain stream called by Lewis and
Clark in their journal 'Philanthropy River.' Lateral streams of great
beauty pour down the sides of the mountain chain bounding the valley....
Gold placers were found upon these streams and occupied soon after the
settlement at Virginia City was commenced.... This human hive, numbering
at least ten thousand people, was the product of ninety days. Into
it were crowded all the elements of a rough and active civilization.
Thousands of cabins and tents and brush wakiups... were seen on every
hand. Every foot of the gulch... was undergoing displacement, and it was
already disfigured by huge heaps of gravel which had been passed
through the sluices and rifled of their glittering contents.... Gold was
abundant, and every possible device was employed by the gamblers, the
traders, the vile men and women that had come in with the miners into
the locality, to obtain it. Nearly every third cabin was a saloon where
vile whiskey was peddled out for fifty cents a drink in gold dust.
Many of these places were filled with gambling tables and gamblers....
Hurdy-gurdy dance-houses were numerous.... Not a day or night passed
which did not yield its full fruition of vice, quarrels, wounds, or
murders. The crack of the revolver was often heard above the merry notes
of the violin. Street fights were frequent, and as no one knew when
or where they would occur, every one was on his guard against a random
shot.

"Sunday was always a gala day.... The stores were all open.... Thousands
of people crowded the thoroughfares ready to rush in the direction
of any promised excitement. Horse-racing was among the most favored
amusements. Prize rings were formed, and brawny men engaged in
fisticuffs until their sight was lost and their bodies pommelled to
a jelly, while hundreds of onlookers cheered the victor.... Pistols
flashed, bowie knives flourished, and braggart oaths filled the air, as
often as men's passions triumphed over their reason. This was indeed
the reign of unbridled license, and men who at first regarded it with
disgust and terror, by constant exposure soon learned to become a part
of it and forget that they had ever been aught else. All classes of
society were represented at this general exhibition. Judges, lawyers,
doctors, even clergymen, could not claim exemption. Culture and religion
afforded feeble protection, where allurement and indulgence ruled the
hour."

Imagine, therefore, a fabulously rich mountain valley twelve miles in
extent, occupied by more than ten thousand men and producing more than
ten millions of dollars before the close of the first year! It is a
stupendous demand on any imagination. How might all this gold be sent
out in safe-keeping? We are told that the only stage route extended from
Virginia City no farther than Bannack. Between Virginia City and Salt
Lake City there was an absolute wilderness, wholly unsettled, four
hundred and seventy-five miles in width. "There was no post office in
the Territory. Letters were brought from Salt Lake first at a cost of
two dollars and a half each, and later in the season at one dollar each.
All money at infinite risk was sent to the nearest express office at
Salt Lake City by private hands."

Practically every man in the new gold-fields was aware of the existence
of a secret band of well-organized ruffians and robbers. The general
feeling was one of extreme uneasiness. There were plenty of men who had
taken out of the ground considerable quantities of gold, and who would
have been glad to get back to the East with their little fortunes, but
they dared not start. Time after time the express coach, the solitary
rider, the unguarded wagon-train, were held up and robbed, usually with
the concomitant of murder. When the miners did start out from one camp
to another they took all manner of precautions to conceal their gold
dust. We are told that on one occasion one party bored a hole in the end
of the wagon tongue with an auger and filled it full of gold dust, thus
escaping observation! The robbers learned to know the express agents,
and always had advice of every large shipment of gold. It was almost
useless to undertake to conceal anything from them; and resistance was
met with death. Such a reign of terror, such an organized system of
highway robbery, such a light valuing of human life, has been seldom
found in any other time or place.

There were, as we have seen, good men in these camps--although the best
of them probably let down the standards of living somewhat after their
arrival there; but the trouble was that the good men did not know one
another, had no organization, and scarcely dared at first to attempt
one. On the other hand, the robbers' organization was complete and kept
its secrets as the grave; indeed, many and many a lonesome grave held
secrets none ever was to know. How many men went out from Eastern States
and disappeared, their fate always to remain a mystery, is a part of the
untold story of the mining frontier.

There are known to have been a hundred and two men killed by Plummer
and his gang; how many were murdered without their fate ever being
discovered can not be told. Plummer was the leader of the band, but,
arch-hypocrite that he was, he managed to keep his own connection with
it a secret. His position as sheriff gave him many advantages. He posed
as being a silver-mine expert, among other things, and often would be
called out to "expert" some new mine. That usually meant that he left
town in order to commit some desperate robbery. The boldest outrages
always required Plummer as the leader. Sometimes he would go away on
the pretense of following some fugitive from justice. His horse, the
fleetest in the country, often was found, laboring and sweating, at the
rear of his house. That meant that Plummer had been away on some secret
errand of his own. He was suspected many times, but nothing could be
fastened upon him; or there lacked sufficient boldness and sufficient
organization on the part of the law-and-order men to undertake his
punishment.

We are not concerned with repeating thrilling tales, bloody almost
beyond belief, and indicative of an incomprehensible depravity in human
nature, so much as we are with the causes and effects of this wild
civilization which raged here quite alone in the midst of one of the
wildest of the western mountain regions. It will best serve our purpose
to retain in mind the twofold character of this population, and to
remember that the frontier caught to itself not only ruffians and
desperadoes, men undaunted by any risk, but also men possessed of a yet
steadier personal courage and hardihood. There were men rough, coarse,
brutal, murderous; but against them were other men self-reliant, stern,
just, and resolved upon fair play.

That was indeed the touchstone of the entire civilization which followed
upon the heels of these scenes of violence. It was fair play which
really animated the great Montana Vigilante movement and which
eventually cleaned up the merciless gang of Henry Plummer and his
associates. The centers of civilization were far removed. The courts
were powerless. In some cases even the machinery of the law was in the
hands of these ruffians. But so violent were their deeds, so brutal, so
murderous, so unfair, that slowly the indignation of the good men arose
to the white-hot point of open resentment and of swift retribution. What
the good men of the frontier loved most of all was justice. They now
enforced justice in the only way left open to them. They did this as
California earlier had done; and they did it so well that there was
small need to repeat the lesson.

The actual extermination of the Henry Plummer band occurred rather
promptly when the Vigilantes once got under way. One of the band by the
name of Red Yager, in company with yet another by the name of Brown,
had been concerned in the murder of Lloyd Magruder, a merchant of the
Territory. The capture of these two followed closely upon the hanging of
George Ives, also accused of more than one murder. Ives was an example
of the degrading influence of the mines. He was a decent young man until
he left his home in Wisconsin. He was in California from 1857 to 1858.
When he appeared in Idaho he seemed to have thrown off all restraint and
to have become a common rowdy and desperado. It is said of him that "few
men of his age ever had been guilty of so many fiendish crimes."

Yager and Brown, knowing the fate which Ives had met, gave up hope when
they fell into the hands of the newly organized Vigilantes. Brown
was hanged; so was Yager; but Yager, before his death, made a full
confession which put the Vigilantes in possession of information they
had never yet been able to secure. *


    * Langford gives these names disclosed by Yager as follows:
"Henry Plummer was chief of the band; Bill Bunton, stool pigeon and
second in command; George Brown, secretary; Sam Bunton, roadster;
Cyrus Skinner, fence, spy, and roadster; George Shears, horse thief and
roadster; Frank Parish, horse thief and roadster; Hayes Lyons, telegraph
man and roadster; Bill Hunter, telegraph man and roadster; Ned Ray,
council-room keeper at Bannack City; George Ives, Stephen Marshland,
Dutch John (Wagner), Alex Carter, Whiskey Bill (Graves), Johnny Cooper,
Buck Stinson, Mexican Franks Bob Zachary, Boone Helm, Clubfoot George
(Lane), Billy Terwiliger, Gad Moore were roadsters." Practically all
these were executed by the Vigilantes, with many others, and eventually
the band of outlaws was entirely broken up.


Much has been written and much romanced about the conduct of these
desperadoes when they met their fate. Some of them were brave and some
proved cowards at the last. For a time, Plummer begged abjectly, his
eyes streaming with tears. Suddenly he was smitten with remorse as
the whole picture of his past life appeared before him. He promised
everything, begged everything, if only life might be spared him--asked
his captors to cut off his ears, to cut out his tongue, then strip him
naked and banish him. At the very last, however, he seems to have become
composed. Stinson and Ray went to their fate alternately swearing and
whining. Some of the ruffians faced death boldly. More than one himself
jumped from the ladder or kicked from under him the box which was the
only foothold between him and eternity. Boone Helm was as hardened as
any of them. This man was a cannibal and murderer. He seems to have had
no better nature whatever. His last words as he sprang off were "Hurrah
for Jeff Davis! Let her rip!" Another man remarked calmly that he cared
no more for hanging than for drinking a glass of water. But each after
his own fashion met the end foreordained for him by his own lack of
compassion; and of compassion he received none at the hands of the men
who had resolved that the law should be established and should remain
forever.

There was an instant improvement in the social life of Virginia City,
Bannack, and the adjoining camps as soon as it was understood that the
Vigilantes were afoot. Langford, who undoubtedly knew intimately of the
activities of this organization, makes no apology for the acts of the
Vigilantes, although they did not have back of them the color of the
actual law. He says:

"The retribution dispensed to these daring freebooters in no respect
exceeded the demands of absolute justice.... There was no other remedy.
Practically the citizens had no law, but if law had existed it could
not have afforded adequate redress. This was proven by the feeling of
security consequent upon the destruction of the band. When the robbers
were dead the people felt safe, not for themselves alone but for their
pursuits and their property. They could travel without fear. They had
reasonable assurance of safety in the transmission of money to the
States and in the arrival of property over the unguarded route from Salt
Lake. The crack of pistols had ceased, and they could walk the streets
without constant exposure to danger. There was an omnipresent spirit of
protection, akin to that omnipresent spirit of law which pervaded older
and more civilized communities.... Young men who had learned to believe
that the roughs were destined to rule and who, under the influence of
that faith, were fast drifting into crime shrunk appalled before the
thorough work of the Vigilantes. Fear, more potent than conscience,
forced even the worst of men to observe the requirements of society, and
a feeling of comparative security among all classes was the result."

Naturally it was not the case that all the bad men were thus
exterminated. From time to time there appeared vividly in the midst of
these surroundings additional figures of solitary desperadoes, each to
have his list of victims, and each himself to fall before the weapons of
his enemies or to meet the justice of the law or the sterner meed of the
Vigilantes. It would not be wholly pleasant to read even the names of
a long list of these; perhaps it will be sufficient to select one, the
notorious Joseph Slade, one of the "picturesque" characters of whom a
great deal of inaccurate and puerile history has been written. The
truth about Slade is that he was a good man at first, faithful in the
discharge of his duties as an agent of the stage company. Needing at
times to use violence lawfully, he then began to use it unlawfully. He
drank and soon went from bad to worse. At length his outrages became so
numerous that the men of the community took him out and hanged him. His
fate taught many others the risk of going too far in defiance of law and
decency.

What has been true regarding the camps of Florence, Bannack, and
Virginia City, had been true in part in earlier camps and was to be
repeated perhaps a trifle less vividly in other camps yet to come. The
Black Hills gold rush, for instance, which came after the railroad
but before the Indians were entirely cleared away, made a certain
wild history of its own. We had our Deadwood stage line then, and
our Deadwood City with all its wild life of drinking, gambling, and
shooting--the place where more than one notorious bad man lost his life,
and some capable officers of the peace shared their fate. To describe in
detail the life of this stampede and the wild scenes ensuing upon it is
perhaps not needful here. The main thing is that the great quartz lodes
of the Black Hills support in the end a steady, thrifty, and law-abiding
population.

All over that West, once so unspeakably wild and reckless, there now
rise great cities where recently were scattered only mining-camps scarce
fit to be called units of any social compact. It was but yesterday
that these men fought and drank and dug their own graves in their own
sluices. At the city of Helena, on the site of Last Chance Gulch,
one recalls that not so long ago citizens could show with a certain
contemporary pride the old dead tree once known as "Hangman's Tree." It
marked a spot which might be called a focus of the old frontier. Around
it, and in the country immediately adjoining, was fought out the great
battle whose issue could not be doubted--that between the new and the
old days; between law and order and individual lawlessness; between
the school and the saloon; between the home and the dance-hall; between
society united and resolved and the individual reverted to worse than
savagery.



Chapter VI. The Pathways Of The West

Since we have declared ourselves to be less interested in bald
chronology than in the naturally connected causes of events which make
chronology worth while, we may now, perhaps, double back upon the path
of chronology, and take up the great early highways of the West--what we
might call the points of attack against the frontier.

The story of the Santa Fe Trail, now passing into oblivion, once was on
the tongue of every man. This old highroad in its heyday presented the
most romantic and appealing features of the earlier frontier life. The
Santa Fe Trail was the great path of commerce between our frontier and
the Spanish towns trading through Santa Fe. This commerce began in 1822,
when about threescore men shipped certain goods across the lower Plains
by pack-animals. By 1826 it was employing a hundred men and was using
wagons and mules. In 1830, when oxen first were used on the trail, the
trade amounted to $120,000 annually; and by 1843, when the Spanish ports
were closed, it had reached the value of $450,000, involving the use
of 230 wagons and 350 men. It was this great wagon trail which first
brought us into touch with the Spanish civilization of the Southwest.
Its commercial totals do not bulk large today, but the old trail itself
was a thing titanic in its historic value.

This was the day not of water but of land transport; yet the wheeled
vehicles which passed out into the West as common carriers of
civilization clung to the river valleys--natural highways and natural
resting places of homebuilding man. This has been the story of the
advance of civilization from the first movements of the world's peoples.
The valleys are the cleats of civilization's golden sluices.

There lay the great valley of the Arkansas, offering food and water, an
easy grade and a direct course reaching out into the West, even to the
edge of the lands of Spain; and here stood wheeled vehicles able to
traverse it and to carry drygoods and hardware, and especially
domestic cotton fabrics, which formed the great staple of a "Santa Fe
assortment." The people of the Middle West were now, in short, able
to feed and clothe themselves and to offer a little of their surplus
merchandise to some one else in sale. They had begun to export! Out
yonder, in a strange and unknown land, lay one of the original markets
of America!

On the heels of Lewis and Clark, who had just explored the Missouri
River route to the Northwest, Captain Zebulon Pike of the Army, long
before the first wheeled traffic started West, had employed this valley
of the Arkansas in his search for the southwestern delimitations of the
United States. Pike thought he had found the head of the Red River when
after a toilsome and dangerous march he reached the headwaters of
the Rio Grande. But it was not our river. It belonged to Spain, as he
learned to his sorrow, when he marched all the way to Chihuahua in old
Mexico and lay there during certain weary months.

It was Pike's story of the far Southwest that first started the idea of
the commerce of the Santa Fe Trail. In that day geography was a human
thing, a thing of vital importance to all men. Men did not read the
stock markets; they read stories of adventure, tales of men returned
from lands out yonder in the West. Heretofore the swarthy Mexicans, folk
of the dry plains and hills around the head of the Rio Grande and the
Red, had carried their cotton goods and many other small and needful
things all the way from Vera Cruz on the seacoast, over trails that were
long, tedious, uncertain, and expensive. A far shorter and more natural
trade route went west along the Arkansas, which would bring the American
goods to the doors of the Spanish settlements. After Pike and one or two
others had returned with reports of the country, the possibilities of
this trade were clear to any one with the merchant's imagination.

There is rivalry for the title of "Father of the Santa Fe Trail." As
early as 1812, when the United States was at war with England, a party
of men on horseback trading into the West, commonly called the McKnight,
Baird, and Chambers party, made their way west to Santa Fe. There,
however, they met with disaster. All their goods were confiscated and
they themselves lay in Mexican jails for nine years. Eventually the
returning survivors of this party told their stories, and those stories,
far from chilling, only inflamed the ardor of other adventurous traders.
In 1821 more than one American trader reached Santa Fe; and, now that
the Spanish yoke had been thrown off by the Mexicans, the goods, instead
of being confiscated, were purchased eagerly.

It is to be remembered, of course, that trading of this sort to Mexico
was not altogether a new thing. Sutlers of the old fur traders and
trappers already had found the way to New Spain from the valley of the
Platte, south along the eastern edge of the Rockies, through Wyoming
and Colorado. By some such route as that at least one trader, a French
creole, agent of the firm of Bryant & Morrison at Kaskaskia, had
penetrated to the Spanish lands as early as 1804, while Lewis and Clark
were still absent in the upper wilderness. Each year the great mountain
rendezvous of the trappers--now at Bent's Fort on the Arkansas, now
at Horse Creek in Wyoming, now on Green River in Utah, or even farther
beyond the mountains--demanded supplies of food and traps and ammunition
to enable the hunters to continue their work for another year. Perhaps
many of the pack-trains which regularly supplied this shifting mountain
market already had traded in the Spanish country.

It is not necessary to go into further details regarding this primitive
commerce of the prairies. It yielded a certain profit; it shaped the
character of the men who carried it on. But what is yet more important,
it greatly influenced the country which lay back of the border on the
Missouri River. It called yet more men from the eastern settlements
to those portions which lay upon the edge of the Great Plains. There
crowded yet more thickly, up to the line between the certain and the
uncertain, the restless westbound population of all the country.

If on the south the valley of the Arkansas led outward to New Spain,
yet other pathways made out from the Mississippi River into the unknown
lands. The Missouri was the first and last of our great natural frontier
roads. Its lower course swept along the eastern edge of the Plains, far
to the south, down to the very doors of the most adventurous settlements
in the Mississippi Valley. Those who dared its stained and turbulent
current had to push up, onward, northward, past the mouth of the Platte,
far to the north across degrees of latitude, steadily forward through
a vast virgin land. Then the river bent boldly and strongly off to the
west, across another empire. Its great falls indicated that it headed
high; beyond the great falls its steady sweep westward and at last
southward, led into yet other kingdoms.

When we travel by horse or by modern motor car in that now accessible
region and look about us, we should not fail to reflect on the long
trail of the upbound boats which Manuel Lisa and other traders sent out
almost immediately upon the return of the Lewis and Clark expedition.
We should see them struggling up against that tremendous current
before steam was known, driven by their lust for new lands. We may
then understand fully what we have read of the enterprises of the old
American Fur Company, and bring to mind the forgotten names of Campbell
and Sublette, of General Ashley and of Wyeth--names to be followed by
others really of less importance, as those of Bonneville and Fremont.
That there could be farms, that there ever might be homes, in this
strange wild country, was, to these early adventurers, unthinkable.

Then we should picture the millions of buffalo which once covered these
plains and think of the waste and folly of their slaughtering. We should
see the long streams of the Mackinaw boats swimming down the Missouri,
bound for St. Louis, laden with bales of buffalo and beaver peltry,
every pound of which would be worth ten dollars at the capital of the
fur trade; and we should restore to our minds the old pictures of savage
tribesmen, decked in fur-trimmed war-shirts and plumed bonnets, armed
with lance and sinewed bow and bull-neck shield, not forgetting whence
they got their horses and how they got their food.

The great early mid-continental highway, known as the Oregon Trail or
the Overland Trail, was by way of the Missouri up the Platte Valley,
thence across the mountains. We know more of this route because it was
not discontinued, but came steadily more and more into use, for one
reason after another. The fur traders used it, the Forty-Niners used it,
the cattlemen used it in part, the railroads used it; and, lastly, the
settlers and farmers used it most of all.

In physical features the Platte River route was similar to that of the
Arkansas Valley. Each at its eastern extremity, for a few days' travel,
passed over the rolling grass-covered and flower-besprinkled prairies
ere it broke into the high and dry lands of the Plains, with their green
or grey or brown covering of practically flowerless short grasses. But
between the two trails of the Arkansas and the Platte there existed
certain wide differences. At the middle of the nineteenth century the
two trails were quite distinct in personnel, if that word may be used.
The Santa Fe Trail showed Spanish influences; that of the Platte Valley
remained far more nearly American.

Thus far the frontier had always been altering the man who came to it;
and, indirectly, always altering those who dwelt back of the frontier,
nearer to the Appalachians or the Atlantic. A new people now was in
process of formation--a people born of a new environment. America and
the American were conceiving. There was soon to be born, soon swiftly to
grow, a new and lasting type of man. Man changes an environment only by
bringing into it new or better transportation. Environment changes man.
Here in the midcontinent, at the mid-century, the frontier and the ways
of the frontier were writing their imprint on the human product of our
land.

The first great caravans of the Platte Valley, when the wagon-trains
went out hundreds strong, were not the same as the scattering cavalcade
of the fur hunters, not the same as the ox-trains and mule-trains of the
Santa Fe traffic. The men who wore deepest the wheel marks of the Oregon
Trail were neither trading nor trapping men, but homebuilding men--the
first real emigrants to go West with the intent of making homes beyond
the Rockies.

The Oregon Trail had been laid out by the explorers of the fur trade.
Zealous missionaries had made their way over the trail in the thirties.
The Argonauts of '49 passed over it and left it only after crossing the
Rockies. But, before gold in California was dreamed of, there had come
back to the States reports of lands rich in resources other than gold,
lying in the far Northwest, beyond the great mountain ranges and, before
the Forty-Niners were heard of, farmers, homebuilders, emigrants, men
with their families, men with their household goods, were steadily
passing out for the far-off and unknown country of Oregon.

The Oregon Trail was the pathway for Fremont in 1842, perhaps the most
overvalued explorer of all the West; albeit this comment may to some
seem harsh. Kit Carson and Bill Williams led Fremont across the Rockies
almost by the hand. Carson and Williams themselves had been taken across
by the Indian tribes. But Fremont could write; and the story which he
set down of his first expedition inflamed the zeal of all. Men began
to head out for that far-away country beyond the Rockies. Not a few
scattered bands, but very many, passed up the valley of the Platte.
There began a tremendous trek of thousands of men who wanted homes
somewhere out beyond the frontier. And that was more than ten years
before the Civil War. The cow trade was not dreamed of; the coming cow
country was overleaped and ignored.

Our national horizon extended immeasurably along that dusty way. In the
use of the Oregon Trail we first began to be great. The chief figure
of the American West, the figure of the ages, is not the long-haired,
fringed-legging man riding a raw-boned pony, but the gaunt and sadfaced
woman sitting on the front seat of the wagon, following her lord where
he might lead, her face hidden in the same ragged sunbonnet which had
crossed the Appalachians and the Missouri long before. That was America,
my brethren! There was the seed of America's wealth. There was the great
romance of all America--the woman in the sunbonnet; and not, after all,
the hero with the rifle across his saddle horn. Who has written her
story? Who has painted her picture?

They were large days, those of the great Oregon Trail, not always
pleasingly dramatic, but oftentimes tragic and terrible. We speak of
the Oregon Trail, but it means little to us today; nor will any mere
generalities ever make it mean much to us. But what did it mean to the
men and women of that day? What and who were those men and women?
What did it mean to take the Overland Trail in the great adventure of
abandoning forever the known and the safe and setting out for Oregon
or California at a time when everything in the far West was new and
unknown? How did those good folk travel? Why and whither did they
travel?

There is a book done by C. F. McGlashan, a resident of Truckee,
California, known as "The History of the Donner Party," holding a great
deal of actual history. McGlashan, living close to Donner Lake, wrote
in 1879, describing scenes with which he was perfectly familiar, and
recounting facts which he had from direct association with participants
in the ill-fated Donner Party. He chronicles events which happened in
1846--a date before the discovery of gold in California. The Donner
Party was one of the typical American caravans of homeseekers who
started for the Pacific Slope with no other purpose than that of
founding homes there, and with no expectation of sudden wealth to be
gained in the mines. I desire therefore to quote largely from the
pages of this book, believing that, in this fashion, we shall come upon
history of a fundamental sort, which shall make us acquainted with the
men and women of that day, with the purposes and the ambitions which
animated them, and with the hardships which they encountered.

"The States along the Mississippi were but sparsely settled in 1846, yet
the fame of the fruitfulness, the healthfulness, and the almost tropical
beauty of the land bordering the Pacific, tempted the members of
the Donner Party to leave their homes. These homes were situated in
Illinois, Iowa, Tennessee, Missouri, and Ohio. Families from each of
these States joined the train and participated in its terrible fate; yet
the party proper was organized in Sangamon County, Illinois, by George
and Jacob Donner and James F. Reed. Early in April, 1846, the party set
out from Springfield, Illinois, and by the first week in May reached
Independence, Missouri. Here the party was increased by additional
members, and the train comprised about one hundred persons.... In the
party were aged fathers with their trusting families about them, mothers
whose very lives were wrapped up in their children, men in the prime and
vigor of manhood, maidens in all the sweetness and freshness of budding
womanhood, children full of glee and mirthfulness, and babes nestling on
maternal breasts. Lovers there were, to whom the journey was tinged
with rainbow hues of joy and happiness, and strong, manly hearts whose
constant support and encouragement was the memory of dear ones left
behind in homeland.

"The wonderment which all experience in viewing the scenery along the
line of the old emigrant road was peculiarly vivid to these people.
Few descriptions had been given of the route, and all was novel and
unexpected. In later years the road was broadly and deeply marked, and
good camping grounds were distinctly indicated. The bleaching bones of
cattle that had perished, or the broken fragments of wagons or castaway
articles, were thickly strewn on either side of the highway. But in 1846
the way was through almost trackless valleys waving with grass, along
rivers where few paths were visible, save those made by the feet of
buffalo and antelope, and over mountains and plains where little more
than the westward course of the sun guided the travelers. Trading-posts
were stationed at only a few widely distant points, and rarely did the
party meet with any human beings, save wandering bands of Indians. Yet
these first days are spoken of by all of the survivors as being crowned
with peaceful enjoyment and pleasant anticipations. There were beautiful
flowers by the roadside, an abundance of game in the meadows and
mountains, and at night there were singing, dancing, and innocent plays.
Several musical instruments, and many excellent voices, were in the
party, and the kindliest feeling and goodfellowship prevailed among the
members.

"The formation of the company known as the Donner Party was purely
accidental. The union of so many emigrants into one train was not
occasioned by any preconcerted arrangement. Many composing the Donner
Party were not aware, at the outset, that such a tide of emigration was
sweeping to California. In many instances small parties would hear
of the mammoth train just ahead of them or just behind them, and by
hastening their pace, or halting for a few days, joined themselves to
the party. Many were with the train during a portion of the journey, but
from some cause or other became parted from the Donner company before
reaching Donner Lake. Soon after the train left Independence it
contained between two and three hundred wagons, and when in motion was
two miles in length. The members of the party proper numbered ninety."

This caravan, like many others of the great assemblage westbound at that
time, had great extremes in personnel. Some were out for mere adventure;
some were single men looking for a location. Most of them were fathers
of families, among them several persons of considerable means and of
good standing in the community which they were leaving. While we may
suppose that most of them were folk of no extraordinary sort, certainly
some were persons of education and intelligence. Among these was the
wife of George Donner--Tamsen Dormer; a woman of education, a musician,
a linguist, a botanist, and of the most sublime heroism.

Tamsen Donner sent back now and then along the route some story of the
daily doings of the caravan; and such letters as these are of the utmost
interest to any who desire precise information of that time. It would
seem that the emigrants themselves for a great part of their route met
with no great adventures, nor indeed, appeared to be undertaking any
unusual affair. They followed a route up the Platte Valley already long
known to those of the eastern settlements.

"Near the Junction of the North and South Platte, June 16, 1846.

"My Old Friend: We are now on the Platte, two hundred miles from Fort
Laramie. Our journey so far has been pleasant, the roads have been good,
and food plentiful. The water for part of the way has been indifferent,
but at no time have our cattle suffered for it. Wood is now very scarce,
but 'buffalo chips' are excellent; they kindle quickly and retain heat
surprisingly. We had this morning buffalo steaks broiled upon them that
had the same flavor they would have had upon hickory coals.

"We feel no fear of Indians; our cattle graze quietly around our
encampment unmolested. Two or three men will go hunting twenty miles
from camp; and last night two of our men lay out in the wilderness
rather than ride their horses after a hard chase.

"Indeed, if I do not experience something far worse than I have yet
done, I shall say the trouble is all in getting started. Our wagons have
not needed much repair, and I can not yet tell in what respects they
could be improved. Certain it is, they can not be too strong. Our
preparations for the journey might have been in some respects bettered.

"Bread has been the principal article of food in our camp. We laid in
one hundred and fifty pounds of flour and seventy-five pounds of meat
for each individual, and I fear bread will be scarce. Meat is abundant.
Rice and beans are good articles on the road; cornmeal too, is
acceptable. Linsey dresses are the most suitable for children. Indeed,
if I had one, it would be acceptable. There is so cool a breeze at
all times on the Plains that the sun does not feel so hot as one would
suppose.

"We are now four hundred and fifty miles from Independence. Our route
at first was rough, and through a timbered country, which appeared to be
fertile. After striking the prairie, we found a firstrate road, and the
only difficulty we have had, has been in crossing the creeks. In that,
however, there has been no danger.

"I never could have believed we could have traveled so far with so
little difficulty. The prairie between the Blue and the Platte Rivers is
beautiful beyond description. Never have I seen so varied a country, so
suitable for cultivation. Everything is new and pleasing; the Indians
frequently come to see us, and the chiefs of a tribe breakfasted at
our tent this morning. All are so friendly that I can not help feeling
sympathy and friendship for them. But on one sheet what can I say?

"Since we have been on the Platte, we have had the river on one side
and the ever varying mounds on the other, and have traveled through the
bottom lands from one to two miles wide, with little or no timber.
The soil is sandy, and last year, on account of the dry season, the
emigrants found grass here scarce. Our cattle are in good order, and
when proper care has been taken, none have been lost. Our milch cows
have been of great service, indeed. They have been of more advantage
than our meat. We have plenty of butter and milk.

"We are commanded by Captain Russell, an amiable man. George Donner
is himself yet. He crows in the morning and shouts out, 'Chain up,
boys--chain up,' with as much authority as though he was 'something in
particular.' John Denton is still with us. We find him useful in the
camp. Hiram Miller and Noah James are in good health and doing well. We
have of the best people in our company, and some, too, that are not so
good.

"Buffalo show themselves frequently. We have found the wild tulip, the
primrose, the lupine, the eardrop, the larkspur, and creeping hollyhock,
and a beautiful flower resembling the bloom of the beech tree, but in
bunches as large as a small sugarloaf, and of every variety of shade, to
red and green.

"I botanize, and read some, but cook 'heaps' more. There are four
hundred and twenty wagons, as far as we have heard, on the road between
here and Oregon and California.

"Give our love to all inquiring friends. God bless them.

"Yours truly, Mrs. George Donner."

By the Fourth of July the Donner Party had reached Fort Laramie. They
pushed on west over the old trail up the Sweetwater River and across the
South Pass, the easiest of all the mountain passes known to the early
travelers. Without much adventure they reached Fort Bridger, then only a
trading-post. Here occurred the fatal mistake of the Donner Party.

Some one at the fort strongly advised them to take a new route, a
cut-off said to shorten the distance by about three hundred miles. This
cut-off passed along the south shore of Great Salt Lake and caught up
the old California Trail from Fort Hall--then well established and well
known-along the Humboldt River. The great Donner caravan delayed for
some days at Fort Bridger, hesitating over the decision of which route
to follow. The party divided. All those who took the old road north of
Salt Lake by way of Fort Hall reached California in complete safety. Of
the original Donner Party there remained eighty-seven persons. All of
these took the cut-off, being eager to save time in their travel. They
reached Salt Lake after unspeakable difficulties. Farther west, in the
deserts of Nevada, they lost many of their cattle.

Now began among the party dissensions and grumblings. The story is a
long one. It reached its tragic denouement just below the summit of the
Sierras, on the shores of Donner Lake. The words of McGlashan may now
best serve our purpose.

"Generally, the ascent of the Sierra brought joy and gladness to weary
overland emigrants. To the Donner Party it brought terror and dismay.
The company had hardly obtained a glimpse of the mountains, ere the
winter storm clouds began to assemble their hosts around the loftier
crests. Every day the weather appeared more ominous and threatening. The
delay at the Truckee Meadows had been brief, but every day ultimately
cost a dozen lives. On the twenty-third of October, they became
thoroughly alarmed at the angry heralds of the gathering storm, and with
all haste resumed the journey. It was too late! At Prosser Creek, three
miles below Truckee, they found themselves encompassed with six inches
of snow. On the summits, the snow was from two to five feet in depth.
This was October 28, 1846. Almost a month earlier than usual, the Sierra
had donned its mantle of ice and snow. The party were prisoners!

"All was consternation. The wildest confusion prevailed. In their
eagerness, many went far in advance of the main train. There was little
concert of action or harmony of plan. All did not arrive at Donner Lake
the same day. Some wagons and families did not reach the lake until the
thirty-first day of October, some never went farther than Prosser Creek,
while others, on the evening of the twenty-ninth, struggled through the
snow, and reached the foot of the precipitous cliffs between the summit
and the upper end of the lake. Here, baffled, wearied, disheartened,
they turned back to the foot of the lake."

These emigrants did not lack in health, strength, or resolution, but
here they were in surroundings absolutely new to them. A sort of panic
seized them now. They scattered; their organization disintegrated.
All thought of conjoint action, of a social compact, a community of
interests, seems to have left them. It was a history of every man for
himself, or at least every family for itself. All track of the road
was now lost under the snow. At the last pitch up to the summit of the
Sierras precipitous cliffs abounded. No one knew the way. And now the
snows came once again.

"The emigrants suffered a thousand deaths. The pitiless snow came down
in large, steady masses. All understood that the storm meant death. One
of the Indians silently wrapped his blanket about him and in deepest
dejection seated himself beside a tall pine. In this position he passed
the entire night, only moving occasionally to keep from being
covered with snow. Mrs. Reed spread down a shawl, placed her four
children--Virginia, Patty, James, and Thomas--thereon, and putting
another shawl over them, sat by the side of her babies during all the
long hours of darkness. Every little while she was compelled to lift the
upper shawl and shake off the rapidly accumulating snow.

"With slight interruptions, the storm continued several days. The mules
and oxen that had always hovered about camp were blinded and bewildered
by the storm, and straying away were literally buried alive in the
drifts. What pen can describe the horror of the position in which the
emigrants found themselves? It was impossible to move through the deep,
soft snow without the greatest effort. The mules were gone, and were
never found. Most of the cattle had perished, and were wholly hidden
from sight. The few oxen which were found were slaughtered for beef."

The travelers knew that the supplies they had could not last long. On
the 12th of November a relief party essayed to go forward, but after
struggling a short distance toward the summit, came back wearied and
broken-hearted, unable to make way through the deep, soft snow. Then
some one--said to have been F. W. Graves of Vermont--bethought himself
of making snowshoes out of the oxbows and the hides of the slaughtered
oxen. With these they did better.

Volunteers were called for yet another party to cross the mountains into
California. Fifteen persons volunteered. Not all of them were men--some
were mothers, and one was a young woman. Their mental condition was
little short of desperation. Only, in the midst of their intense
hardships it seemed to all, somewhere to the westward was California,
and that there alone lay any hope. The party traveled four miles the
first day; and their camp fires were visible below the summit. The next
day they traveled six miles and crossed the divide.

They were starving, cold, worn out, their feet frozen to bursting, their
blood chilled. At times they were caught in some of the furious storms
of the Sierras. They did not know their way. On the 27th of December
certain of the party resolved themselves to that last recourse which
alone might mean life. Surrounded by horrors as they were, it seemed
they could endure the thought of yet an additional horror.... There were
the dead, the victims who already had perished!...

Seven of the fifteen got through to the Sacramento Valley, among these
the young girl, Mary Graves, described as "a very beautiful girl, of
tall and slender build, and, exceptionally graceful character." The
story brought out by these survivors of the first party to cross the
Sierras from the starving camp set all California aflame. There were
no less than three relief expeditions formed, which at varying dates
crossed the mountains to the east. Some men crossed the snow belt five
times in all. The rescuers were often in as much danger as the victims
they sought to save.

And they could not save them. Back there in their tents and hovels
around Donner Lake starvation was doing its work steadily. There is
contemporary history also covering the details of this. Tamsen Donner,
heroine that she was, kept a diary which would have been valuable
for us, but this was lost along with her paintings and her botanical
collections. The best preserved diary is that of Patrick Breen, done
in simple and matter-of-fact fashion throughout most of the starving
winter. Thus:

"Dec. 17. Pleasant; William Murphy returned from the mountain party last
evening; Baylis Williams died night before last; Milton and Noah started
for Donner's eight days ago; not returned yet; think they are lost in
the snow.

"Dec. 21. Milton got back last night from Donner's camp. Sad news; Jacob
Donner, Samuel Shoemaker, Rhineheart, and Smith are dead; the rest of
them in a low situation; snowed all night, with a strong southwest wind.

"Dec. 23. Clear to-day; Milton took some of his meat away; all well at
their camp. Began this day to read the 'Thirty Days' Prayers'; Almighty
God, grant the requests of unworthy sinners!

"Jan. 13. Snowing fast; snow higher than the shanty; it must be thirteen
feet deep. Can not get wood this morning; it is a dreadful sight for us
to look upon.

"Jan. 27. Commenced snowing yesterday; still continues today. Lewis
Keseberg, Jr., died three days ago; food growing scarce; don't have fire
enough to cook our hides.

"Jan. 31. The sun does not shine out brilliant this morning; froze hard
last night; wind northwest. Landrum Murphy died last night about ten
o'clock; Mrs. Reed went to Graves's this morning to look after goods.

"Feb. 4. Snowed hard until twelve o'clock last night; many uneasy for
fear we shall all perish with hunger; we have but little meat left, and
only three hides; Mrs. Reed has nothing but one hide, and that is on
Graves's house; Milton lives there, and likely will keep that. Eddy's
child died last night.

"Feb. 7. Ceased to snow at last; today it is quite pleasant. McCutchen's
child died on the second of this month.

"[This child died and was buried in the Graves's cabin. Mr. W. C. Graves
helped dig the grave near one side of the cabin, and laid the little one
to rest. One of the most heart-rending features of this Donner tragedy
is the number of infants that perished. Mrs. Breen, Mrs. Pike, Mrs.
Foster, Mrs. McCutchen, Mrs. Eddy, and Mrs. Graves each had nursing
babes when the fatal camp was pitched at Donner Lake.]

"Feb. 8. Fine, clear morning. Spitzer died last night, and we will bury
him in the snow; Mrs. Eddy died on the night of the seventh.

"Feb. 9. Mrs. Pike's child all but dead; Milton is at Murphy's, not able
to get out of bed; Mrs. Eddy and child buried today; wind southeast.

"Feb. 10. Beautiful morning; thawing in the sun; Milton Elliott died
last night at Murphy's cabin, and Mrs. Reed went there this morning to
see about his effects. John Denton trying to borrow meat for Graves; had
none to give; they had nothing but hides; all are entirely out of meat,
but a little we have; our hides are nearly all eat up, but with God's
help spring will soon smile upon us."

There was one survivor of the camp at Donner Lake, a man named Lewis
Keseberg, of German descent. That he was guilty of repeated cannibalism
cannot be doubted. It was in his cabin that, after losing all her loved
ones, the heroic Tamsen Donner met her end. Many thought he killed her
for the one horrid purpose. *


    * Many years later (1879) Keseberg declared under oath to C. F.
McGlashan that he did not take her life. See "History of the Donner"
Party, pp. 212, 213.


Such then is the story of one of the great emigrant parties who started
West on a hazard of new fortunes in the early days of the Oregon
Trail. Happily there has been no parallel to the misadventures of this
ill-fated caravan. It is difficult--without reading these, bald and
awful details--to realize the vast difference between that day and
this. Today we may by the gentle stages of a pleasant railway journey
arrive at Donner Lake. Little trace remains, nor does any kindly soul
wish for more definite traces, of those awful scenes. Only a cross here
and there with a legend, faint and becoming fainter every year, may be
seen, marking the more prominent spots of the historic starving camp.

Up on the high mountain side, for the most part hid in the forest, lie
the snowsheds and tunnels of the railway, now encountering its stiffest
climb up the steep slopes to the summit of the Sierras. The
author visited this spot of melancholy history in company with the
vice-president of the great railway line which here swings up so
steadily and easily over the Sierras. Bit by bit we checked out as best
we might the fateful spots mentioned in the story of the Donner Party. A
splendid motor highway runs by the lakeside now. While we halted our
own car there, a motor car drove up from the westward--following
that practical automobile highway which now exists from the plains of
California across the Sierras and east over precisely that trail
where once the weary feet of the oxen dragged the wagons of the early
emigrants. It was a small car of no expensive type. It was loaded down
with camping equipment until the wheels scarcely could be seen. It
carried five human occupants--an Iowa farmer and his family. They had
been out to California for a season. Casually they had left Los Angeles,
had traveled north up the valleys of California, east across the summit
of the Sierras, and were here now bound for Iowa over the old emigrant
trail!

We hailed this new traveler on the old trail. I do not know whether or
not he had any idea of the early days of that great highway; I suspect
that he could tell only of its present motoring possibilities. But his
wheels were passing over the marks left more than half a century ago
by the cracked felloes of the emigrant wagons going west in search
of homes. If we seek history, let us ponder that chance pause of the
eastbound family, traveling by motor for pleasure, here by the side of
the graves of the travelers of another day, itself so briefly gone. What
an epoch was spanned in the passing of that frontier!



Chapter VII. The Indian Wars

It might well be urged against the method employed in these pages that,
although we undertook to speak of the last American frontier, all that
we really thus far have done has been to describe a series of frontiers
from the Missouri westward. In part this is true. But it was precisely
in this large, loose, and irregular fashion that we actually arrived at
our last frontier. Certainly our westbound civilization never advanced
by any steady or regular process. It would be a singularly illuminating
map--and one which I wish we might show--which would depict in different
colors the great occupied areas of the West, with the earliest dates of
their final and permanent occupation. Such a map as this would show us
that the last frontier of America was overleaped and left behind not
once but a score of times.

The land between the Missouri and the Rockies, along the Great Plains
and the high foothills, was crossed over and forgotten by the men who
were forging on into farther countries in search of lands where fortune
was swift and easy. California, Oregon, all the early farming and
timbering lands of the distant Northwest--these lay far beyond the
Plains; and as we have noted, they were sought for, even before gold was
dreamed of upon the Pacific Slope.

So here, somewhere between the Missouri and the Rockies, lay our last
frontier, wavering, receding, advancing, gaining and losing, changing
a little more every decade--and at last so rapidly changed as to be
outworn and abolished in one swift decade all its own.

This unsettled land so long held in small repute by the early Americans,
was, as we have pointed out, the buffalo range and the country of the
Horse Indians--the Plains tribes who lived upon the buffalo. For a long
time it was this Indian population which held back the white settlements
of Kansas, Nebraska, the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado. But as men
began to work farther and farther westward in search of homes in Oregon,
or in quest of gold in California or Idaho or Montana, the Indian
question came to be a serious one.

To the Army, soon after the Civil War, fell the task of exterminating,
or at least evicting, the savage tribes over all this unvalued and
unknown Middle West. This was a process not altogether simple. For
a considerable time the Indians themselves were able to offer very
effective resistance to the enterprise. They were accustomed to living
upon that country, and did not need to bring in their own supplies;
hence the Army fought them at a certain disadvantage. In sooth, the Army
had to learn to become half Indian before it could fight the Indians on
anything like even terms. We seem not so much to have coveted the lands
in the first Indian-fighting days; we fought rather for the trails than
for the soil. The Indians themselves had lived there all their lives,
had conquered their environment, and were happy in it. They made a
bitter fight; nor are they to be blamed for doing so.

The greatest of our Indian wars have taken place since our own Civil
War; and perhaps the most notable of all the battles are those which
were fought on the old cow range--in the land of our last frontier. We
do not lack abundant records of this time of our history. Soon after the
Civil War the railroads began edging out into the plains. They brought,
besides many new settlers, an abundance of chroniclers and historians
and writers of hectic fiction or supposed fact. A multitude of books
came out at this time of our history, most of which were accepted
as truth. That was the time when we set up as Wild West heroes rough
skinclad hunters and so-called scouts, each of whom was allowed to tell
his own story and to have it accepted at par. As a matter of fact, at
about the time the Army had succeeded in subduing the last of the Indian
tribes on the buffalo-range, the most of our Wild West history, at least
so far as concerned the boldest adventure, was a thing of the past.
It was easy to write of a past which every one now was too new, too
ignorant, or too busy critically to remember.

Even as early as 1866, Colonel Marcy, an experienced army officer and
Indian-fighter, took the attitude of writing about a vanishing phase of
American life. In his Army "Life on the Border," he says:

"I have been persuaded by many friends that the contents of the book
which is herewith presented to the public are not without value as
records of a fast-vanishing age, and as truthful sketches of men of
various races whose memory will shortly depend only on romance, unless
some one who knew them shall undertake to leave outlines of their
peculiar characteristics.... I am persuaded that excuse may be found
in the simple fact that all these peoples of my description--men,
conditions of life, races of aboriginal inhabitants and adventurous
hunters and pioneers--are passing away. A few years more and the prairie
will be transformed into farms. The mountain ravines will be the abodes
of busy manufacturers, and the gigantic power of American civilization
will have taken possession of the land from the great river of the West
to the very shores of the Pacific.... The world is fast filling up.
I trust I am not in error when I venture to place some value, however
small, on everything which goes to form the truthful history of a
condition of men incident to the advances of civilization over the
continent--a condition which forms peculiar types of character, breeds
remarkable developments of human nature--a condition also which can
hardly again exist on this or any other continent, and which has,
therefore, a special value in the sum of human history."

Such words as the foregoing bespeak a large and dignified point of
view. No one who follows Marcy's pages can close them with anything but
respect and admiration. It is in books such as this, then, that we may
find something about the last stages of the clearing of the frontier.

Even in Marcy's times the question of our Government's Indian policy
was a mooted one. He himself as an Army officer looked at the matter
philosophically, but his estimate of conditions was exact. Long ago as
he wrote, his conclusions were such as might have been given forty years
later.

"The limits of their accustomed range are rapidly contracting, and their
means of subsistence undergoing a corresponding diminution. The white
man is advancing with rapid strides upon all sides of them, and they
are forced to give way to his encroachments. The time is not far distant
when the buffalo will become extinct, and they will then be compelled
to adopt some other mode of life than the chase for a subsistence.... No
man will quietly submit to starvation when food is within his reach, and
if he cannot obtain it honestly he will steal it or take it by
force. If, therefore, we do not induce them to engage in agricultural
avocations we shall in a few years have before us the alternative of
exterminating them or fighting them perpetually. That they are destined
ultimately to extinction does not in my mind admit of a doubt. For the
reasons above mentioned it may at first be necessary for our government
to assert its authority over them by a prompt and vigorous exercise of
the military arm.... The tendency of the policy I have indicated will be
to assemble these people in communities where they will be more readily
controlled; and I predict from it the most gratifying results." Another
well-informed army officer, Colonel Richard Dodge, himself a hunter,
a trailer, and a rider able to compete with the savages in their own
fields, penetrated to the heart of the Indian problem when he wrote:

"The conception of Indian character is almost impossible to a man who
has passed the greater portion of his life surrounded by the influences
of a cultivated, refined, and moral society.... The truth is simply too
shocking, and the revolted mind takes refuge in disbelief as the less
painful horn of the dilemma. As a first step toward an understanding of
his character we must get at his standpoint of morality. As a child he
is not brought up.... From the dawn of intelligence his own will is his
law. There is no right and no wrong to him.... No dread of punishment
restrains him from any act that boyish fun or fury may prompt. No
lessons inculcating the beauty and sure reward of goodness or the
hideousness and certain punishment of vice are ever wasted on him. The
men by whom he is surrounded, and to whom he looks as models for
his future life, are great and renowned just in proportion to their
ferocity, to the scalps they have taken, or the thefts they have
committed. His earliest boyish memory is probably a dance of rejoicing
over the scalps of strangers, all of whom he is taught to regard as
enemies. The lessons of his mother awaken only a desire to take his
place as soon as possible in fight and foray. The instruction of his
father is only such as is calculated to fit him best to act a prominent
part in the chase, in theft, and in murder.... Virtue, morality,
generosity, honor, are words not only absolutely without significance
to him, but are not accurately translatable, into any Indian language on
the Plains."

These are sterner, less kindly, less philosophic words than Marcy's,
but they keenly outline the duty of the Army on the frontier. We made
treaties with the Indians and broke them. In turn men such as these
ignorant savages might well be expected to break their treaties also;
and they did. Unhappily our Indian policy at that time was one of
mingled ferocity and wheedling. The Indians did not understand us any
more than we did them. When we withdrew some of the old frontier posts
from the old hunting-range, the action was construed by the tribesmen as
an admission that we feared them, and they acted upon that idea. In one
point of view they had right with them, for now we were moving out into
the last of the great buffalo country. Their war was one of desperation,
whereas ours was one of conquest, no better and no worse than all the
wars of conquest by which the strong have taken the possessions of the
weak.

Our Army at the close of the Civil War and at the beginning of the wars
with the Plains tribes was in better condition than it has ever been
since that day. It was made up of the soundest and best-seasoned
soldiers that ever fought under our flag; and at that time it
represented a greater proportion of our fighting strength than it
ever has before or since. In 1860 the Regular Army, not counting the
volunteer forces, was 16,000. In 1870 it was 37,000--one soldier to each
one thousand of our population.

Against this force, pioneers of the vaster advancing army of peaceful
settlers now surging West, there was arrayed practically all the
population of fighting tribes such as the Sioux, the two bands of the
Cheyennes, the Piegans, the Assiniboines, the Arapahoes, the Kiowas, the
Comanches, and the Apaches. These were the leaders of many other tribes
in savage campaigns which set the land aflame from the Rio Grande to our
northern line. The Sioux and Cheyennes were more especially the leaders,
and they always did what they could to enlist the aid of the less
warlike tribes such as the Crows, the Snakes, the Bannacks, the
Utes--indeed all of the savage or semi-civilized tribes which had hung
on the flanks of the traffic of the westbound trail.

The Sioux, then at the height of their power, were distinguished by many
warlike qualities. They fought hard and were quick to seize upon any
signs of weakness in their enemies. When we, in the course of our Civil
War, had withdrawn some of the upper posts, the Sioux edged in at once
and pressed back the whites quite to the eastern confines of the Plains.
When we were locked in the death grip of internecine war in 1862, they
rose in one savage wave of rebellion of their own and massacred with the
most horrible ferocity not less than six hundred and forty-four whites
in Minnesota and South Dakota. When General Sibley went out among them
on his later punitive campaign he had his hands full for many a long and
weary day.

Events following the close of the Civil War did not mend matters in
the Indian situation. The railroads had large land grants given to
them along their lines, and they began to offer these lands for sale to
settlers. Soldier scrip entitling the holder to locate on public lands
now began to float about. Some of the engineers, even some of the
laborers, upon the railroads, seeing how really feasible was the
settlement of these Plains, began to edge out and to set up their homes,
usually not far from the railway lines. All this increase in the numbers
of the white population not only infuriated the Indians the more, but
gave them the better chance to inflict damage upon our people. Our Army
therefore became very little more than a vast body of police, and it was
always afoot with the purpose of punishing these offending tribesmen,
who knew nothing of the higher laws of war and who committed atrocities
that have never been equalled in history; unless it be by one of the
belligerents of the Great War in Europe, with whom we are at this
writing engaged--once more in the interest of a sane and human
civilization. The last great struggle for the occupation of the frontier
was on. It involved the ownership of the last of our open lands; and
hence may be called the war of our last frontier.

The settler who pushed West continued to be the man who shared his time
between his rifle and his plough. The numerous buffalo were butchered
with an endless avidity by the men who now appeared upon the range. As
the great herds regularly migrated southward with each winter's snows,
they were met by the settlers along the lower railway lines and in a
brutal commerce were killed in thousands and in millions. The Indians
saw this sudden and appalling shrinkage of their means of livelihood.
It meant death to them. To their minds, especially when they thought we
feared them, there was but one answer to all this--the whites must all
be killed.

Red Cloud, Crazy Horse, Roman Nose, American Horse, Black Kettle--these
were names of great Indian generals who proved their ability to fight.
At times they brought into the open country, which as yet remained
unoccupied by the great pastoral movement from the south, as many as
five thousand mounted warriors in one body, and they were well armed
and well supplied with ammunition. Those were the days when the Indian
agents were carrying on their lists twice as many Indians as actually
existed--and receiving twice as many supplies as really were issued to
the tribes. The curse of politics was ours even at that time, and it
cost us then, as now, unestimated millions of our nation's dearest
treasures. As to the reservations which the Indians were urged to
occupy, they left them when they Iced. In the end, when they were
beaten, all they were asked to do was to return to these reservations
and be fed.

There were fought in the West from 1869 to 1875 more than two hundred
pitched actions between the Army and the Indians. In most cases the
white men were heavily outnumbered. The account which the Army gave of
itself on scores of unremembered minor fields--which meant life or death
to all engaged--would make one of the best pages of our history, could
it be written today. The enlisted men of the frontier Army were riding
and shooting men, able to live as the Indians did and able to beat them
at their own game. They were led by Army officers whose type has never
been improved upon in any later stage of our Army itself, or of any army
in the world.

There are certain great battles which may at least receive notice,
although it would be impossible to mention more than a few of the
encounters of the great Indian wars on the buffalo-range at about the
time of the buffalo's disappearance. The Fetterman Massacre in 1866,
near Fort Phil Kearney, a post located at the edge of the Big Horn
Mountains, was a blow which the Army never has forgotten. "In a place
of fifty feet square lay the bodies of Colonel Fetterman, Captain Brown,
and sixty-five enlisted men. Each man was stripped naked and hacked and
scalped, the skulls beaten in with war clubs and the bodies gashed with
knives almost beyond recognition, with other ghastly mutilations that
the civilized pen hesitates to record."

This tragedy brought the Indian problem before the country as never
before. The hand of the Western rancher and trader was implacably
against the tribesmen of the plains; the city-dweller of the East,
with hazy notions of the Indian character, was disposed to urge lenient
methods upon those responsible for governmental policy. While the Sioux
and Cheyenne wars dragged on, Congress created, by act of July 20, 1867,
a peace commission of four civilians and three army officers to deal
with the hostile tribes. For more than a year, with scant sympathy from
the military members, this commission endeavored to remove the causes of
friction by amicable conference with the Indian chiefs. The attitude of
the Army is reflected in a letter of General Sherman to his brother.
"We have now selected and provided reservations for all, off the great
roads. All who cling to their old hunting-grounds are hostile and will
remain so till killed off. We will have a sort of predatory war for
years--every now and then be shocked by the indiscriminate murder of
travelers and settlers, but the country is so large, and the advantage
of the Indians so great, that we cannot make a single war and end it.
From the nature of things we must take chances and clean out Indians as
we encounter them."

Segregation of the Indian tribes upon reservations seemed to the
commission the only solution of the vexing problem. Various treaties
were made and others were projected looking toward the removal of
the tribesmen from the highways of continental travel. The result was
misgiving and increased unrest among the Indians.

In midsummer of 1868 forays occurred at many points along the border of
the Indian Territory. General Sheridan, who now commanded the Department
of the Missouri, believed that a general war was imminent. He determined
to teach the southern tribesmen a lesson they would not forget. In the
dead of winter our troops marched against the Cheyennes, then in their
encampments below the Kansas line. The Indians did not believe that
white men could march in weather forty below zero, during which they
themselves sat in their tepees around their fires; but our cavalrymen
did march in such weather, and under conditions such as our cavalry
perhaps could not endure today. Among these troops was the Seventh
Cavalry, Custer's Regiment, formed after the Civil War, and it was led
by Lieutenant-Colonel George A. Custer himself, that gallant officer
whose name was to go into further and more melancholy history of the
Plains.

Custer marched until he got in touch with the trails of the Cheyennes,
whom he knew to belong to Black Kettle's band. He did not at the time
know that below them, in the same valley of the Washita, were also the
winter encampments of the Kiowas, the Comanches, the Arapahoes, and even
a few Apaches. He attacked at dawn of a bleak winter morning, November
27, 1868, after taking the precaution of surrounding the camp, and
killed Black Kettle, and another chief, Little Rock, and over a hundred
of their warriors. Many women and children also were killed in this
attack. The result was one which sank deep into the Indian mind. They
began to respect the men who could outmarch them and outlive them on
the range. Surely, they thought, these were not the same men who had
abandoned Forts Phil Kearney, C. F. Smith, and Reno. There had been
some mistake about this matter. The Indians began to think it over. The
result was a pacifying of all the country south of the Platte. The lower
Indians began to come in and give themselves up to the reservation life.

One of the hardest of pitched battles ever fought with an Indian tribe
occurred in September, 1868, on the Arickaree or South Fork of the
Republican River, where General "Sandy" Forsyth, and his scouts, for
nine days fought over six hundred Cheyennes and Arapahoes. These savages
had been committing atrocities upon the settlers of the Saline, the
Solomon, and the Republican valleys, and were known to have killed some
sixty-four men and women at the time General Sheridan resolved to punish
them. Forsyth had no chance to get a command of troops, but he
was allowed to enlist fifty scouts, all "first-class, hardened
frontiersmen," and with this body of fighting men he carried out the
most dramatic battle perhaps ever waged on the Plains.

Forsyth ran into the trail of two or three large Indian villages, but
none the less he followed on until he came to the valley of the South
Fork. Here the Cheyennes under the redoubtable Roman Nose surrounded
him on the 17th of September. The small band of scouts took refuge on a
brushy island some sixty yards from shore, and hastily dug themselves in
under fire.

They stood at bay outnumbered ten to one, with small prospect of escape,
for the little island offered no protection of itself, and was in
pointblank range from the banks of the river. All their horses soon were
shot down, and the men lay in the rifle pits with no hope of escape.
Roman Nose, enraged at the resistance put up by Forsyth's men, led a
band of some four hundred of his warriors in the most desperate charge
that has been recorded in all our Indian fighting annals. It was rarely
that the Indian would charge at all; but these tribesmen, stripped naked
for the encounter, and led at first by that giant warrior, who came
on shouting his defiance, charged in full view not only once but three
times in one day, and got within a hundred feet of the foot of the
island where the scouts were lying.

According to Forsyth's report, the Indians came on in regular ranks like
the cavalry of the white men, more than four hundred strong. They were
met by the fire of repeating carbines and revolvers, and they stood for
the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth fire of repeating weapons,
and still charged in! Roman Nose was killed at last within touch of the
rifle pits against which he was leading his men. The second charge
was less desperate, for the savages lost heart after the loss of their
leader. The third one, delivered towards the evening of that same day,
was desultory. By that time the bed of the shallow stream was well
filled with fallen horses and dead warriors.

Forsyth ordered meat cut from the bodies of his dead horses and buried
in the wet sand so that it might keep as long as possible. Lieutenant
Beecher, his chief of scouts, was killed, as also were Surgeon Mooers,
and Scouts Smith, Chalmers, Wilson, Farley, and Day. Seventeen others
of the party were wounded, some severely. Forsyth himself was shot three
times, once in the head. His left leg was broken below the knee, and
his right thigh was ripped up by a rifle ball, which caused him extreme
pain. Later he cut the bullet out of his own leg, and was relieved from
some part of the pain. After his rescue, when his broken leg was set it
did not suit him, and he had the leg broken twice in the hospital and
reset until it knitted properly.

Forsyth's men lay under fire under a blazing sun in their holes on the
sandbar for nine days. But the savages never dislodged them, and at last
they made off, their women and children beating the death drums, and the
entire village mourning the unreturning brave. On the second day of the
fighting Forsyth had got out messengers at extreme risk, and at length
the party was rescued by a detachment of the Tenth Cavalry. The Indians
later said that they had in all over six hundred warriors in this fight.
Their losses, though variously estimated, were undoubtedly heavy.

It was encounters such as this which gradually were teaching the Indians
that they could not beat the white men, so that after a time they began
to yield to the inevitable.

What is known as the Baker Massacre was the turning-point in the
half-century of warfare with the Blackfeet, the savage tribe which
had preyed upon the men of the fur trade in a long-continued series of
robberies and murders. On January 22, 1870, Major E. M. Baker, led by
half-breeds who knew the country, surprised the Piegans in their winter
camp on the Marias River, just below the border. He, like Custer,
attacked at dawn, opening the encounter with a general fire into the
tepees. He killed a hundred and seventy-three of the Piegans, including
very many women and children, as was unhappily the case so often in
these surprise attacks. It was deplorable warfare. But it ended the
resistance of the savage Blackfeet. They have been disposed for peace
from that day to this.

The terrible revenge which the Sioux and Cheyennes took in the battle
which annihilated Custer and his men on the Little Big Horn in the
summer of 1876; the Homeric running fight made by Chief Joseph of the
Nez Perces--a flight which baffled our best generals and their men for
a hundred and ten days over more than fourteen hundred miles of
wilderness--these are events so well known that it seems needless to
do more than to refer to them. The Nez Perces in turn went down forever
when Joseph came out and surrendered, saying, "From where the sun now
stands I fight against the white man no more forever." His surrender to
fate did not lack its dignity. Indeed, a mournful interest attached
to the inevitable destiny of all these savage leaders, who, no doubt,
according to their standards, were doing what men should do and all that
men could do.

The main difficulty in administering full punishment to such bands was
that after a defeat they scattered, so that they could not be overtaken
in any detailed fashion. After the Custer fight many of the tribe went
north of the Canadian line and remained there for some time. The writer
himself has seen along the Qu'Appelle River in Saskatchewan some of the
wheels taken out of the watches of Custer's men. The savages broke them
up and used the wheels for jewelry. They even offered the Canadians for
trade boots, hats, and clothing taken from the bodies of Custer's men.

The Modoc war against the warriors of Captain Jack in 1873 was waged in
the lava beds of Oregon, and it had the distinction of being one of
the first Indian wars to be well reported in the newspapers. We heard a
great deal of the long and trying campaigns waged by the Army in revenge
for the murder of General Canby in his council tent. We got small glory
out of that war, perhaps, but at last we hanged the ringleader of the
murderers; and the extreme Northwest remained free from that time on.

Far in the dry Southwest, where home-building man did not as yet essay
a general occupation of the soil, the blood-thirsty Apache long waged
a warfare which tried the mettle of our Army as perhaps no other tribes
ever have done. The Spaniards had fought these Apaches for nearly three
hundred years, and had not beaten them. They offered three hundred
dollars each for Apache scalps, and took a certain number of them.
But they left all the remaining braves sworn to an eternal enmity. The
Apaches became mountain outlaws, whose blood-mad thirst for revenge
never died. No tribe ever fought more bitterly. Hemmed in and
surrounded, with no hope of escape, in some instances they perished
literally to the last man. General George Crook finished the work of
cleaning up the Apache outlaws only by use of the trailers of their own
people who sided with the whites for pay. Without the Pima scouts he
never could have run down the Apaches as he did. Perhaps these were
the hardest of all the Plains Indians to find and to fight. But in 1872
Crook subdued them and concentrated them in reservations in Arizona.
Ten years later, under Geronimo, a tribe of the Apaches broke loose and
yielded to General Crook only after a prolonged war. Once again they
raided New Mexico and Arizona in 1885-6. This was the last raid of
Geronimo. He was forced by General Miles to surrender and, together
with his chief warriors, was deported to Fort Pickens in Florida. In all
these savage pitched battles and bloody skirmishes, the surprises
and murderous assaults all over the old range, there were hundreds of
settlers killed, hundreds also of our army men, including some splendid
officers. In the Custer fight alone, on the Little Big Horn, the Army
lost Custer himself, thirteen commissioned officers, and two hundred
and fifty-six enlisted men killed, with two officers and fifty-one men
wounded; a total of three hundred and twenty-three killed and wounded in
one battle. Custer had in his full column about seven hundred men. The
number of the Indians has been variously estimated. They had perhaps
five thousand men in their villages when they met Custer in this,
the most historic and most ghastly battle of the Plains. It would be
bootless to revive any of the old discussions regarding Custer and his
rash courage. Whether in error or in wisdom, he died, and gallantly. He
and his men helped clear the frontier for those who were to follow,
and the task took its toll. Thus, slowly but steadily, even though
handicapped by a vacillating governmental policy regarding the Indians,
we muddled through these great Indian wars of the frontier, our soldiers
doing their work splendidly and uncomplainingly, such work as no other
body of civilized troops has ever been asked to do or could have done
if asked. At the close of the Civil War we ourselves were a nation
of fighting men. We were fit and we were prepared. The average of our
warlike qualities never has been so high as then. The frontier produced
its own pathfinders, its own saviors, its own fighting men.

So now the frontier lay ready, waiting for the man with the plough. The
dawn of that last day was at hand.



Chapter VIII. The Cattle Kings

It is proper now to look back yet again over the scenes with which
we hitherto have had to do. It is after the railways have come to the
Plains. The Indians now are vanishing. The buffalo have not yet gone,
but are soon to pass.

Until the closing days of the Civil War the northern range was a wide,
open domain, the greatest ever offered for the use of a people. None
claimed it then in fee; none wanted it in fee. The grasses and the sweet
waters offered accessible and profitable chemistry for all men who
had cows to range. The land laws still were vague and inexact in
application, and each man could construe them much as he liked. The
excellent homestead law of 1862, one of the few really good land laws
that have been put on our national statute books, worked well enough
so long as we had good farming lands for homesteading--lands of which a
quarter section would support a home and a family. This same homestead
law was the only one available for use on the cattle-range. In practice
it was violated thousands of times--in fact, of necessity violated
by any cattle man who wished to acquire sufficient range to run a
considerable herd. Our great timber kings, our great cattle kings, made
their fortunes out of their open contempt for the homestead law, which
was designed to give all the people an even chance for a home and a
farm. It made, and lost, America.

Swiftly enough, here and there along all the great waterways of the
northern range, ranchers and their men filed claims on the water fronts.
The dry land thus lay tributary to them. For the most part the open
lands were held practically under squatter right; the first cowman in
any valley usually had his rights respected, at least for a time. These
were the days of the open range. Fences had not come, nor had farms been
staked out.

From the South now appeared that tremendous and elemental force--most
revolutionary of all the great changes we have noted in the swiftly
changing West--the bringing in of thousands of horned kine along the
northbound trails. The trails were hurrying from the Rio Grande to the
upper plains of Texas and northward, along the north and south line of
the Frontier--that land which now we have been seeking less to define
and to mark precisely than fundamentally to understand.

The Indian wars had much to do with the cow trade. The Indians were
crowded upon the reservations, and they had to be fed, and fed on beef.
Corrupt Indian agents made fortunes, and the Beef Ring at Washington,
one of the most despicable lobbies which ever fattened there, now wrote
its brief and unworthy history. In a strange way corrupt politics and
corrupt business affected the phases of the cattle industry as they had
affected our relations with the Indians. More than once a herd of some
thousand beeves driven up from Texas on contract, and arriving late in
autumn, was not accepted on its arrival at the army post--some pet of
Washington perhaps had his own herd to sell! All that could be done then
would be to seek out a "holding range." In this way, more and more, the
capacity of the northern Plains to nourish and improve cattle became
established.

Naturally, the price of cows began to rise; and naturally, also, the
demand for open range steadily increased. There now began the whole
complex story of leased lands and fenced lands. The frontier still was
offering opportunity for the bold man to reap where he had not sown.
Lands leased to the Indians of the civilized tribes began to cut large
figure in the cow trade--as well as some figure in politics--until at
length the thorny situation was handled by a firm hand at Washington.
The methods of the East were swiftly overrunning those of the West.
Politics and graft and pull, things hitherto unknown, soon wrote their
hurrying story also over all this newly won region from which the
rifle-smoke had scarcely yet cleared away.

But every herd which passed north for delivery of one sort or the other
advanced the education of the cowman, whether of the northern or the
southern ranges. Some of the southern men began to start feeding ranges
in the North, retaining their breeding ranges in the South. The demand
of the great upper range for cattle seemed for the time insatiable.

To the vision of the railroad builders a tremendous potential freightage
now appeared. The railroad builders began to calculate that one day they
would parallel the northbound cow trail with iron trails of their own
and compete with nature for the carrying of this beef. The whole swift
story of all that development, while the westbound rails were crossing
and crisscrossing the newly won frontier, scarce lasted twenty years.
Presently we began to hear in the East of the Chisholm Trail and of the
Western Trail which lay beyond it, and of many smaller and intermingling
branches. We heard of Ogallalla, in Nebraska, the "Gomorrah of the
Range," the first great upper marketplace for distribution of cattle to
the swiftly forming northern ranches. The names of new rivers came
upon our maps; and beyond the first railroads we began to hear of the
Yellowstone, the Powder, the Musselshell, the Tongue, the Big Horn, the
Little Missouri.

The wild life, bold and carefree, coming up from the South now in a
mighty surging wave, spread all over that new West which offered to the
people of older lands a strange and fascinating interest. Every one on
the range had money; every one was independent. Once more it seemed that
man had been able to overleap the confining limitations of his life, and
to attain independence, self-indulgence, ease and liberty. A chorus of
Homeric, riotous mirth, as of a land in laughter, rose up all over the
great range. After all, it seemed that we had a new world left, a land
not yet used. We still were young! The cry arose that there was land
enough for all out West. And at first the trains of white-topped wagons
rivaled the crowded coaches westbound on the rails.

In consequence there came an entire readjustment of values. This
country, but yesterday barren and worthless, now was covered with
gold, deeper than the gold of California or any of the old placers. New
securities and new values appeared. Banks did not care much for the land
as security--it was practically worthless without the cattle--but they
would lend money on cattle at rates which did not then seem usurious. A
new system of finance came into use. Side by side with the expansion of
credits went the expansion of the cattle business. Literally in hundreds
of thousands the cows came north from the exhaustless ranges of the
lower country.

It was a wild, strange day. But withal it was the kindliest and most
generous time, alike the most contented and the boldest time, in all the
history of our frontiers. There never was a better life than that of the
cowman who had a good range on the Plains and cattle enough to stock his
range. There never will be found a better man's country in all the world
than that which ran from the Missouri up to the low foothills of the
Rockies.

The lower cities took their tribute of the northbound cattle for quite a
time. Wichita, Coffeyville, and other towns of lower Kansas in turn made
bids for prominence as cattle marts. Agents of the Chicago stockyards
would come down along the trails into the Indian Nations to meet the
northbound herds and to try to divert them to this or that market as
a shipping-point. The Kiowas and Comanches, not yet wholly confined to
their reservations, sometimes took tribute, whether in theft or in open
extortion, of the herds laboring upward through the long slow season.
Trail-cutters and herd-combers, licensed or unlicensed hangers-on to the
northbound throngs of cattle, appeared along the lower trails--with some
reason, occasionally; for in a great northbound herd there might be
many cows included under brands other than those of the road brands
registered for the drovers of that particular herd. Cattle thieving
became an industry of certain value, rivaling in some localities the
operations of the bandits of the placer camps. There was great wealth
suddenly to be seen. The weak and the lawless, as well as the strong and
the unscrupulous, set out to reap after their own fashion where they had
not sown. If a grave here or there appeared along the trail or at the
edge of the straggling town, it mattered little. If the gamblers and the
desperadoes of the cow towns such as Newton, Ellsworth, Abilene, Dodge,
furnished a man for breakfast day after day, it mattered little, for
plenty of men, remained, as good or better. The life was large and
careless, and bloodshed was but an incident.

During the early and unregulated days of the cattle industry, the
frontier insisted on its own creed, its own standards. But all the time,
coming out from the East, were scores and hundreds of men of exacter
notions of trade and business. The enormous waste of the cattle range
could not long endure. The toll taken by the thievery of the men who
came to be called range-rustlers made an element of loss which could not
long be sustained by thinking men. As the Vigilantes regulated things in
the mining camps, so now in slightly different fashion the new property
owners on the upper range established their own ideas, their own sense
of proportion as to law and order. The cattle associations, the banding
together of many owners of vast herds, for mutual protection and mutual
gain were a natural and logical development. Outside of these there was
for a time a highly efficient corps of cattle-range Vigilantes, who shot
and hanged some scores of rustlers.

It was a frenzied life while it lasted--this lurid outburst, the
last flare of the frontier. Such towns as Dodge and Ogallalla offered
extraordinary phenomena of unrestraint. But fortunately into the worst
of these capitals of license came the best men of the new regime,
and the new officers of the law, the agents of the Vigilantes, the
advance-guard of civilization now crowding on the heels of the wild men
of the West. In time the lights of the dance-halls and the saloons and
the gambling parlors went out one by one all along the frontier. By 1885
Dodge City, a famed capital of the cow trade, which will live as long
as the history of that industry is known, resigned its eminence and
declared that from where the sun then stood it would be a cow camp no
more! The men of Dodge knew that another day had dawned. But this was
after the homesteaders had arrived and put up their wire fences, cutting
off from the town the holding grounds of the northbound herds.

This innovation of barb-wire fences in the seventies had caused a
tremendous alteration of conditions over all the country. It had enabled
men to fence in their own water-fronts, their own homesteads. Casually,
and at first without any objection filed by any one, they had included
in their fences many hundreds of thousands of acres of range land to
which they had no title whatever. These men--like the large-handed cow
barons of the Indian Nations, who had things much as they willed in a
little unnoted realm all their own--had money and political influence.
And there seemed still range enough for all. If a man wished to throw a
drift fence here or there, what mattered it?

Up to this time not much attention had been paid to the Little Fellow,
the man of small capital who registered a brand of his own, and who
with a Maverick * here and there and the natural increase, and perhaps
a trifle of unnatural increase here and there--had proved able to
accumulate with more or less rapidity a herd of his own. Now the cattle
associations passed rules that no foreman should be allowed to have
or register a brand of his own. Not that any foreman could be
suspected--not at all!--but the foreman who insisted on his old right to
own a running iron and a registered brand was politely asked to find his
employment somewhere else.

  * In the early days a rancher by the name of Maverick, a Texas
man, had made himself rich simply by riding out on the open range and
branding loose and unmarked occupants of the free lands. Hence the term
"Maverick" was applied to any unbranded animal running loose on
the range. No one cared to interfere with these early activities in
collecting unclaimed cattle. Many a foundation for a great fortune was
laid in precisely that way. It was not until the more canny days in the
North that Mavericks were regarded with jealous eyes.


The large-handed and once generous methods of the old range now began to
narrow themselves. Even if the Little Fellow were able to throw a fence
around his own land, very often he did not have land enough to support
his herd with profit. A certain antipathy now began to arise between the
great cattle owners and the small ones, especially on the upper range,
where some rather bitter wars were fought--the cow kings accusing their
smaller rivals of rustling cows; the small man accusing the larger
operators of having for years done the same thing, and of having grown
rich at it.

The cattle associations, thrifty and shifty, sending their brand
inspectors as far east as the stockyards of Kansas City and Chicago,
naturally had the whip hand of the smaller men. They employed detectives
who regularly combed out the country in search of men who had loose
ideas of mine and thine. All the time the cow game was becoming stricter
and harder. Easterners brought on the East's idea of property, of low
interest, sure returns, and good security. In short, there was set on
once more--as there had been in every great movement across the entire
West--the old contest between property rights and human independence
in action. It was now once more the Frontier against the States, and the
States were foredoomed to win.

The barb-wire fence, which was at first used extensively by the great
operators, came at last to be the greatest friend of the Little Fellow
on the range. The Little Fellow, who under the provisions of the
homestead act began to push West arid, to depart farther and farther
from the protecting lines of the railways, could locate land and water
for himself and fence in both. "I've got the law back of me," was what
he said; and what he said was true. Around the old cow camps of the
trails, and around the young settlements which did not aspire to be
called cow camps, the homesteaders fenced in land--so much land that
there came to be no place near any of the shipping-points where a big
herd from the South could be held. Along the southern range artificial
barriers to the long drive began to be raised. It would be hard to say
whether fear of Texas competition or of Texas cattle fever was the more
powerful motive in the minds of ranchers in Colorado and Kansas. But the
cattle quarantine laws of 1885 nearly broke up the long drive of that
year. Men began to talk of fencing off the trails, and keeping the
northbound herds within the fences--a thing obviously impossible.

The railroads soon rendered this discussion needless. Their agents went
down to Texas and convinced the shippers that it would be cheaper and
safer to put their cows on cattle trains and ship them directly to the
ranges where they were to be delivered. And in time the rails running
north and south across the Staked Plains into the heart of the lower
range began to carry most of the cattle. So ended the old cattle trails.

What date shall we fix for the setting of the sun of that last frontier?
Perhaps the year 1885 is as accurate as any--the time when the cattle
trails practically ceased to bring north their vast tribute. But,
in fact, there is no exact date for the passing of the frontier. Its
decline set in on what day the first lank "nester" from the States
outspanned his sun-burned team as he pulled up beside some sweet water
on the rolling lands, somewhere in the West, and looked about him, and
looked again at the land map held in his hand.

"I reckon this is our land, Mother," said he.

When he said that, he pronounced the doom of the old frontier.



Chapter IX. The Homesteader

His name was usually Nester or Little Fellow. It was the old story of
the tortoise and the hare. The Little Fellow was from the first destined
to win. His steady advance, now on this flank, now on that, just back
of the vanguard pushing westward, had marked the end of all our earlier
frontiers. The same story now was being written on the frontier of the
Plains.

But in the passing of this last frontier the type of the land-seeking
man, the type of the American, began to alter distinctly. The million
dead of our cruel Civil War left a great gap in the American population
which otherwise would have occupied the West and Northwest after the
clearing away of the Indians. For three decades we had been receiving
a strong and valuable immigration from the north of Europe. It was in
great part this continuous immigration which occupied the farming lands
of upper Iowa, Minnesota, and the Dakotas. Thus the population of the
Northwest became largely foreign. Each German or Scandinavian who found
himself prospering in this rich new country was himself an immigration
agency. He sent back word to his friends and relatives in the Old World
and these came to swell the steadily thickening population of the New.

We have seen that the enterprising cattlemen had not been slow to reach
out for such resources as they might. Perhaps at one time between 1885
and 1890 there were over ten million acres of land illegally fenced in
on the upper range by large cattle companies. This had been done without
any color of law whatever; a man simply threw out his fences as far as
he liked, and took in range enough to pasture all the cattle that he
owned. His only pretext was "I saw it first." For the Nester who wanted
a way through these fences out into the open public lands, he cherished
a bitter resentment. And yet the Nester must in time win through, must
eventually find the little piece of land which he was seeking.

The government at Washington was finally obliged to take action. In
the summer of 1885, acting under authorization of Congress, President
Cleveland ordered the removal of all illegal enclosures and forbade any
person or association to prevent the peaceful occupation of the public
land by homesteaders. The President had already cancelled the leases by
which a great cattle company had occupied grazing lands in the Indian
Territory. Yet, with even-handed justice he kept the land boomers also
out of these coveted lands, until the Dawes Act of 1887 allotted the
tribal lands to the Indians in severalty and threw open the remainder
to the impatient homeseekers. Waiting thousands were ready at the Kansas
line, eager for the starting gun which was to let loose a mad stampede
of crazed human beings.

It always was contended by the cowman that these settlers coming in on
the semi-arid range could not make a living there, that all they could
do was legally to starve to death some good woman. True, many of them
could not last out in the bitter combined fight with nature and the
grasping conditions of commerce and transportation of that time. The
western Canadian farmer of today is a cherished, almost a petted being.
But no one ever showed any mercy to the American farmer who moved out
West.

As always has been the case, a certain number of wagons might be seen
passing back East, as well as the somewhat larger number steadily moving
westward. There were lean years and dry years, hot years, yellow years
here and there upon the range. The phrase written on one disheartened
farmer's wagon top, "Going back to my wife's folks," became historic.

The railways were finding profit in carrying human beings out to the
cow-range just as once they had in transporting cattle. Indeed, it did
not take the wiser railroad men long to see that they could afford to
set down a farmer, at almost no cost for transportation, in any part
of the new West. He would after that be dependent upon the railroad in
every way. The railroads deliberately devised the great land boom of
1886, which was more especially virulent in the State of Kansas. Many of
the roads had lands of their own for sale, but what they wanted most was
the traffic of the settlers. They knew the profit to be derived from the
industry of a dense population raising products which must be shipped,
and requiring imports which also must be shipped. One railroad even
offered choice breeding-stock free on request. The same road, and others
also, preached steadily the doctrine of diversified farming. In short,
the railroads, in their own interests, did all they could to make
prosperous the farms or ranches of the West. The usual Western homestead
now was part ranch and part farm, although the term "ranch" continued
for many years to cover all the meanings of the farm of whatever sort.

There appeared now in the new country yet another figure of the Western
civilization, the land-boomer, with his irresponsible and unregulated
statements in regard to the values of these Western lands. These men
were not always desirable citizens, although of course no industry was
more solid or more valuable than that of legitimate handling of the
desirable lands. "Public spirit" became a phrase now well known in any
one of scores of new towns springing up on the old cow-range, each of
which laid claims to be the future metropolis of the world. In any one
of these towns the main industry was that of selling lands or "real
estate." During the Kansas boom of 1886 the land-boomers had their desks
in the lobbies of banks, the windows of hardware stores--any place and
every place offering room for a desk and chair.

Now also flourished apace the industry of mortgage loans. Eastern
money began to flood the western Plains, attracted by the high rates of
interest. In 1886 the customary banking interest in western Kansas was
two per cent a month. It is easy to see that very soon such a state of
affairs as this must collapse. The industry of selling town lots far out
in the cornfields, and of buying unimproved subdivision property with
borrowed money at usurious rates of interest, was one riding for its own
fall.

None the less the Little Fellow kept on going out into the West. We
did not change our land laws for his sake, and for a time he needed no
sympathy. The homestead law in combination with the preemption act and
the tree claim act would enable a family to get hold of a very sizable
tract of land. The foundations of many comfortable fortunes were laid in
precisely this way by thrifty men who were willing to work and willing
to wait.

It was not until 1917 that the old homestead law limiting the settler
to a hundred and sixty acres of land was modified for the benefit of the
stock-raiser. The stockraising homestead law, as it is called, permits
a man to make entry for not more than six hundred and forty acres of
unappropriated land which shall have been designated by the Secretary
of the Interior as "stockraising land." Cultivation of the land is not
required, but the holder is required to make "permanent improvements"
to the value of a dollar and twenty-five cents an acre, and at least
one-half of these improvements must be made within three years after the
date of entry. In the old times the question of proof in "proving up"
was very leniently considered. A man would stroll down to the land
office and swear solemnly that he had lived the legal length of time on
his homestead, whereas perhaps he had never seen it or had no more than
ridden across it. Today matters perhaps will be administered somewhat
more strictly; for of all those millions of acres of open land once in
the West there is almost none left worth the holding for farm purposes.

Such dishonest practices were, however, indignantly denied by those who
fostered the irrigation and dryfarming booms which made the last phase
of exploitation of the old range. A vast amount of disaster was worked
by the failure of number less irrigation companies, each of them
offering lands to the settlers through the medium of most alluring
advertising. In almost every case the engineers underestimated the cost
of getting water on the land. Very often the amount of water available
was not sufficient to irrigate the land which had been sold to settlers.
In countless cases the district irrigation bonds-which were offered
broadcast by Eastern banks to their small investors--were hardly worth
the paper on which they were written. One after another these wildcat
irrigation schemes, purporting to assure sudden wealth in apples,
pears, celery, garden truck, cherries, small fruits, alfalfa, pecans,
eucalyptus or catalpa trees-anything you liked--went to the wall.
Sometimes whole communities became straitened by the collapse of these
overblown enterprises. The recovery was slow, though usually the result
of that recovery was a far healthier and more stable condition of
society.

This whole question of irrigation and dry farming, this or that phase
of the last scrambling, feverish settling on the last lands, was sorely
wasteful of human enterprise and human happiness. It was much like the
spawning rush of the salmon from the sea. Many perish. A few survive.
Certainly there never was more cruel injustice done than that to the
sober-minded Eastern farmers, some of them young men in search of
cheaper homes, who sold out all they had in the East and went out to
the dry country to farm under the ditch, or to take up that still more
hazardous occupation--successful sometimes, though always hard and
always risky--dry farming on the benches which cannot be reached with
irrigating waters.

Strangely changed was all the face of the cattle range by these
successive and startling innovations. The smoke of many little homes
rose now, scattered over all that tremendous country from the Rockies
to the edge of the short grass country, from Texas to the Canadian line.
The cattle were not banished from the range, for each little farmer
would probably have a few cows of his own; and in some fashion the great
cowmen were managing to get in fee tracts of land sufficient for their
purposes. There were land leases of all sorts which enabled the thrifty
Westerner who knew the inside and out of local politics to pick up
permanently considerable tracts of land. Some of these ranches held
together as late as 1916; indeed, there are some such oldtime holdings
still existent in the West, although far more rare than formerly was the
case.

Under all these conditions the price of land went up steadily. Land
was taken eagerly which would have been refused with contempt a decade
earlier. The parings and scraps and crumbs of the Old West now were
fought for avidly.

The need of capital became more and more important in many of the great
land operations. Even the government reclamation enterprises could not
open lands to the settler on anything like the old homestead basis. The
water right cost money--sometimes twenty-five or thirty dollars an acre;
in some of the private reclamation enterprises, fifty dollars an acre,
or even more. Very frequently when the Eastern farmer came out to settle
on such a tract and to meet the hard, new, and expensive conditions of
life in the semi-arid regions he found that he could not pay out on
the land. Perhaps he brought two or three thousand dollars with him. It
usually was the industrial mistake of the land-boomer to take from
this intending settler practically all of his capital at the start.
Naturally, when the new farmers were starved out and in one way or
another had made other plans, the country itself went to pieces. That
part of it was wisest which did not kill the goose of the golden
egg. But be these things as they may be and as they were, the whole
readjustment in agricultural values over the once measureless and
valueless cow country was a stupendous and staggering thing.

Now appeared yet another agency of change. The high dry lands of many
of the Rocky Mountain States had long been regarded covetously by an
industry even more cordially disliked by the cattleman than the industry
of farming. The sheepman began to raise his head and to plan certain
things for himself in turn. Once the herder of sheep was a meek and
lowly man, content to slink away when ordered. The writer himself in the
dry Southwest once knew a flock of six thousand sheep to be rounded up
and killed by the cattlemen of a range into which they had intruded.
The herders went with the sheep. All over the range the feud between the
sheepmen and the cowmen was bitter and implacable. The issues in those
quarrels rarely got into the courts but were fought out on the ground.
The old Wyoming deadline of the cowmen against intruding bands of
Green River sheep made a considerable amount of history which was never
recorded.

The sheepmen at length began to succeed in their plans. Themselves not
paying many taxes, not supporting the civilization of the country, not
building the schools or roads or bridges, they none the less claimed the
earth and the fullness thereof.

After the establishment of the great forest reserves, the sheepmen
coveted the range thus included. It has been the governmental policy to
sell range privileges in the forest reserves for sheep, on a per capita
basis. Like privileges have been extended to cattlemen in certain of the
reserves. Always the contact and the contest between the two industries
of sheep and cows have remained. Of course the issue even in this
ancient contest is foregone--as the cowman has had to raise his cows
under fence, so ultimately must the sheepman also buy his range in fee
and raise his product under fence.

The wandering bands of sheep belong nowhere. They ruin a country. It
is a pathetic spectacle to see parts of the Old West in which sheep
steadily have been ranged. They utterly destroy all the game; they even
drive the fish out of the streams and cut the grasses and weeds down
to the surface of the earth. The denuded soil crumbles under their
countless hoofs, becomes dust, and blows away. They leave a waste, a
desert, an abomination.

There were yet other phases of change which followed hard upon the heels
of our soldiers after they had completed their task of subjugating the
tribes of the buffalo Indians. After the homesteads had been proved up
in some of the Northwestern States, such as Montana and the Dakotas,
large bodies of land were acquired by certain capitalistic farmers. All
this new land had been proved to be exceedingly prolific of wheat, the
great new-land crop. The farmers of the Northwest had not yet learned
that no country long can thrive which depends upon a single crop. But
the once familiar figures of the bonanza farms of the Northwest--the
pictures of their long lines of reapers or selfbinders, twenty, thirty,
forty, or fifty machines, one after the other, advancing through the
golden grain--the pictures of their innumerable stacks of wheat--the
figures of the vast mileage of their fencing--the yet more stupendous
figures of the outlay required to operate these farms, and the splendid
totals of the receipts from such operations--these at one time were
familiar and proudly presented features of boom advertising in the upper
portions of our black land belt, which day just at the eastern edge of
the old Plains.

There was to be repeated in this country something of the history of
California. In the great valleys, such as the San Joaquin, the first
interests were pastoral, and the cowmen found a vast realm which seemed
to be theirs forever. There came to them, however, the bonanza wheat
farmers, who flourished there about 1875 and through the next decade.
Their highly specialized industry boasted that it could bake a loaf of
bread out of a wheat field between the hours of sunrise and sunset. The
outlay in stock and machinery on some of these bonanza ranches ran
into enormous figures. But here, as in all new wheat countries, the
productive power of the soil soon began to decrease. Little by little
the number of bushels per acre lessened, until the bonanza farmer found
himself with not half the product to sell which he had owned the first
few years of his operations. In one California town at one time a
bonanza farmer came in and covered three city blocks with farm machinery
which he had turned over to the bank owning the mortgages on his lands
and plant. He turned in also all his mules and horses, and retired worse
than broke from an industry in which he had once made his hundreds of
thousands. Something of this same story was to follow in the Dakotas.
Presently we heard no more of the bonanza wheat farms; and a little
later they were not. The one-crop country is never one of sound
investing values; and a land boom is something of which to
beware--always and always to beware.

The prairie had passed; the range had passed; the illegal fences had
passed; and presently the cattle themselves were to pass--that is to
say, the great herds. As recently as five years ago (1912) it was my
fortune to be in the town of Belle Fourche, near the Black Hills--a
region long accustomed to vivid history, whether of Indians, mines, or
cows--at the time when the last of the great herds of the old industry
thereabouts were breaking up; and to see, coming down to the cattle
chutes to be shipped to the Eastern stockyards, the last hundreds of
the last great Belle Fourche herd, which was once numbered in thousands.
They came down out of the blue-edged horizon, threading their way from
upper benches down across the dusty valley. The dust of their travel
rose as it had twenty years earlier on the same old trail. But these
were not the same cattle. There was not a longhorn among them; there has
not been a longhorn on the range for many years. They were sleek, fat,
well-fed animals, heavy and stocky, even of type, all either whitefaces
or shorthorns. With them were some old-time cowmen, men grown gray in
range work. Alongside the herds, after the ancient fashion of trailing
cattle, rode cowboys who handled their charges with the same old skill.
But even the cowboys had changed. These were without exception men from
the East who had learned their trade here in the West. Here indeed
was one of the last acts of the great drama of the Plains. To many an
observer there it was a tragic thing. I saw many a cowman there the
gravity on whose face had nothing to do with commercial loss. It was
the Old West he mourned. I mourned with him. Naturally the growth of
the great stockyards of the Middle West had an effect upon all the
cattle-producing country of the West, whether those cattle were bred in
large or in small numbers. The dealers of the stockyards, let us say,
gradually evolved a perfect understanding among themselves as to what
cattle prices ought to be at the Eastern end of the rails. They have
always pleaded poverty and explained the extremely small margin of
profit under which they have operated. Of course, the repeated turn-over
in their business has been an enormous thing; and their industry, since
the invention of refrigerator cars and the shipment of dressed beef in
tins, has been one which has extended to all the corners of the world.
The great packers would rather talk of "by-products" than of these
things. Always they have been poor, so very poor!

For a time the railroads east of the stockyard cities of Kansas City
and Chicago divided up pro rata the dressed beef traffic. Investigation
after investigation has been made of the methods of the stockyard firms,
but thus far the law has not laid its hands successfully upon them.
Naturally of late years the extremely high price of beef has made
greater profit to the cattle raiser; but that man, receiving eight or
ten cents a pound on the hoof, is not getting rich so fast as did his
predecessor, who got half of it, because he is now obliged to feed hay
and to enclose his range. Where once a half ton of hay might have been
sufficient to tide a cow over the bad part of the winter, the Little
Fellow who fences his own range of a few hundred acres is obliged to
figure on two or three tons, for he must feed his herd on hay through
the long months of the winter.

The ultimate consumer, of course, is the one who pays the freight and
stands the cost of all this. Hence we have the swift growth of American
discontent with living conditions. There is no longer land for free
homes in America. This is no longer a land of opportunity. It is no
longer a poor man's country. We have arrived all too swiftly upon the
ways of the Old World. And today, in spite of our love of peace, we are
in an Old World's war!

The insatiable demand of Americans for cheap lands assumed a certain
international phase at the period lying between 1900 and 1913 or
later--the years of the last great boom in Canadian lands. The Dominion
Government, represented by shrewd and enterprising men able to handle
large undertakings, saw with a certain satisfaction of its own the swift
passing from the market of all the cheap lands of the United States.
It was proved to the satisfaction of all that very large tracts of
the Canadian plains also would raise wheat, quite as well as had the
prairies of Montana or Dakota. The Canadian railroads, with lands to
sell, began to advertise the wheat industry in Alberta and Saskatchewan.
The Canadian Government went into the publicity business on its own
part. To a certain extent European immigration was encouraged, but the
United States really was the country most combed out for settlers for
these Canadian lands. As by magic, millions of acres in western Canada
were settled.

The young American farmers of our near Northwest were especially coveted
as settlers, because they knew how to farm these upper lands far better
than any Europeans, and because each of them was able to bring a little
capital of ready money into Canada. The publicity campaign waged by
Canadians in our Western States in one season took away more than a
hundred and fifty thousand good young farmers, resolved to live under
another flag. In one year the State of Iowa lost over fifteen million
dollars of money withdrawn from bank deposits by farmers moving across
the line into Canada.

The story of these land rushes was much the same there as it had been
with us. Not all succeeded. The climatic conditions were far more
severe than any which we had endured, and if the soil for a time in some
regions seemed better than some of our poorest, at least there waited
for the one-crop man the same future which had been discovered for
similar methods within our own confines. But the great Canadian
land booms, carefully fostered and well developed, offered a curious
illustration of the tremendous pressure of all the populations of the
world for land and yet more land.

In the year 1911 the writer saw, all through the Peace River Valley and
even in the neighborhood of the Little Slave Lake, the advance-guard
of wheat farmers crowding out even beyond the Canadian frontier in the
covetous search for yet more cheap land. In 1912 I talked with a
school teacher, who herself had homestead land in the Judith Basin
of Montana--once sacred to cows--and who was calmly discussing the
advisability of going up into the Peace River country to take up yet
more homestead land under the regulations of the Dominion Government!
In the year 1913 I saw an active business done in town lots at Fort
McMurray, five hundred miles north of the last railroad of Alberta, on
the ancient Athabasca waterway of the fur trade!

Who shall state the limit of all this expansion? The farmer has ever
found more and more land on which he could make a living; he is always
taking land which his predecessor has scornfully refused. If presently
there shall come the news that the land boomer has reached the mouth
of the Mackenzie River--as long ago he reached certain portions of the
Yukon and Tanana country--if it shall be said that men are now
selling town lots under the Midnight Sun--what then? We are building a
government railroad of our own almost within shadow of Mount McKinley
in Alaska. There are steamboats on all these great sub-Arctic rivers.
Perhaps, some day, a power boat may take us easily where I have stood,
somewhat wearied, at that spot on the Little Bell tributary of
the Porcupine, where a slab on a post said, "Portage Road to Ft.
McPherson"--a "road" which is not even a trail, but which crosses the
most northerly of all the passes of the Rockies, within a hundred miles
of the Arctic Ocean.

Land, land, more land! It is the cry of the ages, more imperative and
clamorous now than ever in the history of the world and only arrested
for the time by the cataclysm of the Great War. The earth is well-nigh
occupied now. Australia, New Zealand, Canada, even Africa, are
colonization grounds. What will be the story of the world at the end
of the Great War none may predict. For the time there will be more land
left in Europe; but, unbelievably soon, the Great War will have been
forgotten; and then the march of the people will be resumed toward such
frontiers of the world as yet may remain. Land, land, more land!

Always in America we have occupied the land as fast as it was feasible
to do so. We have survived incredible hardships on the mining frontier,
have lived through desperate social conditions in the cow country, have
fought many of our bravest battles in the Indian country. Always it
has been the frontier which has allured many of our boldest souls. And
always, just back of the frontier, advancing, receding, crossing it
this way and that, succeeding and failing, hoping and despairing--but
steadily advancing in the net result--has come that portion of the
population which builds homes and lives in them, and which is not
content with a blanket for a bed and the sky for a roof above.

We had a frontier once. It was our most priceless possession. It has not
been possible to eliminate from the blood of the American West, diluted
though it has been by far less worthy strains, all the iron of the old
home-bred frontiersmen. The frontier has been a lasting and ineradicable
influence for the good of the United States. It was there we showed our
fighting edge, our unconquerable resolution, our undying faith. There,
for a time at least, we were Americans.

We had our frontier. We shall do ill indeed if we forget and abandon its
strong lessons, its great hopes, its splendid human dreams.



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

ANDY ADAMS, "The Log of a Cowboy," 1903. "The Outlet," 1905. Homely but
excellently informing books done by a man rarely qualified for his task
by long experience in the cattle business and on the trail. Nothing
better exists than Adams's several books for the man who wishes
trustworthy information on the early American cattle business.

GEORGE A. FORSYTH, "The Story of the Soldier," 1900.

GEORGE BIRD GRINNELL, "The Story of the Indian," 1895.

EMERSON HOUGH, "The Story of the Cowboy," 1897.

CHARLES HOWARD SHINN, "The Story of the Mine," 1901.

CY WARMAN, "The Story of the Railroad," 1898. The foregoing books of
Appleton's interesting series known as "The Story of the West" are
valuable as containing much detailed information, done by contemporaries
of wide experience.

FRANCIS PARKMAN, "The Oregon Trail," 1901, with preface by the author to
the edition of 18991. This is a reprint of the edition published in 1857
under the title "Prairie and Rocky Mountain Life," or "The California
and Oregon Trail," and has always been held as a classic in the
literature of the West. It holds a certain amount of information
regarding life on the Plains at the middle of the last century. The
original title is more accurate than the more usual one "The Oregon
Trail," as the book itself is in no sense an exclusive study of that
historic highway.

COLONEL R. B. MARCY, U. S. A., "Thirty Years of Army Life on the
Border," 1866. An admirable and very informing book done by an Army
officer who was also a sportsman and a close observer of the conditions
of the life about him. One of the standard books for any library of
early Western literature.

EMERSON HOUGH, "The Story of the Outlaw," 1907. A study of the Western
desperado, with historical narratives of famous outlaws, stories of
noted border movements, Vigilante activities, and armed conflicts on the
border.

NATHANIEL PITT LANGFORD, "Vigilante Days and Ways," 1893. A storehouse
of information done in graphic anecdotal fashion of the scenes in the
early mining camps of Idaho and Montana. Valuable as the work of a
contemporary writer who took part in the scenes he describes.

JOHN C. VAN TRAMP, "Prairie and Rocky Mountain Adventures or Life in
the West," 1870. A study of the States and territorial regions of our
Western empire, embracing history, statistics, and geography,
with descriptions of the chief cities of the West. In large part a
compilation of earlier Western literature.

SAMUEL BOWLES, "Our New West," 1869. Records of travel between the
Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean, with details regarding scenery,
agriculture, mines, business, social life, etc., including a full
description of the Pacific States and studies of the "Mormons, Indians,
and Chinese" at that time.

HIRAM MARTIN CHITTENDEN, "The American Fur Trade of the Far West," 1902.
The work of a distinguished Army officer. Done with the exact care of an
Army engineer. An extraordinary collection of facts and a general view
of the picturesque early industry of the fur trade, which did so much
toward developing the American West. See also his "History of Steamboat
Navigation on the Missouri River" (1903).

A. J. SOWELL, "Early Settlers and Indian Fighters of Southwest Texas,"
1900. A local book, but done with contemporary accuracy by a man who
also studied the Texas Rangers and who was familiar with some of the
earlier frontier characters of the Southwest.

The foregoing volumes are of course but a few among the many scores or
hundreds which will have been read avidly by every man concerned with
frontier life or with the expansion of the American people to the West.
Space lacks for a fuller list, but the foregoing readings will serve to
put upon the trail of wider information any one interested in these and
kindred themes.

Let especial stress again be laid upon the preeminent value of books
done by contemporaries, men who wrote, upon the ground, of things which
they actually saw and actually understood. It is not always, or perhaps
often, that these contemporary books achieve the place which they ought
to have and hold.

Among the many books dealing with the Indians and Indian Wars, the
following may be mentioned: J. P. DUNN, "Massacres of the Mountains, A
History of the Indian Wars of the Far West," 1886.

L. E. TEXTOR, "Official Relations between the United States and the
Sioux Indians," 1896.

G. W. MANYPENNY, "Our Indian Wards," 1880.

There is an extensive bibliography appended to Frederic L. Paxson's "The
Last American Frontier" (1910), the first book to bring together the
many aspects of the Far West.





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